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THE  NEW 

INTERNATIONAL 

YEAR  BOOK 


THE  NEW 

INTERNATIONAL 

YEAR  BOOK 


A  COMPENDIUM  OF  THE  WORLD'S 
PROGRESS 

FOB  THE  YEAR 
1940 

EDITOR 

CHARLES  EARLE  FUNK,  LTTT.D. 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 
RONALD  STUART  KAIN,  PHTTJP  COAN.  MAMIE  HARMON 


FUNK  &  WAGNALLS  COMPANY 
NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 


COPYRIGHT,  1941,  BY 

FUNK  &  WAGNALLS  COMPANY 

[Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America] 


PREFACE 

The  twentieth  century  has  seen  many  startling  developments  in  the  first  two-fifths  of 
its  course,  but  these — the  automobile,  the  airplane,  motion  pictures,  radio,  and  even  the 
first  World  War,  to  name  the  high  lights  of  the  period— have  been  of  comparatively  stow 
evolution;  they  have  unfolded  from  year  to  year  as  one  turns  the  pages  of  a  bode,  pro- 
gressing from  stage  to  stage  with  some  degree  of  logical  order.  But  the  year  1940  has  been 
a  succession  of  shocks,  of  severe  jolts  not  forecast  by  events  of  the  preceding  year  nor 
dreamed  of  as  remote  possibilities  in  any  future  year.  The  European  War  of  1939,  even 
with  the  devastating  "Blitzkrieg"  in  Poland  and  the  unexpected  flare  in  Finland,  did 
not  seriously  disturb  the  serenity  of  the  world.  It  looked  as  if  it  might  be  a  long-drawn 
affair,  with  the  probability  of  ultimate  German  defeat  as  England  and  France  gradually 
tightened  the  economic  noose;  but  otherwise,  except  in  Germany,  the  world  was  operat- 
ing under  the  sign,  "Business  as  Usual." 

By  the  end  of  1940  that  sign  had  been  taken  down — everywhere.  No  country  in  the 
world  had  altogether  escaped  some  tremor,  great  or  small,  of  the  cataclysmic  disturb- 
ance. War,  until  May  confined  to  a  few  miles  of  a  thin  line  between  two  countries, 
suddenly  engulfed  the  whole  of  Europe,  overflowed  into  Africa,  and  spread  into  ripples 
that  touched  and  threatened  the  shores  of  every  sea.  Almost  no  line  of  industry  or  science 
or  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life  remained  unaffected  by  the  dose  of  the  year,  anywhere  on 
the  globe.  Hence,  this  issue  of  THE  NEW  INTERNATIONAL  YEAR  BOOK  might  rightly  be 
called  a  "War  Volume,"  for  almost  no  page  does  not  reflect  some  touch  from  the  innu- 
merable tentacles  of  war.  Music,  literature,  and  art  felt  its  fingers;  medicine,  sanitation, 
and  engineering  turned  from  peace  to  war  problems;  nations  began  to  subordinate  their 
programs  for  the  normal  progress  of  their  peoples  and  to  convert  their  factories  into 
arsenals  and  their  young  men  into  armed  forces. 

To  provide  space  for  a  full  review  of  all  the  great  developments  of  the  year  without 
increasing  the  bulk  of  the  present  volume  over  preceding  issues  and  without  sacrificing 
any  of  the  former  standards,  certain  modifications  have  been  made  in  the  presentation 
of  some  of  the  usual  material.  In  each  instance,  however,  the  modification  has  permitted 
an  extended  amount  of  information.  Thus,  by  the  assembly  of  the  data  pertaining  to 
universities  and  colleges  into  a  tabular  list,  many  more  of  such  institutions  are  presented 
than  heretofore.  Similarly,  a  greatly  extended  list  of  "Societies  and  Associations"  is 
offered  under  this  title.  Biographical  sketches  of  the  important  persons  who  died  during 
the  year  now  appear  under  the  heading  "Necrology"  without  exception.  Although  these 
and  other  modifications  were  undertaken  primarily  as  space-saving  devices,  it  is  be- 
lieved that  all  of  them  tend  to  increase  the  convenience  of  the  book  for  ready  reference 
and  to  increase  its  value. 

As  with  preceding  issues  of  THE  NEW  INTERNATIONAL  YEAR  BOOK,  the  1940  YEAR 
BOOK  is  also  truly  international  in  its  scope.  No  country  is  so  small  that  the  most  recent 
available  facts  pertaining  to  it  are  not  included,  and  the  larger  countries  of  the  world  are 
treated  with  great  fullness.  Especial  attention  is  given  to  statistics  of  population,  educa- 
tion, production,  trade,  finance,  government,  and  to  historical  developments,  all  as  of 
the  year  1940  or  of  the  most  recent  date  for  which  statistical  information  has  been 
officially  issued.  Reviews  in  the  fields  of  chemistry,  physics,  medicine,  and  other  sciences 
are  also  international  in  character  and  treatment.  It  has  been  the  intent  of  the  editors  to 


PREFACE 

omit  no  important  development  of  the  year  in  any  major  field  of  interest  throughout  the 
world*  Naturally,  however,  as  this  book  circulates  chiefly  within  the  United  States, 
about  one-half  of  its  topics  pertain  to  the  commerce,  industry,  literature,  sports,  politics, 
transportation,  and  so  on  of  this  country. 

The  contents  are,  as  usual,  alphabetically  arranged  by  subjects,  and  numerous  cross- 
references  serve  to  guide  the  consultant,  not  only  to  the  main  subject,  but  to  the  specific 
section  within  that  subject  that  he  may  be  seeking.  For  his  further  convenience,  on  page 
zvi  is  listed  an  index  of  certain  special  features  to  be  found  in  the  volume  that  he  might 
otherwise  overlook  or  be  uncertain  as  to  heading  or  location. 

A  book  such  as  this,-  offered  anew  from  year  to  year,  must  necessarily  mark  the 
appearance  of  new  names  among  its  contributing  editors  from  time  to  time.  Among 
those  in  this  issue — new  to  these  pages,  but  by  no  means  new  in  the  fields  of  their  various 
subjects — are  Dr.  H.  A.  De  Weerd,  who  presents  a  masterly  review  of  the  EUROPEAN 
WAR  during  1940;  Dr.  Clarence  B.  Farrar,  with  a  review  of  PSYCHIATRY;  Dr.  Ales 
Hrdlicka,  ANTHROPOLOGY;  Philip  Murray,  CONGRESS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ORGANIZATIONS; 
Hans  Olav,  SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE;  Charles  McD.  Puckette,  NEWSPAPERS  AND 
MAGAZINES;  E.  E.  Russell  Tratman,  various  engineering  topics,  and  Leroy  Whitman, 
MILITARY  PROGRESS.  The  editor  welcomes  these  and  other  new  contributors,  and  ex- 
tends his  gratitude  to  them,  to  the  regaining  contributors,  and  to  the  large  number  of 
men  and  women  who,  with  no  thought  of  recognition  or  remuneration,  supplied  numer- 
ous items  without  which  much  of  the  statistical  information  could  not  have  been 
supplied. 

The  editor  is  unable  adequately  to  express  his  deep  appreciation  of  the  services  of  his 
associates  and  his  staff.  Obstacles  that  seemed  almost  insuperable  were  met  and  over- 
come by  'their  unremitting  labor  and  unswerving  loyalty.  He  is  especially  grateful  to 
Mr.  Ronald  Kain  who,  faced  with  the  tremendous  complexities  that  the  European  War, 
the  Russo-Finnish  War,  and  the  Sino- Japanese  War  thrust  into  the  governments  of  the 
world,  has  labored  far  into  many  nights  to  present  his  usual  dear  accounts  of  the  his- 
torical1 developments  of  all  countries  and  to  ensure  the  accuracy  of  statistical  data 
affecting  them.  He  is  also  deeply  grateful  to  Miss  Mamie  Harmon  who,  aside  from 
regular  editorial  duties,  proposed  and  carried  to  their  conclusions  the  solutions  to  many 
frustrating  problems  and  also  relieved  him  of  many  of  the  details  connected  with  a  work 
of  tkfe  magnitude.  Although  he  does  not  call  the  roll  of  the  other  members  of  his  staff  he 
is  l>onetheless  appreciative  of  the  value  of  their  work  and  the  earnestness  with  which 
they  have  carried  it  through. 

CHARLES  EARLE  FUNK 


EDITOR 
Charles  farfe  Funk,  Liff.D. 


ASSOCIATE  EDITORS  AND  CONTRIBUTORS 


Franclf  4 

Editor,  Rayon  Textile  Monthly 
RAYON 

Arthur  J.  A/fmeyer, 

Chairman,  Social  Security  Board 

SOCIAL  SECURITY  BOARD 

Hubert  N.  A/yeo,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Chemistry,  Princeton 
University 

CHEMISTRY 

John  F.  W.  Anderson,  A.B. 

Research  Editor,  Boot  and  Shoe  Recorder 
LEATHER;  SHOE  INDUSTRY 

Mary  Anderson 

Director,  Women's  Bureau 
WOMEN'S  BUREAU 

John  B.  Andrews,  Ph.D. 

Secretary ,  American  Association  for  Labor  Leg- 
islation; Editor,  American  Labor  Legislation 
Review 

LABOR  LEGISLATION 

Harry  J.  Antfln0er,  tl.B. 
Commissioner,  Bureau  of  Narcotics, 

NARCOTIC  DRUGS  CONTROL 

Moses  Nelson  Bator,  Ph  J.,  CJE. 

Associate  Editor,  Engineering  News  and  Engi- 
neering News-Record  (Retired) 

SANITARY  ENGINEERING  AND  MUNICIPAL  SUB- 
JECTS 

C.  B.  Baldwin 

Administrator,  Farm  Security  Administration 

FARM   SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION 

Howard  Barnes 

Motion  Picture  Editor,  The  New  York  Herald 
Tribune 

MOTION  PICTURES 

A.  0.  fioftey 

Statistician,  National  Safety  Council 

ACCIDENTS 

0.  W.  Bell,  UA,  B.C1,  MA. 
Under  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 

FISCAL  SERVICE 

Hugh  H.  Bennett,  D .Sc.,  U.B. 
Chief,  Soil  Conservation  Servkfc 

SOIL  CONSERVATION  SERVICE 

James  V.  Bennett,  A.B.,  LLA, 
Director,  Bureau  of  Priioni,  U.S.  Department 
of  Justice 

PRISONS,  PAROLE,  ANP  CRIME 


He/en  fteocry  Bird 
Assistant  Editor 

NECROLOGY  (IN  PART) 

A/ford  6.  Black 
Governor,  Farm  Credit  Administration 

FARM  CREDIT  ADMINISTRATION 

Alfred  0.  Bloke,  M  J. 

Editor,  Combustion 

POWER  PLANTS 

Jules  I.  fiogen,  B.S.,  AM.,  Ph.D. 
Editor,  The  Journal  of  Commerce;  Professor 
of  Finance,  New  York  University 
BANKING;  BUSINESS  REVIEW;  FINANCE;  TAXA- 
TION 

O.  A.  Boitfempo,  A  J.,  Ph.C. 

Contributing  Staff,  Modern  Language  Journal 

ITALIAN  LITERATURE 

John  Gtfland  Brunlnl,  AM. 

Editor,  Spirit;  Executive  Secretary,  The  Catfio- 
lic  Poetry  Society  of  America 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 

Wallace  J.  Campbell,  M  .$. 

Assistant  Secretary,  The  Cooperative  League 
of  the  U.SA. 

COOPERATIVE  MOVEMENT 

WoJfer  6.  Ctmpbell,  AJ.,  iLB. 

Commissioner,  Food  and  Drug  Administration 

FOOD  AND  DRUG  ADMINISTRATION 


rii 


W.  Corey,  A.B. 
New  York  Dramatic  Correspondent,  The  Hart- 
ford Courant 
DRAMA 

M.  M.  Chamber!,  Ph.D. 

Member  of  Staff,  American  Youth  Commission 
of  the  American  Council  on  Education 

YOUTH  MOVEMENT 
Pnlllp  Coon 
Associate  Editor 
Former  Editor,  The  New  York  Sun 

UNITED  STATES  J  STATES  ;  ALASKA  J  ELECTION,  U.S. 

NATIONAL;  ETC. 

Former  Manager,  Service  and  Engineering  De- 
partment, Automobile  Manufacturers  Associa- 
tion 

AUTOMOBILES 
H.  WoJfon  Coctant,  MJ>. 

Former  Fellow  in  'Surgery,  Presbyterian  Hos- 
pital in  New  York;  Former  Instructor  in  Sur- 
gery, College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons 

MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY  > 


Contributors  to  the  New  International  Year 


Conwoy  P.  Coe,  B.A.,  LLB. 

Commissioner,  Patent  Office 

PATENT  OFFICE 

John  Cof/ior 

Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs 

INDIAN  AFFAIRS,  OFFICE  OF 

f.  H.  Cofvin 

Editor  Emeritus,  American  Machinist 

MACHINE  DEVELOPMENT 

Harold  J.  Cooper 

Former  Associate  Editor,  World  Almanac 

NECROLOGY  (IN  PART)  J  SPORTS  ARTICLES 

EwJn  I.  Dav/s,  U.B. 
Chairman,  Federal  Trade  Commission 

FEDERAL  TRADE  COMMISSION 

Wofson  Davit,  CJE. 

Director,  Science  Service,  Washington,  D.C. 
PHYSICS 

H.  A.  De  Weerd,  PhJ>. 

Associate  Professor  of  History,  Denison  Uni- 
versity ;  Editor,  Journal  of  the  American  Mili- 
tary Institute 

EUROPEAN  WAR 

Newton  B.  Drury,  Bl. 

Director,  National  Park  Service 

NATIONAL  PARK  SERVICE 

Orrin  E.  Dun/op,  Jr.,  B.S. 

Manager,  Department  of  Information,  Radio 
Corporation  of  America 

RADIO  PROGRAMS 
CAarfes  W.  Eliot 

Director,  National  Resources  Planning  Board 

NATIONAL  RESOURCES  PLANNING  BOARD 

E.  C.  Effing,  B.S.,  A.M. 

Dairy  Husbandman,  Office  of  Experiment  Sta- 
tions, U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
DAIRYING;  LIVESTOCK;  POULTRY;  WOOL 

ft.  At  Evons,  B.S.,  C JE. 

Administrator,  Agricultural  Adjustment  Admin- 
istration 

AGRICULTURAL  ADJUSTMENT  ADMINISTRATION 

Joftfl  ft.  raney 
Chairman,  Federal  Home  Loan  Bank  Board 

FEDERAL  HOME  LOAN  BANK  BOARD 

Clarence  B.  forrar,  MJ>.,  fJLCJPJfC.) 
Professor  of  Psychiatry,  University  of  Toron- 
to;   Director,   Toronto   Psychiatric   Hospital; 
Editor,  American  Journal  of  Psychiatry 

PSYCHIATRY 

Somiro/  Fofoberg 

Editorial  Associate,  Women's  Wear  Daily 

GARMENT  INDUSTRY 

Aluier  H.  Ferguson 

Administrator,  Federal  Housing  Administration, 
Federal  Loan  Agency 

FEDERAL    HOUSING   ADMINISTRATION 

John  D.  Fifz-Gera/d,  Ph.D.,  Iftf.D. 

Professor  of  Romance  Philology  and  Head  of 
the  Department  of  Spanish,  University  of  Ari- 
zona ;  Cotnendador,  Con  Placa,  de  la  Real  Orden 
de  Isabel  La  Catdlica 

SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES;  SPANISH  LIT- 
ERATURE 


Till 


Philip  B. 

Brigadier  General,  United  States  Army :  Ad- 
ministrator, Wage  and  Hour  Division,  U.S.  De- 
partment of  Labor 

WAGE  AND  HOUR  DIVISION 

Alexander  Forward 

Managing  Director,  American  Gas  Association 

GAS  INDUSTRY 

Ira  N.  GobrioJson 

Director,  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service 

FISH  AND  WILDLIFE  SERVICE 

Perrln  C.  Go/pin,  M.A.,  D.P/iM.  and  left. 

Secretary,  Finnish  Relief  Fund,  Inc. 

WAR  RELIEF   ACTIVITIES   IN    THE   UNITED    STATES 

At.  E.  Gi/more 

Executive  Officer,  Public  Works  Administration 

PUBLIC  WORKS  ADMINISTRATION 

William  Green 

President,  American  Federation  of  Labor 

AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR 

Martin  Gumoerf   MJ) 

Author,  Trai'l-Blazers  of  Science;  Health  under 
Hitler;  Dunant 

GERMAN  LITERATURE 

Motes  Nodes,  P/i.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Greek  and  Latin,  Colum- 
bia University 

PHILOLOGY,  CLASSICAL 

Mamie  Harmon,  A.M. 

Associate  Editor 

Associate  Editor,  The  New  Standard  Year  Book 

BENEFACTIONS;  FAIRS;   LIVING  COSTS;  RELIEF; 

SOCIETIES 

Douglas  Hasfcef/,  A.B. 
Contributing  Editor,  The  Architectural  Record 

ARCHITECTURE 

Edward  H.  Haffon,  M.D. 

Professor  of  Pathology  and  Bacteriology, 
Northwestern  University  Dental  School;  Past 
President  and  General  Secretary,  International 
Association  for  Dental  Research 

DENTISTRY 

C/iar/es  B.  Henderson  and  A/berf  1.  Sfrong 

Managing  Directors,  Disaster  Loan  Corporation 

DISASTER  LOAN  CORPORATION 

G.  Ron  Hennfnger,  B.S.  (E.EJ 
Editor,  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engi- 
neers 

ELECTRICAL  TOPICS;  ALSO,  RADIO,  TELEGRAPHY, 
TELEPHONY,  AND  TELEVISION 

Frank  T.  Hlnc*,  U.D. 

Brigadier  General,  O.R.C.,  Administrator,  Vet- 
erans1 Administration 
VETERANS'  ADMINISTRATION 

William  A.  Hoofcer,  U.M.,  O.V.M. 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.S.  Department 
of  Agriculture 

VETERINARY    MEDICINE 

Wfl/mm  E.  Hooper 

Former  Financial  Editor,  Railway  Age 
RAILWAYS 

J.  Edgar  Hoover,  U.B.,  Ll.M.,  U.D.,  Sc.O. 
Director,  Federal  Bureau  of  Investigation 

FEDERAL  BUREAU  OF  INVESTIGATION 


Contributors  to  the  New  International  Year  Book— Continued 


A/es  Hrd/flfa,  M.D.,  Sc.D. 

Curator,  Division  of   Physical  Anthropology, 
U.S.  National  Museum 

ANTHROPOLOGY 

Charles  H.  Hughes 

Former  Technical  Aide,  United  States  Shipping 
Board;  Author,  Handbook  of  Ship  Calculations 
and  Construction 
BUILDING;  SHIPBUILDING;  SHIPPING 

Howard  O.  Hunter 

Commissioner,  Work  Projects  Administration, 
Federal  Works  Agency 

WORK  PROJECTS  ADMINISTRATION 

Fred  W.  Johnson 

Commissioner,  General  Land  Office 

GENERAL  LAND  OFFICE 

W.  R.  Johnson,  B.C.S.,  U.B. 

Commissioner  of  Customs,  U.S.  Treasury  De- 
partment 

CUSTOMS,  BUREAU  OF 

Charfes  Hubbard  Judd,  Ph.D.,  11.D.,  Sc.D. 

Emeritus  Professor  of  Education,  The  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago 

EDUCATION 

Ronald  Stuart  Kain,  A.M. 

Associate  Editor 

Author,  Europe:  Versailles  to  Warsaw 

JOREIGN  COUNTRIES,  COLONIES,  AND  DEPENDENCIES 
— POLITICAL  AND  ECONOMIC  HISTORY,  ETC. 

Cfarence  W.  Kitchen 

Chief,  Agricultural  Marketing  Service,  U.S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture 

AGRICULTURAL  MARKETING  SERVICE 

Henry  G.  Knight,  A.B.,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 

Chief,  Bureau  of  Agricultural  Chemistry  and 
Engineering,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY  AND  ENGINEERING,  BU- 
REAU OF 

William  M.  ieiserson,  Ph.D. 

Member,  National  Labor  Relations  Board 

LABOR  CONDITIONS 

Katharine  F.  lenroof,  U.D. 

Chief,  Children's  Bureau,  U.S.  Department  of 

Labor 

CHILDREN'S  BUREAU 

M.  E.  lerner,  A.B. 

Managing  Editor,  The  Rubber  Age 

RUBBER 

David  Lidman 
The  New  York  Herald  Tribune 

STAMP  COLLECTING 

C.  Sumner  lobingJer,  Ph.D.,  D.C.L.,  J.U.D.,  J.D. 

Former  United  States  Judge  in  the  Philippines 
and  in  China ;  Lecturer  on  Law,  American  Uni- 
versity, Washington,  D.C. 
LAW;  INTERNATIONAL  LAW;  COURTS;  SUPREME 
COURT;  FREEMASONRY 

Marvin  towenfhaf,  A.M. 

Contributing  Editor,  Menorah  Journal,  Journal 
of  Jewish  Social  Studies ;  Author,  The  Jews  of 
Germany :  A  Story  of  Sixteen  Centuries 
JEWS 

James  6.  McDonald,  U.D.,  D.H1.,  Ifff.D. 

President,  Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sci- 
ences; Chairman,  President's  Advisory  Com- 
mittee on  Political  Refugees;  Former  High 


Commissioner  for  Refugees  (Jewish  and  other) 
Coming  from  Germany 

REFUGEES 

J.  J.  McEnfee 

Director,  Civilian  Conservation  Corps,  Federal 
Security  Agency 

CIVILIAN  CONSERVATION  CORPS 

V.  Jeraufd  McGi//,  A.B.,  Ph.D. 
Assistant  Professor,  Hunter  College,  New  York ; 
A  Book  Editor,  The  Journal  of  Philosophy ;  An 
Editor,  Philosophy  and  Phenomenological  Re- 
search; Contributing  Editor,  Philosophical  Ab- 
stracts 
PHILOSOPHY 

C.  H.  McMorris 

Captain,  United  States  Navy;  Former  Editor, 
Proceedings  of  the  U.S.  Naval  Institute 

NAVAL  PROGRESS 

IV.  Bruce  Mocnomee 

Chief,  U.S.  Travel  Bureau,  U.S.  Department  of 
the  Interior 

TRAVEL  BUREAU,  U.S. 

William  H.  Mcfteyno/ds 

Secretary,  Council  of  National  Defense 

NATIONAL  DEFENSE  ADVISORY  COMMISSION 

Mabe/  f.  Martin,  Ph.D. 

Psychometnst,  Northampton  State  Hospital; 
Assistant  Editor,  Webster's  New  International 
Dictionary,  2d  Edition 

PSYCHOLOGY 

Glenn  E.  Matthews,  M.Sc.,  F.R.P.S. 

Technical  Editor,  Kodak  Research  Laboratories, 
Rochester,  N.Y. 

PHOTOGRAPHY 

lei/a  Mech/in,  A.M.,  D.F.A.,  F.R.S.A. 

Art  Editor,   The  Evening  and   Sunday   Star, 

Washington,  D.C. 

ART;  PAINTING;  SCULPTURE;  PRINTS 

Joseph  M.  MeM,  U.M. 

Chief,  Commodity  Exchange  Administration, 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

COMMODITY  EXCHANGE  ADMINISTRATION 

W.  C.  Mendenho// 

Director,  Geological  Survey,  U.S.  Department 
of  the  Interior 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

Harry  A.  Mi//is,  PhJ>.,  U.D. 

Chairman,  National  Labor  Relations  Board 

NATIONAL  LABOR  RELATIONS  BOARD 

Harry  B.  Miffche// 

President,  U.S.  Civil  Service  Commission 

CIVIL    SERVICE  COMMISSION,    U.S. 

Harcourf  A.  Morgan 

Chairman  of  the  Board,  Tennessee  Valley  Au- 
thority 

TENNESSEE  VALLEY  AUTHORITY 

Chor/es  5.  Morgan,  B.5. 

Engineer,  National  Fire  Protection  Association 

FIRE  PROTECTION 

Woodbridge  E.  Morris,  A.B.,  M.D. 

General  Medical  Director,  Birth  Control  Feder- 
ation of  America,  Inc. 

BIRTH  CONTROL 

lee  Muck 

Assistant  to  the  Secretary  in  Charge  of  Land 
Utilisation,  U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior 

LAND   UTILIZATION,  OFFICE  OF 


Contributor!  to  the  New  International  Year  Book— Cont/aiwd 


President,  Congress  of  Industrial  Organizations 

CONGRESS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ORGANIZATIONS 

Alexander  I.  Nararo* 

Author,  Tolstoy:  The  Inconstant  Genius 

RUSSIAN  LITERATURE 

John  T.  Ogden,  A.B. 

Publisher,  The  Glass  Industry;  Fellow,  Ameri- 
can Ceramic  Society ;  Member,  Society  of  Glass 
Technology,  England 
GLASS 

Catharine  Offlesby 

President,  Catharine  Oglesby ;  Author,  Business 
Opportunities   for   Women,   Fashion   Careers, 
American  Style,  Modern  Primitive  Arts 
FASHION 

Hans  Olav 

The  Royal  Norwegian  Government's  Press  Rep- 
resentative in  the  United  States 

SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE 

John  C.  Pa0f 

Commissioner,   Bureau   of    Reclamation,   U.S. 
Department  of  the  Interior 

RECLAMATION,  BUREAU  OF 

Howard  C.  Parmelee,  AM.,  Sc.D. 

Editor,  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal 

MINERALS  AND  METALS 

Thomas  Parran,  M.D. 

Surgeon  General,  U.S.  Public  Health  Service, 
Federal  Security  Agency 

PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE,  U  S. 

Francis  Davenport  Perfcinf 

Music  Editor,  The  New  York  Herald  Tribune 
MUSIC 

MUo  R.  Perfcins 

Administrator,  Surplus  Marketing  Administra- 
tion, U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

SURPLUS  MARKETING  ADMINISTRATION 

Mildred  Of/inter  Peterson 

Free  lance  writer,  American  Library  Association 

LIBRARY  PROGRESS 

Worren  lee  Plerson,  A.B.,  LLB. 

President,  Export-Import  Bank  of  Washington 

EXPORT-IMPORT  BANK  OF  WASHINGTON 

Benfleld  Pressey,  AM. 

Professor  of  English,  Dartmouth  College 

LITERATURE,  ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN 

Charles  McO.  Pucfcotte 

Assistant   to   the  Publisher,   The   New   York 
Times 

NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAGAZINES 

George  Matthew  Reed,  PnJ). 

Curator  of  Plant  Pathology,  Brooklyn  Botanic 

Garden 

BOTANY 

i.  B.  fteld 

Director,  Information  and  Extension,  U.S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture 

FARM  CREDIT  ADMINISTRATION 

W.  E.  Reynolds,  C.E. 

Commissioner,  Public  Buildings  Administration, 
Federal  Works  Agency 

PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  ADMINISTRATION 


Carl  B.  ftobblnt 

President,  Commodity  Credit  Corporation,  U.S. 
Department  of  Agriculture 

COMMODITY  CREDIT  CORPORATION 

ft.  ft.  Soyers 

Director,  Bureau  of  Mines,  U.S.  Department  of 
the  Interior 

MINES,  BUREAU  OF 

Daniel  Sa/re,  MS. 

Director,  Information  and  Statistics,  Civil  Aero- 
nautics Authority 

AERONAUTICS 

Albert  Sc/i/nx,  P/i.D.,  I.H.D.,  tiff  J>. 
Professor  of  Romance  Languages  and  Litera- 
ture, University  of  Pennsylvania 

FRENCH  LITERATURE 

Julian  L.  Scnley 

Major  General.  D.S.M.,  Chief  of  Engineers, 
United  States  Army 

ENGINEERS,  CORPS  OF 

JLemuel  B.  Schofteld,  A.M.,  U.fl. 

Special  Assistant  to  the  Attorney  General  in 
charge  of  the  Immigration  and  Naturalisation 
Service,  U.S.  Department  of  Justice 

IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRATION,  AND  NATURALIZATION 

Emil  ScJiram 

Chairman,  Reconstruction  Finance  Corporation, 
Federal  Loan  Agency 

RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE  CORPORATION 

J.  I.  Scnulfe,  B.Agr. 

Former  Member,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

FARM  MACHINERY 

Henry  S.  Sharp,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Geology,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity 

GEOLOGY 

Harold  D.  Smith,  B.S.  (E.E.I  M.A. 
Director,  Bureau  of  the  Budget,  Executive  Of- 
fice of  the  President 

BUDGET,  BUREAU  OF  THE 

leroy  K.  Smith 
Manager,  Federal  Crop  Insurance  Corporation 

FEDERAL  CROP  INSURANCE  CORPORATION 

Henry  M.  Steece,  B.S.  (Agr.),  A.M. 
Senior  Agronomist,  Office  of  Experiment  Sta- 
tions, U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
AGRICULTURE;  CROP  PRODUCTION 

J.  ft.  Sfeelmon 

Director  of  Conciliation,  U.S.  Department  of 
Labor 

CONCILIATION  SERVICE,  U.S. 

Koyniono  0.  Stevens 
Chairman,  U.S.  Tariff  Commission 

TARIFF  COMMISSION,   U.S. 

Nathan  Straus 

Administrator,  United  States  Housing  Authority 

HOUSING  AUTHORITY,  U.S. 

Clifford  Srrocfc,  M*. 

Editor,  Heating  and  Ventilating 

HEATING  AND  VENTILATING 

Ue  A.  Strong,  D.Sc. 

Chief,  Bureau  of  Entomology  and  Plant  Quar- 
antine 

ENTOMOLOGY,  ECONOMIC 


Contributor!  to  the  New  International  Year  Book— Continued 


J.  W  Sfudbbofcof 

'  Commissioner,  U.S.  Office  of  Education,  Fed- 
eral Security  Agency 

EDUCATION,  OFFICE  OF 

Arthur  Swoofitr,  AA,  AM.,  U.D. 

Member,  League  of  Nations  Secretariat 

LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS  J  WORLD  COURT 

Sttllman  Toy/or 

Associate  Editor,  Paper  Trade  Journal 

PAPER  AND  PULP 

Norman  Mamas,  B.A.,  L'rtt.D. 
National  Chairman,  Socialist  Party;  Author, 
America's  Way  Out,  Socialism  on  the  Defen- 
sive; co-author,  Keep  America  Out  of  War 
SOCIALISM 

0/iv.r  Somut/  Tonfei,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Art,  Vassar  College 

ARCHAEOLOGY 

E .  E.  ftusM//  Tratman 

Former,  Associate  Editor,  Engineering  News- 
Record 

CIVIL  ENGINEERING  TOPICS 

Aaron  1.  TroodwJ/,  Ph.D.,  Sc.D. 

Emeritus  Professor  of  Zoology,  Vassar  College ; 
Research  Associate,  American  Museum  of  Nat- 
ural History,  New  York  City 
ZOOLOGY 

Henry  f .  Vixetolly 

Assistant  Editor 

FOREIGN  COLONIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES — POLITICAL 
AND  ECONOMIC  HISTORY 

ftussft/f  ft.  Waucfco 

Rear  Admiral,  United  States  Coast  Guard ;  Com- 
mandant, Coast  Guard,  Department  of  Treasury 

COAST  GUARD 

Frank  C.  Wo/*«r,  U.B.,  U.O. 

Postmaster  General 

POST  OFFICE  DEPARTMENT 

Evoroff  S.  Wo//if 

Professor  of  Chemistry,  Princeton  University 

BIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY 


6*0190  A.  Watson 

Associate  Editor^  The  National  Underwriter 
INSURANCE 


W.  Wellington,  M  Je. 


Sta- 


Senior Horticulturist,  Office  of  Experiment 
tions,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
FORESTRY;  HORTICULTURE 

Wo/for  Wfcfffo 

Secretary,  National  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Colored  People 

NEGROES 

Horbort  P.  WhMock 

Curator,  Department  of  Geology,  Minerals  and 
Gems,  American  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
New  York  ;  Author,  The  Story  of  the  Gem 

MINERALOGY 

loftoy  Whitman 

Editor,  Army  and  Navy  Journal 

MILITARY  PROGRESS 

John  1.  Whitman 

Assistant  Editor 

UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES;  CHRONOLOGY  (IN 

PART) 

Aubrey  William* 

Administrator,  National  Youth  Administration, 
Federal  Security  Agency 

NATIONAL  YOUTH  ADMINISTRATION 

Frank  K.  Wilton 

Chief,  Secret  Service  Division,  U.S.  Department 
of  the  Treasury 

SECRET   SERVICE  DIVISION 

Doug/of  G.  Woof* 

Editor,  Textile  World 

TEXTILES 

Richmond  7.  Zocfc,  A.M. 

Airport  Station,  U.S.  Weather  Bureau 
ASTRONOMY;    EARTHQUAKES;    FLOODS;    HURRI- 
CANES; METEOROLOGY;  SEISMOLOGY 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PACING  PAGE 

ARCHEOLOGY:  From  Excavations  in  the  Agora  of  Athens 32 

Monoliths  from  the  Mexican  Jungles  .  ....          .     .          33 

ART:  "Benerisa  Tafoya";  "Alchemy  and  Astronomy";  "The  Funeral" 40 

"The  Feast  of  the  Gods";  The  National  Gallery  of  Art 41 

CHEMISTRY:  Hydrogen  Atoms  after  Collision  with  Neutrons;  Synthetic  Rubber 120 

The  R.C.A.  Electron  Microscope   .     .  121 

CHINA:  Japanese  Drop  Incendiary  Bombs  on  Chungking;  Wang  Ching-Wei  and  Members  of  the 

Chinese  Puppet  Government.     .  136 

CIVILIAN  CONSERVATION  CORPS:  Special  Classes  among  CCC  Enrollees 137 

DRAMA:  "The  Corn  Is  Green";  "Ladies  in  Retirement" 192 

"Old  Acquaintance";  "There  Shall  Be  No  Night" 193 

EUROPEAN  WAR  •  Russian  Advance  against  the  Mannerheim  Line ;  Finland's  Greatest  Victory  .     .  220 
Finnish  Church  Aflame  from  Russian  Bombs;  Women  and  Children  Evacuated  from  a  Finnish 

City.     .  221 

Nazi  Troops  Land  in  Norway;  Namsos  Struggles  Back  to  Life .  224 

British  Naval  Attacks  on  Narvik,  King  Haakon  and  Crown  Prince  Olav  in  Flight  from  German 

Airmen  .  .  .  ....        225 

Germany  Occupies  the  Low  Countries;  Troops  Cross  a  Pontoon  Bridge;  They  Scale  a  Demol- 
ished Bridge;  Nazi  Gun  on  Dutch  Coast         .     .  .  228 

Germany  Occupies  the  Low  Countries:  The  Nazi  War  Flag  Is  Raised  over  Brussels;  Belgians 

in  Flight  229 

A  City  "Somewhere  in  France";  A  Historic  Scene  in  Reverse .  232 

The  Evacuation  at  Dunkirk;  Victorious  Germans  Parade  through  the  Arc  de  Triomphe  hi 

Paris .     .          .     .  233 

Direct  Hit  upon  a  German  Bomber;  Graveyard  of  German  Bombers 236 

A  British  Convoy  under  Aerial  Attack,  Troops  from  Dunkirk  Reach  a  British  Port    ....  237 

Anglo-Greek  War  Council,  A  Torpedo  Misses  Its  Quarry         240 

Italian  Aviators  Miss  the  Ark  Royal]  French  Warship  Ablaze  and  Sinking  in  the  Battle  of  Oran 

Bay  .  ...  241 

The  Royal  Air  Force  Attacks  Taranto;  Italian  Prisoners  Captured  at  Sidi  Barrani       .     .     .  244 
General  Sir  Archibald  Wavell  Arrives  in  Greece;  Italian  Engineers  Repair  a  Bridge  during 

the  Advance  into  Greece      .          .  .     .          ....          245 

FRANCE:  Official  End  of  the  French  Republic;  Marshal  Henri  Petain  and  His  Cabinet    ...  280 
General  Maxime  Weygand  Arrives  in  Morocco;  General  de  Gaulle  Inspecting  "Free  French" 

Troops  in  London .  .     .  ....  .  .  281 

GERMANY:  With  Flower-Strewn  Streets  Berlin  Greets  Its  Hero  after  the  Great  Victory  hi  France; 

The  Chancellor  Addresses  a  Gathering  of  Workers  in  a  Munitions  Plant  .     .          ...  308 
October  Meeting  of  Hitler  and  Mussolini  at  Brenner  Pass;  Ambassador  Kurusu,  Count  Ciano, 

and  Fuehrer  Hitler  as  Japan  Signs  the  Axis  Pact       ...  309 

Rumania  Enters  the  Rome-Berlin-Tokyo  Axis;  Hungary  Joins  the  Three-Power  Pact  .     .     .312 
Marshal  Henri  P6tain  Faces  the  German  Fuehrer;  Spanish  Dictator,  General  Francisco  Franco, 

Greeted  by  Hitler 313 

GREAT  BRITAIN:  The  British  King,  Queen,  and  Prime  Minister  Churchill        320 

Old  London  in  Ruins 321 

JAPAN:  Japanese  Troops  Enter  Haiphong,  French  Indo-China;  Prince  Konoye  and  the  Powerful 

Members  of  His  Cabinet 384 

JEWS:  Jewish  Refugees  Begin  Life  Anew  in  Palestine 385 

MOTION  PICTURES:  "The  Long  Voyage  Home";  "The  Grapes  of  Wrath" 472 

"The  Philadelphia  Story";  "The  Great  Dictator" 473 

NECROLOGY:  Prominent  Persons  Who  Died  in  1940     .  .  .     .  512,  513,  and  536 

NETHERLANDS:  German  Troops  and  Guns  Crossing  the  Maas  River;  The  German  Army  Takes 

Over  The  Netherlands 537 

PAN  AMERICANISM:  Pan  American  Conference  in  Havana,  Cuba;  A  Group  of  Latin-American 

Army  Officers  Arrives  in  New  York 576 

Inauguration  of  President  Manuel  Avila  Camacho  of  Mexico;  President  Avila  Camacho 

Receives  the  Good  Wishes  of  U.S.  Vice-President-Elect  Henry  A.  Wallace     ...  577 

PHOTOGRAPHY:  Reconnaisance  Photograph  of  Gutersloh  Aerodrome,  Munster,  Germany;  Work- 
men Fitting  Airplane  Parts  Directly  upon  Photograph  Drawing  on  Aluminum  Alloy  Plates  .  596 

xiii 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING  PAGE 

Camera  Records  the  U.S.  Draft  Lottery;  Section  of  Motion-Picture  Sound  Record  of  "Fan- 
tasia"; Ultra-High-Speed  X-Ray  Photograph;  Spectrogram  of  the  Aurora  Borealis  ...  597 
UNITED  STATES:  Elwood  City,  Ind.,  Turns  Out  to  Hear  Wendell  Willkie's  Acceptance  Speech; 
Hyde  Park  Celebrates  Roosevelt's  Re-Election  for  a  Third  Term 756 

The  Canadian  Navy  Takes  Over  Destroyers  Acquired  from  the  United  States;  United  States- 
Canada  Joint  Defense  Board  Meeting  at  City  Hall,  New  York  City    757 

The  First  to  Be  Called  under  the  Selective  Service  Act;  Transfer  of  the  National  Guard  into 
Federal  Service 760 

Industry  Begins  the  Mass  Production  of  Combat  Planes;  President  Roosevelt  and  Members  of 
the  National  Defense  Commission 761 

MAPS 

PAGE 

BULGARIA:  Transfer  of  Southern  Dobruja    ....  ...    96 

CHINA:  Rival  Governments  in  China 134 

EUROPEAN  WAR:  Europe— Jan.  1, 1940 .          .          .          .222 

Europe— Dec.  29, 1940 223 

The  Battle  of  France,  May  15-June  17, 1940 228 

The  Battle  of  France,  Positions  at  Cessation  of  Hostilities 230 

Territorial  Terms  of  Franco-German  and  Franco-Italian  Armistices 232 

The  Strategic  Battleground  of  the  War 234 

Italo-British  Fronts  in  Africa 237 

The  Egyptian  Battlefield ....  238 

FRANCE:  How  France  and  Its  Empire  Was  Divided  in  1940 287 

GERMANY:  Germany's  Military  Conquests  During  First  Year  of  War 308 

GREAT  BRITAIN:  Major  Problems  Facing  Britain 318 

JAPAN:  Progress  of  Japan's  Expansionist  Campaign  as  of  August,  1940 380 

PAN  AMERICANISM:  Lands  Under  European  Flags  in  the  Western  Hemisphere 578 

POPULATION:  Increase  of  Population  in  the  United  States,  1930  to  1940 606 

RUMANIA:  The  Partition  of  Rumania 666 

UNITED  STATES:  The  United  States  Expands  IU  Defenses  in  a  Warring  World 757 


xi? 


THE  NEW 

INTERNATIONAL 

YEAR   BOOK 


SPECIAL   FEATURES 

A  thousand  or  more  tides  will  be  found  in  the  YEAR  BOOK,  arranged  alphabetically  from  AAA  to 
Zoology,  and  numerous  cross-references  will  direct  the  reader  specifically  to  the  subject  he  seeks.  For 
convenient  reference,  certain  special  features  are  listed  below.  For  all  other  titles,  see  the  main  topic  in 
its  alphabetical  position;  as,  "National  Defense,"  see  page  484. 


PAGE 

Agricultural  Crops 14,  15,  338 

Air  Bases,  U.S 463 

Airplane  Losses,  European  War 235 

Alcoholic  Liquors 20 

Ambassadors  &  Ministers  22 

Army  Posts  &  Camps 463 

Associations  &  Societies 683 

Automobile  Statistics 54 

Benefactions  and  Bequests 67 

Birth  Rate  in  the  U.S 799 

Broadcasting  Stations 93 

Building  Construction 95 

Business  Activity 100,  441 

Census,  U.S 608 

Census  of  Manufactures  431 

Cabinet  Members 758 

Charities  &  Bequests 67 

Chronology *38 

Churches 655 

Colleges  &  Universities 766 

Cost  of  Living 420 

Crimes 627 

Crops,  U.S.  &  World 14,  15,  238 

Death  Rates,  1935-39  798 

Deaths  of  Important  Persons     501 

Debt,  U.S.  Public 636 

Department  Store  Sales 102,  440 

Election  Returns,  1940  207 

Emigration  347 

Employment 395 

European  War : 

Finnish  Campaign 221 

Battle  of  Flanders   225 

Battle  of  France  229 

Battle  of  Britain  233 

African  Campaigns  237 

Italo-Greek  War   240 

Naval  Losses 241 

Events  of  1940 138 

Exports,  U.S 741 


PAGE 

Federal  Expenditures  635 

Foreign  Exchange  Rates 358 

Foreign  Trade   741 

Foundations  &  Funds 67 

Fruit  Crops 338 

Gold  Movement 262 

Gold  Reserves,  U.S.  &  Foreign      358 

Highways  of  the  World 659 

Horticultural  Crops 338 

Hydroelectric  Plants,  Federal . .  .623 

Immigration 347 

Imports,  U.S 741 

Income  Tax  Receipts 731 

Industrial  Activity 100 

Industrial  Census 431 

Military  Camps 463 

Mineral  Production 101 

Ministers  &  Ambassadors 22 

Motor  Vehicle  Fatalities 799 

Naval  Losses  by  War 241 

Navies  of  the  World 495 

Obituaries    501 

Population  of  the  U.S. : 

Cities  over  100,000  607 

Cities  of  5000  or  more 609 

States 608 

Territories  &  Possessions  754 

Presidential  Vote,  1940  207 

Radio  Broadcasting  Stations 93 

Relief  Activities,  War  802 

Retail  Trade  441 

Senators    674 

Ships  Lost  by  War 237,  676 

Societies  and  Associations 683 

Strikes  in  1940 396 

Universities  &  Colleges  766 

War  Relief  Activities 802 

Wholesale  Trade  440 

Work  Relief  653 


xvi 


THE  NEW 

INTERNATIONAL 

YEAR  BOOK 


AAA.  See  AGRICULTURAL  ADJUSTMENT  AD- 
MINISTRATION 

ABYSSINIA  (ETHIOPIA).  See  ITALIAN 
EAST  AFRICA  ;  EUROPEAN  WAR  under  Campaigns 
in  Africa 

ACADEMIC  FREEDOM.  See  EDUCATION; 
WYOMING  under  History. 

ACADEMY,  French  (Academic  Fran- 
gaise).  The  oldest  of  the  five  academies  which 
make  up  the  Institute  of  France  and  officially  con- 
sidered the  highest ,  founded  in  1635  The  mem- 
bership is  limited  to  40  The  list  of  the  Immortals 
in  1940,  in  order  of  their  election,  was  as  follows. 
Gabriel  Hanotaux ,  Henri  Lavedan ;  Maurice  Don- 
nay,  Marcel  Prevost,  Henri  Bergson,  Mgr.  Al- 
fred Baudnllart,  Henri  Bordeaux,  Andre  Che- 
vnllon,  £douard  Estaunie;  Georges  Lecomte, 
fimile  Picard;  Louis  Bertrand,  Auguste  de  Cau- 
mont,  Due  de  la  Force,  Paul  Valery;  Abel  Her- 
mant;  Emile  Male;  Louis  Madelm;  Maurice  Pa- 
leologue,  Marshal  Henri  Petain;  Andre  Chau- 
meix ;  Gen  Max  Weygand ,  Pierre  Benoit ;  Abel 
Bonnard;  Frangois  Maunac,  Maurice,  Due  de 
Broglie;  Leon  Berard;  Marshal  Louis  Franchet 
d'Esperey;  Claude  Farrere,  Andre*  Bellessort, 
Georges  Duhamel ,  Louis  Gillet ,  Edmond  Jaloux , 
Joseph  de  Pesquidoux;  Lucien  Lacaze;  Mgr  Geor- 
ges Grente,  Bishop  of  Le  Mans ;  Jacques  de  Lac- 
retelle ,  Charles  Maurras ;  Andre  Maurois ;  and 
Jerome  Tharaud 

On  Jan.  11,  1940,  the  Academy  elected  Paul 
Hazard  to  the  seat  of  the  late  Georges  Goyau 
The  death  of  Henri  Lavedan  was  announced  from 
Vichy  in  September.  See  FRENCH  LITERATURE. 

ACADEMY,  Royal  Italian.  See  ITALIAN 
LITERATURE. 

ACADEMY,  Spanish.  See  SPANISH  LITERA- 
TURE. 

ACADEMY  OF  ARTS,  Royal.  See  ART 

ACADEMY  OF  ARTS  AND  LETTERS, 
American.  A  society  founded  in  1904  by  members 
of  the  National  Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters  for 
the  purpose  of  furthering  and  representing  the  in- 
terests of  literature,  painting,  sculpture,  architec- 
ture, and  music.  Its  membership  is  limited  to  50 
chairs,  vacancies  caused  by  death  being  filled  by 
elections  from  the  membership  of  the  Institute. 

The  membership  of  the  Academy  as  of  Nov.  14, 
1940,  consisted  of  the  following  in  the  order  of 
their  election-  George  de  Forest  Brush,  Bliss 
Perry,  Abbott  Lawrence  Lowell,  Nicholas  Murray 
Butler,  Herbert  Adams,  Archer  Milton  Hunting- 
ton,  Newton  Booth  Tarkington,  Charles  Dana  Gib- 


1 


son,  Royal  Cortissoz,  Charles  Downer  Hazen,  Wil- 
bur L.  Cross,  Hermon  A  MacNeil,  James  Earle 
Fraser,  William  Mitchell  Kendall,  Robert  Frost, 
James  Truslow  Adams,  William  Lyon  Phelps, 
Adolph  Alexander  Weinman,  Walter  Damrosch, 
Anna  Hyatt  Huntington,  Paul  Manship,  Cecilia 
Beaux,  Eugene  O'Neill,  Henry  Dwight  Sedgwick, 
Walter  Lippmann,  M  A  de  Wolfe  Howe,  Frank 
Jewett  Mather,  Jr.,  Stewart  Edward  White,  Deems 
Taylor,  Charles  McLean  Andrews,  Van  Wyck 
Brooks,  Herbert  Putnam,  William  Adams  Delano, 
Charles  Warren,  Bernard  Berenson,  Chauncey 
Brewster  Tinker,  Albert  Spaldmg,  Sinclair  Lewis, 
Willa  Gather,  Stephen  Vincent  Benet,  Ellen  Glas- 
gow, Thornton  Wilder,  Henry  Osborn  Taylor, 
Ralph  Adams  Cram,  Edna  St.  Vincent  Millay,  and 
Carl  Sandburg. 

Beginning  with  Nov.  14,  1940,  a  joint  exhibition 
of  the  works  of  Childe  Hassam,  a  member  of  the 
Academy  who  died  in  1935,  and  of  Edwin  Austin 
Abbey,  a  member  of  the  Academy  who  died  in 
1911  has  been  shown  in  the  art  gallery,  and  will 
continue  indefinitely.  The  Abbey  paintings  were 
lent  by  Yale  University.  This  gallery  and  the  per- 
manent museum  are  open  and  free  to  the  public 
from  10  am.  to  5  p.m.  weekdays  and  from  2  to 
5pm.  Sundays  and  holidays. 

Officers  of  the  Academy  elected  in  1940,  were: 
President,  Nicholas  Murray  Butler;  Chancellor 
and  Treasurer,  Wilbur  L.  Cross;  Secretary,  Wil- 
liam Lyon  Phelps ;  Directors  *  Stephen  Vincent 
Benet,  Van  Wyck  Brooks,  Walter  Damrosch,  Wil- 
liam Adams  Delano,  Charles  Dana  Gibson,  and 
Archer  M  Huntington.  Administrative  offices  are 
at  633  West  155th  St.,  New  York  City. 

ACADEMY  OF  DESIGN,  National.  An 
organization  of  American  artists,  established  in 
New  York  City  in  1825  and  incorporated  in  1828 
for  the  purpose  of  "cultivation  and  extension  of 
the  arts  of  design."  In  1906  the  Society  of  Ameri- 
can Artists  merged  with  the  Academy. 

The  Academy  maintains  annual  Exhibitions  of 
painting,  sculpture,  and  engraving,  to  which  all 
artists  may  contribute,  subject  to  jury  At  these 
exhibitions  various  prizes  are  awarded.  It  conducts 
an  Art  School  at  which  no  tuition  is  charged.  It 
also  administers  the  Henry  W.  Ranger  Fund  for 
the  purchase  of  paintings,  to  be  presented  to  vari- 
ous museums.  Its  membership  is  limited  to  profes- 
sional painters,  sculptors,  engravers,  and  architects. 

The  Academicians  elected  at  the  annual  meeting 
in  April,  1940,  were :  Painters— Guy  Pene  du  Bpis, 
Dean  Cornwell,  Robert  Brackman,  Jon  Corbino, 


ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES 


ACCIDENTS 


Ogden  Pleissner,  Roy  Mason.  Francis  Speight, 
Theodore  Van  Soelen,  Hugo  Ballin.  Sculptors — 
Gertrude  Lathrop,  Wheeler  Williams.  Architect — 
Grosvenor  Atterbury.  Graphic  Arts — Thomas  W. 
Nason. 

The  Associates  elected  in  March,  1940,  were: 
Painters — Isabel  Bishop,  Allyn  Cox,  Nan  Greacen, 
George  Harding  Robert  K.  Ryland,  Ferdinand  £. 
Warren,  N.  C.  Wyeth.  Sculptors — Cornelia  Van 
A.  Chapin,  Nathaniel  Choate,  Janet  de  Coux,  Don- 
ald de  Lue,  Herbert  Haseltine,  Gertrude  V.  Whit- 
ney. Architect— Eliel  Saarinen.  Graphic  Arts — 
Roi  Partridge,  Grant  T.  Reynard,  Cadwallader 
Washburn. 

Elected  officers  were:  Hobart  Nichols,  Presi- 
dent; Edward  McCartan,  First  Vice- President; 
John  Taylor  Arms,  Second  Vice-President ; 
Charles  C.  Curran,  Corresponding  Secretary; 
Georg  Lober,  Assistant  Corresponding  Secretary; 
Charles  S.  Chapman,  Recording  Secretary;  Fred- 
erick Ballard  Williams,  Treasurer ;  Charles  Keck, 
Assistant  Treasurer. 

Headquarters  are  at  Amsterdam  Avenue  and 
109th  Street,  New  York  City,  where  there  also  is 
located  the  Academy's  School,  Charles  L.  Hinton, 
dean,  and  Virginia  FerrelL  clerk  of  the  Academy. 

ACADEMY  OF  SdlENCES,  National. 
The  National  Academy  of  Sciences  was  incorpo- 
rated by  Act  of  Congress  in  1863  for  the  purpose 
of  investigating,  examining,  experimenting,  and 
reporting  upon  any  subject  of  science  or  art  when- 
ever called  upon  by  any  department  of  the  United 
States  Government.  Membership  is  by  election,  in 
recognition  of  outstanding  achievements  in  scien- 
tific research,  and  is  limited  to  350  active  members 
and  50  foreign  associates.  Members  must  be  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States.  New  members  are 
elected  by  the  Academy  on  nominations  from  its 
eleven  Sections:  Mathematics,  Astronomy,  Phys- 
ics, Engineering,  Chemistry.  Geology  and  Paleon- 
tology, Botany,  Zoology  and  Anatomy,  Physiology 
and  Biochemistry,  Pathology  and  Bacteriology, 
and  Anthropology  and  Psychology.  The  names 
considered  by  the  Sections  in  their  nominating 
ballots  originate  from  suggestions  made  by  mem- 
bers; consequently,  there  are  no  applications  for 
membership. 

At  the  Annual  Meeting  held  in  Washington, 
D.C.,  Apr.  22,  23,  and  24,  1940,  fifteen  new  mem- 
bers were  elected,  as  follows :  Rollin  Thomas 
Chamberlin,  Carl  Ferdinand  Cori,  George  Wash- 
ington Corner,  Louis  Frederick  Fieser,  Wendell 
Mitchell  Latimer,  Karl  Friederich  Meyer,  James 
Bumgardner  Murphy,  Isidor  Isaac  Rabi,  Stephen 
Walter  Ranson,  William  Jacob  Robbins,  Richard 
Edwin  Shope,  William  Hay  Taliaferro,  Stephen 
Timoshenko,  Ernest  Glen  Wever,  Claus  Hugo 
Hermann  Weyl.  Four  foreign  associates  were 
elected:  Bernardo  Alberto  Houssay,  James  Peter 
Hill,  Giuseppe  Levi,  and  Sir  Henry  Hallett  Dale. 

Three  medals  were  presented  at  the  dinner  on 
Apr.  23,  1940:— The  Agassiz  Medal  for  Oceanog- 
raphy (gold),  to  Frank  Rattray  Lillie,  past  presi- 
dent of  the  Woods  Hole  Oceanographic  Institution, 
for  his  important  contributions  to  the  science  of 
Oceanography;  the  Public  Welfare  Medal  (gold), 
to  John  Edgar  Hoover,  of  the  Federal  Bureau  of 
Investigation,  for  his  application  of  scientific  meth- 
ods to  the  problem  of  crime  prevention;  and  the 
Charles  Doolittle  Walcott  Medal  (bronze)  and  ac- 
companying honorarium,  to  A.  H.  Westergaard,  of 
the  Sveriges  Geologiska  Undersokning,  Stockholm, 
Sweden,  for  his  eminent  researches  on  the  stratig- 


raphy and  paleontology  of  the  Cambrian  forma- 
tions of  Sweden. 

The  Autumn  Meeting  was  held  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  on 
Oct.  28.  29,  and  30.  1940.  The  Academy  pub- 
lishes an  Annual  Report,  Biographical  Memoirs  of 
its  deceased  members,  occasional  scientific  Mem- 
oirs, and  monthly  Proceedings.  The  officers  are: 
Frank  B.  Jewett,  President ;  Arthur  L.  Day,  Vice- 
President;  L.  J.  Henderson,  Foreign  Secretary; 
F.  E.  Wright,  Home  Secretary;  J.  C.  Hunsaker, 
Treasurer;  and  Paul  Brockett,  Executive  Secre- 
tary. The  Academy  building  is  at  2101  Constitution 
Avenue,  Washington,  D.C. 

ACCIDENTS.  The  1940  accident  toll  in  the 
United  States,  according  to  National  Safety  Coun- 
cil estimates,  amounted  to  96,500  deaths,  approxi- 
mately 9,100,000  non-fatal  injuries,  and  direct  costs 
aggregating  nearly  $3,500,000,000.  These  totals 
represent  increases  of  about  4  per  cent  from  the 
1939  accident  toll.  In  contrast,  the  preliminary 
estimate  of  property  destroyed  or  damaged  by  fire 
alone  was  $306,500,000,  or  3  per  cent  below  the 
comparable  preliminary  estimate  for  1939  The 
trend  of  accidental  deaths  over  the  last  decade  has 
been  mixed.  In  1930  the  total  was  99,147.  In  1932 
it  reached  a  low  of  89,031,  but  in  1934  it  was  up 
to  100,977,  and  in  1936  to  110,052.  These  two  high 
totals  were  in  part  due  to  a  large  number  of  deaths 
from  excessive  heat — also  a  factor  in  the  1940  in- 
crease 

The  following  table  shows  the  1939  and  1940 
death  totals  for  the  four  principal  classes  of  acci- 
dents, together  with  the  per  cent  increase  in  each 
class : 


All  Accidental  Deaths 
Motor  Vehicle 
Public  (not  motor  vehicle) . 
Home 
Occupational 


1940  1939       Increase 

96,500  92,623  •       4% 

34,400  32,386*       6% 

15,500  15,500    No  change 

32,500  32,000         2% 

17,000  15,500        10% 


*  The  1939  figures  for  all  accidents  and  motor  vehicle  accidents 
are  from  the  U.S  Census  Bureau  All  others  are  National  Safety 
Council  estimates  The  totals  exclude  the  duplication  of  occupa- 
tional and  motor  vehicle  deaths. 

Approximately  half  of  the  increase  in  total  acci- 
dent deaths  came  from  motor  vehicle  accidents,  and 
about  a  third  from  occupational  accidents 

The  1940  accidental  death  rate  per  100,000  pop- 
ulation was  73  2.  Comparable  rates  are :  1939,  70.7 ; 
1930,  80.6;  1920,  71.3;  1910,  84.4.  Heart  disease, 
cancer,  cerebral  hemorrhage,  and  nephritis  were 
the  only  causes  of  death  exceeding  accidents  in 
1939,  according  to  U.S.  Census  Bureau  data.  Pre- 
liminary information  indicates  the  same  ranking 
for  1940.  Among  males,  alone,  accidents  have  for 
several  years  been  either  the  second  or  third  most 
important  cause  of  death,  being  exceeded  by  heart 
disease  and,  in  some  years,  cancer.  From  age  3  to 
21  accidents  caused  more  deaths  than  any  disease 
in  1939.  Among  males  they  were  first  from  age  3 
to  38. 

The  1940  accidental  deaths  were  distributed  by 
age  as  follows  •  0-4  years,  6650 ;  5-14  years,  6550 ; 
15-24  years,  12,500;  25-64  years,  43,400;  65  years 
and  older,  27,400.  The  1940  Census  population  fig- 
ures are  not  yet  available,  but  it  is  certain  that  the 
highest  death  rate  per  100,000  population  was  for 
65  years  and  older — in  the  neighborhood  of  340. 
In  contrast,  the  rate  for  children  5  to  14  years  old 
was  only  about  27,  or  one-twelfth  as  much.  In  re- 
cent years  the  rate  for  elderly  people  has  been 


ACCIDENTS 


ADVENT  MOVEMENT 


rising  steadily,  while  that  for  school  children  has 
been  going  down. 

Motor  Vehicle  Accidents.  The  1940  motor 
vehicle  accident  death  total  of  34,400  represents  an 
increase  of  6  per  cent  from  1939.  However,  there 
were  also  6  per  cent  more  vehicle-miles  driven  in 
1940,  so  the  death  rate  per  100,000,000  vehicle-miles 
remained  unchanged  at  12.0.  Since  1930,  when  the 
death  rate  was  1/.4,  there  has  been  a  31  per  cent 
reduction  in  the  rate.  In  addition  to  the  deaths, 
about  1,200,000  persons  received  non-fatal  injuries 
in  motor  vehicle  accidents  during  1940,  or  one  out 
of  each  110  persons  in  the  United  States.  Wage 
loss,  medical  and  insurance  costs  amounted  to  about 
$800,000,000,  and  property  damage  to  approxi- 
mately an  equal  amount — a  grand  total  of  $1,600,- 
000,000.  The  increase  in  motor  vehicle  deaths  from 

1939  to  1940  came  principally  from  rural  accidents. 
These  rose  about  9  per  cent  to  a  total  of  20,700 
while  deaths  from  accidents  in  towns  and  cities 
went  up  only  3  per  cent  to  13,700. 

Pedestrian  deaths  increased  moderately — 3  per 
cent,  to  a  total  of  12,600  Non-pedestrian  fatalities 
totalled  21,800— -up  nearly  8  per  cent  from  1939. 
Children  under  5  years  of  age  were  the  only  per- 
sons with  a  better  motor  vehicle  death  record  in 

1940  than  in  1939.  Deaths  in  this  group  numbered 
only  1100,  compared  to  1192  for  the  previous  year, 
a  decrease  of  8  per  cent.  In  contrast,  deaths  of 
school  children,  5  to  14  years,  rose  11  per  cent, 
from  2339  to  2600.  This  is  one  of  the  few  increases 
in  school  child  death  rates  that  have  interrupted 
the  general  downward  trend  which  started  two 
decades  ago.  Deaths  in  the  15-24  age  group  went 
up  8  per  cent  from  6318  to  6800.  In  the  25-64  age 
group  fatalities  numbered  18,250,  or  6  per  cent 
more  than  in  1939.  For  persons  65  years  or  older 
the  death  total  rose  6  per  cent  from  5328  to  5650. 

Public  (not  motor  vehicle)  Accidents.  There 
was  no  change  from  1939  to  1940  in  the  number 
of  deaths  from  public  (not  motor  vehicle)  acci- 
dents In  each  year  the  fatality  total  amounted  to 
15,500  Since  1930,  however,  these  deaths  have  de- 
creased by  4500.  The  1940  non-fatal  injury  total 
was  approximately  1,850,000.  Wage  losses,  and 
medical  and  insurance  expenses  amounted  to  about 
$400,000,000. 

Although  the  death  total  remained  the  same  as 
in  1939  there  were  some  changes  in  individual  types 
of  accidents  in  1940.  Outstanding  in  the  year's  rec- 
ord was  the  Natchez,  Miss.,  dance  hall  conflagra- 
tion in  which  210  lives  were  lost  Air  transport 
companies  had  three  fatal  accidents  after  having 
completed  nearly  18  months  of  no-fatality  opera- 
tions. Thirty-five  passengers  were  killed  in  these 
accidents,  compared  to  a  1939  total  of  only  12  pas- 
senger deaths  Railroad  passenger  fatalities  in- 
creased about  49,  according  to  11 -month  reports, 
but  trespasser  deaths  decreased  by  259  Fatal  falls 
and  deaths  from  excessive  heat  in  public  places  in- 
creased. 

Home  Accidents.  Deaths  from  home  accidents 
rose  from  32,000  in  1939  to  32,500  in  1940.  In  1930 
home  accident  deaths  totalled  only  30,000.  Non- 
fatal  injuries  in  1940  numbered  about  4,750,000. 
Wage  losses,  and  medical  and  insurance  costs 
amounted  to  approximately  $600,000,000.  Little  in- 
formation is  available  on  the  trend  of  the  different 
types  of  home  accidents.  However,  it  appears  cer- 
tain that  deaths  from  excessive  heat  increased 
sharply  due  to  the  July  heat  wave.  Available  infor- 
mation indicates  a  small  increase  in  deaths  from 
burns,  a  slight  decrease  in  fatal  falls. 


Occupational  Accidents.  The  1940  death  total 
for  occupational  accidents  was  17,000,  an  increase 
of  about  10  per  cent  from  the  1939  total  of  15,500. 
However,  the  record  is  still  favorable  compared 
to  the  1930  total  of  19,000  deaths.  There  were  ap- 
proximately 1,400,000  non-fatal  injuries  in  1940. 
Total  wage  loss,  and  medical  and  insurance  ex- 
penses amounted  to  about  $650,000,000. 

Four  coal  mine  disasters  in  Ohio,  Pennsylvania, 
and  West  Virginia  resulted  in  257  deaths,  or  one- 
sixth  of  the  total  1940  death  increase.  A  New 
Jersey  powder  mill  explosion  killed  51  workers. 
The  increase  in  occupational  accidents  was  accom- 
panied by  greater  employment.  According  to  avail- 
able data  manufacturing  employment  increased  6 
to  7  per  cent  over  1939,  and  total  employment  went 
up  3  to  4  per  cent.  However,  accident  rates  based 
on  man-hours  worked,  and  covering  both  fatal  and 
non-fatal  injuries,  were  higher  in  1940.  Plant  safe- 
ty contest  reports  show  an  increase  of  2  to  5  per 
cent  in  both  the  frequency  rate  (injuries  per  mil- 
lion man-hours)  and  the  severity  rate  (days  lost 
per  thousand  man-hours). 

See  AERONAUTICS;  AUTOMOBILES  under  Acci- 
dents ;  INSURANCE  under  Casualty  Insurance ;  LA- 
BOR CONDITIONS  under  Health  and  Safety ;  MINES, 
BUREAU  OF;  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

A.  D.  BATTEY. 

ACCOUNTS,  Bureau  of.  See  FISCAL  SERVICE. 

ADEN.  See  under  ARABIA 

ADULT  EDUCATION.  See  AMERICAN 
FEDERATION  OF  LABOR;  EDUCATION;  EDUCATION, 
U.S.  OFFICE  OF;  LIBRARY  PROGRESS. 

ADVANCED  STUDY,  Institute  for.  An 
institution  of  higher  learning  founded  in  1930  by 
Mr.  Louis  Bamberger  and  Mrs.  Felix  Fuld.  The 
Institute  is  different  in  character  from  any  other 
American  educational  institution  in  that  it  is 
planned  for  students  who  wish  to  pursue  advanced 
research  beyond  the  level  of  the  doctor's  degree.  It 
has  no  tuition  fee,  no  routine  requirements,  no  ex- 
aminations, and  awards  no  degrees.  The  work  is 
largely  individual,  though  there  are  seminars  and 
courses  of  lectures  in  some  subjects.  Since  the  in- 
dividuals who  attend  the  Institute  are  in  many 
cases  extremely  eminent  in  their  subjects,  the  word 
"student"  is  not  used,  but  they  are  rather  desig- 
nated as  "members."  The  two  groups,  the  faculty 
and  members  of  the  Institute,  are  in  reality  a  body 
of  scholars  working  together. 

The  Institute  for  Advanced  Study  is  supported 
entirely  by  an  endowment  which  amounts  to  just 
over  $8,000,000.  In  addition  to  the  gifts  made  by 
the  founders,  the  Rockefeller  Foundation  has  con- 
tributed half  the  cost  of  the  Gest  Oriental  Library, 
and  the  Carnegie  Corporation  and  the  ^Rocke  feller 
Foundation  have  contributed  funds  which  maintain 
a  number  of  promising  scholars.  Located  at  Prince- 
ton, N  J.,  the  Institute  has  no  official  connection 
with  Princeton  University,  though  there  is  a  great 
deal  of  informal  co-operation  between  the  two  in- 
stitutions. In  1939^40  there  were  46  members 
working  at  the  Institute  and  17  professors  on  the 
staff,  in  addition  to  the  director,  Frank  Aydelotte. 
Abraham  Flexner  is  Director  Emeritus  and  Alan- 
son  B.  Houghton  is  chairman  of  the  Board  of 
Trustees.  Headquarters:  Fuld  Hall,  Olden  Lane, 
Princeton,  NJ. 

ADVENT  MOVEMENT.  A  religious  move- 
ment which  originated  in  America  with  William 
Miller  (1782-1849),  who  believed  in  the  imminent, 
personal  second  coming  of  Christ  There  are  six 


ADVERTISING 


AERONAUTICS 


Adventist  bodies  in  the  United  States,  the  largest 
being  the  Seventh-day  Adventist  Denomination, 
formally  organized  in  1860,  which  observes  Satur- 
day as  the  Sabbath  of  the  Scriptures.  Headquar- 
ters, Takoma  Park,  Washington,  D.C.  For  statis- 
tics, see  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS. 

ADVERTISING.  See  FEDERAL  TRADE  COM- 
MISSION; GARMENT  INDUSTRY;  NEWSPAPERS  AND 
MAGAZINES. 

AEGEAN  ISLANDS,  Italian.  The  islands 
in  the  Aegean  sea,  near  Turkey  in  Asia,  belonging 
to  Italy.  They  comprise  Rhodes,  Castelrosso,  and 
the  Dodecanese  group.  Total  area,  1035  square 
miles;  total  population  (1936),  140,848  (natives, 
85  per  cent;  Italians,  12  per  cent).  Chief  towns, 
Rhodes  (capital),  27,466  inhabitants  (1936)  ;  Ka- 
lyrrmos,  15,247.  The  chief  agricultural  products 
consist  of  grapes,  olives,  tobacco,  oranges,  and 
vegetables.  Oriental  carpets,  wine,  olive  oil,  pot- 
tery, and  tiles  are  manufactured.  Sponge  fishing  is 
an  important  industry.  In  1938,  imports  were  val- 
ued at  157,421,000  lire;  exports,  21,851,000  lire. 
Budget  (1934-35):  48000,000  lire.  The  Italian 
navy  has  a  station  at  Rnodes,  and  a  base  at  Lirps 
in  the  Dodecanese  group  On  September  4  a  Brit- 
ish Mediterranean  squadron  bombarded  the  Italian 
stronghold  at  Karpathos  (Scarpanto)  in  the  Do- 
decanese group.  Numerous  air  attacks  were  made 
on  the  islands.  Governor,  Gen.  Ettore  Bastico  who 
succeeded  Count  de  Vecchi  on  Dec.  7,  1940.  See 
EUROPEAN  WAR 

AERONAUTICS.  Military  Aviation.  The 
year  of  1940  for  all  of  its  terrible  demonstrations 
of  the  importance  of  air  power  in  modern  warfare 
still  left  a  number  of  long-debated  questions  not 
yet  finally  decided  For  example,  despite  some 
claims  to  the  contrary,  there  was  as  yet  no  definite 
proof  that  an  attacking  aircraft  or  squadron  of 
aircraft  had  been  able  to  sink  a  first  line  battleship. 
There  was  also  no  complete  proof  that  bombing 
attacks  had  been  able  completely  to  destroy  the 
production  capacity  of  a  major  industrial  city  or 
region.  There  was  still  no  answer  as  to  whether  a 
nation  could  be  driven  to  its  knees  solely  or  in 
large  part  through  long-continued  and  heavy  bomb- 
ing attacks  Despite  an  overwhelming  numerical 
supremacy,  the  German  air  force  had  not  yet  dem- 
onstrated that  it  was  capable  at  will  of  securing  air 
supremacy  over  its  British  opponent  above  any 
area  where  such  supremacy  was  of  vital  impor- 
tance But  if  these  general  questions  remained 
without  definitive  answer,  the  developments  of  the 
year  (see  EUROPEAN  WAR)  drove  home  with  ter- 
rific emphasis  other  lessons  in  aerial  tactics  and 
strategy. 

If  the  battleship  versus  bomber  argument  was 
not  completely  settled,  it  was  nevertheless  clear  by 
the  end  of  the  year  that  attacking  aircraft  were 
capable  of  sinking  or  inflicting  devastating  damage 
upon  all  other  categories  of  surface  vessels  when 
such  surface  vessels  were  in  harbor  or  when  such 
vessels  were  in  the  open  sea  and  not  otherwise  pro- 
tected by  fog  or  night  Perhaps  even  more  vital  in 
the  development  of  the  war  than  the  results  of 
direct  conflicts  between  bombers  and  naval  vessels 
were  the  depredations  wrought  upon  British  com- 
merce vessels  by  German  aircraft  operating  above 
the  sea  lanes  to  England  Against  such  attack,  even 
heavily  escorted  convoys  have  so  far  proven  ex- 
tremely vulnerable. 

In  the  land  campaigns  of  Western  Europe,  the 
events  of  the  year  once  more  emphasized  the  su- 
preme importance  of  air  mastery  in  the  execution 


of  modern  military  campaigns.  By  establishing 
such  clear  supremacy,  the  Germans  were  able  to 
drive  home  their  victories  in  Norway,  the  Nether- 
lands, Belgium,  and  France  By  losing  their  su- 
premacy temporarily,  the  Germans  failed  to  pre- 
vent the  rescue  of  the  British  Expeditionary  Force 
at  Dunkirk.  On  the  other  hand,  the  British,  cam- 
paigning in  Libya  at  the  year's  end,  were  tremen- 
dously aided  in  their  land  efforts  by  mastery  over 
the  locally  effective  Italian  air  squadrons. 

As  regards  bombing  of  objectives  of  industrial 
or  secondary  military  importance,  the  raids  carried 
out  during  the  last  months  of  the  year  over  Eng- 
land by  the  German  air  force,  and  over  German- 
held  territory  by  British  airmen,  seemed  to  indicate 
in  general  terms,  ( 1 )  that  mass  daylight  raids  are 
extremely  costly  to  the  attacking  air  force,  but  that 
(2)  night  raids  are  almost  impossible  to  stop  com- 
pletely through  any  defensive  tactics  so  far  de- 
veloped. 

Lessons  learned  in  innumerable  individual  or 
squadron  combats  throughout  the  year  reaffirmed 
once  more  the  general  importance  of  top  speed, 
climbing  speed,  and  maneuverability  in  the  design 
of  all  types  of  military  aircraft.  New  emphasis 
was  placed  upon  the  value  of  rapid-fire  cannon  in 
preference  to  machine-guns,  or  at  least  to  machine- 
guns  of  the  ordinary  caliber ,  upon  the  desirability 
of  furnishing  at  least  light  armor-plate  protection 
for  pilots,  upon  the  value  of  mechanically  oper- 
ated gun-turrets ;  and  upon  the  value  of  self-seal- 
ing fuel  tanks.  Ability  to  conduct  operations  at  ex- 
tremely high  altitudes  seemed  to  be  emerging  as  a 
fundamental  requirement  for  all  types  of  bombing 
and  fighter  aircraft  See  EUROPEAN  WAR;  MILI- 
TARY PROGRESS  ;  NAVAL  PROGRFSS 

World  Air  Transport.  A  year  during  which 
the  sound  of  an  airplane  overhead  was  a  cause  for 
alarm  to  a  large  portion  of  the  earth's  inhabitants 
would  hardly  seem  one  in  which  it  would  be  logi- 
cal to  expect  great  activity  in  peaceful  interna- 
tional air  transportation.  Yet,  with  the  exception 
of  Europe  and  Africa,  international  air  transport 
either  held  its  own  or  registered  real  progress  dur- 
ing 1940  Even  in  Europe  the  war  did  not  wholly 
stop  international  air  traffic.  German,  Scandina- 
vian, and  Italian  operators  continued  to  fly  routes 
which  extended  from  Oslo  to  Libya,  from  Moscow 
to  Lisbon  The  British  maintained  connecting  serv- 
ices with  the  Pan  American  Clipper  service  to 
Portugal  and  kept  up  at  least  skeleton  services  on 
its  Empire  routes  south  and  east  of  Alexandria. 
The  energetic  Royal  Netherlands  Airlines,  while 
barred  of  course  from  Europe,  continued  opera- 
tions in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  and  in  the 
Caribbean 

In  Asia  the  U  S  S  R.  continued  development  of 
its  impressively  long  network  of  airlines  connect- 
ing its  component  republics  Japan  increased  its 
services  to  the  mainland  Even  the  China  National 
Airways  continued  to  operate  schedules  between 
Hong  Kong  and  Chengtu  via  Chungking  and  from 
Chungking  to  Rangoon. 

In  the  Western  Hemisphere  and  across  its  two 
adjoining  oceans,  Pan  American  Airways  effected 
improvements  and  extensions  in  its  airline  network 
which  made  1940  one  of  the  most  constructive  in 
its  history  On  August  4  a  Pan  American  clipper 
completed  the  200th  crossing  of  North  Atlantic 
route  opened  by  that  airline  in  the  spring  of  1939. 
Long  before  August  however  the  clipper  route  had 
come  to  be  accepted  as  the  surest,  safest,  and  cer- 
tainly by  far  the  quickest  means  of  travel  between 


AERONAUTICS 


AERONAUTICS 


the  United  States  and  war-torn  Europe.  During  its 
first  200  flights  this  service  carried  more  than  2600 
passengers  and  300,000  Ib.  of  mail.  On  July  12  an- 
other clipper  inaugurated  a  service  between  San 
Francisco  and  Aukland,  New  Zealand,  via  Los 
Angeles,  Hawaii,  Canton  Island,  and  New  Cale- 
donia. This  new  service  to  New  Zealand  was,  of 
course,  completely  supplementary  to  the  trans- 
Pacific  service  between  San  Francisco  and  Hong 
Kong  which  Pan  American  has  conducted  since 
1935.  Pan  American  also  opened  during  the  year 
a  new  year-round  service  between  Seattle  and 
Alaska  and  inaugurated  a  new  high-speed  service 
between  Miami  and  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  last  serv- 
ice, which  cuts  the  time  of  transit  to  three  days,  is 
carried  on  with  big  thirty-passenger  Boeing-built 
four-cngined  "strato-clippers,"  designed  to  fly  at 
extremely  high  altitudes  without  discomfort  to  pas- 
sengers or  crew,  each  ship  being  equipped  to  main- 
tain a  comparatively  low-level  pressure  through- 
out its  cabin  by  means  of  superchargers  The 
present  service  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  also  is  featured 
by  the  use  of  a  new  and  shorter  route  to  that 
city  Instead  of  following  the  long  Brazilian  coast- 
line south  from  Belem,  as  Pan  American  coast- 
wise clippers  have  done  for  a  decade,  the  new 
planes  now  strike  directly  across  the  interior  from 
Belem  toward  Rio  de  Janeiro,  thus  saving  an  al- 
most exact  1000  miles  At  the  end  of  1940  Pan 
American  Airways  were  operating  69,464  miles  of 
loute  through  53  countries  or  colonies,  employed 
6500  persons  and  had  144  aircraft  in  constant  use 

See  AUSTRALIA  under  History  for  crash  killing 
Cabinet  and  military  leaders 

Domestic  Air  Transport.  During  1940  the 
sixteen  operators  of  scheduled  airlines  within  the 
continental  boundaries  of  the  United  States  once 
more  adhered  to  the  tradition  of  the  industry  by 
flying  more  miles,  carrying  more  passengers,  and 
handling  more  air  mail  and  air  express  than  in  any 
preceding  year  During  the  twelve  months  period 
the  domestic  operators  flew  an  estimated  108,254,- 
000  revenue  airplane  miles-,  an  increase  of  31  per 
cent  over  the  corresponding  figure  for  1939;  pas- 
senger traffic  reached  1,054,393,000  revenue  pas- 
senger-miles, an  increase  of  55  per  cent  over  1939 
performance,  express  traffic  gained  25  per  cent 
over  the  previous  year  to  a  total  of  6,826,150,000 
pound-miles,  and  mail  figures,  not  yet  available, 
are  known  substantially  to  exceed  the  record  set 
in  1939 

For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  American 
industry,  national  defense  requirements  raised  seri- 
ous problems  for  the  air  carriers  In  former  years 
the  operators  had  always  been  able  to  count  upon 
the  nation's  military  or  naval  services  for  a  con- 
stant supply  of  well-trained  airmen.  In  1940  this 
supply  not  only  dried  up,  but  younger  airmen,  still 
in  the  lower  rungs  of  airline  employment,  were 
being  attracted  back  to  the  services  by  the  prospect 
of  long  terms  of  active  duty.  The  procuration  of 
flying  equipment  by  the  end  of  the  year  had  also 
become  difficult  in  the  face  of  the  national  policy 
of  allocating  priority  of  deliveries  to  Great  Britain 
or  to  our  own  military  squadrons.  While  no  final 
decision  on  airline  deliveries  had  been  reached  by 
the  year's  end,  it  seemed  unlikely  that  the  airlines 
would  receive  more  than  a  fraction  of  the  new 
planes  they  had  ordered  in  1940  and  which  would 
be  needed  for  continued  expansion  of  services. 

By  no  means  for  the  first  time,  the  air  transport 
history  of  the  past  year  in  the  United  States  dem- 
onstrated the  inseparable  relationship  between  air- 


line safety  and  the  acceptance  of  air  transportation 
by  the  American  public.  On  Mar.  26, 1939,  an  acci- 
dent occurred  on  an  airline  operating  out  of  Okla- 
homa City,  Okla.  Thereafter  no  accident  fatal  to 
any  person  in  the  air  or  on  the  ground  was  caused 
by  domestic  airline  operation  until  Aug.  31,  1940. 
During  those  seventeen  months  indices  of  passen- 
ger traffic  climbed  at  a  rate  which  exceeded  the 
most  sanguine  expectations.  March  is  usually  one 
of  the  leaner  months  in  the  airline  traffic  year. 
March,  1940,  set  a  new  all-time  record  for  air 
travel,  well  above  the  best  "good-weather"  peak  of 
1939.  Thereafter  each  succeeding  month  until  Sep- 
tember set  another  all-time  record,  August  traffic 
being  66.69  per  cent  above  the  corresponding  traffic 
for  1939.  September  traffic  following  the  August 
1940  accident  showed  a  slight  decrease  from  Au- 
gust. Apparently  the  first  accident  was  not  long  in 
being  forgotten,  October  witnessed  another  record 
But  then  a  second  fatal  accident  occurred  on  No- 
vember 4  followed  on  December  4  by  still  a  third. 
In  November  traffic  levels  broke  sharply.  Prelimi- 
nary reports  on  December  show  a  continuing  loss 
to  a  point  where  the  airlines  were  carrying  only  7 
per  cent  more  passenger  traffic  than  in  1939  yet 
were  flying  approximately  19  per  cent  more  air- 
plane miles  The  set  back  was  nothing  which  a  re- 
turn to  safety  could  not  remedy  but  it  caused  the 
entire  industry  and  the  related  governmental  agen- 
cies the  deepest  concern 

The  past  year  witnessed  another  substantial  mod- 
ification in  the  organization  established  by  the  U  S 
government  to  control  and  develop  the  air  transpor- 
tation industry  (and  in  fact  all  of  American  civil 
aviation).  The  Civil  Aeronautics  Act  of  1938  (see 
1938  YEAR  BOOK,  page  6)  created  an  independent 
administrative  agency,  known  as  the  Civil  Aero- 
nautics Authority.  To  the  five  members  of  this  Au- 
thority were  assigned  full  control  of  the  economic 
affairs  of  interstate  carriers,  and  the  promulgation 
and  enforcement  of  safety  regulations  for  all  civil 
flying.  An  official,  known  as  the  Administrator  of 
the  Authority,  was  charged  with  the  responsibility 
of  building,  maintaining,  and  operating  the  system 
of  emergency  fields,  beacon  lights,  and  radio  aids 
to  navigation  forming  the  Federal  Airway  System 
Still  another  group  of  three  officials  was  set  up  as 
an  independent  Air  Safety  Board  within  the  Au- 
thority framework  to  investigate  aircraft  accidents 
and  study  safety  measures  In  April,  1940,  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt,  exercising  the  powers  granted  him 
by  the  Reorganization  Act,  directed  that  the  five- 
man  authority  should  hereafter  have  control  of 
economic  matters,  the  promulgation  of  safety  reg- 
ulations (but  not  of  their  direct  enforcement),  and 
should  assume  responsibility  for  the  work  formerly 
conducted  by  the  Air  Safety  Board  To  the  re- 
sponsibilities of  the  Administrator  were  added  the 
direction  of  all  field  inspections,  all  promotional 
functions,  and  control  of  the  Civilian  Pilot  Train- 
ing Program.  The  organization  of  the  Administra- 
tor, now  designated  as  the  Civil  Aeronautics  Ad- 
ministration, was  placed  entirely  within  the  De- 
partment of  Commerce.  The  former  five  members 
of  the  Authority,  now  constituting  the  Civil  Aero- 
nautics Board,  were  left  in  a  semi-independent  sta- 
tus, dependent  upon  the  Department  of  Commerce 
for  such  services  as  personnel,  budgeting,  and  ac- 
counting. The  reorganization  was  bitterly  opposed 
by  at  least  part  of  the  aeronautical  industry,  and 
by  many  legislators  It  was  defeated  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  but  was  finally  approved  by  the 
Senate.  Under  terms  of  the  Reorganization  Act 


AERONAUTICS 


AERONAUTICS 


the  President's  order  thereby  became  law  and  the 
reorganization  was  made  effective  July  1. 

Private  Owner  Aviation.  Unrestricted  flying 
by  individual  non-military  pilots  must  perforce 
cease  almost  to  exist  in  a  nation  engaged  in  mod- 
ern warfare.  Even  when  that  nation  is  separated 
from  the  actual  theater  of  war  by  thousands  of 
miles  of  ocean — as,  for  example,  Canada,  Austral- 
ia, and  New  Zealand  were  during  1940 — all  civilian 
aviation  save  scheduled  airline  transportation  be- 
comes quickly  absorbed  in  the  national  military 
training  programs.  Privately  owned  planes  are 
bought  up  or  commandeered  as  trainers.  Qualified 
pilots  and  mechanics  are  drawn  into  the  military 
services  or  become  instructors  in  military  schools 
or  in  civilian  schools  now  engaged  entirely  in  the 
elementary  instruction  of  military  cadets.  With  the 
spread  of  war,  it  would  be  safe  to  say,  private- 
owner  aviation  in  its  peacetime  form  became  dur- 
ing 1940  almost  non-existent  throughout  all  the 
world  save  in  the  United  States,  its  possessions, 
and  Latin  America.  Even  in  the  United  States 
where  this  type  of  flying  broke  all  previous  statis- 
tical records,  1940  witnessed  a  marked  shift  toward 
an  evaluation  of  its  achievements  and  limitations 
almost  entirely  by  the  yardstick  of  military  pre- 
paredness. 

By  any  yardstick,  the  American  achievement  was 
spectacular.  For  several  years  preceding  1940,  the 
number  of  individuals  holding  certificates  of  com- 
petency as  pilots  had  been  growing  rapidly  larger 
and  planes  registered  by  private  owners  had  stead- 
ily increased.  Production  of  aircraft  for  domestic 
civil  use  had  been  making  gains  reminiscent  of  the 
growth  of  automobile  production  figures  thirty-five 
or  forty  years  earlier.  Yet  all  these  once-exciting 
measures  of  progress  were  completely  dwarfed  in 
1940.  During  the  twelve  months  of  that  year,  the 
number  of  certificated  pilots  increased  from  31,264 
to  65,000.  The  number  of  registered  civil  aircraft 
rose  from  12,829  to  17,000.  Aircraft  production  for 
domestic  civil  use  reached  3715  during  1939,  but 
last  year  it  increased  to  more  than  6750.  Compari- 
son of  these  figures  with  corresponding  statistics 
for  earlier  years  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  ta- 
ble. The  figures  for  1940  are  approximations  based 
on  very  nearly  completed  surveys  by  the  Civil  Aer- 
onautics Administration. 


2936      1937       1938      1939      1940 

Civilian  Pilot  Certifi- 
cates (As  of  Decem- 
ber 31)  15.952  17,681  22,983  31,264  65,000 

RegistercdCivihan  Air- 
craft (As  of  Decem- 
ber 31)  ..  .  7,424  9,152  10,000  12,829  17,000 

Aircraft  Production  for 
Domestic  Civil  Use 
(During  year).  ..  3,010  3,773  2,698  3,715  6,750 


Much  of  this  progress  was  obviously  due  to  the 
Civilian  Pilot  Training  Program  directed  by  the 
Civil  Aeronautics  Authority  and  financed  by  the 
Federal  government.  But  one  must  not  lose  sight 
of  the  fact  that  a  substantial  part  was  also  due  to 
the  fact  that  Americans  in  increasing  numbers  are 
taking  the  time  and  trouble  expending  their  own 
funds  to  qualify  themselves  as  pilots.  Except  for 
the  few  hundred  per  year  who  found  their  way  into 
civil  flying  from  the  military  or  naval  services,  all 
those  qualifying  prior  to  1939  did  so  on  this  basis. 
During  1939  only  a  few  hundred  qualified  for  cer- 
tificates after  C.P.T.P.  training,  but  during  1940 
some  9000  of  the  approximate  34,000  increment  in 


certificated  pilots  was  over  and  above  the  product 
of  the  Federally-subsidized  program. 

The  Civilian  Pilot  Training  Program,  launched 
in  1939  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  6)  underwent  a 
swift  acceleration  during  1940  as  it  became  appar- 
ent that  the  United  States  must  make  every  possi- 
ble move  to  increase  its  military  assets.  Initiated  on 
an  experimental  basis  during  the  spring  of  1939 
with  an  enrollment  of  330  students  at  13  colleges, 
the  C.P.T.P.  received  $4,000,000  from  Congress 
for  the  fiscal  year  of  1941  and  launched  training 
units  at  more  than  500  colleges  and  at  70  non-col- 
lege communities.  By  July  1,  1940,  a  total  of  8327 
students  had  received  approximately  38  hours  each 
of  flying  instruction  in  light  planes  and  had  quali- 
fied for  their  Private  Pilot  Certificates. 

As  originally  conceived,  the  program  was  first  a 
means  of  stimulating  through  governmentally  fi- 
nanced education  a  phase  of  aviation  which  held 
promise  of  someday  becoming  a  major  industry; 
only  secondarily  was  the  program  considered  a 
means  of  creating  a  partly  trained  military  reserve. 
The  events  of  the  spring  of  1939  reversed  that  em- 
phasis. Congress  increased  appropriations  for  the 
program  to  $36,000,000  for  the  fiscal  year  of  1942. 
A  summer  term  of  the  program  was  launched  and 
the  primary  training  course  of  35  hours  was  tele- 
scoped from  two  academic  terms  to  one.  A  second- 
ary training  course  of  approximately  45  hours  of 
advanced  pilotage  was  set  up  to  be  conducted  in 
somewhat  larger  airplanes.  By  the  year's  end  in- 
struction units  were  in  operation  at  703  colleges 
and  202  non-college  centers.  Some  2416  aircraft 
were  in  program  use  at  586  different  airports. 
Training  was  proceeding  at  such  a  rate  that  be- 
tween July  1,  1940,  and  July  1,  1941,  no  less  than 
45,000  trainees  would  receive  their  first  38  hours 
of  preliminary  training  and  an  additional  30,000 
pilots  already  holding  at  least  a  Private  Pilot  Cer- 
tificate would  receive  some  form  of  advanced  in- 
struction Both  the  elementary  and  advanced  flying 
instruction  continued  to  be  co-related  with  exten- 
sive ground  school  classes. 

As  America  became  more  anxious  over  the  state 
of  its  defenses,  criticism  was  leveled  at  the  mili- 
tary worth  of  the  C.P.T.P.  Even  its  immediate 
sponsors  admitted  that  cadets  fully  enrolled  in  the 
military  or  naval  air  arm,  flying  comparatively 
larger  training  ships,  and  working  under  service 
instructors,  were  capable  of  more  rapid  and  im- 
mediately useful  training.  As  the  army  and  navy 
swung  additional  training  centers  into  action  it  was 
obvious  that  the  C.P.T.P.  might  well  decelerate  its 
efforts  and  the  Bureau  of  the  Budget  consequently 
recommended  only  $18,000,000.  But  as  a  means  of 
promoting  the  interest  of  college  students  and  oth- 
er persons  in  the  same  age  group  in  flight  training 
and  as  a  training  method  which  did  not  require  the 
interruption  of  a  college  career,  the  program  was 
still  unchallenged.  As  of  Dec.  1,  1940,  some  2600 
graduates  of  its  courses  had  applied  for  enrollment 
in  the  air  arms  of  the  U.S.  forces.  Five  hundred 
more  were  waiting  to  apply  and  more  than  500  in- 
structors who  had  received  valuable  experience  and 
training  in  the  C.P.T.  program  had  been  used  in 
setting  up  army  or  navy  flying  schools. 

Long  range  observers  are  already  speculating  on 
the  possibility  that  the  immense  pilot  training  pro- 
grams now  in  progress  throughout  the  world  will 
at  the  end  of  the  present  emergency  result  in  the 
daily  use  of  private-owner  aircraft  by  some  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  people.  Forecasting  on  such 
a  subject  at  this  time  is  hazardous  to  the  extreme. 


AFGHANISTAN 


AFGHANISTAN 


Terms  of  any  possible  peace  agreement,  the  future 
economic  situation  of  nations  and  continents,  and 
other  such  unpredictable  factors  might  well  act 
against  any  such  development  There  is  every  rea- 
son to  believe,  however,  that  the  availability  of 
cheaper,  more  reliable,  and  more  useful  aircraft, 
the  comparative  thoroughness  of  training,  and  the 
permanently  increased  air-consciousness  of  the  en- 
tire human  race  should  all  be  factors  in  making 
possible  a  far  greater  boom  in  private  owner  flying 
after  this  conflict  than  after  the  World  War  of 
1914-18. 

Airports.  The  swift  increase  of  all  types  of  fly- 
ing activity  in  the  United  States  and  the  certainty 
that  new  military  and  civilian  developments  would 
increase  such  activity  several-fold  in  the  near  fu- 
ture, f  ocussed  widespread  attention  upon  America's 
airport  problems.  At  more  than  20  airports,  traffic 
surveys  showed  more  than  10,000  aircraft  landings 
or  aircraft  take-offs  occurring  each  week  through- 
out the  summer  season  At  almost  200  airports  the 
intensification  of  civilian  training  and  general  fly- 
ing activities  created  serious  traffic  problems  for 
the  operators  of  scheduled  airlines  who  themselves 
were  in  the  process  of  steadily  increasing  airplane 
movements.  The  establishment  of  primary  Air 
Corps  training  centers  at  some  29  municipal  air- 
ports, provisions  for  basing  large  military  tactical 
units  at  some  40  other  municipal  airports,  and  the 
construction  of  a  number  of  huge  military  flying 
areas  in  regions  already  in  active  use  by  civilian 
aircraft,  brought  about  a  nationwide  need  for  air- 
port construction  over  and  above  that  directly  exe- 
cuted by  the  Army  and  Navy  or  carried  out  as  in 
preceding  years  by  the  Works  Progress  Adminis- 
tration. 

As  a  result,  Congress  appropriated  the  sum  of 
$40,000,000  to  implement  the  building,  extension, 
or  improvement  of  200  airports  under  the  immedi- 
ate direction  of  the  Administrator  of  Civil  Aero- 
nautics. While  airport  projects  carried  out  under 
this  program  were  subject  to  the  preliminary  ap- 
proval "as  necessary  for  national  defense"  of  a 
Board  consisting  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Navy,  and  the  Secretary  of  Com- 
merce, the  airports  selected  were  primarily  civilian 
in  nature  The  completion  of  these  projects  during 
1941  and  1942  was  expected  to  be  of  real  benefit 
in  handling  the  nation's  rapidly  growing  air  traffic 
problem,  but  it  was  felt  by  many  experts  that  the 
program  would  eventually  have  to  be  many  times 
expanded  to  effect  a  really  adequate  solution.  At 
the  end  of  the  year  there  were  a  total  of  2331  rec- 
ognized airports  or  landing  fields  throughout  the 
United  States ;  788  of  these  were  municipal ;  496 
commercial;  796  were  designated  as  intermediate 
or  auxiliary  in  character ;  21  were  owned  and  op- 
erated by  the  Navy,  69  by  the  Army,  and  134  were 
privately  owned.  Of  the  total  of  2331,  some  776 
were  partially  or  fully  lighted  for  night  operations. 

See  ACCIDENTS  ;  .COLOMBIA  under  History ;  ELEC- 
TRICAL INDUSTRIES  ;  METEOROLOGY  ;  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

DANIEL  SAYRE. 

AFGHANISTAN.  A  kingdom  in  central  Asia. 
Area,  about  251,000  square  miles ;  population,  vari- 
ously estimated  at  from  7,000,000  to  10,000,000. 
Estimated  populations  of  the  chief  towns :  Kabul 
(capital),  80,000;  Kandahar,  60,000  (with  sub- 
urbs); Herat,  50,000;  Mazar-i-Sharif,  30,000. 
Persian,  Pashto,  and  Turld  are  the  principal  lan- 
guages and  Mohammedanism  is  the  chief  religion. 
Schools  in  1940  included  130  primary,  4  secondary, 


13  military,  1  normal,  1  medical  college,  and  a  few 
technical,  art  and  commercial  schools. 

Defense.  One-eighth  of  the  male  population 
of  each  city  and  village  must  serve  in  the  army  for 
two  years.  There  is  also  a  regular  army  recruited 
by  life-long  enlistment.  The  normal  peace  strength 
of  the  army  is  60,000  men,  including  the  small  air 
force  of  100  men  with  some  European-trained  pi- 
lots The  number  of  men  under  arms  in  1940  was 
reported  at  between  150,000  and  250,000.  Numer- 
ous tribesmen  armed  with  modern  rifles  are  availa- 
ble for  service  in  time  of  war. 

Production  and  Trade.  Agriculture  and  stock 
raising  are  the  chief  occupations,  the  main  products 
being  cereals,  fruits,  vegetables,  cotton,  wool,  hides 
and  skins,  and  meat  from  the  native  fat- tailed 
sheep.  Iron,  gold,  and  lapis  lazuli  are  mined.  Oth- 
er rich  mineral  resources  remain  undeveloped. 
There  are  state-owned  factories  at  Kabul,  Kan- 
dahar and  elsewhere  for  the  manufacture  of  arms, 
ammunition,  boots,  military  clothing,  furniture, 
matches,  buttons,  leather,  and  wool  products. 

Trade  is  chiefly  with  India,  the  U.S.S.R.,  and 
Iran,  the  main  exports  being  Persian  lambskins, 
fruits,  nuts,  other  hides  and  skins,  and  vegetables. 
The  government  has  a  monopoly  of  exports  of 
lambskins  and  of  imports  of  sugar,  gasoline,  mo- 
tor vehicles  and  spare  parts  The  aggregate  value 
of  the  transit  and  direct  trade  with  India  in  the 
year  ended  Mar.  31,  1939,  was  46,400.000  rupees 
(rupee  averaged  $03328  in  1939,  $0.36&  in  1938) 
Camels  and  ponies  remain  the  chief  means  of  trans- 
portation, but  some  4000  miles  of  roads  are  passa- 
ble to  motor  traffic  in  dry  weather.  Construction  of 
an  all-weather  highway  that  would  reduce  the 
travel  time  by  motorcar  from  Kabul  via  Jalalabad 
to  Peshawar,  India,  to  seven  hours  was  under  way 
in  1940.  There  are  no  railways.  The  large  towns 
have  telephone  communications. 

Government.  Revenues  of  the  state  are  esti- 
mated at  150,000,000  Afghanis  (4  Afghanis  equal 
1  Indian  rupee)  annually.  The  government  is  a 
constitutional  monarchy,  with  legislative  power 
vested  in  a  parliament  consisting  of  the  King,  a 
senate  of  45  members  appointed  by  the  King  for 
life,  and  a  national  assembly  of  109  elected  mem- 
bers. King  Mohammed  Zahir  Shah  succeeded  to 
the  throne  Nov.  8,  1933,  upon  the  assassination  of 
his  father,  Mohammed  Nadir  Shah 

History.  The  danger  of  a  Russian  attack  upon 
Afghanistan,  that  led  the  Kabul  Government  to 
order  a  precautionary  mobilization  in  the  autumn 
of  1939  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  11),  continued  to 
keep  the  Afghan  people  in  uneasy  suspense  during 
1940.  During  January  and  February  further  con- 
sultations were  held  among  the  governments  of 
Afghanistan,  Iran,  Iraq,  and  Turkey  to  discuss 
joint  measures  of  defense  against  Soviet  and  Ger- 
man threats.  In  February  the  Afghan  Minister  to 
Turkey  was  recalled  to  Kabul  for  military  discus- 
sions. Kabul  authorities  continued  to  co-operate 
with  British-Indian  military  officials  in  curbing 
the  activities  of  the  Fakir  of  Ipi  and  other  rebel- 
lious leaders  among  the  tribes  of  the  Afghan- 
Indian  border  region.  However  German  propa- 
ganda, carried  on  by  agents  in  Afghanistan  and 
by  radio  broadcasts  in  Afghan  from  Berlin,  was 
reported  in  July  to  have  produced  a  pro-German 
tendency  among  some  Afghan  leaders,  including 
the  King's  uncle,  Minister  of  War  Sirdar  Ahmed 
Shah  Khan.  Nazi  agents  were  said  to  be  conspir- 
ing to  place  Ahmed  Shah  on  the  throne. 

Conclusion  of  an  important  trade  pact  with  the 


A.F.L. 


8 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 


Soviet  Union  was  announced  in  Kabul  July  24.  It 
was  hailed  in  Moscow  as  an  evidence  of  increased 
Soviet-Afghan  collaboration.  Afghanistan  agreed 
to  export  10,000  tons  of  wool,  75,000  caracul  skins 
and  1000  tons  of  sesame  to  the  Soviet  Union  in  re- 
turn for  specified  quantities  of  Soviet  agricultural 
implements,  sugar,  benzine,  kerosene,  etc. 

See  INDIA,  IRAN,  IRAQ,  TURKEY,  and  UNION  OF 
SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS,  under  History 

A.F.L.  See  AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR 

AFRICA.  A  continent  with  an  area  of  about 
11,696,000  square  miles  and  a  population  estimated 
at  155,500,000  on  Dec.  31,  1938.  See  the  separate 
articles  on  its  countries  and  territories,  such  as 
ALGERIA,  EGYPT,  ITALIAN  EAST  AFRICA,  KENYA, 
MOROCCO,  SOUTH  AFRICA,  UNION  OF;  TUNISIA. 

AFRICAN  CAMPAIGNS.  See  EUROPEAN 
WAR  under  Campaigns  in  Africa 

AGRICULTURAL  ADJUSTMENT  AD- 
MINISTRATION (AAA).  An  agency  in  the 
U.S  Department  of  Agriculture  operating  pro- 
grams that  carry  out  the  purposes  of  the  Soil  Con- 
servation and  Domestic  Allotment  Act,  the  Agri- 
cultural Adjustment  Act  of  1938,  the  Sugar  Act  of 
1937,  and  related  legislation 

The  programs  are  pointed  toward  maintaining 
the  Ever-Normal  Granary,  by  which  producers  and 
consumers  are  assured  of  abundant  supplies  and 
emergency  reserves  of  farm  products  at  fair  prices ; 
conserving  the  soil  resources  of  the  Nation's  indi- 
vidual farms ;  and  assisting  farmers  in  obtaining  a 
fair  share  of  the  national  income 

To  accomplish  these  purposes,  the  AAA  pro- 
gram provides  the  agricultural  conservation  pro- 
gram, under  which  payments  are  made  to  farmers 
for  complying  with  acreage  allotments  of  soil-de- 
pleting crops  and  for  carrying  out  specific  soil-im- 
proving practices;  parity  payments  to  supplement 
farm  income  when  prices  for  basic  farm  products 
are  low;  marketing  quotas  to  promote  orderly 
marketing  of  excessive  crop  supplies ;  commodity 
loans;  and  crop  insurance  on  wheat  Stored  com- 
modities serving  as  collateral  for  loans  and  wheat 
stocks  paid  as  premiums  for  insurance  make  actual 
the  Ever-Normal  Granary  principle 

The  use  of  marketing  quotas  is  subject  to  a  two- 
thirds  approval  of  farmers  voting  in  referendums , 
participation  in  the  rest  of  the  program  is  volun- 
tary It  is  estimated  that  more  than  6  million  farm- 
ers, operating  over  80  per  cent  of  the  Nation's 
cropland,  took  part  in  1940. 

Under  the  sugar  program,  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  is  required  to  estimate  annually  the 
sugar  needs  of  American  consumers  and  to  allot 
the  estimated  quantity  among  the  various  areas,  do- 
mestic and  foreign,  supplying  this  market.  It  also 
provides  for  payments  to  domestic  sugarcane  and 
sugar  beet  producers  who  qualify  under  its  provi- 
sions 

Congress  appropriated  for  1940  conservation  pay- 
ments, $438,560,000  plus  not  to  exceed  $60,000,000 
of  the  unexpended  balance  of  the  previous  year's 
appropriation;  for  parity  payments  on  cotton, 
wheat,  corn,  rice,  and  tobacco,  $225,000,000;  and 
for  payments  to  sugar  growers,  $47,975,000.  Legis- 
lation provides  for  increases  in  payments  under 
$200,  the  percentage  increase  being  larger  for  the 
smaller  payments. 

Local  committees,  elected  from  among  their  own 
number  by  co-operating  producers,  are  in  charge 
of  the  field  administration  of  all  phases  of  the 
AAA  program,  including  commodity  loans  and 
crop  insurance,  made  available  through  the  Com- 


modity Credit  Corporation  and  the  Federal  Crop 
Insurance  Corporation,  respectively  These  com- 
mittees operated  in  more  than  3000  counties  and 
24,000  communities  during  1940.  In  the  light  of  na- 
tional defense  needs,  precipitated  by  the  war  in  Eu- 
rope, this  committee  organization  assumes  added 
importance  as  a  means  of  making  immediately 
available  to  farmers  expedient  changes  in  the  pro- 
gram. 

The  1940  AAA  goal  for  soil-depleting  crops 
(such  as  corn,  wheat,  rice,  cotton,  tobacco,  pota- 
toes, and  peanuts)  was  set  at  from  270  million  to 
285  million  acres  which,  with  normal  yields,  it  was 
estimated  would  provide  ample  supplies  for  all  do- 
mestic, export,  and  reserve  requirements. 

Soil-improving  practices  included  seeding  green 
manure  and  cover  crops,  legumes,  and  grasses ;  ap- 
plying phosphate  and  other  fertilizers;  planting, 
maintaining,  and  improving  forest  trees ;  strip 
cropping;  contour  listing  or  furrowing;  contour 
farming  intertilled  crops;  terracing;  natural  re- 
seeding  of  pasture;  and  constructing  dams  and 
reservoirs. 

Three  marketing  quotas  for  1940  were  proclaimed 
by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  and  growers  ap- 
proved their  use  by  the  following  percentages: 
Cotton,  91.2  per  cent;  flue-cured  tobacco,  90  per 
cent;  burley  tobacco,  833  per  cent.  New  legisla- 
tion enabled  growers  of  flue-cured  tobacco  to  vote 
on  the  question  of  marketing  quotas  for  a  three- 
year  period  instead  of  for  one  year;  on  July  20, 
1940,  quotas  for  1941-43  were  approved  by  86  1  per 
cent  of  the  farmers  voting.  Later  in  the  year, 
farmers  voted  to  use  marketing  quotas  for  cotton 
for  1941-42  by  a  favorable  vote  of  92.3  per  cent , 
tobacco  growers  approved  quotas  for  1941-43  by 
the  following  percentages  Burley,  76  5  per  cent , 
dark  air-cured,  84.2  per  cent ,  fire-cured,  86.3  per 
cent 

Crop  loans  may  be  made  on  any  agricultural  com- 
modity ;  loans  are  mandatory  on  cotton,  corn,  and 
wheat  under  specified  conditions  of  supply  or  price. 
Loans  in  1940  for  basic  crops  were  made  at  the  fol- 
lowing rates :  Corn,  61  cents  a  bushel  in  the  com- 
mercial corn  area ,  cotton,  a  minimum  of  8  51  cents 
per  pound  for  Middling  %-inch  gross  weight  basis  , 
wheat,  an  average  of  64  cents  a  bushel ;  rye,  a 
maximum  of  38  cents  a  bushel ;  and  barley,  a  max- 
imum of  35  cents  on  the  basis  of  farm  storage. 

R  M  EVANS 

AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY  AND 
ENGINEERING,  Bureau  of.  This  bureau,  es- 
tablished in  1938  by  order  of  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture,  supersedes  two  former  bureaus.  It  has 
co-ordinated  and  continued  scientific  and  techno- 
logical research  on  agricultural  products,  formerly 
conducted  by  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  and  Soils, 
and  some  of  the  engineering  research,  formerly 
conducted  by  the  Bureau  of  Agricultural  Engineer- 
ing. The  new  bureau  was  authorized  by  the  Secre- 
tary to  administer  and  operate  the  four  regional 
research  laboratories  established  by  the  Depart- 
ment, pursuant  to  provisions  in  the  Agricultural 
Adjustment  Act  of  1938,  to  develop  new  uses  and 
wider  industrial  outlets  for  farm  products  and  by- 
products. 

Construction  and  equipping  of  the  regional  labo- 
ratories were  nearing  completion  at  the  end  of 
June,  1940  Active  research  was  expected  to  begin 
in  at  least  three  of  the  four  laboratories  early  in 
1941. 

The  Eastern  Regional  Laboratory  for  Research 


AGRICULTURAL  MARKETING 


AGRICULTURAL  MARKETING 


on  Utilization  of  Farm  Products,  at  Wyndmoor, 
Pa.,  near  Philadelphia,  is  concerned  with  promot- 
ing industrial  utilization  of  tobacco,  potatoes,  ap- 
ples, vegetables,  tanning  materials,  hides  and  skins, 
animal  fats  and  oils,  and  milk  products ;  the  North- 
ern Laboratory  at  Peoria,  111.,  is  giving  first  atten- 
tion to  corn,  wheat,  and  agricultural  residues ;  the 
Southern  Laboratory  at  New  Orleans,  to  cotton, 
sweet  potatoes,  and  peanuts;  and  the  Western 
Laboratory  at  Albany,  Calif.,  near  San  Francisco, 
to  western  fruits  and  vegetables,  potatoes,  wheat, 
alfalfa,  and  poultry  products  and  byproducts. 

New  fruit  products  developed  in  collaborative 
work  include  frozen  apple  slices  for  pies,  frozen 
fruit  purees  for  ice  cream  and  sherbets,  dehydrated 
sugared  strawberries,  clarified  strawberry  juice, 
butter  and  candied  pomace  from  strawberry  pulp, 
fresh  prune  beverage,  f ruit-and-milk  beverages  and 
improved  packed  juices  of  several  fruits. 

Hespcridin,  the  glucoside  in  orange  peel,  was 
found  to  be  non-toxic.  Cadmium  compounds  were 
found  to  have  a  toxic  effect  like  that  of  fluorine 
compounds ;  both  produce  mottling  of  teeth  and  in- 
hibit the  action  of  the  enzyme  phosphatase. 

The  principal  allergenic  constituent  of  cotton- 
seed was  isolated  and  characterized  as  a  protein- 
like  compound  not  conforming  to  any  type  in  ex- 
isting classifications  The  name  "Natural  proteose" 
was  suggested 

Improved  mechanical  equipment  was  designed 
for  use  after  a  mild  chemical  treatment  for  remov- 
ing most  of  the  water  from  sweet  potatoes  before 
drying  with  hot  air.  Dried  sweet  potato  meal  was 
found  to  be  a  good  source  of  carbohydrate  for  bal- 
ancing cottonseed  meal  in  feeding  cattle. 

As  high  as  99  5  per  cent  of  the  oil  in  ground 
tung  nut  kernels  was  extracted  by  solvent  alone, 
without  regrinding 

An  application  was  filed  for  a  public  service  pat- 
ent on  a  process  for  making  plastics  from  hemicel- 
luloses  and  phenols;  patents  were  procured  on 
processes  for  preparing  a  plastic  from  lignin  and 
alkyd  resins  from  lactic  acid 

Rosin  soap  solutions  were  found  to  be  more  ac- 
tive as  germicides  against  Staplulococcus  aurcus 
than  were  solutions  of  soaps  made  from  natural 
fats  and  oils. 

A  formerly  unknown  biological  activity  of  bac- 
teria, the  production  of  2-ketogluconic  acid,  was 
discovered ;  the  bacterium  was  isolated 

In  studies  on  farm  structures,  it  was  found  that 
grass  silage  exerts  greater  pressure  on  silo  walls 
than  does  corn  silage,  that  low  temperatures  help 
to  preserve  wheat  in  storage,  and  that  wind-pres- 
sure ventilators  on  grain  bins  reduce  moisture  con- 
tent. 

HENRY  G.  KNIGHT 

AGRICULTURAL  MARKETING  SERV- 
ICE. The  Agricultural  Marketing  Service,  estab- 
lished July,  1939,  as  an  agency  of  the  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  continued  to  emphasize  mar- 
keting service  and  regulatory  work  during  the  1940 
fiscal  year.  Approximately  300  co-operative  agree- 
ments were  in  effect  with  State  Departments  of 
agriculture,  State  agricultural  colleges,  and  other 
agencies. 

Agricultural  Statistics.  In  the  issuance  of  sta- 
tistical reports,  over  9  million  questionnaires  of 
various  types  were  mailed  to  800,000  voluntary  re- 
porters during  the  year,  and  the  information  fur- 
nished became  the  basis  for  over  5000  separate  re- 
ports that  were  mailed  to  almost  11  million  indi- 


viduals. The  reports  issued  contained  information 
on  the  acreage,  yield,  production,  farm  utilization, 
and  sales  of  more  than  100  crops ;  on  numbers  of 
livestock  on  farms;  on  milk  and  egg  production 
and  consumption;  on  prices  paid  and  received  by 
farmers ;  on  wages  of  farm  labor  and  on  the  num- 
ber of  farm  workers  employed;  on  the  rail,  ex- 
press, boat,  and  truck  movement  of  farm  com- 
modities; on  the  utilization  and  stocks  of  most 
major  farm  products,  and  on  cotton  by  grade  and 
staple  lengths.  Research  went  forward  on  acreage 
estimates,  soil  moisture,  crop-weather  relationships, 
farm  labor,  and  farm-product  prices. 

Market  News.  Information  on  the  movement, 
supplies,  quality,  and  prices  of  all  major  farm  com- 
modities was  obtained  at  terminal  markets,  ship- 
ping points,  and  producing  sections  and  was  rapidly 
and  widely  disseminated  to  markets  throughout  the 
country  by  means  of  an  extensive  leased  wire  sys- 
tem. The  market  news  was  further  distributed 
through  trade  and  farm  publications  and  by  com- 
mercial and  financial  institutions  A  new  high  rec- 
ord was  set  in  1940  with  400  radio  stations  regu- 
larly broadcasting  market  news  one  or  more  times 
daily. 

Special  emphasis  was  placed  on  the  dissemination 
of  fruit  and  vegetable  market  news  in  1940  A 
broadcast  from  New  York  City,  going  on  the  air 
at  6  30  each  weekday  morning,  was  very  helpful 
to  nearby  growers  who  sell  to  farm-to-farm  buy- 
ers. Consumer  broadcasts  developed  during  the 
year  stressed  the  products  in  heavy  supply  or  new 
products  on  the  market.  Such  broadcasts  were  pre- 
pared by  market  news  offices  in  several  cities,  in- 
cluding Cincinnati,  Boston,  Cleveland,  and  Kansas 
City. 

A  new  livestock  market  news  office  was  opened 
at  Peoria,  111.  The  coverage  of  tobacco  markets 
was  greatly  improved ;  and  it  is  thought  that  more 
farmers  received  usable  price  quotations  on  cotton 
in  1940  than  ever  before  in  the  history  of  the  cot- 
ton industry 

Standards  for  Quality  of  Farm  Products. 
Standards  of  quality  were  already  established  for 
grain,  cotton,  tobacco,  livestock,  meats,  57  of  the 
fruits  and  vegetables,  and  for  most  of  the  other 
farm  products.  During  1940,  additional  quality 
standards  were  developed  for  shelled  and  unshelled 
walnuts,  sweet  cherries  for  sulphur  brining,  pears, 
canned  blackberries,  canned  freestone  peaches, 
canned  red  raspberries,  dried  prunes,  and  frozen 
lima  beans.  Grades  were  revised  for  canned  apples, 
asparagus,  beets,  carrots,  red  sour  pitted  cherries, 
sweet  cherries,  grapefruit  juice,  yellow  clingstone 
peaches,  pears,  and  plums. 

Official  standards  for  soybeans  became  effective 
under  the  U.S.  Gram  Standards  Act,  Nov.  20, 
1940.  Also,  rather  drastic  changes  were  made  in 
the  standards  for  American-Egyptian  cotton  be- 
cause the  old  standards  had  been  rendered  obsolete 
by  the  production  of  a  new  variety  and  by  other 
changes  in  the  crop.  Revised  standards  for  wool 
top,  which  became  effective  Jan.  1,  1940,  include 
13  grades,  8  of  which  are  on  a  specification  basis 

Almost  56,000  farmers  and  farm  boys  were 
reached  through  demonstrations,  meetings,  and 
farm  visits,  aimed  at  showing  proper  methods  of 
preparing  tobacco  for  market.  Short  courses  on 
tobacco  grades  were  held  at  seven  agricultural  col- 
leges. Officials  of  the  Service  demonstrated  the  ap- 
plication of  the  official  grain  standards  and  dis- 
cussed grain  quality  at  154  meetings  in  23  States. 
Approximately  8500  grain  producers,  grain  deal- 


AGRICULTURAL  MARKETING 


10 


AGRICULTURE 


ers,  county  agricultural  agents,  and  high  school 
agricultural  teachers  attended  these  meetings.  It  is 
estimated  that  25,000  people  attended  livestock 
grading  demonstrations  in  1940. 

Inspection,  Classification,  and  Grading.  The 
services  of  Federal  or  Federal-State  inspectors, 
classers,  or  graders  were  available  for  most  stand- 
ardized farm  products  in  the  principal  producing 
areas,  receiving  centers,  or  in  other  convenient  lo- 
calities. 

One  of  the  most  significant  developments  in  this 
line  of  work  during  the  past  three  years  has  been 
the  free  classification  and  market  news  services  for 
members  of  cotton  improvement  groups.  During 
the  first  season  the  plan  was  in  operation — in  1938 
— 18,589  grower  members  of  311  improvement 
groups  became  eligible  for  the  services.  For  the 
current  1940-41  season,  the  number  of  approved 
groups  exceeds  1570,  with  a  membership  of  over 
128,000  and  a  combined  acreage  of  4,108,500.  By 
late  December,  1940,  samples  representing  nearly 
1,500,000  bales  had  been  classed  for  eligible  grow- 
ers. The  class  on  any  of  these  bales  is  acceptable 
for  Government  loan  purposes. 

Material  expansion  was  made  in  work  under  the 
Tobacco  Inspection  Act.  Seven  additional  markets 
were  designated  for  free  and  mandatory  inspection, 
and  the  inspections  increased  from  255,231,000  Ib. 
during  the  1939  fiscal  year  to  489,310,000  Ib.  the 
past  year. 

Inauguration  of  the  "continuous  inspection  serv- 
ice" on  canned  fruits  and  vegetables  blazed  a  new 
trail  in  grade  labeling.  Under  this  service,  such 
lots  as  are  sold  by  the  canner  for  labeling  in  terms 
of  the  United  States  grades  bear  the  grade  state- 
ment incorporated  in  the  shield  insignia  authorized 
for  that  purpose.  The  new  service  is  on  an  experi- 
mental basis  at  the  present  time.  Only  canned  prod- 
ucts packed  under  the  continuous  observation  of 
trained  inspectors  can  carry  the  prefix  "U  S."  in 
connection  with  the  grade  designation.  When  the 
grade  is  indicated  on  the  label,  such  as  "U  S.  Grade 
A  (Fancy),"  it  is  accompanied  by  the  statement, 
"This  product  was  packed  under  the  continuous 
inspection  of  the  Agricultural  Marketing  Service, 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  the  above 
grade  officially  certified  " 

Other  commodities  whose  quality  can  be  readily 
identified  by  the  individual  homemaker  under  cer- 
tain conditions  because  of  the  device,  or  stamp,  or 
certificate,  or  other  visual  indication  of  grade  in- 
clude beef,  veal,  lamb,  poultry,  eggs,  butter,  cheese, 
rice,  honey,  and  certain  fresh,  canned  and  frozen 
fruits  and  vegetables. 

During  the  1940  fiscal  year,  463,886  cars  or  car- 
lot  equivalents  of  fresh  fruits  and  vegetables  were 
inspected  at  shipping  points  and  47,256  cars  were 
inspected  at  receiving  markets  Approximately  642 
million  pounds  of  meat  and  meat  products  were 
graded,  of  which  about  547  million  pounds  were 
beef.  The  quantity  of  dressed  poultry  inspected  for 
condition  and  wholesomeness  at  plants  where  full- 
drawn  poultry  is  prepared  increased  by  half,  and 
the  volume  of  turkeys  graded  about  doubled.  The 
Federal-State  egg-grading  program  was  further 
extended,  notably  in  Michigan  and  Virginia.  A 
total  of  1,174,933  inspections  of  grain  were  made, 
covering  1,877,000,000  bu. 

Regulatory  Work.  In  its  service  and  regula- 
tory work,  the  Agricultural  Marketing  Service  ad- 
ministered 20  specific  Acts  of  Congress  in  addition 
to  the  authority  granted  by  the  annual  appropri- 
ation act.  Administration  of  the  Insecticide  Act 


and  the  Naval  Stores  Act  was  transferred  to  the 
Agricultural  Marketing  Service  from  the  Food 
and  Drug  Administration  in  July,  1940.  The  Fed- 
eral Seed  Act,  passed  by  Congress  during  the  year, 
became  effective  for  imported  seed  and  agricultural 
seed  in  interstate  commerce  on  Feb.  5,  1940,  and 
for  vegetable  seed  in  interstate  commerce  on  Aug. 
9,  1940.  The  Service  co-operated  with  State 
agencies  and  members  of  the  seed  industry  in  the 
framing  of  a  uniform  State  seed  law  aimed  at 
facilitating  the  enforcement  of  the  Federal  Seed 
Act. 

At  the  end  of  the  1940  fiscal  year,  20,750  licenses 
were  in  effect  under  the  Perishable  Agricultural 
Commodities  Act,  a  statute  that  makes  nine  prac- 
tices unlawful  in  the  interstate  marketing  of  fruits 
and  vegetables.  During  the  year  2168  complaints 
were  filed.  Informal  amicable  settlements  were  ef- 
fected in  782  cases  involving  payments  of  $277,000 ; 
and  203  formal  orders  of  the  Secretary  were  is- 
sued, of  which  165  awarded  reparations  totaling 
$72,000.  One  license  was  revoked ;  5  licenses  were 
conditionally  suspended ;  and  36  licenses  were  auto- 
matically suspended  by  operation  of  the  Act  through 
failure  to  pay  reparations  as  ordered 

In  the  enforcement  of  the  two  Standard  Con- 
tainer Acts  in  1940,  123  manufacturers  were  in- 
volved in  166  instances  of  technical  violation,  91 
of  which  had  been  corrected  when  the  year  closed 
Enforcement  of  these  statutes  involved  the  re- 
moval of  232,763  non-standard  containers  from  the 
channels  of  the  fruit  and  vegetable  trade. 

Approximately  200  posted  stockyards  operated 
under  the  Packers  and  Stockyards  Act  in  1940. 
Sixteen  poultry  markets  were  designated  under  the 
Act,  and  there  were  1781  licenses  in  effect  The 
capacity  of  licensed  warehouse  space  set  a  new 
record  with  facilities  for  10,048,500  bales  of  cotton 
and  187,745,000  bu.  of  grain. 

Marketing  Research.  Various  fields  of  mar- 
keting were  explored  in  1940  to  learn  more  about 
the  special  problems  that  complicate  the  distribu- 
tion of  farm  products 

Cotton  mill  requirements  and  preferences  were 
analyzed,  and  the  first  full  year  of  research  in  cot- 
ton packaging  was  completed.  An  analysis  of  gin 
packaging,  transportation,  storing,  and  handling  of 
bales  in  marketing  channels  indicated  that  a  500- 
Ib.  bale  with  a  density  of  about  25  Ib  has  advan- 
tages over  other  bales  in  commercial  channels 
Work  is  in  progress  on  the  development  of  a  me- 
chanical device  for  automatically  sampling  cotton 
at  the  gin.  Spinning  tests  have  thrown  light  on  the 
utility  of  new  cotton  varieties. 

Research  in  wool  shrinkage  went  ahead  in  1940 
in  an  effort  to  develop  a  reliable  method  for  ascer- 
taining the  clean-wool  content  of  grease  wool  be- 
fore either  the  entire  clip  or  a  large  sample  has 
been  scoured 

To  an  increasing  extent,  the  Service  was  en- 
deavoring to  bring  about  more  efficient  operation 
of  receiving  markets.  During  1940,  a  survey  of 
New  York  City's  wholesale  fruit  and  vegetable 
markets  was  made  in  co-operation  with  the  Bureau 
of  Agricultural  Economics.  The  study  showed  that 
a  new  market  to  replace  outmoded  facilities  would 
save  growers,  distributors,  and  consumers  large 
sums  of  money  every  year. 

CLARENCE  W.  KITCHEN. 

AGRICULTURE.  Agriculture  in  the  United 
States  in  1940  was  co-operating  to  the  fullest  ex- 
tent in  the  defense  program,  although  faced  with 


AGRICULTURE 


11 


AGRICULTURE 


new  difficulties  caused  by  the  war.  The  farming 
industry,  through  State,  Federal,  and  local  co- 
operation, was  maintaining  its  output  for  all  re- 
quirements, adjusting  the  crops  to  changing  de- 
mands, conserving  soil,  and  mobilizing  human  and 
material  resources  for  the  general  welfare.  The 
cash  farm  income  including  Government  payments 
was  more  than  $452,000,000  above  that  of  1939 
and  the  second  largest  since  1929.  Crop  production, 
on  fewer  acres  but  responding  with  high  yields  per 
acre  to  a  generally  favorable  season,  improved 
practices,  and  light  losses  from  pests,  was  larger 
than  in  any  recent  year  except  1937,  and  was  well 
distributed  with  few  bumper  crops.  Supplies  of 
foods,  feeds,  and  fibers  were  enough  for  current 
needs  plus  carryovers.  Prices  received  by  farmers 
were  tending  to  rise,  although  part  of  the  increase 
might  be  offset  by  higher  production  costs.  Im- 
portant trends  during  the  year  included  a  slight 
gain  in  values  of  farm  real  estate;  a  decline  in 
volume  of  farm-mortgage  debt  to  the  lowest  level 
in  22  years — but  with  increased  financing  through 
the  Farm  Credit  Administration;  adequate  credit 
on  increasingly  favorable  terms ;  a  gain  in  volume 
of  short-term  loans;  the  largest  farm  population 
since  the  record  of  1916;  increased  expenditures 
for  farm  machinery ;  higher  costs  for  building  ma- 
terials and  certain  other  supplies ;  and  rising  wages 
for  farm  labor  Agricultural  exports  had  shrunken 
and  continued  to  decline  as  continental  European 
markets  were  cut  off  by  war  blockades,  whereas 
domestic  markets  had  expanded  and  increase  in 
demand  in  1941  was  prospective.  Substantial  gains 
were  registered  for  both  competing  and  comple- 
mentary agricultural  imports 

Major  problems  of  agriculture  were  being  at- 
tacked by  the  agricultural  adjustment  program 
with  its  provisions  for  soil  conservation,  for  bene- 
fit payments  to  farmers,  and  for  commodity  loans 
and  storage  in  the  ever-normal  granary;  crop  in- 
surance; land-use  reorganization  efforts;  surplus 
storage  and  disposal  plans ;  systems  of  marketing 
quotas  and  agreements ;  efforts  directed  at  expand- 
ing of  domestic  and  foreign  markets  for  farm 
commodities;  farm  credit  on  easy  terms;  rural 
electrification ;  and  by  research  of  the  State  experi- 
ment stations  and  bureaus  of  the  U  S  Department 
of  Agriculture,  and  the  activities  of  the  extension 
services  Definite  efforts  were  being  made  to  dis- 
tribute the  beneficial  effects  and  to  cushion  or  mini- 
mize possible  adverse  effects  of  important  techno- 
logical developments  during  the  last  20  years  in 
the  production  and  distribution  of  farm  products 
Aids  for  needy  farmers  comprised  the  rehabilita- 
tion of  low-income  families  through  loans  and 
guidance;  improvement  of  tenure;  debt  adjust- 
ments and  live-at-home  efforts;  community  and 
co-operative  services  including  medical  care ;  emer- 
gency grants  in  drought  and  flood  areas;  work 
grants  to  the  destitute;  the  tenant  farm  purchase 
program ;  several  types  of  homestead  projects ;  and 
camps  for  migrant  farm  labor.  A  number  of  these 
and  other  significant  trends  and  problems  of  the 
farming  industry  are  elaborated  in  the  following 
pages  ( See  also  sections  on  Agriculture  under  the 
States ;  sections  on  Production  under  foreign  coun- 
tries ;  separate  articles  on  leading  crops,  as  CORN, 
COTTON,  TOBACCO,  WHEAT;  CO-OPERATIVE  MOVE- 
MENT ;  DAIRYING  ;  ENTOMOLOGY,  ECONOMIC  ;  FARM 
MACHINERY  AND  EQUIPMENT  •  FERTILIZERS  ;  FOR- 
ESTRY ;  HORTICULTURE  ;  LIVESTOCK  ;  METEOROLOGY  ; 
POULTRY.  For  government  activities  in  the  field  of 
agriculture,  see  the  agencies  listed  under  AGRICUL- 


TURE, U.S.  DEPARTMENT  OF,  and  UNITED  STATES 
under  Legislation.) 

Agricultural  Situation.  Farm  Income.  The 
cash  farm  income  for  1940  was  estimated  by  the 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  at  about  $9,119,- 
903,000  (1939,  $8,668,434,000),  which  would  in- 
clude $8,354,104,000  (1939,  $7,861,369,000)  from 
marketings  and  commodities  placed  under  loan  and 
$765,799,000  (1939,  $807,065,000)  government  pay- 
ments. A  gross  farm  income  of  about  $10,469,903,- 
000  (1939.  $9,897,434,000)  was  indicated  when  the 
farm  value  of  products  retained  for  home  con- 
sumption $1,250,000,000  (1939,  $1,229,000,000)  was 
considered.  The  cash  income  from  all  crops  $3,535,- 
712,000  (1939,  $3,371,701,000)  included  grains 
$1,018,150,000  (1939,  $913,787,000);  cotton  and 
cottonseed  $659,835,000  (1939,  $628,575,000) ;  to- 
bacco $240,639,000  ( 1939,  $268,597,000) ,  vegetables 
$624,422,000  (1939,  $588,168,000)  ;  and  fruits  and 
nuts  $441 ,237,000  (1939,  $445,043,000)  ;  and  from 
all  livestock  and  livestock  products  $4,818,392,000 
(1939,  $4,489,668,000)  including  meat  animals 
$2,427,181,000  (1939,  $2,276,076,000)  ;  dairy  prod- 
ucts $1,501,126,000  (1939,  $1,355,067,000)  ;  poultry 
and  eggs  $727,732,000  (1939,  $718,215,000);  and 
wool  $109,339,000  (1939,  $84,324,000)  Cash  in- 
come from  farm  marketings  averaged  $1370  per 
farm  and  government  payments  $126  per  farm  in 
1940.  The  largest  increases  in  cash  farm  income 
from  1939  to  1940  were  in  the  hard  spring  wheat 
area  and  in  the  Corn  Belt,  where  above-average 
yields  of  crops  were  accompanied  by  increased  in- 
come from  livestock  and  livestock  products.  The 
declines  in  income  were  in  those  southeastern 
States  where  production  of  cotton  or  tobacco  was 
reduced  sharply  in  1940  and  in  Florida,  where  a 
severe  freeze  reduced  sales  of  crops  and  fruits. 

Farm  Real  Estate.  Values  of  farm  real  estate 
during  the  year  ended  Mar.  1,  1940,  rose  one  point 
reaching  an  index  of  average  values  per  acre  of 
85  per  cent  of  the  1912-14  level  compared  with  84 
in  1939  and  85  in  1937  and  1938,  and  yet  about  15 
per  cent  above  the  1933  low  of  73.  The  increase 
during  the  year  reflected  in  part  an  increase  in 
prices  of  farm  products  and  the  generally  higher 
level  of  farm  cash  income  in  1939.  The  average 
per-acre  value  continued  upward  in  all  groups  of 
States,  except  the  West  North  Central  region, 
which  showed  a  1  per  cent  decline  to  67  per  cent 
in  1940.  The  largest  average  gains  were  in  the  East 
South  Central  group,  3  per  cent  to  112,  and  West 
South  Central,  2  per  cent  to  99  Farm  real  estate 
holdings  by  leading  groups  of  lending  agencies 
were  reported  to  total  $1,012,963,000  as  of  Jan.  1, 
1940,  slightly  below  holdings  on  Jan  1,  1939,  and 
largest  holdings  were  by  life  insurance  companies, 
amounting  to  $700,530,000  The  number  of  farms 
in  the  United  States  on  Apr.  1,  1940,  as  reported 
by  the  U  S.  Bureau  of  the  Census  totaled  6,096,- 
789  (1930, 6,288,648)  ;  land  acreage  in  farms,  1,060,- 
507,355  acres  (1930,  986,771,016  acres)  ;  and  the 
valuation  of  land  and  buildings  $33,644.263,247 
(1930,  $47,879,838,358).  The  frequency  of  distress 
transfers  of  farm  real  estate,  1936-39,  resulting 
from  mortgage  debt  difficulties  was  found  by  the 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  to  have  declined 
to  new  low  levels,  while  the  frequency  of  volun- 
tary sales  was  at  higher  levels  than  those  prevail- 
ing in  the  1926-30  period.  Farmer  bankruptcies 
were  reported  in  1940  to  have  totaled  1422  during 
the  year  ended  June  30,  1939,  3.2  per  cent  of  all 
bankruptcies,  as  compared  with  1799  in  1938,  2479 
in  1937,  and  5917  in  1933. 


AGRICULTURE 


12 


AGRICULTURE 


Taxes.  Taxes  on  farm  real  estate  in  1939,  ac- 
cording to  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
rose  about  2  per  cent  over  taxes  levied  in  1938,  the 
fourth  time  in  5  years  that  for  the  country  as  a 
whole  small  increases  had  appeared.  The  index  of 
taxes  per  acre  for  the  United  States  on  a  1909-13 
base  stood  at  190  in  1939  compared  with  186  in 
1938,  178  in  1934,  281  in  1929,  and  244  in  1920. 
Taxes  per  $100  of  farm  real  estate  value  averaged 
$1.16  in  both  1938  and  1939  compared  with  $1.13 
in  1936,  the  lowest  since  1926.  For  most  States, 
changes  in  taxes  per  acre  between  1938  and  1939 
again  were  very  small,  and  few  of  the  fluctuations 
in  the  State  series  could  be  attributed  to  important 
changes  in  property-tax  laws,  as  in  some  recent 
years.  Current  information  was  that  little  change 
in  the  average  levies  on  farm  real  estate  would  be 
expected  between  1939  and  1940. 

Farm  Credit.  That  a  somewhat  larger  volume 
of  credit  was  used  by  farmers  in  1940  than  in  1939 
was  reported  by  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. There  was  an  increase  in  the  volume  of  loans 
made  by  agencies  supervised  by  the  Farm  Credit 
Administration,  and  interest  on  all  types  of  loans 
through  this  administration  continued  at  low  levels. 
Debt  secured  by  hens  on  farm  real  estate  in  the 
United  States  on  Jan.  1,  1940,  was  estimated  by  the 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  at  $6,909,799,000, 
the  smallest  amount  outstanding  at  any  time  since 
1919,  2.3  per  cent  below  the  $7,070,896,000  on  Jan. 
1,  1939,  and  about  64  per  cent  of  the  peak  of  $10,- 
786,000,000  on  Jan.  1, 1923  Declines  in  farm-mort- 
gage debt  during  1939  were  the  most  marked  in  the 
West  North  Central  States  and  increases  were 
most  evident  in  the  New  England  and  East  South 
Central  regions.  Factors  contributing  to  further 
decline  in  debt  included  principal  repayments  con- 
sequent upon  the  better  income  position  of  fanners, 
lower  interest  rates  and,  to  a  decreasing  extent, 
foreclosures  and  other  forced  sales  Factors  mak- 
ing for  increase  in  debt  showed  little  change  as 
compared  with  previous  years. 

The  total  amount  of  farm  mortgage  loans  made 
in  the  1940  fiscal  year  was  slightly  larger  than  in 
1939  and  the  Federal  land  banks,  the  insurance 
companies,  and  commercial  banks  were  more  ac- 
tive in  this  field  than  individual  creditors  Farm 
mortgage  debt  outstanding  in  1940  held  by  Federal 
Land  Banks  and  Land  Bank  Commissioner  totaled 
$2,525,714,000  (Oct.  1,  1940) ;  by  life  insurance 
companies  (Jan.  1,  1940)  $883,414,000;  commercial 
banks  $543,341,000  (July  1) ;  joint  stock  land  banks 
$51,722,000  (October  1)  and  Farm  Security  Ad- 
ministration tenant  purchase  and  development  $60,- 
836,000,  and  farmstead  improvement  construction 
$7,269,000  (October  1). 

The  volume  of  personal  and  collateral  loans  to 
farmers  held  by  commercial  banks  tended  to  fol- 
low the  movement  of  farm-commodity  prices,  al- 
though loans  lagged  behind  prices.  Loans  by  Fed- 
eral agencies,  similar  in  character  to  such  personal 
and  collateral  loans  had  not  increased  substantially 
since  1934,  while  a  large  increase  had  taken  place, 
however,  in  emergency  crop  and  feed,  rehabilita- 
tion, and  commodity  stabilization  loans.  Short  term 
loans  to  farmers  held  by  selected  lending  agencies 
comprised  those  by  commercial  banks  $1,183,846,- 
000  (July  1)  in  1940  versus  $1,193,466,000  in  1939 ; 
and  Federal  agencies  (October  1),  including  inter- 
mediate credit  banks,  $40,902,000  versus  $37.645,- 
000;  production  credit  associations  $194,558,000 
versus  $174,032,000;  regional  agricultural  credit 
corporations  $7,010,000  versus  $9,127,000;  emer- 


gency crop  loans  $126,522,000  versus  $122,163,000; 
drought  relief  loans  $51,384,000  versus  $53,504,- 
000;  Farm  Security  Administration  $319,997,000 
versus  $280,271,000;  and  Commodity  Credit  Cor- 
poration $274,726,000  versus  $191,379,000.  See  also 
FARM  CREDIT  ADMINISTRATION;  FARM  SECURITY 
ADMINISTRATION  ;  AGRICULTURAL  ADJUSTMENT 
ADMINISTRATION;  COMMODITY  CREDIT  CORPORA- 
TION; ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER. 

Prices.  Local  market  prices  of  agricultural  com- 
modities averaged  98  per  cent  of  the  August, 
1909-July,  1914  (prewar),  average  during  1940 
versus  93  in  1939.  Although  holding  most  of  the 
gains  made  in  September,  1939,  when  prices  in- 
creased sharply  with  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  in 
Europe,  the  price  index  for  all  farm  products  de- 
clined from  101  in  February  to  a  low  point  for  the 
year  of  95  in  June  and  July.  From  then  on,  it  rose 
steadily  and  ended  the  year  at  101  per  cent  Prices 
received  by  farmers  during  1940  averaged  higher 
than  in  1939  for  all  groups  of  commodities,  except 
meat  animals.  Compared  with  1939,  truck  crop 
prices  averaged  14  points  higher ;  grains  13 ;  dairy 
products  9  points ;  cotton  and  cottonseed  prices  8 ; 
and  fruit,  chickens,  and  eggs  each  2  points  higher, 
while  meat  animal  prices  at  108  per  cent  of  the 
prewar  level  were  3  points  lower 

The  average  prices  received  by  producers  Dec 
15,  1940,  based  on  reports  to  the  U  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  with  preliminary  seasonal  average 
prices  for  crops  in  parentheses,  were  estimated  for 
wheat  71  5  cents  (67.0)  per  bu,  corn  545  (624), 
oats  323  (29  1),  barley  41.6  (38.7),  rye  41.3  (406). 
flaxseed  $141  ($1.341),  soybeans  81  (758),  rice 
(rough)  763  (702),  potatoes  549  (56.4),  sweet 
potatoes  801  (844),  apples  86  (807)  cents  per 
bu.,  tobacco  15.0  (165),  cotton  9.33  (940)  cents 
per  Ib ,  and  cottonseed  $24  08  ($21  48)  and  hay 
$7.53  per  ton.  Beef  cattle  sold  for  $7.56  per  100 
Ib.,  hogs  for  $5.59,  veal  calves  $9.01,  lambs  $788( 
and  sheep  $3  99.  Eggs  brought  26  8  cents  per  doz- 
en, butter  30.5  cents  per  Ib.,  and  whole  milk  whole- 
saled at  $207  per  100  Ib.  Wool  sold  for  31.2  cents 
per  Ib.  and  live  chickens  13.0  cents.  Milk  cows 
brought  $63.10  each,  horses  $6910,  and  mules' 
$87.30.  The  corn-hog  ratio  (number  of  bu.  equal  in 
value  to  100  Ib  of  hogs)  was  10.3  versus  10  in 
December,  1939,  and  11  9  the  1909-14  average.  The 
ratio  of  prices  received  to  prices  paid  by  farmers 
rose  from  79  in  December,  1939,  to  83  in  Decem- 
ber, 1940. 

Foreign  Trade  in  Farm  Products.  The  agri- 
cultural foreign  trade  of  the  United  States  during 
the  year  ended  June  30, 1940,  as  viewed  by  the  U  S 
Department  of  Agriculture  was  featured  by  cross 
currents  For  exports,  excluding  cotton,  there  was 
a  decline  in  value  of  22  per  cent,  while  cotton  ex- 
ports, responding  to  extraordinary  circumstances, 
nearly  doubled  their  value  had  in  193&-39.  The 
gain  in  cotton  raised  the  total  value  of  all  agricul- 
tural exports  8  per  cent  above  1938-39  Consider- 
ing imports,  the  193<MO  trade  in  products  similar 
in  type  to  those  produced  in  the  United  States  was 
17  per  cent  larger  than  in  1938-39,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence, the  ratio  of  farm  imports  to  farm  exports 
rose.  Imports  of  complementary  (noncompetitrve) 
items  rose  30  per  cent.  The  European  War  and 
measures  taken  to  prepare  for  it  were  major  fac- 
tors influencing  international  trade  in  193SMO  and 
other  recent  years.  To  place  their  national  econo- 
mies on  a  war  basis,  a  number  of  foreign  govern- 
ments restricted  imports  or  bought^  them  from 
sources  expected  to  be  accessible  in  wartimes, 


AGRICULTURE 


13 


AGRICULTURE 


which  curtailed  trade,  and  created  war  industries 
requiring  large  supplies  of  imported  raw  materials, 
which  m  general  expanded  trade.  United  States 
agricultural  exports  were  influenced  primarily  by 
the  restrictive  measures  Imports  were  affected  to 
the  extent  that  American  industry  responded  to 
war  stimuli  supplied  either  by  domestic  policy  or 
by  foreign-buying  programs. 

The  exports  of  farm  products  from  the  United 
States,  exclusive  of  forest  products,  rose  in  value 
to  $739,571,000  during  1939-40,  as  compared  with 
$682,962,000  during  1938-39.  As  a  result  of  trade- 
restrictive  effects  of  the  war,  agricultural  products 
formed  a  smaller  proportion  of  total  United  States 
exports  than  ever  before  in  history,  20  per  cent 
compared  to  24  in  1938-39  The  indexes  of  quantity 
indicated  that  all  major  groups  of  these  exports, 
except  cotton  and  lintcrs  and  lard  were  lower  for 
1939-40  than  for  1938-39  Cotton  exports  were 
$169,936,000  higher  in  value  than  in  1938-39  while 
exports  of  other  agricultural  products  declined 
$111,327,000.  There  was  a  decline  of  $58,247,000  in 
grain  and  grain  products,  $79,204,000  in  tobacco, 
$27,886,000  in  fruits,  and  smaller  declines  in  feed 
and  fodder  and  pork  and  lard  exports  Gains  were 
made  in  certain  other  agricultural  products  espe- 
cially soybeans  and  fresh  pork.  The  volume  index 
was  72  per  cent  of  prewar,  compared  with  63  in 
1938-39 ;  79  in  1937-38 ,  56  in  1936-37 ;  83  per  cent 
,m  1933-34;  and  with  136  in  1926-27.  Exports  of 
farm  products  continued  to  decrease  during  the 
latter  months  of  calendar  1940  largely  because  of 
progressive  closure  of  foreign  markets  due  to  the 
spread  of  the  European  War  and  various  trade 
controls  Total  exports  of  farm  products  were  not 
likely  to  show  any  substantial  improvement  as  long 
as  the  war  continued 

Imports  of  farm  products  into  the  United  States 
during  1939-40  were  valued  at  $1,239,389,000,  an 
Advance  of  24  per  cent  from  1938-39,  which  to- 
taled $998,648,000  and  compared  with  $1,155,136,- 
000  in  1937-38,  $1,536,695,000  in  1935-36,  and 
$614,000,000  in  1932-33,  the  low  point  of  the  de- 
pression. The  supplementary  agricultural  imports 
in  1939-40,  $571,346,000,  were  about  $85,181,000 
more  than  m  1938-39,  a  17  per  cent  rise  expected 
in  view  of  the  improvement  in  domestic  economic 
activity  This  17  per  cent  rise  included  increases 
of  $29,000,000  in  imports  of  sugar,  $22,000,000  in 
imports  of  wool  for  clothing  and  other  uses  except 
carpets,  $7,000,000  in  hides  and  skins,  $6,000,000  in 
-feeds,  and  $6,000,000  in  vegetable  oils.  Imports  of 
pork  decreased  by  $9,000,000  and  of  flaxseed  by 
$5,000,000.  The  complementary  group  of  agricul- 
tural imports,  consisting  largely  (about  95  per  cent) 
of  rubber,  coffee,  silk,  coarse  wool  for  carpets, 
bananas,  cocoa,  tea,  and  spices,  during  1939-40 
were  30  per  cent  above  the  level  of  1938-39.  The 
principal  increases  were  in  rubber  and  silk.  Agri- 
cultural imports  made  up  about  50.6  per  cent  of  all 
imports,  $571,346,000  being  supplementary  (com- 
petitive) items,  and  $668,043,000  non-competitive. 
Consult  TRADE,  FOREIGN.  Aspects  of  and  factors 
involved  in  foreign  trade  in  farm  products  were 
discussed  in  the  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture for  1940,  pp.  1-3,  14-16,  21-27,  31-34,  114- 
132  and  in  Foreign  Crops  and  Markets  41  (1940) 
pp.  296-328  (Sept.  5,  1940),  pp.  926-956  (Dec  18, 
1940),  all  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Population.  The  farm  population  in  the  United 
States,  estimated  by  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture to  total  32,245,000  on  Jan.  1,  1940,  com- 
pared with  32,059,000  a  year  before,  was  the  larg- 


est since  the  record  of  32,530,000  in  1916.  Move- 
ment to  farms  totaled  805,000  and  to  cities  1,063,- 
000,  but  the  net  loss  by  migration  258,000  was  more 
than  offset  by  the  surplus  of  births  over  deaths. 
Largest  increases  in  farm  population  in  the  last 
decade  were  in  the  Southeastern  and  Pacific  Coast 
States  and  decreases  were  noted  in  areas  most  se- 
verely affected  by  drought,  especially  in  the  West 
North  Central  States. 

Outlook.  The  outlook  for  1941  as  observed  late 
in  1940  included  prospects  for  continued  improve- 
ment in  the  domestic  demand  for  farm  products, 
smaller  agricultural  exports,  a  higher  general  av- 
erage of  prices,  and  larger  total  cash  income  from 
marketings.  Features  of  the  agricultural  situation 
in  1940  and  indicated  developments  in  production 
and  marketing  in  1941,  concerned  with  domestic 
and  export  demand  for  farm  products,  prices  and 
income,  farm  credit  and  labor,  equipment  and  fer- 
tilizer, farm  family  living,  and  the  status  and  fu- 
ture of  field  crops,  fruits,  truck  crops,  nuts,  live- 
stock, poultry  and  their  products,  prepared  by  the 
U  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  co-operating  with 
State  agencies,  were  published  in  a  number  of  spe- 
cial articles  and  in  Agricultural  Outlook  Charts 
Books  for  1941,  and  The  Agricultural  Situation 
(1940),  monthly,  (all  U.S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture). 

Crop  Production  in  1940.  The  harvest  of 
farm  crops  in  1940  was  featured  by  high  yields  per 
acre  and  the  total  crop  production,  on  a  smaller 
acreage,  was  larger  than  in  any  year  except  1937. 
Unlike  the  huge  crops  of  that  year,  which  came 
when  reserves  were  greatly  depleted,  the  U.S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  points  out,  crops  of  1940 
were  harvested  after  three  good  years  so  supplies 
of  some  products  were  much  higher  than  indicated 
by  production  figures  alone.  The  production  of  the 
principal  field  crops  in  1940  was  104.5  per  cent  of 
the  pre-drought  (1923-32)  level  compared  with 
99.8  in  1939  and  109.9  in  1937.  Fruit  production 
was  33  per  cent  above  pre-drought,  and  commer- 
cial vegetables  43  per  cent  above,  and  production 
of  all  these  crops  in  1940  was  107.9  per  cent  of 
the  base  average,  exceeded  only  in  1937.  Produc- 
tion was  well  distributed,  with  only  a  few  bump- 
er crops.  The  total  production  of  bread  and  feed 
grains  was  about  the  average  for  the  last  three 
years;  flaxseed  made  almost  the  largest  crop  on 
record;  cotton  exceeded  the  crops  of  1936,  1938, 
and  1939,  but  was  only  two-thirds  that  of  1937; 
tobacco  was  about  average ;  crops  of  hay  and  for- 
age and  hay  seeds  were  larger;  and  sugar  beets 
made  a  record.  The  favorable  showing  of  individ- 
ual crop  yields  in  1940  compared  with  several  years 
ago  was  not  accompanied  by  correspondingly  heavy 
production  because  of  the  smaller  acreages  and  the 
smaller  proportion  of  crop  land  devoted  to  more 
intensively  cultivated  high-value  crops.  The  total 
acreage  of  all  (46)  crops  harvested,  333,825,000, 
was  about  8,000,000  acres  above  the  low  area  of 
325,845,000  acres  in  1939  and  compared  with  a 
1929-38  average  of  340,138,000  acres. 

Composited  acre  yields  of  field  and  fruit  crops 
were  118.5  per  cent  of  the  "pre-drought"  average, 
compared  with  previous  high  records  of  1177  in 
1937  and  between  113  and  114  in  1938  and  1939. 
Practically  all  of  the  principal  or  million-acre 
crops,  except  grain  sorghums,  yielded  better  than 
in  either  1929-38  or  the  ten  years  before  the  1933 
drought.  In  parts  of  the  central  and  eastern  Gulf 
States,  growing  conditions  were  generally  unfavor- 
able and  several  crops  grown  extensively  as  sugar 


AGRICULTURE 


14 


AGRICULTURE 


cane,  sweet  potatoes,  sorgo  for  sirup,  cowpeas,  and 
velvet  beans  showed  below-average  yields.  Tobac- 
co, peanuts,  and  sugar  beets  made  record  yields  per 
acre  and  cotton,  potatoes,  oats,  and  flaxseed  were 
much  above  average.  The  good  yields  of  1940,  like 
those  of  1937  to  1939,  were  due  in  part  to  favorable 
weather  conditions  and  such  related  factors  as  rela- 
tively light  losses  from  insects  and  diseases.  In 
1940,  weather  particularly  favored  cotton  and  po- 
tatoes, appeared  primarily  responsible  for  good 
yields  of  tame  hay,  oats,  spring  wheat,  and  flax, 
but  was  much  less  favorable  for  corn  than  in  the 
three  preceding  years,  yet  better  than  average. 
Winter  wheat  suffered  severely  from  drought  in 
the  fall  of  1939,  but  the  acreage  surviving  was 
helped  greatly  by  favorable  growing  conditions. 
Other  facts  conducive  to  good  yields  in  the  last 

ACREAGE  AND  PRODUCTION  OF  FARM  CROPS  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES  IN  1939  AND  1940 

(Bushels  except  as  otherwise  indicated  ) 


Acres 

Acre 

Crop 

Year 

Harvested 

Yield 

Production 

Corn 

1940 

86,449,000 

28.3 

2,449,200,000 

1939 

88,430,000 

29.4 

2,602,133,000 

Wheat  .     .. 

1940 

53,503,000 

15.3 

816,698,000 

1939 

53,482,000 

141 

751,435,000 

Oats 

1940 

34,847,000 

355 

1,235,628,000 

1939 

32,968,000 

28.4 

935,942,000 

Barley 

1940 
1939 

13,394,000 
12,644,000 

231 
217 

309,235,000 
274,767,000 

Rye     .. 

1940 

3,192,000 

127 

40,601,000 

1939 

3,832,000 

102 

39,049,000 

Buckwheat  . 

1940 

393,000 

162 

6,350,000 

1939 

374,000 

152 

5,669,000 

Flaxseed    . 

1940 

3,228.000 

96 

31,127,000 

1939 

2,250,000 

90 

20,152,000 

Rice.. 

1940 

1,051,000 

502 

52,754,000 

1939 

1,040,000 

517 

53,722,000 

Grain  sorghum 

1940 
1939 

9,856,000 
8,078,000 

123 
103 

121,371,000 
83,264,000 

Cotton,  lint 

1940 
1939 

24,078,000 
23,805,000 

25241 
237.9  i 

12,686,000* 
11,817,000  « 

Cottonseed     . 

1940 



5,645,000  • 

1939 

5,260,000" 

Hay.    . 

1940 

72,488,000 

131" 

95,156,000" 

1939 

69,953,000 

1.22  • 

85,124,000* 

Sweet 

sorghums 

1940 

8,042,000 

172" 

13,816,000" 

1939 

5,905,000 

1.47* 

8,704,000" 

Beans, 

dry  edible  . 

1940 
1939 

1,836,000 
1,631,000 

876  i 
882) 

16,074,000  « 
14,388,000  * 

Peas,  dry  field. 

1940 
1939 

272,000 
211,000 

140 
181 

3,812,000 
3,822,000 

Soybeans  for 

beans  .  .  . 

1940 

4,961,000 

161 

79,837,000 

1939 

4,417,000 

207 

91,272,000 

Cowpeas  for 

1940 

1,385,000 

63 

8,712,000 

1939 

1,379,000 

63 

8,661,000 

Peanuts 

1940 

1.907,000 

845i 

1,611,635,000» 

1939 

1,859,000 

634^ 

1,179,505,0001 

Potatoes  

1940 

3,053,000 

1303 

397,722,000 

1939 

3,018,000 

1203 

363,159,000 

Sweet  potatoes 

1940 

772.000 

803 

61,998,000 

1939 

862,000 

843 

72,679,000 

Tobacco 

1940 

1,427,000 

9651 

1,376,471,0001 

1939 

2,020,000 

920i 

1,858,364,0001 

Sugar  beets    . 

1940 
1939 

921,000 
917,000 

130" 
11.8  • 

11,969,000" 
10,781,000" 

Sugar  cane  .  .  . 

1940 

289,000 

157" 

4,551,000" 

1939 

277,000 

22  5  • 

6,244,000  " 

Sugarcane  for 

sirup 

1940 

105,000 

1410* 

14,809,000* 

1939 

145,000 

171  8  • 

24,909,000  • 

Sorgo  sirup  .  . 

1940 
1939 

200,000 
1SO.OOO 

593" 
56  8» 

11,865,000  « 
10,230,000  • 

Maple  sirup.  .  . 

1940 

10,1  78,000* 

2,628,000" 

1939 

10,520,000  • 

2,515,000" 

Maple  sugar.  . 

1940 

10,178,000  • 

213' 

629,0001 

1939 

10,520,000* 

198' 

760,0001 

Broom  com.  .  . 

1940 

279,000 

297i 

41,000" 

1939 

230,000 

268i 

31,000" 

Hops.  .. 

1940 

33,000 

1274  » 

41,772,0001 

1939 

31,000 

1224.1 

37,932,0001 

1  pounds  'bales  "tons  MOO-lb   bags  •  gallons  "trees tapped. 
'  total  equivalent  sugar  per  tree. 


three  years  included  more  people  on  the  farms  and 
fewer  acres  to  handle  with  resultant  better  care, 
use  of  more  fertilizer  and  lime,  diversion  of  low 
yielding  crop  land  to  pasture,  improved  farming 
practices  under  the  Agricultural  Conservation  Pro- 
gram, and  better  varieties  of  the  crops  being  plant- 
ed. The  acreage  and  production  of  farm  crops  in 
the  United  States,  as  estimated  by  the  U.S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  and  yields  for  cereals  in 
foreign  countries,  as  reported  by  the  International 
Institute  of  Agriculture  and  other  agencies  are 
shown  in  the  accompanying  crop  production  tables 
and  in  the  articles  on  individual  crops;  as,  CORN, 
WHEAT,  ETC. 

Experiment  Stations  and  Extension.  Re- 
search and  extension  services  continued  to  be  po- 
tent factors  in  the  American  farming  industry. 
Many  new  and  significant  contributions  to  the  im- 
provement of  agriculture  and  rural  life  resulted 
during  1940  from  the  research  of  the  State  agricul- 
tural experiment  stations,  usually  located  at  the 
agricultural  college  in  each  State  and  territory. 
The  current  trend  of  investigation  had  been  direct- 
ed to  meet  local  and  national  long-time  as  well  as 
present  needs  for  greater  agricultural  stability  and 
permanency,  and  to  promote  highest  standards  of 
living  and  health.  The  more  than  8500  active  re- 
search projects  of  the  stations,  many  co-operative 
with  other  stations  and  the  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  financed  from  Federal  and  State 
funds,  were  concerned  with  the  improvement,  pro- 
duction, marketing,  and  utilization  of  field  crops, 
vegetables  and  fruits,  and  farm  animals  and  their 
products ;  protection  against  diseases  and  insects , 
development  of  effective  cultural  and  field  methods 
and  harvesting  and  storage  practices;  soils  and 
plant  foods;  improvement  in  farm  machinery,  soil 
conservation,  irrigation,  farm  structures,  and  elec- 
trification; research  relating  to  foods  and  human 
nutrition,  textiles  and  clothing,  and  the  manage- 
ment and  equipment  of  the  household;  and  rural 
social  science  investigation  on  agricultural  planning 
and  land  use,  production  costs,  farm  income  and 
real  estate,  taxation  and  credit,  population  move- 
ment, rural  welfare  and  rural-urban  relations,  and 
social  groups.  The  results  of  the  broad  program  of 
research  were  being  published  in  numerous  bulle- 
tins, reports,  and  journals  of  the  stations  or  those 
of  the  Department  and  in  a  wide  range  of  technical 
journals.  A  comprehensive  review  of  recent  re- 
sults, with  appropriate  statistical  data,  is  included 
in  Report  on  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tions, 1940  (U  S.  Dept.  Agr.).  Federal  grants  pro- 
vided $6,848,750  and  State  and  other  supplementary 
sources  $14,391,546,  making  a  total  of  $21,240,296 
for  the  administration  and  research  of  the  stations 
for  the  fiscal  year  1940. 

Work  and  accomplishments  of  nine  special  re- 
search laboratories,  established  1935-39  under  pro- 
visions of  the  Bankhead-Jones  Act  of  June  29, 
1935,  and  co-operative  among  Departmental  bu- 
reaus and  State  stations  and  supplementing  their 
research,  were  set  forth  in  Report  of  the  Chief  of 
the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  1940  (U.S. 
Dept.  Agr.).  Each  dealing  with  a  research  prob- 
lem of  significance  in  the  region  served,  these  in- 
clude laboratories  for  improvement  through  breed- 
ing of  vegetables  (Charleston,  S.C.),  swine  (Ames, 
Iowa),  and  sheep  (Dubois,  Idaho)  ;  pasture  (State 
College,  Pa.)  and  poultry  viability  (East  Lansing, 
Mich.)  improvement;  animal  diseases  (Auburn, 
Ala.)  ;  soybean  industrial  products  (Urbana,  III.)  ; 
salinity  of  irrigation  waters  (Riverside,  Calif.)  ; 


AGRICULTURE 


15 


AGRICULTURE 


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AGRICULTURE 


16 


AGRICULTURE 


and  relation  of  soils  to  plant,  animal,  and  human 
nutrition  (Ithaca,  N.Y.).  Regional  laboratories 
for  research  on  new  and  extended  uses  for  surplus 
farm  commodities,  located  near  Philadelphia,  Pe- 
oria,  New  Orleans,  and  San  Francisco  also  made 
distinct  progress  during  the  year. 

The  Extension  Service,  co-operative  among  the 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  land-grant  col- 
leges and  county  governments,  carried  on  varied 
activities  during  1940  in  every  county  of  agricul- 
tural importance  in  the  United  States  The  exten- 
sion aids  covered  the  entire  range  of  farm  and 
home  activity  from  the  preparation  and  storage  of 
foods  for  consumption  on  the  farm  to  the  market- 
ing of  commercial  crops.  Its  agents  gave  usable  in- 
formation and  practical  guidance  to  farm  people  of 
every  group,  and  devoted  special  attention  to  needs 
of  the  lower-income  groups  Exceptional  condi- 
tions, resulting  in  part  from  the  unresolved  econom- 
ic crisis  and  the  European  war,  threw  into  the 
foreground  the  human  problems  of  agriculture — 
those  that  result  from  misuse  of  soils,  unbalanced 
or  inefficient  farming,  contraction  of  export  mar- 
kets, and  from  the  displacement  of  farm  personnel 
through  progress  of  agricultural  technology.  Own- 
er-operators and  tenant  farmers  in  the  low-income 
groups  were  helped  to  increase  their  cash  crop  in- 
come, to  develop  supplementary  income  from  fruits 
and  vegetables,  to  improve  their  homes,  diets, 
health,  and  living  standards  through  better  man- 
agement of  incomes,  and  to  co-operate  more  effec- 
tively with  their  neighbors  The  services  rendered 
aids  to  better  economic  and  social  organization  as 
well  as  to  better  farm  production  and  home  eco- 
nomics. Extension  agents  assisted  a  total  of  about 
5,500,000  farm  families,  white  and  Negro,  and 
some  2,500,000  of  these  families  were  non -owners 
White  extension  agents  worked  with  Negro  as 
well  as  white  farmers  and  about  500  Negro  agents 
worked  with  Negro  families  The  result  was  a  defi- 
nite raising  of  standards  of  farm  practice  and  of 
farm  living. 

The  Extension  Service  gave  attention  to  tech- 
nique of  farm  production  for  sale  and  encouraged 
production  for  consumption  on  the  farm;  helped 
about  1,000,000  low-income  rural  families  in  more 
than  12,000  communities  to  obtain  surplus  cotton 
and  make  it  into  mattresses  for  their  own  use ;  and 
provided  technical  knowledge  and  building  plans 
leading  to  construction  of  thousands  of  inexpensive 
new  farm  homes  and  to  the  remodeling  of  many 
old  dwellings  They  helped  farmers  also  to  improve 
their  kitchen  facilities  and  other  essentials  of  effi- 
cient home  living  This  program,  making  consider- 
able use  of  farm-grown  lumber,  complemented  ex- 
tension work  in  economics  of  consumption,  e  g.  of 
food  and  clothing  Farm  and  home  demonstrations 
assisted  farmers  to  use  farm  outlook  information 
better  and  to  co-operate  more  effectively  in  the 
agricultural  conservation  program  Landlord-ten- 
ant co-operation  was  encouraged,  particularly  in 
improvement  and  stabilization  of  leasing  systems 
In  46  States  the  service  co-operated  with  more 
than  70,000  farm  men  and  women  in  organizing 
and  conducting  the  work  of  more  than  6800  com- 
munity and  county  land-use  planning  committees 
The  total  of  $33,052,000  of  funds  available  in 
1939-40  for  all  co-operative  extension  work  com- 
prised $18,530,181  from  Federal  grants  to  the 
States,  $6,348,011  from  State  funds.  $7,181,799 
from  county  appropriations,  and  $992,009  from 
farm  organizations 

World  Conditions  and  American  Agricul- 


ture. Lost  export  markets  for  United  States  agri- 
cultural products  as  a  result  of  the  impact  of  the  Eu- 
ropean war  (treated  above  under  Foreign  Trade  in 
Farm  Products)  was  a  major  world  condition  af- 
fecting the  American  farming  industry  during  the 
year.  A  number  of  measures  employed  or  indicated 
as  desirable  to  offset  or  soften  the  blow  of  this  de- 
pressive factor  included  commodity  loans,  surplus 
disposal  plans,  and  to  cope  also  with  increased  con- 
sumer purchasing-power,  adjustments  in  regional 
agriculture,  e  g  widespread  shifts  in  production  of 
major  farm  commodities  among  producing  regions. 
Increased  attention  was  being  paid  to  the  develop- 
ment of  closer  inter- American  co-operation,  espe- 
cially by  encouraging  the  development  of  comple- 
mentary agricultural  products  in  the  other  Ameri- 
can republics.  Other  movements  and  activities  in 
foreign  countries  which  had  affected  or  might  af- 
fect United  States  agriculture  in  its  world  trade 
relations,  also  discussed  in  detail  in  Foreign  Agri- 
culture (vol.  4,  1940),  and  in  Foreign  Crops  and 
Markets  (vols.  40  and  41,  1940),  both  U.S  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  included  the  food  and 
feed  situation  in  continental  Europe,  1940-41 ;  war- 
time agricultural  surpluses  of  the  Danube  Basin ; 
the  cession  of  important  crop  areas  by  Rumania ; 
wartime  agriculture  and  food  control  in  Germany ; 
agricultural  conditions  in  Denmark,  Finland,  Neth- 
erlands, Norway,  and  Sweden,  particularly  as  af- 
fected by  the  war ;  decline  of  hog  numbers  in  many 
countries ;  Italian  agriculture  under  fascism  and 
war;  Turkish  agriculture  and  the  changing  agro- 
economic  policy;  expansion  of  cotton  production 
in  Southeastern  Europe  to  meet  needs  of  industry ; 
the  Russian  peasant  household  under  the  wir  and 
the  collective  farm  system;  British  price  policy 
and  price  developments  in  wartime,  and  control  of 
agricultural  prices  in  the  United  Kingdom;  in- 
crease in  Argentine  production  of  vegetable  oil  and 
oil-seeds,  and  pastures  and  the  cattle-grazing  indus- 
try in  Argentina;  wartime  agricultural  measures 
in  Canada,  Japan's  food  self-sufficiency;  the  agri- 
culture of  Chosen,  the  Netherlands  Indies,  and  the 
Philippine  Islands  and  its  problems ;  tobacco  in  the 
principal  producing  countries  of  the  Far  East ;  and 
United  States  re-exports  of  agricultural  products, 
and  agricultural  trade  with  noncontiguous  terri- 
tories. See  the  respective  countries  under  Produc- 
tion. 

Bibliography.  Books  published  m  1940  or  late  in  1939, 
which  considered  current  problems  of  agriculture,  included 
H  P.  Andersen,  Your  Career  in  Agriculture  (New  York, 
1940);  L.  B  Bacon  and  F  C  Schloemer,  World  Trade 
in  Agricultural  Products  Its  Growth,  It*  Crtsts,  and  the 
New  Trade  Policies  (Rome,  1940) ;  P.  W  Chapman,  Suc- 
cessful Farming  in  the  South  (Atlanta,  1939);  P  W 
Chapman  and  R  H.  Thomas,  Southern  Crops  (Atlanta, 
1939);  R  T  Ely  and  G.  S.  Wehrwein,  Land  Economics 
(New  York,  1940);  W  F.  Gencke,  Complete  Guide  to 
Soilless  Gardening  (New  York,  1940);  N  S.  B  Gras, 
A  History  of  Agriculture  in  Europe  and  America  (2d  ed. 
New  York,  1940);  P.  de  Hevesy,  World  Wheat  Planning 
and  Economic  Planning  in  General  (New  York  and  Lon- 
don, 1940),  J  A  Hopkins,  Elements  of  Farm  Manage- 
ment Rev  ed  (New  York,  1940);  N  Jasny,  Competition 
Among  Grains  (Palo  Alto,  Calif  ,  1940);  D.  E  Lindstrom, 
The  Church  in  Rural  Life  (Champaign,  111.,  1939);  W 
G.  Murray,  Farm  Appraisal  Classification  and  Valuation 
of  Farm  Land  and  Buildings  (Ames,  Iowa,  1940) ;  M.  N 
Rawson,  Forever  the  Farm  (New  York,  1939);  T  C.  Schil- 
leter  and  H.  W.  Richey,  Textbook  of  General  Horticulture 
(New  York,  1940);  T.  L  Smith,  The  Sociology  of  Rural 
Life  (New  York,  1940);  University  of  Philippines,  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture.  A  Handbook  of  Philippine  Agricul- 
ture (Manila,  1939) ;  H.  A  Wallace.  Report  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture,  1940  (Washington.  D.C ,  1940); 
Agricultural  Statistics,  1940  (Washington,  D.C.,  1940); 
Farmers  in  a  Changing  World  Yearbook  of  Agriculture 
1940  (Washington,  DC,  1940) ;  Technology  on  the  Farm 
(Washington,  D.C.,  1940).  D.  C.  Blaisdell,  Government 


AGRICULTURE 


17 


ALASKA 


and  Agriculture;  the  Growth  of  Federal  Farm  Aid  (New 
York,  1940);  E.  F.  Dummeier  and  R.  B.  Heflebower,  Eco- 
nomics, with  Applications  to  Agriculture  (2d  cd ,  New 
York,  1940);  E.  W.  Hullmger,  Plowing  through',  the 
Story  of  the  Negro  in  Agriculture  (New  York,  1940) ;  P 
Lamartme  Yates,  Food  Production  in  Western  Europe; 
An  Economic  Survey  of  Agriculture  m  Six  Countries 
(New  York,  1940). 

HENRY  M.  STEECE. 

AGRICULTURE,    U.S.    Department    of. 

See  AGRICULTURE;  UNITED  STATES  under  Admin- 
istration, and  separate  articles  on  the  following 
branches  of  the  Department:  AGRICULTURAL  AD- 
JUSTMENT ADMINISTRATION;  AGRICULTURAL 
CHEMISTRY  AND  ENGINEERING,  BUREAU  OF;  AGRI- 
CULTURAL MARKETING  SERVICE;  COMMODITY 
CREDIT  CORPORATION  ;  COMMODITY  EXCHANGE  AD- 
MINISTRATION ;  FARM  CREDIT  ADMINISTRATION  ; 
FARM  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION  ;  FEDERAL  CROP 
INSURANCE  CORPORATION  ;  PLANT  INDUSTRY,  BU- 
REAU OF;  SOIL  CONSERVATION  SERVICE;  SURPLUS 
MARKETING  ADMINISTRATION.  See  also  ENTOMOL- 
OGY, ECONOMIC;  ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER 

AIR  CONDITIONING.  See  HEATING  AND 
VENTILATING. 

AIRPLANES,  AIRPORTS,  AIR  TRANS- 
PORT, AIRWAYS.  See  AERONAUTICS 

AIR  RAIDS,  AIR  WARFARE.  See  AFRO- 
NAUTICS  ;  EUROPEAN  WAR  ;  FIRE  PROTECTION  , 
NAVAL  PROGRESS 

ALABAMA.  Area,  51,998  square  miles,  includ- 
ing (1930)  719  square  miles  of  water  Population, 
Apr  1,  1940  (census),  2,832,961  (302  per  cent  ur- 
ban) ,  1930,  2,646,248  (28  1  per  cent  urban)  Bir- 
mingham had  (1940)  267,583  inhabitants,  Mont- 
gomery, the  capital,  78,084;  Mobile,  78,720 

Agriculture.  Alabama  harvested  7,847,980  acres, 
in  1940  of  principal  crops.  Cotton,  still  the  fore- 
most of  these,  occupied  1,980,000  acres  and  gave 
790,000  bales,  of  which  the  estimated  value,  to  the 
growers,  totaled  $37,130,000.  Corn,  on  3,476,000 
acres,  made  43,450,000  bu  (estimated  value,  $33,- 
891,000) ;  tame  hay,  on  852,000  acres,  606,000  tons 
($7,030,000) ;  peanuts,  290,000  acres,  210,250,000 
Ib  ($6,097,000)  ;  sweet  potatoes,  82,000  acres, 
4,920,000  bu.  ($4,428,000)  ;  potatoes,  48,000  acres, 
4,176,000  bu  ($2,174,000);  oats,  150,000  acres, 
3,000,000  bu.  ($1,650,000). 

Manufacturing.  Yearly  production  of  manu- 
factured goods  in  Alabama  totaled  $574,670,690  for 
1939,  $573,763,522  for  1937.  Other  manufacturing 
totals  for  1939  (with  those  for  1937  subjoined) 
follow -2052  (1874)  manufacturing  establishments 
paid  $92,018,670  ($96,058,401)  in  wages  to  116,800 
(120,301)  persons  and  contributed  $247,383,611 
($237,435,861)  as  value  added  to  goods  by  manu- 
facture. 

Mineral  Production.  Alabama's  yearly  pro- 
duction of  native  minerals  was  reckoned,  in  the 
Minerals  Year  Book  of  1940,  at  $46,496,293;  a 
large  additional  total  resulted  from  the  processing 
of  crude  minerals  to  make  coke  and  iron.  Mines' 
output  of  coal  rose  to  some  11,995,000  net  tons  for 
1939,  from  11,061,493  (value,  $26,769,000)  for  1938. 
Coking  ovens'  yearly  output  totaled  3,854,505  net 
tons  (1939)  and  3,378,044  (1938)  ;  in  value,  $10,- 
917,559  and  $9,888,292.  Mines'  production  of  iron 
ore  mounted  to  5,960,507  gross  tons  for  1939,  from 
4,303,329  for  1938.  The  mines'  shipments  of  iron 
ore  totaled  5,985,208  tons  (1939)  and  4,281,332 
(1938)  ;  in  value,  $9,971,024  (1939)  and  $7,341,620 
(1938).  The  blast  furnaces'  output  of  pig  iron,  in- 
creasing to  2,717,502  gross  tons  for  1939  from 
1,990,342  tons  for  1938,  rose  in  yearly  total  value 


to  $43,902,681  for  1939,  from  $29,190,091  for  1938. 
Shipments  of  cement,  approximating  production, 
rose  to  5,042,921  bbl.  for  1939,  from  4,548,079  for 
1938;  in  value,  to  $6,690,765,  from  $6,114,246  The 
yearly  output  of  clay  products  (except  pottery  and 
refractories)  attained  $1,487,067  for  1938 

Education.  Alabama's  inhabitants  of  school  age 
(from  6  years  to  20)  were  reckoned  for  the  aca- 
demic year  1939-40  at  875,019.  The  year's  enroll- 
ments of  pupils  in  all  public  schools  numbered  686,- 
767  Of  these,  496,973  were  in  elementary  study 
and  the  rest,  189,794,  in  high  school.  Expenditures 
for  public  schools,  reported  for  the  previous  year, 
1938-39,  totaled  $25,027,706,  of  which  $18,828,876 
was  current  expenditure.  Teachers  in  the  public 
schools  and  the  distinct  vocational-training  system 
numbered  18,686,  and  their  pay  averaged  $696,  in 
that  year 

History.  Alabama's  statute  making  it  a  misde- 
meanor to  picket  for  the  purpose  of  hindering,  de- 
laying, interfering  with,  or  injuring  lawful  busi- 
ness or  to  go  near  or  loiter  at  premises  in  order 
to  restrain  persons  from  dealing  or  being  employed 
there  was  overthrown  by  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court ; 
the  decision  held  the  statute  an  infringement  of 
free  speech.  A  newly  created  State  Board  of  Par- 
dons denied,  March  8,  a  motion  for  the  release  of 
the  five  Negro  convicts  in  the  Scott sboro  case ;  the 
Board  indicated,  however,  a  purpose  to  give  future 
consideration  to  the  cases  individually,  as  the  pris- 
oners might  show  improvement  under  institutional 
care  The  city  of  Bessemer  engaged  in  canvassing 
with  the  aid  of  police,  to  win  customers  from  the 
Birmingham  Electric  Company  to  the  municipal 
system  distributing  electric  current  from  the  TVA , 
disputes  between  the  city's  and  the  company's  men 
occurred,  and  some  of  the  latter  were  arrested  See 
FLOODS 

At  the  general  election  (November  5)  the  usual 
heavily  Democratic  vote  went  to  Roosevelt  for 
President;  for  Roosevelt  (Dem.)  250,726;  Willkie 
(Rep.)  42,184.  Nine  Democrats,  all  of  them  in- 
cumbents save  one,  were  elected  U  S.  Representa- 
tives ;  there  was  no  election  for  Governor 

Officers.  Alabama's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were  Governor,  Frank  M  Dixon  (Dem  )  , 
Lieutenant  Governor,  A  A.  Carmichael ;  Secretary 
of  State,  John  Brandon ;  Treasurer,  Charles  E 
McCall ;  Auditor,  Howell  Turner;  Attorney  Gen- 
eral, T.  S  Lawson;  Superintendent  of  Education, 
A.  H  Collins. 

ALAND  ISLANDS.  See  FINLAND  and  SWE- 
DEN under  History. 

ALASKA.  Non-contiguous  Territory  of  the 
United  States.  Area,  586,400  square  miles,  inclusive 
of  inland  waters  Population,  1940  (taken  Oct.  1, 
1939)  72,524;  1930,  59,278,  whites  (1930)  num- 
bered 28,640 ;  Indians  and  Eskimos,  29,983  Capital, 
Juneau ,  population  (1930),  4403.  Governor,  Ernest 
Gruemng 

Mineral  Production.  The  value  of  native  min- 
erals produced  in  Alaska  in  1940,  as  stated  by  the 
US  Geological  Survey,  totaled  $27,658,000;  to 
this  sum,  gold  contributed  more  than  nine-tenths 
The  value  of  gold  in  the  material  mined  in  1940 
was  $25,375,000,  this  exceeded  the  corresponding 
amount  for  any  previous  year  of  the  Territory's 
mineral  production.  Such  was  not  the  case,  how- 
ever, with  gold's  yearly  quantity  The  gold  in 
material  mined  in  1940  made  some  725,000  Troy 
oz.  Greater  quantities  had  been  produced  yearly 
throughout  the  period  1905-16;  they  brought  less, 
in  each  case,  because  the  price  of  gold,  set  at  $35 


ALASKA 


18 


ALBANIA 


an  oz.  in  1934,  had  previously  been  $20.67.  The 
mining  of  gold  produced  about  $2,100,000  more  in 
1940  than  in  1939 ;  an  increase  in  placer  mining  ac- 
tivity brought  a  greater  yield  in  1940  from  this 
type  of  gold-mining,  and  this  additional  yield  was 
the  main  element  in  the  higher  production  of  1940 ; 
the  placers  produced  $17,912,000;  the  lode  mines, 
$7,463,000.  The  Yukon  region  yielded  $11,636,000 
of  the  placer  gold  Dredges  brought  in  much  the 
greater  part  of  all  placer  production. 

The  production  of  platinum  increased  to  28,860 
oz.  for  1940,  by  value,  $1,092,000,  surpassing  pre- 
vious yearly  totals.  Most  of  the  platinum  continued 
to  come  from  the  Gopdnews  district,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Kuskokwira  River ;  it  was  obtained 
mainly  by  dredging.  Coal  was  mined  in  the  Healy 
River  field  (northern  slope  of  the  Alaska  Range) 
and  the  Matanuska  field  (Cook  Inlet).  The  pro- 
duction of  coal  totaled  about  170,000  tons  (value 
estimated  at  $680,000)  for  1940;  the  quantity  ex- 
ceeded that  recorded  for  any  previous  year.  The 
Healy  River  product  was  high-grade  lignite,  the 
Matanuska  coal  was  bituminous.  Copper-mining, 
which  had  formerly  rivaled  gold-mining  in  returns, 
dwindled  further  in  1940  to  a  mere  production  of 
some  70,000  Ib.  of  recoverable  metal,  worth  around 
$7900 ;  all  of  it  was  a  by-product  of  ores  of  other 
metals. 

Fisheries  and  Furs.  The  salmon  fishery  took, 
in  1939,  79,220,420  salmon,  chiefly  pinks  and  reds ; 
the  pack  of  canned  salmon,  5,263,153  cases,  was 
valued  at  $34,441,082.  The  totals  fell  below  those 
of  1938,  also  an  off  year.  Salmon,  nevertheless, 
came  to  73  per  cent  in  bulk  and  91  per  cent  in  value 
of  the  production  of  all  fish  in  1939.  Herring  prod- 
ucts attained  $2,090,743 ;  the  catch  of  halibut,  $893,- 
686. 

At  the  Pribilof  Islands  the  Government  took,  in 
1939.  60,473  skins  of  fur  seals ;  it  sold  at  St  Louis 
51,257  dyed  sealskins,  which  brought  $1,066,250. 
A  computation  at  the  Pribilof  s  in  1939  showed  the 
fur  seals  as  still  on  the  increase  and  numbering 
2,020,774  The  value  of  other  furs,  shipped  from 
Alaska  in  1939,  totaled  $1,892,968;  beaver,  mink, 
and  blue  fox  furnished  the  greater  part  of  the  to- 
tal 

Transportation  and  Roads.  The  Alaska  Rail- 
road, owned  and  operated  by  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment, connects  Seward,  on  the  Southern  coast, 
with  Fairbanks,  to  the  north,  and  maintains  trans- 
portation by  water,  in  the  open  season,  thence  to 
places  on  the  Yukon  River.  It  hauled  by  rail,  in 
the  operating  year  1939-40,  194,467  tons  of  freight 
and  29,510  passengers.  The  freight,  mainly  coal, 
paid  $2,311,152,  or  somewhat  under  $12  to  the  ton ; 
the  passengers  paid  $264,715,  or  $9  to  the  passen- 
ger, on  the  average.  Including  river  traffic  the  sys- 
tem's receipts,  $3,058,055,  exceeded  operating  ex- 
penses, $2,712,628,  by  more  than  $340,000.  Avia- 
tion rivaled  the  railroad  in  number  of  passengers, 
if  not  in  freight.  In  the  fiscal  year  1939-40,  avia- 
tors reported  making  14,296  trips,  covering  3,598,- 
790  miles,  and  carrying  31,435  passengers  and 
4,315,660  Ib.  of  freight.  The  Alaska  Road  Com- 
mission, a  part  of  the  War  Department,  maintain- 
ing 1932  miles  of  road  and  a  great  mileage  of  trail, 
had  spent,  up  to  June  30,  1939,  $27,783,560  in  34 
years,  to  build  and  maintain  roads  in  the  Terri- 
tory; it  spent  $240,766  for  new  construction  and 
$704,056  for  maintenance  in  the  year  that  followed 
^  Agriculture.  Interest  in  the  possibilities  of  ag- 
riculture still  centered  on  the  Federal  colony  in  the 
Matanuska  Valley.  The  colony,  despite  some  defec- 


tions, comprised  (1940)  147  occupied  tracts;  these 
had  about  4200  acres  cleared  and  planted,  mainly 
to  peas,  oats,  and  hay,  but  also  to  other  grains  and 
a  variety  of  vegetables.  There  were  some  500  milch 
cows  in  the  valley.  The  colony's  co-operative  as- 
sociation took  over  from  the  Government  (Jan. 
15,  1940)  the  direction  of  a  hospital,  power  house, 
and  other  public  services. 

The  colonists  and  other  farmers  of  the  Matan- 
uska Valley  were  reported  to  have  sold,  in  the  crop 
season  of  1939,  $9521  of  vegetables,  $4469  of  but- 
ter fat,  $4517  of  eggs,  and  $7661  of  meat.  Of  these 
sums'  total,  $26,168,  the  colonists  sold  $21,680. 
There  were  prospects  that  the  aeronautical  base  at 
Anchorage  would  create  much  additional  demand 
for  the  produce. 

History.  Governor  Gruening  gave  particular  at- 
tention, in  his  annual  report,  to  Alaska's  relative 
freedom  from  taxation.  He  indicated  the  absence 
of  a  general  tax  on  property  (save  in  incorporated 
places),  and  of  taxes  on  incomes  and  on  corpora- 
tions, and  concluded  that  the  system  of  taxation 
needed  revision  in  the  interest  of  the  Territory's 
aspirations. 

The  construction  of  aeronautical  bases  for  the 
Army  and  Navy,  at  Anchorage  and  other  points, 
went  on  actively  during  the  year.  Laws  to  hasten 
colonization  for  the  aid  of  defense  were  sought  in 
Washington 

The  Federal  Government  put  in  motion  early 
in  1940  a  project  of  distributing  reindeer  among 
the  Eskimo  population.  It  was  estimated  that,  be- 
fore this  distribution,  4700  natives,  mainly  Eskimo, 
owned  in  all  some  300,000  reindeer,  while  46  whites, 
engaged  in  reindeer-herding,  had  about  180,000 
Despite  the  widespread  Eskimo  ownership,  it  ap- 
peared that  families  in  considerable  number  pos- 
sessed no  reindeer  and  lacked  sufficient  support  of 
other  kinds  The  plan  was  to  buy  animals  from 
white  herders  at  three  dollars  a  head  or  thereabout 
and  donate  them  to  the  non-possessors. 

The  Territorial  Legislature  enacted  changes 
tending  to  increase  payments  obtainable  under  the 
unemployment-compensation  law.  That  law,  even 
before  amendment,  brought  about  a  fairly  big  dis- 
tribution of  money — $349,923  for  the  calendar  year 
1939,  or  about  44  per  cent  more  per  capita  than  the 
corresponding  rate  for  the  Union.  In  the  first  half 
of  1940  the  payments  ran  to  $283,749.  In  conse- 
quence of  labor  troubles  that  had  interrupted  the 
salmon  fishery  sailing  yearly  from  San  Francisco, 
people  formerly  employed  in  these  expeditions' 
canneries  claimed  a  relatively  great  total  in  unem- 
ployment compensation ;  the  Territorial  unemploy- 
ment-compensation commission's  examiner  held  the 
claims  invalid;  they  were  still  in  course  of  adjudi- 
cation late  in  the  year.  Their  amount  was  said  to 
exceed  the  sum  on  hand  from  the  levies  on  the  can- 
ners  and  to  threaten  the  stability  of  the  whole  fund 
for  unemployment  compensation  in  Alaska. 

See  GENERAL  LAND  OFFICE  ;  METEOROLOGY  ;  TIN. 

ALBANIA.  A  former  Balkan  kingdom  on  the 
east  shore  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  occupied  by  Italian 
troops  on  Apr.  7,  1939.  and  proclaimed  an  Italian 
protectorate  the  following  day.  Area.  10,629  square 
miles;  population,  estimated  at  1,057,000  on  Dec. 
31,  1938  (1,003,124  at  the  1930  census).  Capital, 
Tirana  (pop.  30,806  in  1930)  ;  other  chief  towns, 
Scutari  (Shkoder),  29,209;  Koritsa  (Korce),  22,- 
787;  Elbasan,  13,796;  Durazzo  (Durres),  the 
chief  port,  8739. 

Defense.  The  Albanian  army  was  incorporated 
in  the  Italian  defense  establishment  May  29,  1939. 


ALBANIA 


19 


ALBERTA 


Education  and  Religion.  Primary  education 
is  nominally  compulsory,  but  illiteracy  remains 
high.  In  1939  there  were  653  state  primary  schools, 
with  56,936  pupils;  19  intermediate  schools,  with 
6235  pupils;  and  about  500  Albanian  students  in 
various  foreign  universities.  The  estimated  reli- 
gious division  of  the  population  was:  Moslems, 
688,280;  Orthodox  Christians,  210,313;  Roman 
Catholics,  104,184. 

Production.  Albania's  chief  products  are  corn, 
tobacco,  wool,  timber,  hides,  dairy  products,  fish, 
olive  oil,  and  petroleum  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK  for 
available  production  figures).  The  December,  1938, 
livestock  census  showed  391,175  cattle,  1,573,857 
sheep,  932,333  goats,  54,426  horses,  44,579  asses, 
and  10,391  mules  Besides  petroleum,  with  an  out- 
put estimated  at  300,000  metric  tons  in  1939,  there 
are  considerable  mineral  resources.  These  were 
under  development  by  Italy  in  1940.  The  first 
shipment  of  1000  metric  tons  of  chromite  was  ex- 
ported to  Genoa  in  April.  Flour,  olive  oil,  and 
cheese  are  the  principal  manufactures 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1938  totaled  22,- 
397,890  gold  francs  (1  franc  equalled  625  Italian 
lire),  of  which  8,337,109  francs  were  from  Italy, 
exports,  9,749,959  francs  (6,665,257  to  Italy). 
Wool,  hides  and  furs,  cheese,  cattle,  eggs,  and  tim- 
ber are  the  chief  exports. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  for  the  fiscal  year 
ended  Mar.  31,  1940,  balanced  at  40,000,000  gold 
francs.  The  1938-39  estimates  were:  Receipts,  28,- 
565,499  francs ,  expenditures,  28,235,400.  The  pub- 
lic debt  in  1938  was  68,200,000  gold  francs,  out- 
standing from  a  series  of  loans  extended  by  Italy 
in  return  for  political  and  economic  concessions 
(see  1938  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  27). 

Transportation.  Early  in  1940,  Italian  sources 
announced  that  work  would  begin  in  April  on  a 
railway  from  the  port  of  Durazzo  to  Elbasan  and 
Labmoti,  a  distance  of  56  miles.  There  are  no  other 
railways.  Highways  in  1940  were  reported  to  total 
1759  miles,  but  only  about  750  miles  were  suitable 
for  automobiles  Italian  air  services  connect  Ti- 
rana and  other  Albanian  cities  with  Rome  and 
other  points. 

Government.  On  Apr.  12,  1939,  an  Italian- 
controlled  Constituent  Assembly  at  Tirana  abro- 
gated the  Albanian  constitution  and  ended  King 
Zog's  regime  A  new  government  headed  by  Pre- 
mier Shcvket  Verlaci  offered  the  Crown  of  Al- 
bania to  King  Victor  Emmanuel  of  Italy.  A  per- 
sonal union  between  the  two  kingdoms  was  effected 
on  April  14.  A  constitutional  statute  issued  by  Vic- 
tor Emmanuel  on  June  3,  1939,  made  the  Albanian 
throne  hereditary  under  his  dynasty  and  vested  leg- 
islative, judicial,  and  executive  powers  in  the 
King's  hands.  Legislative  powers  were  delegated  in 
part  to  an  Albanian  Fascist  Corporative  Council, 
based  on  a  newly  organized  Albanian  Fascist  party, 
and  executive  and  judicial  powers  to  Albanian  of- 
ficials acting  under  Italian  guidance.  Albanian  re- 
mained the  official  language.  A  treaty  signed  the 
same  date  placed  Albania's  foreign  relations  in  the 
hands  of  the  Rome  Government  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 

1939.  p.  22). 

History.  The  task  of  converting  Albania  into 
a  base  for  Italian  military  operations  in  the  Bal- 
kans, started  under  the  direction  of  the  Italian 
Chief  of  Staff  soon  after  the  annexation  to  Italy 
in  1939,  was  pushed  rapidly  forward  during  the 
first  10  months  of  1940.  The  Italian  budget  for 

1940,  published  in  January,  contained  300,000,000 
lire  for  land  reclamation  projects  and  strategic 


roads  in  Albania.  In  April  it  was  announced  that 
25,000  Italian  workmen  were  being  sent  to  Albania 
to  construct  roads  and  other  public  works.  Some  of 
them  assisted  large  contingents  of  Italian  troops  in 
converting  Koritsa  and  other  Albanian  towns  cov- 
ering the  Greek  and  Yugoslav  frontiers  into  mili- 
tary bases.  On  May  21-26  Count  Ciano,  Italian 
Foreign  Minister,  made  a  tour  of  the  Italian  con- 
struction projects  in  Albania.  At  Tirana  he  an- 
nounced the  appointment  of  two  Albanians  as  Min- 
isters of  State.  The  puppet  government  there  re- 
sponded with  a  pledge  of  support  for  Italy  in  the 
event  she  entered  the  European  War. 

Meanwhile  Greek  and  Yugoslav  sources  reported 
frequent  shipments  of  additional  Italian  troops  and 
supplies  to  Albania.  In  May  and  again  in  August 
uprisings  were  reported  m  mountainous  districts  as 
a  result  of  the  requisitioning  of  livestock  and  the 
conscripting  of  natives  for  service  in  the  Italian 
military  forces.  The  August  revolt  apparently  as- 
sumed serious  dimensions  among  the  Mirditi  tribes- 
men south  of  Scutari.  Albanian  exiles  in  Yugosla- 
via continued  their  efforts  to  organize  resistance  to 
the  Italian  occupation  of  their  country,  despite  re- 
striction upon  their  activities  by  the  Yugoslav  au- 
thorities. The  Belgrade  Government  in  May  re- 
portedly rejected  a  request  from  the  exiled  King 
Zog,  who  was  then  in  France,  for  permission  to  en- 
ter Yugoslavia.  Upon  the  German  invasion  of 
France,  Zog  with  his  Queen  and  the  infant  Crown 
Prince  escaped  to  England,  arriving  m  London 
June  27 

Coincident  with  Count  Ciano's  visit  to  Albania, 
an  Italian-sponsored  agitation  for  the  expansion  of 
Albania's  frontiers  to  include  the  Albanian  minori- 
ties in  Yugoslavia  and  Greece  attracted  attention. 
This  agitation  assumed  a  more  menacing  tone  fol- 
lowing Italy's  entrance  into  the  European  War,  and 
was  eventually  channeled  mainly  against  Greece. 
During  August,  September,  and  October,  the  Ital- 
ian-controlled Albanian  press  bitterly  criticized  al- 
leged Greek  persecutions  of  the  Albanian  minority 
in  Greece  and  provocative  forays  across  the  Alba- 
nian frontier.  One  such  alleged  incursion  was  given 
as  a  reason  for  the  Italian  invasion  of  Greece, 
launched  October  28  (see  GREECE  and  ITALY  under 
History,  EUROPEAN  WAR).  The  Greeks  denied  all 
of  these  charges. 

Albania  suffered  severely  when  the  Italian  in- 
vaders were  driven  out  of  Greece  and  pursued  deep 
into  Albanian  territory.  Koritsa,  one  of  the  chief 
cities,  was  taken  by  the  Greeks  after  a  long  artil- 
lery bombardment.  Tirana,  the  ports  of  Durazzo, 
Valona  and  Porto  Edda  (Santi  Quaranta),  and 
other  points  were  repeatedly  bombed  by  Greek  and 
British  air  forces  while  the  Italian  and  German  air 
forces  devastated  the  Greek-occupied  districts.  Re- 
bellious Albanian  tribesmen  were  reported  to  have 
extended  their  guerrilla  warfare  against  the  Ital- 
ians, while  some  of  the  Albanian  conscripts  either 
deserted  or  surrendered  to  the  Greeks  without 
fighting.  In  December  King  Zog  was  reported  to 
have  arrived  in  the  Balkans  to  aid  in  organizing  the 
Albanian  rebellion.  Severe  fighting  was  continuing 
at  the  year  end. 

ALBERTA.  A  prairie  province  of  Canada. 
Area,  255,285  square  miles;  population  (June  1, 
1939  estimate),  789,000  compared  with  (1936  cen- 
sus) 772,782.  Chief  cities  (1936  census  figures  in 
parentheses)  :  Edmonton  (85,774),  Calgary  (83,- 
407),  Lethbridge  (13,523),  Medicine  Hat  (9592). 
Vital  statistics  (1939)  :  16,323  living  births,  5780 
deaths,  and  7835  marriages.  Education  (1938)  : 


ALBERT  CANAL 


20 


ALGERIA 


180,308  students  enrolled  in  schools  and  colleges 
of  all  kinds. 

Production.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural 
production  for  1939  was  $173,139,000.  Crop  output 
(1939) :  Wheat  150,000,000  bu.,  oats  85,000,000  bu., 
barley  27,000,000  bu.,  rye  2,400,000  bu.,  flaxseed 
350,000  bu.,  potatoes  60,950  tons,  hay  and  clover 
569,000  tons,  alfalfa  207,000  tons,  grain  hay  1,425,- 
000  tons,  sugar  beets  262,000  tons.  The  value  of  all 
field  crops  in  1940  totaled  $136,225,000  ($121,132,- 
000  in  1939).  Livestock  (1939)  :  1,337,400  cattle, 
993,000  swine,  834,300  sheep,  658,600  horses,  7,723,- 
000  poultry.  Fur  production  (1937-38)  :  1,476,696 
pelts  valued  at  $1,156,011  ($1,345,100  in  1938-39). 
The  output  of  the  forests  in  1938  was  equal  to  104,- 
630  M  cu.  ft.  valued  at  $3,169,009. 

Mineral  production  (1939)  was  valued  at  $30,- 
691,617  of  which  coal  (5,519,208  tons)  accounted 
for  $14,415,281,  petroleum  (7,576,932  bbl  )  $9,362,- 
363,  natural  gas  (22,513,660  M  cu.  ft.)  $4,915,832. 
Manufacturing  (1938)  :  970  factories,  12,684  em- 
ployees, $30,755,626  net  value  of  products. 


natured,  the  increase  has  little  to  do  with  repeal 
but  reflects  increased  industrial  use. 

Tax  collections  on  liquors  for  the  fiscal  year 
1940  maintained  the  upward  trend  of  previous 
years,  totaling  $624,253,156,  as  compared  with 
$587,799,700  in  1939.  The  principal  items  were: 
distilled  spirits,  $346,833,775 ;  fermented  malt  liq- 
uors, $267,776,187,  and  wines,  $9,643,193.  Tax-paid 
withdrawals  of  domestic  alcoholic  liquors  were  al- 
so well  above  the  previous  year,  totaling  128,325,- 
941  tax  gal.  for  distilled  spirits  (including  alco- 
hol), 82,176,586  gal.  for  still  wines,  418,830  gal 
for  sparkling  wines,  and  53,014,230  bbl.  (of  31 
gal.)  for  fermented  malt  liquors. 

The  success  of  the  Alcohol  Tax  Administration 
in  its  efforts  to  reduce  the  illicit  liquor  traffic  to  a 
minimum  is  indicated  in  the  consistently  small 
number  of  seizures  over  the  past  three  years.  Dur- 
ing the  last  year  of  prohibition,  29,561,813  gal.  of 
mash  were  seized  for  violation  of  prohibition  and 
internal  revenue  laws  relating  to  liquors  Because 
of  the  inability  of  legitimate  producers  to  cope 


PRODUCTION  OF  ALCOHOLIC  LIQUORS,  FISCAL  YEARS  1933  TO  1940 
[Report  of  the  Alcohol  Tax  Administration] 


Distilled 

Sparkling 

Fermented 

Year 

Alcohol* 

spirits 

Still  wines 

wines 

malt  liquors 

Proof  gallons 

Tax  gallons 

Cottons 

Gallons* 

Barrels  • 

1933 

115,609,754 

7,795,160 

18,755,652 

35,819 

•9,797,818 

1934  * 

165,103,582 

76,506,388 

77,778,388 

532,874 

37,678,313 

1935 

180,645,920 

169,126,472 

91,930,362 

310,722 

45,228,605 

1936 

196,126,236 

253,867,925 

170,903,108 

413,851 

51,812,062 

1937 

223,181,228 

258,956,886 

122,045,241 

481,126 

58,748,087 

1938 
1939 
1940 

201,033,858 
201,017,546 
243,727,756 

150,155,924 
145,326,176 
143,455,192 

228,726,368 
231,959,287 
212,367,737 

489,014 
334,188 
481,740 

56,340,163 
53,870,553 
54,891,737 

Total 

.   .          1,526,445,880 

1,205,190,123 

1,154,466,143 

3,079,334 

368,367,338 

0  Approximately  87  per  cent  of  this  alcohol  is  denatured  and  used  for  industrial  purposes  b  Converted  from  half-pint  units,  using  20 
half-pint  units  per  gallon  c  Sales  of  fermented  malt  liquors  containing  not  more  than  3  2  per  cent  alcohol  by  volume  legalized  for  beverage 
purposes  Apr  7,  1933  *  Sales  of  all  liquors  for  beverage  purposes  legalized  Dec  5,  1933  •  Barrels  of  31  gallons 


Government.  Finance  (1938-39) :  revenue, 
$24,269,817,  expenditure,  $21,242,625;  public  debt 
(net),  $125,917,194.  The  King  is  represented  by  a 
lieutenant-governor  (appointed  by  the  governor- 
general  in  council),  aided  by  a  ministry  which  is 
responsible  to  the  legislature  and  resigns  office 
when  it  fails  to  hold  the  confidence  of  that  body 
There  are  57  members  in  the  legislature  (includ- 
ing the  ministry) ,  all  elected  by  direct  vote  of  the 
people.  After  the  provincial  general  election  held 
on  Mar  21,  1940,  the  standing  of  parties  in  the 
legislature  was  *  Social  Credit  36,  Independents  19, 
Labor  and  Liberal  1  each  The  province  is  rep- 
resented by  6  senators  (appointed  for  life)  and  17 
commoners  in  the  Dominion  parliament  at  Ottawa. 
Lieutenant-Governor,  J.  C.  Bowen  (appointed 
Mar.  20,  1937)  ;  Premier,  William  Aberhart  (So- 
cial Credit).  See  CANADA. 

ALBERT  CANAL.  See  BELGIUM  under  His- 
tory; EUROPEAN  WAR. 

ALCOHOLIC  LIQUORS.  Trends  in  the 
production  of  alcoholic  liquors  since  the  repeal  of 
the  prohibition  amendment  in  1933  appear  in  the 
accompanying  table  from  the  report  of  the  Alcohol 
Tax  Administration  of  the  U.S.  Treasury  Depart- 
ment. Production  of  alcoholic  beverages  has  main- 
tained a  fairly  even  pace  for  the  past  three  or  four 
years,  indicating  a  better  adjustment  of  the  indus- 
try to  demand  than  was  possible  in  the  years  im- 
mediately following  repeal.  The  quantity  of  alco- 
hol produced  more  than  doubled  in  the  seven-year 
period;  since  the  larger  portion  of  alcohol  is  de- 


with  demand,  bootlegging  continued  to  thrive  in 
the  immediately  succeeding  years  and  seizures  were 
still  at  the  high  level  of  21,373,107  gal.  for  the 
fiscal  year  1935  By  contrast,  the  figure  for  1938 
was  7,553,848  gal.,  for  1939  was  8,076,461,  and  for 
1940  reached  the  new  low  of  6,480,240  The  num- 
ber of  stills  seized  in  1940  was  10,663;  number  of 
vehicles  seized,  4523 ;  number  of  persons  arrested, 
25,638. 

ALCOHOLISM.  See  PSYCHIATRY. 

ALEXANDRETTA,  Sanjak  of.  See  SYRIA 
AND  LEBANON. 

ALFALFA.  See  ENTOMOLOGY,  ECONOMIC  ;  HAY 

ALGERIA.  A  North  African  colony  of 
France.  Area,  851,350  square  miles,  of  which  all 
except  222,206  square  miles  are  desert.  Capital, 
Algiers  (Alger).  The  estimated  population  (Dec 
31,  1938)  was  7,490,000.  At  the  1936  census  there 
were  7,234,684  inhabitants  (6,592,033  in  the  North- 
ern Territory  and  642,651  in  the  Southern  Terri- 
tory), including  987,252  Europeans  (853,209 
French  citizens)  and  6,247,432  Moslem  natives 
On  July  22,  1940,  there  were  20,000  Italians  per- 
manently established  in  Algeria  Chief  cities  (1936 
populations).  Algiers,  264,232;  Oran,  200,671, 
Constantine,  113,777;  Bona  (Bone),  86,332;  Phil- 
ippeville,  66,112;  Sidibel-Abbes,  54,754.  Education 
(1938)  :  For  non-Moslem  education,  there  were 
21,249  pupils  in  120  infant  schools,  159,725  pupils 
in  1224  primary  schools,  9386  pupils  in  30  higher 
primary  schools,  14,306  pupils  in  18  secondary 
schools,  484  students  in  6  normal  schools  for 


ALGERIA 


21 


ALUMINUM 


teachers,  and  2248  students  in  the  university  at 
Algiers.  For  Moslem  education,  there  were  77,022 
students  in  692  schools. 

Production.  The  mam  occupations  of  the  peo- 
ple are  agriculture  and  stock  raising.  In  1939  the 
yields  of  the  important  cereal  crops  (in  metric 
tons)  were:  Wheat  1,160,000,  barley  1,100,000, 
oats  220,000  Other  important  products  (1938  pro- 
duction figures  in  metric  tons  unless  otherwise 
stated)  were:  Olive  oil  10,300  (1938-39),  potatoes 
145,300,  tobacco  19,400,  wool  and  mohair  7400, 
wine  567,703,479  U.S.  gal  Dates,  figs,  bananas, 
and  almonds  grow  abundantly.  Livestock  (1938)  : 
181,000  horses,  182,000  mules,  319,000  asses,  789,- 
000  cattle,  5,965,000  sheep,  2,737,000  goats,  170,- 
000  camels,  and  60,000  swine.  The  1936  fisher- 
ies catch  was  valued  at  51,750,397  francs  Mineral 
production  (1938),  in  metric  tons  (figures  are,  in 
most  cases,  for  metal  content  of  ore)  iron  ore 
1,649,000,  lead  4400,  phosphate  rock  584,000,  py- 
rites 44,000,  zinc  ore  7000,  antimony  150 

Foreign  Trade.  In  1938,  imports  totaled  4,995,- 
000  francs;  exports,  5,639,000  francs.  Normally 
over  80  per  cent  of  Algeria's  trade  was  with 
France  The  average  exchange  value  of  the  franc 
was  $0.0251  for  1939,  $0.0288  for  1938.  See  TRADE, 
FOREIGN 

Finance.  Budget  (1939):  Revenue,  2,416,617,- 
471  francs;  expenditure,  2,322,898,075  francs  Es- 
timates (1940)-  Revenue,  2,526,128,968  francs; 
expenditure,  2,525,778,285  francs 

Transportation.  The  2735  miles  of  railway 
line  open  for  traffic  during  1938  carried  8,439,899 
passengers  and  5,328,321  tons  of  freight.  The  air 
services  with  France,  Morocco,  Belgian  Congo, 
French  Congo,  and  Tunisia  were  disrupted  as  a 
result  of  the  capitulation  of  France  in  the  European 
War  Later  there  was  a  partial  restoration  of  air 
communications  During  1938  some  3956  ships  ag- 
gregating 7,163,459  tons  entered  the  ports  of  Al- 
geria See  ROADS  AND  STRFETS. 

History.  Algeria  and  the  adjoining  French 
North  African  colonies  became  the  principal  bas- 
tion of  French  power  and  the  principal  hope  for 
survival  of  the  French  empire  after  the  French 
Government's  capitulation  to  Germany  in  June, 
1940  Substantial  sentiment  for  continuing  the  war 
on  the  side  of  the  "Free  French"  forces  of  Gen 
Charles  de  Gaulle  was  reported.  However  the  ci- 
vilian officials  and  military  commanders  of  French 
North  Africa  adhered  to  the  Vichy  Government 
and  successfully  held  their  colonies  in  line  The 
British  attack  on  the  French  fleet  at  Oran  on  Ju- 
ly 3  strengthened  North  Africa's  ties  with  the  Pe- 
tain  Government. 

Gen  Auguste  Nogues,  French  High  Commis- 
sioner for  North  Africa  and  commander  of  its 
armed  forces,  declared  on  June  25  that  the  armed 
forces  would  not  be  reduced  despite  the  signing 
of  the  armistice  and  that  any  foreign  effort  to 
seize  control  would  be  resisted.  However  members 
of  the  Italian  Armistice  Commission  were  report- 
ed in  December  to  be  controlling  shipping  between 
French  North  African  ports  and  Marseille 

To  tighten  its  grip  on  North  Africa,  the  Vichy 
Government  in  mid- July  appointed  Admiral  Jean 
Marie  Abrial  to  replace  Georges  Le  Beau  as  Gov- 
ernor General  of  Algeria.  Later  Gen.  Maxime 
Weygand  was  sent  to  Algiers  to  command  all 
French  armed  forces  in  Africa  and  Syria.  At  the 
risk  of  alienating  the  native  Jewish  and  Moslem 
populations,  Governor  General  Abrial  placed  in 
effect  many  of  the  anti-democratic  measures  pre- 


viously introduced  in  France  by  the  Petain  Gov- 
ernment The  Cremieux  Law  of  1870,  giving  the 
Jews  of  Algeria  the  same  civil  and  political  rights 
as  Frenchmen,  was  repealed  on  October  8. 

Like  the  neighboring  French  colonies,  Algeria 
was  hard  hit  economically  by  the  developments  in 
France  and  the  subsequent  partial  application  of 
the  British  blockade.  In  mid-July  directors  of  fi- 
nancial and  economic  services  in  French  North 
Africa  met  in  Algiers  to  seek  a  restoration  of 
normal  economic  activity  through  developing  inter- 
colonial trade,  etc  Little  improvement  in  condi- 
tions was  apparent  by  the  year's  end  and  economic 
difficulties  were  said  to  be  fanning  native  unrest 

See  EUROPEAN  WAR  under  Effects  of  the  Fall 
of  France ;  FRANCE  under  History. 

ALIENS  AND  ALIEN  REGISTRATION. 
See  IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRATION,  AND  NATURAII- 
ZATION  ,  INTERNATIONAL  LAW  under  Nationality , 
UNITED  STATES  under  Aliens  and  Disturbers. 

ALL-AMERICAN  CANAL.  See  AQUE- 
DUCTS ;  RECLAMATION,  BUREAU  OF 

ALSACE-LORRAINE.  The  two  border 
provinces  annexed  by  Germany  after  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  and  returned  to  France  by  the  Ver- 
sailles Treaty  (June  29,  1919).  They  were  re- 
occupied  by  German  troops  in  June,  1940,  and  re- 
incorporated  in  the  Reich  on  or  about  Nov  30, 
1940.  Area,  5605  square  miles;  population  (1936 
census),  1,915,627.  Lorraine  was  merged  with  the 
Saar  district  (Saarpfalz)  to  form  the  new  Ger- 
man province  of  Westmark.  See  FRANCE  and  GER- 
MANY under  History 

ALTMARK  INCIDENT.  See  NORWAY  un- 
der History 

ALUMINUM.  Two  events  of  1940  marked  the 
importance  of  aluminum  and  its  principal  ore, 
bauxite,  in  the  conduct  of  modern  warfare  The 
defense  program  of  the  United  States,  coupled 
with  aid  to  Great  Britain,  created  a  demand  for 
light  metals  and  alloys  for  airplanes  and  other 
equipment  that  made  necessary  a  great  increase  in 
domestic  production  facilities.  The  conquest  of 
France  by  Germany  gave  the  latter  full  access  to 
the  high  grade  bauxite  deposits  that  had  previously 
made  France  the  largest  single  producer  of  the 
ore  It  may  be  assumed,  therefore,  in  the  absence 
of  statistics,  that  Germany  continued  in  1940  to 
hold  first  place  as  a  producer  of  aluminum,  with 
the  United  States  second,  as  in  1939 

During  the  year  the  Aluminum  Company  of 
America  announced  three  price  reductions  of  one 
cent  each,  in  March,  August,  and  November, 
bringing  the  price  down  to  17^  per  Ib  A  price  of 
20tf  had  prevailed  throughout  1938  and  1939  The 
company  also  greatly  expanded  its  facilities  for 
producing  metal  Ingot  production  in  the  latter 
part  of  1940  reached  the  rate  of  about  465,000,000 
Ib  per  year,  compared  with  327,000,000  Ib.  in  1939. 
Production  was  expected  to  reach  an  annual  rate 
of  690,000,000  Ib.  by  July,  1941,  and  825,000,000 
Ib.  early  in  1942. 

The  Government  lent  the  Reynolds  Metals  Com- 
pany $15,800,000  to  construct  a  plant  in  the  Ten- 
nessee Valley  for  the  production  of  10,000  tons  of 
aluminum  a  year.  Construction  was  to  be  com- 
pleted  in  1941. 

Transit  difficulties  affected  normal  shipments 
of  ore  from  Italy,  Yugoslavia,  Greece,  Hungary, 
Rumania.  Production  in  the  Guianas  was  greatly 
increased  to  supply  the  United  States  and  Canada 
Imports  of  crude  bauxite  ores  into  the  United 


AMBASSADORS  AND  MINISTERS      22 


AMERICAN  FEDERATION 


States  for  the  calendar  year  of  1940  amounted  to 
629,552  tons. 

Public  anxiety  over  reported  shortage  in  alu- 
minum supplies,  and  the  effect  of  that  shortage  on 
national  defense  was  quieted  by  the  National  De- 
fense Commission,  which  explained  that  ample 
provision  had  been  made  for  metal  production, 
and  a  temporary  deficiency  in  forge-hammer  ca- 
pacity was  rapidly  being  remedied. 

See  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL;  ELECTRICAL  IN- 
DUSTRIES ;  LABOR  CONDITIONS  under  Strikes. 

H.  C.  PARMELEE. 

AMBASSADORS  AND  MINISTERS. 

The  accompanying  table  lists  the  diplomatic  rep- 
DIPLOMATIC  REPRESENTATIVES  BETWEEN  THE 


resentatives  accredited  to  and  from  the  United 
States,  as  reported  in  the  Department  of  State's 
Diplomatic  List  for  December,  1940,  and  Foreign 
Service  List  as  revised  up  to  Jan.  1,  1941.  The 
abbreviations  following  the  names  are  to  be  in- 
terpreted as  follows :  (A),  Ambassador  extraordi- 
nary and  plenipotentiary;  (E),  Envoy  extraordi- 
nary and  minister  plenipotentiary;  (C),  Consul 
general. 

AMERICA,  S.S.  See  SHIPBUILDING 
AMERICAN  COMMUNIST  PARTY.  See 
COMMUNISM;  ELECTIONS,  U.S.  NATIONAL. 

AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR 
(A.F.L.).  The  year  1940  marked  the  completion 
of  60  years  of  service  by  the  American  Federation 
UNITED  STATES  AND  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES,  1940 


Country 

Afghanistan 
Argentina . . 
Australia  . 


_  Jvia 

Brazil   . 

Bulgaria  . 

Canada 

Chile     .   . 

China 

Colombia 

Costa  Rica 

Cuba 

Czechoslovakia     . 

Denmark 

Dominican  Republic 

Ecuador 


_.  lalvador 

Estonia 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Great  Britain 

Greece 

Guatemala 

Haiti        

Honduras 

Hungary 

Iran 

Iraq     . 

Ireland.     . 

Italy       .     .       . 

Japan  .. 

Latvia     . 

Liberia 

Lithuania 

Mexico 

Netherlands  .   . 

Nicaragua         .    . 

Norway 

Panama 

Paraguay 

Peru 

Poland 

Portugal  .          .   . 

Rumania 

Saudi  Arabia 

Spain  .        .     . 

Sweden        

Switzerland         .   .   . . 

Thailand  (Siam)     .   . . 

Turkey 

Union  of  South  Africa 

USSR  .     . 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

Yugoslavia 


To  ike  United  States 

Don  Felipe  A  Espil  (A) 

Richard  G  Casey  (E) 

Count  Robert  van  der  Straten-Ponthoz  (A) 

Don  Luis  Fernando  Guachalla  (E) 

Carlos  Martins  (A) 

Dimitri  Naoumoff  (E) 

LoringC  Christie  (E)  * 

Don  Alberto  Cabero  (A) 

HuShih(A) 

Gabriel  Turbay  (A) 

Don  Luis  Fernandez  (E) 

Pedro  Martinez  Fraga  (A) 

Vladimir  Hurban  (E)  .   . 

Henrik  de  Kauffmann  (E)        

Don  Andre's  Pastoriza  (E) 
Capitan  Colon  Eloy  Alfaro  (E)  «  . 
Mahmoud  Hassan  Bey  (E)          .     . 
Don  Hector  David  Castro  (E) 
Johannes  Kaw  (C)  • 
HjalmarJ  Procope"  (E) 
Gaston  Henry-Haye  (A) 
Hans  Heinrich  Diecknoff  (A)  «       .   . 
Marquess  of  Lothian  (A)  * 
Cimon  P  Diamantopoulos  (E) 

Don  Adrian  Recinos  (E)         

Ehe  Lescot  (E)       ..  

Don  Julian  R  Caceres  (E) 

Stephen  de  Rothkugel I  .   . 

Mohammed  Schayesteh 

Robert  Brennan  (E) 
Ascanio  del  pnncipi  Colonna  (A) 
.Morito  Morismma' 
Alfred  Bilmanls  (E) 

Povilas  Zadeikis  (E) 
Don  Francisco  Castillo  Nijera  (A) 
A  Loudon  (E) 
Don  Leon  De  Bayle  (E) 
Wilhelm  Munthe  de  Morgenstierne  (E) 
Don  George  E  Boyd  (A) 
.  Don  Juan  Jose*  Soler  (E) 
Don  Manuel  de  Freyre  y  Santander  (A) 
Count  Jerzy  Potocki  (A) 
Tpfto  Antonio  de  Bianchi  (E) 
Brutus  Coste/ 

Don  Juan  Francisco  de  Cardenas  (A)     . . 

W  Bostrom  (E)  

.  Charles  Bruggmann  (E)          

.Mom  Rajawongse  Scni  Pramoj  (E)   . . 

Mchmet  Mttnir  Ertegtln  (A) 

Ralph  William  Close  (E) 

Constantme  A  Oumansky  (A) 

J  Richlmg  (E) 

Don  Diogenes  Escalantc  (A) 

Constantin  Fotitch  (E) 


From  the  United  States 
Louis  G  Dreyfus,  Jr  (E)  • 
Norman  Armour  (A) 
.  Clarence  A  Gauss  (E) 
John  Cudahy  (A) 
Douglas  Jenkins  (E) 
Jefferson  Caffery  (A) 
George  H  Earle  III  (E) 
Jay  Pierrepont  Moffat  (E) 
Claude  G.  Bowers  (A) 
Nelson  T  Johnson  (A) 
Spruille  Braden  (A) 
William  H  Hormbrook  (E) 
George  S  Messersmith  (A) 

Ray  Atherton  (E) 
Robert  M.  Scotten  (E) 
Boaz  Long  (E) 
Bert  Fish  (E)«* 
Robert  Frazer  (E) 

£»hn  C  Wiley  (E)  / 
F  Arthur  Schoenfeld  (E) 

Admiral  William  D  Leahy  (A) 

~~"^™"~"" "*~  (A) 

(A)« 

Lincoln  MacVeagh  (E) 

Fay  A  DCS  Port es  (E) 

Ferdinand  L.  Mayer  (E) 

John  D.  Erwin  (E) 

John  Flournoy  Montgomery  (E) 

Louis  G,  Dreyfus,  Jr  (E)  * 

Paul  Knabenshue  (C) 

David  Gray  (E) 

William  Phillips  (A) 

Joseph  C  Grew  (A) 

John  C  Wiley  (E)  * 

Lester  A  Walton  (E) 

Owen  J  C.  Norem  (E) 

Joscphus  Daniels  (A) 

George  A  Gordon  (E) 

Meredith  Nicholson  (E) 

Mrs  Florence  Jaffray  Harriman  (E) 
.  William  Dawson  (A) 

Findley  B  Howard  (E) 

R  Henry  Norweb  (A) 

Anthony  J  Drexel  Biddle.  Jr.  (A) 

Herbert  Claiborne  Pell  (E) 

Franklin  Mott  Gunther  (E) 

Bert  Fish  (E)  » 

Alexander  W  Weddell(A) 

Frederick  A.  Sterling  (E) 

Leland  Harrison  (E) 

Hugh  Gladney  Grant  (E) 

John  Van  A.  MacMurray  (A) 

Leo  J.  Kcena  (E) 

Laurence  A  Stemhardt  (A) 

Edwin  C  Wilson  (E) 
.  Frank  P  Corngan  (A) 
,  Arthur  Bliss  Lane  (E) 


•  Accredited  also  to  Iran  b  Succeeded  by  Lcighton  McCarthy  announced  on  Feb  25, 1941  •  Holds  the  rank  of  Ambassador  for  the 
duration  of  the  Ecuador-Peru  boundary  dispute  *  Accredited  also  to  Saudi-Arabia;  resident  at  Cairo,  Egypt  •  Acting  /  Accredited 
also  to  Latvia  •  Absent.  *  Marquess  of  Lothian  died  Dec  21, 1940;  succeeded  by  Lord  Halifax,  appointed  Dec  23,  1940  •'  John  G 
Winant,  appointment  confirmed  on  Feb.  10, 1941.  /  Charge*  d 'Affaires  ad  interim.  *  Accredited  also  to  Afghanistan  l  Accredited  also  to 
Estonia  *  Accredited  also  to  Egypt;  resident  at  Cairo,  Egypt 

NOTE.  On  Feb  10. 1941,  the  United  States  Senate  unanimously  confirmed  the  following  nominations:  John  G  Winant  to  be  Ambassador 
to  Great  Britain;  Anthony  J  Drexel  Biddle,  Jr ,  Ambassador  to  Poland,  to  serve  also  as  Ambassador  to  the  governments  of  Belgium, 
Norway,  and  The  Netherlands  at  London,  England;  Alexander  C  Kirk  to  be  Minister  to  Egypt;  Jay  Pierrepont  Moffat,  Minister  to  Can- 
ada, to  serve  also  as  Minister  to  the  government  of  Luxemburg  now  established  in  Canada;  Nelson  T  Johnson,  Ambassador  to  China, 
to  be  Minister  to  Australia;  Bert  Fish,  Minister  to  Egypt,  to  be  Minister  to  Portugal;  Edwin  C  Wilson,  Minister  to  Uruguay,  to  be 
Minister  to  Panama;  Clarence  E  Gauss,  Minister  to  Australia,  to  be  Ambassador  to  China:  William  Dawson,  Minister  to  Panama,  to  be 
Ambassador  to  Uruguay.  Admiral  Kichisaburo  Nomura,  the  new  Japanese  Ambassador  to  the  United  States,  presented  his  credentials  to 
President  Roosevelt  on  Feb.  14, 1941. 


AMERICAN  FEDERATION 


23 


AMERICAN  FEDERATION 


of  Labor  to  the  people  of  America.  During  those 
years  the  membership  of  the  Federation  grew  from 
50,000  to  4,247,443  (the  figure  presented  to  the  1940 
convention,  representing  the  tax-paying  member- 
ship on  Aug.  31,  1940) ;  and  working  and  living 
conditions  for  the  vast  millions  of  wage  earners 
and  their  dependents  have  been  improved  to  an  ex- 
tent that  would  have  been  considered  beyond  possi- 
ble attainment  at  the  beginning  of  the  history  of 
the  organization.  Work  hours  have  been  reduced, 
wages  greatly  increased,  and  opportunities  for 
growth,  recreation,  and  improvement  culturally  and 
economically  achieved  both  for  those  organized  in 
trade  unions  and  others  who  benefited  indirectly 
through  the  organized  trade  union  movement. 

In  startling  contrast  with  the  almost  complete 
destruction  of  the  trade  union  movements  of  the 
Old  World,  the  reports  submitted  to  the  1940  con- 
vention of  the  Federation  showed  progress  in  every 
way.  The  treasury  reflected  the  healthy  condition 
of  the  movement  by  a  report  of  receipts  in  excess 
of  expenditures  by  $169,47646  During  the  year 
$953,481.38  was  expended  for  organizing  expenses 
which  included  services  to  directly  affiliated  trade 
and  Federal  labor  unions  as  well  as  the  formation 
of  and  assistance  to  newly  formed  locals  of  na- 
tional and  international  unions  and  on  behalf  of 
State  federations  of  labor  and  city  central  bodies 

In  the  12  month  period  ending  Aug.  31,  1940, 
327  charters  were  issued  Of  these  2  were  to  new 
international  unions  (the  United  Cement,  Lime 
and  Gypsum  Workers  International  Union,  and 
Circus,  Carnival,  Fairs,  Rodeo  International  Un- 
ion) ;  23  to  central  bodies,  229  to  local  trade  un- 
ions, and  73  to  Federal  labor  unions.  On  Aug.  31, 
1940,  there  were  affiliated  with  the  A.F.L.  a  total 
of  105  national  and  international  unions  comprising 
approximately  35,000  local  unions,  49  State  federa- 
tions of  labor,  816  central  labor  unions,  4  Depart- 
ments, 1450  directly  affiliated  local  trade  and  Fed- 
eral labor  unions.  Total  membership  increased  by 
241,089.  The  organizing  staff  comprised  141  spe- 
cial paid  organizers,  1822  volunteer  organizers,  and 
the  officers  of  the  816  central  bodies  who  are  avail- 
able on  call  to  duty  in  assisting  directly  affiliated 
unions  in  case  of  strike  or  lockout 

There  were  two  changes  in  the  official  family  of 
the  A  F.L.  in  1940  occasioned  by  the  death  of  John 
Coefield,  and  the  resignation  of  Arthur  O.  Whar- 
ton.  The  Executive  Council  consists  of  the  follow- 
ing: William  Green,  President;  George  Mcany, 
Secretary-Treasurer ;  Vice-Presidents,  William  L. 
Hutcheson,  T  A.  Rickert,  Matthew  Woll,  Joseph 
N.  Weber,  G.  M.  Bugniazet,  George  M.  Harrison, 
Daniel  J.  Tobin,  Harry  C.  Bates,  Edward  J  Gain- 
or,  W.  D.  Mahon,  Felix  H.  Knight,  George  E. 
Browne,  Edward  Flore,  Harvey  W.  Brown,  and 
W.  C.  Birthright,  in  the  order  named.  Elections 
are  held  at  the  annual  conventions.  All  incumbent 
officers  were  re-elected  for  the  year  ending  Dec. 
31,  1941. 

In  accordance  with  the  plan  of  organization 
whereby  related  unions  are  first  formed  into  na- 
tional councils  under  the  guidance  of  the  A  F.L. 
prior  to  being  chartered  as  autonomous  national  or 
international  unions,  two  additional  councils  were 
formed  in  1940— the  National  Council  of  Chemical 
Workers  Unions,  and  the  American  Editorial  As- 
sociation. 

As  a  result  of  conferences  between  officers  of  the 
two  organizations  at  interest,  within  the  past  year 
the  International  Ladies  Garment  Workers  Union 
again  resumed  affiliation  with  the  A.F.L.  Confer- 


ences looking  toward  a  return  of  the  International 
Typographical  Union  to  affiliation  with  the  Ameri- 
can Federation  of  Labor,  were  being  held  at  the 
end  of  the  year. 

As  the  need  became  greater  for  increased  fi- 
nances with  which  to  engage  in  organization  work, 
a  temporary  increase  in  the  per  capita  tax  was 
effected  in  1937  by  an  assessment  of  one  cent  per 
member  per  month  on  all  members  of  national  and 
international  unions.  The  success  which  has  at- 
tended organizing  efforts  was  convincing  proof  of 
the  need  for  a  continuation  of  this  work  through 
sustained  increase  in  the  established  income  of  the 
Federation,  and  as  a  result  the  constitution  was 
amended  by  the  1940  convention  to  fix  the  per 
capita  tax  from  national  and  international  unions 
at  two  cents  per  member  per  month.  This  was,  in 
effect,  a  continuation  of  the  amount  which  has 
been  paid  since  1937  but  establishes  the  revenue  of 
the  Federation  on  a  permanent  and  stable  basis. 

As  the  effectiveness  of  trade  unions  has  in- 
creased and  their  power  in  the  economic  world  has 
become  accepted,  there  have  been  those  who  have 
sought  to  utilize  offices  within  the  labor  movement 
for  their  own  unscrupulous  purposes  This  has 
mitigated  against  the  best  interests  of  the  labor 
movement  as  a  whole.  The  danger  from  such  mis- 
use of  trade  union  membership  and  office  was  rec- 
ognized in  the  1940  convention,  and  a  report  of  the 
Federation's  Executive  Council  was  adopted  call- 
ing upon  all  members  of  unions  directly  chartered 
by  the  A  F  L.  to  exercise  all  care  and  diligence  in 
preventing  exploiters  and  gangsters  from  securing 
official  positions  in  their  organizations  and  from 
exercising  control  over  their  administrative  poli- 
cies. The  national  and  international  unions  char- 
tered by  the  A.F  L  are  autonomous  and  exercise 
full  and  complete  authority  over  their  own  ad- 
ministrative policies  so  far  as  the  Federation  is 
concerned.  However,  the  Executive  Council  urged 
that  the  membership  of  such  unions  select  and  elect 
men  of  known  honesty  and  integrity  to  official  po- 
sitions, and  to  prevent  those  with  criminal  records 
from  holding  official  positions  or  from  representing 
them  in  any  capacity  whatsoever.  This  admonition 
of  the  Executive  Council,  adopted  by  the  conven- 
tion, clarifies  the  position  of  the  A  F  L.  with  re- 
gard to  undesirable  persons  within  the  labor  move- 
ment. 

During  the  year  1940  the  A  F.L  continued  its 
study  of  the  facts  showing  the  relation  between 
productivity  and  hours  of  work  in  industry.  This 
has  been  especially  important  in  view  of  the  in- 
creasing demand  being  made  upon  American  in- 
dustry for  defense  materials  and  the  advancement 
of  a  short-sighted  policy  advocating  abandonment 
of  established  standards  governing  hours  of  work 
without  regard  for  the  supply  of  labor  available 
and  not  being  utilized.  The  investigation  reaffirmed 
the  position  of  Labor  that  the  shorter  work  week 
is  imperative  to  sustained  economic  advance  The 
Federation  took  a  positive  stand  against  pressure 
exerted  by  certain  manufacturers  for  at  least  a 
relaxation  of  the  40-hour  week  standard  which  be- 
came effective  Oct.  24,  1940,  under  the  Fair  Labor 
Standards  Act,  and  declared  for  even  greater  ad- 
justment of  work  hours  to  increasing  productivity. 

Careful  consideration  has  been  given  to  the  rela- 
tion between  increased  productivity  and  earnings. 
Increasing  productivity  has  made  possible  a  steady 
decline  in  labor  costs,  and  while  average  hourly 
earnings  reached  an  all-time  peak  in  1940,  manu- 
facturers' labor  cost  is  considerably  below  the  level 


AMERICAN  FEDERATION 


24 


AMERICAN  LEGION 


of  ten  years  ago.  This  brings  out  a  very  important 
economic  factor,  as  pointed  out  by  the  Executive 
Council :  while  wages  have  risen  steadily,  the  la- 
bor costs  to  manufacturers  have  steadily  declined. 
It  is,  however,  a  fact  that  a  large  part  of  the  saving 
from  reduced  labor  costs  have  been  passed  on  to 
the  consumer.  In  its  report  to  the  1940  convention 
the  Executive  Council  further  pointed  out  that  by 
steadily  increasing  productivity  American  industry 
can  pay  an  hourly  wage  22  per  cent  above  1939, 
charge  a  price  15  per  cent  below  1929,  and  still 
reduce  labor  cost  per  $100  of  product  by  5.7  per 
cent.  This  steady  increase  in  productivity  makes 
possible  a  continual  rise  in  wages  and  shortening 
of  hours 

During  1940  the  Federation  continued  a  full 
measure  of  co-operation  in  the  administration  of 
the  Fair  Labor  Standards  Law  and  in  an  effort  to 
broaden  its  scope  as  well  as  improve  standards  un- 
der the  law.  Representatives  of  the  A  F.L.  have 
served  on  all  industry  committees  appointed,  pre- 
senting evidence  and  arguments  at  all  hearings 

Efforts  were  also  made  during  the  year  to  secure 
amendments  to  the  National  Labor  Relations  Act 
so  that  it  may  more  nearly  appi  oximate  its  original 
intent  and  purpose 

In  connection  with  the  defense  program  in  which 
the  Nation  is  engaged,  the  Federation  has  consid- 
ered the  problem  of  maintenance  of  social  security 
rights  earned  by  workers  while  engaged  in  covered 
industries  and  who  may  now  or  later  be  engaged  in 
government  work  or  military  service  The  A  F  L 
convention  went  on  record  as  favoring  adequate 
protection  for  such  workers  by  co-ordination  of 
existing  plans  to  provide  for  all  workers  engaged 
in  the  defense  program. 

In  connection  with  relief  agencies,  the  A  F  L 
convention  gave  special  consideration  to  WPA  and 
housing  projects  In  connection  with  WPA  and 
other  Fedeial  iclief  projects  the  Federation  de- 
clared its  belief  that  in  the  development  and  expan- 
sion of  the  defense  program  a  clear-cut  separation 
should  be  made  between  public  works  and  work 
relief  The  Federation  further  declared  in  favor 
of  a  long-range  public  works  program  designed  to 
meet  the  immediate  public  works  needs  of  the  na- 
tion and  provide  the  necessary  means  of  expansion 
and  curtailment  of  public  works  projects  in  har- 
mony with  general  economic  conditions.  The  1940 
convention  recorded  approval  of  the  USHA  pro- 
gram and  authorized  a  continuation  of  efforts  to 
secure  legislation  necessary  for  the  continuation  of 
the  low-rent  housing  and  slum  clearance  programs 
The  Federation  went  on  record  also  as  favoring  an 
integrated  and  sound  program  of  defense  housing 
to  provide  adequate  housing  facilities  for  indus- 
trial workers  and  to  assure  the  fullest  possible 
utilization  of  these  facilities  to  meet  the  needs  of 
the  workers  following  the  emergency 

Serious  thought  and  consideration  was  given 
during  the  year  to  efforts  on  the  part  of  some  gov- 
ernment officials  to  attack  organized  labor  through 
application  of  the  Sherman  Antitrust  Law  to  trade 
union  activities.  A  history  of  this  procedure  was 
presented  to  the  1940  convention,  which  in  turn  an- 
nounced the  purpose  of  the  A.F  L.  to  challenge  this 
trend  toward  government  control  over  the  collec- 
tive bargaining  process  through  the  use  of  anti- 
trust litigation 

The  activities  of  the  Federation  in  the  field  of 
adult  and  vocational  education  have  been  continued. 
Through  the  Permanent  Committee  on  Education 
of  the  A.F.L.  which  functions  throughout  the  year, 


study  has  been  made  of  the  trends  in  the  vocational 
training  field  through  the  NYA,  the  CCC,  and 
other  branches  of  the  government  concerned  with 
training  of  workers.  Special  consideration  has  been 
given  to  training  of  workers  for  defense  produc- 
tion and  the  Federation  went  on  record  as  favoring 
a  program  to  be  developed  by  management  and 
labor  jointly. 

Formed  principally  for  the  organization  of  wage 
earners  into  trade  unions,  the  A.F.L.  placed  pai- 
ticular  emphasis  on  such  work  during  the  year.  Re- 
gional confeiences  for  the  purpose  of  instituting 
organizing  drives  in  their  respective  regions  were 
held  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  for  the  10  southern  States, 
Dallas,  Tex.,  covering  the  5  southwestern  States , 
and  Hartford,  Conn.,  for  the  6  New  England 
States.  The  regional  conferences  were  highly  suc- 
cessful and  met  a  two-fold  purpose — they  stim- 
ulated interest  in  organization  and  promoted  better 
understanding  of  the  policies  and  principles  of  the 
Federation. 

In  reporting  on  legal  activities  engaged  in  during 
the  year,  special  attention  was  called  to  successful 
efforts  in  securing  the  voidance  of  the  Oregon 
Anti-Picketing  Law,  nullification  of  the  Alabama 
Anti-Picketing  Law,  as  well  as  other  legal  cases 
which  are  of  special  importance  to  workers  gen- 
erally. 

Conforming  to  the  precedent  established  during 
the  last  world  emergency  the  A  F  L  recommends 
that  the  members  of  directly  affiliated  local  trade 
and  Federal  labor  unions  who  are  drafted  or  other- 
wise enter  into  military  service  shall  be  exempt 
from  the  payment  of  all  local  dues  and  per  capita 
tax  to  the  A  F  L  while  engaged  in  such  military 
service.  Provisions  were  recommended  for  the  vol- 
untary continuation  of  benefit  rights  in  the  union 
by  the  individual  should  he  so  desire. 

The  A  F  L.  went  on  record  as  favoring  economic 
boycotts  against  the  aggressor  nations  of  Germany 
and  Japan.  With  the  increasing  importance  of  Pan- 
American  relations  the  1940  convention  of  the 
Federation  authorized  a  study  into  the  advisability 
of  revitalizing  the  Pan-American  Federation  of 
Labor  and  planning  next  steps  to  increase  its  ef- 
fectiveness. 

In  unmistakable  terms  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor  reiterated  its  opposition  to  all  forms  of 
communism,  fascism,  nazism,  or  any  other  form  of 
totalitarianism  and  its  strict  adherence  to  demo- 
cratic principles  and  practices 

See  COMMUNISM;  LABOR  CONDITIONS. 

WILLIAM  GREEN. 

AMERICAN  LABOR  PARTY.  See  COM- 

MUNISM. 

AMERICAN  LEGION,  The.  An  organiza- 
tion of  World  War  veterans,  chartered  by  Con- 
gress in  1919  Its  22nd  national  convention  was 
held  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Sept  23  to  26,  1940.  The 
climax  of  the  convention  was  a  12-hour  parade, 
Tuesday,  September  24,  by  100,000  marchers  be- 
fore 2,500,000  spectators.  The  next  convention  will 
be  at  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  Sept.  15  to  18,  1941. 

The  Boston  convention  resolved  on  the  war  • 
"We  believe  that  a  sound  national  defense  policy 
for  this  country  requires  that  we  should  at  this 
time  give  all  practicable  aid  to  Great  Britain  and 
those  aligned  with  her  in  their  fight  for  freedom." 

The  national  executive  committee  in  Indianapo- 
lis, Nov.  21  and  22,  1940,  designated  the  major 
national  legislative  program  for  1941  as  (1)  na- 
tional defense;  (2)  government  protection  for 


AMERICAN  LEGION 


25 


ANGLO-EGYPTIAN  SUDAN 


World  War  widows  and  orphans ;  (3)  civil  serv- 
ice, veterans'  preference,  and  employment;  (4) 
Americanism,  including  further  restriction  of  im- 
migration, continuation  of  the  Dies  committee, 
and  increasing  of  the  personnel  of  the  FBI. 

Major  1940  accomplishments  included: 

National  Defense.  The  $17,000,000,000  ex- 
penditures for  national  defense  authorized  by  the 
/6th  Congress  put  steps  in  motion  to  substantially 
complete  the  long-sought  national  defense  objec- 
tives of  the  Legion.  Its  defense  endeavor  now,  ac- 
cording to  Warren  H.  Atherton,  Stockton,  Cal.. 
chairman  of  the  national  defense  committee,  will 
be  to  strive  for  a  continuing  national  defense  by 
having  the  present  emergency  measures  amended 
to  provide  permanent  defense. 

Americanism.  In  1940  34  boys'  states  were 
conducted  in  which  15,000  boys  were  trained  in 
civic  government  400,000  boys  under  17  again  en- 
rolled in  junior  baseball.  62,000  students  in  40 
states  participated  in  the  annual  high  school  ora- 
torical contest. 

Child  Welfare.  30,000  volunteer  workers  car- 
ried on  this  activity  Incomplete  reports  showed 
the  known  total  of  $4,647,68287  was  expended  in 
emergency  financial  aid  to  454,495  needy  children 
during  the  year,  mostly  for  food,  clothing,  and 
medical  treatments 

Rehabilitation.  A  total  of  $3,255,49896  in 
various  contested  government  benefits  was  recov- 
ered without  cost  to  the  beneficiaries,  by  the  Le- 
gion, through  its  national  rehabilitation  service, 
for  World  War  veterans  and  their  dependents 
during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1940 

Legislation.  1940  was  a  banner  legislative  year 
for  the  Legion  It  saw  the  commencement  of  a 
program  looking  toward  an  adequate  national  de- 
fense; saw  most  of  its  long-championed  univer- 
sal service  principle  enacted  into  law  piecemeal 
through  various  emergency  defense  measures; 
made  further  progress  with  its  legislation  for  gov- 
ernment protection  for  World  War  widows  and 
orphans;  and  the  Dies  committee  for  the  inves- 
tigation of  un-American  activities,  was  continued 
for  another  year,  with  a  $75,000  appropriation,  by 
a  345  to  21  vote  of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
Jan  23,  1940 

Membership.  During  1940  the  Legion  reached 
a  new  high  in  membership.  Dec.  31,  1940,  there 
were  1,078,119  members  The  posts  numbered  11,- 
115,  also  a  new  high  The  Auxiliary  also  enrolled 
its  highest  membership,  504,299  in  9147  units  The 
Sons  of  The  American  Legion  closed  the  year 
with  66,840  members  in  3450  squadrons.  The  Forty 
and  Eight  membership  climbed  to  a  new  peak 
with  43,594  members  in  700  voitures.  The  Eight 
and  Forty  pushed  to  a  new  high  enrollment  of 
7258  members  in  277  salons 

National  officers  elected  for  1940-41  were  •  Na- 
tional Commander,  Milo  J.  Warner,  Toledo,  Ohio ; 
Vice  Commanders,  Erwin  A  Froyd,  Torrington, 
Wyo ,  James  L.  McCrory,  Omaha,  Neb.,  Harold 
P  Redden,  Springfield,  Mass  ,  Edward  R  Stirling, 
Greensburg,  Pa.,  and  Alcee  S.  Legendre,  New 
Orleans,  La  ;  National  Chaplain,  Brigadier  Wil- 
liam G  Gilks,  The  Salvation  Army,  Dallas, 
Texas;  National  Historian,  Thomas  M.  Owen, 
Jr ,  Washington,  D  C. ;  National  Adjutant,  Frank 
E  Samuel,  Indianapolis,  Ind. ;  National  Treasurer, 
John  R  Ruddick,  Indianapolis,  Ind  ;  National 
Judge  Advocate,  Ralph  B.  Gregg,  Indianapolis, 
Ind  National  headquarters  are  at  777  North  Me- 
ridian St.,  Indianapolis,  Ind.  Legislative,  rehabili- 


tation, and  employment  director  offices  of  The 
American  Legion  are  maintained  in  the  Legion- 
owned  building  at  1608  K  Street,  N.  W.,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.  Editorial  and  advertising  offices  of 
The  American  Legion  Magazine  are  at  15  West 
48th  Street,  New 'York  City 

MILO  J.  WARNER 

AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  See  LITERA- 
TURE, ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN 
AMERICAN  NEGRO  EXPOSITION.  See 

FAIRS,  EXPOSITIONS,  AND  CELEBRATIONS. 
AMERICAN  SAMOA.  See  under  SAMOA. 
AMERICAN    SOCIALIST   PARTY.   See 

ELECTIONS  ;  SOCIALISM. 

ANDORRA.  A  small  republic  in  the  Pyrenees 
between  France  and  Spain,  under  the  joint  suze- 
rainty of  the  French  chief  executive  and  the  Span- 
ish Bishop  of  Urgel.  Area,  191  square  miles; 
population,  5231.  Capital  town,  Andorra.  The  lan- 
guage spoken  is  Catalan.  Sheep  rearing  is  the 
main  occupation  of  the  people.  There  is  a  govern- 
ing body  called  the  council-general  consisting  of 
24  members  (12  elected  every  2  years)  elected  for 
4  years  by  male  citizens  of  25  years  of  age  or 
older.  The  council-general  nominates  the  First 
Syndic  (President)  and  Second  Syndic  (Vice- 
President).  In  a  decree  published  Sept.  24,  1940, 
Marshal  Henri  Philippe  Petain,  French  Chief  of 
State,  assumed  the  title  "co-prince  of  Andorra" 
formerly  held  by  the  President  of  the  French  Re- 
public 

ANGLICAN  COMMUNION.  See  ENGLAND, 
CHURCH  OF 

ANGLO-EGYPTIAN  SUDAN.  A  British- 
Egyptian  condominium  in  northeast  Africa  Area, 
969,600  square  miles ;  estimated  population,  6,342,- 
477  including  53,625  non-natives  Chief  towns 
Khartoum,  the  capital  (46,676  inhabitants),  Om- 
durman  (110,959),  Khartoum  North  and  Rural 
District  (107,720),  Atbara  (19,757),  Port  Sudan 
(18,554),  and  El  Obeid  (17,300) 

Production  and  Trade.  Cotton  (ginned)  and 
gum  arabic  (80  per  cent  of  world's  supply)  are 
the  principal  export  products.  The  chief  grain 
crops  are  great  millet  (the  staple  food  of  the 
Sudanese)  and  bulrush  millet  Other  products 
sesamum,  cottonseed,  groundnuts,  dates,  dom  nuts, 
mahogany,  ghee,  shea  nuts,  salt,  and  gold  Live- 
stock (1938)  :  2,700,000  cattle,  2,500,000  sheep, 
2,000,000  goats,  420,000  camels,  75,000  asses,  and 
23,000  horses.  Trade  (1939)  •  imports  £E5,939,- 
518  (cotton  piece  goods  £E1,002,488,  sugar  £E803,- 
607)  ;  exports  (excluding  re-exports  of  £E304,- 
631)  £E5,367,396  (cotton  £3,410,080,  gum  arahic 
£E71 1,606).  The£E(gyptian)  averaged  U.S  $456 
in  1939  Communications  1991  route  miles  of  rail- 
way; 2325  route  miles  of  river  transport;  5854 
miles  of  telephone  and  telegraph  routes  Shipping 
entered  and  cleared  Port  Sudan  aggregated  746,- 
591  tons  in  1938. 

Government.  Budget  (1939)  •  revenue  £E4,- 
616,902;  expenditure  £E4,865,406.  The  governor- 
general  is  appointed  by  Egypt  with  the  assent  of 
Great  Britain  (Anglo-Egyptian  Convention  of 
1899;  reaffirmed  by  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Treaty 
of  1936).  Ordinances,  laws,  and  regulations  are 
made  by  the  governor-general  in  council.  Gover- 
nor-General, Lieut -Gen.  Sir  Hubert  Huddleston 
who  succeeded  Sir  Stewart  Symes  during  Octo- 
ber, 1940. 

History.  Following  Italy's  entrance  into  the 
European  War  on  June  10,  1940,  the  Anglo- 


ANGOLA 


26 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


Egyptian  Sudan  became  one  of  the  minor  fronts 
in  the  expanding  conflict  The  territory  occupied 
a  strategic  position  separating  the  large  Italian 
armies  in  Libya  from  the  Italian  forces  isolated  in 
Italian  East  Africa  (q.v.).  Early  in  July  Italian 
and  native  troops  operating  from  Eritrea  and 
northern  Ethiopia  captured  the  border  town  of 
Kassala  (pop.,  about  10,000),  terminus  of  a  rail- 
way line  from  Port  Sudan  on  the  Red  Sea  and  an 
important  caravan  center.  Gallabat  and  Kurmuk, 
two  Anglo-Egyptian  posts  south  of  Kassala  on 
the  Ethiopian  frontier,  were  captured  soon  after- 
ward. From  July  through  October  troops  on  both 
sides  were  largely  immobilized  by  heavy  rains  and 
extreme  heat.  The  British  resumed  the  campaign 
on  November  7  by  recapturing  Gallabat  and  in- 
decisive fighting  continued  along  the  border  for 
the  remainder  of  the  year. 

The  government  of  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan 
early  in  1940  agreed  to  Egypt's  terms  for  repay- 
ment of  sums  advanced  to  the  Sudan  by  the  Egyp- 
tian Government  since  1898.  The  total  debt  was 
fixed  at  ££5,414,000.  Repayment  was  to  start  in 
10  years  at  the  rate  of  £E150,000  annually.  Two 
high  officials  of  the  Northern  Province  of  the 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  were  killed  and  one  seri- 
ously injured  on  July  24  when  caught  by  a  train 
while  crossing  the  Atbara  River  bridge.  They 
were  M.  A.  B.  Harrison,  Chief  Justice,  and  J  N 
Richardson,  District  Commissioner  (killed),  and 
Gov.  M.  S.  Lush  (injured). 

See  EUROPEAN  WAR  under  Campaigns  in  Af- 
rica ;  EGYPT  and  ITALIAN  EAST  AFRICA  under  His- 
tory. 

ANGOLA.  A  colony  in  west  central  Africa, 
belonging  to  Portugal.  Area.  487,788  square  miles ; 
population  (1936),  3,484,300  including  59,000  Eu- 
ropeans and  21,800  half  castes  Chief  towns :  Nova 
Lisboa  (Huambo),  the  capital ;  Loanda,  Benguela, 
Mossamedes,  Lobita,  and  Malange 

The  chief  crops  (with  outputs  for  1937-38,  in 
metric  tons)  are  maize  (260,500),  sugar  (32,500), 
coffee  (14,300),  wheat  (10,600),  palm  oil  (3000), 
palm  kernels  (2600)  Cacao,  sisal,  cotton,  and 
tobacco  are  other  crops  Wax  is  an  important 
product.  There  are  rich  deposits  of  diamonds. 
Copper  and  lignite  exist  but  are  not  mined  Salt 
has  been  found.  In  1938  (values  in  old  U.S  A. 
gold  dollars),  imports  totaled  $6,000,000  (textiles, 
foodstuffs,  and  coal  were  the  chief  items)  ;  ex- 
ports, $8,800,000  (diamonds,  maize,  and  coffee 
were  the  main  exports).  The  greater  part  of  the 
ocean-carrying  trade  between  Angola  and  Europe 
is  in  the  hands  of  a  Portuguese  company. 

Budget:  (1940)  256,506,396  angolares;  (1939) 
255,990,232  angolares.  The  colony  is  divided  into 
5  provinces  and  14  administrative  districts  (decree 
of  May,  1934)  Governor-General,  Dr.  Marquez 
Mano  (appointed  Feb.  10,  1939). 

On  Aug.  4,  1940,  1000  Portuguese  troops  sailed 
from  Lisbon  to  reinforce  local  defense  units  in 
Angola.  The  troops  were  dispatched  immediately 
following  British  charges  that  numerous  German 
agents  had  assembled  in  Angola  for  the  apparent 
purpose  of  seizing  control  of  the  Belgian  Congo. 

See  CONGO,  BELGIAN,  and  PORTUGAL  under  His- 
tory. 

ANGUILLA.  See  LEEWARD  ISLANDS. 

ANHALT.  See  GERMANY  under  Area  and  Pop- 
ulation. 

ANHWEI.  See  CHINA  under  Area  and  Popu- 
lation. 


ANIMALS  AND  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY. 

See  LIVESTOCK  ;  VETERINARY  MEDICINE  ;  ZOOLOGY. 

ANNAM.  See  FRENCH  INDO-CHINA. 

ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION.  See  PO- 
LAR RESEARCH. 

ANTHRpPOLOGY.  Neandertal  Man  in 
Central  Asia.  One  of  the  most  outstanding  and 
important  discoveries  in  the  field  of  Early  Man 
was  made  in  the  latter  part  of  1938  in  Uzbekistan 
by  A.  P.  Okladnikov,  a  young  Russian  scientist, 
assisted  by  his  wife.  It  consists  of  the  find,  in  the 
Teshik-Tash  cave  in  southwestern  Uzbekistan, 
about  10  miles  from  the  small  town  of  Baisun 
near  the  Afghan  border,  of  the  remains  of  a 
Neandertal-type  child,  with  mousterian-like  imple- 
ments and  bones  of  various  animals.  The  skeletal 
parts  of  the  child,  probably  a  male  and  about  eight 
years  old,  had  largely  decayed,  but  the  skull, 
though  in  fragments,  was  practically  complete. 
These  remains  were  brought  to  the  Anthropologi- 
cal Museum  at  Moscow,  and  there  completely  re- 
constructed. The  result  is  the  most  complete,  char- 
acteristic, and  in  general  the  best  skull  of  the 
Neandertal  type  thus  far  recovered.  The  specimen 
has  been  cast  and  the  first  replica  of  it,  a  faithful 
reproduction  of  the  original,  has  been  donated  by 
the  Soviet  authorities  to  the  U  S.  National  Mu- 
seum. In  1939  a  preliminary  report  on  the  find 
was  published  in  the  U  S.S.R ,  and  in  1940  the 
essentials  were  published  in  this  country 

The  important  points  about  the  find,  briefly 
stated,  are:  (1)  It  was  made  in  an  undisturbed 
cave;  (2)  it  was  recovered  with  due  care  by  a 
scientific  worker;  (3)  the  find  showed  prolonged 
occupancy  of  the  cave  but  was  not  complicated  by 
intrusions  subsequent  to  the  burial;  (4)  the  lay 
of  the  skeleton  and  the  arrangement  of  the  large 
wild  goat  horns  about  it  indicated  clearly  a  regular 
burial;  (5)  the  skull,  when  ably  reconstructed,  is 
practically  complete  with  nearly  all  the  teeth  and 
the  lower  jaw,  undeformed,  and  typically  Ne- 
andertaloid  for  its  age;  and  (6)  the  find  extends 
the  realm  of  the  Neandertal  Man  far  to  the  east- 
ward of  his  formerly  known  territory.  As  to 
chronology,  it  is  probable  that  the  find  may  be 
referred  to  the  upper  part  of  the  Neandertal 
phase 

References.  Okladnikov,  A.  P.,  1939,  Viestnik 
Drievnei  Historii,  Leningrad,  no  7,  pp  256-7; 
Hrdlifcka,  A,  1939,  Science,  xc,  September  29, 
296-8;  Okladnikov,  A.  P,  1940,  Asia,  July  and 
August  nos 

The  Pithecanthropus — New  Remains.  In 
December,  1939,  G.  H  R.  v.  Koenigswald,  a  Dutch 
geologist,  and  Dr.  F.  Weidenreich,  the  well  known 
anatomist  and  anthropologist,  report  briefly  in  Na- 
ture  (Dec.  2,  1939,  926-9),  on  the  latest  finds 
attributed  to  the  Pithecanthropus.  The  previous 
remains  claimed  to  belong  to  this  highly  important 
form,  aside  of  the  original  ones  of  Dubois,  were 
a  juvenile  skull  (Homo  modjokertenris,  1936)  ; 
portion  of  a  lower  jaw  (Sangiran,  1936)  ;  and  a 
defective  skull,  with  a  fragment  of  another  (San- 
giran, 1937).  To  this  is  now  added,  also  from 
Sangiran,  a  large  portion  of  an  adult  maxilla  with 
teeth,  and  the  posterior  half,  roughly,  of  a  skull 
of  seemingly  the  same  individual.  A  detailed  ac- 
count of  these  latest  discoveries  is  still  wanting. 
But  they  have  already  given  rise  to  much  specula- 
tion. The  two  specimens,  which,  thanks  to  Dr 
Weidenreich,  could  be  examined  by  American  an- 
thropologists in  the  original,  with  good  casts  since 
available,  are  very  striking.  The  upper  jaw,  evi- 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


27 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


dently  that  of  a  young  adult  male,  surpasses  both 
in  size  and  primitiveness  everything  seen  hitherto 
in  early  human  remains.  The  teeth  are  large,  there 
are  definite  symmetric  diastemae  in  front  of  the 
canines,  the  second  molars  are  considerably  the 
largest,  and  the  lateral  parts  of  the  alveolar  arch 
are  straight  and  diverging  backwards;  but  the 
canines  are  already  of  subdued  prominence  and 
the  form  of  the  crowns  is  close  to  human.  The 
skull  is  striking  by  its  internal  smallness  and 
lowness  as  well  as  other  primitive  characters  The 
ensemble  of  the  two  specimens  represents  a  being 
partly  already  human,  partly  still  simian,  a  veri- 
table intermediary  form,  a  precursor,  a  "paran- 
thropus"  (Montandon).  Identification  of  this  form 
with  the  Sinanthropus  (Le  Gros  Clark,  et  al.), 
when  the  specimens  themselves  are  seen,  appears 
wholly  impossible. 

References,  v.  Koenigswald  &  Weidenreich, 
F,  1939,  Nature,  vol  144,  926-9;  Le  Gros  Clark, 
Nature,  1940,  vol  145,  70-1;  Montandon,  G., 
Revue  Scicnt.,  1940,  29-32 

Early  Man  in  Italy.  In  March  of  1940  an 
outstanding  find  of  further  remains  of  early  man 
was  made  in  Italy.  It  was  a  remarkably  well  pre- 
served adult  skull,  with  its  lower  jaw  and  most 
of  the  teeth,  recovered  in  a  cave  at  Mount  Circe, 
50  miles  south  of  Rome,  facing  the  Mediterra- 
nean The  skull  was  found  during  excavations 
in  the  cave — one  of  a  network — for  new  founda- 
tions of  a  small  hotel  and  a  wine  depository  The 
specimen,  reported  to  be  the  fourth  from  the  Ne- 
andertal  period  and  the  second  of  the  promontory, 
is  very  well  preserved,  though  it  shows  a  fracture 
of  the  right  temporal  region,  which  had  probably 
been  the  cause  of  death  of  the  individual  The 
cave  yielded  also  numerous  broken  bones  of  pre- 
historic elephants,  rhinoceroses,  large  horses,  deer 
bears,  panthers,  hyenas  The  cave  had  been  sealed 
in  times  far  past  by  a  landslide,  so  that  its  con- 
tents were  not  disturbed.  The  skull  lay  alone  in  a 
wide  space  within  a  crude  circle  of  stones,  indi- 
cating that  it  probably  was  either  a  trophy,  or 
used  for  some  ceremony.  A  credit  is  due  to  the 
owner  of  the  hotel  who,  upon  the  discovery  and 
before  anything  was  moved,  notified  scientific  au- 
thorities who  recovered  the  specimens,  which  are 
now  in  Rome.  The  cave  itself  has  been  closed  in 
reserve  for  further  exploration.  ' 

References.  Press  notices,  Mar  16,  1940; 
Science  News  Letter,  1939,  August  12,  p  108. 

Ritual  Ablation  of  Teeth  in  Siberia  and 
America.  Common  in  Africa,  Australia,  and 
some  other  parts  of  the  world,  ceremonial  removal 
of  the  front  teeth  has  hitherto  almost  failed  to  be 
noticed  in  America  or  Siberia;  but  a  special  study 
of  the  subject,  on  large  materials,  shows  definitely 
that  the  practice  of  removing  some  of  the  front 
teeth  was  widely  spread  from  prehistoric  to  fairly 
recent  times  over  both  Siberia  and  America  In 
pre-Columbian  America,  in  fact,  it  appears  to  have 
been  almost,  if  not  quite,  universal.  In  Siberia  and 
Japan  it  existed  from  the  neolithic  period,  if  not 
earlier,  and  was  in  all  probability  brought  by  the 
migrants  of  that  period  to  the  American  continent. 
The  removal  of  the  teeth,  according  to  all  indica- 
tions, took  place  early  in  life,  but  not  in  childhood 
— the  numerous  skulls  of  children  up  to  10  years 
of  age  in  the  collection  at  the  U.S.  National  Mu- 
seum show  no  case  of  the  ablation.  As  to  the  teeth 
removed,  there  was  a  wide  variety.  The  ablations 
were  done  generally  in  both  sexes,  though  mostly 
they  are  found  in  a  more  or  less  larger  proportion 


of  the  males.  The  practice  differed  in  the  various 
tribes,  the  removal  of  certain  teeth  having  evi- 
dently been  more  favored  in  some  groups  than  in 
others.  The  actual  ways  of  removal  of  the  teeth 
in  all  probability  differed,  including  knocking  out, 
prying,  and  especially  pulling  with  sinews,  or  a 
combination  of  these  efforts.  The  meaning  of  the 
ritual  ablation  could  only  have  been  sacrificial, 
with  secondarily  a  test  of  endurance.  The  removals 
were  undoubtedly  practiced  by  other  persons,  rela- 
tives or  shamans.  The  extraction,  if  of  but  one 
tooth,  caused  presumably  but  little  inconvenience 
The  ablations,  curiously,  though  differing  consid- 
erably in  frequency  in  different  groups,  were  never 
universal.  In  most  of  the  tribes  or  localities  they 
were  in  fact  rather  rare,  affecting  but  a  few  per 
cent  of  the  individuals.  There  evidently  was  some 
selection,  based  perhaps  on  clan  or  other  form  of 
social  organization.  The  similarity,  and  to  a  large 
extent  contemporaneity,  of  this  complex  ritual 
practice  forms  one  more  link  that  connects  the 
Asiatic  and  American  native  peoples 

Reference.  Hrdlicka,  A  ,  1940,  Smithson.  Misc. 
Coil's.,  vol  99,  no  3,  32  pp.,  5  pi 

The  Irish:  Physical  Characters.  Recent  an- 
thropological survey  of  Ireland  under  the  auspices 
of  Harvard  University,  extending  to  over  10,000 
individuals,  has  shown  the  following  main  results  • 

(1)  The  Western  Peninsulas:  West  Donegal, 
Mayo,  and  Kerry  (including  parts  of  Clare  and 
Cork)    This  region  finds  the  association  of  tall 
stature,  sub-brachycephaly,  dark  hair,  and  mixed 
eyes   It  is  strongly  Gaelic  in  speech  and  possibly 
includes  the  largest  numbers   of   the  Mesohthic 
stock  which  first  settled  Ireland  from  Scotland. 

(2)  The  Central  East  Coast:  The  shortest  and 
most  dolichocephalic  region  with  highest  concen- 
tration of  light  eyes  (especially  blue  eyes),  but 
very  dark  hair   Perhaps  this  may  be  the  area  set- 
tled by  the  Megalithic  people  who  sailed  up  the 
Irish  Channel 

(3)  The   Blond   Crescent    (with  its  horns  at 
Sligo  and  Galway  Bays  and  its  convexity  at  Long- 
ford and  Westmeath)  :  In  its  belly  it  is  the  blond- 
est area  in  Ireland,  in  the  southwest  horn  (West 
Galway  and  the  Aran  Islands)  it  is  the  tallest  and 
almost  the  longest-headed  area  in  Ireland.  All  of 
this  area  is  notably  characterized  by  grayish  and 
light  mixed  eyes  rather  than  pure  blue  eyes.  It 
seems  to  be  peopled  by  a  majority  of  Predomi- 
nantly Nordic  and  Nordic  peoples. 

Reference.  Hooton,  E.  A.,  1940  Am.  Jour. 
Phys  Anthrop.,  xxvi,  pp.  229-49. 

The  Criminal.  Crime  is  not  physical*  it  is 
mental.  It  is  not  due  to  disorders  or  even  ab- 
normalities of  the  body,  but  partly  to  acquired 
antisocial  habits,  partly  to  brain,  nervous  system, 
and  the  internal  glandular  system  disorders.  The 
criminal  "fades"  of  whatever  sort  is  not  inborn, 
but  acquired  through  the  criminality  and  the  re- 
actions of  the  criminal  with  other  people.  Except 
for  brute  violence  and  actions  due  to  brain  dis- 
order, crime  itself  is  no  organic  entity,  but  is  a 
social  phenomenon  differing  vastly  individually  in 
degree  and  shadings;  and  there  is  probably  no 
living  individual  who  has  not  at  some  time  trans- 
gressed some  human  as  well  as  a  natural  law,  or 
who  would  not  transgress  such  if  confronted  with 
sufficiently  incitive  conditions. 

Reference.  Hrdliclca,  A.,  1939  (Oct.)  Jour. 
Crim.  Psychopath.,  i,  87  et  seq. 

Great  Apes:  Blood  Groups.  The  possession 
by  the  anthropoid  apes  of  blood-group  factors  ap- 


ANTIGUA 


28 


AQUEDUCTS 


patently  identical  with  those  of  man  is  a  very 
significant  indication  of  the  close  relationship  be- 
tween the  two  stocks.  Of  all  the  somatic  and 
physiological  characters  common  to  both,  only  in 
the  instance  of  the  blood  groups  is  the  mechanism 
of  inheritance  completely  understood.  Further, 
since  the  blood  groups  have  no  intrinsic  value,  and 
are  not  linked  to  any  known  character,  they  can 
neither  have  affected,  nor  been  affected  by  the 
evolutionary  adaptations  which  resulted  in  man 
and  the  anthropoids.  For  this  reason,  the  serology 
of  the  apes  is  of  great  interest  in  connection  with 
the  problem  of  the  origin  of  man,  and  his  subse- 
quent spread. 

Previously  published  results  showed  the  chim- 
panzee to  have  the  O  and  A  factors,  the  orang- 
utan and  gibbon  the  A  and  B  factors,  while  the 
four  known  gorillas  were  all  group  A.  In  spite  of 
the  small  number  of  gorillas  tested,  some  sweep- 
ing conclusions  were  drawn  from  the  supposed 
absence  of  B  in  both  African  anthropoids. 

By  means  of  tests  upon  the  urine  the  groups  of 
14  additional  apes,  including  7  gorillas  have  been 
determined  The  B  factor  was  demonstrated  in 
the  5  lowland  gorillas  in  the  series,  while  the 
2  mountain  gorillas  were  found  to  be  group  A 

The  results  obtained  from  the  urine  have  been 
confirmed  in  6  of  the  14  individuals  by  tests  upon 
the  blood,  and  in  one  case  by  tests  upon  the  salivary 
glands 

References.  Candela,  P  B  ,  Amcr  Jour.  Phys 
Anthrop,  1940,  xxvn,  209-21  ibid,  1940,  xxvii, 
no.  3  (p  479). 

ALES  HRDLICKA. 

ANTIGUA.  A  West  Indian  island  (108  sq 
mi  )  which,  with  its  dependent  islands  of  Barbuda 
and  Redonda  (63  sq.  mi  ),  is  one  of  the  presi- 
dencies of  the  British  Leeward  Islands  Total 
population  (1938),  35,123  St  John,  the  capital 
(10,000  inhabitants),  is  the  capital  of  the  British 
Leeward  Islands  Sugar  and  cotton  are  the  chief 
products  Trade  (1938).  imports  £253,669,  ex- 
ports £200,357.  Finance  (1938)  •  revenue  £102,- 
501;  expenditure  £97,597;  public  debt  £83,674. 
Antigua,  in  addition  to  representation  in  the  fed- 
eral legislative  council  of  the  Leeward  Islands, 
has  a  local  government  consisting  of  an  executive 
council  (presided  over  by  the  governor)  and  a 
legislative  council  (3  official,  3  nominated,  and  5 
elected  members)  of  which  an  administrator  is 
president.  Administrator,  H.  Boon  (appointed 
Apr42,  1940) 

History.  Antigua  was  one  of  various  British 
possessions  in  the  Western  Atlantic  in  which  air 
and  naval  bases  were  leased  for  99  years  to  the 
United  States  in  exchange  for  the  transfer  of 
naval  and  military  equipment  to  the  British  gov- 
ernment (British-United  States  Pact  of  Sept  2, 
1940).  The  base  sites  agreed  upon  in  Antigua  were 
announced  Nov  18,  1940,  as  follows*  (a)  An  area 
in  Parham  Sound,  opposite  Long  Island,  begin- 
ning about  2%  miles  north  of  Parham  and  meas- 
uring about  2%  miles  by  1  mile;  (b)  the  narrow 
peninsula  known  as  Crabs  on  the  east  side  of  Par- 
ham  Harbor  measuring  about  1  mile  long  and  V\ 
mile  wide.  Preliminary  work  on  the  bases  was 
begun  soon  afterward.  On  December  9  President 
Roosevelt  personally  inspected  the  base  sites  and 
conferred  with  the  island's  officials. 

See  BRITISH  WEST  INDIES. 

ANTIMONY.  The  United  States  consumption 
of  antimony  is  normally  about  10,000  tons  per 


year,  but  this  figure  was  substantially  increased 
in  1940  in  consequence  of  war  demands.  The  price 
was  stable  at  14#  a  Ib.  throughout  1940,  and  a  plen- 
tiful supply  of  metal  was  available.  The  United 
States  continued  to  import  ores  from  Mexico  to 
supplement  limited  domestic  production,  all  of 
which  was  smelted  at  Laredo,  Texas.  Although 
the  Japanese  war  interfered  somewhat  with  pio- 
duction  from  China,  substantial  shipments  were 
received  from  that  country,  and  the  United  States 
created  a  considerable  stockpile.  The  United  States 
advanced  large  loans  to  China,  which  will  be  liq- 
uidated in  time  by  shipments  of  tungsten  ore.  The 
principal  uses  of  this  metal  continued  to  be  for 
hardening  lead,  and  as  oxide  for  enameling  steel 
sheets  for  refrigerators,  washing  machines,  and 
other  pieces  of  equipment.  No  statistics  are  availa- 
ble on  production,  imports,  and  consumption 

H  C.  PARMELEE 

ANTISEMITISM.  See  FASCISM;  JEWS 

ANTI-TRUST  INVESTIGATIONS  AND 
PROSECUTIONS.  See  AMERICAN  FEDERATION 
OF  LABOR  ;  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY  ;  UNITED  STATES 
under  Prosecutions.  See  MONOPOLIES 

AQUEDUCTS.  Two  general  classes  of  aque- 
ducts include  (1)  those  for  irrigation  and  power 
purposes,  and  (2)  those  for  municipal  or  domestic 
water  supply  Many  aqueducts  of  the  first  class 
(canals,  flumes,  tunnels,  and  pipe  lines)  are  in- 
cluded in  the  numerous  projects  of  the  U  S  Bu- 
reau of  Reclamation  (q  v  )  An  example  is  the  40- 
mile  Provo  River  aqueduct  from  the  Deer  Creek 
dam  to  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  which  was  com- 
pleted in  1940  With  36  miles  of  concrete  and  steel 
pipe  and  four  miles  of  tunnels  it  is  to  serve  both 
for  irrigation  and  domestic  supply 

In  connection  with  its  irrigation  projects,  the 
Bureau  built  343  miles  of  canal  aqueducts  during 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1940  Outstanding  among 
these  was  the  80-mile  All-Amencan  canal  in  Cali- 
fornia, which  replaces  the  old  canal  lying  partly  in 
Mexico.  It  is  by  far  the  largest  irrigation  canal 
in  this  country  and  carries  water  from  the  Colo- 
rado River  at  the  Imperial  dam  and  reservoir  to 
the  rich  Imperial  Valley  in  southern  California 
Under  construction  are  the  140-mile  Coachella 
branch  of  the  All-American  canal,  and  five  other 
aqueduct  canals  from  30  to  100  miles  in  length 
The  Bureau  is  also  making  surveys  for  a  proposed 
aqueduct  in  Arizona,  from  the  Parker  Dam  reser- 
voir on  the  Colorado  River  to  the  neighborhood 
of  Phoenix,  to  provide  irrigation  for  some  700,000 
acres  on  the  central  elevated  plateau  which  has 
suffered  from  prolonged  drought  The  aqueduct, 
partly  in  tunnel,  would  be  nearly  200  miles  long 
and  would  require  a  pumping  lift  of  about  1 100  ft 

Of  the  greater  aqueducts  for  municipal  water 
supply,  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  of  South - 
em  California  completed  its  main  aqueduct  (from 
the  Colorado  River  to  Lake  Matthews)  in  1939, 
and  by  the  middle  of  1941  it  will  have  completed 
the  distribution  system  of  156  miles  to  serve  some 
fifteen  cities  within  the  District.  Of  the  398-mile 
total,  28  per  cent  is  in  tunnel,  16  per  cent  in  canal, 
and  56  per  cent  in  pipe  lines  On  the  main  aque- 
duct, the  pumping  lift,  in  five  stages,  is  1  617  feet 
The  Mono  Basin  extension  of  the  Los  Angeles 
water  supply  aqueduct,  which  was  put  in  operation 
on  Jan.  1,  1941,  includes  the  11.3-mile  Mono  Cra- 
ters tunnel,  three  intake  structures,  a  storage  reser- 
voir, three  tunnels  aggregating  1%  miles,  a  mile  of 
86-in.  steel  pipe,  and  9  miles  of  concrete  conduit. 


ARABIA 


29 


ARABIA 


Foremost  among  aqueducts  for  individual  cities 
is  the  85-mile  rock  tunnel  for  pumping  water  from 
the  Delaware  River  to  New  York  City.  It  is  to  be 
completed  in  1945,  but  in  December,  1940,  the  ex- 
cavation was  finished  for  92.8  per  cent  of  the 
distance,  the  concrete  floor  or  invert  for  40.6  per 
cent,  and  the  concrete  sides  and  arch  for  22.8  per 
cent.  With  the  city  extension,  already  in  use,  the 
tunnel  length  will  be  105  miles,  all  in  rock,  and 
proposed  extensions  or  branches  to  new  water- 
sheds may  increase  this  to  137  miles.  An  under- 
ground river,  encountered  in  the  mam  tunnel,  was 
presenting  serious  engineering  difficulties  at  the 
close  of  the  year. 

A  series  of  aqueducts  in  the  water  supply  system 
of  Boston,  Mass ,  has  been  enlarged  by  the  pres- 
sure aqueduct  put  in  service  on  Oct.  23,  1940, 
which  practically  parallels  three  older  aqueducts 
in  which  the  flow  is  by  gravity.  Its  18-mile  length 
from  the  Wachusett  reservoir  to  the  Norumbega 
reservoir  is  made  up  of  three  miles  of  tunnel  14  ft. 
in  diameter  and  15  miles  of  11%-ft  and  12%-ft. 
concrete  pipe.  The  next  step  will  be  a  pressure 
tunnel  extension  to  the  Chestnut  Hill  reservoir 
and  ultimately  (1942-45)  a  deep-level  pressure 
tunnel  looping  around  the  city  At  Baltimore,  Md., 
the  new  Gunpowder  Falls  and  Montebello  tunnel 
aqueduct  from  the  enlarged  Loch  Raven  reservoir, 
was  put  in  service  Dec  23,  1940  It  is  12  feet  in 
diameter,  with  lining  of  concrete  for  66  per  cent 
of  the  length  and  continuous  welded-steel  lining 
for  the  remainder. 

Several  cities  of  moderate  size  have  found  it 
necessary  to  build  aqueducts  for  bringing  addition- 
al water  supply  from  new  or  distant  sources  In 
1940,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich ,  completed  its  31-mile 
pipe-line  aqueduct  from  Lake  Michigan  for  a  sup- 
ply of  soft  water  instead  of  the  hard  Grand  River 
water  An  intake  of  54-in.  welded-steel  pipe  ex- 
tending 6200  ft  from  shore  was  floated  into  place 
in  120-ft  lengths  to  be  sunk  into  a  dredged  trench 
and  connected  by  divers  At  the  shore  pumping 
station  begins  the  31 -mile  pumping  main  of  46-in 
rein  forced-concrete  pipe.  This  project,  costing 
$4,100,000,  includes  two  pumping  stations  and  two 
reservoirs.  A  similar  aqueduct  put  into  service  on 
Sept.  1,  1940,  is  a  30-mile  line  of  48-in.  concrete- 
lined  cast-iron  pipe  laid  in  trench  across  country 
to  bring  water  from  a  group  of  new  wells  to  the 
city  of  Wichita,  Kan. 

In  the  same  class  is  a  third  project,  to  be  put  in 
service  in  1941,  bringing  to  Toledo,  Ohio,  a  supply 
of  pood  water  from  Lake  Erie  to  replace  the  old 
and  unsatisfactory  supply  from  the  Maumee  Riv- 
er. An  intake  crib  in  the  lake  serves  a  line  of  108- 
m  rein  forced-concrete  pipe  extending  2%  miles  to 
the  shore  pumping  station,  from  which  a  line  of 
78-in.  steel  pipe,  with  bituminous  coating,  extends 
nine  miles  to  a  purification  plant.  From  the  reser- 
voir at  this  plant,  a  steel  pipe  line,  decreasing  from 
72-in.  to  48-in  in  diameter,  runs  five  miles  to  the 
city  to  connect  with  the  distribution  system.  This 
project  will  cost  about  $10,000,000. 

E  E.  RUSSELL  TRATMAN. 

ARABIA.  A  large  peninsula  in  southwestern 
Asia.  Area,  1,000,000  square  miles;  population, 
said  to  be  10,000,000.  For  the  various  divisions  of 
Arabia  see  below.  Arab  countries  outside  the 
Arabian  peninsula  are  presented  in  the  separate 
articles  on  EGYPT,  IRAQ,  PALESTINE,  SYRIA  AND 
LEBANON,  and  TRANS- JORDAN. 

Aden.  A  British  crown  colony  at  the  south- 


ern tip  of  Arabia,  about  100  miles  east  of  the  Red 
Sea.  Included  in  the  colony  is  the  island  of  Penm 
(5  sq.  mi.;  pop.,  2346)  in  the  southern  entrance  to 
the  Red  Sea.  Total  area,  80  square  miles,  total 
population  (1931),  48,338  excluding  the  military 
forces.  Aden  has  a  fortified  naval  base,  a  free 
port,  and  is  a  fueling  station  for  ships.  Early  in 
1940,  because  of  the  war,  the  port  was  made  a 
contraband  control  base  for  shipping.  Salt,  soap, 
cigarettes,  cured  fish,  and  dhows  are  produced 
Trade  (1938):  imports  Rs83, 1 70,44 1 ;  exports 
Rs42,991,994  (rupee  averaged  $03659  for  1938). 
In  1938, 2079  ships  aggregating  8,650,411  tons  (net) 
entered  the  port.  Finance  (1938-39  estimates): 
revenue  Rsl,890,000;  expenditures  Rsl, 743,000. 
The  colony  is  administered  by  a  governor  aided 
by  an  executive  council  of  five  members.  Governor 
and  Commander-m-Chief,  John  Hathorn  Hall 
(appointed  Oct  23,  1940). 

Aden  Protectorate.  The  region  in  southern 
Arabia  extending  east,  north,  and  west  of  Aden. 
It  includes  the  island  of  Socotra  (1400  sq  mi.; 
pop.,  12,000).  Area,  112,000  square  miles;  esti- 
mated population,  600,000.  The  chief  products  are 
dates,  gums,  tobacco,  and  butter  Cattle,  goats,  and 
sheep  exist  in  large  numbers.  The  mainland  in- 
cludes a  large  number  of  tribal  areas,  the  chiefs 
of  which  have  treaty  relations  with  Great  Britain 
Control  of  the  country  rests  with  the  governor  of 
Aden  who  is  aided  by  a  number  of  political  offi- 
cers The  area  known  as  the  Hadhramaut  owes 
allegiance  to  the  Qa'aiti  dynasty  represented  by 
the  Sultan  of  Mukalla  British  Resident  Adviser 
to  the  Sultan  of  Mukalla,  G  A  Joy. 

Bahrein  Islands.  The  chief  islands  of  this 
group  in  the  Persian  Gulf  are  Bahrein,  Muharraq, 
Nebi  Saleh,  and  Sitra.  Area,  213  square  miles, 
population,  120,000  Capital,  Manama  (on  Bah- 
rein). Pearls,  crude  oil  (1,044,000  metric  tons  in 
1939),  boats,  sailcloth,  and  reed  mats  are  the  chief 
products  Trade  (1937-38):  imports  Rs20,920,- 
260;  exports  (excluding  oil)  Rsl2,042,910  (rupee 
averaged  $03659  for  1938;  $03733  for  1937). 
Ruling  Sheik,  Sir  Hamid  bin  Isa  al  Khalifa  who 
is  in  treaty  relations  with  Great  Britain 

Kuwait.  An  Arab  state  south  of  Iraq  Area, 
1930  square  miles ;  population,  50,000,  exclusive  of 
some  Bedouins  Capital,  Kuwait  Pearls,  wool, 
dhows,  and  horses  are  exported.  Trade  (1937-38)  • 
imports  Rs5,477,488;  exports  Rs2,320,075  (rupee 
averaged  $0.3659  for  1938 ,  $0  3733  for  1937)  Oil 
was  discovered  during  1938  Kuwait  is  in  treaty 
relations  with  Great  Britain,  which  is  represented 
by  a  political  agent.  Ruling  Sheik,  Sir  Hamed  ibn 
Jabir  al  Subah. 

Oman.  An  independent  state  in  southeastern 
Arabia.  The  port  of  Gwadur  on  the  coast  of  Balu- 
chistan is  owned  by  the  state  of  Oman  Area,  82,- 
000  square  miles;  estimated  population,  500,000, 
mostly  Arabs,  but  there  is  a  strong  infusion  of 
Negro  blood  along  the  coast.  Muscat,  the  capital, 
had  4200  inhabitants ;  Matrah,  8500.  Chief  prod- 
ucts: dates,  pomegranates,  limes,  and  dried  fish. 
Trade  (1937-38):  imports  Rs4,176.125;  exports 
Rs3,299,015  (rupee  averaged  $03659  for  1938; 
$0.3733  for  1937)  During  1938-39,  shipping  ag- 
gregating 242,782  tons  entered  and  cleared  Mus- 
cat, the  only  port  of  call  for  steamers.  Sultan  of 
Muscat  and  Oman,  Sir  Saiyid  Said  bin  Taimur 
(succeeded  Feb  10,  1932). 

Oman,  Trucial.  The  Arab  states  (Abu  Dhabi, 
Ajman,  Debai,  Shargah,  Ras  al  Khaimah,  and 
Umm  ul  Qawain)  on  the  Persian  Gulf.  Area, 


ARABIA 


30 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


6023  square  miles;  population,  75,000  to  85,000. 
Chief  capital,  Abu  Dhabi.  Pearls  are  the*  chief 
export  from  the  coast  ports.  The  rulers  of  the 
six  states  are  in  treaty  relations  with  Great  Brit- 
ain, which  is  represented  by  a  resident  agent  who 
is  under  the  control  of  the  British  political  resi- 
dent at  Bushire,  Persia. 

Qatar.  An  Arabian  sheikdom  occupying  a 
peninsula  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  Area,  8500  square 
miles;  population,  25,000.  Capital,  £1  Beda.  Rela- 
tions with  Great  Britain  are  regulated  by  the 
Treaty  of  Nov.  3,  1916.  Sheik,  Abdullah  ibn 
Jasim  eth  Thani  (acceded  in  1913). 

Saudi  Arabia.  An  Arab  state  occupying  the 
northern  and  central  part  of  Arabia,  formerly 
known  as  the  Kingdom  of  Hejaz  and  Nejd.  Pend- 
ing the  introduction  of  a  single  constitution  for  the 
whole  country,  there  are  two  systems  of  govern- 
ment— one  for  Nejd  and  one  for  Hejaz.  Ruler, 
King  Abdul  Aziz  ibn  Abdur  Rahman  al  Faisal  al 
Saud. 

Nejd  includes  the  Nafud  and  Dahna  deserts  and 
has  an  area  of  some  800,000  square  miles.  Popu- 
lation (estimated),  3,000,000.  Chief  towns:  Ri- 
yadh (capital),  Hufuf,  Mubarraz,  Shaqra,  Anaiza, 
Buraida,  Hail,  Jauf,  Sakaka,  and  Hauta.  Chief 
products:  dates,  wheat,  barley,  fruit,  hides,  wool, 
clarified  butter,  Arab  cloaks,  and  crude  oil.  Large 
numbers  of  camels,  horses,  donkeys,  and  sheep  are 
raised.  Trade  •  imports  include  piece  goods,  sugar, 
coffee,  tea,  and  rice ;  exports,  except  for  crude  oil, 
are  very  small.  Nejd  is  governed  in  a  patriarchal 
manner  by  the  King  whose  eldest  son  (Emir  Saud) 
acts  as  Viceroy. 

Hejaz  extends  along  the  western  coast  from 
Trans-Jordan  to  Asir.  Area,  150,000  square  miles ; 
population  (estimated),  1,500,000.  Chief  towns: 
Mecca,  the  capital  and  holy  city  of  Islam,  80,000 
inhabitants;  Jidda,  the  seaport  for  Mecca,  30,000; 
Medina,  the  site  of  Mohammed's  tomb,  20,000; 
Yenbo,  the  seaport  for  Medina.  Chief  products: 
dates,  butter,  honey,  fruit,  wool,  and  hides.  The 
annual  pilgrimage  of  Moslems  from  abroad  to 
Mecca  and  Medina  is  the  chief  source  of  income. 
Hejaz  is  governed  under  the  constitution  of  Aug. 
26,  1926,  and  later  amendments.  There  is  a  council 
of  ministers  presided  over  by  the  King's  second 
son,  Emir  Faisal,  who  is  minister  of  foreign  af- 
fairs, and  Viceroy  during  the  King's  absence 

Asir,  a  province  south  of  the  Hejaz,  was  in- 
corporated in  the  kingdom  of  Saudi  Arabia  dur- 
ing 1933.  Area,  14,000.  Capital,  Sabiya,  20,000 
inhabitants. 

Yemen.  An  independent  Arab  kingdom  in 
southwestern  Arabia.  Area,  75,000  square  miles; 
population,  3,500,000.  Chief  towns:  San'a  (capi- 
tal), 25,000  inhabitants,  Hodeida,  40,000,  Taizz, 
Ibb,  Yerim,  Dhamar,  Mocha,  Loheiya.  Chief 
products:  coffee,  barley,  wheat,  millet,  and  hides. 
Ruler,  King  Yahya  Muhammed  Hamid  ed  Din. 

History.  Italy's  entrance  into  the  European 
War  (q.v.)  on  June  10,  1940,  drew  the  Arabian 
peninsula  toward  the  vortex  of  the  conflagration. 
The  Italians  conquered  British  Somaliland  front- 
ing Arabia's  southern  coast  on  the  opposite  shore 
of  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  waged  air  and  sea  warfare 
in  the  Gulf  of  Aden  and  the  Red  Sea,  made  re- 
peated air  raids  upon  the  British  base  at  Aden, 
and  attacked  the  Arab  countries  of  Egypt  and 
Palestine.  On  October  19  Italian  planes  made  a 
long-distance  raid  on  American-owned  oil  refin- 
eries of  the  Bahrein  Islands  but  reportedly  did 
little  damage. 


King  Ibn  Saud  of  Saudi  Arabia  and  the  Imam 
Yahya  of  Yemen  maintained  the  neutrality  poli- 
cies proclaimed  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  de- 
spite efforts  of  German  and  Italian  agents  on  the 
one  hand  and  British  agents  on  the  other  to  ob- 
tain their  support  and  collaboration.  The  pro- 
British  sympathies  with  which  most  of  Arabia 
viewed  the  war  were  strengthened  by  the  success- 
ful defense  of  the  British  Isles  and  Egypt  and  by 
the  Italian  air  attacks  upon  Arab  populations  in 
Egypt,  Palestine,  Aden,  and  the  Bahrein  Islands. 
Early  in  the  year  two  leading  British  authorities 
on  Arabia,  W.  H.  Ingrams  and  Freya  Stark,  were 
sent  to  Aden  to  direct  political  work  in  Italian 
East  Africa,  French  Somaliland,  and  among  the 
tribes  of  Southern  Arabia.  They  opened  a  new 
broadcasting  station  at  Aden. 

King  Ibn  Saud  strengthened  his  army  and  air 
force  during  1940  with  funds  obtained  from 
United  States  oil  interests  in  1939  (see  1939  YEAR 
BOOK).  A  new  air  base  was  established  at  Riyadh 
early  in  January.  He  also  tightened  his  kingdom's 
bonds  with  Iraq  and  Egypt  and  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  negotiations  for  the  establishment  of 
an  Arab  federation  that  were  carried  forward  in 
the  various  Arab  capitals  during  the  year.  Gen. 
Nuri  Pasha  es-Said,  Foreign  Minister  of  Iraq, 
flew  to  Saudi  Arabia  early  in  April  for  a  four- 
day  conference  with  Ibn  Saud.  They  issued  a 
communique  stating  that  the  two  countries  had 
agreed  on  a  policy  of  mutual  collaboration  in 
promoting  Arab  interests.  The  Egyptian  Govern- 
ment, in  another  agreement  with  Ibn  Saud,  under- 
took to  meet  the  major  part  of  the  cost  of  the 
modern  highway  under  construction  from  the  Red 
Sea  port  of  Jidda  to  Mecca,  designed  primarily  to 
facilitate  Moslem  pilgrimages  to  Mecca. 

The  United  States  showed  increased  interest  in 
Saudi  Arabia  as  a  result  of  the  rapid  development 
of  the  oil  industry  and  the  influx  of  American 
technicians  and  other  oil-field  workers  Diplomatic 
relations  between  Saudi  Arabia  and  the  United 
States  were  established  for  the  first  time  on  Feb. 
4,  1940,  when  the  American  Minister  to  Egypt 
presented  his  credentials  as  Minister  to  Saudi 
Arabia.  There  were  estimated  to  be  500  United 
States  citizens  in  the  Arabian  peninsula  (273  in 
Saudi  Arabia) 

ARBITRATION,  Labor.  See  LABOR  CONDI- 
TIONS ;  NATIONAL  LABOR  RELATIONS  BOARD  ;  AUS- 
TRALIA, CANADA,  CHILE,  DENMARK,  GREAT  BRIT- 
AIN, and  NEW  ZEALAND  under  History. 

ARCHAEOLOGY.  The  European  war  has 
had  a  very  depressing  effect  upon  archaeological 
exploration,  since  the  normal  fields  for  this  work 
are  those  in  which  the  war  is  actually  being  car- 
ried on — Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  Mesopotamia,  and 
the  Mediterranean  world.  However,  enough  hap- 
pened prior  to  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  to  make 
it  worth  while  to  record  it. 

Egypt.  Without  doubt  the  most  noteworthy 
discovery  to  be  recorded  in  Egypt  is  the  finding  of 
the  tomb  of  Psousennes  I,  the  father  of  King 
Amenemhet.  This  took  place  at  San  el-Hagar  in 
the  delta  of  the  Nile,  near  the  city  of  ancient 
Tanis.  The  removal  of  a  large  block  of  pink  gran- 
ite set  in  the  west  wall  of  King  Sheshonk's  tomb 
brought  to  light  an  opening  that  led  into  a  cor- 
ridor that  gave  entrance  to  the  funerary  chamber 
of  Psousennes  I,  the  second  king  of  the  21st  dy- 
nasty. At  the  end  of  this  room,  which  measured 
about  10  by  23  feet,  was  found  a  great  granite 
sarcophagus  with  funerary  material  scattered  on 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


31 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


the  floor  in  front  of  it  The  sarcophagus  itself 
was  covered  with  reliefs,  and  on  the  cover  was  a 
reclining  figure  of  the  king  represented  as  Osiris. 
At  his  head  knelt  a  goddess  with  outstretched 
protecting  arms.  The  sarcophagus  enclosed  an- 
other mummiform  sarcophagus,  also  of  granite, 
which  carried  the  likeness  of  the  king. 

Within  the  second  sarcophagus  was  a  third,  in 
excellent  condition,  seven  feet  in  length  and  beau- 
tifully wrought  in  the  likeness  of  the  king.  This 
silver  coffin  in  turn  contained  a  silver-gilt  body- 
cover  carrying  long  inscriptions.  Besides  this 
there  was  a  mask  of  gold.  Underneath  the  mum- 
my, which,  on  account  of  the  dampness  was  badly 
preserved,  a  considerable  amount  of  fine  jewelry 
was  found,  which  taken  together  with  other  treas- 
ure makes  this  find  one  of  the  most  important  yet 
made  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  piece  of  jew- 
elry found  was  a  necklace  made  up  of  two  heavy 
bars  of  gold  supporting  a  massive  golden  lotus  as 
a  centerpiece.  Not  the  least  interesting  was  an- 
other necklace  composed  of  lapis  lazuli  with 
clasps  of  gold  which  bore  an  inscription  boasting 
that  the  king  had  had  a  necklace  created  that 
would  never  be  equaled  This  necklace  weighed 
the  astonishing  amount  of  72  pounds 

There  is  reason  for  thinking  that  this  king  was 
the  father  of  the  wife  of  King  Solomon  (I  Kings 
III,  I).  The  king's  mother  was  Queen  Mutnejem 
and  his  uncles  Pyander  and  Pynojem. 

In  a  chapel  of  King  Pspusennes'  tomb  was  dis- 
covered the  mummy  of  King  Amcnemhet,  his  son 
and  successor.  It  is  probable  that  the  body  had 
been  brought  here  from  some  other  place  The 
entrance  to  this  chapel  had  been  scaled  with  a 
great  block  of  granite  6^  feet  in  height  On  it 
appears  a  figure  of  Amenemhet  pouring  a  libation 
of  holy  water  to  I  sis  and  Osiris  On  the  king's 
sarcophagus  was  an  inscription  giving  his  name. 
Some  previous  name  had  been  erased  suggesting 
that  the  coffin  had  originally  been  created  for 
someone  else.  Near  the  sarcophagus  was  dis- 
covered an  alabaster  jar  filled  with  earth — prob- 
ably sacred  earth  from  Thebes.  This  is  the  second 
time  such  a  find  has  been  made  at  Tams. 

The  body  of  Amenemhet  reposed  in  a  wooden 
coffin  to  which  had  been  nailed  a  gold  cover.  At 
the  head  of  the  coffin  was  a  gold  mask  of  the  king. 
Within  the  coffin  in  the  debris  were  found  an- 
other gold  mask,  and  bracelets  as  well  as  other 
ornaments.  On  the  breast  of  the  mummy  was  a 
gold  pectoral  set  with  semi-precious  stones  and 
showing  Isis  and  Nepthys  in  the  act  of  worship- 
ping a  scarab  sun.  In  the  coffin  also  was  discov- 
ered a  monkey's  head  carved  from  chalcedony  and 
mounted  upon  a  heart.  Two  interesting  gold  brace- 
lets found  on  the  upper  arm  displayed  flying 
scarabs  between  cartouches  bearing  the  name  of 
King  Psousennes,  suggesting  that  they  were  a  gift 
from  that  king 

Mesopotamia.  In  the  royal  palace  at  Mari  in 
Mesopotamia  some  20,000  clay  tablets  have  fur- 
nished the  names  of  a  number  of  petty  kings  who 
ruled  in  northwest  Syria  and  Mesopotamia.  Six 
Human  tablets  reveal  that  they  are  500  years 
earlier  than  the  material  found  at  Boghazkoi  or 
Ras  Shamra. 

Cyprus.  At  Lefka  on  the  island  of  Cyprus  on 
the  hill  of  Apliki,  which  rises  from  the  right  bank 
of  the  Marathasa  river,  the  Cyprus  Mines  Corpo- 
ration has  uncovered  evidence  of  Bronze  Age 
occupation.  The  digging  of  trenches  in  the  hill 
brought  to  light  Roman  galleries  and  shafts  and  a 


heap  of  slag  at  the  foot  of  the  hill.  At  the  south- 
ern end  of  the  hill  were  discovered  ancient  shafts 
and  dumps.  Here  appeared  traces  of  several 
houses  dating  in  the  Bronze  Age.  From  these  were 
recovered  many  sherds  and  tools  of  stone. 

The  most  interesting  part  of  the  find  were  the 
houses  which  covered  the  slopes  of  the  hill.  At 
one  place  was  found  a  house  built  on  two  levels. 
In  the  lower  was  a  large  storeroom.  As  originally 
planned  this  house  had  three  rooms  which  had 
been  hewn  out  of  the  rock  of  the  hill.  In  front 
was  a  veranda.  The  walls  of  the  structure  had 
been  built  of  mud  brick  covered  with  a  thick  coat 
of  plaster.  The  floors  were  of  lime  cement.  The 
roof  was  flat  and  supported  by  upright  posts.  The 
roof  itself  was  made  of  a  layer  of  brushwood 
covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  red  earth  taken 
from  nearby  dumps.  The  storeroom  referred  to 
was  underneath  the  veranda  and  contained  large 
jars  placed  side  by  side.  They  were  about  the 
height  of  a  man.  Back  of  the  house  a  passageway 
had  been  cut  from  the  native  rock  to  give  access 
to  a  neighboring  dwelling  From  beneath  the  floors 
of  the  house  were  recovered  sherds  of  white  slip- 
ware  II  (so-called  milk  bowls)  and  some  Myce- 
naean ware  which  prove  that  the  house  was  built 
at  the  height  of  the  Mycenaean  period  in  Cyprus 
— that  is,  near  the  close  of  the  Late  Cypriote  II 
Period  (c.  1350-1300  B.C.). 

One  of  the  most  important  finds  on  this  site, 
inasmuch  as  it  reveals  complete  familiarity  with 
the  craft  of  smelting,  consisted  of  nearly  a  sack- 
ful of  slag,  which  was  uncovered  near  the  hearth. 
The  house  appears  to  have  been  abandoned  as  the 
result  of  a  fire,  perhaps  occasioned  by  the  over- 
turning of  a  lamp  which  set  fire  to  baskets  of 
grain  standing  on  the  floor.  The  objects  found  in 
this  debris  date  in  the  Late  Cypriote  Illb  (c.  1225- 
1100  B.C.). 

Greece.  In  Athens  the  chief  interest  still  cen- 
tered in  the  American  School's  excavations  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  agora.  Because  of  the  uncer- 
tainty of  the  political  situation  the  campaign  was 
only  of  five  weeks'  duration  and,  at  that,  late  in 
starting.  The  short  period  of  time  devoted  to  this 
work  was  the  result  of  the  necessity  of  evacu- 
ating the  staff  before  the  Mediterranean  was  closed 
by  the  war  to  American  shipping.  Most  of  the 
excavators'  efforts  were  concentrated  on  a  further 
clearing  of  the  Museum  site.  The  clearing  of  a 
6th  century  B.C.  cemetery  which  had  been  partially 
uncovered  in  1939  was  completed.  From  three  un- 
touched burials  were  recovered  considerable  ma- 
terial of  the  second  half  of  the  6th  century  in  the 
form  of  black-figured  vases  of  various  shapes. 
The  clearance  of  the  great  drain  and  other  water 
channels  in  this  area  brought  to  light  an  addi- 
tional number  of  ostraka.  The  most  interesting  of 
the  lot  was  one  bearing  the  name  of  the  great  Per- 
icles. It  appears  to  have  been  cast  in  the  ballot- 
ing of  the  year  443  when  his  rival  Thucydides, 
son  of  Melesias,  was  exiled.  Another  ostrakon 
bearing  the  famous  name  Alcibiades  was  also  re- 
covered, but  in  this  instance  it  appears  to  be  the 
name  of  Alcibiades  the  younger  and  refers  to  the 
balloting  of  the  year  417  when  Hyperboles  was 
ostracized. 

From  such  material  much  important  informa- 
tion has  been  recovered.  Thus,  this  year  the  exca- 
vators found  an  ostrakon  bearing  the  name  of 
Kallixenos,  the  son  of  Aristonymos.  The  inscrip- 
tion of  this  ballot  was  scratched  on  the  inside  of 
a  red-figured  vase,  and  since  the  90  ostraka  bear- 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


32 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


ing  this  man's  name  have  usually  been  found  in 
connection  with  those  of  Aristides  and  Themis- 
tocles  and  probably  cast  in  the  balloting  of  the 
year  482,  it  must  be  clear  that  the  style  of  this 
vase,  which  had  been  broken  to  bits  at  this  time, 
must  belong  to  this  period. 

Still  another  important  discovery  of  this  year's 
campaign  is  that  of  a  large  disk  of  white  poros 
showing  a  relief  carved  in  the  style  of  the  late 
5th  or  early  4th  century.  The  disk  is  something 
over  %  meter  in  diameter.  The  relief  shows  two 
figures.  At  the  left  is  a  woman  seated  upon  an  elab- 
orate throne,  the  legs  of  which  are  turned  and  the 
arm  supported  by  a  winged  beast.  The  woman  is 
clad  in  an  ample  garment  draped  around  her  in 
graceful  folds.  One  end  of  the  garment  she  holds 
above  her  left  shoulder  with  her  left  hand  while 
her  right,  resting  in  her  lap,  holds  a  cornuco- 
pia. Undoubtedly  this  figure  is  the  goddess  De- 
meter.  Opposite  to  her  stands  Poseidon  with  his 
right  foot  resting  upon  a  rock.  He  supports  a 
large  trident  in  his  right  hand.  Between  the  two 
deities  is  visible  the  gnarled  trunk  of  a  tree  The 
scene  represents  Demeter  presenting  the  fig  tree 
to  Poseidon,  memorialized  in  the  shrine  of  the 
sacred  fig  tree  situated  near  the  bridge  over  the 
river  Cephisos  on  the  way  to  Eleusis. 

From  a  well  of  the  Hellenistic  period  came  a 
marble  statuette  of  a  woman,  especially  interest- 
ing because  it  preserves  considerable  traces  of 
color.  The  figure  wears  a  chiton  of  olive  green 
and  a  heavy  mantle  of  lilac  with  bands  of  bluish 
green.  The  base  of  the  column  on  which  the  figure 
rests  its  right  hand  is  painted  red  with  red  and 
black  bands  on  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  shaft 

Another  Hellenistic  deposit  produced  a  hoard 
of  113  coins  all  but  two  of  which  are  of  bronze  and 
issued  by  Athens,  Aegma,  Chalcis,  Eleusis,  Lans- 
sa,  Megara,  and  Phocis  They  all  fall  within  the 
period  350-250  BC  One  of  the  two  silver  coins 
was  struck  by  Lysimachus  of  Thrace  after  306 
BC.,  the  other  was  issued  by  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetes  between  306  and  283  B.C.  This  find  is  of  es- 
pecial interest  because  the  coins  of  Athens  and 
Eleusis  establish  a  chronology  previously  lacking. 

Besides  working  on  the  Museum  site  the  exca- 
vators devoted  close  attention  to  the  north  slope 
of  the  Acropolis  to  the  west  of  the  Mycenaean 
tomb  discovered  in  1939.  Here  were  found  late 
Mycenaean  remains  including  a  complete  hydria 
found  in  a  rectangular  cutting  in  the  bedrock  un- 
der the  floor  of  the  forecourt  of  the  Klepsydra. 

Italy.  In  Italy  several  discoveries  have  been 
made.  At  Fiume  an  incineration  burial  gave  up  a 
fine  bracelet  with  silver  pendents.  At  Epizephyri- 
an  Locns  was  found  a  rich  hoard  of  votive  terra 
cottas  belonging  to  the  4th  and  3d  centuries  B  c. 
They  represent  nymphs,  Nereids,  Pan  enthroned, 
and  a  small  shrine  in  the  form  of  a  grotto.  The 
campaign  this  year  on  the  site  of  the  Heraion  in 
Lucania  was  devoted  to  an  area  about  400  meters 
southeast  of  the  larger  of  the  two  temples.  Dig- 
ging has  revealed  that  three  architectural  periods 
can  be  distinguished.  This  site  lies  outside  the  sa- 
cred enclosure  and  the  principal  and  central  fea- 
ture is  a  building  measuring  8  50  by  6.64  meters, 
with  a  platform  to  the  west  which  can  be  dated 
in  the  4th  century  B  c  The  walls  of  the  structure 
are  preserved  to  a  height  of  about  1  33  meters.  In 
the  construction  of  this  building  material  from 
older  structures  was  taken.  In  it  were  found  many 
cornice  blocks  showing  two  different  types  of 
mouldings,  18  metopes  with  figures  in  relief  which 


once  belonged  to  the  Doric  frieze  of  the  archaic 
treasury,  and  two  sculptured  metopes  from  an 
older  structure  which  was  erected  about  500  B.C. 
The  sculptures  are  mostly  well-preserved  and 
of  high  quality.  The  metopes  preserved  consti- 
tute a  group  without  precedent  and  give  us  an 
unexpected  documentation  of  the  systems  of  ar- 
chaic sculptors  in  treating  the  most  ancient  reper- 
tory of  myths,  such  as  the  Trojan  cycle,  the  La- 
bors of  Hercules,  and  the  Centauromachy.  In  this 
work  we  have  before  us  the  work  of  a  school  of 
sculpture  which  began  in  the  first  half  of  the  6th 
century  BC  and  flourished  for  about  half  a  cen- 
tury. 

At  Milan  excavations  for  a  new  building  near 
the  church  of  San  Carlo  uncovered  at  a  depth  of 
about  13  feet  an  important  group  of  some  10  Ro- 
man wells  built  of  brick.  They  were  about  10 
feet  apart  and  3  feet  in  diameter.  The  lowest  layer 
of  bricks  rested  upon  a  base  of  walnut  wood 

Near  the  church  of  San  Vincenzo  in  Prato,  also 
in  Milan,  digging  revealed  that  here  was  a  suburb 
just  outside  the  city.  Abundant  remains  of  build- 
ings were  uncovered  Particularly  noteworthy  was 
a  long  stretch  of  excellently  constructed  wall 
which  rested  upon  a  foundation  of  piles  Still  in 
Milan  excavations  near  the  church  of  San  Gio- 
vanni in  Conca  uncovered  a  deep  well  which  con- 
tained a  system  of  lead  pipes  inserted  in  a  large 
block  from  the  trunk  of  an  oak  tree  Between  two 
pipes  which  were  about  10  centimeters  in  diame- 
ter a  square  hole  had  been  cut  in  the  block  prob- 
ably to  house  the  key  with  which  the  water  could 
be  shut  off  Owing  to  the  moisture  of  the  ground 
this  water  mam  was  almost  uninjured 

At  the  important  site  of  ancient  Ostia  has  been 
found  a  herm  of  Themistocles  which  has  been 
identified  by  its  inscription  Also  found  were  two 
fine  portrait  heads,  one  of  which  wears  a  veil  At 
Pola  work  on  the  site  of  the  Roman  theater  of  the 
Capitolium  has  revealed  part  of  the  hyposkenion 
and  some  interesting  details  of  the  frons  scaena, 
while  nearby  was  found  the  beginning  of  an  in- 
clined paved  street  which  gave  access  to  the  the- 
ater zone 

At  Pompeii,  Maiuri  has  examined  several  parts 
of  the  southwest  edge  of  the  city,  especially  the 
precinct  believed  related  to  Venus  Pompeiana.  Ex- 
cavations have  revealed  that  it  rests  upon  a  com- 
pletely artificial  terrace  During  the  work  of  clear- 
ing away  the  deposit  of  previous  dumping  was 
found  a  beautiful  veiled  head  which  may  represent 
Marcellus,  the  nephew  of  Augustus 

At  Rome  excavations  on  the  Capitolme  hill 
have  brought  to  light  further  details  of  the  Tabu- 
larium,  as  well  as  the  underground  passages,  podi- 
um, and  the  colossal  cult  statue  of  the  temple  of 
Vciovis  Also  a  massive  early  Doric  capital  turned 
up ;  it  may  have  come  from  one  of  the  great  tem- 
ples of  the  Capitoline  In  addition  to  this  were 
found  remains  of  pavements  and  walls  which  an- 
tedate the  time  of  the  Tabularium 

Central  America.  In  America  this  past  year 
considerable  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  explora- 
tion in  Central  America  For  the  Carnegie  Institu- 
tion Gustav  Stromsvik  continued  his  excavations 
on  the  acropolis  at  Copan.  On  this  site  work  on 
the  two  temples  which  stand  on  each  side  of  the 
ball  court  has  supplied  information  which  is  of 
assistance  in  making  a  partial  restoration  of  the 
place  In  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  Pollock  and 
Shook  were  busy  for  about  four  months  in  the 
area  lying  to  the  south  and  east  of  the  so-called 


Courtesy,  T.  Leslie  Shear,  Princeton  University 

FROM  EXCAVATIONS  IN  THE  AGORA  OF  ATHENS 

Upper  Left  Demeter  and  Poseidon  on  a  poros  disk  Upper  Right'  Marble  statuette.  Below  Pyxis,  phiale,  bowl,  and  vases  from 

a  grave  of  the  Sixth  century ,  B  c. 


©  National  Geographic  Magazine 


©  National  Geographic  Magazine 


©  National  Geographic  Magazine 


MONOLITHS  FROM  THE  MEXICAN  JUNGLES 


Three  of  the  great  stone  figures  excavated  in  the  coastal  region  near  La  Venta,  southern  Vera  Cruz,  by  the  National  Geo- 
graphic-Smithsonian Institute  Expedition  of  1940,  led  by  Matthew  W  Stirling  Upper  Left  Stone  head,  8K  feet  high,  22  feet 
in  circumference.  Upper  Right  A  giant  stela,  14  feet  high,  braced  upright  by  mahogany  logs  At  the  lower  part  of  the  photograph 
two  carved  figures  are  visible,  each  about  seven  feet  tall,  the  face  of  one  destroyed,  the  other  with  aquiline  nose  and  flowing 
beard  Below  Stone  altar  The  life-size  figure  m  the  arched  niche  holds  a  rope  that  passes  around  the  bottom  of  the  altar 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


ARCHITECTURE 


Puuc  district.  Here  the  ruins  included  types  which 
on  the  one  hand  resembled  that  of  the  southern 
Mayan  and  on  the  other  the  typical  Puuc.  Smith 
and  Shook  also  worked  for  several  weeks  on  the 
mounds  at  San  Agustin  Acasaguastlan  where  two 
vaulted  tombs  were  opened  and  found  to  contain 
much  beautiful  pottery.  In  Guatemala  the  expedi- 
tion of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  worked 
for  the  second  season  on  the  continuation  of  the 
archaeological  survey  of  the  Alta  Verapaz  which 
had  been  initiated  in  1939. 

Most  dramatic  of  the  year  however  is  the  work 
of  the  joint  expedition  sent  out  by  the  National 
Geographic  Society  and  the  Smithsonian  Institute 
to  carry  on  its  second  season's  campaign  at  Tres 
Zapatas  in  southern  Vera  Cruz.  Since  Tres  Zapa- 
tas  is  one  of  the  oldest  occupied  sites  in  Vera 
Cruz  much  was  expected  from  work  on  the  site. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  after  the  close  of  this  second 
season's  campaign  enough  material  has  been  ac- 
cumulated to  supply  a  complete  record  of  habita- 
tion of  the  place  from  a  point  several  centuries 
before  Christ  to  a  time  shortly  before  the  arrival 
of  the  Spaniards.  Not  the  least  interesting  is  the 
fact  that  some  of  the  relics  were  found  below  a 
deposit  of  sedimentary  rock  some  20  feet  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  This  rock  was  sand- 
stone and  about  2  feet  thick.  Under  it  was  a  de- 
posit of  earth  4  feet  thick  filled  with  fragments 
of  pottery  and  figurines.  At  other  places  on  the 
site  and  at  different  levels  appeared  artifacts  en- 
tirely different  in  character,  which  made  it  pos- 
sible to  distinguish  the  cultural  material  of  these 
periods.  In  one  of  the  smaller  mounds  was  made 
one  of  the  most  exciting  finds  of  the  season.  Here 
at  a  depth  of  6  feet  was  found  a  group  of  clay 
vessels  together  with  a  human  skull,  complete  ex- 
cept for  the  lower  jaw  In  all  there  were  35  elab- 
orate figurines  and  12  painted  clay  disks  over 
which  were  inverted  15  finely  made  clay  vessels. 
This  pottery  proved  to  be  valuable  for  tying  in 
similar  ware  elsewhere. 

Besides  the  work  at  Tres  Zapatas  two  days 
were  spent  at  Cerro  de  Mesa,  near  Vera  Cruz, 
where  the  mounds  are  very  large,  and  in  the  chief 
group  with  the  high  ones  near  together.  Most  of 
them  were  conical  or  pyramidal  and  built  on  great 
platforms  rectangular  in  plan.  On  this  site  12 
stelae  and  eight  other  sculptured  stones  were 
brought  to  light  The  most  interesting  of  these 
stelae  is  one  (no.  6)  which  shows  an  early  Initial 
Series  date  in  the  Mayan  calendar  that  can  be 
read  as  206  or  466  A.D.  according  to  the  authority 
followed.  This  is  the  farthest  north  an  Initial  Se- 
ries has  been  discovered. 

The  next  work  was  carried  on  at  La  Venta  in 
northern  Tabasco.  Here  on  a  sand  island  set  in 
the  midst  of  a  swamp  were  made  some  of  the 
most  interesting  finds  of  the  season.  The  central 
feature  of  the  place  is  a  huge  earth  pyramid  meas- 
uring about  100  yards  along  the  base  and  about 
100  feet  in  height.  Just  to  the  north  of  this  was  a 
rectangular  enclosure  75  yards  long  and  50  in 
width,  with  an  additional  extension  10  yards  wide 
in  the  direction  of  the  pyramid.  This  rectangle 
was  enclosed  by  a  row  of  columns  a  foot  thick  and 
10  in  height  set  close  together.  Two  altars  were 
excavated.  One  proved  to  be  a  huge  monolith  rec- 
tangular in  section  with  a  thick  table  top  project- 
ing on  the  four  sides.  On  the  front  is  carvf d  an 
arched  niche  in  which  is  a  seated  figure,  cross- 
legged  and  wearing  a  headdress  in  the  form  of  a 
jaguar's  head.  Each  hand  of  the  figure  holds  the 


end  of  a  large  rope  that  passes  around  the  bottom 
of  the  monument  The  second  altar,  which  proved 
to  be  artistically  the  most  important  object  dis- 
covered, showed  on  the  four  faces  a  figure  hold- 
ing an  infant  in  its  arms,  suggesting  the  rite  of 
infant  sacrifice.  Within  the  enclosure  already  re- 
ferred to  a  great  stele  was  uncovered,  14  feet  tall. 
7  in  width,  and  34  inches  thick.  On  it  in  low  relief 
were  two  standing  figures  face  to  face  and  wearing 
tall  headdresses.  Unlike  those  at  Tres  Zapatas 
these  do  not  use  feathers.  Nearby,  in  the  jungle, 
the  explorers  found  a  huge  altar  in  the  form  of  a 
human  head.  Particularly  noteworthy  was  the  hole 
which  passed  from  the  left  ear  to  the  mouth  sug- 
gesting that  perhaps  this  was  used  by  the  priests 
to  issue  fake  oracles.  In  a  neighboring  thicket  was 
also  uncovered  the  colossal  head  referred  to  some 
years  ago  by  the  explorer  Blom.  It  proved  to  be 
2  feet  higher  than  the  colossal  head  found  at  Tres 
Zapatas.  Besides  this  colossal  head  three  other 
heads  were  found  bringing  the  total  of  sculptured 
monuments  up  to  20.  Several  proved  to  be  the 
finest  yet  found  in  America.  They  were  cut  from 
an  igneous  rock  which  is  not  found  within  50 
miles  of  this  site.  The  moving  of  these  huge 
masses  of  stone  tells  of  considerable  engineering 
skill  on  the  part  of  these  people.  See  CHEMISTRY. 

OLIVER  S.  TONKS. 

ARCHERY.  In  a  year  when  mechanized  war- 
fare screeched  its  story  everywhere,  the  medieval 
bow  and  arrow  continued  to  hold  people  breathless 
as  old  and  modern  records  were  shattered  at  ran- 
dom throughout  1940.  Russ  Hoogerhyde  of  North- 
brook,  111.,  in  a  remarkable  display  of  muscular 
and  visual  co-ordination,  outclassed  Marvin  T. 
Schmidt  of  Chicago  to  carry  off  the  men's  national 
championship  at  Amherst,  Mass.  He  thereupon  be- 
came the  United  States  male  champion  for  the 
sixth  time,  though  not  consecutively.  The  defend- 
ing title-holder,  Pat  Chambers  of  Portland,  Ore., 
invincible  at  other  times,  fought  valiantly  to  no 
avail. 

Miss  Anne  Weber,  18-year-old  student  at  Mont- 
clair,  N.J.,  State  Teachers  College,  annihilated  all 
the  major  records  in  the  women's  national  tourna- 
ment. In  dethroning  Miss  Jean  Tenney  of  Clear 
Spring,  Md.,  she  set  a  high  mark  for  herself  of 
1180  points  to  Miss  Tenney's  record  of  1088  in  a 
similar  double  round  in  1938.  In  retaining  her  East- 
ern Archery  Championship  at  Storrs,  Conn.,  Miss 
Weber  scored  143  hits  out  of  a  miraculously  pos- 
sible 144  and  missed  only  once  in  468  shots  over  a 
period  of  three  days. 

Fred  Folbert  of  Cleveland,  whose  stance  was  not 
unlike  that  of  the  late  William  Tell,  was  the  un- 
disputed national  boy's  champion ;  and  Miss  Mary 
C.  Thompson  of  Phoenix,  Ariz.,  succeeded  to  the 
corresponding  title  among  the  girls  of  America. 

ARCHITECTURE.  The  year  1940  was  a  tur- 
bulent one  for  architecture,  with  threats  of  worse 
to  come.  The  virtual  levelling  of  downtown  Rot- 
terdam, defenseless  and  undefended,  in  a  few  min- 
utes' work,  set  a  new  record  in  the  destruction  of 
peaceful  building  by  war.  Despite  regular  bombing, 
London's  building  losses  were  put  as  low  as  2  per 
cent  of  the  total  by  some  estimators  at  the  end 
of  the  year;  yet  the  historic  Guildhall,  parts  of 
Temple  Court,  and  a  score  of  churches  by  Wren 
were  destroyed  along  with  less  famous  buildings. 
Coventry's  14th-century  cathedral  was  a  loss  less 
frightful  than  the  razing  of  the  town. 

In  the  United  States,  the  defense  program  com. 


ARCHITECTURE 


ARCHITECTURE 


jug  on  top  o!  rising  activity  stirred  up  a  construc- 
tion fever ;  awards  of  $238,793,000  in  one  week 
set  a  new  record.  Independent  architects,  however, 
received  a  disappointingly  small  share  of  the  work, 
as  they  also  had  in  England;  it  was  largely  as- 
signed to  Government  bureaus.  Remarkable  devel- 
opments might  be  expected  in  the  building  arts  if 
peace  could  somehow  be  maintained.  See  also 
BUILDING. 

Residential.  A  high  total  of  525,000  dwelling 
units  produced  throughout  the  year  exceeded  the 
previous  year's  output  by  some  40,000  units,  but 
still  resulted  in  an  increasing  rather  than  decreasing 
residential  deficit,  for  Defense  Housing  Coordina- 
tor C.  F.  Palmer  estimated  the  annual  need  at  800,- 
000  new  units  and  the  total  deficit  at  4,000,000.  (See 
NATIONAL  DEFENSE  ADVISORY  COMMISSION.)  The 
year's  work  attested  the  rapidly  widening  spread, 
not  only  in  standards  of  quality,  but  in  kinds  of 
houses  built  and  in  architectural  approach 

Through  natural  lag  there  was  a  growing  dis- 
parity between  houses  and  other  buildings  in  terms 
of  technical  progress  and  style.  The  favorite  styl- 
ism  hi  the  great  bulk  of  residential  building  was  a 
very  modified  "Colonial,"  especially  predominant  in 
work  insured  by  the  Federal  Housing  Administra- 
tion (q.v.).  The  FHA  role  was  in  fact  ambiguous. 
The  Rental  Housing  Division  was  without  doubt 
enormously  improving  the  standards  of  amenity, 
especially  in  site  planning,  in  large-scale  work. 
In  small  homes,  on  the  contrary,  FHA  tended  to 
play  Jekyll  and  Hyde,  raising  standards  at  the  bot- 
tom but  freezing  them  at  the  top.  Complaints  arose 
of  an  increasing  tendency  among  local  appraisers 
to  veto  the  plans  of  precisely  those  architects  whose 
study  was  most  thorough  and  results  consequently 
out  of  the  average  An  extreme  case  was  the  deri- 
sive valuation  of  $500  set  by  a  local  FHA  apprais- 
er on  a  house  plan  which,  later  on,  built  by  the 
architect  under  private  financing  for  $6000  and 
submitted  to  a  well  regarded  annual  magazine  com- 
petition, received  the  nation-wide  first  prize  against 
a  strong  field.  In  any  one  case,  however,  bureau- 
cratic prejudice  was  extremely  difficult  to  prove 
because  the  architectural  decision  was  wrapped  up 
with  so  many  others  by  nature  confidential 

In  the  most  progressive  design  trends,  differen- 
tiation seemed  to  be  setting  in  among  regions.  In 
the  Pacific  northwest,  such  houses  as  the  Watsek 
house  (by  A.  E.  Doyle  and  associate ;  John  Yeon, 
collaborator)  had  a  special  flavor  of  the  surround- 
ing forest,  not  only  in  materials  but  in  the  elevated 
character  of  the  high  open  gable  supported  on  sim- 
ple posts  to  form  the  porch.  New  San  Francisco 
work  was  characteristically  quiet  with  a  simple 
reticent  breadth.  The  city  was  unique  in  the  fact 
that  large  town  houses  were  being  erected  on  its 
central  streets.  One  side  street  on  Telegraph  Hill, 
all  taken  by  a  row  of  Gardner  Dailey  houses  re- 
cently built  or  building,  formed  a  remarkably  col- 
lected and  suave  urban  view.  Among  notable  ex- 
atopies  outside  the  town  were  the  small  Taylor 
house  by  Dinwiddie  (A.  H.  Hill,  assoc.)  and  a 
harmonious  group  by  Frederick  L.  Confer,  for  of- 
ficers at  Hamilton  Field.  The  brilliant  new  designs 
in  Texas  bore  a  family  resemblance  to  those  of  the 
San  Francisco  region,  but  with  wholly  different 
planning  for  a  hot  climate.  (San  Jose  ranch. 
Hersch  house,  Boaland  house,  by  O'Neil  Ford  and 
A.  B.  Swank.)  Southern  California  continued  its 
more  dramatic,  personal,  and  sometimes  exagger- 
ated forms.  Numbers  of  houses  by  Neutra  dis- 
played the  strong  polished  cubism  expected  of  this 


designer.  Harwell  Harris  produced  a  number  of 
houses,  especially  the  Blair  house  outside  Los  An- 
gefes,  of  a  personal,  charming,  and  cleverly  planned 
variety,  besides  the  spectacular  Havens  house,  wide* 
ly  cantilevered,  at  Berkeley.  A  beautifully  detailed 
remodelling  job  was  the  Dr.  Maitland  house  in  Bel 
Air,  re-done  by  J.  R.  Davidson ;  as  the  work  of  a 
practitioner  trained  abroad  it  found  an  echo  in 
such  houses  as  the  one  at  Lincoln,  Mass.,  by  Wal- 
ter F.  Bogner,  very  similar  in  spirit  to  work  by 
Gropius  and  Breuer.  More  cross-play  with  single 
slabs  or  planes  was  found  in  the  advanced  work 
of  the  East  than  that  of  the  West,  also  more  con- 
trasts in  textures.  The  East  also  clung  more  to 
"traditional"  or  eclectic  types,  such  as  a  house  in 
Puntney,  Vt.,  by  Van  der  Gracht  &  Kilham,  or  a 
new  house  in  Norwood,  Mass.,  of  "early  American 
derivation,"  by  David  J.  Abrahams.  Midwestern 
designers,  such  as  Alden  Dow  (George  Green  res- 
idence,  Midland,  Mich.),  looked  to  the  Wright  tra- 
dition for  dramatic  contrasts.  In  Chicago  a  boldly 
experimental  house,  the  "Solar  House,"  was  de- 
signed by  George  Fred  Keck  to  test  the  value  of 
sunlight,  properly  controlled,  as  an  auxiliary  fur- 
nace. Panel  heating  as  a  new  development  was  ex- 
tensively developed  near  Chicago,  e  g.  in  houses  by 
Schweikher,  Lamb  &  Elting  A  parallel  expedient 
was  the  house  at  Redding,  Conn.,  by  Henry  N. 
Wright,  with  Hornbostle  &  Bennett  as  associates. 
The  Thorp  house  at  Sudbury,  Mass.,  by  Derby, 
Barnes  &  Champney,  was  "early  American"  in  ex- 
pression with  an  efficient  modern  plan.  A  large, 
formal  house,  eclectic  in  its  elements  and  studied 
in  its  modified  forms,  was  the  large  Rosenwald 
house-museum  near  Jenkintown.  Penna.,  by  Ernest 
A.  Grunsfeld,  Jr.,  Wallace  F.  Yerkes,  assoc. 

Housing  and  Large-Scale  Developments. 
One  of  the  most  distinguished  among  all  projects 
of  the  U.S.  Housing  Authority  (q.v  )  was  Valley- 
view  homes  at  Cleveland,  by  Hayes,  Huntziger  & 
Simpson,  with  its  fine  domestic  scale,  studied  pro- 
portions, careful  balancing  of  factors,  and  especial- 
ly the  care  taken  with  cheap  brick  to  achieve  inter- 
esting texture  and  color.  Other  USHA  projects : 
the  carefully  studied  high-density  project,  "East 
River  Houses,"  in  New  York  (Voorhees,  Walker, 
Foley  &  Smith;  Alfred  Easton  Poore,  C.  W. 
Schlusing;  Perry  Coke  Smith,  ch.  arch.) ;  Holly 
Courts  project  in  San  Francisco,  by  Arthur  Brown 
— architecturally  uninteresting;  Cuney  Homes, 
Houston,  Texas,  (Nunn  &  McGinty).  FHA  proj- 
ects included  Parklane  Apartments,  Houston  (Tal- 
bot  Wilson  and  Irwin  Morris) ;  Front  Royal  Gar- 
dens, Va.,  by  A.  R.  Clas.  A  good  privately  financed 
development  was  Dundalk,  Maryland,  by  Gustave 
W.  Iser. 

So  far  as  "defense  housing"  is  concerned,  little 
of  architectural  interest  had  yet  developed.  A  great 
spur  was  being  given  to  prefabrication.  The  Navy 
Department  of  Docks  and  Yards,  under  Rear  Ad- 
miral Ben  Morreell,  started  100  twelve-family 
two-story  apartments  at  Newport  News  through 
Tennessee  Coal,  Iron,  and  R.R.  Co.,  and  a  1042- 
unit  apartment  project  in  Norfolk,  Va.  through 
"Stran-Steel."  The  clearing  of  69  defense  projects 
through  Public  Buildings  Administration  (q.v.), 
a  bureau  experienced  only  in  monumental  work 
and  post  offices,  rather  than  through  USHA  with 
its  developed  housing  technique  and  contact  with 
outside  architects  in  the  field,  was  criticised  in  the 
profession.  Meanwhile  The  Farm  Security  Admin- 
istration (q.v.)  won  the  applause  of  an  influential 
part  of  the  architectural  press.  Under  the  brilliant 


ARCHITECTURE 


35 


ARGENTINA 


leadership  of  Vernon  De  Mar,  architect,  PSA  had 
worked  out  novel,  effective,  and  useful  migrant  la- 
bor camps  and  farm  settlements. 

Industrial  Buildings.  An  enormous  amount  of 
new  industrial  construction  was  contracted  for. 
Planning  advances  in  the  interest  of  dispersion 
were  however  not  made.  Experimentation  was  go- 
ing on  with  screening  as  well  as  complete  enclosure 
in  the  interest  of  blackouts.  Defense  factories  may 
not  be  identified  for  description.  A  factory  such  as 
the  Church  &  Dwight  plant,  by  Austin  G,  at  Syra- 
cuse, N.Y..  shows  the  somewhat  heavy  pseudo- 
streamlinea  monumentalism  in  which  many  facto- 
ries are  now  bedecked. 

Commercial  Buildings.  Office  buildings  were 
erected  less  frequently  in  the  interest  of  general- 
ized speculation,  more  often  for  specific  occupancv. 
The  Banker's  Life  Co.  building  at  Minneapolis 
was  a  most  thoroughly  studied  example  (Tinsley, 
McBroom  &  Higgins).  The  CBS  broadcasting 
studios  in  New  York,  by  Fellheimer  &  Wagner, 
were  another  such  specialized  assignment. 

Transportation  was  yielding  not  only  the  strings 
of  brightly  colored  streamlined  trains  but  new 
terminals  and  hotels.  One  of  the  phenomena  of  the 
year  was  the  great  boom  at  Miami  Beach  which 
resulted  in  the  erection  at  almost  regular  intervals 
of  some  41  new  hotels,  all  in  strikingly  "modern" 
manners,  reputedly  financed  with  capital  that  had 
"fled"  Europe.  A  less  conspicuous  but  neatly  de- 
signed middle-sized  hotel  in  Columbia,  S.C.,  was 
the  Wade  Hampton  by  Holabird  &  Root.  Tourist 
courts  were  rapidly  coming  up  and  employing  ar- 
chitects. Jack  Tar  Court  at  Galveston,  and  the 
Rancheria  "Motel"  near  Santa  Barbara,  showed 
better  than  average  planning  and  amenities. 

The  Washington,  D  C,  national  airport,  de- 
signed by  Howard  L.  Cheney  as  consulting  archi- 
tect, was  on  clean  lines  not  unlike  those  used  in 
France.  The  Coast  Guard  Station  at  Cleveland, 
by  J.  Milton  Dyer,  was  an  unusually  clean-cut  so- 
lution. 

Stores  and  commercial  establishments  continued 
to  burgeon.  The  May  Co.  department  store  on  Wil- 
shire  Blvd.  at  Los  Angeles  (Albert  C.  Martin, 
Samuel  A.  Marx)  and  the  Saks  Wilshire  by  My- 
ron T.  Hunt  were  two  very  diverse  expressions, 
the  first  one  dashing  and  the  second  dignified. 
Small  specialty  stores  continued  to  be  remodelled 
so  as  to  throw  their  front  arcades  into  a  deep 
scheme  permitting  easy  visual  penetration  of  the 
interior,  as  an  invitation  to  enter.  The  front  par- 
tition was  often  wholly  of  glass.  (Candy  shop  for 
Altaian  &  Kuhne,  New  York,  by  Gruenbaum  and 
Krummeck;  dress  shop  in  Berkeley  by  Dinwiddie; 
Tourneur  make-up  salon,  New  York,  by  Morris 
Sanders.)  See  CO-OPERATIVE  MOVEMENT. 

Institutional.  Churches.  Mostly  conventional, 
churches  departed  occasionally  from  their  Ro- 
manesque and  Gothic  garb.  Of  this  eclectic  garb 
itself,  Henry  D.  Dagit  &  Sons  gave  samples  in  the 
Slovak  Girls  Academy,  Danville,  Pa.,  and  the 
Gothic  Co-Cathedral  in  Atlanta.  So,  too,  did  Cram 
&  Fergusson  in  the  Conventional  Church  of  St. 
Mary  and  St.  John  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  A  viva- 
cious though  reverent  departure  was  the  very  small 
chapel  of  the  St.  Peter  Claver  Mission,  Montclair, 
N.J.  (Albert  Hoffmann,  des.;  George  Kratina, 
sculp.,  Vincent  Pacelli,  painter;  Paul  C.  Reilly,  ar- 
chitect.) Others :  the  "Little  Chapel  in  the  Woods" 
for  Texas  State  College  for  Women—designed 
tinder  the  National  Youth  Administration  auspices 
by  O'Neil  Ford  &  A.  B.  Swank;  Church  of  the 


Epiphany  in  New  York  by  Wyeth  &  King,  and 
Eugene  W.  Mason— a  handsomely  massive  Nor- 
man Gothic*  tower  to  York  Avenue. 

Schools.  College  buildings  broke  with  eclecti- 
cism more  often  and  more  decisively  than  hereto- 
fore. Harvard  and  Yale  still  stood  by.  Coolidge, 
Shepley,  Bui  finch  &  Abbott  supplied  Harvard  with 
two  of  their  refined  buildings  of  generally  Grecian 
character,  and  Eggers  &  Higgins  did  the  Silliman 
College  building  at  Yale  in  fairly  vigorous  Colo- 
nial On  the  other  hand,  Hornbostel  and  Bennett 
did  a  studied  contemporary  alumnae  building  for 
Wheaton  College  at  Norton,  Mass. ;  the  University 
of  Wisconsin  received  a  highly  functional  theater 
and  art  center  from  Michael  Hare  and  Corbett  & 
MacMurray  (Lee  Simonson,  theater  consultant). 
Shreve,  Lamb  &  Harmon  did  a  strictly  contempo- 
raneous design  for  Hunter  College,  New  York; 
their  auditorium  for  Connecticut  College  at  New 
London  was  more  decoratively  "modernistic." 

Public  school  buildings  continued  to  move  for- 
ward rapidly,  with  large  and  highly  articulated 
plants  the  prevailing  mode.  Marsh,  Smith  &  Pow- 
ell's El  Monte  (Cal.)  high  school  was  one  such 
elaborate  campus  grouping.  Burnham  Hoyt  and 
Edward  L.  Bunts  did  a  well  composed  school  at 
Colorado  Springs.  The  Bossier  High  School,  Bos- 
sier, La ,  was  a  single  building  likewise  made  up 
of  five  linked  elements.  Lyndon,  Smith  &  Winn 
added  a  fine  auditorium  to  their  excellent  Farm- 
ington,  Mich.,  high  school.  A  school  for  crippled 
children  at  Denver,  also  by  Hoyt,  was  one  of  the 
recent  school  masterpieces,  with  its  vigorous  and 
reassuring  front,  its  convenient  ramps,  and  its  plan 
with  classrooms  in  pairs  alternating  with  courts.  A 
happy  modern  nursery  school  design  was  achieved 
by  Oscar  Stonotov  within  the  walls  of  an  old 
church  at  Charlestown  twp.,  Pennsylvania.  Private 
schools  played  into  the  same  wide  range.  A  rather 
exceptionally  attractive  group,  despite  utter  sim- 
plicity, was  Lincoln  Hall  at  Lincolndale,  N.Y.,  for 
the  "Christian  Brothers,"  by  Van  der  Gracht  & 
Kilham. 

Among  auditoriums,  the  Berkshire  Music  Shed 
by  Joseph  Franz,  engineer,  was  remarkable  in  the 
combined  sense  it  gave  of  protection  and  openness. 
A.  E.  Doyle  and  Associate  did  a  more  than  compe- 
tent addition  to  the  Portland  Museum  of  Art 

Hospitals  and  Health  Centers.  These  contin- 
ued one  of  the  most  vigorous  groups  of  buildings. 
Almost  unquestionably  the  most  interesting  among 
them  was  the  Lake  County  Tuberculosis  Sanitori- 
um  at  Waukegan,  111.,  by  Wm.  A  Ganster  and  the 
offices  of  W.  L.  Pereira,  associated  architects.  The 
continuous  balconies  for  patients  were  made  the 
main  feature  of  the  design  with  all  its  agreeable- 
ness.  The  larger  Triboro  Hospital  for  Tuberculo- 
sis at  Jamaica,  New  York,  by  Eggers  &  Higgins, 
was  necessarily  more  institutional  in  effect  because 
larger  in  size.  A  third  notable  large  hospital  was 
the  additional  wing  at  the  Massachusetts  General 
Hospital  at  Boston  (Coolidge,  Shepley,  Bulfinch, 
and  Abbott),  representing  a  cleanup  and  further 
development  in  the  Cornell  Medical  Center  scheme 
by  the  same  firm. 

DOUGLAS  HASKELL. 

ARCTIC  EXPLORATION.  See  POLAR  RE- 
SEARCH. 

ARGENTINA.  A  federal  republic  of  South 
America,  consisting  of  14  provinces,  10  territories, 
and  the  federal  district,  which  includes  the  capi- 
tal, Buenos  Aires. 


ARGENTINA 


36 


ARGENTINA 


Area  and  Population.  Land  area,  1,079,965 
square  miles.  Estimated  population  on  Dec.  31, 
1939,  13,129,723  (7,885,237  at  1914  census).  Esti- 
mated population  of  Buenos  Aires,  2,364,263  on 
Dec.  31,  1939 ;  of  the  other  chief  cities  on  Jan.  1, 
1938:  Rosario,  511,007;  C6rdoba,  288,916;  Avel- 
laneda.  230,775;  La  Plata,  190,577;  Santa  Fe, 
143,327;  Tucuman,  140,000;  Bahia  Blanca,  108,- 
310. 

Education  and  Religion.  About  16  per  cent 
of  the  adult  population  was  estimated  to  be  illiter- 
ate in  1939  (less  than  2  per  cent  in  the  federal  dis- 
trict). School  statistics  for  1937  were:  Primary, 
13,036  schools,  1,543,317  pupils;  secondary,  nor- 
mal and  special,  605  schools,  98,302  pupils;  uni- 
versities, 6  institutions,  27,885  students,  exclusive 
of  the  University  of  Cuyo  founded  at  Mendoza 
in  1939.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  supported 
by  the  state;  all  other  faiths  enjoy  freedom  of 
conscience. 

Defense.  As  of  Nov.  1,  1939,  Argentina  had 
49,705  men  in  active  military  service,  including 
conscripts ;  an  additional  2023  in  the  military  and 
naval  air  forces,  with  about  200  planes ;  a  trained 
army  reserve  of  282,503  men;  and  a  naval  force 
of  2  old  battle  ships  (recently  modernized),  3 
cruisers,  4  old  coast  defense  vessels,  16  destroy- 
ers, 3  submarines,  15  patrol  vessels,  and  various 
auxiliary  craft. 

Production.  Agriculture,  stock  raising  and 
manufacturing  are  the  main  occupations.  Agricul- 
tural products  accounted  for  488  per  cent  of  the 
value  of  all  1939  exports ;  livestock  products,  43.7 
per  cent.  Yields  of  the  chief  crops  in  1939-40  were 
(provisional,  in  metric  tons)  •  Wheat,  3,212,000; 
corn,  11,028,000;  linseed,  1,127,000;  cotton,  70,891 
in  1938-39 ;  oats,  750,000  in  1938-39 ;  cane  sugar, 
521,594  in  1938-39;  tobacco,  7812  in  1938-39.  Rice, 
fruit,  wine  grapes,  potatoes,  etc,  are  other  crops. 
Livestock  slaughtered  at  "frigorificos"  in  1939  in- 
cluded 4,424,172  cattle,  5,563,275  sheep,  and  869,- 
435  swine.  The  chief  mineral  product  is  petroleum 
(about  2,628,000  metric  tons  in  1939).  Important 
new  wells  were  brought  in  near  Mendoza  late  in 
1939.  Tungsten,  lead,  zinc,  copper,  gold,  silver,  and 
coal  are  mined  in  relatively  small  quantities.  The 
industrial  census  of  Dec.  31,  1937,  showed  49,333 
establishments  with  62,634  employees  and  579,- 
752  workmen  who  received  wages  and  salaries  ag- 
gregating 947,870,000  pesos  during  1937.  The  value 
of  finished  goods  produced  was  4,708,379,000  pesos. 

Foreign  Trade.  Exclusive  of  specie,  imports 
in  1939  totaled  1,338,332,000  pesos  (1,460,888,000 
in  1938)  and  exports  1,570,226,000  pesos  (1,400,- 
453,000  in  1938),  on  the  basis  of  real  values  Lead- 
ing 1939  imports  were  (in  millions  of  pesos) : 
Fuels  and  lubricants,  231.3;  textiles  and  manu- 
factures, 2199;  machinery  and  vehicles,  1317; 
iron  and  manufactures,  121.8.  Leading  exports 
were  (in  millions  of  pesos) :  Cattle  and  products, 
686.0;  agricultural,  766.7;  forest,  48.0;  mining, 
18.8.  The  United  Kingdom  supplied  19  9  per  cent 
of  the  1939  imports  by  value  (18.3  in  1938); 
United  States,  17.2  (17.7);  Germany,  9.2  (10.1). 
Of  the  1939  exports,  the  United  Kingdom  took 
32.9  per  cent  (328  in  1938)  ;  United  States,  119 
(8.5)  ;  Germany,  57  (11.7).  See  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  The  1940  budget  estimates  of  the 
Central  Government,  as  readjusted  on  June  20, 
placed  receipts  for  the  calendar  year  at  915,000,- 
000  pesos  and  expenditures  at  1,077,700,000.  Ac- 
tual budgetary  revenues  amounted  to  907,410,000 
pesos  for  1939  and  the  deficit  for  the  year  was 


60,500,000  pesos.  The  national  public  debt  (3,896,- 
600,000  pesos  on  Dec.  31,  1938)  increased  by  461,- 
300,000  pesos  during  1939. 

The  official  exchange  rate  of  the  paper  peso  av- 
eraged $0.2703  from  Jan.  1  to  Aug.  21,  1939,  and 
$0.2315  from  Aug.  22  to  Dec.  31,  1939  ($0.3021  in 
1938)  ;  free  market  rate,  $0.2309  in  1939  ($02551 
in  1938). 

Transportation,  etc.  In  June,  1939,  Argentine 
railways  had  26,564  miles  of  line,  of  which  7826 
miles  were  state-owned.  Highways  in  1939  ex- 
tended 253,115  miles.  To  speed  road  construction 
new  taxes  on  gasoline,  lubricating  oils  and  other 
motor  combustibles  were  imposed  Apr.  15, 1940.  Re- 
construction of  the  Transandine  railway  tunnel  to 
permit  the  passage  of  automobiles  was  completed 
in  February,  1940.  Automobiles  in  operation  in 
Argentina  declined  from  435,822  in  1930  to  405,- 
743  in  1939.  European  air  services  to  Argentina 
were  interrupted  by  the  spread  of  the  war  during 
1940.  Pan  American  Airways  inaugurated  a  tri- 
weekly three  and  one-half-day  schedule  on  its 
Miami-Buenos  Aires  east-coast  route  in  Septem- 
ber. New  air  services  linking  Buenos  Aires  with 
Colonia,  Uruguay,  and  with  Esquel  (Chubut  Ter- 
ritory) were  opened.  During  1939  a  total  of  2619 
sea-going  ships  of  9,452,316  net  registered  tons 
entered  Argentine  ports 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  1853  vests 
executive  power  in  a  president  chosen  for  a  six- 
year  term  by  376  electors  representing  the  prov- 
inces and  the  federal  district.  The  National  Con- 
gress consists  of  a  Senate  of  30  members  elected 
for  nine  years  by  the  provincial  legislatures  and  a 
Chamber  of  Deputies  of  158  members  elected  for 
four  years  by  universal  male  suffrage  One-third 
of  the  Senate  retires  every  three  years  and  one- 
half  of  the  Chamber  every  two  years  The  gover- 
nors of  the  provinces,  elected  by  local  suffrage,  ex- 
ercise extensive  powers  independently  of  the  fed- 
eral government.  President  in  1940,  Dr.  Roberto 
M.  Ortiz,  who  assumed  office  Feb.  20,  1938. 

HISTORY 

Internal  Politics.  A  series  of  elections  during 
1940  gave  the  pro-democratic  Radical  party  con- 
trol of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  of  the  im- 
portant province  of  Buenos  Aires,  thus  restoring 
the  forces  of  liberalism  to  the  dominant  position 
lost  through  the  conservative  revolt  of  1930  The 
Radicals,  who  favored  co-operation  with  the  Unit- 
ed States  and  were  sympathetic  to  the  Allied  cause 
in  Europe,  won  a  favorable  strategic  position  for 
the  1943  presidential  election.  The  Radical  party's 
comeback  was  greatly  facilitated  by  President  Or- 
tiz's courageous  efforts  to  restore  representative 
government  in  Argentina  by  curbing  fraudulent 
electoral  practices  adopted  by  the  conservative  Na- 
tional Democratic  party  in  its  struggle  to  retain 
power. 

President  Ortiz  had  been  elected  by  the  Concor- 
dancia,  a  coalition  of  the  National  Democrats  with 
his  own  dissident  Antipersonalista  wing  of  the 
Radical  party.  Nevertheless  on  Feb.  19,  1940,  he 
supplanted  the  National  Democratic  governor  of 
the  province  of  Catamarca,  whose  election  was  at- 
tributed to  wholesale  frauds.  A  federal  "inter  ven- 
tor"  was  installed  with  instructions  to  hold  new 
elections.  Two  National  Democratic  members  of 
the  Ortiz  Cabinet  (Jose  Padilla,  Agriculture,  and 
Manuel  Alvarado,  Public  Works)  resigned  in  pro- 
test against  the  President's  intervention.  Dr.  Ortiz 
took  similar  action  following  innumerable  charges 


ARGENTINA 


37 


ARGENTINA 


of  fraud  in  the  gubernatorial  election  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Buenos  Aires  on  February  25.  On  March  7 
he  supplanted  Gov.  Manuel  Fresco,  a  National 
Democrat,  and  voided  the  election.  Octavio  R 
Amadeo,  Ambassador  to  Brazil  and  a  confirmed 
democrat,  was  named  "interventor." 

Meanwhile  elections  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
were  held  March  3  in  9  of  the  14  provinces,  in- 
cluding the  province  of  Buenos  Aires,  and  on 
March  31  in  the  federal  district  (city  of  Buenos 
Aires).  Due  to  the  President's  attitude  there  were 
fewer  electoral  irregularities  and  the  Radicals  were 
able  to  register  their  full  voting  strength.  The 
standing  of  the  parties  in  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties as  a  result  of  these  elections  follows  (former 
standing  in  parentheses)  :  Radicals,  79  (62)  ;  Na- 
tional Democrats,  49  (57)  ;  Antipcrsonalistas,  24 
(23)  ;  independent  Radicals,  5  (5)  ;  Socialists,  5 
(5).  The  Radicals  thus  outnumbered  the  combined 
National  Democratic  and  Antipersonalista  delega- 
tions, forming  the  government  bloc  in  the  Cham- 
ber. 

President  Ortiz's  policies  appeared  to  be  leading 
him  into  an  alliance  with  the  opposition  Radical 
party,  to  which  he  formerly  belonged.  His  interven- 
tion in  Buenos  Aires  Province  had  brought  his  re- 
lations with  the  National  Democrats  near  the 
breaking  point.  This  situation  was  modified  by  the 
announcement  on  July  3  that  the  President's  ill 
health  had  forced  him  to  turn  over  his  office  tem- 
porarily to  Vice-President  Ramon  S.  Castillo,  a 
National  Democrat  who  had  publicly  opposed  Pres- 
ident Ortiz's  intervention  in  the  Catamarca  elec- 
toral squabble. 

In  August  anti-democratic  elements  within  and 
without  the  government  seized  upon  a  land-pur- 
chase scandal  in  an  effort  to  discredit  the  Ortiz  re- 
gime and  the  democratic  system  A  Senate  investi- 
gating committee  on  August  8  reported  that  land 
purchased  for  a  new  army  air  base  at  El  Palomar 
near  Buenos  Aires  had  been  sold  to  the  govern- 
ment at  a  1,000,000-peso  profit  by  two  speculators, 
who  distributed  half  the  profits  as  bribes  to  Depu- 
ties, former  Deputies,  and  members  of  the  War,  Fi- 
nance, and  Justice  Ministries.  The  Senate  approved 
the  report  August  21,  voting  to  submit  the  case  to 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  the  law  courts.  The 
revelations  produced  recriminations  and  threats  of 
force  within  the  government  and  the  army  high 
command.  On  August  20  the  former  chief  of  the 
army's  engineering  section  was  arrested  and  mili- 
tary and  police  precautions  were  taken  to  avert  a 
threatened  Rightist  coup. 

In  the  midst  of  an  acute  crisis,  President  Ortiz 
forced  a  showdown  by  submitting  his  resignation, 
charging  that  "there  is  a  greedy  but  hidden  politi- 
cal purpose  in  the  investigation  of  this  affair " 
Public  opinion  rallied  strongly  to  the  President's 
support  and  on  August  24  Congress  voted  170  to  1 
to  reject  his  resignation.  The  Argentine  press  and 
numerous  speakers  during  the  Congressional  de- 
bate declared  the  basic  issue  to  be  between  the  pro- 
democratic  Ortiz  and  his  pro-Fascist  enemies.  The 
vote  in  a  joint  session  of  the  Senate  and  Chamber 
was  declared  a  historic  victory  for  democracy  On 
August  27  the  cabinet  resigned  to  give  President 
Ortiz  a  free  hand  in  terminating  the  political 
crisis.  Apparently  at  the  insistence  of  Acting  Presi- 
dent Castillo,  he  turned  over  to  the  latter  responsi- 
bility for  selecting  the  new  ministry. 

The  officials  sworn  in  September  3  were  mostly 
conservatives  of  moderate  views,  acceptable  to  both 
Ortiz  and  Castillo.  The  Acting  President  and  cab- 


inet were  pledged  to  maintain  Argentina's  demo- 
cratic institutions  and  to  carry  forward  the  policies 
of  the  Ortiz  Government.  The  new  cabinet  line-up 
was :  Foreign  Affairs,  Julio  Roca ;  Interior,  Miguel 
Culaciatti;  Finance,  Federico  Pinedo;  Agricul- 
ture, Daniel  Amadeo  Videla ;  War,  Gen.  Juan  M. 
Tonassi;  Marine,  Rear  Admiral  Mario  Fincatti; 
Public  Works,  Salvador  Oria ;  Justice  and  Public 
Instruction,  Guillermo  Rothe.  On  September  6  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  79  to  27,  absolved  the  for- 
mer War  Minister,  Gen.  Carlos  D.  Marquez,  of 
blame  for  the  land-purchase  scandal. 

Another  controversy  between  the  Radicals  and 
the  National  Democrats  broke  out  in  connection 
with  the  provincial  election  of  December  15  in 
Santa  Fe  Province.  The  Radicals,  who  formed  the 
Opposition  party  in  the  province,  charged  that  Na- 
tional Democratic  officials  fraudulently  manipulat- 
ed the  electoral  returns  to  perpetuate  their  control. 
President  Ortiz  was  again  requested  to  intervene 
to  insure  an  honest  election 

War  Repercussions.  The  European  War  con- 
tinued to  exercise  an  unfavorable  political  and  eco- 
nomic effect  upon  the  republic  There  was  a  marked 
reduction  of  trade  with  Europe,  which  was  offset 
only  in  part  by  increased  trade  with  the  United 
States  and  other  American  republics  Divisions  be- 
tween Argentine  political  and  racial  groups  were 
widened  by  their  divergent  sympathies  for  the  Eu- 
ropean belligerents  In  January  ex-President  Mar- 
celo  T.  de  Alvear,  leader  of  the  Radical  party,  and 
a  number  of  other  public  figures  formed  a  pro- 
Ally  committee  to  combat  totalitarian  and  anti- 
Ally  propaganda.  Later  he  alienated  some  mem- 
bers of  his  party  by  reiterating  publicly  his  support 
of  Britain  The  Socialist  national  congress  on  Au- 
gust 5  formally  endorsed  Great  Britain  as  the  de- 
fender of  democracy  An  anti-totalitarian  organiza- 
tion, Accidn  Argentina,  recruited  300,000  members 
from  many  different  political  parties  within  six 
months  of  its  inauguration.  The  pro-Ally  groups 
were  vigorously  opposed  by  pro-German,  pro-Ital- 
ian and  pro- Soviet  elements. 

Meanwhile  German  military  successes  and  the 
subjugation  of  European  neutrals  led  to  the 
strengthening  of  Argentine  defenses.  The  com- 
pulsory military  service  law  was  amended  to  per- 
mit the  training  of  technicians  and  other  special- 
ists for  new  mechanized  branches  of  the  army.  In 
June  and  July  the  government  submitted  to  Con- 
gress a  series  of  bills  providing  for  a  greatly  en- 
larged army,  navy,  and  air  force,  the  expansion  of 
defense  industries,  and  the  establishment  of  new 
air  bases.  The  cost  was  estimated  at  about  $330,- 
000,000.  To  complete  action  on  these  measures,  and 
on  an  expanded  program  of  public  works,  the  con- 
struction of  national  tourist  hotels,  and  the  1941 
budget,  Acting  President  Castillo  on  October  1 
issued  a  call  for  a  special  session  of  Congress. 

The  war's  restriction  of  European  export  mar- 
kets caused  a  sharp  decline  in  Argentina  s  custom- 
ary excess  of  exports  over  imports.  To  deal  with 
the  growing  surpluses  of  grain  and  wool,  Congress 
on  August  14  authorized  the  Executive  to  purchase 
the  1940  corn  crop  at  4  75  pesos  per  100  kilograms 
and  the  Bank  of  the  Nation  granted  wool  growers 
low-interest  loans  up  to  75  per  cent  of  the  value  of 
their  clips. 

On  November  11  the  government  submitted  to 
Congress  a  plan  drawn  up  by  Finance  Minister 
Pinedo,  designed  to  carry  Argentina  through  the 
economic  crisis  resulting  from  the  war.  As  ap- 
proved by  the  Senate  on  December  18,  the  plan 


ARGENTINA 


38 


ARGENTINA 


called  for  the  establishment  of  an  agency  within 
the  Central  Bank,  having  an  initial  capital  of  25,- 
000,000  pesos,  to  stimulate  manufacturing  indus- 
tries, inaugurate  a  nation-wide  low-cost  housing 
program,  and  finance  government  purchases  of  un- 
marketable agricultural  surpluses.  Purchases  of 
surplus  wheat  and  linseed  in  accordance  with  this 
plan  were  begun  December  2.  Financial  backing 
for  the  program  was  obtained  in  the  United  States 
through  a  Treasury  loan  of  $50,000,000  for  curren- 
cy stabilization,  approved  December  5,  and  a  $60,- 
000,000  loan  from  the  Export-Import  Bank,  au- 
thorized December  11. 

Nazi  Activities.  Argentine  alarm  at  European 
developments  was  enhanced  by  further  revelations 
of  Nazi  activities  within  the  republic  (see  preced- 
ing YEAR  BOOKS)  and  in  neighboring  countries 
(see  BOLIVIA,  CHILE,  and  URUGUAY  under  Histo- 
ry). In  April  interned  officers  and  seamen  from  the 
German  warship  Graf  Spee  were  imprisoned  when 
a  number  of  them  took  advantage  of  the  freedom 
permitted  them  to  attempt  to  escape.  On  May  22 
the  Buenos  Aires  press  indignantly  charged  that 
the  German  Embassy  had  notified  Danes  and  Nor- 
wegians in  that  city  to  contribute  20  per  cent  of 
their  salaries  to  a  Nazi  war  fund.  The  sinking  of 
the  Argentine  ship  Uruguay  by  a  German  subma- 
rine off  the  Spanish  coast  late  in  May  provoked 
anti-German  demonstrations  in  the  capital.  The 
Ortiz  Government  sent  a  formal  protest  to  Berlin. 

Revelation  of  the  Nazi  revolt  plot  in  Uruguay 
(q.v.)  was  followed  by  the  passage  by  the  Cham- 
ber on  June  8  of  a  Public  Order  Bill  to  curb 
"fifth  column"  activities  and  propaganda  on  be- 
half of  foreign  governments  The  wrecking  of  a 
British  freighter  at  a  Buenos  Aires  dock  on  June 
12  by  time  bombs  was  attributed  to  Nazi  sympa- 
thizers. Arrests  were  made  among  Nationalist, 
Nazi,  and  Fascist  adherents.  A  press  law  signed 
by  President  Ortiz  June  11  restricted  publication 
of  "opinionated  articles"  and  banned  foreign  sub- 
sidization of  newspapers  or  magazines  without  gov- 
ernment permission.  The  Buenos  Aires  police  de- 
partment was  reorganized  after  the  Ministers  of 
War  and  Marine  charged  the  police  with  failure  to 
co-operate  in  efforts  to  investigate  Nazi  activities. 

The  investigation,  pursued  throughout  the  re- 
mainder of  the  year,  turned  up  extensive  evidence 
of  Nazi  plotting  and  preparations  for  political  and 
military  action  to  bring  Argentina  into  line  with 
Hitler's  National  Socialist  policies  and  principles. 
Nazi  cells  and  hidden  stores  of  arms  and  propa- 
ganda materials  were  discovered  in  the  capital  and 
in  widely  scattered  points  in  the  provinces,  particu- 
larly in  the  territory  of  Misiones,  adjoining  the 
southern  Brazilian  states  with  their  large  German 
populations.  In  August  the  government  deported 
an  agent  of  the  German  secret  police  and  arrested 
25  other  Nazi  leaders  as  well  as  several  pro-Nazi 
Argentine  citizens  accused  of  "fifth  column"  ac- 
tivities. 

The  German  military  mission  attached  to  the 
Army  Technical  College  was  discharged  on  July  3. 
To  the  annoyance  of  the  Argentine  Government, 
Berlin  named  two  of  these  officers  as  military  at- 
tach£s  in  the  Chilean  and  Brazilian  capitals.  When 
Minister  of  Interior  Culaciatti  assumed  office,  he 
eliminated  all  government  advertising  from  anti- 
democratic publications  and  forced  the  retirement 
or  dismissal  of  police  and  defense  officials  who  had 
failed  to  suppress  Nazi  and  Fascist  activities.  A 
number  of  German-language  schools  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Misiones  were  closed. 


Foreign  Relations.  Argentine  foreign  rela- 
tions in  1940  were  marked  by  a  trend  toward  closer 
relations  with  the  United  States  in  inter-American 
political  and  military  affairs.  At  the  Havana  Con- 
ference in  July  (see  PAN  AMERICANISM),  the  Ar- 
gentine delegation  after  some  hesitation  approved 
Washington's  program  for  strengthening  inter- 
American  security  through  joint  political  military, 
and  economic  measures.  In  mid-October  Gen.  Guil- 
lermp  Jos6  Mohr,  Inspector  General  and  highest 
ranking  officer  of  the  Argentine  army,  joined  other 
Latin  American  military  officials  in  a  tour  of  Unit- 
ed States  defense  centers  and  in  staff  talks  cover- 
ing military  co-operation  in  the  event  of  an  attack 
upon  the  Western  Hemisphere  from  overseas. 

An  agreement  on  closer  Argentine-United  States 
economic  collaboration  proved  more  difficult  to 
reach.  Negotiations  for  a  reciprocal  trade  treaty, 
begun  in  1939,  collapsed  on  Jan.  5,  1940,  when  the 
two  governments  failed  to  reach  a  compromise  on 
their  divergent  commercial  policies.  Soon  after- 
ward Argentina  concluded  a  trade  pact  and  a  com- 
plementary exchange  arrangement  with  Japan  that 
gave  the  Japanese  a  preferred  position  over  the 
United  States  in  many  items  of  trade.  At  Havana 
the  Argentine  delegation  successfully  opposed 
President  Roosevelt's  proposal  for  an  inter-Ameri- 
can cartel  to  control  the  sale  of  New  World  raw 
materials. 

On  June  26  the  Export-Import  Bank  of  Wash- 
ington extended  the  Central  Bank  of  Argentina  a 
three-year  $20,000,000  credit.  However  differences 
arose  over  the  use  of  this  credit  that  were  not  ad- 
justed until  October.  Meanwhile  Argentina's  un- 
favorable balance  of  trade  with  the  United  States 
became  steadily  greater  as  a  result  of  the  shift  in 
Argentine  imports  from  Europe  to  North  Ameri- 
ca. At  the  same  time  the  decline  in  the  Argentine 
export  trade  made  the  country's  economic  future 
look  increasingly  dark. 

In  an  effort  to  conserve  dollar  exchange,  and 
possibly  to  obtain  a  better  bargaining  position,  the 
Argentine  Foreign  Exchange  Control  Board  on 
September  19  suspended  issuance  of  all  import  li- 
censes for  United  States  goods.  This  caused  the 
closing  of  automobile  assembly  and  other  plants 
in  Argentina  dependent  upon  imports  from  the 
United  States,  and  aroused  criticism  of  the  gov- 
ernment's trade  policies  in  the  Argentine  press.  In 
a  new  effort  to  find  a  solution  for  its  mounting 
trade,  foreign  exchange,  and  financial  difficulties, 
the  government  sent  an  economic  and  financial  mis- 
sion led  by  Dr.  Paul  Prebisch,  head  of  the  Central 
Bank,  to  Washington  in  November.  After  the  mis- 
sion obtained  U  S.  government  loans  totaling  $1 10,- 
000,000  (see  above),  Argentine  curbs  on  imports 
from  the  United  States  were  relaxed 

The  Argentine  Government  also  sought  to  find 
markets  in  other  American  countries  to  replace 
those  lost  in  Europe.  A  conference  held  in  Valpa- 
raiso, Chile,  in  February  launched  a  movement  for 
closer  economic  relations  between  the  provinces  of 
Western  Argentina  and  Chile  In  October  a  large 
Argentine  financial-economic  mission  visited  Chile 
to  arrange  for  an  expansion  of  mutual  trade.  On 
April  2  a  provisional  Argentine-Bolivian  accord 
was  signed  in  Buenos  Aires  whereby  the  Argentine 
Government  agreed  to  finance  construction  of  the 
projected  Yacuiba-Sfcnta  Cruz  de  la  Sierra  rail- 
way, tapping  the  Eastern  Bolivian  oil  zone  (see 
BOLIVIA  under  History). 

An  Argentine-Brazilian  trade  accord  was  signed 
January  23.  On  October  6  the  Argentine  and  Bra- 


ARIZONA 


39 


ARKANSAS 


zilian  Finance  Ministers,  meeting:  in  Rio  de  Janei- 
ro, recommended  that  their  governments  expand 
trade  on  a  balanced  basis,  especially  in  new  and 
non-competitive  products.  On  October  11  the  Ar- 
gentine Government  announced  the  conclusion  of 
an  important  deal  with  Great  Britain  under  which 
the  British  agreed  to  increase  their  purchases  of 
meat  and  other  foodstuffs  in  Argentina  beyond  any 
previous  figure  for  the  ensuing  year.  Argentina 
undertook  to  advance  Britain  a  credit  of  £40,000,- 
000  to  finance  these  purchases,  the  credit  to  be  re- 
paid partly  in  cash  and  partly  in  Argentine  bonds 
held  in  Great  Britain.  Late  in  November  Spain 
was  allowed  to  purchase  150,000  tons  of  Argentine 
corn  on  credit. 

The  Foreign  Ministers  of  Argentina  and  Uru- 
guay, at  the  end  of  a  conference  at  Colonia,  Uru- 
guay, on  December  13-14,  signed  an  accord  for 
mutual  co-operation  in  defending  the  River  Plate 
region  against  non- American  aggression.  They  in- 
vited neighboring  republics  to  join  Argentina  and 
Uruguay  in  strengthening  defense  facilities  in  that 
part  of  South  America.  The  conference  took  place 
at  Argentina's  request  following  conclusion  of  an 
agreement  for  United  States  financial  and  techni- 
cal aid  in  establishing  Uruguayan  defense  bases. 
The  question  of  an  Argentine-Uruguayan  trade 
treaty  was  referred  to  a  mixed  commission. 

A  National  Antarctic  Commission  was  estab- 
lished in  the  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs  to  press 
Argentina's  claims  to  part  of  the  Antarctic  conti- 
nent (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939). 

See  BOLIVIA,  BRAZIL,  CHILE,  and  URUGUAY  un- 
der History;  FASCISM;  LEATHER;  NAVAL  PROG- 
RESS; PAN  AMERICANISM;  PAN  AMERICAN  UN- 
ION 

ARIZONA.  Area,  113,956  square  miles,  includ- 
ing (1930)  water,  146  square  miles  Population, 
Apr  1,  1940  (census),  499,261;  1930,  435,573. 
Phoenix,  the  capital,  had  (1940)  65,414  inhabitants. 

Agriculture.  Arizona  harvested  about  665,000 
acres,  in  1940,  of  principal  crops.  This  total,  while 
small  in  relation  to  the  number  of  the  inhabitants, 
surpassed  by  about  one-eighth  the  corresponding 
average  for  the  previous  decade.  Cotton,  covering 
221,000  acres,  or  one-third  of  the  harvested  total, 
gave  195,000  bales,  of  which  the  estimated  value 
to  the  growers  approximated  $11,310,000;  tame 
hay,  on  218,000  acres,  445,000  tons  ($4,005,000  by 
estimate)  ;  wheat,  39,000  acres,  819,000  bu.  ($663,- 
000)  was  the  foremost  of  the  remaining  field  crops. 
Grapefruit,  an  orchard  crop  of  rising  importance, 
yielded  about  2,570,000  boxes  ($797,000).  Part  of 
the  new  "winter  flaxseed  belt,"  Arizona  produced, 
on  13,000  acres,  240,000  bu.  of  flaxseed  ($408,000), 
a  remarkable  yield  of  18%  bu.  ($31)  to  the  acre, 
as  against  9.6  DU.  ($13.40)  an  acre  for  the  Union's 
whole  crop. 

Mineral  Production.  The  1940  (definite  1939 
figures  in  parentheses)  approximate  value  of  Ne- 
vada's five  principal  minerals—copper,  gold,  silver, 
zinc,  and  lead— was  $81,509,300  ($72,616,408)  of 
which  copper,  558,000,000  Ib.  (524,224,000  lb.),  rep- 
resented $63,054  000  ($54,519,296) ;  gold,  292,500 
oz.  (316,453  oz.),  $10,237,500  ($11,075,855);  sil- 
ver, 6,948,000  oz.  (7,824,004  oz.),  $4,940,800 

JS^ffiUtSffi^?0'800'000  lb'  03,422,000  lb.), 
$2,002,000  ($697,944)  ;  lead,  25,500,000  lb.  (21,542,- 
000  lb.),  $1,275,000  ($1,012,474).  Native  minerals 
produced  in  Arizona  during  1938  amounted  in  value 
to  $60,756  253  (according  to  the  Minerals  Year- 
book;  of  1940)  of  which  copper,  gold,  silver,  zinc, 
and  lead  accounted  for  95  per  cent  of  the  total. 


History.  The  development  of  works  for  irriga- 
tion and  for  generating  electrical  current  from  the 
Salt  River  made  progress ;  the  Salt  River  District 
issued  for  this  work  its  bonds,  in  June,  to  the 
amount  of  $1,000,000.  As  part  of  the  year's  plans 
for  military  armament  the  U.S.  War  Department 
chose  Tucson  as  a  new  air-corps  station.  See  REC- 
LAMATION, BUREAU  OF. 

The  Arizona  Secretary  of  State,  rejecting  the 
petition  of  436  supporters  of  communism,  excluded 
the  Communist  ticket  from  the  official  ballot  for 
the  primary  election  of  September  10.  Attorney 
General  Conway  gave  warrant  for  this  action  in  an 
opinion  holding  that  no  Communist  could  qualify 
for  office  in  the  State,  since  the  party's  principles 
sought  "to  overthrow  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  by  force."  Governor  Jones  expressed 
his  support  of  the  exclusion. 

The  strong  pro-Roosevelt  majority  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party  voted  out  of  office,  in  the  State  pri- 
maries, U.S.  Senator  Henry  F.  Ashurst,  who  had 
sat  in  the  Senate  continuously  from  Arizona's  ac- 
quisition of  Statehood  in  1912.  Ashurst  had  op- 
posed the  draft  (q.v.).  Ernest  W.  McFarland  won 
the  Democratic  nomination  for  the  next  term  as 
Senator.  At  the  general  election  (November  5)  a 
strong  Democratic  majority  carried  the  State  for 
Roosevelt  as  President,  while  McFarland  (Dem) 
defeated  Irving  A.  Jennings  (Rep.)  for  U.S.  Sena- 
tor, and  Sidney  P.  Osborn  (Dem.)  prevailed  over 
Jerrie  W.  Lee  (Rep.)  for  Governor.  The  vote  for 
Roosevelt  (Dem.)  was  95,267;  for  Willkie  (Rep.), 
54,030. 

Officers.  Arizona's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  Robert  T.  Jones  (Dem.)  ; 
Secretary  of  State,  Harry  M.  Moore;  Treasurer, 
William  Petersen;  Auditor,  Ana  Frohmiller;  At- 
torney General,  Joe  Conway;  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  H.  E.  Hendrix. 

ARKANSAS.  Area,  53,335  square  miles,  in- 
cluding (1930)  water,  810  square  miles  Popula- 
tion, Apr.  1,  1940  (census),  1,949,387;  1930, 1,854,- 
482.  Little  Rock,  the  capital,  had  (1940)  88,039 
inhabitants  The  percentage  of  urban  dwellers — 
those  in  communities  of  2500  or  more — rose  to  22.2 
(1940),  from  20.6  (1930). 

Agriculture.  Farmers  harvested,  in  1940, 6,146,- 
000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Cotton  took  up 
over  one-third,  occupying  2,104,000  acres,  and  made 
1,540,000  bales  (estimated  value  to  growers,  about 
$72,380,000).  Success  in  getting  more  cotton  to  the 
acre  appeared  in  the  figure  for  1940,  350  lb.,  as 
against  319  for  1939  and  224,  the  previous  ten 
years'  average.  Corn,  on  2,043,000  acres,  gave  42,- 
903,000  bu.  (about  $25,313,000);  tame  hay,  on 
1,050,000  acres,  1,193,000  tons  ($9,902,000)  ;  rice, 
191,000  acres,  9,741,000  bu  ($6,819,000)  ;  potatoes, 
41,000  acres,  3,895,000  bu.  ($2,532,000)  ;  sweet  po- 
tatoes, 36,000  acres,  3,240,000  bu.  ($2,430,000) ; 
oats,  139,000  acres,  3,058,000  bu.  ($1,101,000). 

Mineral  Production.  The  total  yearly  value  of 
native  minerals  produced  in  Arkansas,  according 
to  the  Minerals  Year  Book  of  1940,  attained  $29,- 
395,086  for  1938.  Petroleum  supplied  more  than 
half  of  this  figure;  coal,  less  than  one-seventh; 
natural  gas  and  bauxite,  much  of  the  remainder 
The  production  of  petroleum  rose  to  21,143,000 
bbL  approximately,  for  1939,  from  18,180,000  for 
1938  (value,  $16,900,000).  Somewhat  over  1,100,- 
000  net  tons  of  coal  were  mined  in  1939,  as  against 
1,197,000  (value,  $4,013,000)  in  1938.  The  produc- 
tion of  natural  gas  declined  by  about  9  per  cent,  to 
some  18770  millions  of  cu.  ft  for  1939.  Of  the 


ARKANSAS 


40 


ART 


yield  of  natural  gas  in  1938,  11,301  million  cu.  ft, 
delivered  to  consumers,  had  a  value  of  $2,168.000, 
at  points  of  delivery ;  while  gasoline  obtained  from 
natural  gas  in  1938  was  valued  at  $905,000.  Baux- 
ite (a  clay,  the  most  suitable  source  of  aluminum) 
was  actively  produced ;  the  yearly  total  shipments 
rose  to  427,000  long  tons  (value,  $2,494,000)  from 
361,690  tons  ($2,074,954)  for  1939.  Saline  and 
Pulaski  counties  (the  Arkansan  bauxite  field)  fur- 
nished in  1939  some  96  per  cent  of  the  bauxite  pro- 
duced in  the  Union. 

A  new  regulative  body,  the  Arkansas  Oil  and 
Gas  Commission,  replaced  the  Arkansas  Conserva- 
tion Board  in  1939 ;  it  gave  much  attention  to  ap- 
plying proration  of  the  output  of  petroleum  and 
natural  gas  in  new  fields.  Nevertheless,  most  of  the 
increase  in  production  of  petroleum  for  1939,  noted 
above,  came  from  the  Magnolia  field,  which  yield- 
ed about  3,600,000  bbl.  in  1939,  as  against  its  initial 
production  of  68,000  in  1938. 

The  Arkansas  Diamond  Corporation  optioned  in 
July,  1940,  to  a  party  intending  to  renew  opera- 
tions, the  peridotite  field  near  Murfreesboro,  the 
Union's  only  known  diamond-bearing  site. 

Education.  Persons  of  school  age  in  Arkansas 
were  reckoned,  for  the  academic  year  1939-40,  at 
624,811  from  6  years  to  21.  Enrollments  of  pupils 
in  public  schools  numbered  472,914.  They  included 
399,000  in  the  elementary  group  (291,356  whites 
and  107,644  Negroes)  and  73,884  in  high  schools 
(66.542  whites  and  7342  Negroes).  The  year's  ex- 
penditure for  public-school  education  totaled  $13,- 
832,729  Teachers  numbered  10,574  whites  and 
2599  Negroes  Teachers',  principals',  and  super- 
visors' combined  salaries  averaged  $584 ;  those  of 
whites  alone,  $636;  of  Negroes,  $375. 

History.  Arkansas  was  one  of  several  States  to 
deny  to  candidates  of  the  Communist  party  a  place 
on  the  ballot  of  the  general  election  of  1940  Their 
exclusion  was  carried  before  the  State  Supreme 
Court;  it  ruled  (October  14)  that  the  Communists 
of  the  United  States  and  in  particular,  of  Arkansas, 
advocated  the  overthrow  of  established  govern- 
ment and  could  hence  be  excluded  from  candidacy. 

In  the  Democratic  primary  election  (August  13) 
Homer  M.  Adkins,  former  Collector  of  Internal 
Revenue  in  Arkansas,  gained  the  nomination  for 
Governor.  He  defeated,  by  about  4  to  3  Gov.  Carl 
E.  Bailey,  who  sought  a  third  term.  At  the  general 
election  the  voters  gave  an  overwhelming  but  usual 
Democratic  majority,  for  Roosevelt  as  President ; 
for  a  delegation  of  seven  Democrats,  all  incum- 
bents save  one,  as  the  State's  U.S.  Representatives ; 
and  for  Homer  M.  Adkins,  as  Governor.  The  vote 
for  Roosevelt  (Dem.)  was  158,622;  for  Willkie 
(Rep.),  42,121.  For  Governor,  Adkins  (Dem.), 
184,578;  Harley  C.  Stump  (Rep.),  16,600.  Voters 
ratified  (136,858  to  34,092)  the  Legislature's  act 
of  1939  creating  a  system  of  workmen's  compen- 
sation. They  rejected  a  proposed  constitutional 
amendment  to  pledge  the  State  to  keep  up  yearly 
revenue  from  gasoline  taxes  and  the  registration 
of  motor  vehicles  at  fully  $8,500,000,  for  maintain- 
ing highways  and  meeting  principal  and  interest 
on  the  refunding  bonds  of  January,  1939. 

Officers.  The  chief  officers  of  Arkansas,  serving 
in  1940,  were:  Governor,  Carl  E.  Bailey  (Dem.)  ; 
Lieutenant  Governor,  Bob  Bailey;  Secretary  of 
State,  C.  G.  Hall ;  Treasurer,  Earl  Page ;  Attor- 
ney General,  Jack  Holt ;  Land  Commissioner,  Otis 
Page;  Auditor,  J  Oscar  Humphrey.  Except  Gov- 
ernor Bailey,  all  these  were  re-elected  in  No- 
vember. 


ARMAMENTS.  See  the  topics  listed  under 
DEFENSE. 

ARMENIAN  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  RE- 
PUBLIC. See  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  RE- 
PUBLICS under  Area  and  Population. 

ARMISTICES.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR;  FRANCE 
under  History. 

ARMY,  U.S.  See  MILITARY  PROGRESS;  also, 
DRAFT,  MILITARY;  ENGINEERS,  CORPS  OF;  NA- 
TIONAL DEFENSE  ADVISORY  COMMISSION  ;  NEGROES. 

ART.  Art  and  the  War.  No  review  of  art  for 
the  year  1940  could  leave  out  of  account  the  hav- 
oc that  the  war  in  Europe  has  wrought  and  the 
changed  conditions  that  it  has  brought  about.  In 
the  conquered  nations  art  has  virtually  come  to  a 
standstill.  Word  has  come  from  Rome  that  the 
Villa  Medici,  long  the  French  Academy,  has  been 
confiscated  by  the  Italian  Government.  It  became 
necessary  practically  to  close  the  American  Acade- 
my at  Rome  and  send  those  holding  fellowships 
back  to  this  country  to  continue  their  studies  here 
or  in  Central  or  South  America.  To  students  win- 
ning Roman  scholarships  in  1940  this  same  choice 
was  given.  Obviously  the  American  Schools  of 
Art  and  Music  at  Fontainebleau  had  to  be  closed. 
Both  were  temporarily  set  up  in  this  country  under 
French  visiting  masters,  the  former,  during  the 
summer,  on  Cape  Cod.  The  many  scholarships 
commonly  awarded  for  travel  in  Europe  to  stu- 
dents in  professional  schools,  colleges,  and  univer- 
sities had  to  be  withheld  or  otherwise  applied.  The 
great  stream  of  persons  visiting  Europe  in  search 
of  recreation  was  cut  off,  and  with  it  contacts  of 
incalculable  cultural  value.  The  blackout  in  this 
field  has  been  complete  almost  beyond  belief. 

Before  war  was  declared,  because  of  the  ominous 
gathering  clouds,  precautions  were  taken  to  safe- 
guard the  most  precious  works  of  art  in  museums 
from  injury  or  loss,  but  the  force  and  effectiveness 
of  the  storm  brewing  was  by  no  means  foreseen 
In  September,  after  the  German  occupation  of 
Paris,  a  part  of  the  Louvre  was  reopened  to  the 
public,  but  not  all,  and  report  has  it  that  many  of 
the  safeguarded  works  have  been  removed  to  Ger- 
man soil.  What  has  become  of  the  van-loads  of 
paintings  by  Rubens,  van  Dyck,  and  other  great 
masters  which  left  Brussels  during  the  great  exo- 
dus as  the  invading  army  moved  in,  has  not  been 
told;  nor  is  the  fate  of  the  Dutch  galleries  and 
their  collections  known. 

The  damage  in  Great  Britain  has  been  more 
devastating,  but  with  unconquerable  spirit  art  ac- 
tivities have  been  surprisingly  continued.  After  the 
National  Gallery  of  Art  was  cleared  of  its  perma- 
nent exhibits,  which  were  taken  to  a  place  or  places 
of  supposed  safety,  Sir  Kenneth  Clark,  the  direc- 
tor, arranged  and  carried  out  a  series  of  temporary 
exhibitions  to  assist  in  keeping  up  the  general  mo- 
rale, chief  among  which  was  one  of  paintings  pro- 
duced "since  Whistler"  lent  by  private  collectors. 
This  was  visited  by  over  32,000  persons  despite  the 
fact  that  its  date  coincided  with  that  of  the  inva- 
sion of  Holland.  Noonday  concerts  for  working 
people  were  also  held  in  the  National  Gallery, 
and  were  well  patronized.  The  Royal  Academy 
held  its  annual  exhibition  in  May  as  usual;  al- 
though there  were  many  things  therein  to  remind 
of  war  there  were,  it  was  said,  "no  signs  of  gloom, 
bitterness,  or  satire." 

British  artists  were  mobilized  by  their  govern- 
ment to  record  the  war  Muirhead  Bone  was  made 
artist  to  the  Admiralty,  others  were  sent  to  the 
front,  which— after  the  retreat  from  Dunkerque— 


1  \]  OVA 

H\  Kenneth  M    Adam'; 


AL(  HEMY  AM)  ASIR()\OM\ 

By  Thornton  Oakle\ 


THE  FUNERAL 

A  painting  by  Antomo  Belloho  of  Ecuador,  included  in  the  exhibition  of  Pan-American  painting  at  the  Corcoran  Gallery  of  Art 


THL  FEAST  OF  THE  GODS 
By  Giovanni  Bellini  From  the  Widener  Collection,  deeded  to  the  National  Gallery  of  Art 


Courtesy,  John  Mueller,  Ihe  Washington  Star 

THE  NATIONAL  GALLERY  OF  ART 


ART 


41 


ART 


proved  to  be  in  London.  With  bombs  dropping  in- 
discriminatingly  from  the  skies,  the  Royal  Society 
of  Arts  kept  up  its  regular  fortnightly  meetings, 
at  each  of  which  a  scholarly  paper  was  presented 
in  accordance  with  custom. 

But  all  was  by  no  means  well.  The  Tate  Gallery, 
the  British  Museum,  the  building  wherein  the  Wai* 
lace  Collection  is  housed,  and  Burlington  House, 
the  home  of  the  Royal  Academy,  have  all  suffered 
by  bombing,  and  even  more  serious  damage  was 
done  to  such  irreplacable  works  of  art  as  West- 
minster Abbey,  St.  Margaret's  Church,  St.  Mar- 
tin's-in-the-fields,  Parliament  House,  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  and  Guildhouse,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
glorious  cathedral  at  Coventry,  all  of  which  have 
been  sources  of  delight  and  inspiration  to  countless 
persons.  These  are  losses  which  cannot  be  reck- 
oned by  commercial  valuation. 

The  direct  effect  of  all  this  has  been  to  throw  us 
here  in  the  United  States  on  our  own  resources. 
Instead  of  its  usual  International  Exhibition,  the 
Carnegie  Institute,  Pittsburgh,  substituted  in  1940 
a  Survey  of  American  Art  for  Three  Hundred 
Years  and  announced  for  1941  another  All  Ameri- 
can show.  Numerous  exhibitions  and  sales  were 
held  for  war  relief,  and  certain  very  valuable 
works  of  art  by  great  masters  which  were  on  loan 
in  this  country  when  war  was  declared  are  remain- 
ing indefinitely  in  the  custody  of  our  Museums  as 
war  refugees. 

The  fact  is  that  at  the  end  of  1940  our  continent 
was  practically  cut  off  from  the  sources  from  which 
we  derived  our  standards  as  well  as  our  inspiration 
in  the  past,  and  we  found  ourselves  faced  with  the 
necessity  of  solving  our  own  problems  independ- 
ently and  also  charged  with  the  responsibility  of 
maintaining  inherited  ideals.  Economically  as  well 
as  culturally  this  is  significant  The  closing  of  Eu- 
ropean ports  curtailed  imports  of  industrial  art 
products,  and  an  effort  was  being  made  to  expand 
the  American  art  market. 

These  are  some  of  the  shadows  which  war  cast 
across  the  American  field  of  Art  as  the  year  1940 
closed. 

Art  Sales.  War  in  Europe  had  little  effect  upon 
art  sales  in  this  country  up  to  midsummer  1940.  In 
fact  even  when  commodity  prices  fluctuated  art 
prices  remained  stable  and  in  some  instances  went 
above  normal.  The  leading  art  auction  house  in 
New  York  (The  Parke-Bernet  Galleries)  reported 
total  receipts  for  the  season,  October,  1939-July, 
1940,  to  be  $2,329,330.50.  At  the  time  of  the  inva- 
sion of  Holland,  when  there  was  a  marked  decline 
on  the  Stock  Exchange,  the  Untermyer  collection, 
dispersed  by  these  Galleries,  realized  $12,000  more 
than  the  advance  estimate. 

High  prices  were  reported  at  the  Clendenin  J. 
Ryan  sale,  in  January,  as  follows :  "Portrait  of  a 
Young  Lady,"  by  Andred  Solario,  $16,000 ;  a  small 
portrait  of  Michelle,  wife  of  Philip  the  Good  of 
Burgundy,  by  a  Master  of  the  15th  century  school, 
$14,000;  "The  Crucifixion,"  by  Tiepolo,  $10,000; 
King  George  IV,  by  Lawrence,  $9900 ;  Miss  Cath- 
erine Chichester,  by  Romney,  $9200;  Alexander 
Lindsay  of  Pmkieburn,  by  Raeburn,  $7500 ;  Lady 
Frances  Windham,  by  Hoppner,  $7200 ;  and  "Por- 
trait of  an  Italian  Nobleman,"  by  Pontormo,  $4800. 

"Holy  Family  with  St  John  and  St  Elizabeth," 
by  Andrea  del  Sarto  brought  $12,000,  and  "Por- 
trait of  Boy  in  Red,"  by  Lawrence,  $10,400,  at  the 
sale  of  the  Aldred  collection  in  December.  At  the 
Untermyer  sale  a  painting  by  Rubens,  entitled 
"Feast  of  the  River  Gods,"  brought  $18,000,  a 


bronze  Jupiter  by  Cellini,  $11,500,  and  a  painting 
by  Whistler.  "Nocturne  in  Black  and  Gold—Fall- 
ing Rocket,  $7000.  Especially  interesting  were 
prices  paid  for  works  by  French  modernists.  At 
the  sale  of  Mrs.  Cornelius  J.  Sullivan's  collection, 
in  New  York,  a  portrait  by  Cezanne  of  his  wife 
brought  $27,500:  a  portrait  by  Van  Gogh  $19,000, 
and  water  colors  by  these  artists  and  by  Picasso 
approximately  $1500  each.  At  the  Stonborough 
sale  a  still  life  by  Matisse  brought  $10,400;  a 
nude  by  Toulouse  Lautrec  $5200;  "Le  Violincel- 
liste,"  by  Gauguin,  $4100,  and  "Le  Chien,"  by  Pi- 
casso, $3800.  At  this  same  sale  a  portrait  drawing 
by  Ingres  went  for  $1050. 

The  most  important  sale  in  England  was  that  of 
the  George  Eumorfppoulos  collection,  May  28-31 
and  June  5-6,  at  which  a  total  of  £35,873  was  real- 
ized. This  collection  was  especially  rich  in  Chinese 
bronzes  and  porcelains.  Some  of  the  pieces  sold 
and  bringing  record  prices  were  shown  in  1939  as 
loans  in  the  Golden  Gate  Exposition,  California. 
The  modern  paintings  and  other  works  of  art  in 
this  collection  were  sold  separately  on  June  12-14 
and  realized  £1949.  The  top  price,  £530,  was  paid 
for  a  portrait  by  Modigliani  of  his  wife  in  black 
dress. 

The  print  section  of  the  Ryan  collection  brought 
a  total  of  $156,205,  and  its  dispersal  was  accom- 
panied by  several  unusual  occurrences  There  was 
an  unusually  large  and  distinguished  audience  in 
attendance,  including  bidders  from  Europe  as  well 
as  this  country,  and  many  of  the  items  were  sharply 
contested  for.  An  offer  of  $28,000  was  made  for  a 
set  of  20  etched  portraits  by  Van  Dyck  and  re- 
fused. When  sold  separately  the  series  brought  a 
total  of  $40,000 — one  single  print,  a  brilliant  im- 
pression of  a  self  portrait,  brought  $6500.  Other 
high  prices  at  this  sale  were:  $6700,  paid  by  a 
Brussels  dealer  for  "The  Three  Trees"  by  Rem- 
brandt; $4500  for  his  famous  "Hundred  Guilder" 
print ;  $4300  for  his  "Christ  Crucified  between  Two 
Thieves,"  and  $4600  for  Martin  Schongauer's  en- 
graving, "Saint  Sebastian." 

At  the  Holden  sale  the  following  prices  were 
paid  for  etchings  by  later  day  masters:  Whis- 
tler, "Nocturne"  $575,  "The  Steps"  and  "The  Bal- 
cony," $375  each;  Seymour  Haden,  "The  Early 
Riser,"  $450 ;  Zorn,  "St  Ives,"  $550,  and  Meryon, 
"Le  Petit  Point,"  $300.  Two  lithographs  by  Bel- 
lows—"Stag  at  Sharkey's"  and  "Dempsey  and 
Firpo"— at  the  Pulitzer  sale  realized  $550  and  $450 
respectively.  A  portrait  of  Lincoln  painted  at  the 
time  of  his  nomination  as  a  presidential  candidate 
by  Thomas  Hicks,  and  long  thought  lost,  appeared 
at  the  Edson  Bradley  sale  and  brought  $11,100. 

Museums.  A  momentous  event  chronicled  in 
1940  in  connection  with  American  Art  Museums 
was  the  announcement  in  October  of  the  gift  of  the 
Widener  Collection  to  the  National  Gallery  of  Art. 
This  collection,  formed  by  the  late  Peter  A.  B. 
Widener  of  Lynnewood  Hall,  Elkins  Park,  Penn- 
sylvania, has  been  enriched  and  upheld  to  a  very 
high  standard  by  Joseph  E.  Widener,  his  son,  from 
whom  it  will  pass  to  the  Nation.  It  comprises  ap- 
proximately one  hundred  paintings  by  great  mas- 
ters as  well  as  fine  examples  of  Renaissance  sculp- 
ture, the  celebrated  Mazarin  tapestry,  rare  porce- 
lains, crystals,  and  jewels.  Outstanding  among  the 
paintings  are  the  little  "Cowper  Madonna,"  by 
Raphael;  "The  Mill,"  by  Rembrandt,  and  two  fa- 
mous portraits  by  this  master  from  the  Youssoupov 
Collection;  "The  Feast  of  the  Gods,"  by  Bellini, 
and  'Woman  Weighing  Gold,"  by  Vermeer,  be- 


ART 


42 


ART 


sides  others  scarcely  less  famous.  Two  important 
modern  works  are  included— "Dead  Toreador,"  by 
Manet,  and  "La  Danseuse,"  by  Renoir. 

Earlier  in  the  year,  the  National  Gallery  of  Art 
received  from  the  Mellon  Educational  and  Chari- 
table Trust  the  gift  of  eleven  early  American  por- 
traits which  had  been  acquired  by  Mr.  Andrew  W. 
Mellon  and  held  in  reserve.  Five  of  these  were  by 
Gilbert  Stuart,  in  addition  to  which  were  single 
examples  by  Copley,  West,  Trumbull,  Savage, 
Mather  Brown,  and  Chester  Harding. 

The  National  Gallery  of  Art,  given  by  Mr.  Mel- 
lon, and  erected  on  the  north  side  of  the  Mall,  be- 
tween 5th  and  7th  streets,  Washington,  D.C.,  was 
begun  in  March,  1938  and  practically  finished  in 
December,  1940,  at  which  time  it  was  turned  over 
to  the  trustees  and  promptly  occupied  by  the  direc- 
tor, Mr.  David  E.  Finley,  and  his  staff.  The  expec- 
tation was  at  that  time  to  open  it  to  the  public  in 
March  or  April,  1941.  This  building,  classical  in 
design,  is  of  rose-white  Tennessee  marble,  785  feet 
in  length,  and  affords  space  for  100  separate  ex- 
hibition rooms  on  its  main  floor.  In  the  center  is 
a  rotunda  100  feet  in  diameter  beneath  a  dome  sup- 
ported by  24  Ionic  columns  of  dark  green  marble 
Directly  beneath  the  dome  is  a  fountain  surmounted 
by  a  bronze  statue  of  Mercury  by  Giovanni  da 
Bologna.  Two  interior  courts  ornamented  by  foun- 
tains with  sculptural  adornment  are  also  special 
features.  The  building  is,  of  course,  air-conditioned 
and  up-to-date  in  every  particular. 

Also  of  national  importance  was  the  opening,  on 
November  1st,  of  the  Dumbarton  Oaks  Research 
Library  and  Collection  of  Byzantine  and  Medieval 
Art  on  Georgetown  Heights,  Washington,  at  which 
time  it  was  announced  that  conveyance  was  to  be 
made  immediately  to  Harvard  University  by  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Robert  Woods  Bliss,  through  whom, 
during  a  considerable  number  of  years,  it  had  been 
assembled.  (The  transfer  has  since  taken  place.) 
Included  with  the  gift  was  the  Bliss  home  (adja- 
cent to  which  the  new  buildings  have  been  erected), 
henceforth  to  be  used  as  a  residence  for  visiting 
research  scholars.  Source  material  of  the  periods 
covered  is  still,  even  among  our  art  museums,  ex- 
tremely rare. 

In  April  the  Philadelphia  Museum  of  Art  opened 
three  new  sections :  a  wing  of  Oriental  art,  a  hall 
incorporating  features  from  the  Sasian  Palace  at 
Damghan,  and  a  Ming  Palace  Hall  from  Chao 
Kung  Fu,  Peiping. 

The  Worcester  Art  Museum,  Worcester,  Mass  , 
added  several  new  galleries  in  1940  by  raising  its 
roof  and  side  walls.  The  Yale  Art  Gallery,  previ- 
ously governed  by  the  School  of  Fine  Arts  of  Yale 
University,  was  separated  and  made  a  university 
unit  with  a  director  and  governing  board  of  its 
own,  thus  broadening  its  scope. 

Financed  by  a  grant  from  the  General  Education 
Board,  five  Art  Museums— The  Art  Institute  of 
Chicago,  Albright  Art  Gallery  of  Buffalo,  Cleve- 
land Museum  of  Art,  Milwaukee  Art  Institute,  and 
Museum  of  Modern  Art  of  New  York — each  de- 
veloping its  own  program  but  profiting  by  the  ex- 
perience of  the  others,  endeavored  to  find  ways  of 
working  more  effectively  with  secondary  schools 
in  an  effort  to  increase  knowledge  and  appreciation 
of  art  among  boys  and  girls  during  their  formative 
years. 

The  Art  Institute  of  Chicago  in  co-operation 
with  the  University  of  Chicago  offered  a  special 
coarse  for  those  desiring  to  qualify  as  curators  and 
docents.  The  Worcester  Art  Museum,  in  like  man- 


ner co-operating  with  Clark  University,  offered  in 
the  fall  of  1940  special  courses  for  university  stu- 
dents in  drawing  and  painting  as  well  as  the  his- 
tory of  art. 

Several  of  the  art  museums  throughout  the  coun- 
try tried  the  experiment  of  introducing  individual 
artists  to  the  public  through  the  medium  of  a 
broadcast  sponsored  by  the  National  Art  Society 
over  the  N.B.C.  network  entitled  "Art  for  Your 
Sake/'  Each  museum  showed  at  the  time  color 
reproductions  of  paintings  by  the  artist  discussed 
and  impersonated. 

The  Chicago  Art  Institute  received  from  Mary 
Morley  Sellers  of  San  Francisco  a  $100,000  be- 
quest to  found  a  chair  of  painting  or  decorative 
arts  in  connection  with  its  school.  Through  an 
anonymous  donation  of  $10,000  the  Virginia  Mu- 
seum of  Art,  Richmond,  was  enabled  in  1940  to 
set  up  a  series  of  art  fellowships  or  grants-in-aid 
to  students  of  art  under  the  age  of  38— each  for  a 
five-year  period  of  study. 

There  were  fewer  large  bequests  or  gifts  to  art 
museums  in  1940  than  in  previous  years—but  some 
that  were  notable.  Edgar  P.  McBurney  left  $1,000,- 
000  to  establish  an  art  center  in  Atlanta,  Georgia, 
subject  to  a  life  interest  to  his  widow.  Duke  Uni- 
versity, Durham,  N.C.,  received,  by  bequest  from 
William  Hayes  Ackland,  $300,000  to  build  an  Art 
Gallery  on  the  campus,  his  own  private  collection 
of  sculpture,  and  an  additional  fund  for  acquisi- 
tions. The  Dudley  Peter  Allen  Memorial  Museum 
at  Oberlin  College  received  a  gift  of  $25,000  from 
Mrs.  R.  T.  Miller,  Jr.,  for  the  purchase  of  works 
of  art.  The  University  of  Southern  California  was 
enriched  by  an  art  gallery  and  29  works  by  the  old 
masters,  the  gift  of  Mrs.  Walter  Harrison  Fisher. 
The  California  Palace  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  re- 
ceived 72  paintings  from  Mr.  H.  K.  S.  Williams 
(in  memory  of  his  wife)  and  the  Baltimore  Mu- 
seum a  very  handsome  Jacobean  room  with  com- 
plete furnishings,  the  gift  of  Mrs.  Sadie  A.  May. 

The  State  of  Nevada  purchased  from  the  Fed- 
eral Government  the  old  Mint  building  at  Carson 
City,  at  a  cost,  as  it  is  no  longer  in  use,  of  only 
$5000.  The  Legislature  authorized  conversion  of 
the  building  into  quarters  for  the  Nevada  Museum 
and  Art  Institute. 

The  fireproof  building  in  which  "The  Master- 
pieces of  Art"  were  displayed  at  the  New  York 
World's  Fair  was  given  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
Fair  to  the  City  of  New  York  as  a  permanent  Art 
Gallery  by  Art  Associates,  Inc. 

An  award  for  distinguished  services  rendered  to 
the  cause  of  Museum  administration  was  estab- 
lished in  1940  by  Mr.  Henry  W.  Kent,  for  many 
years  secretary  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art.  A  first  award  was  made  to  Laurence  Vail 
Coleman,  director  of  the  American  Association  of 
Museums. 

The  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  announced  in 
midsummer  1940  that,  beginning  in  the  autumn, 
500  paintings  from  the  Museum's  permanent  col- 
lection would  be  made  available  to  other  museums 
and  art  associations  throughout  the  country  for  ex- 
hibition as  loans  on  very  liberal  terms. 

There  was  a  great  shifting  about  of  art  museum 
directors  in  1940  but  comparatively  few  new  re- 
cruits. Francis  H.  Taylor,  for  some  time  director  of 
the  Worcester  Art  Museum,  became  director  of  the 
Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  and  Horace  H.  F. 
Javne  of  the  Museum  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, assistant  director.  Charles  H.  Sawyer  of 
the  Addison  Gallery,  Andover,  took  the  place  left 


ART 


43 


ART 


vacant  by  Mr.  Taylor  at  Worcester  and  his  assist- 
ant, Bartlett  H.  Hayes,  succeeded  him  at  Andover. 

Important  acquisitions  to  permanent  collections 
were  made  through  purchase  by  the  Museum  of 
Fine  Arts,  Boston,  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art,  New  York,  Detroit  Art  Institute,  St.  Louis 
City  Museum,  John  Herron  Art  Institute,  San 
Diego  Museum,  Frick  Collection,  Phillips  Memo- 
rial Gallery,  and  others.  In  most  instances  these 
were  works  by  European  masters  of  long  estab- 
lished reputation  from  funds  given  and  invested  for 
such  purpose.  The  John  Herron  Art  Institute,  how- 
ever, bought  a  Gilbert  Stuart  and  an  Eakin,  and 
the  Frick  Collection's  acquisition  was  a  "Portrait 
of  Uncle  Dominic  as  a  Monk"  by  Cezanne. 

Exhibitions.  Exhibitions  of  works  of  art  con- 
tinued to  increase  in  number  as  well  as  note  during 
1940,  the  peak  being  reached  when  1000  special 
sales  exhibitions  were  put  on  throughout  the  coun- 
try during  National  Art  Week  (see  below). 

Throughout  the  year  art  museums  vied  with  one 
another  in  setting  forth  exhibitions  of  masterpieces 
of  art.  These  in  some  instances  were  assembled  in- 
dependently but  more  often  through  collaboration 
An  instance  of  the  latter  was  the  exhibition  of 
Italian  Masterpieces,  21  paintings  and  7  works  in 
sculpture,  shown  in  the  Golden  Gate  Exposition  of 
1939,  which  in  1940,  were  shown  first  in  the  Art 
Institute  of  Chicago  and  then  in  the  Museum  of 
Modern  Art,  New  York.  The  attendance  in  Chicago 
was  265,679  and  in  New  York,  for  a  slightly  longer 
period,  290,888. 

Likewise  a  group  of  art  museums — those  of 
Cleveland,  Pittsburgh,  St.  Louis,  Minneapolis,  Los 
Angeles,  and  Newark — co-operated  in  circulating 
an  exhibition  composed  of  46  paintings  by  great 
European  masters  selected  from  the  Masterpieces 
of  Art  exhibitions  held  the  previous  year  in  the 
east  and  west  coast  expositions.  These  were  loans 
from  France,  Holland,  Belgium,  and  other  coun- 
tries involved  in  the  War,  which  could  not  safely 
be  returned,  hence  remained  in  the  United  States 
under  special  protectorate. 

The  art  museums  took  active  part  in  assembling 
the  "Masterpieces  of  Art"  exhibitions  for  the 
1940  World's  Fairs,  the  work  being  largely  dele- 
gated to  museum  directors  and  staff  experts,  and 
loans  made  by  the  institutions  and  their  patrons. 
The  amazing  wealth  of  such  available  material  in 
the  United  States  was  thus  again  tangibly  mani- 
fested. 

The  Contemporary  exhibitions  at  both  Fairs 
were  better  in  1940  than  in  the  preceding  year, 
and  in  both  demonstrations  of  art-in-the-making 
were  well  used  to  enhance  interest  and  increase 
educational  value. 

Among  the  exhibitions  independently  organized 
by  various  museums  the  outstanding  were  the 
following:  "Seven  Centuries  of  Art  from  Bellini 
to  Luigi  Lucioni"— -250  works  lent  chiefly  by  mu- 
seums and  valued  at  over  $6,000,000— shown  in  the 
Palace  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  and  the  M.  H.  de 
Young  Museum,  San  Francisco;  "Medieval  Art 
from  1000  to  1400  A  D."— 320  objects  lent  by  the 
Morgan  Library,  N.Y.,  the  Walter's  Gallery,  Balti- 
more, and  50  other  institutions,  as  well  as  drawn 
from  the  exhibiting  museum's  collection— set  forth 
in  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston ;  "Four  Cen- 
turies of  Venetian  Art"—70  paintings  and  30  draw- 
ings from  American  collections  assembled  by  Hans 
Tietze  for  the  Toledo  Museum  of  Art;  "Chinese 
Ceramics"— 328  pieces  dating  from  2000  B.C.  to  the 
18th  Century  A.D.— displayed  in  the  Cleveland  Mu- 


seum of  Art;  also  notable  exhibitions  of  Pre-Co- 
lumbian Art  in  Los  Angeles  and  in  the  Fogg  and 
Peabody  Museums,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

There  were  also  important  loan  exhibitions  of 
masterpieces  held  in  dealers'  galleries  in  New  York 
for  war  relief  and  other  charitable  purposes. 

Two  memorable  exhibitions  of  art  from  other 
countries  were  held  in  New  York  City  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1940.  These  were  a  magnificent  exhibition 
of  Persian  Art,  comprising  over  3000  items  lent  by 
30  museums  and  60  private  collectors,  valued  at 
$10,000,000,  which  was  assembled  by  Arthur  Up- 
ham  Pope  and  shown  under  the  auspices  of  the 
American  Institute  for  Iranian  Art  and  Archaeol- 
ogy; and  "Mexican  Art  of  Twenty  Centuries," 
which  also  included  3000  items  and  was  displayed 
in  the  Museum  of  Modern  Art. 

Especial  emphasis  was  placed  in  1940  on  the  an 
of  South  and  Central  America,  partly  because  of 
our  isolation  from  Europe  and  not  a  little  as  the 
result  of  efforts  put  forth  by  the  Committee  on 
Cultural  Relations  with  these  countries,  appointed 
by  and  functioning  under  the  Department  of  State. 

In  the  Virginia  Museum,  Richmond,  an  impor- 
tant exhibition  of  236  paintings  and  76  works  in 
sculpture  by  artists  of  Argentina  was  shown  in 
January,  a  section  of  which  was  later  circulated 
by  The  American  Federation  of  Arts.  In  the  au- 
tumn, a  collection  of  paintings — two  each — from 
the  republics  making  up  the  Pan  American  Union, 
assembled  by  the  International  Business  Machines 
Corporation  for  display  in  the  two  World's  Fairs 
in  1939,  was  shown  in  the  Corcoran  Gallery  of  Art, 
Washington,  D.C.,  in  celebration  of  the  fiftieth  an- 
niversary of  the  founding  of  the  Union.  Also  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Federal  Government  a  notewor- 
thy collection  of  portrait  drawings  of  Indians  of 
the  two  Americas  by  Eben  F.  Comins  was  shown 
in  the  Art  Gallery  of  the  Department  of  the  In- 
terior. 

There  were  several  interesting  one-man  exhibi- 
tions in  this  same  category.  Candida  Portinari  of 
Brazil  exhibited  in  the  Detroit  Art  Institute  and  the 
Museum  of  Modern  Art,  N.Y. ;  Gomez  Campuzano 
of  Colombia  displayed  his  paintings  in  a  dealer's 
gallery,  New  York,  and  Antonio  Ortiz  Echague,  a 
Spanish  artist  now  residing  in  Argentina,  was  hon- 
ored by  a  one-man  show  in  the  Carnegie  Institute, 
Pittsburgh. 

Mention  should  also  be  made  of  exhibitions  of 
prints  by  Contemporary  American  Printmakers,  as- 
sembled by  the  National  Society  of  Engraving, 
which  were  sent  by  special  invitation  to  Uruguay 
and,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Pan  American 
Union,  on  a  circuit  of  South  American  cities. 

It  should  not  be  thought  that  the  majority  of  the 
exhibitions  held  in  1940  were  either  foreign  or  ret- 
rospective. An  exhibition  of  the  works  of  leading 
Impressionists  held  in  the  Los  Angeles  Museum 
attracted  136,000  visitors  in  three  weeks.  The  De- 
troit Art  Institute  put  on  an  important  exhibition 
entitled  "The  Age  of  Impressionism — Objective 
Realism"  which  had  direct  bearing  on  the  art  of 
today.  One-man  exhibitions  of  paintings  by  Picas- 
so, Braque,  and  Rouault,  high  lights  in  the  galaxy 
of  Post-Impressionists,  were  widely  circulated. 

Outstanding  among  exhibitions  of  American  art 
was  the  "Survey"  from  1670  to  the  present  time, 
substituted  by  the  Carnegie  Institute  in  1940  for 
its  usual  International  exhibition.  There  were  270 
paintings  in  the  retrospective  section  and  121  in 
the  contemporary  section.  No  prizes  were  given, 
but  $5000  was  spent  for  purchases  from  the  latter. 


ART 


ASBESTOS 


An  elaborately  illustrated  and  annotated  catalogue 
was  issued. 

The  Museum  at  Yale  University  showed  in  1940 
an  exhibition  of  "Eighteenth  Century  Landscape 
Painting"  and  the  Hartford  Museum  one  of  "In- 
dustrial Scenes  for  Five  Hundred  Years."  The 
Gibbes  Memorial  Museum,  Charleston,  S.C.  illus- 
trated pictonally  the  "History  of  the  City  (Charles- 
ton) in  Art." 

One-man  exhibitions  honoring  the  following  de- 
ceased American  artists  were  held :  John  H.  Jar- 
vis,  portrait  painter,  100  works,  assembled  and 
shown  by  the  New  York  Historical  Society ;  East- 
man Johnson,  genre  painter,  the  Brooklyn  Muse- 
um ;  George  Bellows,  painter  and  lithographer,  the 
Columbus  Gallery  of  Art. 

Exhibitions  purposed  to  make  visitors  think,  as 
well  as  to  attract  attendance,  were  held  under 
rather  startling  titles  such  as  "Taste  is  not  Spin- 
ach" ( Virginia  Museum)  ;  "Modern  Isms  and  How 
They  Grew"  (Baltimore  Museum)  and  "The  Art 
the  People  Live  With"  (San  Francisco  Museum). 

An  experiment  which  seemed  to  bring  forth  good 
results  was  tried  by  the  Art  Alliance  of  Philadel- 
phia in  connection  with  an  exhibition,  "American 
Taste  in  Art,"  for  which  the  pictures  were  selected 
and  awards  made  by  a  specially  invited  jury  of 
prominent  Philadelphia  business  men  and  execu- 
tives thought  to  be  "completely  non-art-conscious," 
but  whose  judgement  met  with  almost  universal 
public  approval. 

Important  exhibitions  of  sculpture  were  held  in 
New  York  and  Philadelphia ;  the  former  a  "Sculp- 
ture Festival"  staged  by  the  National  Sculpture 
Society  in  the  Whitney  Museum;  the  latter  an 
International  show  held  in  the  Philadelphia  Mu- 
seum and  adjacent  thereto,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Fairmpunt  Park  Art  Association 

An  exhibition  of  American  Industrial  Art  was 
held  at  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  during  the 
summer  of  1940,  and  in  the  Art  Museum  at  Syra- 
cuse, N.Y.,  a  notable  exhibition  of  ceramics  by 
contemporary  workers  was  put  on  in  the  autumn 

The  National  Society  of  Mural  Painters  held  an 
extensive  exhibition  in  the  Whitney  Museum  to- 
ward the  last  of  the  year. 

An  exhibition  of  the  "Art  of  the  Negro,"  for  the 
past  90  years,  was  shown  in  the  Tanner  Galleries, 
Chicago,  from  July  to  September  in  connection 
with  the  American  Negro  Exposition. 

And  still  nothing  has  been  said  of  the  exhibitions 
held  as  usual  annually  by  the  leading  professional 
organizations,  such  as  the  National  Academy,  the 
Pennsylvania  Academy,  Water  Color  Societies,  and 
Print  Clubs,  which  most  fully  represented  trends 
of  the  day  and  the  state  of  art  among  us — nor  for 
that  matter  of  the  innumerable  one-man  exhibitions, 
in  dealers1  galleries  which  likewise  betokened  vital- 
ity and  continuity  of  effort. 

National  Art  Week.  National  Art  Week- 
November  25  to  December  1 — was  instituted  in 
1940  by  the  President  of  the  United  States  to  im- 
prove economic  conditions  in  this  field.  According 
to  statistics  gathered  by  governmental  agents  the 
attendance  at  art  exhibitions  during  the  year  had 
increased  to  about  one  third  of  the  entire  popula- 
tion, but  sales  had  so  fallen  off  that  the  majority 
of  the  artists  had  been  unable  to  support  themselves 
through  their  art  and  the  books  of  but  a  few  of  the 
art  dealers  showed  a  profit.  Whereas,  when  the  Gov- 
ernmental Art  Projects  were  set  up  early  in  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt's  first  administration  it  was  said 
that  because  of  reduction  in  surplus  income  due  to 


increased  taxation  it  was  the  duty  of  the  Govern- 
ment to  assume  patronage,  it  was  stated  in  connec- 
tion with  National  Art  Week  that  it  was  the  public 
to  whom  the  artists  must  look  for  the  stabilization 
of  an  art  market.  The  result  of  the  one  thousand 
sales  exhibitions  held  throughout  the  country  under 
this  impetus  was  reported  to  total  approximately 
one  hundred  thousand  dollars. 

Other  Developments.  Notwithstanding  the 
discouraging  economic  outlook  the  art  schools  of 
the  country  were  crowded  to  overflowing  and  the 
summer  art  schools  were  more  than  full  in  1940. 

A  brighter  side  of  the  picture  was  found  in  the 
accomplishment  of  certain  artists,  well  trained  and 
equipped,  and  in  patronage  which  originated  in  the 
business  world.  For  instance :  for  display  in  their 
own  concessions  at  the  two  World's  Fairs  of  1940, 
the  International  Business  Machines  Corporation 
assembled  through  direct  purchase  two  exhibitions, 
consisting  of  one  painting  each  by  an  outstanding 
artist,  in  every  one  of  the  forty-eight  States,  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  Alaska,  Hawaii,  Puerto  Rico, 
and  the  Virgin  Islands,  selection  being  made  by 
local  expert  juries.  In  addition,  $3000  was  distrib- 
uted in  cash  prizes  for  the  finest  works  in  each 
group,  and  at  the  close  of  the  Fairs  both  groups 
were  sent  out  on  circuit  to  art  museums  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  owners  and  shown  with  great  distinc- 
tion. 

An  alliance  was  also  affected  between  the  motion 
picture  industry  and  the  painters'  art  through  the 
co-operation  of  a  well  known  producer — Walter 
Wanger — and  the  Associated  American  Artists 
Nine  members  of  the  latter  were  invited  to  go 
to  Hollywood,  witness  the  filming  of  Eugene 
O'NeiU's  "Long  Voyage  Home,"  and  place  their 
interpretations  of  characters  and  scenes  on  canvas 
for  the  tidy  sum  of  something  like  $10,000  each,  in- 
cluding traveling  expenses.  This  group  of  paintings 
was  also  sent  out  on  circuit  and  was  shown  in  art 
museums  in  various  large  cities  while  the  film  was 
running  in  a  local  theater;  the  result  was  to  es- 
tablish contact  in  the  public  mind  between  the  art 
of  film  making  and  that  of  painting. 

Disputes  which  threaten  to  disrupt  the  organiza- 
tion arose  among  members  of  the  American  Artists 
Congress  concerning  beliefs  in  or  definition  of  fas- 
cism and  communism.  Also  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  director  of  the  WPA  Art  Projects  in  New 
York  to  raise  the  standard  of  production  by  ap- 
pointing a  jury  of  experts  to  pass  upon  all  work 
sent  in,  met  with  violent  opposition  on  the  part  of 
those  employed,  particularly  C.I.O.  Artists  Union 
members  who  claimed  that  this  was  actually  a 
means  of  shifting  responsibility  for  dismissals  A 
delegation  went  to  Washington  and  picketed  the 
White  House;  threatening  letters  were  sent  to 
members  of  the  jury  some  of  whom  resigned,  but 
General  Somerville,  in  charge,  refused  to  make 
concessions. 

See  the  separate  articles  on  PAINTING  ;  PRINTS  ; 
SCULPTURE  ;  also,  ACADEMY  OF  ARTS  AND  LETTERS  ; 
ACADEMY  OF  DESIGN  ;  ARCHAEOLOGY. 

LEILA  MECHLIN. 

ARTHRITIS.  See  BIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY. 

ARTISTS.  See  ACADEMY  OF  ARTS  AND  LET- 
TERS; ACADEMY  OF  DESIGN;  Music;  PAINTING; 
PRINTS;  SCULPTURE. 

ARUBA.  See  CURACAO. 

ASBESTOS.  The  Province  of  Quebec,  which 
is  the  principal  source  of  Canadian  asbestos,  pro- 
duced 345,581  tons  of  all  grades  in  1940,  compared 


ASCENSION  ISLAND 


45 


ASTRONOMY 


with  364.454  tons  in  1939.  The  1940  production  was 
classified  as  follows :  Crudes  2076  tons ;  fibers,  181,- 
890;  shorts,  161,615.  Despite  the  loss  of  Europe- 
an markets,  the  volume  of  Canadian  business  was 
about  the  same  as  in  1939,  and  all  producers  were 
operating  at  capacity.  Prices  were  substantially 
unchanged,  except  for  an  increase  of  10  per  cent 
in  short  fiber.  At  the  close  of  1940  the  following 
prices  prevailed  per  ton  for  No.  1  crude :  Quebec, 
f  .o.b.  mines.  $700  @  $750 :  Rhodesian,  c.i.f ..  New 
York  $300;  Russian,  c.i.f.,  New  York  $275.  The 
U.S.  Government  made  some  small  purchases  for 
a  stockpile  of  this  material.  No  technical  develop- 
ments were  noted,  but  new  competition  in  heat 
insulation  was  offered  by  glass  wool,  mineral  wool, 
and  slag  wool. 

The  1939  census  of  manufactures  in  the  United 
States  shows  that  the  domestic  asbestos  industry 
produced  15,300  short  tons  of  asbestos  of  various 
grades,  with  a  value  of  $484,000.  Although  the 
1939  value  was  22  per  cent  higher  than  that  of 
1929,  and  the  production  over  300  per  cent  greater, 
the  United  States  continues  to  be  dependent  on  im- 
ports. In  1939  only  about  6  per  cent  of  crude  as- 
bestos consumption  came  from  domestic  mines. 
Canada  supplied  92  per  cent  of  our  imports 

The  1939  census  shows  employment  of  151  wage 
earners  receiving  $146,000  in  wages,  or  about  44# 
per  man-hour. 

Production  of  asbestos  in  1939  was  reported 
from  Vermont,  Arizona,  Georgia,  and  Maryland. 

H.  C.  PARMELEE 

ASCENSION  ISLAND.  See  BRITISH  EM- 
PIRE, 

ASHANTI.  See  GOLD  COAST. 
ASHMORE  AND  CARTIER  ISLANDS. 

See  AUSTRALIA. 

ASIA.  Excluding  the  Asiatic  part  of  the  Soviet 
Union,  the  continent  has  an  area  of  about  10,345,- 
000  square  miles  and  a  population  estimated  at 
1,134,500,000  on  Dec.  31,  1938.  See  the  separate 
articles  on  ARABIA,  CHINA,  INDIA,  JAPAN,  MAN- 
CHOUKUO,  and  the  other  Asiatic  States  and  terri- 
tories; also  ANTHROPOLOGY,  ARCHAEOLOGY,  EX- 
PLORATION, ETC 

ASIR.  See  ARABIA  under  Saudi  Arabia 

ASSEMBLIES  OF  GOD,  General  Council 
of  the.  A  religious  organization  incorporated  in 
Arkansas  in  1914  by  a  group  of  independent  pas- 
tors interested  in  a  distinctively  evangelistic  type 
of  mission  work.  Headquarters,  336  W.  Pacific 
Street,  Springfield,  Mo.  For  statistics,  see  RELI- 
GIOUS ORGANIZATIONS. 

ASSOCIATIONS.  See  SOCIETIES  AND  ASSO- 
CIATIONS 

ASTRONOMY.  Several  contributions  of  note 
were  made  during  the  year  on  meteors  and  their 
origin  Meteors  are  small  fragmentary  particles  of 
iron  or  stone  which  on  entering  the  earth's  atmos- 
phere at  high  velocity  become  visible  and  in  gen- 
eral are  completely  vaporized.  These  flashing  me- 
teors, which  are  the  smallest  of  astronomical 
bodies,  ranging  in  size  from  a  grain  of  sand  to 
boulders  weighing  many  tons,  constantly  bombard 
our  earth.  It  has  been  estimated  that  over  one 
hundred  million  meteors  strike  the  earth's  atmos- 
phere each  twenty-four  hours.  Meteors  travel  at 
the  very  high  speeds  of  from  twenty  to  fifty  miles 
a  second ;  were  it  not  for  the  earth's  atmosphere 
acting  as  a  protecting  blanket  living  conditions 
would  be  chaotic,  a  ram  of  meteoric  missiles  would 
bombard  us  with  deadly  effect  and  the  very  exist- 


ence of  life  on  this  planet  would  disappear.  As  a 
result  of  the  fact  that  most  meteors  are  completely 
vaporized  thousands  of  tons  are  being  added  to 
the  earth's  mass  each  year  through  the  meteoric 
dust  thus  formed.  However  this  should  not  cause 
undue  alarm  for  it  would  require  many  millions  of 
years  for  a  layer  of  meteoric  dust  to  spread  evenly 
an  inch  thick  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  earth. 
Authorities  are  not  in  agreement  on  the  precise 
rate  of  settlement  and  spread  of  meteoric  dust  so 
that  no  exact  value  can  be  given. 

Not  all  meteors  are  completely  vaporized  while 
passing  through  the  earth's  atmosphere ;  some  pass 
out  into  space  again,  though  of  reduced  size,  others 
upon  rare  occasions  fall  to  the  earth.  Meteors 
which  fall  to  the  earth  are  called  meteorites.  Au- 
thorities have  estimated  that  approximately  90 
per  cent  of  the  original  mass  of  a  meteorite  is 
fuzed  away  during  its  flight  through  our  atmos- 
phere and  that  only  10  per  cent  of  the  original 
body  reaches  the  earth  in  compact  form.  Some  me- 
teors explode  while  passing  through  the  air,  these 
are  called  bolides  or  fireballs.  Some  thirty  of  the 
chemical  elements  have  been  identified  in  meteor- 
ites, these  are  called  siderites.  Silicon  in  the  form 
of  silicates  predominates  in  other  meteorites  and 
these  are  called  aerolites  The  chemical  elements 
identified  in  meteorites  tell  us  something  of  the 
physical  constitution  of  other  heavenly  bodies  and 
lead  us  to  the  conclusion  that  matter  contained  in 
the  earth,  the  other  planets,  the  stars,  and  in  all 
bodies  throughout  the  universe,  is  identical  to  that 
known  to  man,  though  not  necessarily  in  the  same 
form.  No  meteorite  has  ever  been  found  which 
consisted  of  the  sedimentary  or  metamorphic  rocks 
common  to  the  earth  such  as  limestone,  sandstone, 
and  the  like. 

The  largest  stony  meteorite  seen  to  fall  in  mod- 
ern times  weighed  about  800  Ib  and  fell  through 
our  atmosphere  on  Feb.  17,  1930,  burying  itself  to 
a  depth  of  nine  feet  in  the  ground  on  a  farm  at 
Paragould,  Ark ,  from  which  it  received  the  name 
"The  Paragould  Aerolite."  It  is  now  on  display  in 
the  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History.  Larger  me- 
teorites have  been  found  which  were  not  observed 
to  fall ;  the  largest  one  on  display  is  the  Greenland 
Meteorite  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History. 

From  times  when  meteors  were  objects  of  wor- 
ship by  superstitious  peoples,  right  thinking  men 
have  attempted  to  solve  the  problem  of  where  me- 
teors come  from.  Theories  have  been  advanced 
that  meteors  are  the  fragments  which  were  left 
over  when  our  solar  system  was  formed ;  that  me- 
teors are  the  congealed  remains  of  gigantic  solar 
eruptions ;  that  meteors  have  been  attracted  to  our 
solar  system  by  gravitational  influence  which  har- 
nessed them  during  the  flight  of  our  solar  system 
through  space;  and  still  another  theory  (though 
this  seems  least  plausible)  is  that  meteors  are  the 
result  of  the  eruption  of  lunar  volcanoes  many 
ages  ago.  Possibly  there  is  some  truth  in  all  these 
hypotheses.  It  is  now  well  known  that  in  addition 
to  the  sun,  the  planets  and  their  satellites,  the  so- 
lar system  is  also  composed  of  comets  and  meteors, 
and  that  regardless  of  the  origin  of  meteors,  there 
are  many  well  marked  groups  of  meteors,  which 
travel  in  elliptical  orbits  around  the  sun  and  appear 
at  definitely  known  periods.  Such  groups  of  mete- 
ors move  along  more  or  less  parallel  paths  and 
when  their  path  and  that  of  the  earth  intersect  the 
meteors  seem  to  radiate  from  a  point  in  the  sky 
known  as  the  radiant,  the  shower  being  generally 


ASTRONOMY 


46 


ASTRONOMY 


identified  with  and  named  after  the  constellation 
in  which  the  radiant  is  located.  In  addition  to  these 
well  marked  groups  of  meteors,  meteor  trails  may 
be  seen  almost  every  clear  night  and  when  such 
a  meteor  trail  cannot  be  identified  as  coming  from 
one  of  the  group  it  is  termed  a  sporadic  meteor.  It 
is  now  commonly  accepted  that  there  is  a  very 
close  relationship  between  comets  and  the  meteors 
observed  in  metcorshowers.  In  the  year  1826,  Biela, 
a  German  astronomer,  made  a  special  observation 
of  a  comet  which  now  bears  his  name,  and  which 
had  been  observed  by  others  in  1772  and  1805.  Its 
period  was  computed  as  being  approximately  6.75 
years.  It  was  observed  at  each  return  until  Novem- 
ber, 1845,  when  what  was  regarded  as  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  phenomena  in  the  history  of  as- 
tronomy was  actually  observed  to  take  place;  on 
Dec.  19,  1845,  two  American  astronomers,  Herrick 
of  Yale  University  and  Bailey  of  New  Haven,  no- 
ticed that  Biela' s  comet  had  assumed  a  pear  shape. 
Lt.  M.  F.  Maury  of  the  U.S.  Naval  Observatory, 
was  the  first  astronomer  to  notice  that  ten  days 
later  it  had  divided  into  two  separate  but  unequal 
parts ;  two  English  astronomers,  Challis  and  Hind 
had  also  noticed  this  phenomenon.  The  two  parts, 
separated  by  a  distance  of  165,000  miles  continued 
on  the  comet's  regular  orbit  until  lost  to  sight.  As- 
tronomers watched  carefully  for  the  reappearance 
of  the  comet  and,  at  their  return  in  August,  1852, 
it  is  recorded  that  the  two  parts  had  separated  to 
a  distance  of  some  1,500,000  miles  and  that  al- 
though the  larger  of  the  two  divisions  preceded 
the  smaller  by  three  weeks,  both  appeared  equally 
bright  As  comet  bodies  they  are  forever  lost,  for 
the  next  time  the  comet  was  due  they  failed  to  ap- 
pear. However,  on  the  night  of  Nov.  27,  1872,  as 
the  earth  crossed  the  orbit  of  Biela's  comet,  a  daz- 
zling display  of  meteors  was  observed.  This  mete- 
or shower  was  again  observed  in  1885  and  in  1892 
at  the  time  when  Biela's  comet  would  normally 
have  been  seen.  Biela's  comet  has  not  been  observed 
since  1852  and  it  is  now  assumed  that  comets  are 
only  temporary  bodies  which  sooner  or  later  break 
up  into  smaller  bodies  or  disintegrate  into  showers 
of  meteors  which  may  be  seen  only  when  their 
orbit  and  that  of  the  earth  intersect. 

Great  showers  of  meteors  always  seem  to  occur 
when  the  earth  intersects  and  crosses  the  orbits 
of  comets.  Schiaparelli  of  Milan  became  inter- 
ested in  this  field  of  astronomical  knowledge  and 
in  1866  investigated  the  well  known  August  shower 
of  meteors,  the  Perseids.  He  pointed  out  the 
marked  resemblance  between  the  parabolic  ele- 
ments of  this  meteor  group  with  the  elliptical  ele- 
ments of  Swift's  comet  and  arrived  at  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  general  resemblance  was  too  great  to 
permit  any  doubt  that  the  comet  and  meteors  were 
moving  in  orbits  of  identical  form.  He  therefore 
reasoned  the  Perseid  shower  of  meteors  should  be 
identified  with  Swift's  comet.  He  found  a  similar 
resemblance  between  the  Leonid  shower  of  mete- 
ors and  Tempel's  comet.  Weiss  found  the  Andro- 
mede  shower  of  meteors  to  be  connected  with  Bie- 
la's comet  and  also  that  the  Lyrid  shower  could 
be  identified  with  Thatcher's  comet.  Since  the 
work  of  Schiaparclli  and  Weiss  other  astronomers 
have  found  the  orbits  of  the  Aquarid  shower  and 
Halley's  comet  in  agreement,  and  in  1916,  Olivier 
and  Denning  independently  found  a  connection  be- 
tween the  meteors  from  a  radiant  in  Ursa  Major 
and  the  Pons-Winnecke  comet.  Astronomers  have 
also  found  that  the  Dracpnid  meteor  shower  moves 
in  the  path  of  Giacobini's  comet  It  appears  con- 


clusive that  comets  which  are  now  pursuing  their 
orderly  way  through  our  solar  system  throw  off 
and  leave  in  their  wake  streams  of  meteors  which 
continue  to  follow  the  same  orbit  as  that  of  their 
parent  comet. 

Whipple,  of  Harvard  University,  has  just  point- 
ed out  that  there  is  a  connection  between  the  Tau- 
rid  shower  of  meteors  and  Encke's  comet.  From 
observations  of  the  Taurid  meteors,  made  with 
special  cameras,  Whipple  found  that  their  speed 
was  about  23.5  miles  a  second  and  that  they  were 
moving  in  a  closed  path ;  the  paths  of  the  meteors 
and  Encke's  comet  are  similar  except  that  the 
planes  of  the  two  orbits  are  at  an  angle  of  about 
12  degrees.  Whipple  has  worked  put  a  new  mathe- 
matical theory  for  Jupiter's  gravitational  effect  on 
the  comet.  From  his  theory  he  concludes  that  the 
plane  of  Encke's  comet  changes  over  a  long  period 
of  time ;  ages  ago  the  orbits  of  the  comet  and  me- 
teor shower  were  in  the  same  plane  and  have  since 
separated.  Whipple  believes  that  the  Taurid  mete- 
ors did  not  arise  from  Encke's  comet  but  rather 
that  the  two  have  a  common  ancestor,  some  large 
comet  which  broke  up  into  several  smaller  ones; 
one  of  the  smaller  descendants  can  still  be  seen 
alive  as  Encke's  comet,  while  only  the  skeletal  re- 
mains of  others  occasionally  collide  with  the  earth 
to  produce  showers  of  meteors.  Whipple  estimates 
that  the  disentegration  of  the  parent  comet  took 
place  between  five  and  fifteen  thousand  years  ago, 
a  very  short  time  indeed  when  compared  with  the 
age  of  the  solar  system  itself. 

Whipple's  contribution  to  the  connection  be- 
tween comets  and  showers  of  meteors  is  an  im- 
portant one  and  sheds  new  light  on  a  subject 
which  has  had  a  long  and  interesting  history. 
However,  while  it  is  now  well  established  that 
showers  of  meteors  originate  from  and  are  associ- 
ated with  comets,  the  next  question  is  how,  or 
where,  do  comets  originate?  The  problem  of  the 
origin  of  sporadic  meteors  and  of  comets,  like  the 
problem  of  the  origin  of  the  solar  system,  is  not 
yet  settled  with  complete  satisfaction. 

Herbig,  of  the  University  of  California,  has 
made  new  calculations  on  the  diameters  of  some 
of  the  large  stars  and  found  Ras  Algethi,  in  the 
constellation  of  Hercules  to  be  the  largest  Here- 
tofore, Antares,  had  been  regarded  as  the  largest 
star.  Herbig,  using  distance  determinations  fur- 
nished by  van  Maanen,  determined  the  diameter  of 
Ras  Algethi  as  nearly  four  times  that  of  the  earth's 
orbit. 

Strand,  of  Swarthmore  College,  has  just  made  a 
study  of  the  famous  double  star,  Zeta  Aquarii. 
From  very  accurate  photographic  measurements 
Strand  finds  that  there  is  a  regular  fluctuation 
from  the  expected  motion  and  concludes  that  there 
is  a  third  invisible  member  of  the  system.  The  in- 
visible companion  has  a  mass  about  one  fourth  that 
of  the  sun,  while  the  mass  of  the  entire  system  is 
four  times  the  sun's.  The  two  bright  stars  which 
belong  to  Zeta  Aquarii  can  be  seen  in  a  telescope 
and  are  separated  by  a  distance  eighty-five  times 
that  from  the  sun  to  the  earth,  the  invisible  com- 
panion  revolves  around  the  brighter  of  the  other 
two. 

Wildt  has  made  an  interesting  contribution  to 
our  ideas  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  planet  Venus. 
The  existence  of  a  dense  atmosphere  on  this  planet 
has  long  been  recognized  by  astronomers,  but  until 
1932  there  was  no  information  as  to  its  composi- 
tion. In  that  year  Adams  and  Dunham,  at  Mount 
Wilson,  secured  high  dispersion  spectra  of  Venus 


ASTRONOMY 


47 


AUSTRALIA 


in  a  search  for  oxygen  and  water  vapor.  They 
found  no  trace  of  these  gases.  However,  three 
bands  of  unknown  origin  were  discovered  at  wave- 
lengths 7820,  7883,  and  8689  Angstroms  in  the  in- 
fra-red part  of  the  spectrum ;  they  tentatively  as- 
signed these  bands  to  carbon  dioxide.  In  1934  Adel 
and  Slipher  were  able  to  produce  these  bands  in 
the  laboratory  and  they  finally  concluded  that  car- 
bon dioxide  was  a  common  constituent  of  the  at- 
mosphere of  Venus.  Wildt  has  made  a  theoretical 
investigation  and  believes  that  formaldehyde  is 
present  in  the  atmosphere  of  Venus. 

Phenomena.  At  February's  end  and  early  in 
March  there  was  a  most  unusual  distribution  of 
planets  in  the  evening  sky.  The  six  brightest  major 
planets  were  all  well  placed  for  observation  in  the 
western  evening  sky  and  lay  along  the  ecliptic  in 
a  zone  roughly  fifty  degrees  in  length.  Mercury 
was  near  the  western  horizon  followed  in  order  by 
Jupiter,  Venus,  Saturn,  Mars,  and  Uranus  The 
five  naked  eye  planets  were  within  forty  degrees 
of  each  other. 

During  1940  two  conjunctions  of  Jupiter  and 
Saturn  occurred  on  August  15  and  October  11 
respectively.  These  two  conjunctions  were  part  of 
a  so-called  "triple  conjunction" ;  the  third  conjunc- 
tion of  this  series  will  take  place  on  Feb.  20,  1941. 
Triple  conjunctions  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  are 
known  to  be  rare  though  there  is  some  disagree- 
ment as  to  exactly  how  often  they  take  place 

On  November  11  and  12  a  transit  of  Mercury 
over  the  sun's  disc  took  place  and  was  successfully 
observed. 

There  were  two  eclipses  of  the  sun  in  1940,  one 
annular  and  one  total  For  the  total  one  the  path 
of  totality  was  visible  from  South  Africa  and  the 
northern  part  of  South  America  The  war  reduced 
the  number  of  scientific  expeditions  sent  to  observe 
this  eclipse;  two  expeditions  were  sent  from  the 
United  States,  one  to  South  Africa  and  one  to 
South  America. 

There  were  five  or  six  comets  observed  in  1940 
Comet  1940a  (Kulin)  first  reported  as  Asteroid 
1940AB.  The  high  eccentricity  of  this  object  made 
its  discoverer  in  Budapest  believe  it  a  comet  Its 
discovery  was  not  confirmed  by  any  astronomers 
in  America ;  if  accepted  this  is  a  new  comet  There 
is  no  doubt  about  the  other  five  comets  which  were 
observed.  Comet  1940b,  a  return,  was  Comet 
Schwassman-Wachmann  I  (1925II).  The  return 
of  this  comet  was  first  observed  by  Hirose  of  To- 
kyo on  July  4;  this  comet  has  very  striking 
changes  in  brightness  and  appearance  Comet 
1940c,  a  return  was  comet  1933f  ( Whipple).  The 
return  of  Whipple's  comet  was  first  observed  on 
September  1  by  Cunningham ;  it  was  discovered 
Oct.  21,  1933,  and  observed  till  Jan.  31,  1935;  the 
orbit  and  computed  position  from  those  observa- 
tions were  found,  on  the  comet's  present  return  to 
be  only  six  minutes  in  error,  a  very  small  error. 
The  period  of  this  comet  is  7.5  years.  Comet  1940d 
was  a  new  comet,  Cunningham.  This  new  comet 
received  much  publicity  because  it  was  the  bright- 
est comet  since  Halley's  comet  in  1910.  Cunning- 
ham's comet  was  discovered  on  September  5  at  the 
Oak  Ridge  station  of  the  Harvard  Observatory 
After  its  discovery  it  was  located  on  photographic 
plates  taken  on  August  25.  At  the  time  of  its  dis- 
covery its  brightness  was  estimated  as  magnitude 
12.9.  It  was  soon  evident  that  this  comet  would 
be  visible  to  the  unaided  eye;  however  at  the  time 
the  comet  was  bright  enough  to  be  visible  without 
a  telescope,  it  was  very  close  to  the  sun  and  could 


be  seen  for  only  a  short  time  after  sunset.  Comet 
1940e  was  a  new  comet,  Whipple;  it  was  discov- 
ered on  September  30  although  it  was  subsequently 
located  on  photographic  plates  taken  as  early  as 
July  29.  Comet  1940f  was  a  new  comet  discovered 
by  Okabayasi  at  Tokyo  on  October  4. 
See  CHEMISTRY;  METEOROLOGY. 

Bibliography.  H.  N  Russell  and  Charlotte  E.  Moore, 
The  Masses  of  the  Stars  (Chicago) ;  Karl  Stumpff.  Die 
Erde  als  Planet  (Berlin).  G.  E.  Frost.  Planets,  Stars, 
and  Atoms  (Cal dwell,  Idaho),  A.  N.  Spitz,  The  Pinpoint 
Planetarium  (New  York,  Clyde  Fisher  and  Marion  Lock- 
wood,  Astronomy  (New  York);  C.  A.  Chant,  Our  Won- 
derful Universe,  2d  ed  (London);  O.  R.  Walkev  and 
H.  S.  Aiyar,  Concise  General  Astronomy  (Tri vandrum) . 

RICHMOND  T.  ZOCH. 

ATHLETICS.  Track  and  Field.  See  TRACK 

AND  FIELD. 

ATOMIC  ENERGY.  See  CHEMISTRY;  PHYS- 
ICS 

AUCTIONS.  See  ART  under  Art  Sales. 

AUDIO-VISUAL  MATERIALS.  See  LI- 
BRARY PROGRESS 

AUSTRALIA.  A  self-governing  dominion  of 
the  British  Commonwealth  of  Nations.  Capital, 
Canberra. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  of  the  six 
States  and  two  Territories,  the  census  population 
of  June  30,  1933,  and  the  estimated  population  on 
Mar.  31,  1940,  exclusive  of  aborigines,  are  shown 
in  the  accompanying  table. 

AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  AUSTRALIA 


Population 

States  and                  Area  in 

June  30, 

Mar  31, 

Territories                  sq  miles 

1933 

1940 

New  South  Wales                      309,413 

2,600,847 

2,775,871 

Victoria                                           87,884 

1,820,261 

1,896,934 

Queensland                            .      670,  500 

947,534 

1,018,362 

South  Australia                    .      380,070 

580,949 

597,387 

Western  Australia                      975,920 

438,852 

466,686 

Tasmania                                   26,215 

227,599 

239,574 

Northern  Territory             .  .      523,620 
Australian  Capital  Territory            939 

4,850 
8,947 

7,258 
12,843 

Total                                   2,974,581 

6,629,839 

7,014,915 

The  estimated  population  increase  for  the  year 
1939  was  67,635,  of  which  13,891  represented  net 
immigration  and  53,744  the  excess  of  births  over 
deaths.  Estimated  populations  of  the  chief  cities, 
all  of  them  State  capitals,  on  Dec.  31,  1939,  were: 
Sydney,  N.S.W.,  1,302,890;  Melbourne,  Victoria, 
1,046,750;  Brisbane,  Queensland,  326,000;  Ade- 
laide, South  Australia,  322,990;  Perth  Western 
Australia,  224,800 ,  Hobart,  Tasmania,  65,450.  Can- 
berra, the  Federal  Capital,  had  10,420  inhabitants. 
Newcastle,  N.S.W.,  had  104,485  inhabitants  at  the 
1933  census. 

Overseas  Territories.  The  overseas  territo- 
ries under  the  Commonwealth's  political  control 
are  shown  in  the  table  on  page  48. 

Education  and  Religion.  Elementary  educa- 
tion is  free  and  compulsory.  About  15  per  cent  of 
the  adult  population  is  illiterate.  In  1938  there  were 
10,029  State  schools  with  an  enrollment  of  934,- 
990.  Private  schools  in  1937  numbered  1880  with 
an  enrollment  of  235,815;  free  kindergartens,  72 
with  an  average  attendance  of  3202.  The  six  State 
Universities  had  11,098  students  in  1937.  Religious 
affiliations  at  the  1933  census  were:  Church  of 
England,  2,565,118;  Roman  Catholic,  1,161,455; 
Presbyterian,  713,229;  Methodist,  684,022;  Catho- 
lic (undefined),  127,542. 

Production.  The  estimated  gross  value  of 
production,  by  chief  industries,  for  the  fiscal  years 


AUSTRALIA 


48 


AUSTRALIA 


AUSTRALIAN  OVERSEAS  TERRITORIES* 


Territory  (Capital)              Ana,  sq.  mi.     Population 

Australian  Antarctic  Territory  «          .   , 
New  Guinea,  Territory  of  *  (Salamaua) 
North  East  New  Guinea 

93,000 
69,700 

560,935  « 
499  J41  * 

Bismarck  Ardnpdago            .... 

19JOO 

1S&4* 

Solomon  Islands 

4,100 

45,910* 

Papua,  Territory  of  •  (Port  Moresby)    .  . 

90,540 

338,608* 

Nauru7                             .  •          • 

8 

3,383  • 

Norfolk  Island       

13 

1,059  • 

1  The  Territory  of  Ashmore  and  Cartier  Islands  off  the  northwest 
coast  of  Australia  was  placed  under  the  authority  of  the  Common- 
wealth of  Australia  by  Imperial  Order  in  Council  of  July  23, 1938 
•  The  Australian  Antarctic  Territory  includes  all  the  islands  and 
territory,  except  Adehe  Land,  situated  south  of  60°  S  latitude,  and 
between  160* E  longitude  and  45°  E  longitude  'Mandated  to 
Australia  by  the  League  oi  Nations  in  1920  * Includes  Euro- 
peans,  Asiatics,  and  natives  enumerated  on  June  30, 1938,  but  does 
not  include  those  natives  living  in  areas  not  yet  under  government 
influence  •  Enumerated  natives  in  1938  •  Formerly  known  as 
British  New  Guinea.  r  Mandated  to  the  British  Empire  by  the 
League  of  Nations  and  administered  under  an  agreement  among 
Australia,  Great  Britain,  and  New  Zealand  '1939  estimate 
•June  30.1938. 

ended  June  30,  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  table 
from  die  Quarterly  Summary  of  Australian  Sta- 
tistics. 

VALUE  OF  AUSTRALIAN  PRODUCTION 
\In  thousands  of  pounds  sterling] 


Item 

1917 

1938 

1939 

Agricultural 

£  91.40S 

£  93,229 

£  76,851 

Pastoral 

105,499 

100,794 

84.S95 

Dairy,  poultry,  bee-farming 
Forestry  and  fisheries 

49,886 
11,765 

57,641 
14,755 

60,404 
14,634 

Mining 

27,381 

32,434 

32,463 

Manufacturing  • 

170,811 

188,061 

195,746 

Total      ..             

£456,745 

£486,914 

£464,993 

•  Value  added  in  process  of  manufacture 

The  total  area  under  crops  for  1938-39  was  23,- 
497,780  acres  and  production  was:  Wheat,  155,- 
368,621  bu  (210,160,318  in  1939-40)  ;  oats,  15,554,- 
735  bu  ;  corn,  7,056,642  bu.;  hay,  3,321,161  tons; 
cane  sugar,  about  838,000  tons  (for  calendar  year 
1939).  Livestock  in  1938  included  111,057,832 
sheep,  12,861,781  cattle,  1,741,056  horses,  and  1,154,- 
052  swine.  The  1939-40  wool  clip,  as  in  the  grease, 
totaled  1,109,035,000  Ib.  Production  of  butter  in 
1938-39  was  455,834,329  Ib.;  cheese,  65,645,989  Ib  ; 
bacon  and  ham,  74,453,963  Ib.  Gold  output  in  1939 
was  1,645,697  fine  oz. ;  black  coal,  13,535,206  tons ; 
pig  iron,  1,104,605  tons  (in  1938-39).  In  1938  cop- 
per output  was  20,326  tons ;  lead,  239,590  tons ;  sil- 
ver, 13,895,541  oz.;  tin  3331  tons;  zinc,  163,381 
tons.  Exploitation  of  shale  oil  deposits  began  in 
1940  (see  History).  Manufacturing  statistics  for 
1938-39  were:  Establishments,  26,941;  employees, 
565,106;  salaries  and  wages,  £106,743,062;  value 
of  output,  £500,419,977;  value  added  during  pro- 
duction, £203416,610. 

Foreign  Trade.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended 
June  30,  1940,  merchandise  imports  were  £115,- 
705,084  (£102,156,352  in  1938-39)  in  British  cur- 
rency values;  direct  overseas  exports,  £145,589,- 
334  (£140,496,312)  in  Australian  currency  values. 
The  chief  1939-40  exports  were:  Wool,  £52,952,- 
843;  butter,  £15,484,540;  meats,  £15,109,148;  gold, 
£12,694,786  in  1938-39;  wheat,  £7,530,490;  flour, 
£5,258,365;  silver  and  lead,  £6,533,176;  skins  and 
hides,  £4,157,709.  For  distribution  of  trade,  see 
YEAR  BOOK,  1939.  Also  see  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  Receipts  of  the  Consolidated  Revenue 
Fund  for  the  1939-40  fiscal  year  totaled  £111,913,- 
784  (£95,064,790  in  1938-39) ;  expenditures,  £108,- 


985,409  (£94,437,481).  Defense  expenditures  for 
1939-40  amounted  to  £55,200,000,  of  which  £28,- 
814,046  came  from  the  General  Loan  Fund  and 
the  balance  from  revenue.  The  preliminary  budget 
estimate  for  1940-41  placed  revenues  at  £A150,- 
000,000,  of  which  £A85,000,000  was  required  for 
normal  services,  and  expenditures  at  £A276,000,- 
000  (£A186,000,000  for  defense).  Of  the  war  ex- 
penditure, £A65,000,000  was  to  come  from  tax  in- 
come and  £A121,000,000  from  loans,  etc.  The 
Commonwealth  debt  on  June  30,  1940,  was  £435,- 
327,180  (£397,250,931  on  June  30,  1939);  total 
debt  of  States,  £905,727,064  (£897,772,042).  The 
Australian  pound  (£A)  averaged  $3.5338  for  1939 
and  $3.0516  for  1940. 

Transportation.  Federal  and  State  railways 
in  operation  June  30,  1939.  totaled  27,234  miles ; 
private  (general  traffic)  lines,  765  miles.  Gross 
earnings  of  government  lines,  1938-39,  £44,780,- 
000;  operating  expenditures,  £35,958,000.  High- 
ways extended  over  486,000  miles.  The  Common- 
wealth's second  largest  bridge  was  opened  across 
the  Brisbane  River  at  Brisbane  July  6,  1940.  There 
were  30,245  route  miles  of  civil  air  lines  on  Jan. 
1,  1939.  During  193&-39  a  total  of  3814  ships  of 
13,545,712  tons  entered  and  cleared  Australian 
ports.  A  £3,500,000  port  improvement  project  was 
under  way  at  Melbourne  in  1940. 

Government.  Executive  power  is  vested  in  the 
King,  who  acts  through  a  governor -general  and 
a  ministry  responsible  to  the  Federal  Parliament. 
There  is  a  Senate  of  36  members  (6  from  each 
State),  elected  for  6  years  and  renewed  by  half 
every  3  years,  and  a  House  of  Representatives 
of  74  members  apportioned  among  the  States  on 
a  population  basis  and  elected  for  3  years  Gover- 
nor-General, Brig.  Gen.  Alexander  Gore  Ark- 
wright,  Baron  Gowrie,  who  assumed  office  Jan. 
22,  1936  Robert  Gordon  Menzies  (United  Aus- 
tralia party)  became  Prime  Minister  Apr.  26, 
1939  For  developments  in  1940,  see  History. 

HISTORY 

Like  the  other  British  Dominions,  Australia 
received  a  profound  shock  when  the  German 
blitekrieg  in  May  and  June  overwhelmed  the  Low 
Countries  and  France  and  threatened  Britain  with 
imminent  invasion  and  destruction.  The  entry  of 
Italy  into  the  conflict  and  Japan's  subsequent  al- 
liance with  Germany  and  Italy  added  to  the  Com- 
monwealth's alarm  and  fear  as  to  its  future  se- 
curity. Without  wavering  in  its  loyalty  to  the 
mother  country,  Australia  hurriedly  prepared  to 
increase  its  contribution  to  the  defense  of  the 
Empire  while  at  the  same  time  intensifying  prepa- 
rations for  home  defense.  The  Commonwealth 
also  sought  closer  relations  with  the  United  States 
as  a  precaution  against  possible  collapse  of  British 
resistance  and  Japanese  aggression. 

Political  Developments.  The  weak  position 
of  the  Menzies  Government  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK, 
pp.  54-55)  became  worse  as  a  result  of  a  Labor 
victory  over  the  United  Australia  party's  candi- 
date in  the  by-election  of  Mar.  3,  1940,  to  fill  the 
Corio  seat  vacated  by  R.  G.  Casey,  Minister  to 
the  United  States.  Labor  party  spokesmen  during 
the  campaign  opposed  the  dispatch  of  further  in- 
fantry divisions  overseas  or  conscription  for  serv- 
ice either  at  home  or  abroad,  while  pledging  full 
support  of  the  Allied  cause.  Local  issues  also 
played  an  important  part  in  the  election. 

Coalition  Government  Formed.  Following 
similar  Labor  gains  during  1939,  the  outcome  in- 


AUSTRALIA 


49 


AUSTRALIA 


duced  the  United  Australia  party  under  Prime 
Minister  Menzies  and  the  Country  party  led  by 
A.  G.  Cameron  to  sink  their  differences  and  form 
a  coalition  government  (March  14).  The  new  cab- 
inet, consisting  of  three  Country  party  and  nine 
United  Australia  party  members,  consisted  of : 
Prime  Minister,  Defense  Co-ordination,  Informa- 
tion, Robert  G.  Menzies;  Commerce  and  Navy, 
A.  G.  Cameron;  Attorney-General,  Industry,  W. 
M.  Hughes ;  Army  and  Repatriation,  G.  A.  Street ; 
Vice-President  of  the  Executive  Council,  Sir 
Henry  Gullett;  Supply  and  Development,  Social 
Services,  Sir  Frederick  Stewart;  Postmaster-Gen- 
eral, Health,  H.  V.  C.  Thorby;  Treasurer,  P.  C. 
Spender;  Trade  and  Customs,  Sen  G.  McLeay; 
External  Affairs,  J.  McEwen;  Interior,  Sen.  H. 
S.  Foil;  Air,  Civil  Aviation,  J  V  Fairbairn 

Further  Labor  gains  were  recorded  in  the  State 
election  held  in  Victoria  on  March  17.  The  com- 
position of  the  new  State  Legislative  Assembly 
was :  Labor,  23 ;  United  Country  party,  22 ;  United 
Australia  party,  15,  Independents,  5.  Premier  A. 
A.  Dunstan  (Country  party)  continued  in  office 
with  the  support  of  Labor. 

Labor  and  the  War.  The  strength  of  Commu- 
nist and  other  extreme  radical  sentiment  in  the 
New  South  Wales  section  of  the  Labor  party  was 
indicated  by  a  resolution  adopted  March  24  op- 
posing Australian  participation  in  any  overseas 
war  or  extension  of  the  European  conflict  into  a 
war  against  Soviet  Russia  This  was  voted  by  the 
State  Labor  Conference,  195  to  88,  against  the 
protests  of  State  Labor  leaders,  after  radical 
speakers  had  attributed  the  European  war  to  "Brit- 
ish imperialistic  capitalists"  This  viewpoint  was 
repudiated  by  the  leaders  of  both  the  State  and 
Federal  Labor  parties  However,  John  Curtin, 
leader  of  the  Federal  Labor  party,  in  a  radio 
broadcast  on  April  8  proposed  that  Germany  and 
Russia  withdraw  their  armed  forces  from  occupied 
territories  of  Poland  and  Finland  and  join  in  a 
peace  conference  "based  on  a  renunciation  of  war 
and  hatred." 

Early  the  next  morning  the  Germans  invaded 
Denmark  and  Norway.  This  and  the  subsequent 
great  German  victory  on  the  Western  Front  had 
profound  repercussions  within  the  Australian  La- 
bor movement  and  the  country  as  a  whole  At  the 
opening  session  of  the  Federal  Parliament  on 
April  17  the  government  announced  its  decision  to 
censor  Communist  publications  and  prosecute  per- 
sons charged  with  subversive  activities  designed  to 
defeat  the  country's  war  effort.  On  April  19  a 
split  occurred  in  the  New  South  Wales  Labor 
party.  A  minority  faction  led  by  former  State 
Premier  J.  T.  Lang  seceded  because  of  the  alleged 
failure  of  the  Federal  executive  committee  to 
oust  Communists  from  the  party  ranks. 

As  the  German  drive  on  the  Western  Front 
gained  momentum,  Prime  Minister  Menzies  on 
June  7  established  a  new  Ministry  of  Munitions 
with  himself  as  Minister  and  appointed  Keith 
Murdoch,  managing  director  of  The  Melbourne 
Herald,  as  Director  General  of  Information.  Italy's 
entrance  into  the  European  conflict  was  followed 
immediately  by  the  internment  of  all  Italian  na- 
tionals who  were  active  Fascists  or  military  re- 
servists. At  9  a.m.  on  June  11  the  government 
announced  that  a  state  of  war  existed  between 
Italy  and  Australia.  Italians  formed  the  Common- 
wealth s  largest  group  of  aliens.  Troops  and  police 
were  concentrated  in  northern  Queensland  where 


some  7000  Italians  had  settled,  but  there  were  no 
disorders. 
Emergency    Parliamentary    Session.    On 

June  16  Prime  Minister  Menzies,  declaring  Aus- 
tralia must  mobilize  all  her  resources  of  man- 
power and  materials,  called  a  special  session  of 
Parliament  for  June  20.  New  regulations  issued 
under  the  National  Security  Act  dissolved  the 
Communist  party,  the  Australian  League  for  Peace 
and  Democracy  and  seven  Fascist  organizations. 
Police  raids  were  made  on  Communist  headquar- 
ters in  various  cities  and  on  homes  of  party  mem- 
bers. On  June  19  a  special  conference  of  the  Aus- 
tralian Labor  party  junked  long-cherished  planks 
of  the  party  platform  It  not  only  approved  com- 
pulsory military  training  but  also  advocated  rein- 
forcement of  Australian  divisions  previously  sent 
abroad  and  full  participation  in  the  Empire  air 
training  scheme.  It  proclaimed  Australia's  indis- 
soluble unity  with  the  Allies,  urged  that  the  na- 
tion's entire  resources  be  controlled  and  mobilized 
for  war  by  the  government  on  a  planned  basis 
aiming  at  maximum  use,  and  called  for  a  100 
per  cent  war  profits  tax 

When  Parliament  assembled  the  next  day,  an 
amendment  to  the  National  Security  Act  author- 
izing the  government  to  conscript  all  persons,  their 
services  and  properties  whenever  needed  in  the 
nation's  war  effort  was  passed  by  the  House  of 
Representatives  61  to  9  and  by  the  Senate  27  to  3. 
In  accordance  with  the  Prime  Minister's  long- 
standing pledge,  compulsory  military  service  was 
restricted  to  Australia  and  its  territories.  He 
warned  the  country  that  the  government  would 
raise  the  largest  military  force  it  was  able  to 
equip,  impose  taxes  to  the  limit  of  capacity,  con- 
trol prices,  punish  profiteers,  and  ask  all  classes 
to  share  the  war  burden  equally 

The  General  Election.  While  the  government 
proceeded  energetically  to  develop  Australia's  war 
strength,  it  was  handicapped  by  the  lack  of  a  solid 
party  backing  in  Parliament.  The  Labor  party  re- 
fused Prime  Minister  Menzies  repeated  invita- 
tions to  enter  a  national  all-party  coalition  for  the 
duration  of  the  war.  It  likewise  opposed  his  pro- 
posal that  the  life  of  the  existing  Parliament  be 
extended  to  avoid  the  scheduled  fall  election,  in 
which  one-half  of  the  House  and  one-third  of  the 
Senate  were  to  be  replaced.  In  the  latter  stand,  La- 
bor was  supported  by  Minister  of  the  Navy  Cam- 
eron, leader  of  the  Country  party. 

On  August  13  a  military  plane  carrying  leading 
cabinet  and  military  officials  from  Melbourne  to 
Canberra  for  a  cabinet  meeting  crashed,  killing 
Army  Minister  Street,  Air  Minister  Fairbairn, 
Vice- President  of  the  Executive  Council  Sir  Henry 
Gullett,  Lieut  Gen.  Sir  Brudenell  White,  Chief  of 
the  Australian  General  Staff;  Mr.  Fairbairn's  sec- 
retary, and  four  members  of  the  crew.  Sen.  Philip 
McBride  and  Rep.  Arthur  Fadden  were  appointed 
acting  Defense  and  Air  Ministers,  respectively. 

The  tragic  air  accident  forced  the  Prime  Min- 
ister's hand  and  on  August  21  he  dissolved  Parlia- 
ment and  called  a  general  election  for  September 
21.  On  the  same  day  the  Country  party  agreed  to 
form  a  united  front  with  the  United  Australia 
party.  The  coalition  fought  the  electoral  battle  on 
a  platform  calling  for  the  subordination  of  all 
issues  to  the  prosecution  of  war  and  the  continua- 
tion of  efforts  to  include  the  Labor  party  in  a 
national  government.  The  platform  of  the  Opposi- 
tion Labor  party,  as  stated  by  John  Curtin,  called 
for  inflexible  support  of  the  British  cause,  sub- 


AUSTRALIA 


50 


AUSTRALIA 


ordination  of  profit-making  and  self-interest  to 
national  security,  increased  pay  for  the  militia  and 
Australian  Imperial  (overseas)  Force,  reorgani- 
zation of  the  Department  of  Information  and 
other  Menzies-appointed  commissions,  increased 
old-age  and  invalid  pensions,  pensions  for  widows 
and  orphans,  and  allowances  to  families  having 
more  than  two  children  under  the  age  of  16. 

Two  minority  Labor  factions,  however,  rejected 
Curtin's  leadership.  The  so-called  non-Communist 
group,  with  5  Representatives  and  2  Senators,  was 
primarily  interested  in  restoring  J.  T.  Lang  to 
leadership  of  the  party  in  New  South  Wales, 
from  which  he  was  ousted  in  1939.  The  third  fac- 
tion, comprising  extremist  adherents  of  the  New 
South  Wales  "anti-war"  bloc  and  controlling  the 
Labor  party's  executive  committee  in  that  State, 
opposed  the  emergency  powers  conferred  on  the 
government  by  Parliament  on  June  20. 

As  a  result  of  the  election,  Labor  gained  4  seats 
in  the  House  of  Representatives,  giving  it  36  seats 
to  38  seats  held  by  the  government  coalition 
(United  Australia  party,  24;  Country  party,  14). 
In  the  Senate,  Labor  gained  1  seat.  It  held  17  out 
of  36  seats  in  the  new  Senate,  due  to  take  office 
in  July,  1941.  The  Labor  gains  made  the  govern- 
ment's parliamentary  position  weaker  than  before 
A  Labor  government  was  equally  impractical, 
since  the  Lang  faction,  with  four  members  in  the 
House,  insisted  upon  remaining  a  separate  party 
and  demanded  a  high  price  for  its  co-operation 
with  Curtin's  majority  group.  As  a  result  of  con- 
ferences among  all  political  parties,  it  was  de- 
cided on  October  22  that  the  Menzies  Government 
would  continue  in  office.  Labor  again  refused  to 
participate  in  either  a  national  government  or  na- 
tional executive  war  council.  But  it  agreed  to  the 
establishment  of  an  advisory  national  war  council 
composed  of  4  members  of  the  cabinet,  3  Laborites 
and  1  Langite.  Besides  Curtin,  the  Labor  appoint- 
ees to  the  new  council  were  F  M  Ford,  deputy 
leader,  and  N.  J.  Makin,  secretary  of  the  party. 
H.  J.  Beasley  represented  the  Lang  Labor  faction. 

Cabinet  Reorganized.  Prime  Minister  Men- 
zies on  October  27  reshuffled  his  cabinet  as  fol- 
lows: Treasurer,  Arthur  W.  Fadden;  Attorney- 
General  and  Minister  for  the  Navy,  William  M. 
Hughes;  Army,  Percy  C.  Spender;  Postmaster- 
General,  Repatriation  and  Vice- President  of  the 
Executive  Council,  Sen.  George  McLcay ;  Air  and 
Civil  Aviation,  John  McEwen;  Interior,  Sen.  H. 
S.  Foil ;  Commerce,  Sir  Earle  Page,  who  had  re- 
placed A.  G.  Cameron  as  leader  of  the  Country 
party;  External  Affairs,  Social  Services  and 
Health,  Sir  Frederick  Stewart ;  Supply,  Develop- 
ment and  Munitions,  Sen.  Phillip  A.  McBride; 
Customs,  Eric  John  Harrison;  Labor  and  Na- 
tional Service,  Harold  E.  Holt.  Messrs.  Hughes, 
Fadden,  Spender,  McEwen,  and  Foil  were  named 
members  of  the  Prime  Minister's  new  War  Cabi- 
net Parliament  reconvened  on  November  20  to 
consider  the  budget  for  the  next  fiscal  year. 

War  Contribution.  The  first  division  of  the 
volunteer  Australian  Imperial  Force,  raised  in 
1939,  arrived  in  Egypt  along  with  a  smaller  con- 
tingent from  New  Zealand  on  February  12.  Other 
large  contingents  landed  in  Egypt  on  May  17  and 
in  Britain  about  June  20  The  first  Australian 
contingents  reaching  the  Near  East  were  quar- 
tered in  Palestine,  but  with  the  Italian  invasion  of 
Egypt  toward  the  end  of  the  summer  these  divi- 
sions and  new  infantry,  air,  and  artillery  units 
from  Australia  were  concentrated  for  the  most 


part  on  the  Egyptian  front,  where  they  partici- 
pated in  the  December  offensive.  Other  Australian 
air  force  and  military  units  were  stationed  at 
Singapore. 

Meanwhile  the  training  program  in  Australia 
was  steadily  expanded  and  speeded  up.  In  April, 
Royal  Air  Force  officers  and  men  began  to  arrive 
in  Australia  to  assist  in  training  airmen  under  the 
Empire  air  scheme.  At  the  end  of  May  enlistment 
of  another  overseas  division  began,  while  the  mi- 
litia force  was  rapidly  expanding,  In  June,  World 
War  veterans  of  the  Returned  Soldiers  League 
were  authorized  to  organize  an  official  army  re- 
serve for  home  defense.  On  July  17  the  govern- 
ment announced  plans  to  increase  armed  forces  in 
Australia  to  300,000  by  the  end  of  March,  1941, 
including  a  home  defense  force  of  210,000  con- 
scripts and  volunteers  and  90,000  troops  training 
for  overseas  service. 

By  the  end  of  September,  Australia  had  sent 
about  23,000  soldiers,  sailors,  and  airmen  overseas 
and  100,000  more  volunteers  for  overseas  service 
were  in  training.  By  December  approximately  one 
out  of  every  six  males  in  the  country  were  in  uni- 
form. The  unit  strength  of  the  A.I  F.  was  already 
equal  to  that  of  1914-18.  Major  attention  was 
being  concentrated  upon  the  air  force.  The  Empire 
air  scheme  called  for  an  Australian  air  personnel 
of  16,000  and  a  ground  staff  of  26,000  by  March, 
1943.  By  mid-September,  1940,  9476  airmen  and 
18,144  members  of  ground  crews  were  enlisted, 
and  a  large  proportion  of  them  were  in  training 
in  14  training  schools  Seven  more  schools  were 
due  to  open  before  the  end  of  the  year. 

To  provide  planes  for  training  purposes,  the 
government  stepped  up  local  production  of  air- 
craft factories  and  placed  large  orders  in  Britain 
and  the  United  States.  By  the  end  of  August  pro- 
duction of  Australian  factories  averaged  600  planes 
a  year.  Australian  shipyards  were  busy  with  or- 
ders for  destroyers,  sloops,  and  other  smaller  war 
vessels  for  the  British  navy.  The  domestic  muni- 
tions industry  was  rapidly  expanded  with  the  aim 
of  making  the  Commonwealth  independent  of 
overseas  arms  factories.  Tanks  and  anti-aircraft 
guns  were  produced  as  well  as  rifles,  small  arms 
and  other  essential  munitions  and  equipment 
About  450,000  men  were  engaged  in  war  industries 
of  one  kind  or  another. 

War  Financing.  The  cost  of  this  program  was 
indicated  by  Prime  Minister  Menzies  on  July  24 
when  he  said  that  Australia  had  already  under- 
taken a  defense  expenditure  of  £453,000,000  over 
three  years.  This  was  equal  to  the  Common- 
wealth's total  expenditure  on  the  World  War. 
War  expenditures  rose  from  £6,900,000  for  July, 
1940,  to  £11000,000  for  October.  All  forms  of 
taxation  were  heavily  increased,  but  loans  were 
resorted  to  to  meet  the  major  share  of  the  war's 
cost.  A  series  of  successful  internal  war  loans 
were  issued  during  1940  and  the  British  Govern- 
ment advanced  a  loan  to  meet  Australia's  overseas 
expenditures  for  war  purposes  up  to  the  end  of 
December.  Also  see  above  under  Finance. 

Control  Measures.  The  government  ran  into 
serious  difficulties  in  its  efforts  to  speed  up  war 
production,  reduce  dependence  upon  overseas 
sources  of  supply,  and  curb  subversive  and  other 
obstructive  influences.  A  government  measure 
granting  Australian  Consolidated  Industries  a  mo- 
nopoly for  the  manufacture  of  automobiles  in 
Australia  was  modified  by  Parliament  and  adverse 
public  opinion.  The  monopoly  feature  was  elimi- 


AUSTRALIA 


51 


AUSTRIA 


nated  from  the  law  passed  May  31.  1940,  advanc- 
ing government  aid  in  the  establishment  of  an 
automobile  factory.  Gasoline  rationing,  imposed  to 
curtail  the  drain  on  dollar  exchange,  proved  highly 
unpopular.  Some  measure  of  relief  was  provided 
beginning  August  26  when  the  Commonwealth's 
first  gasoline  producing  plant  commenced  opera- 
tion at  oil  shale  deposits  in  New  South  Wales. 
Output  was  about  10,000,000  gallons  annually,  and 
it  was  planned  to  triple  this. 

The  co-operation  of  38  Federal  trade  unions  in 
maintaining  and  increasing  wartime  industrial  pro- 
duction was  obtained  on  July  5.  They  agreed  to 
Prime  Minister  Menzies'  proposal  that  trade  union 
panels  be  established  to  advise  the  government  and 
to  serve  as  a  link  between  it  and  the  unions  con- 
trolling workers  in  war  industries.  Regulations 
were  issued  barring  specified  craftsmen  from 
changing  jobs  except  with  the  consent  of  the  em- 
ployer and  the  munitions  authorities.  The  labor- 
government  accord  followed  the  settlement  in  May 
of  the  coal  strike  against  an  award  of  the  Com- 
monwealth Arbitration  Court  The  government 
had  threatened  to  open  the  mines  with  volunteers 
unless  a  settlement  was  reached,  and  had  brought 
pressure  upon  the  unions  to  oust  Communist  and 
other  subversive  officials  who  had  played  a  promi- 
nent part  in  calling  and  conducting  the  strike 

With  the  approval  of  the  Advisory  War  Coun- 
cil, the  government  on  December  21  assumed  pow- 
er to  deal  with  intrastate  as  well  as  interstate 
industrial  disputes  for  the  duration  of  the  war. 
The  jurisdiction  of  the  Commonwealth  Arbitra- 
tion Court  was  thus  extended  to  all  industrial  la- 
bor controversies,  and  the  Constitutional  restric- 
tion confining  the  Commonwealth's  conciliation 
and  arbitration  powers  to  interstate  disputes  was 
temporarily  set  aside  The  Commonwealth  Gov- 
ernment on  December  7  also  assumed  control  of 
coastal  shipping  and  a  system  of  priorities  for 
cargoes  was  established  A  long-range  government 
program  for  stabilizing  the  wheat  industry  by 
guaranteeing  a  price  of  3  shillings  6  pence  a  bu 
on  production  not  exceeding  140,000,000  bu  an- 
nually was  announced  November  9.  The  Common- 
wealth at  the  same  time  agreed  to  advance  £A2,770,- 
000  to  the  States  for  drought  relief. 

Censorship  Controversy.  A  storm  of  protest 
arose  when  the  Prime  Minister  on  July  18  au- 
thorized the  new  Director  General  of  Informa- 
tion, Sir  Keith  Murdoch,  to  compel  any  news- 
paper, broadcasting  station,  or  film  organization 
to  disseminate  any  matter  designed  to  assure  ef- 
fective prosecution  of  the  war  in  the  form  pre- 
scribed by  the  Information  Ministry.  The  vigor- 
ous opposition  of  both  the  press  and  public  forced 
the  government  on  September  2  to  modify  these 
regulations.  The  director  general  retained  power 
to  compel  newspapers  to  correct  inaccurate  state- 
ments concerning  prosecution  of  the  war  in  pre- 
scribed form,  giving  them  the  same  prominence 
as  the  original  statements.  The  time  that  might  be 
requisitioned ^from  a  broadcasting  station  was  lim- 
ited to  30  minutes  in  each  12  hours  and  from  a 
moving  picture  organization  to  10  minutes  in  each 
program.  The  Communist  press  was  suppressed 
on  May  24  and  the  distribution  of  Communist 
propaganda  was  declared  illegal 

Empire  and  Foreign  Relations.  British  set- 
backs in  Europe  and  the  spread  of  the  war  both 
in  the  Near  and  Far  East  revealed  more  clearly 
than  before  the  extent  of  Australia's  dependence 
upon  the  protection  of  the  British  fleet  and  strength- 


ened its  loyalty  to  the  mother*  country.  At  the 
same  time  Australia's  growing  military  contribu- 
tion to  Empire  defense  promoted  a  demand  for 
greater  participation  in  the  direction  of  Empire 
affairs.  The  Australian  press  joined  in  the  demand 
for  Prime  Minister  Chamberlain's  resignation  aft- 
er the  Allied  defeat  in  Norway  and  the  German 
invasion  of  the  Low  Countries.  In  June  and  July 
representatives  of  the  New  Zealand  Government 
visited  Australia  and  the  two  Dominions  under- 
took to  co-ordinate  their  war  efforts  and  defense 
preparations  in  the  industrial,  military,  and  naval 
spheres.  Toward  the  end  of  September,  the  Aus 
tralian  press  and  some  political  leaders  began  to 
urge  the  creation  of  an  empire  war  cabinet  on 
which  the  Dominions  would  be  directly  repre- 
sented An  Australian  delegation  participated  in 
the  Delhi  Conference  of  the  Middle  and  Far 
Eastern  units  of  the  British  Empire,  beginning 
October  26  (see  INDIA  under  Hwfory). 

Japan's  southward  expansion  caused  rising  alarm 
in  Australia  and  was  largely  responsible  for  the 
shift  in  emphasis  from  the  overseas  to  the  home 
defense  forces  that  became  evident  in  mid-July. 
On  May  20  the  Minister  of  External  Affairs  and 
the  Japanese  Consul  General  exchanged  assurances 
at  Canberra  that  neither  government  would  take 
action  affecting  the  status  quo  in  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies.  In  July  the  mandated  territory  of 
New  Guinea  and  Papua  were  included  in  the  new 
defense  setup;  their  defenses  were  strengthened 
and  white  residents  subjected  to  compulsory  mili- 
tary service  On  August  18  the  Prime  Minister 
named  Sir  John  G  Latham,  chief  justice  of  the 
Commonwealth  High  Court,  as  the  first  Minister 
to  Japan. 

This  appointment  was  not  cancelled  as  a  result 
of  Japan  s  adherence  to  the  Rome-Berlin  alliance. 
But  the  Australian  Government  and  press  placed 
growing  emphasis  upon  the  necessity  for  diplo- 
matic, military,  and  economic  co-operation  with 
the  United  States  in  Pacific  affairs.  On  March  5 
Richard  G.  Casey  presented  his  letters  of  credence 
as  the  first  Australian  Minister  to  the  United 
States  and  on  July  17  Clarence  E.  Gauss,  the  first 
American  Minister  to  Australia,  took  up  his  duties 
at  Canberra.  An  Australian-American  conciliation 
treaty  was  signed  Sept.  6,  1940  It  was  reported 
from  London  on  November  7  that  Australia,  Brit- 
ain, and  the  United  States  had  agreed  in  principle 
upon  the  joint  use  of  bases  and  other  defense  co- 
operation in  the  Pacific 

Prime  Minister  Menzies  announced  on  Decem- 
ber 27  that  a  sea  raider,  apparently  a  German 
vessel  flying  Japanese  colors,  had  shelled  and  se- 
verely damaged  buildings  and  docks  of  the  settle- 
ment on  the  mandated  island  of  Nauru. 

See  BRITISH  MALAYA,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  NEW 
ZEALAND,  and  PALESTINE  under  History,  BIRTH 
CONTROL  ;  BRIDGES  ;  EUROPEAN  WAR  ;  INDUSTRIAL 
CHEMISTRY  ;  LABOR  CONDITIONS  ;  NAVAL  PROGRESS. 

AUSTRALIAN  ANTARCTIC  TERRI- 
TORY. See  AUSTRALIA 

AUSTRALIAN  CAPITAL  TERRITORY. 
See  AUSTRALIA  under  Area  and  Population 

AUSTRIA.  A  former  independent  state  of 
central  Europe,  annexed  by  Germany  on  Mar  13, 
1938,  and  transformed  into  an  administrative  divi- 
sion of  the  Third  Reich.  Capital,  Vienna  Area, 
32,369  square  miles;  population,  7,009,014  (1939). 
Population  of  Vienna  (1939  census).  1,918,462; 
Graz  (1934),  152,841;  Linz  (1934),  108,970. 

Roman  Catholics  comprised  90  ^7  per  cent  of 


AUSTRIA 


52 


AUTOMOBILES 


the  population  at  the  1934  census;  Protestants, 
4.38  per  cent;  Jews,  2.83  per  cent  (191,481).  The 
1939  census  showed  94,270  racial  Jews.  There  were 
4721  public  schools  with  657,000  pupils  in  1940. 
Agriculture,  manufacturing,  mining,  and  lumber- 
ing are  the  main  occupations.  Formerly  a  favorite 
haunt  of  tourists,  Austria  has  suffered  since  1938 
through  the  virtual  exclusion  of  non-German 
tourists.  In  1939  there  were  3685  miles  of  railway 
line  and  42,120  miles  of  automobile  roads. 

Government.  Upon  the  annexation  of  Austria, 
Chancellor  Hitler  appointed  Josef  Buerckel  as 
Procurator  for  the  Liquidation  of  Austria  and 
Reich  Commissar  for  the  Reunion  of  Austria  with 
Germany.  Austria  was  subdivided  into  seven  dis- 
tricts (Gaus),  each  under  a  National  Socialist 
responsible  to  Herr  Buerckel  in  Vienna,  who  in 
turn  was  directly  responsible  to  Chancellor  Hitler. 
Effective  Apr.  1,  1940,  this  system  was  reorgan- 
ized. The  Nazi  leader  in  each  district  was  given 
the  title  Gauleiter  (district  leader)  and  Procura- 
tor, combining  party  and  state  functions,  and  be- 
came directly  responsible  to  Hitler.  Herr  Buerck- 
el's  powers  were  restricted  to  those  of  Gauleiter 
and  Procurator  for  Vienna.  On  August  7  Buerck- 
el was  transferred  to  the  post  of  Civil  Adminis- 
trator of  Lorraine  and  was  succeeded  in  Vienna 
by  Baldur  von  Schirach,  former  head  of  the  Hitler 
Youth. 

History.  During  the  first  quarter  of  1940  Aus- 
trian political  exiles  made  considerable  progress 
in  uniting  their  forces  and  in  securing  Allied  back- 
ing for  the  restoration  of  Austria  as  an  independ- 
ent state.  In  response  to  the  efforts  of  Archduke 
Otto  of  Hapsburg,  pretender  to  the  thrones  of 
Austria  and  Hungary,  and  other  Austrian  exiles 
the  French  government  and  press  declared  the 
restoration  of  Austrian  independence  to  be  one  of 
France's  war  aims.  The  British  Government  made 
no  formal  commitment,  but  the  British  Labor 
party  on  February  8  called  for  a  postwar  plebiscite 
to  determine  Austria's  future.  The  Liberal  party 
took  a  somewhat  similar  stand.  On  March  11  an 
Austria  Office  was  opened  in  London  to  unite  Aus- 
trian Social  Democrats  and  Monarchists  in  the 
struggle  against  Nazi  domination  The  exiles  de- 
clared that  reports  from  Austria  indicated  grow- 
ing discontent  with  German  rule  During  March 
and  April  Archduke  Otto  visited  the  United  States 
to  seek  support  for  his  cause. 

This  campaign  for  Austrian  independence  re- 
ceived a  major  setback  when  the  German  armies 
overran  the  Low  Countries  and  forced  France  to 
capitulate.  Archduke  Otto,  his  mother,  the  former 
Empress  Zita,  and  the  other  members  of  her  fam- 
ily were  at  Castle  Steenockerzeel  near  Brussels 
when  the  German  blitzkrieg  against  the  Low 
Countries  was  launched  on  May  10.  They  fled  by 
automobile  after  German  bombing  planes  had  at- 
tacked the  castle  for  six  hours,  and  on  June  22 
succeeded  in  reaching  Lisbon,  whence  they  trav- 
eled by  air  to  the  United  States.  Archduke  Otto 
reported  that  while  in  Bordeaux  preceding  the 
German  occupation,  he  obtained  French  collabora- 
tion in  helping  1000  of  the  25,000  Austrian  refu- 
gees in  France  to  escape  into  Spain  and  Portugal. 
The  remainder  were  obliged  to  remain. 

During  this  period  the  controlled  press  in  Aus- 
tria was  reported  to  have  assured  the  public  that 
the  war  would  be  over  in  three  weeks  and  that  a 
golden  age  would  ensue  for  all  Germans.  Toward 
the  end  of  October  patriotic  rallies  were  held  in 
Vienna  and  other  Austrian  cities  for  one  week, 


with  Propaganda  Minister  Goebbels  as  the  chief 
speaker.  He  assured  the  Austrian  people  once 
more  that  Britain  would  soon  collapse. 

At  the  same  time  German  sources  reported  that 
Vienna  was  regaining  "its  historic  position  as 
chief  middleman  between  the  industrial  countries 
of  Western  and  Central  Europe  and  the  agrarian 
countries  of  the  Southeastern  Continent."  The 
Vienna  Fall  Fair  attracted  300,000  visitors  and 
most  of  the  non-belligerent  European  countries 
participated.  In  May  delegations  from  Bulgaria, 
Greece,  Hungary,  Rumania,  and  Slovakia  met 
with  a  German  delegation  in  Vienna  for  a  confer- 
ence designed  to  emphasize  Vienna's  role  in  the 
"new  order"  that  Germany  was  establishing  in 
Southeastern  Europe.  In  line  with  this  program, 
the  Berlin-Munich-Salzburg  superhighway  was 
extended  to  Vienna  during  1940  and  work  was  be- 
gun on  another  similar  project  linking  Vienna 
with  Danzig  by  a  direct  north-and-south  route 
touching  Breslau  and  Poznan  in  conquered  Po- 
land 

In  June  it  was  announced  that  the  birth  rate  in 
Vienna  had  risen  so  rapidly  that  hospitals  and 
sanitariums  were  unable  to  accommodate  all  the 
expectant  mothers.  The  Austrian  population  was 
further  increased  by  the  influx  of  some  80,000 
German-speaking  inhabitants  of  the  Italian  South 
Tirol,  transferred  under  the  German-Italian  ac- 
cord of  Oct  21,  1939  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p. 
388).  They  were  resettled  in  the  Vorarlberg  dis- 
trict on  the  Austrian  side  of  the  border. 

German  accounts  of  contentment  and  plenty  in 
Austria  under  Nazi  rule  were  denied  by  Austrian 
workmen  who  escaped  to  Yugoslavia  and  Turkey 
late  in  the  year.  They  declared  that  Austria  was 
on  short  rations  and  that  unrest  was  widespread 
among  the  civil  population  Anti-Nazi  demonstra- 
tions by  factory  workers,  housewives,  and  others 
were  reported.  Two  hundred  workmen  were  said 
to  have  been  arrested  following  anti-German  dem- 
onstrations in  Vienna  on  November  17. 

See  GERMANY;  JEWS. 

AUTOMOBILE  RACING.  Motorcar  com- 
petitions proved  something  of  a  disappointment 
throughout  the  past  year.  Wilbur  Shaw  won  the 
500-mile  Indianapolis  classic  on  Decoration  Day, 
but  under  circumstances  bereft  of  that  excitement 
that  lures  the  racing  fans  to  stadiums.  After  vying 
for  the  lead  with  Rex  Mays  and  Mauri  Rose  for 
375  miles,  a  sudden  visitation  of  rain  compelled  all 
competitors  to  refrain  from  passing  one  another — 
in  accordance  with  an  official  regulation  that 
sometimes  makes  a  race  into  a  mere  parade  So  for 
125  miles  Shaw  handled  his  car  with  all  the  me- 
thodical elan  of  a  Sunday  driver  heading  for  the 
country.  Before  the  rain  dropped,  Shaw  had  set 
new  records  for  300  and  350  miles,  averaging  al- 
most 119  miles  an  hour.  For  the  entire  route  he 
averaged  114.277  m.p.h. 

A  new  record  for  a  one-lap  mile  was  chalked  at 
the  Wisconsin  State  Fair  when  Mays  covered  the 
course  in  95.29. 

AUTOMOBILES.  National  defense  was  the 
topic  of  the  year,  the  automobile  industry  being 
destined  to  perform  a  key  role.  Its  plants  were 
potentially  most  capable  to  take  on  the  manufac- 
ture of  parts  for  airplanes,  tanks,  and  other  com- 
bat equipment.  Recognition  of  that  was  the  early 
selection  of  one  of  the  industry's  outstanding  per- 
sonalities, William  S.  Knudsen,  president  of  Gen- 
eral Motors,  to  administer  the  production  phase 
of  the  United  States  "defense  program."  More- 


AUTOMOBILES 


S3 


AUTOMOBILES 


over,  some  felt,  car  and  truck  factories  could  most 
safely  curtail  normal-time  output  since,  through 
the  years,  they  had  established  for  the  country  a 
vast  fleet  of  vehicles  and  stimulated  road  building, 
giving  this  country  that  other  vital  element  to  de- 
fense, an  adequate  highway  transportation  sys- 
tem, one  indeed  unapproached  by  any  other  nation. 
In  time  of  national  emergency,  by  drafting  civilian 
equipment  to  augment  the  military,  there  would  be 
every  facility  for  rapidly  moving  troops  and  sup- 
plies. 

Naturally  a  leading  subject  of  conjecture  was 
what  effect  defense  work  would  have  on  auto- 
mobile business.  Would  more  or  less  of  its  vol- 
ume have  to  be  sacrificed  on  the  altar  of  patriotic 
duty?  Would  further  improvement  of  existing 
models  have  to  be  ]x>stpuned  until  the  national 
emergency  were  over  ?  Whatever  may  yet  eventu- 
ate, so  far,  from  the  record  of  1940,  the  answer  to 
both  questions  was  in  the  negative 

As  to  volume,  automobile  production  came  close 
to  the  predicted  4,500,000  vehicles,  being  now 
estimated  at  4,476,000  or  25  per  cent  above  1939. 
That  it  was  not  higher  was  not  because  car  fac- 
tories were  engaged  m  defense  work.  All  such 
orders  for  equipment  or  parts  placed  with  them 
were  handled  either  in  new  plant  extensions  or 
m  spare  capacity  of  existing  plants  as  a  rule,  so 
automobile  production  suffered  no  overall  curtail- 
ment, and  throughout  the  past  year  there  was  no 
shortage  in  supply  of  new  cars.  The  market  might 
well  have  outreached  anticipated  proportions,  but 
for  laggard  general  economic  improvement  and 
such  un settlement  of  buying  activity  as  usual- 
ly exists  in  the  year  of  a  presidential  election. 
To  the  close  of  1940  there  had  not  been  time  for 
much  stimulus  to  be  felt  in  general  business  as  a 
consequence  of  such  increase  in  employment  as 
came  from  war  and  defense  orders.  The  last  quar- 
ter did  show  a  decided  uptrend,  however,  and, 
anticipating  greater  spending  power,  the  factories 
generally  increased  their  schedules  for  the  1941 
models ;  the  most  conservative  predict  a  four-mil- 
lion production.  They  contend  that  it  is  vital  to 
our  defense  to  guard  our  economic  front  and,  as 
general  business  follows  the  automobile  business, 
the  more  cars  sold  the  better.  It  will  keep  dealers 
in  business  whose  service  facilities  are  important 
to  maintain  all  equipment  now  in  use. 

As  for  improvement  of  products,  plans  and 
preparations  for  the  new  models,  including  any 
necessary  retooling,  were  already  past  danger  of 
interference  from  taking  on  war  orders.  So  com- 
plete was  their  redesigning,  however,  as  to  suggest 
intent  to  do  all  possible  while  possible,  lest  the 
machine-tool  builders  be  too  tied  up  to  supply 
equipment  for  much  change  in  the  1942  models. 
Anyhow,  changes,  both  in  appearance  and  mechan- 
ically were  more  decided  than  in  the  1940  models. 
Riding  ease,  by  contrast  with  what  it  once  was, 
seemed  almost  ideal,  nevertheless  designers  still 
found  refinements  possible  in  weight  distribution, 
balance,  springing,  and  shock  absorption.  All 
makes  were  improved  in  comfort,  safety,  conveni- 
ence, and  economy  of  performance.  Most  striking 
was  an  almost  extravagant  striving  at  ornateness, 
particularly  in  front-end  treatment,  with  lavish 
use  of  chromium,  flowing  over  on  some  to  hood 
and  body-side  moldings,  to  embellish,  perchance, 
the  simplified  body  contours  now  universally 
stream-lined.  Characteristic  were  more  massive 
bumpers,  a  contribution  perhaps  to  looks,  but  cer- 
tainly to  strength.  In  parking,  especially,  it  has  be- 


come habit  to  maneuver  to  contact  in  either  direc- 
tion; now  danger  of  damage  to  car  or  bumpers 
and  risk  of  locking  bumpers  are  diminished.  Two- 
tone  painting,  optional  on  nearly  all,  with  two-tone 
interior  trim  to  harmonize,  featured  the  styling — 
an  obvious  appeal  to  feminine  tastes.  All  were 
longer  and  wider,  and  door  widths  were  increased. 
A  general  effect  of  greater  roominess,  with  more 
ample  leg  and  elbow  room  applies  also  to  head- 
room, in  spite  of  a  tendency  to  lower  overall 
height.  On  the  average,  cars  had  2  to  4  inches 
longer  wheelbase,  were  3  to  5  inches  wider  and  5 
to  9  inches  longer  overall.  Still  larger  luggage 
compartments  with  better  disposition  of  the  spare 
tire  and  lids  counterbalanced  to  obviate  chance  of 
falling  unintentionally,  were  featured.  Body  lines 
were  cleaner,  not  only  enhancing  beauty,  but  facil- 
itating washing  and  polishing.  Few  crevices,  prone 
to  catch  and  hold  dirt,  remained  Valleys  between 
the  hood  and  fenders  entirely  disappeared  and 
there  was  more  tendency  to  sweeping  rear  lines, 
effacing  the  bustle  effect  of  the  luggage  compart- 
ment. All  headlamps  were  blended  either  into  the 
noses  or  tops  of  the  front  fenders.  There  located 
they  are  farther  apart  and  nearer  the  ground,  both 
favorable,  some  feel,  to  better  lighting  of  the 
road.  Tail  lamps  became  similarly  established  in 
the  rear  fenders  still  earlier.  Running-boards  had 
threatened  to  become  a  tradition,  but  concealed 
running-boards,  covered  by  flares  at  the  bottom  of 
doors  and  body,  appeared  on  many  lines  as  a  com- 
promise for  those  who  object  to  their  complete 
elimination.  Besides  an  enhanced  appearance,  there 
is  immunity  from  accumulations  of  mud,  snow,  and 
ice  that  make  footing  treacherous. 

Horsepowers  of  engines  were  raised  through- 
out, principally  from  increased  compression  ratios, 
the  average  of  which  is  now  6.6  to  one,  but  also 
from  better  carburet! on.  Only  three  lines  had  any 
increase  in  cylinder  dimensions.  Hoods  locked 
from  a  knob  within  the  car  under  the  dash  were 
the  new  order,  especially  needful  since  batteries 
took  their  place  under  the  hood,  to  reduce  exposure 
to  theft.  With  the  car  locked  the  hood  cannot  be 
raised  without  forcing.  Coupes  are  growing  more 
and  more  like  two-door  sedans,  which,  to  a  great 
extent,  they  are  replacing  Since  most  coupes  ac- 
quired a  single  full-width  rear  seat,  their  principal 
differences  are  somewhat  less  leg  room  in  the  rear 
compartment  and  slightly  shorter  rear  quarter 
windows 

Transmissions  have  been  the  most  backward 
element  in  the  automobile's  evolution.  Latterly  fac- 
tories have  turned  their  research  in  that  direction 
with  a  variety  of  results  and  a  new  crop  of  trade 
names.  The  only  thing  they  had  in  common  was 
the  purpose  of  simplifying  driving  by  reducing 
hand  and  foot  work  in  speed  changing.  The  fluid 
coupling  was  a  part  of  Oldsmobile's  Hydramatic, 
Chrysler's  Vacamatic,  De  Soto's  Simplimatic,  and 
Dodge's  fluid  drive.  All  Chrysler  products  except 
Plymouth  had  fluid  coupling  available  as  an 
optional  extra.  On  Chrysler  and  De  Soto  it  might 
be  had  in  combination  with  a  four-speed  semi- 
automatic transmission  whose  shifts  between  first 
and  second  and  between  third  and  fourth  speeds 
are  controlled  by  the  accelerator  pedal.  In  general 
the  others  were  efforts  to  operate  the  clutch  more 
or  less  automatically  Packard  had  the  Electromat- 
ic  clutch ;  Hudson  the  Vacumotive  clutch.  None  of 
these  were  standard  equipment,  but  might  be  had 
at  extra  cost.  Standard  equipment  in  all  cars  was  a 
three-speed  gearshift  controlled  by  a  hand-lever 


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beneath  the  steering  wheel,  except  in  the  Crotley. 
In  many  a  lower  ratio  second-gear  speed  was  pro- 
vided for  quicker  getaway.  Overdrives  seemed  to 
be  returning  to  favor,  being  provided  on  many 
models.  Usually  these  were  at  least  semi-automatic 
in  their  going  into  and  out  of  action.  Finger-tip 
gear-shifting,  so  called,  had  actual  shifting  move- 
ment performed  by  a  vacuum  cylinder  connected 
with  the  engine  suction.  Remembered  as  a  part  of 
the  Hudson  Electric  Hand,  it  was  first  mechani- 
cally controlled  on  the  1940  Chevrolet  For  1941, 
Chevrolet,  Hudson,  Chrysler,  De  Soto,  Dodge, 
Plymouth,  Packard,  and  Lincoln  had  it  as  stand- 
ard or  optional  equipment  It  reduces  the  effort  of 
gear  shifting  and  shortens  the  movement  of  the 
gear-shift  lever. 

Among  other  features,  not  new  but  more  widely 
used,  were  independent  front  suspensions,  power 
operation  for  the  tops  of  convertible  cars  (pro- 
vided in  even  the  lowest-priced),  steering  wheels 
with  no  spoke  in  the  upper  half  for  better  view  of 
the  instrument  panel,  air-foam  rubber  seat  cush- 
ions, direction  indicators,  concealed  gasoline  filler 
caps,  oil-bath  air  cleaners,  checks  to  hold  doors 
fully  open  so  that  they  do  not  swing  or  blow  shut 
unexpectedly,  and  single-piece  heat-treated  curved 
rear  windows — a  part  of  the  increasing  effort  to 
achieve  better  visibility.  The  Packard  180  and  the 
Lincoln  Custom  line  had  an  innovation  in  window 
controls.  Through  an  electric  motor,  hydraulic 
lifts  raise  or  lower  the  windows  selectively  when 
conveniently  located  switches  are  moved  up  or 
down,  doing  away  with  manual  manipulation. 
Packard  full-mechanical  refrigeration  cooling  sys- 
tem, introduced  the  previous  year,  was  continued 
as  an  optional  extra.  Cars  of  all  Chrysler  makes 
featured  a  new  safety  rim  that  prevents  a  flat  tire 
from  being  thrown  off. 

No  new  manufacturers  came  into  the  passenger 
car  field  and  no  old  ones  passed  out.  There  were 
some  new  chassis  and  some  were  dropped.  In  the 
Willys  case,  it  carried  a  new  name — Americar — 
and  replaced  the  Overland.  Cadillac  discontinued 
its  16-cylinder  line  (all  of  its  new  models  are 
V-8's)  and  the  La  Salle,  but  replaced  the  latter's 
two  models  with  two  lower-priced  Cadillacs.  Nash 
added  a  new  model  in  the  price  range  of  greatest 
demand,  as  had  Hudson  and  Studebaker  earlier. 
It  had  the  distinction  of  being  the  only  car  in  its 
class  having  coil  springs  rear  as  well  as  front.  A 
new  line  for  Ford  was  a  four-cylinder  truck. 

Exports  of  motor  vehicles  suffered  drastically 
because  of  the  European  and  Asiatic  wars.  Latin 
American  business  increased  some,  but  not  enough 
to  offset  other  losses,  so  that  exports  as  a  whole 
fell  off  26  per  cent  In  the  interest  of  national  de- 
fense, as  well  as  in  its  own  selfish  interest,  the 
automobile  industry  is  concerned  about  western 
hemisphere  solidarity.  With  all  other  countries 
that  produce  automobiles  practically  out  of  the 
market,  South  American  business  all  came  to  this 
country,  but  as  most  of  it  always  had,  the  increase 
was  not  significant. 

In  1940  the  longest  continuous  increase  in  car 
sales  was  recorded — 23  months — and  service-main- 
tenance volume  reached  an  all-time  peak.  The  first 
nation-wide  plan  for  selling  automobile  repairs  on 
the  installment  basis  was  announced  and  slowly 
got  under  way  with  jobber  sponsorship.  Jobbers 
continued  to  open  additional  machine  shops  and  to 
improve  methods  and  equipment,  especially  for 
complete  engine  rebuilding.  These  shops  would  be 
a  factor  in  national  defense  by  their  widely  scat- 


tered facilities  for  keeping  motor  transportation 
in  operating  condition, 

New  models  were  all  out  before  the  National 
Automobile  Show  (October  12  to  20),  but  in  spite 
of  that,  it  was  especially  well  attended.  Two  fac- 
tors that  contributed  were  Ford's  exhibiting  there 
for  the  first  time  and  the  introduction  of  a  new 
feature— the  Historic  Car  Exhibit,  where  nearly 
40  old  timers  were  shown,  one  dating  as  far  back 
as  1897  and  all  holding  interest  either  because  of 
age,  or  having  distinguished  themselves  in  notable 
races  or  other  events,  or  having  once  belonged  to 
or  transported  notable  personages. 

Statistics.  The  before  mentioned  25  per  cent 
production  increase  was  released  by  the  Automobile 
Manufacturers  Association  when  the  year  closed. 
Still  partly  estimated,  the  factories'  combined  pas- 
senger-car sales  from  United  States  and  Canadian 
plants  were  3,705,000  and  motor  truck  sales  771,- 
000.  The  former  had  a  wholesale  value  of  $2,413,- 
800,000  and  the  latter  $598,300,000.  These  figures, 
added  to  the  estimated  wholesale  value  of  parts, 
accessories,  and  tires  sold  to  present  owners, 
and  service  equipment— $1^50,000,000—made  the 
grand  total  of  factory  business  $4,262,100,000. 

The  latest  available  figures  for  foreign  produc- 
tion, exportation,  and  importation  of  motor  vehi- 
cles are  for  the  year  1939  which,  as  published  in 
Automotive  World  News,  June  20,  1940,  by  the 
Department  of  Commerce,  showed  that  in  that  year 
21.9  per  cent  of  the  world  total  of  4,779,170  were 
produced  outside  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
as  compared  with  33.6  per  cent  in  1938.  Such  was 
the  effect  of  wars  and  conquests  on  so  many  for- 
eign vehicle-producing  countries  in  1939,  and  it 
was  certainly  greater  in  1940.  In  1939  non- Ameri- 
can production  of  cars  amounted  to  685,710  passen- 
ger cars  and  360,742  trucks  and  buses.  In  1940  it 
was  assuredly  far  less,  even  allowing  for  produc- 
tion of  such  vehicles  for  military  use,  so  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  world  total  of  vehicles  was  not  over 
5,250,000.  Foreign  vehicle-producing  countries  in 
1939  exported  190,919  units  (18.2  per  cent  of  their 
production),  and  the  same  countries  imported  115,- 
679.  The  United  States  and  Canada  exported  8.3 
per  cent  of  their  production,  311,034  vehicles  (sales 
within  Canada  not  included),  and  imported  18,585. 

For  1940  United  States  and  Canadian  vehicle 
exports  dropped  to  230,500  units  and  accounted  for 
only  5.1  per  cent  of  production,  a  showing  made 
poorer  by  the  increased  domestic  sales.  The  com- 
bined value  of  motor  vehicles,  parts,  and  tires  ex- 
ported totaled  $280,000,000,  a  decrease  from  the 
year  before  of  13  per  cent. 

A  new  high  for  number  of  vehicles  in  use  was 
established.  Domestic  registration  reached  31,950,- 
000  for  a  4.3  per  cent  increase,  and  gave  the  United 
States  69  per  cent  of  the  estimated  world  registra- 
tion of  47,000,000.  The  figure  for  this  country  is 
not  final,  but  represents  27,300,000  passenger  cars 
and  4,650,000  trucks.  Of  the  new  vehicles  sold  here 
last  year  about  84  per  cent  replaced  others  that 
were  scrapped. 

The  jump  in  employment  must  be  partly  at- 
tributed to  defense  work.  Workers  in  automobile, 
body,  and  parts  factories  increased  14  per  cent  to 
443,000  and  the  weekly  payroll  26  per  cent  to  $15,- 
400,000. 

Motor  vehicle  user  taxes  continued  at  the  same 
ratio  of  total  Federal,  State,  and  local  taxes,  11  per 
cent,  but  the  revenue  collected  from  them— $1,772,- 
OOO^KJO^was  8  7  per  cent  greater  than  the  year 
before,  double  the  percentage  of  increased  vehicles 


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in  use.  With  nearly  the  same  disparity,  gasoline 
taxes,  representing  two-thirds  of  what  is  paid  to 
the  various  governmental  divisions  by  users  of  the 
highways,  climbed  8.2  per  cent  to  $1,120,000,000. 
The  only  current  measure  of  motor  vehicle  re- 
tail business  is  the  number  of  establishments,  for 
sales  volumes  as  reported  to  the  Census  of  Busi- 
ness are  long  deferred  in  the  process  of  Collecting, 
compiling,  and  distributing.  That  source  is  the  au- 
thority for  a  recent  statement  that  "the  number  of 
auto  service  stations  increased  less  than  one-third 
the  rate  of  the  preceding  five  years  in  the  period 
since  1935.  while  sales  in  the  latest  five  years  more 
than  doubled  the  preceding  period."  The  following, 
from  Chilton  Company  figures,  shows  the  past 
year's  increase  in  number  of  establishments: 


1939 


1940 


Type  of  establishment 

Total  car  and  truck  dealers  40,599  41,494 

Total  repairshops              86,709  87,366 

Total  retail  outlets,  duplicates  eliminated  94,494  94,985 

Wholesalers     .               .       .                 .  .        6,176  6,264 

Retail  gasoline  outlets      ...  .  400,000  400,000 

Retail  sales  of  motor  vehicles  in  the  United 
States  were  27.1  per  cent  higher  than  for  1939. 

Motor  Transportation.  In  "Public  Aids  to 
Transportation,"  (vol.  iv)  issued  during  the  year 
by  the  Federal  Co-ordinator  of  Transportation, 
the  estimated  distribution  of  motor  traffic  in  1937 
was  comprehensively  studied.  It  showed  a  total  an- 
nual mileage  of  265,000,000,000,  broken  down  as : 
215,935,100,000  for  passenger  cars  including  taxi- 
cabs,  46,695,700,000  for  motor  trucks,  and  2,369,- 
200,000  for  motor  buses  including  school  buses. 
Translated  into  probable  1940  traffic,  stepping  each 
item  up  in  the  ratio  of  the  intervening  registration 
increases,  the  estimated  mileages  were:  total  an- 
nual passenger  car,  231,640,500,000;  motor  truck, 
51,405,800,000;  motor  bus,  2,612,300,000,  making  a 
grand  total  motor  vehicle  mileage  of  285,658,600,- 
000.  In  1940  more  than  90  per  cent  of  all  passenger 
mileage  was  traveled  by  motor  vehicle-~490,000,- 
000,000  passenger  miles. 

According  to  data  obtained  from  highway  plan- 
ning surveys  made  by  the  U.S  Public  Roads  Ad- 
ministration, 55  per  cent  of  the  total  mileage  of 
passenger  cars  is  connected  with  business  activities. 
From  the  same  source  was  the  estimate  that  565 
per  cent  of  motor-vehicle  travel  was  over  primary 
rural  highways  and  trans-city  connections,  13  4 
per  cent  over  secondary  highways  and  local  rural 
roads,  and  30.1  per  cent  over  city  streets. 

More  than  48,000  communities,  with  a  total  pop- 
ulation of  nearly  8,000,000,  not  reached  by  rail- 
roads, were  dependent  upon  motor  vehicles  for 
their  personal  transportation  and  the  handling  of 
goods  and  supplies  into  and  out  of  them.  Most  of 
these  never  had  street  railways  and  those  that  once 
had,  have  almost  entirely  replaced  them  with  buses. 
Rail  transportation  by  surface  lines,  subways,  and 
elevated  railways  became  still  more  restricted  to 
the  larger  cities  and  some  of  them  abandoned  sur- 
face cars  in  favor  of  trolley  buses  or  gasoline- 
driven  buses.  Growing  use  of  trolley  buses  has 
been  a  noticeable  trend  of  recent  years,  dictated 
largely  by  desire  to  secure  the  greater  flexibility 
of  buses  without  scrapping  or  liquidating  power 
plants.  Not  being  confined  to  rails,  they  contribute 
materially  to  fluidity  of  traffic. 

The  United  States  had  more  motor  trucks  in  use 
than  all  other  countries  combined.  One  of  every 
four  was  owned  by  a  farmer.  Conspicuous  among 


the  advantages  of  trucks  is  their  more  rapid  han- 
dling of  perishable  goods.  Large  percentages  of 
farm  products  went  to  market  exclusively  by 
trucks— 27  per  cent  of  the  butter,  39  of  eggs,  65  of 
live  poultry,  40  of  fruit  and  vegetables,  62  of  cat- 
tle, 61  of  calves,  68  of  hogs,  29  of  sheep  and  lambs, 
and  50  of  horses  and  mules.  Twenty-four  cities 
received  all  of  their  milk  by  truck.  About  9  per 
cent  of  the  coal  production  was  shipped  from  the 
mines  by  truck. 

Motor  transportation  has  played  a  conspicuous 
part  in  speeding  the  delivery  of  mail,  especially  in 
rural  districts.  The  latest  figure  on  the  mileage  of 
rural  highways  used  by  the  U.S.  Post  Office  De- 
partment was  1,392,657,  in  its  operation  on  32,- 
839  rural  routes  using  15,045  motor  trucks  in  all 
branches  of  its  service.  About  half  of  the  motor 
vehicles  built  were  transported  from  their  facto- 
ries to  dealers  over  the  highway  by  truckaways  or 
dnveaways,  notwithstanding  which  about  14  per 
cent  of  railroad  freight  was  automotive.  Railroads 
themselves  had  in  use  more  than  66,000  trucks  for 
terminal  transfer,  intercity  and  store-door  delivery 
service.  As  of  March,  1939,  there  were  25,058  own- 
ers of  truck  fleets  of  eight  or  more,  operating  a 
total  of  954,302  trucks.  The  Bell  Telephone  system 
was  the  largest  single  owner,  having  16,210  trucks 
and  4490  passenger  cars.  An  incomplete  list  showed 
127  companies  each  operating  a  hundred  or  more 
vehicles. 

The  owners  of  the  4,650,000  motor  trucks  regis- 
tered by  the  end  of  the  year  paid  in  special  taxes 
for  the  privilege  of  operating  them,  $460,000,000. 
Per  dollar  of  gross  revenue  from  operating  for- 
hire  trucks,  an  average  of  68  cents  was  paid  in 
taxes  Privately  owned  and  operated  trucks  made 
up  86  per  cent  of  the  total.  Truck  and  bus  opera- 
tion made  its  contribution  to  employment  by  re- 
quiring 3,900,000  drivers 

Motor  buses  in  use  increased  to  141,300.  Of  these 
54,000  were  revenue  buses  (city  33,550,  intercity 
18,000,  sight-seeing  and  charter  hire  2450)  and 
87,300  non-revenue  buses  (school  86,300,  hotel  300, 
industrial  500,  and  miscellaneous  200).  Motor  car- 
riers operated  30,525,  electric  railways  19,250,  and 
steam  railroads  1775.  Those  buses  that  were  ex- 
clusively or  partially  in  the  service  of  schools  (two 
out  of  three),  carried  last  year  a  daily  average  of 
3,968,000  scholars  and  the  cost  of  the  service  was 
$76,053,000,  with  44,250  schools  using  buses. 

Very  important  from  the  standpoint  of  better 
understanding  among  the  21  American  republics 
was  the  increased  travel  among  them  as  progress 
is  made  in  the  completion  of  the  Pan-American 
Highway.  During  the  year  more  headway  was  made 
in  several  sections,  but  figures  of  the  total  mileage 
had  not  been  assembled.  Since  construction  began 
in  1925  it  has  proceeded  at  a  rate  in  excess  of  600 
miles  per  year.  The  highway  begins  at  Nuevo  La- 
redo, Mexico,  extends  for  3200  miles  to  the  Pan- 
ama Canal,  proceeds  another  6000  miles  to  Buenos 
Aires,  Argentina.  There  it  turns  north  an  addition- 
al 1900  miles  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil.  At  the  end 
of  1940  approximately  two-thirds  of  the  highway 
in  South  America  was  suitable  for  year-round 
travel,  and  much  of  it— -2015  miles— was  paved 
road.  Eventually  connecting  all  of  the  republics  of 
the  two  continents,  this  highway  will  be  of  tre- 
mendous commercial  importance  not  only  in  pro- 
moting travel  between  the  countries,  but  also  in 
extending  trade  between  them,  the  highway  fur- 
nishing the  additional  means  of  motor  transport 
for  their  exchanges  of  goods. 


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56 


AUTOMOBILES 


Automobile  Accidents.  The  overall  trend  in 
traffic  accidents  has  been  constantly  downward 
since  1934  when  the  fatality  rate  was  18.4  per  100,- 
000,000  vehicle  miles.  "Accident  Facts/1  published 
during  the  year  by  the  National  Safety  Council, 
showed  that  the  traffic  fatality  rate  on  a  mileage 
basis  reached  a  new  low  in  1939,  12.1  per  100,000,- 
000  vehicle  miles,  30  per  cent  below  what  it  was 
in  1929.  There  was  a  10  per  cent  decrease  in  acci- 
dent rates  by  the  operators  of  motor  vehicle  fleets. 
Private  intercity  trucking  was  the  classification 
that  had  the  largest  reduction,  28  per  cent. 

The  1940  safety  record  was  at  least  no  worse. 
Although  there  were  numerically  more  fatal  ac- 
cidents than  in  1939  (latest  estimate  34,500),  ac- 
cidents in  relation  to  miles  driven  were  the  same, 
for  there  was  a  6  per  cent  increase  in  mileage 
driven  That  fatal  automobile  accidents  were  not 
greater  was  attributed  to  co-ordinated  traffic  con- 
trol, traffic  education,  highway  improvement,  and 
better  cars.  The  1941  models  have  been  adjudged 
at  least  50  per  cent  safer  than  those  of  1931.  Fac- 
tors contributing  to  reduced  severity  of  accidents 
have  been  more  use  of  steel  in  places  that  protect 
passengers,  recessing  or  rounding  of  fitments  that 
may  cause  injuries  if  a  sudden  stop  throws  car 
occupants  against  them,  and  especially  the  now 
universal  use  of  safety  glass  throughout.  Lower 
center  of  gravity  as  against  the  former  top  heavi- 
ness has  increased  stability  and  reduced  the  fre- 
quency of  accidents. 

An  important  part  in  the  technique  of  traffic  ac- 
cident prevention  is  adequate  accident  reporting 
and  its  intelligent  analysis,  so  that  the  indicated 
corrective  measures  may  be  applied  to  reduce  re- 
currence. Twenty-seven  States  now  have,  through 
adoption  or  revision,  accident  report  forms  and 
methods  that  are  substantially  standard.  There  is 
much  more,  however,  to  the  Standard  Highway 
Safety  Program  for  States  advocated  by  the  Au- 
tomotive Safety  Foundation,  the  seven  elements 
of  which  include  legislation,  motor-vehicle  admin- 
istration, enforcement,  engineering,  education, 
training  personnel,  and  research.  To  date  not  more 
than  20  States  have  as  yet  either  a  well  co-ordinat- 
ed official  safety  program,  or  an  adequate  State 
Safety  council,  or  both,  which  gives  some  indica- 
tion of  how  much  room  for  improvement  still 
exists. 

Much  of  the  gain  in  traffic  safety  may  be  as- 
cribed to  "Child  Safety  Education,"  which  began 
in  1922.  As  a  result  the  5-  to  14-year-old  age  group 
has  led  all  other  ages,  year  after  year,  in  the  re- 
duction of  traffic-death  figures.  From  1922  through 
1938  the  5-  to  14-year-old  fatalities  dropped  from 
14  to  11  per  100,000  persons,  nearly  25  per  cent, 
while  the  rate  for  every  other  age  group  rose, 
some  30  per  cent,  some  over  100  per  cent  More 
than  500,000  children  are  now  enrolled  in  school 
safety  patrols.  The  film,  "Speaking  of  Safety," 
which  has  already  been  seen  by  5,000,000  elemen- 
tary school  children  during  the  past  three  years, 
was  given  additional  distribution.  Perhaps  most 
important  of  all,  the  American  Association  of 
School  Administrators  adopted  and  incorporated 
in  its  1940  Yearbook,  a  thorough-going  safety  pro- 
gram of  education  for  schools. 

Guidance  of  traffic  by  radio,  which  has  been  un- 
der experimental  development  for  years,  had  its 
first  work-out  last  summer  with  an  installation  of 
the  Halstead  system  on  the  George  Washington 
bridge  from  New  York  City  to  Englewood.  NJ. 
So  far  it  works  only  for  east-bound  traffic,  direct- 


ing motorists  what  to  do  on  leaving  the  bridge  to 
reach  various  objectives.  A  sign  calls  attention  to 
the  service  and  indicates  the  dial  setting.  Use  of  a 
low-power  transmitter  and  wave-guide  cable  con- 
fines the  broadcast  to  cars  for  which  it  is  intended. 
It  offers  great  possibilities  in  increasing  safety  as 
well  as  expediting  traffic  by  transmitting  messages 
that  warn  of  dangerous  driving  conditions,  or  ad- 
vise detours  to  avoid  places  where  traffic  is  con- 
gested. It  has  obvious  advantages  over  signs  that 
may  be  missed,  especially  at  night,  and  is  elastic 
in  its  adaption  to  emergencies.  Messages  to  be  con- 
tinuously repeated  are  recorded  and  reproduced  so 
that  an  announcer  is  not  kept  on  duty.  For  some 
time  broadcasting  stations  have  been  giving  spot 
announcements  of  highway  conditions  for  the  bene- 
fit of  radio-equipped  cars  which  have  now  reached 
a  ratio  of  one  to  every  four  cars  registered.  These 
experiments  portend  a  new  technique  in  traffic 
control.  See  ACCIDENTS. 

Legislation.  Most  State  legislatures  sit  only 
alternate  years  and  most  of  them  in  the  odd-num- 
bered years;  only  nine  States  held  regular  ses- 
sions. Apparently  those  that  convened  were  more 
or  less  satisfied  with  what  was  already  on  their 
statute  books  so  far  as  motor  vehicles  and  use  of 
their  highways  were  concerned.  New  enactments 
were  principally  amendments  of  existing  laws. 
Some  adverse  bills  were  presented  but  nearly  all 
defeated  and,  in  general,  laws  passed  were  not  un- 
kind to  highway  users,  although  not  all  of  the 
hoped  for  legislation  was  secured. 

The  most  unsatisfactory  phase  was  that  of  di- 
version of  motor  taxes  to  other  than  highway  pur- 
poses. New  York  was  the  worst  offender,  diverting 
three-fourths  of  its  total  special  road  imposts  in 
the  budget  adopted— in  excess  of  $75,000,000.  New 
Jersey  somewhat  increased  diversions  and  South 
Carolina  evaded  a  State  supreme  court  nullifica- 
tion of  a  diversion  law  enough  to  divert  $2,000,000 
for  State  government  expenses.  On  the  other  side, 
Louisiana  reduced  diversion  and  North  Dakota 
became  the  eighth  State  to  make  it,  by  amendment, 
constitutionally  prohibitory.  In  other  States  simi- 
lar efforts  failed. 

The  tax  situation,  which  had  reached  the  point 
where  one  out  of  every  nine  tax  dollars  collected 
from  all  sources,  Federal,  State,  and  local,  was 
paid  by  the  motorist,  at  least  was  not  aggravated. 
No  States  increased  their  gasoline  tax  rates,  al- 
though three  attempted  it.  Motor  vehicle  taxes 
of  one  form  or  another  were  reduced  in  Alabama, 
Louisiana,  and  Mississippi;  some  increased  and 
some  decreased  in  Virginia  and  peddlers  were  af- 
fected by  changes  in  Kentucky,  Mississippi,  and 
Virginia. 

Many  States  have  found  it  conducive  to  more 
use  of  cars  and  hence  yielding  them  more  in  gaso- 
line taxes,  if  they  defer  registration  renewals  from 
the  first  of  the  year.  Less  than  10  per  cent  of 
United  States  motorists  had  to  pay  for  their  new 
tags  on  January  1.  To  date  30  States  have  modified 
their  laws  to  postpone  registration  two  or  three 
months  and  14  others  give  periods  of  grace  up  to 
60  days. 

Nothing  new  of  moment  was  enacted  in  respect 
to  carrier  regulation.  Size  and  weight  restrictions 
were  liberalized  in  Louisiana  and  Virginia.  Bills 
to  that  end  failed  in  Kentucky,  and  Rhode  Island 
reduced  the  maximum  permissible  length  of  com- 
binations of  trucks  and  trailers.  Slight  gains  were 
made  in  the  extension  of  reciprocal  privileges  to 
non-residents  in  Alabama  and  California. 


AUTOMOTIVE  SAFETY 


57 


BALKAN  ENTENTE 


Safety  received  consideration  in  bills  relating  to 
equipment,  inspections,  etc.,  but  few  laws  were 
significantly  changed.  New  York,  Rhode  Island, 
and  Virginia  gave  greater  power  to  local  authori- 
ties over  speed  limits. 

State  operation  of  toll  highways  is  spreading. 
Pennsylvania  authorized  extending  to  Philadelphia, 
the  superhighway  opened  during  the  year  from 
Pittsburgh  to  Harrisburg.  South  Carolina  created 
a  Commerce  Development  Board  with  broad  pow- 
ers to  build  and  operate  toll  highways,  railroad, 
and  motor  carrier  lines. 

Efforts  to  increase  business  regulation  generally 
failed.  Maine  repealed  its  certificate  of  title  and 
used-car-dealer  regulatory  laws.  Rhode  Island 
passed  measures  regulating  manufacturer-dealer 
relationships  including  the  licensing  of  automobile 
dealers  That  State  also  provided  for  regulating 
motor  fuel  retailing,  as  did  Alabama  also 

Consumer  groups,  farmers,  and  governmental 
agencies  joined  in  vigorous  opposition  to  laws  that 
interfere  with  free  trade  among  States  and  no  new 
barriers,  such  as  pprt-of -entry  laws,  were  created. 
Among  the  organizations  on  record  against  such 
barriers  are:  National  Conference  on  Interstate 
Trade  Barriers,  Council  of  State  Governments, 
American  Association  of  State  Highway  Officials, 
Western  Conference  on  Governmental  Problems, 
American  Association  of  Motor  Vehicle  Adminis- 
trators, American  Farm  Bureau  Federation,  U  S 
Departments  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce,  Insti- 
tute for  Consumer  Education,  National  Highway 
Users  Conference.  American  Petroleum  Associa- 
tion, and  U  S  Public  Roads  Administration. 

See  BUSINESS  REVIEW;  INSURANCE;  LIVING 
COSTS;  MACHINE  DEVELOPMENT;  ROADS  AND 
STREETS 

HENRY  R  COBLEIGH 

AUTOMOTIVE  SAFETY  FOUNDA- 
TION. See  BFNEFACTIONS. 

AVIATION.  See  AERONAUTICS  and  articles 
on  various  countries  under  Transportation 

AZERBAIDJAN  SOVIET  SOCIALIST 
REPUBLIC.  See  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST 
REPUBLICS  under  Area  and  Population. 

AZORES.  A  group  of  nine  islands  (Corvo, 
Fayal,  Flores,  Graciosa,  Pico,  Santa  Maria,  Sao 
Jorce,  Sao  Miguel,  Terceira),  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean:  800  miles  west  of  Portugal  of  which  it  is, 
administratively,  a  part  (3  districts).  Area,  922 
square  miles;  population  (1930  census),  253,935 
Chief  towns:  Ponta  Delgada  (capital),  18,022  in- 
habitants ;  Angra,  10,642 ;  Horta,  7643  The  prin- 
cipal products  consist  of  oranges,  pineapples, 
olives,  grapes,  and  bananas.  See  PORTUGAL  under 
History. 

BADEN.  See  GERMANY  under  Area  and  Pop- 
ulation 

BADMINTON.  The  nation's  No.  1  badminton 
player  was  David  Freeman  of  Pasadena,  Calif 
He  made  a  thorough  sweep  of  the  fourth  annual 
national  championships  at  Seattle  in  March,  re- 
taining the  singles  title  he  captured  in  1939  and 
sharing  in  the  victories  of  the  men's  and  mixed 
doubles.  His  partner  in  the  men's  doubles  was  Chet 
Goss  of  Los  Angeles,  while  Miss  Sara  Williams 
of  Spokane  paired  with  him  in  the  mixed  event 
The  women's  singles  title  was  won  by  Miss  Evelyn 
Boldrick  of  San  Diego,  while  the  doubles  victors 
were  Miss  Elizabeth  Anselm  of  San  Francisco  and 
Miss  Helen  Zabriskie  of  Oakland. 

At  the  Eastern  championships  in  New  York 


City  in  February,  Harold  Seavey  of  Boston  was 
victor  in  the  men's  singles,  Jack  Laimbeer  and 
Julian  H.  Burgess  of  Garden  City  took  the  men's 
doubles,  Miss  Mary  Hagan  of  Old  Sixty-ninth 
the  women's  singles,  Miss  Helen  Gibson  and  Mrs. 
Wanda  Bergman  of  Westport  the  women's  dou- 
bles and  Mr.  and  Mrs.  William  Faversham  of 
Boston  the  mixed  doubles. 

BAHAMAS.  A  British  West  Indian  crown 
colony  consisting  of  20  inhabited  and  several  un- 
inhabited islands  and  rocks.  Land  area,  4404 
square  miles;  population  (1938  estimate),  67,726. 
Chief  islands:  Abaco,  Acklins,  Andros,  Bimini, 
Cat  Island,  Crooked  Island,  Eleuthera,  Exuma, 
Grand  Bahama,  Inagua,  Long  Island,  Mayaguana, 
New  Providence,  Rum  Cay,  and  San  Salvador 
(or  Watlings).  Capital,  Nassau  (on  New  Provi- 
dence). Education  (1938)  :  primary  and  secondary 
schools  had  16,131  students  enrolled. 

Production  and  Trade.  Sponge,  shell  (tor- 
toise and  conch),  cascarilla  bark,  pine  timber,  salt, 
tomatoes,  sisal,  and  crawfish  are  the  chief  prod- 
ucts. Many  tourists  visit  the  colony  every  year. 
Trade  (1938),  excluding  specie:  imports  £1,138,- 
839  (34  per  cent  of  this  total  was  expended  on 
food,  drink,  and  tobacco)  ;  exports  (including  re- 
exports of  £64,688)  £213,135,  of  which  sponge 
represented  £90,054.  In  1938  there  were  1060  miles 
of  highways. 

Government.  Finance  (1939  estimates)  reve- 
nue, £444,583 ;  expenditure,  £444,448 ;  public  debt, 
£253,000  on  Dec.  31,  1938  Executive  power  rests 
with  a  governor,  aided  by  an  executive  council. 
There  is  a  legislative  council  of  9  nominated  mem- 
bers and  a  house  of  assembly  of  29  elected  mem- 
bers Governor  and  Commander-in-Chief,  Duke  of 
Windsor  (assumed  office  on  Aug  17,  1940). 

History.  During  January,  1940,  the  first  land- 
ing ground  for  aircraft  was  opened  3  miles  south 
of  Nassau  Under  the  British-United  States  ac- 
cord of  Sept  2,  1940,  the  British  Government 
leased  to  the  United  States  for  99  years  the  waters 
of  Abraham  Bay  and  a  small  area  of  land  ad- 
jacent thereto  on  Mayaguana  Island  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  naval  and  air  bases  A  bill  for  the 
acquisition  by  the  Bahaman  Government  of  the 
land  involved  and  its  tranfer  to  the  United  States 
through  the  British  Government  was  passed  by 
the  House  of  Assembly  at  Nassau  November  25. 

See  BRITISH  WEST  INMES  ;  GREAT  BRITAIN  un- 
der History 

BAHREIN  ISLANDS.  See  under  ARABIA 

BAKER  ISLAND.  See  UNITED  STATES. 

BALEARIC  ISLANDS.  See  SPAIN  under 
Area  and  Population. 

BALI.  See  NETHERLANDS  INDIES  under  Area 
and  Population. 

BALKAN  ENTENTE.  A  bloc  of  Balkan 
states — Greece,  Rumania,  Turkey,  and  Yugoslavia 
—which  by  the  treaty  of  Feb.  9,  1934,  mutually 
guaranteed  their  frontiers  against  aggression  by 
any  of  the  Balkan  countries  (see  1939  YFAR  BOOK, 
p.  63,  for  further  details). 

The  sixth  annual  conference  of  the  Balkan 
Entente  was  held  at  Belgrade  on  Feb  2-4,  1940. 
The  Foreign  Ministers  of  the  participating  powers 
agreed  to  extend  the  life  of  the  entente  until 
February  1948;  to  maintain  their  neutral  and 
pacific  position  with  respect  to  the  European  War ; 
to  keep  a  "common  vigil"  for  the  preservation  of 
their  territorial  integrity  and  independence;  to 
strengthen  economic  ties  with  one  another  and 
with  other  Balkan  states.  Their  position  was  cal- 


BALKAN  STATES 


58 


BANKS  "AND  BANKING 


dilated  to  prevent  Bulgaria  and  Hungary  from 
pressing  their  territorial  claims  in  a  way  that 
would  drag  the  Balkans  into  the  war. 

These  calculations  were  upset  by  Italy's  entrance 
into  the  war,  the  establishment  of  a  German  pro- 
tectorate over  Rumania,  and  the  subsequent  Ital- 
ian attack  upon  Greece.  Both  Hungary  and  Bul- 
garia obtained  large  slices  of  Rumanian  territory 
in  defiance  of  the  Balkan  Entente.  Rumania  re- 
pudiated its  obligations  under  the  pact,  and  Yugo- 
slavia seemed  likely  to  do  so.  But  Turkey's  warn- 
ing that  she  would  attack  Bulgaria  if  the  latter 
country  joined  in  the  Italian  attack  upon  Greece 
helped  to  keep  Bulgaria  out  of  that  conflict.  With 
this  single  exception,  the  Balkan  Pact  at  the  end 
of  1940  appeared  to  have  been  effectively  dissolved 
and  new  combinations  of  the  Balkan  powers  were 
in  process  of  formation.  See  GREECE,  RUMANIA, 
TURKEY,  and  YUGOSLAVIA  under  History. 

BALKAN  STATES.  The  States  of  the  pen- 
insula south  of  the  Danube,  and  bounded  by  the 
Adriatic,  Aegean,  and  Black  Seas  See  ALBANIA  ; 
BULGARIA;  GREECE;  RUMANIA;  TURKEY;  YUGO- 
SLAVIA. 

BANGKA.  See  NETHERLANDS  INDIES  under 
Area  and  Population. 

BANG'S  DISEASE.  See  VETERINARY  MEDI- 
CINE. 

BANK  ROBBERIES.  See  FEDERAL  BUREAU 
OF  INVESTIGATION 

BANKRUPTCY  AND  RECEIVERSHIP. 
See  BUSINESS  REVIEW;  RAILWAYS;  SUPREME 
COURT. 

BANKS  AND  BANKING.  The  deposits  of 
banks  in  the  United  States  reached  a  new  high 
record  level  during  1940  as  a  result  of  an  unprece- 
dentedly  heavy  inflow  of  gold  from  abroad  and 
large-scale  purchases  of  Government  bonds  by  the 
commercial  banks  of  the  country  Gold  imports 
during  the  year  aggregated  $4,749,000,000,  mark- 
ing the  culmination  of  the  huge  transfers  of  gold 
by  European  countries  to  the  United  States  brought 
about  by  the  war.  As  a  result  of  the  enormous  gold 
shipments  of  1939  and  1940,  the  bulk  of  the  mone- 
tary gold  stocks  of  Europe  has  now  been  shifted 
to  the  United  States,  and  future  shipments  will 
necessarily  decline  sharply  to  correspond  with  the 
current  level  of  new  gold  production,  at  most 

The  pressure  on  the  banks  to  increase  current 
earnings  caused  large  purchases  of  Government 
bonds  by  both  large  and  small  institutions.  The  re- 
porting member  banks  of  the  Federal  Reserve  Sys- 
tem alone  showed  an  increase  for  the  year  of  $971,- 
000,000  in  their  holdings  of  U.S.  Government  ob- 
ligations, chiefly  of  longer  term,  while  holdings  of 
Government-guaranteed  bonds  rose  by  $300,000,- 
000. 

The  extremely  easy  condition  of  the  money  mar- 


ket was  further  intensified  during  the  year  by  the 
vast  gold  inflow.  The  military  collapse  of  France 
brought  a  flurry  of  selling  on  the  part  of  some 
banks  into  the  Government  bond  market,  but  when 
it  became  apparent  that  Great  Britain  would  carry 
on  the  war  alone  banks  and  insurance  companies 
vied  with  each  other  in  adding  to  their  portfolios 
of  high  grade  bonds,  so  that  in  the  closing  months 
of  the  year  yields  had  fallen  to  the  lowest  levels 
on  record.  The  pressure  to  add  to  bond  portfolios 
reflected  the  rise  in  excess  reserves  of  member 
banks  of  the  Federal  Reserve  System  to  a  new 
high  point  close  to  $7,000,000,000. 

The  extent  to  which  member  banks  have  built  up 
substantial  holdings  of  longer  term  Government 
bonds  is  shown  by  the  following  table  summarizing 
their  portfolios  of  direct  Treasury  obligations  on 
June  29,  1940: 


DM 
Within  5  years 
5-10  years     . 
10-20  years  . 
After  20  years  

Amount 
(Millions  of  dollars) 
4,022 
3,202 
3,776 
600 

Per  cent 
of  total 
347 
276 
32.5 
5.2 

Total  

,   ..     ..     11,600 

1000 

Larger  holdings  of  longer  term  Government 
bonds  and  a  moderate  increase  in  loans  made  for 
increased  operating  earnings  for  many  banks.  The 
outlook  for  a  larger  volume  of  loans  brightened  as 
a  result  of  the  national  defense  program  The  Fed- 
eral Reserve  System  has  undertaken  to  play  the 
role  of  intermediary  in  facilitating  the  placing  of 
defense  contracts  and  sub-contracts,  particularly 
with  smaller  concerns  The  banks  of  the  country, 
under  the  leadership  of  the  American  Bankers'  As- 
sociation, set  up  a  National  Defense  Loans  Com- 
mittee, with  representatives  in  each  Federal  Re- 
serve District,  to  co-operate  in  the  facilitation  of 
the  defense  program  The  Assignment  of  Claims 
Act  of  1940  was  enacted  making  legal  the  hypoth- 
ecation of  Government  contracts  with  banks  or 
other  financing  institutions,  in  order  to  make  such 
agreements  "bankable."  Contractors  could  thus 
finance  plant  expansion  and  working  capital  re- 
quirements by  a  pledge  of  such  agreements.  Some 
disappointment  was  felt  when  Federal  Loan  Ad- 
ministrator Jesse  H.  Jones  set  a  maximum  rate  of 
\ty  per  cent  on  such  loans  where  the  War  or  Navy 
Department  guaranteed  reimbursement,  on  the 
ground  that  they  were  virtually  backed  by  the 
credit  of  the  United  States  It  was  felt  by  many 
bankers  that  the  risk  justified  a  higher  rate.  With- 
out the  guarantee  of  reimbursement,  Administra- 
tor Jones  stated  4  per  cent  was  to  be  the  maximum 
rate.  However,  a  moderate  volume  of  loans  based 
on  defense  contracts  had  been  made  by  the  end  of 
the  year,  and  a  number  of  others  were  in  process 


PRINCIPAL  ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  INSURED  COMMERCIAL  BANKS 
l/»  thousands  of  dottars] 


June  29,  1940 
Reserve  with  Federal  Reserve  Banks  13,750,656 

D*c.  30,  1939 
11,603,504 
7343873 
15567,480 
6860.359 
16,866,021 

27,196,842 

ttftff 

63,146,526 

< 

June  30,1939 
10,010,744 
6,186,780 
15038215 
6,954,694 
16,040,373 

24,772,378 

14,298,215 
52,326,754 
59425859 

%  change  from  %  change  from 
Dec  31/1939    June30,1939 
+18  5               +37.4 
+  2.9              +22.1 
+  2.2              +57 
+  09              -05 
+  0.9              +  6.1 

+  6.3              +16.7 

+  2.1               +  3.4 
+  42              +11.7 
+  3.9              +104 

Other  btlanrn  with  banks                      ..   •   ••   ••>      7,556291 

U  S.  Govt  obligations,  direct  &  fully  guaranteed  .  .        15,906,'885 
Other  securities       .        ...      .   .   6,920,404 

Loans,  discounts,  and  overdrafts  (incl.  rediscounts)       17,014,372 
Demand  deposits  (of  individuals,  partnerships,  and 
corpontlons)...              28,899,054 
Time  deposits  (of  individuals,  partnerships,  and  cor- 
potations)  14,779,568 

Total  depotfti  58,425,391 

Total  liabilities  and  capital  account    .,  65,589,180 

BANKS  AND  BANKING 


59 


BANKS  AND  BANKING 


of  negotiation.  The  RFC  also  financed  a  large  vol- 
ume of  defense  orders. 

The  principal  assets  and  liabilities  of  insured 
commercial  banks  on  June  30  and  comparable  ear- 
lier dates  are  shown  at  the  foot  of  the  opposite 
page. 

COMMERCIAL  BANKS  COVERED  BY  REPORT 


June  29, 

Dec  30, 

June  30, 

1940 

1939 

1939 

National  banks,  members  Fed- 

eral Reserve  System                 5,164 
State  banks,  members  Federal 

5,187 

5,203 

Reserve  System  .   ..               1,234 

1,175 

1,127 

Banks  not  members  Federal 

Reserve  System  7,083 
Total          13,480 

7,173 
13,535 

7,239 
13,569 

Credit  Control  Policy.  Excess  reserves  of 
member  banks  of  the  Federal  Reserve  System, 
which  reached  a  peak  in  1939  of  $5,534,000,000, 
rose  to  $6,940,000,000  on  Oct.  23,  1940.  Thereafter, 
there  was  the  usual  temporary  decline,  due  to  the 
holiday  expansion  of  currency  circulation  and  Gov- 
ernment financing,  during  the  closing  months  of 
the  year. 

So  long  as  business  activity  remained  at  a  rela- 
tively low  level  and  unemployment  was  widespread, 
the  authorities  regarded  the  huge  excess  reserves 
with  equanimity,  and  discussion  of  corrective  meas- 
ures to  eliminate  them  was  on  a  purely  academic 
level.  The  national  defense  program  caused  an  in- 
crease in  business  activity  to  the  highest  point  yet 
recorded  during  the  last  half  of  1940,  however,  and 
unemployment  dwindled  rapidly.  The  problem  of 
excess  productive  capacity  in  many  fields  was  trans- 
formed into  the  opposite  problem  of  "bottlenecks." 
Such  circumstances  greatly  increased  the  possibil- 
ity of  an  inflationary  rise  in  commodity  prices,  par- 
ticularly if  spending  on  consumer  goods  would  ex- 
pand Pan  passu  with  armament  spending.  As  a 
result,  discussion  of  measures  that  would  scale 
down  excess  reserves  and  halt  the  increase  in  bank 
deposits  was  greatly  intensified.  Chairman  Mar- 
riner  S.  Eccles  of  the  Board  of  Governors  of  the 
Federal  Reserve  System  at  first  urged  privately 
the  adoption  of  a  vigorous  restrictive  credit  policy 
On  Dec.  31,  1940,  for  the  first  time  in  its  history, 
the  entire  Federal  Reserve  System  sponsored  a 
special  report  to  Congress  outlining  the  steps  it 
favored  to  meet  the  danger.  This  historic  docu- 
ment, signed  by  the  Board  of  Governors,  the  pres- 
idents of  the  twelve  Federal  Reserve  Banks  and 
the  Federal  Advisory  Council,  made  five  specific 
recommendations  of  a  monetary  character  to  meet 
the  threat  of  commodity  price  inflation  resulting 
from  the  defense  program.  In  addition  to  these 
monetary  steps,  the  report  urged  direct  controls 
to  prevent  industrial  and  labor  bottlenecks  and  a 
tax  policy  that  would  cut  down  consumption  and 
unessential  investment.  The  five  monetary  recom- 
mendations are  as  follows: 

"1.  Congress  should  provide  means  for  absorb- 
ing a  large  part  of  existing  excess  reserves,  which 
amount  to  seven  billion  dollars,  as  well  as  such 
additions  to  these  reserves  as  may  occur.  Specifi- 
cally, it  is  recommended  that  Congress— 

(a]  Increase  the  statutory  reserve  requirements  for  de- 
mand deposits  in. banks  in  central  reserve  cities  to  26%; 
for  denwmd  deposits  in  banks  in  reserve  cities  to  20%,  for 
demand  deposits  in  country  banks  to  14%;  and  for  time 
deposits  in  all  banks  to  6%. 

(b)  Empower  the  Federal  Open  Market  Committee  to 
make  further  increases  of  reserve  requirements  sufficient 
to  absorb  excess  reserves,  subject  to  the  limitation  that 
reserve  requirements  shall  not  be  increased  to  more  than 


double  the  respective  percentages  specified  in  paragraph 
(a).  (The  power  to  change  reserve  requirements,  now 
vested  in  the  Board  of  Governors,  and  the  control  of  open 
market  operations,  now  vested  in  the  Federal  Open  Market 
Committee,  should  be  placed  in  the  same  body.) 

(c)  Authorize  the  Federal  Open  Market  Committee  to 
change  reserve  requirements  for  central  reserve  city  banks, 
or  for  reserve  city  banks,  or  for  country  banks,  or  for  any 
combination  of  these  three  classes. 

(d)  Make  reserve  requirements  applicable  to  all  banks 
receiving  demand  deposits  regardless  of  whether  or  not 
they  are  members  of  the  Federal  Reserve  System. 

(e)  Exempt  reserves  required   under  paragraphs    (a), 
(b),  and  (d)  from  the  assessments  of  the  Federal  Deposit 
Insurance  Corporation. 

"2.  Various  sources  of  potential  increases  in  ex- 
cess reserves  should  be  removed.  These  include: 
the  power  to  issue  three  billions  of  greenbacks; 
further  monetization  of  foreign  silver ;  the  power 
to  issue  silver  certificates  against  the  seigniorage, 
now  amounting  to  one  and  a  half  billion  dollars  on 
previous  purchases  of  silver.  In  view  of  the  com- 
pletely changed  international  situation  during  the 
past  year,  the  power  further  to  devalue  the  dollar 
in  terms  of  gold  is  no  longer  necessary  or  desirable 
and  should  be  permitted  to  lapse  If  it  should  be 
necessary  to  use  the  stabilization  fund  in  any  man- 
ner which  would  affect  excess  reserves  of  banks 
of  this  country,  it  would  be  advisable  if  it  were 
done  only  after  consultation  with  the  Federal  Open 
Market  Committee,  whose  responsibility  it  would 
be  to  fix  reserve  requirements. 

"3.  Without  interfering  with  any  assistance  that 
this  Government  may  wish  to  extend  to  friendly 
nations,  means  should  be  found  to  prevent  further 
growth  in  excess  reserves  and  in  deposits  arising 
from  future  gold  acquisitions.  Such  acquisitions 
should  be  insulated  from  the  credit  system  and, 
once  insulated,  it  would  be  advisable  if  they  were 
not  restored  to  the  credit  system  except  after  con- 
sultation with  the  Federal  Open  Market  Commit- 
tee. 

"4.  The  financing  of  both  the  ordinary  require- 
ments of  Government  and  the  extraordinary  needs 
of  the  defense  program  should  be  accomplished  by 
drawing  upon  the  existing  large  volume  of  deposits 
rather  than  by  creating  additional  deposits  through 
bank  purchases  of  Government  securities.  We  are 
in  accord  with  the  view  that  the  general  debt  limit 
should  be  raised;  that  the  special  limitations  on 
defense  financing  should  be  removed ;  and  that  the 
Treasury  should  be  authorized  to  issue  any  type 
of  securities  (including  fully  taxable  securities) 
which  would  be  especially  suitable  for  investors 
other  than  commercial  banks.  This  is  clearly  de- 
sirable for  monetary  as  well  as  fiscal  reasons. 

"5.  As  the  national  income  increases  a  larger  and 
larger  portion  of  the  defense  expenses  should  be 
met  by  tax  revenues  rather  than  by  borrowing. 
Whatever  the  point  may  be  at  which  the  budget 
should  be  balanced,  there  cannot  be  any  question 
that  whenever  the  country  approaches  a  condition 
of  full  utilization  of  its  economic  capacity,  with 
appropriate  consideration  of  both  employment  and 
production,  the  budget  should  be  balanced.  This 
will  be  essential  if  monetary  responsibility  is  to 
be  discharged  effectively." 

No  sooner  was  this  report  issued  than  it  became 
clear  that  a  fundamental  split  within  the  Adminis- 
tration had  developed  over  credit  policy.  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  Morgenthau  said  that  the  report 
had  produced  a  needless  decline  in  the  Government 
bond  market,  and  that  he  regarded  the  measures 
proposed  as  unnecessary  and  as  an  artificial  inter- 
ference with  the  equilibrium  of  the  money  market 
Federal  Loan  Administrator  Jesse  H.  Jones  as- 


BANKS  AND  BANKING 


60 


BAPTISTS 


serted  that  he  was  in  favor  of  low  interest  rates, 
and  thus  by  implication  was  diametrically  opposed 
to  the  proposals  of  the  Federal  Reserve  System. 
The  banking  community,  however,  for  the  most 
part  enthusiastically  supported  the  Eccles  program, 
although  feeling  some  hesitation  about  putting  into 
the  hands  of  the  Federal  Open  Market  Committee 


the  rise.  Presumably,  in  the  event  of  a  future  se- 
vere decline  in  the  Government  bond  market,  these 
holdings  would  be  replaced,  and  the  market  would 
thus  be  supported  to  some  extent. 

Changes  in  the  principal  assets  and  liabilities  of 
the  twelve  Federal  Reserve  Banks  during  the  year 
were  as  follows : 


PRINCIPAL  ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  THE  12  FEDERAL  RESERVE  BANKS 
[In  millions  of  dollars] 


1940 

Gold  certificates 

U.S 

Federal  Resent 

Member  bank 

End  of 

on  hand  and  due 

Bills  dis- 

Government      Tr 

easury 

notes  in  actual 

reserve 

Treasury 

Month 

from  U  S  Treasury 

counted 

bonds 

notes 

circulation 

deposits 

deposits 

January 

15,552 

7 

1,344 

,133 

4,832 

12,150 

549 

February 

15,804 

7 

1,344 

,133 

4,872 

12,328 

562 

March 

,       .              16,068 

4 

1,342 

,133 

4,931 

12,423 

702 

April 

16,418 

3 

1,337 

,129 

4,941 

12,919 

446 

May 

16,983 

3 

1,347 

,130 

5,057 

13,217 

365 

June                  .   . 

17,743 

2 

1,338 

,128 

5,199 

13,781 

234 

uly 

18,189 

4 

1,321 

,127 

5,248 

13,498 

694 

August 

18,606 

4 

1,319 

,117 

5,370 

H.541 

810 

September 

18,928 

5 

1,319 

,115 

5,450 

13,727 

756 

October 

19,280 

4 

1,379 

9S4 

5,577 

14,208 

349 

November 

19,175 

4 

1,297 

<XH 

5,743 

14,21  5 

250 

December  24 

19,681 

4 

1,285 

900 

5,965 

13,837 

481 

the  power  to  increase  legal  reserve  requirements 
of  member  banks  to  a  level  double  the  maximum 
now  specified  in  the  law.  President  Roosevelt  in- 
dicated that  he  had  reached  no  decision  on  the  sub- 
ject of  credit  policy,  giving  the  impression  that  if 
a  substantial  rise  in  commodity  prices  should  occur 
he  might  throw  his  support  in  favor  of  at  least 
some  of  the  proposals  made  by  the  Federal  Reserve 
System. 

The  comprehensive  investigation  of  monetary 
and  banking  matters  authorized  by  the  Senate  in 
1939  was  not  pursued  by  the  Banking  and  Cur- 
rency Committee  with  any  vigor,  owing  to  the  Eu- 
ropean war. 

Fluctuations  in  member  bank  excess  reserves 
during  1940  were  as  follows : 

EXCESS  RESERVES  OF  MEMBER  BANKS 
[Million  dollars] 


January    31 
February  29 
March      30 

$5,559 
5,692 
5,828 

July           31 
August       31 
September  30 

(6,514 
6,525 
6,555 

April        30      . 

6,149 

October      31 

6,960 

May         31    . 

6,385 

November  30 

6,849 

June         29 

6,857 

December  24 

6,438 

Federal  Reserve  Banks.  The  Federal  Reserve 
Banks  reduced  moderately  their  holdings  of  U.S. 
Government  obligations  in  the  course  of  the  year. 
With  Government  bond  prices  rising  to  new  high 
levels,  the  Reserve  Banks  continued  the  policy  of 
stabilizing  quotations  to  some  extent  by  selling  on 


Bank  Regulation  Changes.  Despite  the  active 
discussion  of  fundamental  changes  in  bank  legis- 
lation to  pave  the  way  for  a  more  restrictive  credit 
policy,  no  important  banking  laws  were  passed  dur- 
ing the  year.  A  hill  to  regulate  bank  holding  com- 
panies more  closely  failed  of  passage,  largely  be- 
cause it  was  unsatisfactory  to  the  Treasury,  which 
desired  a  more  drastic  measure.  Following  its  con- 
troversy with  the  Bank  of  America  of  California, 
the  Treasury  made  clear  that  it  would  approve 
nothing  less  than  a  bill  requiring  the  dissolution  of 
bank  holding  companies  within  a  specified  period 
of  years. 

Changes  in  loans,  investments,  and  deposits  of 
reporting  member  banks  of  the  Federal  Reserve 
System,  month  by  month,  as  reported  in  the  Fed- 
eral Reserve  Bulletin,  are  shown  in  the  table  at 
the  foot  of  this  page. 

See  EXPORT-IMPORT  BANK;  FARM  CREDIT  AD- 
MINISTRATION ;  FEDERAL  HOMELOAN  BANK  BOARD  ; 
FINANCIAL  REVIEW;  INTERNATIONAL  BANKING 
AND  FINANCE;  MONEY,  U.S.  STOCK  OF. 

JULES  I.  BOGEN. 

BAPTISTS.  A  religious  group,  probably 
evolved  from  the  Anabaptist  movement  of  the 
16th  century,  which  adopted  the  principle  that  im- 
mersion is  essential  to  valid  baptism.  The  first 
Baptist  churches  were  established  in  Amsterdam 
in  1608,  in  London  in  1611,  and  in  America,  prob- 
ably at  Providence,  R.I.,  in  1639.  There  are  21 
denominations  in  the  United  States  which  use  the 


LOANS,  INVESTMENTS,  AND  DEPOSITS  OF  REPORTING  MEMBER  BANKS  IN  101  LEADING  CITIES 
(Monthly  data  are  averages  of  weekly  figures.  In  millions  of  dollars] 


Commerical, 
industrial,  and 

Loans  to 
brokers  and 

Other  loans 
for  purchase 

All 

US  Government 

Demand 

agricultural 
Month                  loans 

dealers  in 

or  carrying 
of  securities 

other 
loans 

obligations 
Direct      Guaranteed 

Other 
securities 

deposits 
adjusted 

January  .. 
February 

4,331 
4,317 

651 
611 

496 
481 

2,789 
2783 

8,833 
8,862 

2,410 
2,419 

3,327 
3,419 

18,946 
19,210 

March      

4,371 

634 

476 

2,788 

8,904 

2,384 

3,488 

19,344 

April      

4414 

624 

474 

2799 

8941 

2  398 

1  504. 

1Q  515 

jjfiy      

4397 

574 

475 

2826 

9053 

2407 

3496 

19971 

4,383 

422 

471 

2357 

9201 

2402 

July  

4,451 
4,456 
4,551 
4,709 

399 
375 
400 
424 

473 
470 
462 

458 

2$6 
2,908 
2945 
2961 

9,313 
9,415 
9,315 
9,305 

2415 
2,579 
2,582 
2,603 

3)565 
3642 
3,683 
3,669 

20^847 
20319 
20595 
21,040 

August       
September  
October 

November 
December  24 

4,R85 
5,011 

456 
545 

456 
466 

2985 
3,029 

9,490 
9,828 

2,702 
2,740 

3,587 

21,569 
22,150 

BAPTISTS 


61 


BAPTISTS 


name  Baptist,  the  largest  of  which  are  treated  be- 
low. For  census  statistics,  see  RELIGIOUS  ORGANI- 
ZATIONS. 

Southern  Baptist  Convention.  This  body  of 
the  Baptist  denomination  was  formed  in  1845, 
when  Southern  Baptists  withdrew  from  the  na- 
tional organization  on  account  of  the  slavery  issue 
and  also  for  the  better  administration  of  the  work 
of  the  Convention.  Since  that  time  it  has  func- 
tioned, not  as  a  new  denomination,  but  as  a  sepa- 
rate organization  for  the  purpose  of  directing  mis- 
sionary, educational,  and  general  denominational 
work  in  the  white  Baptist  churches  of  the  South- 
ern and  Southwestern  States.  According  to  the 
official  Handbook  for  1940  the  Southern  Baptist 
Convention  comprised  18  State  conventions. 

The  annual  session  of  the  Southern  Baptist 
Convention  was  held  in  Baltimore,  Md ,  June  12- 
16,  1940.  The  various  boards  and  agencies  of  the 
convention  showed  decided  gains  in  receipts  for 
the  year.  The  director  of  the  Work  of  Promotion 
in  the  Executive  Committee,  Dr.  J.  E.  Dillard, 
led  an  "Every  Member  Canvass"  during  the  week 
of  Nov.  25  to  Dec.  8,  1940,  with  the  objective  of 
securing  weekly  subscriptions  totaling  $45,000,000. 

The  officers  elected  for  1939-40  were :  The  Rev. 
W.  W.  Hamilton,  D.D.,  LL  D ,  of  New  Orleans, 
La ,  President ;  Francis  Asbury  Davis,  Baltimore, 
Md.,  and  Wm  Cox  Allen,  Greenville,  S.C.,  Vire- 
Presidents;  the  Rev.  Right  C.  Moore,  D.D., 
LittD.,  of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  and  Mr.  J.  Henry 
Burnett  of  Macon,  Ga ,  Recording  Secretaries ; 
and  the  Rev  Austin  Crouch,  D  D ,  of  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  Executive  Secretary,  and  the  Rev.  J  E 
Dillard,  D.D.,  of  Nashville,  Tenn,  Secretary  of 
Promotion.  Headquarters  are  at  161  Eighth  Ave- 
nue, North,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

The  following  table  gives  statistics  compiled 
by  the  denomination  for  1936  and  1940. 


/tern  1936  1940 

Churches  (congregations)  24,671  25,018 

Ordained  ministers             ..  21,881  22,493 

Church  members.  4,482,315  4,949,174 

Sunday  Schools                  ..  22,704  23,754 

Enrolled  in  Sunday  Schools  3,171,356  3,52^,853 

Enrolled  in  Baptist  Training  Unions  693,186  81 5,528 

Enrolled  in  Missionary  Unions  595.852  747,845 

Value  of  Church  projx-rty  $203,469,481  $214,724,695 

Gifts  to  local  work  of  churches  $24,201 ,802  $30,869,268 

Gifts  to  missions  &  Benevolences  $4,986,885  $6,267,261 

Total  contributions  $29,188,687  $37,136,531 

Schools  &  colleges  fostered  69  67 

Students  enrolled— regular  session  26,203  28,892 

School  property  $39,294,807  $45,165,412 

Endowment  funds  $25,490,369  $28,392,825 

Property  of  18  Children's  Homes  $6,221,150  $6,670,075 

Property  of  20  hospitals  $10,075,845  $15,268,099 


National  Baptist  Convention  of  America 
(NEGRO).  The  Convention  held  its  1940  session 
on  the  Simmons  University  Campus  with  the 
Baptist  Churches  of  Louisville,  Kentucky,  as  hosts, 
from  Wednesday,  September  4  to  Sunday,  Sep- 
tember 8,  inclusive.  The  Woman's  Auxiliary  met 
at  Zion  Baptist  Church.  The  parent  body  and 
the  Woman  s  Auxiliary  met  on  the  same  dates. 
The  theme  of  the  Convention  was  "The  Place  of 
Christianity  in  this  World's  Conflict."  Representa- 
tives were  in  attendance  from  35  States  in  the 
union,  from  Liberia — western  Africa,  from  the 
Bahama  Islands,  the  Republic  of  Panama,  and 
from  Canada.  Thirty  High  Points  were  recorded  in 
the  Convention's  activity  for  this  session.  Among 
the  objectives  for  1940-41  were  building  of  a  home 
for  the  aged  men  and  women  and  an  Orphanage  in 


Dexter,  New  Mexico;  increased  financial  support 
to  foreign  fields ;  more  educational  money  for  the 
four  schools  and  colleges  endorsed  by  the  Conven- 
tion through  its  Educational  Board,  namely  the 
Lynchburg  Theological  Seminary  and  College  in 
Lynchburg,  Virginia,  Guadalupe  College  in  Segu- 
in,  Texas;  Georgia  Baptist  College  at  Macon, 
Georgia,  the  Florida  Normal  and  Industrial  Col- 
lege at  St.  Augustine,  Florida.  The  Convention 
condemned  in  strong  terms  religious  and  racial  in- 
tolerance; it  accepted  greetings  from  the  Southern 
Baptist  Convention  brought  by  Dr.  Nobel  Y.  Beall 
of  Atlanta,  Georgia;  it  renewed  its  membership 
and  representation  in  the  Baptist  World's  Alli- 
ance ;  it  went  on  record  as  favoring  more  economy 
in  the  operation  of  the  Convention,  thus  increasing 
the  contributions  for  home  mission,  foreign  mis- 
sion, and  education;  it  was  pronounced  and  em- 
phatic in  opposing  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors, 
the  open  saloon,  and  urging  a  prohibition  move- 
ment in  America ;  it  called  upon  the  administration 
in  Washington  to  enforce  the  Thirteenth,  Four- 
teenth, and  Fifteenth  Amendments  to  the  Consti- 
tution, along  with  many  other  far-reaching  actions 
calculated  to  bring  an  era  of  good  will  and  peace 
on  earth.  It  reported  an  addition  of  more  than  150,- 
000  communicants  for  the  Convention  year,  bring- 
ing its  numerical  strength,  according  to  its  Statis- 
tical Secretary,  to  more  than  2,650,000  members. 
The  Convention  reported  as  having  raised,  between 
the  parent  body  and  its  various  Boards  during  the 
fiscal  year,  a  little  more  than  one  and  a  quarter 
million  dollars. 

The  next  session  of  the  Convention  was  awarded 
to  Shreveport,  Louisiana,  September  10-14.  The 
officers  selected  for  1940-41  are  Rev.  G.  L.  Prince, 
D.D,  President,  2610  Avenue  L,  Galveston, 
Texas;  Rev.  C.  P.  Madison,  D.D.,  Secretary, 
2925  Woodlawn  Avenue,  Norfolk,  Virginia;  Rev. 
A.  A.  Lucas,  Treasurer,  5109  Farmer  Street, 
Houston,  Texas ;  Rev  G.  C.  Coleman,  D.D ,  Vice- 
President,  867  37th  Street,  Oakland,  California; 
Rev.  Henry  A.  Boyd,  Secretary  Sunday  School 
Congress,  Railroad  Commission,  and  National 
Baptist  Publishing  Board,  523  Second  Avenue, 
North,  Nashville,  Tennessee;  Mrs.  M.  A.  B. 
Fuller,  President  Woman's  Auxiliary,  1105  An- 
gelina Street,  Austin,  Texas;  Mrs.  Eva  Ball 
White,  Corresponding  Secretary  Woman's  Aux- 
iliary Convention.  848  Edmondson  Avenue,  Balti- 
more, Maryland  Denominational  headquarters  are 
at  523  Second  Avenue,  North,  Nashville,  Tennes- 
see. 

Northern  Baptist  Convention.  This  body  of 
the  Baptist  denomination,  according  to  the  Annual 
of  the  Northern  Baptist  Convention,  was  com- 
posed in  1940  of  36  conventions  in  33  States,  the 
District  of  Columbia,  and  Puerto  Rico.  The 
thirty-third  annual  meeting  of  the  Northern  Bap- 
tist Convention  was  held  in  Atlantic  City,  N  J., 
May  21-26,  1940.  Its  general  theme  was  "The 
Light  Shineth."  The  officers  elected  for  1940-41 
were :  President,  Hon.  Ernest  J.  Millington,  Cadil- 
lac, Mich.;  First  Vice-President,  Rev.  L.  M 
Hale,  Wichita,  Kan. ;  Second  Vice-President,  Prof. 
J.  C.  Morris,  Jr.,  Cambridge,  Mass. ;  Correspond- 
ing Secretary,  the  Rev.  Joseph  C.  Hagen,  D  D., 
Summit,  N.J.;  Recording  Secretary,  the  Rev. 
Clarence  M.  Gallup,  D.D.,  New  York,  N.Y  ;  and 
Treasurer,  Harold  J.  Manson,  Brooklyn,  N.Y 
The  leading  denominational  papers  were:  Baptist 
Observer  (Indianapolis)  ;  Baptist  Record  (Pella, 
la.);  Missions  (New  York);  Watchman-Ex- 


BARBADOS 


62 


BASEBALL 


(New  York) ;  and  US.  Baptist,  (Wash- 
ington, D.C). 

The  foreign  mission  field  of  the  Northern  Bap- 
tist Convention  included  Assam,  Burma,  South 
India,  Bengal-Orissa,  South  China,  East  China, 
West  China,  Japan,  Belgian  Congo,  and  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands.  The  work  of  the  Convention  covers 
domestic,  city,  and  foreign  missions;  higher  edu- 
cation, social  service,  Sunday  schools,  and  pensions 
for  clergy. 

The  total  membership  of  the  Northern  Baptist 
Convention  for  1939-40  was  1,549,012,  distributed 
among  7526  churches,  mostly  above  the  Mason 
and  Dixon  Line.  The  total  amount  of  funds  re- 
ceived and  expended  by  the  churches  and  their 
agencies,  as  of  Apr.  30,  1940,  was  $15,957.796  for 
church  operating  expenses  and  $3,503,929  for  mis- 
sions, education,  and  philanthropy. 

Headquarters  of  the  General  Council,  the  execu- 
tive body  to  which  is  entrusted  the  work  of  the 
Convention  between  annual  meetings,  are  at  152 
Madison  Avenue,  New  York,  N.Y. 

BARBADOS.  A  British  West  Indian  crown 
colony.  Area,  166  square  miles;  population  (1938 
estimate),  193,082.  During  1938  there  were  5327 
births,  3743  deaths,  and  869  marriages.  Capital 
Bridgetown,  15,200  inhabitants. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  chief  products  are 
sugar  (156,443  tons  in  1939)  and  Sea  Island  cot- 
ton. The  British  Government  agreed  to  purchase 
all  exportable  sugar  during  1940  There  are  about 
107  sugar  factories  and  four  rum  distilleries.  Dur- 
ing 1939,  9103  tourists  visited  the  island.  Imports 
in  1939  totaled  £2,445,753;  exports,  £2,028,991.  Of 
the  exports,  sugar  accounted  for  £1,278,295;  mo- 
lasses, £575,358;  rum,  £9887;  cotton,  £233.  During 
1939,  a  total  of  1139  vessels  of  2,428,829  net  tons 
entered  Bridgetown.  The  Royal  Dutch  Air  Lines 
connect  Barbados  with  Trinidad  and  Curagao. 

Government.  For  1940-41  revenue  was  esti- 
mated at  £573,597  and  expenditure  at  £653,967. 
Among  the  special  items  of  expenditure  were  a 
£25,000  contribution  to  Imperial  government  war 
expenditure  and  £8000  required  to  deal  with 
emergency  conditions  The  public  debt  on  Mar.  31, 
1939,  was  £449,170  A  governor,  who  is  aided  by 
an  executive  council,  administers  the  government 
There  is  a  legislative  council  of  9  members,  and 
a  house  of  assembly  of  24  members  elected  by  the 
people.  Governor  and  Commander-in-Chief,  Sir 
E  J.  Waddington  (appointed  Feb.  11,  1938) 

History.  It  was  announced  on  Feb.  21,  1940, 
that  the  British  Colonial  Secretary  was  awaiting 
an  explanation  of  the  Barbados  legislative  coun- 
cil's action  in  deleting  the  section  relating  to 
peaceful  picketing  from  the  local  Trade  Unions 
Bill  which  had  been  passed  by  the  house  of  as- 
sembly. By  May  of  1940  there  was  an  increase  of 
14  per  cent  in  the  working  man's  budget  since  the 
start  of  the  war.  The  legislature  was  asked  to 
recommend  a  10  per  cent  bonus  to  lower-paid 
government  employees,  and  the  Sugar  Producers' 
Association  added  a  10  per  cent  bonus  to  the 
weekly  wages  of  agricultural  workers  on  sugar 
estates.  Progress  was  made  during  1940  in  settling 
Barbadians  in  St.  Lucia  (q.v.)  on  a  large  sugar 
estate  purchased  by  the  government.  See  BRITISH 
WEST  INDIES  for  the  report  of  the  Royal  Com- 
mission. 

BARBUDA.  See  LEEWARD  ISLANDS. 

BARDIA.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR  under  Cam- 
paigns in  Africa. 


BARLEY.  The  barley  crop  of  the  United 
States  in  1940  was. estimated  by  the  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  at  309,235,000  bu.f  12.5  per 
cent  more  than  the  274,767,000  bu.  grown  in  1939 
and  about  37  per  cent  above  the  1929-38  average 
and  was  harvested  from  13,394,000  acres  versus 
12,644,000  acres  in  1939.  The  current  large  pro- 
duction, second  only  to  1929,  was  held  due  to 
increased  acreages  and  above  average  yields.  The 
acre  yield  in  1940  averaged  23.1  bu.  and  in  1939, 
21.7  bu.  The  production  in  1940  of  leading  barley 
States  was:  Minnesota  57,348,000  bu.,  California 
33,516,000,  South  Dakota  30,821,000,  North  Da- 
kota 28,064,000,  Wisconsin  24,525,000,  Nebraska 
22,544,000,  and  Kansas  18,176,000  bu.  The  seasonal 
average  price  (preliminary)  per  bu.  received  by 
farmers  was  38.7  cents  and  the  estimated  value  of 
production  was  $119,719,000  in  1940  compared  to 
40.3  cents  and  $110,826,000  in  1939.  See  Crop 
Production  Table  under  AGRICULTURE. 

BASEBALL.  The  national  pastime  provided 
some  exciting  days,  not  to  mention  moments,  in 
the  erratic  big  league  races  of  1940.  To  begin  with 
the  New  York  Yankees  lost  the  American  League 
pennant,  and  strangely  enough  that  was  sensational 
news,  for  the  New  York  boys  had  garnered  pen- 
nants for  the  past  four  consecutive  years.  Another 
anomaly  was  the  consistently  excellent  playing  of 
the  Brooklyn  National  Dodgers,  a  team  that  belied 
all  the  evaluations  and  prognostications  of  the  so- 
called  experts. 

Failure  of  the  Yankees  provoked  the  closest  race 
the  American  League  had  seen  in  18  years.  In  an 
exciting  contest  between  the  Detroit  Tigers  and 
Cleveland  Indians  for  the  American  League  pen- 
nant, the  lead  changed  18  times  until,  tied  for  the 
third  time,  they  met  in  a  decisive  series  in  late  Sep- 
tember and  the  Tigers  grabbed  a  precarious  lead 
which  they  maintained  until  the  end,  winning  by 
the  narrow  margin  of  one  full  game.  The  Indians 
lost  the  pennant  formally  in  a  game  at  Cleveland 
September  22  and  the  local  fans  expressed  their 
great  disappointment  by  showering  the  Detroit 
players  with  large  quantities  of  fruit  and  vege- 
tables, much  of  which  was  said  to  be  not  altogether 
fresh. 

The  National  League  pennant  was  carried  off  by 
the  Cincinnati  Reds,  after  the  Brooklyn  Dodgers 
had  led  the  league  for  much  of  the  early  part  of 
the  season.  Brooklyn  finally  finished  second,  a  full 
16  games  behind  the  champions,  but  they  began  the 
season  by  winning  the  first  nine  games. 

In  the  World  Series,  the  Tigers  fell  down  be- 
fore the  superior  pitching  of  the  Cincinnati  team, 
and  the  see-saw  series  ended  when  the  Reds  con- 
quered the  Tigers  in  the  seventh  and  deciding  game 
in  Cincinnati,  with  Paul  Derringer  *outpitching 
Buck  Newsom  for  a  2  to  1  victory,  thus  presenting 
Cincinnati  with  its  first  world's  championship  since 
1919. 

At  Tampa,  Fla.,  an  all-star  inter-league  game 
was  played  for  the  Finnish  relief  fund,  and  in  it 
the  Nationals  beat  the  Americans,  2-1.  And  in  the 
regular  annual  all-star  game,  played  in  St.  Louis 
in  mid-season,  the  Nationals  were  first  again,  4-0. 

The  manager  of  the  Cleveland  Indians,  Oscar 
Vitt,  was  dismissed  on  October  28  following  criti- 
cism of  him  by  the  players  of  his  team.  They 
charged  that  his  constant  dissatisfaction  with  their 
efforts  gave  them  the  "jitters."  The  players  staged 
an  open  rebellion  on  June  13 

Freddy  Fitzsimmons  of  the  Brooklyn  Dodgers 
led  both  major  leagues  in  pitching,  with  a  record 


BASKETBALL 


BELGIUM 


of  16  won  and  2  lost  for  a  percentage  of  .889. 
Johnny  Mire,  first  baseman  for  the  St.  Louis  Car- 
dinals, was  the  year's  home  run  king,  with  43  cir- 
cuit clouts.  Hank  Greenberg  of  the  Tigers  knocked 
out  41  homers,  and  was  tied  in  that  respect  with 
Frank  McCormick,  first  baseman  of  the  Reds.  The 
leading  batsmen  were  Debs  Garms  with  .355  and 
Joe  DiMaggio  with  .350,  representing  the  National 
and  American  Leagues  respectively. 

In  the  minor  leagues,  Rochester  won  the  Inter- 
national League  pennant,  but  Newark  won  the  play- 
offs and  thereafter  conquered  Louisville,  American 
Association  play-off  winner,  in  the  Little  World 
Series.  Kansas  City  was  the  leader  at  the  close  of 
the  regular  American  Association  race. 

In  the  Dixie  series,  Nashville,  Southern  Asso- 
ciation pennant  bearer,  defeated  Houston,  repre- 
senting the  Texas  League  Seattle  captured  the 
championship  in  the  Pacific  Coast  League  and 
Scran  ton  once  again  carried  off  the  Eastern  League 
pennant 

BASKETBALL.  In  the  manly  art  of  basket- 
ball, American  colleges  continued  to  exhibit  selec- 
tive specimens  of  brain  and  brawn  in  savage  con- 
tests throughout  the  country.  Nine  teams  appeared 
to  be  the  leaders  in  their  field.  In  alphabetical  or- 
der, they  were  •  Colorado,  Duquesne,  Indiana,  Kan- 
sas, New  York  University,  Purdue,  Rice,  Santa 
Clara,  and  Southern  California.  The  national  in- 
vitation tournament,  the  court  Rose  Bowl  affair, 
was  won  by  Colorado,  and  the  National  Collegiate 
A  A.  championship  was  captured  by  Indiana,  yet 
neither  team  could  claim  to  be  the  master  of  the 
other.  Both  Colorado  and  Southern  California 
failed  miserably  in  the  N  C  A.A  The  finalists  were 
Indiana,  which  could  not  win  the  Big  Ten  cham- 
pionship, and  Kansas,  which  had  extreme  difficulty 
in  gaining  a  tie  for  first  in  the  Big  Six  The  In- 
diana quintet  triumphed  60  to  42. 

But  that  is  the  way  of  basketball,  a  game  of 
imponderables.  N  Y.  U.  won  18  games  in  a  row 
and  then  succumbed  before  the  City  College  quin- 
tet, a  team  that  was  more  distinguished  for  its 
failures  than  for  its  victories. 

BASUTOLAND.  See  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

BAUXITE.  See  ALUMINUM  ;  ARKANSAS  un- 
der Mineral  Production. 

BAVARIA.  See  GERMANY  under  Area  and 
Population. 

BECHU  AN  ALAND.  See  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

BEETLES.  See  ENTOMOLOGY,  ECONOMIC 

BEETS.  See  SUGAR 

BELGIAN  CONGO.  See  CONGO,  BELGIAN. 

BELGIUM.  A  kingdom  of  Western  Europe, 
occupied  by  German  military  forces  in  May,  1940. 
Capital,  Brussels  Ruler  in  1940,  King  Leopold  III, 
who  succeeded  to  the  throne  Feb.  23,  1934 

Area  and  Population.  On  Dec.  31,  1939,  Bel- 
gium had  an  area  of  11,775  square  miles  and  an 
estimated  population  of  8,396,000  On  May  19, 1940, 
the  districts  of  Eupen  and  Malmedy  (area,  382 
sq  mi.;  pop  about  60,000)  and  Moresnet  were  de- 
tached from  Belgium  and  incorporated  in  Germany, 
leaving  Belgium  with  an  area  of  about  11,393 
square  miles  and  a  population  of  about  8,330,000. 
Estimated  populations  of  the  chief  cities  on  Dec. 
31,  1938:  Brussels  and  suburbs,  912,774;  Antwerp, 
273,317;  Ghent,  162,858;  LiSge,  162,229. 

Education  and  Religion.  Primary,  infant,  and 
adult  elementary  schools  on  Dec.  31,  1938,  num- 
bered 13,438  with  1,222,164  pupils.  There  were  273 
secondary  schools  of  all  kinds  with  86,279  students, 
and  four  universities  (at  Brussels,  Louvain,  Ghent, 


and  Lfcge)  with  10,775  students.  The  majority  of 
Belgians  are  Roman  Catholics. 

Production.  Manufacturing,  mining,  intensive 
agriculture,  and  commerce  have  enabled  Belgium 
to  support  one  of  the  densest  populations  of  Eu- 
rope (712  per  square  mile  in  1938).  Estimated  pro- 
duction of  the  chief  crops  in  1939  was  (in  metric 
tons)  :  Wheat,  349,000;  barley,  51,100;  rye,  349,- 
400;  oats,  724,200;  potatoes,  3,323,200;  beet  sugar, 
240,500  (1939-40) ;  tobacco,  5300;  linseed,  25,100; 
flax,  46,700.  Livestock  as  of  Jan.  1, 1939 :  1,689,680 
cattle,  264,650  horses,  960,372  swine.  Mineral  and 
metallurgical  production  (1939),  in  metric  tons, 
was:  Coal,  29,846,890;  briquets,  1,525,190;  coke, 
5,176,650 ;  pig  iron,  3,068,200 ;  wrought  iron,  31,- 
060;  steel,  3,036,160;  wrought  steel  (except  semi- 
finished), 2,202,420.  Leading  manufactures  include 
glass,  paper,  cardboard,  cement,  cotton  yarn,  rayon, 
metal  products,  alcoholic  beverages,  furniture,  etc. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  of  Belgium  and  Lux- 
emburg m  1939  totaled  19,690,000,000  paper  francs 
(23,165,507,000  in  1938) ;  exports,  21,670,000,000 
(21,723,853,000  in  1938).  Peace-time  trade  is  main- 
ly with  France,  Germany,  the  United  Kingdom, 
United  States,  the  Netherlands,  and  the  Belgian 
Congo  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939).  Following  the  Ger- 
man military  occupation  in  1940,  Belgium's  trade 
was  confined  to  Germany  and  countries  under  its 
military  or  economic  control.  See  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  The  1940  budget  provided  for  total 
receipts  of  12,350,000,000  francs  and  expenditures 
of  20,000,000,000,  including  8,000,000,000  francs  for 
national  defense.  Following  the  German  conquest, 
loans  of  6,000,000,000  francs  were  issued  and  new 
taxes  designed  to  raise  an  additional  1,000,000,000 
francs  were  imposed  to  meet  the  heavy  costs  of  the 
German  military  occupation  and  other  emergency 
expenses  Public  debt  on  Dec.  31,  1939  59,318,300,- 
000  francs  (domestic,  40,317,600,000;  foreign,  19,- 
000,700,000).  The  unit  of  currency  for  foreign  ex- 
change transactions  was  the  belga,  equal  to  five 
Belgian  francs;  it  averaged  $0.1685  in  1939.  See 
History. 

Transportation.  Previous  to  the  German  inva- 
sion, Belgium  had  7068  miles  of  railway  line,  20,- 
244  miles  of  highways,  an  extensive  network  of 
rivers  and  canals  which  carried  about  one-fourth 
of  the  total  merchandise  traffic,  8313  miles  of  air- 
routes  in  Europe  and  Africa  (August,  1939),  and 
a  merchant  fleet  of  88  ships  totaling  353,997  gross 
tons  (20  vessels  totaling  64,084  gross  tons  were 
lost  in  1939  as  a  result  of  the  war).  During  1939, 
9524  vessels  of  19,389,516  tons  entered  the  port  of 
Antwerp 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  1831,  amend- 
ed in  1921,  vested  executive  power  in  the  King, 
acting  through  a  ministry  responsible  to  Parlia- 
ment. There  was  a  Senate  of  167  members  and  a 
Chamber  of  Deputies  of  202  members,  all  elected 
for  four  years.  Deputies  were  elected  by  universal 
male  and  restricted  female  suffrage.  Of  the  Sena- 
tors, part  were  elected  by  direct  suffrage  and  part 
indirectly  by  the  provincial  councils.  Premier  at 
the  beginning  of  1940,  Hubert  Pierlot  (Catholic), 
heading  a  coalition  government  comprising  Catho- 
lic, Socialist,  and  Liberal  members  and  two  non- 
party  men.  For  the  standing  of  the  parties  in  Par- 
liament after  the  1939  elections,  see  1939  YEAR 
BOOK,  p.  71.  See  History  for  1940  developments. 

HISTORY 

Prelude  to  War.  From  January  1  to  the  fatal 
10th  of  May,  1940,  Belgium  lived  under  the  con- 


BELGIUM 


64 


BELGIUM 


start  threat  of  invasion  while  suffering  acutely 
from  the  economic  effects  of  the  European  conflict 
(sec  YEAS  BOOK,  1939,  p.  71  f.  for  background). 
On  May  10  began  the  powerful  German  surprise 
assault  that  in  the  course  of  18  days  overran  prac- 
tically all  of  the  country  and  forced  King  Leopold 
to  surrender  his  shattered  army  and  his  ruined 
kingdom. 

The  months  previous  to  the  invasion  were 
marked  by  the  reorganization  of  the  Pierlot  Cabi- 
net on  January  5,  the  completion  of  work  on  the 
series  of  strong  defense  systems  guarding  the  Ger- 
man frontier,  the  progressive  mobilization  of  ad- 
ditional military  classes,  and  the  adoption  of 
measures  against  "fifth  column"  elements.  In  the 
January  cabinet  crisis,  the  Pierlot  Ministry  sub- 
mitted its  collective  resignation  to  the  King.  Leo- 
pold called  on  M.  Pierlot  to  form  a  new  govern- 
ment and  the  Premier  succeeded  in  assembling  a 
new  Catholic- Socialist-Liberal  cabinet  containing 
14  instead  of  18  members.  The  principal  Ministers 
were:  Foreign  Affairs,  Paul-Henri  Spaak  (So- 
cialist) ;  Finance,  Camilla  Gutt  (nonparty)  ;  War, 
Lieut  Gen.  Henri  Denis  (nonparty).  All  but  one 
member  were  holdovers  from  the  previous  minis- 
try. The  opposition  of  the  Liberal  party  to  the 
government's  policy  of  bilingual  education  led  Pre- 
mier Pierlot  on  April  25  to  again  submit  the  cabi- 
net's resignation.  However  King  Leopold  on  April 
26  refused  to  accept  the  resignation  on  the  ground 
that  it  was  "no  time  for  ministerial  crises  on  pure- 
ly internal  grounds  " 

Information  reaching  the  Brussels  authorities 
caused  the  mobilization  of  additional  troops  on 
January  14  and  the  speeding  up  of  work  on  the  de- 
fense lines.  By  the  middle  of  March  about  700,000 
men  out  of  a  possible  1,000,000  were  under  arms, 
or  nearly  9  per  cent  of  the  population.  The  cost  of 
mobilization  was  estimated  at  $600,000  a  day.  On 
March  20  a  law  was  passed  suppressing  all  Com- 
munist publications  to  end  anti-war  propaganda 
among  the  conscripts.  The  expulsion  and  arrest  of 
the  nine  Communist  Deputies  in  the  Chamber  was 
threatened. 

With  the  revelation  of  the  role  "fifth  column" 
elements  had  played  in  the  German  conquest  of 
Norway,  the  Belgian  Government  took  further 
protective  measures.  The  activities  of  Geimans  and 
other  aliens  were  more  strictly  controlled,  as  were 
the  pro-German  activities  of  the  Flemish  Fascists. 
On  the  eve  of  the  invasion,  the  government  pre- 
sented to  Parliament  three  tax  proposals  intended 
to  raise  an  additional  900,000,000  Belgian  francs 
for  national  defense. 

During  the  January  war  scare,  the  Belgian  Gov- 
ernment again  indicated  that  it  was  prepared  to 
give  immediate  armed  assistance  to  the  Netherlands 
in  case  of  an  attack  upon  that  country.  However 
the  King  stubbornly  refused  to  permit  discussions 
with  the  Allied  general  staffs  to  facilitate  co-ordi- 
nation of  Belgian  and  Allied  military  efforts  in  case 
of  a  German  invasion.  General  van  den  Bergen, 
Belgian  Chief  of  Staff,  was  replaced  by  a  relative- 
ly inexperienced  officer,  General  Michiels,  on  Janu- 
ary 31  because  he  apparently  favored  the  formation 
of  a  government  that  would  co-operate  with  the 
Allies.  The  Brussels  Government  on  February  14 
signed  a  war  trade  agreement  with  Britain  and 
France  that  was  expected  to  curtail  Belgian  re- 
exports to  Germany.  But  in  every  respect  the  Bel- 
gian Government  and  people  held  to  the  policy  of 
strict  neutrality  adopted  at  Leopold's  insistence  in 
1936  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1936,  p.  93). 


The  German  Invaiion.  The  simultaneous  Ger- 
man invasion  of  Belgium,  Luxemburg,  and  the 
Netherlands  was  launched  without  warning  at 
dawn  on  May  10  (see  EUROPEAN  WAR  for  a  com- 
plete account).  While  German  armored  divisions 
thrust  through  the  strongly  defended  frontier  de- 
fenses, bombers  rained  death  and  destruction  upon 
the  principal  Belgian  airports,  cities,  lines  of  com- 
munication, and  other  defense  nerve  centers.  Thou- 
sands of  German  parachute  troops  landed  behind 
the  Belgian  front  and  joined  with  "fifth  column" 
elements  in  spreading  confusion  and  hamstringing 
the  nation's  resistance. 

The  Belgian  Government  and  army  were  not 
caught  off  guard.  From  the  moment  of  crossing 
the  frontier,  the  invaders  encountered  stubborn  re- 
sistance. No  sooner  did  the  first  German  bomber 
appear  over  Brussels  at  4  a.m.  than  the  govern- 
ment sent  an  appeal  for  aid  to  Britain  and  France 
Within  half  an  hour  they  received  a  pledge  of  as- 
sistance and  shortly  afterward  British  and  French 
mechanized  troops  crossed  the  Belgian  frontier  in 
fulfillment  of  this  promise. 

Nazi  Statement.  At  7 :30  a.m.  the  German  Am- 
bassador to  Brussels  handed  Foreign  Minister 
Spaak  a  lengthy  memorandum,  identical  with  that 
delivered  to  the  Netherlands  Government  at  the 
same  time  It  announced  the  Reich's  intention  to 
occupy  Belgium  "to  insure  its  neutrality  .  .  .  with 
all  the  Reich's  military  means  of  power"  in  view 
of  "incontrovertible  proof  that  an  Anglo-French 
attack  on  Germany  is  immediately  imminent  and 
that  this  attack  will  take  place  against  the  Ruhr 
over  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands."  The  memo- 
randum charged  that  Belgium,  in  violation  of  its 
neutrality,  had  secretly  sided  with  Britain  and 
France  and  was  prepared  to  support  the  alleged 
Anglo-French  plan  of  attack  "in  every  direction  " 
It  stated  that  "German  soldiers  are  not  entering 
Holland  and  Belgium  as  enemies,"  and  continued : 

The  German  Government  further  declares  that  Ger- 
many does  not  intend  by  these  measures  to  attack  the 
integrity  of  the  Kingdom  of  Belgium  and  of  the  King- 
dom  of  the  Netherlands  or  their  possessions,  or  their 
property  in  Europe,  or  in  their  colonies,  either  now  or 
in  the  future  The  Belgian  and  Netherlands  Governments 
today  still  have  it  in  their  power  to  safeguard  the  wel- 
fare of  their  peoples  at  the  fast  moment  by  insuring  that 
no  resistance  will  be  offered  to  the  German  troops.  The 
German  Government  herewith  requests  the  two  govern- 
ments to  issue  the  necessary  orders  without  delay 
Should  the  German  troops  encounter  opposition  in  Bel- 
gium or  Holland,  it  will  be  crushed  with  every  means 
The  Belgian  and  Netherlands  Governments  alone  will 
bear  the  responsibility  for  the  consequences  for  blood- 
shed which  would  then  become  unavoidable 


Belgian  Defiance.  Before  the  German  Ambas- 
sador could  read  the  memorandum,  Foreign  Min- 
ister Spaak  informed  him  that  Belgium  had  been 
invaded  without  provocation  and  would  "resist  to 
the  death."  The  cabinet  met  at  1  p.m.  and  author- 
ized the  application  of  carefully  prepared  war 
emergency  plans.  Evacuation  of  cities  and  towns 
in  the  path  of  the  invaders  was  begun.  Many  Bel- 
gians suspected  of  disloyalty  were  rounded  up  and 
imprisoned,  including  the  Rexist  (Fascist)  leader, 
L6on  Degrelle.  Schools  were  closed  and  food  sup- 
plies placed  under  the  control  of  mayors  in  each 
city  and  town.  The  Bourse  was  closed,  exchange 
dealings  suspended,  and  the  conversion  of  national 
bank  notes  prohibited.  King  Leopold  assumed  su- 
preme command  of  the  armed  forces. 

Meeting  in  the  early  afternoon,  Parliament  heard 
Premier  Pierlot  denounce  the  German  invasion  as 
a  wanton  violation  of  Hitler's  pledge  of  Oct.  13, 


BELGIUM 


65 


BELGIUM 


1937,  to  respect  Belgium's  inviolability  and  integ- 
rity so  long  as  Belgium  refrained  from  participat- 
ing in  military  action  against  the  Reich.  He  said : 

Despite  this  solemn  promise  the  German  forces  vio- 
lated our  frontiers  and  invaded  our  territory  today,  prov- 
ing for  a  second  time  in  25  years  what  worth  can  be 
attached  to  their  promises 

France  and  Britain  have  not  broken  their  promises 
(see  YEAR  BOOK,  1937,  p  86-87)  and  are  Riving  u%  ac- 
cording to  their  guarantee,  all  military,  naval,  and  aerial 
buunort  in  their  power 

Holland,  Luxemburg,  and  Belgium  arc  united  as  never 
before  in  their  history  Belgium  has  neglected  nothing  for 
her  defense. 

Defense  Lines  Broken.  Parliament  and  both 
the  Walloon  and  Flemish  sections  of  the  country 
rallied  behind  the  government's  slogan  of  "resist- 
ance to  the  death."  British  and  French  troops  en 
route  to  the  Belgian  battle  front  had  an  enthusias- 
tic popular  reception  However  the  failure  of  both 
the  Belgian  and  Netherlands  Governments  to  co- 
ordinate their  defense  measures  with  each  other 
and  with  the  Allied  general  staffs  previous  to  the 
invasion  greatly  handicapped  their  military  opera- 
tions The  tide  of  war  swiftly  turned  against  the 
Belgians  and  their  Allies  (see  EUROPEAN  WAR) 
On  May  17  the  government  withdrew  from  Brus- 
sels to  Ostend  before  the  inexorable  German  mili- 
tary machine  On  May  28,  with  his  decimated  army 
exhausted  and  threatened  with  annihilation,  King 
Leopold  stunned  his  people  and  the  world  by  un- 
conditionally surrendering  some  300,000  men — all 
that  remained  of  Belgium's  army  of  over  800,000 

Leopold's  Capitulation.  The  King's  surrender, 
enhancing  the  critical  position  of  the  hard-pressed 
Bntish  and  Fiench  aimies,  aroused  the  most  se- 
vere criticism  throughout  the  anti-German  world 
until  the  circumstances  under  which  he  acted  be- 
came better  known  The  Belgian  Government  and 
many  leading  Belgian  personalities,  including  the 
Duchess  of  Vendome,  sister  of  Leopold's  father, 
repudiated  and  denounced  the  capitulation  Premi- 
er Reynaud  of  France,  in  a  radio  broadcast  on 
May  28,  declared  that  "in  full  battle,  King  Leopold 
Til  without  a  word  to  the  French  and  British  sol- 
diers who,  in  response  to  his  anguished  appeal  had 
come  to  the  assistance  of  his  country,  laid  down 
his  arms  It  is  a  deed  \vithout  precedent  in  histo- 
ry "  Rcynaud's  accusation  was  later  disproved,  as 
were  other  charges  of  treachery,  betrayal,  and  pro- 
Germanism  leveled  at  the  King 

As  caily  as  May  21  King  Leopold,  in  confer- 
ences with  General  Weygand,  the  new  French 
commander-m-chief,  and  General  Gort,  commandci 
of  the  British  armies  in  France,  at  the  Belgian 
headquarters  at  Saint  Andre  near  Bruges,  pointed 
out  that  the  Belgian  military  position  was  hopeless 
unless  fuither  British  and  French  aid  was  forth- 
coming When  the  attempted  Anglo-French  coun- 
ter-attack failed  and  the  Germans  on  May  24 
launched  a  four-day  offensive  against  the  Belgian 
forces,  the  Belgian  Government  left  Ostend  foi 
Pans  However  Premier  Pierlot  and  three  other 
cabinet  ministers  remained  with  the  King  in  an 
effort  to  persuade  him  to  join  the  Belgian  Govern- 
ment in  the  French  capital 

On  the  night  of  May  24-25,  the  four  ministers 
visited  the  King  in  his  new  headquarters  in  the 
chateau  of  Wynendael  near  Thourout  He  told 
them  that  the  Belgian  army  was  bearing  the  brunt 
of  the  German  attack  and  suffering  heavy  losses, 
and  that  he  favored  Belgium's  withdrawal  from 
the  war  According  to  a  subsequent  statement  by 
Foreign  Minister  Spaak,  one  of  those  present,  the 
King  not  only  refused  to  leave  the  country  but 


insisted  that  the  government  remain  in  Belgium 
with  him  The  ministers  protested  that  the  Belgian 
cause  might  be  irreparably  lost  if  ruler  and  gov- 
ernment were  permitted  to  fall  into  German  hands 
They  resolutely  opposed  capitulation  and  on  the 
morning  of  May  25  left  for  Paris  via  London 
While  they  were  in  London  on  May  26,  the  King 
telephoned  them,  requesting  the  signature  of  a  cab- 
inet minister  on  two  blank  royal  decrees  All  13 
members  of  the  cabinet,  which  was  reunited  later 
that  day  in  Paris,  declined  to  sign,  thus  depriving 
the  King's  subsequent  actions  of  constitutional  va- 
lidity 

During  May  25  Leopold  issued  an  appeal  to  his 
troops  to  resist  the  attack  with  all  their  strength 
But  the  same  afternoon  he  informed  Gen.  Sir  John 
Dill,  chief  of  the  British  Army's  Imperial  Staff,  by 
letter  that  he  had  no  choice  but  to  surrender.  The 
same  advice  was  telephoned  to  Prime  Minister 
Churchill  the  same  evening  by  Sir  Roger  Keyes, 
British  liaison  officer  at  Leopold's  headquarters 
On  the  night  of  May  27  the  King  sent  an  emissary 
to  ask  the  German  terms  The  reply  was  that  "The 
Fuehrer  requires  unconditional  surrender"  The 
Belgians  were  given  until  4  a  m  on  May  28  to  com- 
ply Before  the  expiration  of  this  time  limit,  the 
Belgian  Cabinet  met  again  in  Paris  and  again  re- 
fused to  approve  the  King's  course  Nevertheless 
Leopold  at  4  a  m  issued  the  order  for  the  Belgian 
troops  to  lay  down  their  arms  Some  of  the  troops 
refused  to  comply  and  joined  the  British  and 
French  in  their  flight  to  Dunkirk  The  King  him- 
self was  taken  prisoner  and  placed  under  guard  for 
the  remainder  of  the  year  in  his  castle  at  Laeken 
near  Brussels 

The  Government's  Course.  On  the  day  Leo- 
pold surrendered,  the  Belgian  Government  in  Pans 
published  its  repudiation  of  his  action  Premier 
Pierlot  declared  "No  act  of  the  King  has  effect 
unless  countersigned  by  the  Minister.  .  .  Dis- 
solving the  link  uniting  him  and  the  nation,  the 
King  has  placed  himself  under  the  authority  of  the 
invader  Under  these  circumstances  he  is  no  longer 
in  a  position  to  govern  The  Chambers  have 

to  meet.  During  the  interval  the  King's  constitu- 
tional powers  will  be  exercised  on  behalf  of  the 
Belgian  nation  by  the  Ministers  meeting  in  coun- 
cil." The  cabinet  unanimously  agreed  to  continue 
the  struggle  and  make  no  peace  until  Belgium's  in- 
dependence, rights,  and  dignity  were  restored  On 
May  30  it  issued  decrees  denying  the  King's  right 
to  rule  Belgium  and  prolonging  the  cabinet's  pow- 
ers for  the  duration  of  the  \\ar 

This  policy  was  supported  by  the  colonial  admin- 
istration of  the  Belgian  Congo  and  by  Belgian  dip- 
lomatic and  consular  officials  in  foreign  countries 
It  was  unanimously  approved  by  89  Deputies  and 
54  Senators  of  the  Belgian  Parliament  who  met  in 
Limoges,  France,  on  May  31  This  was  not  an  of- 
ficial session  of  Parliament  as  less  than  half  the 
members  were  present 

The  government  immediately  took  steps  to  raise 
a  new  Belgian  army  of  over  200,000  men  in  France 
and  to  mobilize  other  Belgians  for  the  production 
of  military  supplies  Equipment  for  60,000  men  had 
been  sent  to  France  as  a  precaution  during  the 
early  days  of  the  German  invasion.  The  govern- 
ment in  exile  also  had  at  its  disposal  23,000,000,000 
gold  francs  that  had  been  shipped  to  London  and 
New  York  previous  to  the  German  attack  The 
British  and  French  Governments  gave  assurances 
that  as  long  as  the  Belgian  Government  continued 
its  military  co-operation  with  them,  it  would  be 


BELGIUM 


66 


BELGIUM 


left  in  control  of  the  Belgian  Congo.  The  Belgian 
merchant  fleet  of  some  200  vessels,  mostly  small, 
was  placed  at  the  Allies'  disposal 

Transfer  to  London.  Upon  the  capitulation  of 
France,  two  members  of  the  Belgian  Government 
— Ministers  Camille  Gutt  (Finance)  and  Albert  de 
Vleeschauwer  (Colonies) — were  sent  to  London  to 
maintain  contact  with  the  British  Cabinet  Premier 
Pierlot  and  the  remainder  of  the  cabinet  establish- 
ed the  Belgian  Government  at  Vichy.  There  they 
aided  in  the  repatriation  of  some  1,700,000  Belgian 
refugees  who  had  fled  to  France,  but  found  co-op- 
eration with  the  Petain  regime  increasingly  diffi- 
cult due  to  German  pressure  upon  the  French.  In 
mid-September  the  Petam  Government  withdrew 
its  recognition  of  the  Belgian  Government,  which 
unanimously  decided  to  transfer  its  powers  to  the 
two  Belgian  Ministers  in  London.  Premier  Pierlot 
and  Foreign  Minister  Spaak  set  out  for  the  British 
capital,  after  releasing  the  other  cabinet  ministers 
in  France  from  their  oaths  of  office.  They  were 
held  in  Spain  for  over  a  month  at  German  instiga- 
tion, but  finally  reached  London  on  October  22. 

Recognized  by  the  Allied  governments  and  by 
Washington  as  the  legal  government  of  Belgium, 
the  four  cabinet  ministers  in  London  proceeded 
to  raise  a  third  Belgian  Army  for  the  purpose  of 
restoring  Belgium's  territorial  integrity  and  in- 
dependence and  liberating  the  imprisoned  King 
Leopold.  (Leopold's  status  as  a  prisoner  of  war 
instead  of  a  traitor  had  been  recognized  by  the  Bel- 
gian Ambassador  to  London  as  early  as  July  21  in 
a  broadcast  over  the  British  Broadcasting  Corpo- 
ration's network  )  By  a  decree  of  December  13 
Belgians  in  all  territories  unoccupied  by  the  Axis 
powers  and  belonging  to  the  1925-41  military  class- 
es were  called  up  for  service  Veterans  who  had  es- 
caped to  England  from  the  battles  of  Flanders  and 
France  served  as  the  nucleus  for  the  new  Belgian 
military  and  air  force  organized  in  Great  Britain 
The  air  force  participated  creditably  in  the  Anglo- 
German  aerial  warfare  during  the  remainder  of  the 
year. 

Nazi  Rule  in  Belgium.  While  fighting  in  Bel- 
gium was  still  in  progress,  the  German  Govern- 
ment on  May  19  proclaimed  the  reincorporation  in 
the  Reich  of  Eupen,  Malmedy,  and  Morcsnct,  the 
former  German  districts  ceded  to  Belgium  by  the 
Versailles  Treaty.  The  three  districts  were  added 
to  the  Aachen  District  of  the  Rhine  Province  of 
Prussia  On  May  20  Gen.  Baron  Alexander  von 
Falkenhausen  was  named  military  administrator 
of  both  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands 

The  German  administrator  attempted  to  per- 
suade King  Leopold  to  assume  responsibility  for 
the  administration  of  the  country,  but  he  refused, 
insisting  that  his  status  was  that  of  a  military  pris- 
oner. Efforts  to  win  the  co-operation  of  the  Belgi- 
an Government  in  exile  were  likewise  unsuccessful 
The  Belgian  people  as  a  whole  offered  the  same 
passive  resistance  to  the  German  occupation  as  in 
1914-18.  Some  Flemist  Separatists  and  members 
of  Leon  Degrclle's  Rexist  (Fascist)  movement 
indicated  their  willingness  to  collaborate  with  Hit- 
ler's "new  order"  in  Europe.  But  representing  a 
small  minority,  they  were  not  entrusted  with  the 
formation  of  a  Belgian  government  At  the  year- 
end  Belgium  remained  the  only  German-subjugated 
country  except  Poland  that  had  no  native  adminis- 
tration. 

Chancellor  Hitler  ordered  the  release  of  all  Bel- 
gian war  prisoners  except  officers  and  non-commis- 
sioned officers  on  July  19,  and  made  other  efforts 


to  win  the  co-operation  of  the  Belgian  people. 
However  sabotage  and  other  forms  of  opposition 
to  the  invaders  mounted  as  the  Belgian  people  re- 
covered from  the  shock  of  the  May  attack,  and  the 
German  authorities  resorted  to  harsher  methods 
Collective  fines  and  wholesale  imprisonments  were 
imposed  upon  communities  where  sabotage  oc- 
curred The  death  penalty  was  imposed  for  sabo- 
tage Flemish  separatism  was  encouraged  by  the 
German  authorities,  as  during  the  World  War.  All 
anti-Nazi  statements  were  ordered  deleted  from 
Belgian  school  books  All  the  familiar  Nazi  con- 
trols of  communication  and  of  political,  economic, 
and  cultural  life  were  introduced  The  annual  Ar- 
mistice Day  celebration  was  prohibited.  The  Uni- 
versities of  Brussels,  Ghent,  and  Liege  were  placed 
under  German-appointed  administrators  and  rec- 
tors Anti-Jewish  measures  were  introduced  Dur- 
ing three  weeks  of  December,  it  was  reported,  250 
trade  union  leaders  and  65  politicians  were  arrest- 
ed by  the  German  authoiities  in  Antwerp  Province 
alone  for  sabotage  and  anti-German  activities 

Economic  Situation.  Belgium's  economic  situ- 
ation had  become  serious  even  before  the  German 
invasion  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939)  But  it  was  com- 
pletely disorganized  by  the  blitzkricq  According  to 
a  survey  by  the  German-controlled  Commissariat 
for  Reconstruction  issued  December  5,  the  18  days 
of  warfare  in  Belgium  caused  damage  estimated  at 
13,000,000,000  Belgian  francs  Only  one-fifth  of  the 
kingdom's  2500  towns  and  villages  escaped  damage 
The  destruction  included  9832  houses  razed,  24,- 
156  severely  damaged,  and  116,710  slightly  dam- 
aged ,  352  factoi  ics  wrecked ,  all  communications 
disorganized  and  some  6000  miles  of  highway  and 
virtually  the  entire  railway  network  disrupted 
More  than  100  railway  stations  and  1425  bridges 
and  tunnels  were  blown  up  either  by  the  advancing 
Germans  or  retreating  Allied  forces.  Brussels,  Ant- 
werp, and  Liege  suffered  only  minor  damage  but 
medium -si  zed  towns  like  Louvain,  Tournai,  Nivel- 
les,  and  Ostend  were  badly  devastated  The  Lou- 
vain  Library,  destroyed  during  the  World  War  and 
reconstructed  with  American  funds,  was  again 
completely  wrecked  by  fire 

A  large  part  of  the  civil  population  fled  before 
the  German  invaders  ;  nearly  2,000,000  crossed  into 
France  while  other  hundreds  of  thousands  ob- 
structed the  paths  of  the  contending  armies  in 
Flanders,  suffering  numerous  casualties  Civil  gov- 
ernment had  bi  oken  down  almost  everywhere  The 
Germans  sought  to  bring  order  out  of  this  chaos 
as  quickly  as  possible  in  order  to  enlist  Belgium's 
economic  resources  in  their  total  war.  They  estab- 
lished a  Commissar  of  Reconstruction  to  restore 
the  communications  and  transportation  systems  and 
to  reconstruct  and  expand  industry  and  agriculture. 
Substantial  progress  was  reported  by  the  year's 
end  Despite  work  on  these  projects  and  the  re- 
cruiting of  skilled  labor  for  jobs  in  the  Reich,  the 
number  of  unemployed  was  reported  at  1,000,000 
in  September  and  this  total  increased  as  more  refu- 
gees returned  from  France 

Food  reserves  suffered  severely  during  the  fight- 
ing and  the  Germans  were  reported  to  have  ap- 
propriated large  amounts  for  shipment  to  the  Reich 
and  to  maintain  their  occupationary  forces.  The 
German  authorities  rationed  bread,  meat,  milk, 
eggs,  and  butter  at  levels  30  per  cent  below  those 
fixed  in  Germany.  During  the  winter  it  was  indi- 
cated that  the  food  situation  was  increasingly  crit- 
ical. 

The  German  military  administration  officially  in- 


BENEFACTIONS 


67 


BENEFACTIONS 


cheated  its  intention  to  establish  some  form  of  per- 
manent economic  union  between  Belgium  and  the 
Reich  after  the  war.  The  German  exchange  control 
system  was  extended  to  Belgium  June  27.  A  decree 
of  the  same  date  established  the  Bank  of  Issue  of 
Brussels.  It  issued  banknotes  in  Belgian  franc  de- 
nominations which  were  legal  tender  in  the  occu- 
pied tcrritoiy  of  Belgium  The  commander  in  chief 
of  the  German  Army  fixed  the  exchange  rate  for 
German  and  Belgian  currency  at  10  francs  per 
reichsmark  on  May  10,  1940,  and  at  12  50  francs 
per  reichsmark  on  July  24.  The  German  Ministry 
of  Economic  Affairs  on  September  10  concluded  an 
agreement  with  the  Swedish  Government  for  a 
compensation  trade  pact  between  Sweden  and  Bel- 
gium. 

Other  Events.  On  July  1  the  German  Foreign 
Office  requested  the  United  States  and  other  for- 
eign diplomatic  missions  in  Belgium  to  discontinue 
their  missions  by  July  15  The  Papal  Nuncio  to 
Brussels  was  ordered  to  leave  at  the  same  time 
The  Belgian  Ambassador  to  Nationalist  Spain, 
representing  the  government  in  exile,  was  invited 
to  leave  on  October  31  and  the  embassy  at  Madrid 
was  closed  following  the  unauthorized  departure 
from  Spain  for  London  of  Premier  Pierlot  and 
Foreign  Minister  Spaak. 

Consult  John  Cudahy  (U  S  Ambassador  to 
Brussels),  "Belgium's  Leopold,"  Lije,  Nov  25, 
1940,  pp  75-83;  Oliver  Benson,  "Was  Leopold  a 
Traitor?",  Events,  July,  1940,  pp  38-42  ,  Vera  Mi- 
cheles  Dean,  "Europe  under  Nazi  Rule,"  Foreign 
Policy  Reports,  Oct  15,  1940  See  CONGO,  BELGI- 
AN, under  History,  EUROPEAN  WAR,  JEWS  under 
France  and  the  'Lowlands',  LABOR  CONDITIONS; 
LFAC.UE  OF  NATIONS;  REPARATIONS  AND  WAR 
DEBTS 

BENEFACTIONS.  The  assembling  of  a  re- 
port in  the  diverse  field  of  philanthropy  is  con- 
tingent, to  an  extent  at  least,  on  the  accidents  of 
publicity  Any  total  estimate  as  to  the  vast  sums 
of  money  which  change  hands  yearly  in  the  name 
of  chanty  would  be  mere  guesswork  An  indica- 
tion, however,  of  trends  in  the  Nation's  giving 
habits  is  to  be  obtained  from  the  facts  published 
by  the  John  Price  Jones  Corporation  of  New  York. 
This  organization  compiles  reports  of  publicly  an- 
nounced gifts  and  bequests,  and  issues  the  annual 
totals  foi  seven  large  cities  in  the  United  States — 
New  York,  Chicago,  Washington,  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore,  Boston,  and  St  Louis 

Total  gifts  in  these  seven  cities  during  1940  were 
put  at  $61,997,707,  as  compared  with  $83,050,032 
in  1939  This  appears  to  indicate  a  falhng-off  of 
charitable  activity  until  it  is  recalled  that  the  1939 
total  was  augmented  by  a  single  gift  of  $25,000,- 
000— that  of  Samuel  H  Kress  to  the  National  G.il- 
lery  of  Art  Total  bequests  in  1940  were  $15,723,- 
127,  a  decline  from  the  $22,661,863  reported  the 
previous  year. 

An  analysis  of  the  causes  toward  which  these 
gifts  and  bequests  were  donated  reveals,  as  one 
might  expect,  that  the  year's  most  noteworthy 
change  was  a  stepping-up  of  foreign  relief  (See 
the  separate  article  on  WAR  RELIEF.)  The  total  in 
that  category  was  more  than  $10,000,000  higher 
than  in  1939  Education  appeared  to  be  the  loser, 
having  declined  from  $30,322,670  in  1939  to  $18,- 
419,898.  The  gift  classifications  in  order  of  size 
were-  organized  relief,  education,  foreign  relief, 
health,  fine  arts,  religious  purposes,  play  and  rec- 
reation, and  miscellaneous  reform 

Foundation  Activities.  It  is  apparent  that  an 


increasingly  large  sum  of  money  earmarked  for 
charitable  purposes  has  been  and  is  being  concen- 
trated in  the  hands  of  foundations  or  trusts  Dur- 
ing 1940  there  was  at  least  one  important  addition 
—the  8,000,000-dollar  Culpeper  Foundation— and 
the  assets  of  others  were  augmented  by  individual 
gifts  (see  below),  while  a  number  of  the  long- 
established  foundations  continue  to  operate  out  of 
current  income  with  no  diminution  of  capital 

Dr.  Frederick  P  Keppel,  in  his  1940  report  as 
president  of  the  Carnegie  Corporation  of  New 
York,  made  some  interesting  comments  on  the 
function  of  this  type  of  organization  and  its  place 
m  the  life  of  the  Nation  He  stated  that,  "With 
rare  exceptions,  a  foundation  can  reach  its  objec- 
tive only  by  working  through  another  institution, 
and  there  are  in  the  United  States  far  more  uni- 
versities, colleges,  and  other  operating  institutions, 
and  far  more  voluntary  organizations  for  worthy 
purposes  than  the  nation  can  possibly  afford.  In 
the  years  to  come  many  of  these  are  bound  to  dis- 
appear, and  one  of  the  most  difficult  duties  that 
face  the  foundation  is  that  of  so  directing  its  grants 
that  its  influence  will  be  directed  toward  survival 
of  the  fittest " 

In  this  connection,  Dr.  Keppel  welcomed  "the 
growing  evidence  of  what  may  be  called  a  conser- 
vation movement  in  cultural  philanthropy,"  shown 
in  the  co-operative  grouping  of  hitherto  competing 
institutions  Commenting  on  the  conflicting  calls 
made  upon  foundations  in  a  time  of  emergency,  he 
admitted  the  possibility  that  funds  available  for 
educational  and  scholarly  purposes  may  ultimately 
be  reduced  However,  there  is  as  yet,  he  said,  no 
indication  that  this  will  happen 

In  reporting  on  the  current  activities  of  the  foun- 
dations, it  is  necessary  to  point  out  that  there  are 
a  number  of  organizations  which  make  no  public 
statement  of  their  work  or  their  finances  E  V. 
Hollis,  in  a  study  of  Philanthropic  Foundations 
and  Higher  Education  made  in  1938  (Columbia 
University  Press),  stated  that,  although  he  had 
record  of  573  foundations,  only  125  supplied  data 
which  could  be  analyzed  Of  the  capital  assets  re- 
ported to  him  at  that  time,  almost  90  per  cent  was 
controlled  by  only  20  groups,  with  64  per  cent  ac- 
counted for  by  the  Rockefeller  and  Carnegie  trusts. 

The  following  paragraphs  summarize  briefly  the 
work  of  some  of  the  more  prominent  foundations 
and  trusts.  The  foundations  which  have  the  largest 
financial  assets  are  discussed  in  separate  articles 
such  as  CARNEGIE  ENDOWMENTS,  COMMONWEALTH 
FUND,  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD,  and  ROCKE- 
FELLER FOUNDATION 

Automotive  Safety  Foundation,  somewhat 
unusual  in  that  it  is  supported,  not  by  a  permanent 
fund,  but  by  annual  contributions  from  more  than 
150  companies  in  the  automotive  industry.  Organ- 
ized in  1937  to  carry  on  a  broad,  integrated  high- 
way safety  program,  the  Foundation  made  grants 
in  1940  to  15  qualified  national  organizations  for 
specific  activities  in  the  fields  of  legislation,  motor- 
vehicle  administration,  enforcement,  engineering, 
education,  training  of  personnel,  and  research 
President-  Paul  G.  Hoffman.  Director-  Norman 
Damon.  Headquarters  the  Tower  Building,  Wash- 
ington, D  C 

Bok  Foundation  has  as  its  principal  activity 
the  support  of  the  Curtis  Institute  of  Music  in 
Philadelphia  Grants  have  also  been  made  to  the 
Settlement  Music  School,  Philadelphia,  and  the 
Research  Studio,  Maitland,  Fla.,  the  latter  being 
a  kind  of  "laboratory"  for  painting  Financed  by 


BENEFACTIONS 


68 


BENEFACTIONS 


gifts  of  $12,500,000  from  Mrs.  Mary  Louise  Curtis 
Bok,  the  Foundation  was  created  in  1931  for  the 
support  of  music,  fine  arts,  science,  invention,  or 
general  education.  Address:  1726  Locust  Street, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Buhl  Foundation,  established  in  1928  by  Henry 
Buhl,  Jr.,  reported  that  its  capital  assets  were  $12,- 
734,289  in  1940  and  that  expenditures  for  the  year 
totaled  $373,007.  The  Foundation's  programs  cen- 
ter in  the  Pittsburgh  area,  where  it  has  sought  to 
provide  more  adequate  factual  bases  for  social 
work  and  regional  economic  effort,  to  promote  re- 
search in  public  health  and  the  natural  sciences, 
and  to  develop  the  community's  resources  in  higher 
education.  Another  objective  is  the  advancement 
of  housing  standards  for  American  cities,  as  ex- 
emplified in  large-scale  planned  communities  ad- 
ministered on  a  long-term  investment  basis.  In 
demonstration  of  this  last-named  objective,  the 
Foundation  operates  Chatham  Village  in  Pitts- 
burgh, built  in  1932  at  a  cost  of  $1,700,000.  The 
Buhl  Planetarium  and  Institute  of  Popular  Science 
was  built  at  a  cost  of  $1,100,000  in  1939  as  a  gift 
to  the  people  of  Western  Pennsylvania.  Director : 
Charles  F.  Lewis  Offices  the  Farmers  Bank  Build- 
ing, Pittsburgh,  Pa 

Children's  Fund  of  Michigan  reported  ex- 
penditures of  $759,735  during  the  fiscal  year  end- 
ing Apr  30,  1940 ,  capital  assets  on  that  date  were 
$8,945,776.  The  Fund  was  established  by  James 
Couzens  with  a  gift  of  $10,000,000  in  1929  to  pro- 
mote the  health,  welfare,  happiness,  and  develop- 
ment of  children  in  Michigan,  primarily,  and  else- 
where in  the  world  Chief  officer  Wm.  J.  Norton, 
660  Frederick  Street,  Detroit,  Mich 

Cranbrook  Foundation,  also  devoted  to  the 
welfare  of  the  people  of  Michigan,  specifically  in 
the  field  of  education  Established  in  1927,  it  main- 
tains at  Bloomfield  Hills,  Mich ,  a  cultural  center 
including  three  schools,  an  Academy  of  Arts,  and 
an  Institute  of  Science  Expenditures  for  the  year 
ended  June  30,  1940,  were  $571,248;  capital  assets 
on  that  date,  $8,144,667  Chairman  of  the  Board  of 
Trustees  *  George  G  Booth 

Duke  Endowment,  created  by  James  B.  Duke 
in  1924,  is  principally  known  for  its  connection 
with  Duke  University,  but  it  conducts  a  number 
of  other  activities  in  the  Carolmas  as  well  The 
Endowment  is  a  permanent  one  with  a  self -per- 
petuating board  of  15  trustees  Except  for  the  $17,- 
000,000  spent  in  erecting  and  equipping  Duke  Uni- 
versity, it  is  authorized  to  expend  none  of  its 
principal  A  report  covering  its  first  15  years,  ended 
Dec  31, 1939,  showed  that  the  Endowment  had  dis- 
tributed and  allocated  $36,939,947  as  follows  •  Duke 
University,  $18,007,284;  hospitals,  $13,013,341 ,  Da- 
vidson College,  $974,007 ;  Furman  University,  $975,- 
032;  Johnson  C  Smith  University,  $718,269;  or- 
phanages, $1,669,142;  superannuated  Methodist 
preachers,  $350,691;  rural  Methodist  churches, 
$572,284  for  buildings  and  $659,892  for  operations 
These  appropriations  benefited  160  hospitals,  51 
orphanages,  and  1667  rural  churches  Chairman  of 
the  Trustees'  George  G.  Allen.  Headquarters: 
Power  Building,  Charlotte,  N.C. 

Falk  Foundation,  created  by  Maurice  and  Lau- 
ra Falk,  makes  grants  to  economic  research  or- 
ganizations for  definitive  studies  of  specific  eco- 
nomic problems  involved  in  the  development  of 
American  industry,  trade,  and  finance  Grants  vot- 
ed in  1940  totaled  $121,800,  including  two  grants 
to  the  Brookings  Institution  for  studies  of  "Public 
Relief  in  the  United  States"  ($42,800)  and  "Refu- 


gee  Problems  in  the  Dominican  Republic"  ($50,- 
000)  Payments  made  on  grants  in  1940  totaled 
$149,000  and  capital  assets  had  a  market  value  of 
approximately  $5,200,000  as  of  November  16.  The 
Foundation  was  established  in  1929  with  the  provi- 
sion that  principal  as  well  as  income  be  used  with- 
in 35  years  Executive  Director-  J  Steele  Gow. 
Chairman  of  the  Board  of  Managers  •  Leon  Falk, 
Jr  Offices.  Farmers  Bank  Building,  Pittsburgh, 
Pa 

Guggenheim  Foundation,  established  by  Solo- 
mon R  Guggenheim  in  1937  for  the  promotion  of 
non-objective  painting,  maintains  the  Museum  of 
Non-objective  Painting  at  24  East  54th  Street, 
New  York  City  It  also  lends  travelling  exhibitions 
to  schools  and  museums,  and  grants  a  number  of 
scholarships  yearly  to  non-objective  painters  Di- 
rector Baroness  Hilla  Rebay  Offices  Carnegie 
Hall,  New  York  City 

Juilliard  Musical  Foundation  was  incorpo- 
rated in  New  York  State  in  1920,  in  accordance 
with  the  will  of  Augustus  D  Juilliard,  to  aid  wor- 
thy students  of  music,  promote  the  instruction  of 
the  general  public  in  the  musical  arts,  and  to  en- 
courage a  deeper  interest  in  music  in  the  United 
States.  Invested  trust  funds  had  a  book  value  of 
about  $12,000,000  in  1940 ,  only  the  income  is  dis- 
tributed. Secretary  M  Stcilen,  31  Nassau  Street, 
New  York  City 

Kellogg  Foundation,  established  by  W.  K 
Kellogg  in  1930  to  advance  the  well-being  of  chil- 
dren without  regard  to  race,  creed,  or  geographical 
boundary,  expended  $1,337,101  during  the  year  end- 
ing Aug  31,  1940  Total  capital  assets  on  that  date 
were  $47,319,003  The  Foundation  has  undertaken 
and  is  administering  the  Michigan  Community 
Health  Project,  a  model  program  involving  seven 
counties  in  southwestern  Michigan  (See  DENTIS- 
TRY )  The  present  program  includes  also  national 
and  international  health  promotion  activities  and 
the  granting  of  fellowships  President  George  B 
Darling.  General  Director  Emory  W  Morns 
Headquarters  Battle  Creek,  Mich 

Macy  Foundation,  established  by  Mrs  Walter 
Graeme  Ladd  in  1930  in  honor  of  Josiah  Macy,  Jr  , 
reported  total  expenditures  for  the  year  ending 
Dec.  31,  1940,  at  $206,312;  total  grants  paid,  $148,- 
922.  Drafts  are  not  permitted  upon  the  endowment, 
which  has  a  ledger  value  of  $6,216,852  Emphasis 
is  placed  on  special  problems  in  medicine  which  re- 
quire for  their  solution  studies  and  efforts  in  cor- 
related fields  as  well,  such  as  biology  and  the  social 
sciences  President  Ludwig  Kast  Headquarteis 
565  Park  Avenue,  New  York  City 

Markle  Foundation,  John  and  Mary  R.,  es- 
tablished in  1927  by  John  Markle,  has  limited  its 
new  activities  to  grants  in  aid  of  specific  research 
projects  in  medical  sciences.  Appropriations  made 
in  1939  amounted  to  $808,015,  while  grants  paid 
and  operating  expenditures  were  $596,705.  There 
were  in  progress  during  the  year  126  separate 
projects  receiving  aid  The  year-end  market  value 
of  the  principal  account  was  $16,632,968  Presi- 
dent: J.  P  Morgan  Secretary:  Florence  E 
Quick.  Offices-  14  Wall  Street,  New  York  City 

Milbank  Memorial  Fund,  established  in  1905, 
had  expended  a  total  of  $11,550,093  up  to  the  end 
of  1939.  Appropriations  for  grants  and  projects  in 
that  year  totaled  $225,846  The  Fund  assists  agen- 
cies and  institutions  in  the  field  of  public  health 
and  medicine,  education,  social  welfare,  and  re- 
search. Emphasis  is  given  to  activities  which  are 
preventive  rather  than  palliative,  and  to  the  im- 


BENEFACTIONS 


69 


BENEFACTIONS 


provement  of  administrative  procedures  in  public 
health  In  1939,  31  organizations  received  funds, 
including  Barnard  College,  $100,000,  Community 
Service  Society  of  New  York,  $20,000,  Judson 
Health  Center,  $25,000,  and  Neighborhood  Health 
Development,  Inc ,  $26,000.  President  •  Albert  G. 
Milbank  Executive  Director  •  Fran  G.  Boudreay, 
M  D  Offices  40  Wall  Street,  New  York  City. 

Permanent  Chanty  Fund  was  established  in 
1915  by  the  Boston  Safe  Deposit  and  Trust  Com- 
pany to  furnish  a  medium  through  which  money 
may  be  left  in  trust  to  chanty  The  principal  of 
the  Fund  is  invested  and  the  income  distributed  to 
existing  organizations,  usually  of  Boston  and  vi- 
cinity Payments  to  chanties  during  the  fiscal  year 
ended  June  30,  1940,  totaled  $176,159  and  capital 
assets  on  that  date  were  $5,479,092  President 
Charles  E  Mason  Offices  100  Franklin  Street, 
Boston,  Mass 

Rackham  Fund,  established  by  Horace  H  and 
Mary  A  Rackham,  was  m  process  of  closing  in 
1940  after  seven  years  of  activity  during  which 
grants  were  made  to  existing  organizations,  usu- 
ally in  Michigan,  for  educational,  scientific,  and 
charitable  purposes  Total  cash  funds  available 
were  $14,215,413,  of  which  $109,925  remained  un- 
spent on  Sept  30,  1940  The  Fund's  disbursements 
were  in  the  fields  of  child  welfare  and  character 
building,  development  of  community  life,  educa- 
tion, health  and  hospitals,  benevolence,  religion  and 
public  purposes,  and  science  Grants  to  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan  included  $1,500,000  to  develop  en- 
gineering, $6,603,500  for  the  Hoi  ace  H  Rackham 
School  of  Graduate  Studies,  $600,000  to  create  an 
Institute  for  Human  Adjustment,  $505,000  for  a 
Sociological  Research  Unit,  $100,000  for  under- 
graduate scholarships,  $1,000,000  for  arthritis  re- 
seal  ch  and  a  clinic  Other  major  gifts  went  to  the 
Boys'  Club  of  Detroit,  Franklin  Settlement  in  De- 
troit, The  Community  Center  at  Fenton,  Mich  , 
Michigan  State  Normal  College  for  a  School  of 
Special  Education,  Arnold  Home  for  Aged  and 
Incurables  in  Detroit,  Detroit  Community  Fund, 
and  to  Michigan  State  College  for  research  in 
chemical  use  of  agricultural  products 

Reynolds  Foundation,  Inc.,  established  m  1936 
for  charitable  and  civic  purposes  in  the  State  of 
North  Carolina  by  Zachary  Smith  Reynolds,  has 
undertaken  as  its  first  project  a  campaign  to  con- 
trol venereal  disease  in  the  State  An  annual  grant, 
amounting  in  1940  to  $200.000,  is  made  to  the  State 
Health  Department  for  this  purpose  The  princi- 
pal of  the  trust  had  a  market  value  of  $5.805,673 
on  Nov  1,  1040  President  Richard  J  Reynolds, 
Wmston-Salcm,  N  C 

Rosenwald  Fund,  incorporated  by  Julius  Rosen- 
wald  in  1917  "for  the  well-being  of  mankind,"  con- 
ducts its  activities  chiefly  among  Negroes  and  in  the 
rural  South  Capital  assets  on  June  30,  1940,  were 
valued  at  approximately  $4,500,000  The  present 
program  includes  the  following  (1)  Rural  educa- 
tion, especially  in  the  south,  for  which  $292,642 
was  spent  during  the  two-year  period  ending  June 
30,  1940 ;  $437,000  has  been  appropriated  for  con- 
tinuing the  work  (2)  Fellowships  for  advanced 
study  for  Negroes  and  white  Southerners,  for 
which  $100,000  a  year  is  set  aside .  96  individuals 
received  new  grants  and  68  received  renewed  grants 
during  the  past  two  years  (3)  Aid  to  important 
Negro  universities,  which  is  concentrated  in  four 
major  centers— Howard,  Atlanta,  Fisk,  and  Dillard 
Universities;  support  was  extended  also  to  Tal- 
ladega  College  for  the  first  time  in  1940  (4)  The 


improvement  of  Negro  health  and  race  relations 
President  Edwin  R.  Embree.  Offices.  4901  Ellis 
Avenue,  Chicago,  111. 

Russell  Sage  Foundation,  established  in  1907, 
has  an  endowment  of  $15,000,000  to  be  used  for  the 
improvement  of  social  and  living  conditions  in  the 
United  States  While  the  foundation  is  not  pri- 
marily a  contributing  organization,  it  does  make 
grants  of  about  30  per  cent  of  its  income  to  agen- 
cies with  similar  purposes  Among  the  types  of  ac- 
tivity carried  on  are  adult  education,  city  and 
regional  research  and  planning,  improvement  of 
housing,  family  welfare,  training  for  social  work, 
community  social  work  programs,  child  welfare, 
placement  and  vocational  service,  leisure-time  ac- 
tivities, legal  aid,  penology  and  prevention  of  delin- 
quency, service  to  travelers  and  transients,  publica- 
tions, organization  of  social  workers,  improvement 
of  race  relations,  research,  and  social  phases  of  the 
arts  Information  obtained  is  given  out  through 
publications,  lectures,  addresses,  courses  of  instruc- 
tion, conferences,  and  correspondence  The  Foun- 
dation's conference  rooms  and  halls  are  used  each 
year  by  approximately  100  diffeient  groups  for 
about  500  meetings  President  Law  son  Purdy.  Of- 
fices 130  East  22  Street,  New  York  City 

Sloan  Foundation,  incorporated  by  Alfred  P. 
Sloan  in  1936,  aids  accredited  schools  and  colleges 
in  developing  new  "patterns"  in  economic  educa- 
tion On  Nov  30,  1940,  its  capital  assets  were  val- 
ued at  $5,321,313  Up  to  the  same  date,  the  Foun- 
dation had  made  grants  amounting  to  $1,115,514 
At  present  the  Foundation  is  enabling  colleges  and 
universities  to  promote  economic  literacy  through 
varied  media,  including  radio,  motion  pictures,  the 
printed  word,  fellowships,  and  class  instruction 
Among  such  projects  aided  by  the  Foundation  are  • 
University  of  Chicago  Round  Table  of  the  Air, 
a  weekly  radio  discussion  of  economic  phases  of 
national  and  international  questions ;  the  Educa- 
tional Film  Institute  of  New  York  University, 
which  produces  and  distributes  sound  motion  pic- 
tures on  economic  subjects;  and  the  Public  Affairs 
pamphlets,  containing  popular  digests  of  current 
economic  researches,  issued  continuously  by  the 
Public  Affairs  Committee  of  New  York  Other 
beneficiaries  include  the  Tax  Institute  of  the  Whar- 
ton  School  of  Finance  and  Commerce  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  and  the  national  Institute 
for  Consumer  Education  (qv.)  Moreover,  both 
at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  and 
at  the  University  of  Denver,  the  Foundation  main- 
tains a  special  group  of  ten  fellowships  offered  to 
college  graduates  in  national  competition.  At  M  I  T 
these  are  awarded  to  young  industrial  executives 
for  a  year's  study  of  social  and  economic  condi- 
tions At  Denver  the  fellowships  provide  training 
for  a  new  profession — appraiser  of  local  govern- 
ment— through  an  18-month  course  in  taxation  and 
public  expenditures  Entering  the  field  of  applied 
economics,  the  Foundation  in  1940  enabled  the 
State  universities  of  Kentucky  and  Florida  to  start 
experiments  designed  to  aid  low-income  groups 
The  experiments  aim  to  discover  whether  solely 
through  instructing  school  children  in  simple,  in- 
expensive ways  of  improved  diet  and  housing,  the 
community  level  of  living  can  be  raised.  Director  • 
Harold  S  Sloan.  Offices:  30  Rockefeller  Plaza, 
New  York  City 

Spelman  Fund  of  New  York,  incorporated  in 
1928  with  a  principal  fund  of  $10,000,000  During 
1940,  the  Fund  continued  its  program  directed  at 
the  improvement  of  methods  and  techniques  in  the 


BENEFACTIONS 


70 


BENEFACTIONS 


field  of  public  administration.  Support  was  extend- 
ed to  public  and  quasi-public  agencies  engaged  in 
disseminating  information  regarding  advances  in 
administrative  practice,  in  developing  new  types  of 
organization  and  operating  methods,  and  in  actu- 
ally installing  administrative  improvements  in  gov- 
ernmental agencies.  The  Fund  appropriated  $431,- 
000  during  the  year  Chairman  of  the  Board  of 
Trustees:  Charles  E.  Merriam.  Executive:  Guy 
Moffett.  Offices:  49  West  49  Street,  New  York 
City. 

Warm  Springs  Foundation,  a  membership 
corporation,  conducts  a  modern  and  scientifically 
equipped  institution  at  Warm  Springs,  Ga.,  with  a 
capacity  of  100  beds,  for  the  study  and  treatment 
of  the  after-effects  of  poliomyelitis  (infantile  pa- 
ralysis). The  Foundation  is  the  only  institution 
devoting  its  energies  entirely  to  infantile  paralysis. 
It  seeks  to  improve  and  perfect  methods  of  treat- 
ment and  make  the  knowledge  gained  thereby  avail- 
able to  the  medical  profession  and  the  public. 
Through  completion  of  a  new  medical  building 
with  complete  hospital  facilities,  the  Foundation 
was  able  in  1940,  for  the  first  time,  to  care  for  pa- 
tients in  a  single  building  and  study  every  phase  of 
treatment.  President  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt.  Chair- 
man of  the  Executive  Committee :  Basil  O'Connor. 
Address :  120  Broadway,  New  York  City 

Individual  Gifts  and  Bequests.  The  follow- 
ing list  names,  in  order  of  magnitude,  the  bene- 
ficiaries, during  1940,  of  individual  gifts  and  be- 
quests amounting  to  a  half-million  dollars  or  more 
The  information  is  derived  from  Giving  Today, 
a  quarterly  report  issued  by  the  John  Price  Jones 
Corporation. 

National  Gallery  of  Art,  Washington,  D  C.  •  Gift  of  an 
art  collection  estimated  at  $12,000,000  to  $50,000,000  in 
value,  from  Joseph  E.  Widener,  Elkins  Park,  Pa 

Charles  E  Culpeper  Foundation  A  bequest  of  $8,000,- 
000  to  establish  a  foundation  devoted  to  chanty,  education, 
and  religion,  from  Charles  E  Culpeper,  Norwalk,  Conn 

Kresge  Foundation-  Gift  of  $7,650,000  in  stock  from 
S  S  Kresge,  Detroit,  Mich 

Joslyn  Art  Memorial:  Bequest  of  $2,500,000  made  by 
Mrs.  Sarah  H.  Joslyn  of  Omaha,  Neb.,  bringing  her  gifts 
to  the  Memorial  to  a  total  of  $7,000.000 

Morton  Memorial  Hospital,  Northwestern  University 
Bequest  of  $2,000,000  in  the  will  of  Mrs  Margaret  Gray 
Morton,  Chicago,  111 

Vanderbilt  Mansion,  Hyde  Park.  N.Y.:  Gift  to  the  na- 
tion of  a  mansion  valued  at  $2,000,000  as  a  national  his- 
toric museum,  from  Mrs  Margaret  Louise  Van  Alen  of 
Newport,  R.I. 

Weslev  Memorial  Hospital,  Northwestern  University 
Gift  of  20,000  shares  of  the  Inland  Steel  Company,  valued 
at  $1,660,000,  for  the  construction  of  a  20-story  hospital, 
from  George  H  Tones,  Chicago,  111. 

David  P.  Wohl  Foundation  A  gift  reported  (though 
not  officially  stated)  to  total  $1,000.000  to  establish  a 
foundation  for  the  benefit  of  charitable  and  educational 
projects,  from  David  P.  Wohl,  St  Louis,  Mo 

Fowler  Memorial,  St.  Louis,  Mo.:  Bequest  of  $1,000,- 
000  for  the  construction  of  a  hospital,  from  the  will  of 
Mrs  Cora  Liggett  Fowler  in  memory  of  her  husband 

John  Bulow  Campbell  Trust  Fund-  A  bequest  of  $1,000,- 
000  for  the  promotion  of  religious,  educational,  and  health 
projects  in  Atlanta,  Ga 

Mount  Joy,  Pa  Gift  to  the  community  of  an  oil  com- 
pany valued  at  $1,000,000,  from  Clarence  Schock 

Samuel  H.  Kress  Foundation:  Gift  of  82,303  shares  of 
stock  valued  at  $1,000,000  from  Samuel  H  Kress  of  New 
York. 

University  of  Chicago'  Gift  of  Chicago  Loop  property 
valued  at  $1,000,000  from  Marshall  Field,  111 

New  York  Community  Trust:  Bequest  of  $900,000  to 
establish  (if  practicable)  restaurants  in  which  needy  per- 
sons may  be  ted  free  or  for  a  nominal  charge,  from  Wil- 
helra  Loewenstem  of  New  York. 

Hofstra  College  Endowment  fund  of  $700,000  from 
the  estate  of  Mr.  and  Mrs  William  S.  Hofstra,  Hemp- 
stead,  L.I. 

Harvard  College'  Bequest  of  $642,169  from  Julia  Isham 
Taylor,  New  York,  N  V 

Northwestern  University  Bequest  of  $635,000  from 
John  S.  Appleman,  Chicago,  IU. 


Memorial  Hospital,  Worcester,  Mass  :  Bequest  esti- 
mated at  $600,000  from  the  estate  of  Mrs.  Mary  G.  Ellis, 
Worcester,  Mass. 

Massachusetts  General  Hospital  and  Pennsylvania  Hos- 
pital of  Philadelphia:  Bequests  of  $583,333  each  from  the 
estate  of  Rev.  Alexander  Gardner  Mercer  of  Newport, 
R  I.,  who  died  in  1885  (Distribution  of  the  estate  was  de- 
layed until  the  death  of  80  annuity  recipients.) 

Worcester  Art  Museum  Bequest  of  a  half -million  dollar 
art  collection  and  $25,000  from  Mrs.  Mary  Griffin  Ellis, 
Worcester,  Mass. 

Greenwich  (Conn.)  Hospital  Anonymous  gift  of  $500,- 
000  contingent  on  the  Hospital's  raising  an  additional 
$750,000  for  a  new  building 

Jefferson  Medical  College  Hospital:  Bequest  of  $500.000 
for  tuberculosis  and  cancer  research  and  treatment,  from 
Mrs.  Emily  Barton  Pendleton.  Atlantic  City,  N.J. 

Pennsylvania  College  for  Women  Gift  of  a  home  and 
seven  acres  of  ground  valued  at  $500.000  from  Paul  Mel- 
lon as  a  memorial  to  his  father,  Andrew  Mellon. 

West  Palm  Beach,  Fla.  Gift  of  $500,000  to  build  an 
art  gallery  and  school,  from  Mr  and  Mrs.  Ralph  Norton 
of  Illinois 

Fund- Raising  Campaigns.  Aside  from  the  in- 
tensified drives  for  war  relief  (q.v  ) ,  one  of  the 
most  publicized  fund-raising  campaigns  of  the  year 
was  that  conducted  by  the  Metropolitan  Opera  As- 
sociation of  New  York  with  the  object  of  gaining 
ownership  of  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House  and 
initiating  a  new  and  enlarged  program  as  a  center 
of  musical  activity.  The  Association  directed  its 
campaign  in  large  part  to  its  radio  audience,  em- 
phasizing for  the  first  time  the  importance  of  small 
donations.  The  result  was,  not  only  achievement 
of  the  million-dollar  goal  early  in  May,  but  an  in- 
creased interest  in  opera  on  the  part  of  a  wider 
public.  Other  musical  organizations  seeking  to 
solve  their  financial  problems  through  public  sub- 
scription were  the  Chicago  Symphony  Orchestra, 
which  raised  $137,364  toward  liquidation  of  its 
deficit,  and  the  National  Symphony  Orchestra 
which  set  a  goal  of  $107,600  for  its  campaign.  See 
also  Music 

Outstanding  in  the  educational  field  was  the  rais- 
ing of  $5,000,000  m  gifts  and  pledges  to  establish 
a  University  Center  in  Atlanta,  Ga  The  success 
of  the  campaign  secured  a  conditional  grant  of 
$2,500,000  from  the  General  Education  Board  to- 
ward the  project,  which  will  involve  the  co-ordi- 
nation and  development  of  six  Georgia  institutions 
The  Bicentennial  Planning  Committee  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  announced  that  it  had 
raised  $5,035,000  on  September  20  The  President's 
Program  of  Princeton  University  reached  $3,311,- 
084  (February  22),  and  the  75th  Anniversary 
Fund  of  Vassar  College  $1,933,429  (June  8).  The 
Catholic  University  of  America  also  had  under 
way  a  nationwide  drive.  An  unusual  tribute — in 
that  it  honored  a  man  still  living — was  the  collec- 
tion of  $100,000  among  the  friends  of  Carter  Glass 
to  establish  the  Carter  Glass  chair  of  government 
at  Sweet  Briar  College. 

The  Presbyterian  Board  of  Christian  Education 
conducted  a  sesquicentenmal  fund  drive  for  $10,- 
000,000  during  the  year;  $8,167,944  had  been  col- 
lected by  September  22.  A  special  thank  offering 
of  $974,089  from  Episcopal  women  was  announced 
at  the  convention  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  October  11 ;  the  money  was  to  be  used  for 
foreign  and  domestic  missions  Of  increasing  in- 
terest in  the  field  of  health  is  the  annual  campaign 
to  combat  infantile  paralysis ,  the  Committee  for 
the  Celebration  of  the  President's  Birthday,  which 
co-ordinates  this  drive,  reported  $1,407,245  raised 
in  1940.  The  usual  number  of  drives  for  enlarging 
or  renewing  hospital  facilities  went  forward. 

There  are,  of  course,  many  organizations  and 
institutions,  whose  regular  program  includes  the 


BEQUESTS 


71 


BERMUDA 


collection  of  gifts  for  various  purposes  For  their 
current  reports  the  reader  is  referred  to  such  arti- 
cles as  AMERICAN  LEGION,  COMMUNITY  CHESTS 
AND  COUNCILS,  COMMUNITY  TRUSTS,  RED  CROSS, 
the  report  on  gifts  tabulated  under  UNIVERSITIES 
AND  COLLEGES,  the  articles  on  religious  organiza- 
tions, and  the  list  of  SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS. 
See  also  ART  under  Museums ;  LIBRARY  PROGRESS 
under  Gifts,  Grants,  and  Buildings. 

BEQUESTS.  See  BENEFACTIONS 

BERMUDA.  An  insular  British  colony,  677 
miles  southeast  of  New  York.  Included  in  its  area 
are  some  360  islands,  of  which  20  are  inhabited. 
Area,  19.3  square  miles;  civil  population  (Mar. 
26,  1939,  census),  30,814  (11,481  white,  19,333 
colored).  Chief  towns  •  Hamilton,  the  capital,  3259 
inhabitants ;  St.  George,  1000  During  1938  there 
were  769  births  and  332  deaths.  Bermuda  is  an 
important  British  naval  base 

Production  and  Trade.  There  are  about  1000 
acres  of  farming  land  under  arable  cultivation 
and  most  of  it  bears  from  two  to  three  crops  a 
year  The  chief  crops  are  potatoes,  onions,  lily 
bulbs,  cut  flowers,  and  green  vegetables.  Bananas 
and  arrowroot  are  grown  During  the  first  eight 
months  of  1939  over  6^,000  tounsts  visited  the 
islands  Trade  (1938)-  imports,  £1,906,689,  ex- 
ports, £145,943  Bermuda  is  linked  to  New  York 
by  air  service  and  js  a  port  of  call  on  the  New 
York  to  Lisbon  transatlantic  air  route  Shipping 
aggregating  6,441,284  tons  entered  and  cleared 
during  1938 

Government.  For  1939  revenue  was  estimated 
at  £430,423  and  expenditure  at  £433,866  The  pub- 
lic debt  on  Dec.  31,  1938,  totaled  £75,000  A 
governor,  aided  by  an  executive  council,  ad- 
ministers the  colony  There  is  a  legislative  council 
of  9  members  (3  official  and  6  nominated  un- 
official) and  an  elected  house  of  assembly  of  36 
members  (4  from  each  of  the  9  parishes)  Gov- 
ernor and  Commander-m-Chief,  Maj  -Gen.  Sir 
Denis  Bernard  (appointed  Apr  6,  1939) 

History.  In  notes  exchanged  Sept  2,  1940,  the 
British  Government  agreed  to  lease  to  the  United 
States  for  99  years  sites  for  naval  and  air  bases 
in  Bermuda  After  surveys  by  United  States  ex- 
perts, the  sites  agreed  upon  were  announced  in 
Washington  November  18,  as  follows  * 

(a)  For  land-plane  base    Long   Bird   Island — enlarged 
by   dredged  fill   to   accommodate  mam   runway   along  its 
major  axis  and  two  cross  runways  nearly  on  the  end,  to- 
gether with  certain  of  the  land  north  and  cast  of  Ruth's 
Bay  and  south  of  the  main  road  leading  to  Stokes  Point 

(b)  For  seaplane  base,  naval  base  and  garrison  area 
That  part  of   St    David's   Island   from   Stokes   Point  to 
Riggs  Bay,  together  with  portion  lying  south  of  the  main 
road   and   south   and  west  of  the  road  leading  to  Ruth's 
Bay  and  including  Ruth's  Point  and  promontory,  and  in 
addition  certain  small  islands  lying  close  off  the  southern 
shore  of   St    David's  Island. 

(c)  For  explosive  storages    The  small  islands  between 
St    David's   and   Hamilton   Island   along  the  eastern  en- 
trance to  Castle  Harbor  (Cooper's,  Nonsuch,  Brangman's, 
Charles,  and  Castle  Islands) 

(d)  In  order  to   prepare   Castle  Harbor  for  use    The 
United  States  authorities  to  have  the  right  to  substitute 
a  drawbridge  (for  relocated  highway  and  railway)  between 
St    George  s  Island  and  Coney  Island  to  render  this  en- 
trance to  Castle  Harbor  usable  for  vessels  and  seaplanes 
The  United   States  authorities  also  to  have  the  right  to 
make  such  alteraUons  to  the  southwest  causeway  to  Long 
Bird  Island  as  may  be  necessary,  and  to  do  such  other 
dredging  and  filling  m  Castle  Harbor  as  may  be  required 
for  the  base 

<e)  The  question  of  the  granting  of  facilities  affecting 
an  island  or  is  ands  in  the  Great  Sound  for  operation  o! 
seaplanes  is  still  under  consideration. 

Even  before  the  approval  of  these  base  sites 
by  the  Bermuda  House  of  Assembly  on  Novem- 


ber 27,  United  States  naval  planes  began  opera- 
tions from  Bermuda  in  connection  with  the  neu- 
trality patrol  of  the  inter-American  security  zone 

The  issue  of  leasing  the  base  sites  was  first 
submitted  to  the  House  of  Assembly  m  secret  ses- 
sions held  August  19  and  20.  On  August  24  the 
Governor  of  Bermuda  announced  the  local  gov- 
ernment's decision  to  approve  the  proposal.  In 
a  memorial  to  the  British  Government  adopted 
August  20,  the  Assembly  expressed  deep  concern 
"lest  some  new  conception  of  American  hemi- 
sphere defense  may  affect  the  status  of  this  ancient 
Colony  as  an  integral  part  of  the  British  Com- 
monwealth." The  memorial  urged  that  "nothing 
be  allowed  to  prejudice  our  Constitution,  our 
Government  or  our  complete  happiness  and  con- 
tentment under  British  rule."  The  British  Secre- 
tary of  State  for  Colonies  replied  that  there  was 
no  question  of  Bermuda,  or  any  part  of  it,  being 
separated  from  the  British  Empire,  or  of  the 
people  of  Bermuda  ceasing  to  be  British  subjects. 

On  September  2  the  Assembly  voted  to  ask 
the  Governor  to  protect  the  islands'  peacetime 
pursuits  in  determining  the  base  sites.  An  official 
committee  of  six  represented  the  local  govern- 
ment in  the  subsequent  negotiations.  It  strenu- 
ously objected  to  the  original  proposals  of  the 
United  States  board  of  inspection  on  the  ground 
that  they  would  "give  rise  to  gravest  economic, 
social  and  political  dislocation  of  the  life  of  the 
colony."  Following  the  Governor's  announcement 
of  the  sites  on  November  18,  the  Assembly  after 
considerable  debate  approved  the  Governor's  mes- 
sage with  an  amendment  urging  that  title  to 
private  property  taken  over  for  the  bases  vest  in 
the  Bermuda  Government,  subject  to  lease  to  the 
United  States.  The  size  of  the  base  area,  and  the 
announcement  that  a  garrison  of  at  least  4500 
troops  would  be  sent  to  guard  it,  caused  appre- 
hension as  to  the  long-term  consequences  of  the 
lease 

Bermuda's  loyalty  to  the  mother  country  was 
shown  by  various  acts  during  the  year.  In  addi- 
tion to  four  volunteer  defense  units  maintained  by 
the  Bermuda  Government,  the  Assembly  voted 
on  June  24  to  conscript  men  for  service  in  a 
Bermuda  Defense  Corps.  On  September  18  the 
Governor  under  the  British  Orders  in  Council 
assumed  power  to  command  the  services  of  per- 
sons and  property  for  defense  purposes  On  May 
29  the  Assembly  approved  an  immediate  war 
contribution  to  the  British  Government  of  £40,- 
000  and  at  the  end  of  November  this  was  raised  to 
£200,000.  Direct  taxation  was  imposed  for  the 
first  time  to  meet  a  marked  shrinkage  in  revenues 

The  colony  became  a  highly  important  cog  in 
the  British  convoy  and  blockade  systems.  Murray's 
Anchorage  served  as  a  concentration  point  for  con- 
voys bound  for  Britain  and  various  other  desti- 
nations, beginning  in  May,  1940.  Before  the  end 
of  the  year  a  staff  of  over  700  censors  was  re- 
ported at  work  in  Hamilton  examining  mails 
carried  on  vessels  and  airplanes  touching  the 
island  en  route  to  or  from  European  ports  The 
United  States  consul  at  Hamilton  formally  pro- 
tested when  the  censorship  of  U.S.  airmails  began 
on  January  18.  After  March  15  some  of  the  Pan 
American  transatlantic  planes  omitted  the  stop 
at  Bermuda.  Effective  July  8  passport  visas  were 
required  of  all  persons  not  British  subjects  land- 
ing on  the  island  and  all  persons  over  16  years 
of  age  living  in  Bermuda  were  required  to  carry 
identification  cards. 


BESSARABIA 


72 


BIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY 


BESSARABIA.  See  RUMANIA  and  UNION  OF 
SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS  under  History. 

BILLIARDS.  Willie  Hoppe  was  once  again 
the  leading  figure  in  the  world  of  billiards,  a  posi- 
tion he  has  frequently  occupied  throughput  the  last 
34  years  At  52  he  won  the  three-cushion  billiard 
championship  without  sustaining  a  defeat.  In  doing 
so,  he  defeated  ten  of  the  leading  players  in  the 
world,  and  won  20  straight  games,  an  unprece- 
dented achievement  in  the  history  of  three-cushion 
billiards  He  was  named  the  No  1  player  of  1940 
by  the  National  Billiard  Association 

Hoppe  averaged  1.161  points  an  inning  over  the 
20-game  route,  a  mark  which  shattered  Cochran's 
former  record  of  1  123  set  in  1935.  Five  former 
title  holders  faced  him.  His  nearest  competitors,  in 
order,  were  Jake  Schaef  er,  Jay  Bozeman,  and  Wel- 
ker  Cochran 

The  world's  pocket  billiard  championship  was 
won  by  Andrew  Ponzi  of  New  York  who  defeated 
Jimmy  Caras  of  Wilmington,  Del  He  broke  the 
world's  record  high-run  of  126,  exceeding  that 
mark  by  one  point. 

BILLITON.  See  NETHERLANDS  INDIES  under 
Area  and  Population 

BIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY.  Because  of 
the  war  and  other  unsettled  conditions  the  year  has 
witnessed  an  appreciable  slackening  of  the  pace  of 
publication  of  important  experimental  data  How- 
ever, some  very  important  developments  have  been 
made,  and  this  is  especially  true  in  the  field  of  the 
vitamins. 

R.  J  Williams  and  his  co-workers  have  solved 
the  major  structural  problems  connected  with  the 
chick  antidermatitis  vitamin,  pantothenic  acid  Evi- 
dence for  the  complete  structure  of  this  powerful 
member  of  the  vitamin  B  family  has  been  pub- 
lished In  collaboration  with  these  investigators  its 
total  synthesis  also  has  been  realized  in  the  Re- 
search Laboratories  of  Merck  and  Co  Inc ,  Rah- 
way,  New  Jersey  Its  biological  activity  has  also 
been  investigated.  In  carrying  out  tljese  latter  stud- 
ies Gyorgy  and  Poling  reported  results  which 
strongly  indicate  that  pantothenic  acid  has  a  cura- 
tive effect  on  nutritional  achromotnchia  (depig- 
mentation  of  the  hair,  also  called  "graying")  of 
rats.  Their  results,  however,  are  in  conflict  with 
observations  made  by  Williams  In  the  latter  case 
pure  pantothenic  acid  exhibited  no  preventive  or 
curative  effect  on  gray  hair,  although  it  was  ob- 
served that  the  rate  of  growth  and  the  length  of 
life  were  greatly  enhanced.  It  is  to  be  noted  in 
this  connection,  however,  that  the  diet  in  the  two 
sets  of  experiments  was  somewhat  different  Wil- 
liams substituted  8  per  cent  butter  for  2  per  cent 
corn  oil.  This  would  seem  to  suggest  that  another 
factor  has  to  be  taken  into  consideration,  an  idea 
first  suggested  by  Nielsen  et  alii  It  should  also 
be  recorded  at  this  time  that  certain  derivatives, 
such  as  hydroxy  pantothenic  acid,  have  been  syn- 
thesized They  also  possess  striking  biological  ac- 
tivity It  has  been  observed,  however,  that  the  ef- 
fectiveness of  all  these  compounds  vanes  with 
different  microorganisms  and  also  the  testing  con- 
ditions Certain  microorganisms  such  as  Lacto- 
baccilus  Hclveticus  cannot  grow  without  panto- 
thenic acid.  Herein,  in  some  such  manner,  may  rest 
its  value  in  human  nutrition. 

Other  important  experimental  data  in  the  field 
of  the  vitamins  have  been  published.  Although 
several  laboratories  have  reported  neurological  le- 
sions as  a  consequence  of  vitamin  A  deficiency  the 
relation  of  vitamin  A  to  growth  and  function  of 


the  nervous  system  has  remained  unsolved  Ex- 
periments by  Wolback  and  Bessey  at  the  Harvard 
Medical  School  indicate,  however,  that  the  expla- 
nation of  these  lesions  occurring  in  this  deficiency 
lies  in  a  relative  over-growth  of  the  central  nerv- 
ous system  This  results  in  mechanical  damage  and 
degeneration  of  the  nerve  fibers  The  earliest  and 
most  striking  manifestations  are  in  the  spinal  canal 
and  appear  to  involve  both  anterior  and  posterior 
nerve  roots 

During  the  past  year  the  concept  of  isosterism, 
as  proposed  by  Grimm  and  extended  by  Erlen- 
meyer,  has  attracted  attention  by  its  possible  ap- 
plication with  respect  to  the  substitution  of  a  pyn- 
dine  nucleus  for  the  thiazole  component  of  the 
vitamin  Bj  molecule  With  these  views  in  mind 
several  investigators  have  attempted  the  synthesis 
of  the  true  isoster  of  thiamin  (B,)  in  order,  if 
possible,  further  to  correlate  structure  and  physio- 
logical activity  This  has  finally  been  successfully 
accomplished  by  Elderfield  and  Tracey  at  Colum- 
bia University.  Starting  with  ethyl  o-(j3-ethoxy- 
ethyl)-0  ammocrotonate  these  investigators  pre- 
pared 2-methyl-3-(/3-hydroxyethyl)-pyndine  This 
compound  was  then  condensed  with  2-methyl-5- 
bromomethyl-6-ammo  pynmidme  hydrobromide  to 
give  the  true  pyndine  analog  of  thiamin  Its  phys- 
iological properties  are  being  investigated  and  the 
results  when  published  will  be  of  interest  both 
theoretically  and  practically 

Work  on  another  member  of  the  vitamin  B  fam- 
ily continued  to  be  of  absorbing  interest  Dr  Se- 
breel  of  the  National  Institute  of  Health  has  con- 
tinued his  studies  on  pellagra,  and  has  found  that 
keratitis,  a  disease  which  affects  the  outer  trans- 
parent coating  of  the  cornea,  is  in  reality  a  defi- 
ciency disease,  and  is  caused  by  a  lack  of  nboflavin 
Thus  it  is  not  due  to  syphilis  as  previously  sup- 
posed He  was  led  to  this  discovery  by  the  observa- 
tion that  keratitis  is  often  found  in  sufferers  from 
pellagra  who  are  not  entirely  cured  by  nicotmic 
acid 

Last  year  this  reviewer  reported  on  the  synthe- 
sis of  vitamin  Bfl  in  the  Research  Laboratories  of 
Merck  and  Co  During  the  past  twelve  months 
these  same  laboratories  have  released  for  publica- 
tion other  interesting  facts  on  the  chemistry  of 
this  highly  interesting  compound  This  molecule 
has  been  found  to  exist  in  tautomenc  forms  Evi- 
dence as  to  the  nature  of  this  tautomensm  has  been 
obtained  by  the  comparison  of  the  absorption  spec- 
tra and  ionization  constants  of  the  vitamin  with 
those  of  vitamin  Bfl  methioclide,  N -methyl  vitamin 
Be,  betaine,  and  related  compounds  Their  results 
show  the  presence  of  three  tautomenc  modifica- 
tions, all  in  equilibrium  These  forms  are  assumed 
to  represent  the  successive  stages  of  acidic  ioniza- 
tion of  the  vitamin  Bn  hydrochlorule.  It  is  of  fur- 
ther interest  to  note  that  when  methylation  of  the 
nitrogen  atom  in  one  form  of  the  Bfl  molecule 
takes  place  all  biological  activity  is  destroyed 

The  research  chemists  of  Merck  and  Company 
have  also  reported  the  formation  of  a  vitamin  Bn 
borate  complex  This  observation  was  made  in  the 
course  of  the  development  of  a  colonmetric  meth- 
od for  the  determination  of  vitamin  B0  Boric  acid 
with  a  co-ordination  number  of  4  is  linked  to  two 
molecules  of  the  vitamin  through  the  oxygen  at- 
oms in  the  3  and  4  positions  This  complex  is  of 
further  interest  in  that  it  is  thermostable  m  neu- 
tral solution  and  has  the  physiological  activity  of 
vitamin  BB  itself  It  may  be  inferred,  therefore, 
that  the  complex  in  the  animal  organisms  is  com- 


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73 


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pletely  broken  down  to  liberate  the  unchanged  vi- 
tamin. 

Vitamin  E,  the  compound  known  as  the  fertil- 
ity vitamin  from  wheat  germ,  is  being  hailed  in 
certain  medical  circles  as  a  cure  for  the  hitherto 
hopeless  diseases  of  muscle  weakness  and  nerve 
degeneration.  Striking  results  are  reported  by  Dr. 
Franklin  Bicknell  and  by  Dr.  Ira  Wechsler.  Ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Bicknell  this  vitamin  can  also  be 
used  to  protect  children  against  infantile  paralysis. 
He  is  of  the  belief  that  when  it  is  so  used,  the 
nerve  and  brain  cells  are  more  resistant  to  attack 
by  the  paralysis  virus.  The  vitamin  has  been  used 
for  muscular  dystrophy,  amyotrophic  lateral  sclero- 
sis, peroneal  muscular  atrophy,  and  amyotonia  con- 
genita  Results  of  treatment  in  the  muscle  weak- 
ness conditions  were  remarkable,  every  patient 
except  one  showing  improvement  In  concluding 
his  paper  Dr.  Bicknell  suggests,  however,  that  the 
substance  in  wheat  germ  which  produces  this  im- 
provement may  be  something  other  than  the  chemi- 
cal, a-tocopherol,  which  has  been  identified  as  the 
pure  form  of  the  anti-sterility  vitamin  For  this 
reason  he  used  dried  whole  wheat  germ  and  not 
the  pure  chemical  itself 

The  announcement  of  a  new  vitamin  has  been 
made  According  to  C  A  Elvehjem  and  Ins  co- 
workers  there  is  present  in  milk  a  compound  which 
prevents  stomach  ulcers  in  guinea  pigs  Milk  is  the 
best  source  of  this  vitamin,  which  is  interesting  in 
that  sufferers  from  stomach  ulcers  are  usually  fed 
a  diet  of  milk  and  cream  Its  purification  and  struc- 
ture are  yet  to  be  realized 

V  du  Vigneaud,  P  Gyorgy,  and  co-workers  have 
called  attention  to  the  possible  identity  of  vitamin 
H,  the  curative  factor  for  egg-white  injury,  with 
biotm,  a  growth  factor  for  yeast,  and  with  co- 
enzyme  R,  which  is  a  growth  and  respiration  fac- 
tor for  many  strains  of  legume  nodule  bacteria 
The  identity  of  biotm  and  co-enzyme  R  has  been 
indicated  previously  by  West  and  Wilson  From 
the  standpoint  of  chemical  and  physical  properties 
the  similarity  in  the  nature  of  these  compounds  is 
marked.  All  these  substances  are  dialyzable,  heat 
stable,  and  resistant  to  treatment  with  acid  and 
alkali  None  is  precipitated  with  lead  acetate  Treat- 
ment of  vitamin  H  or  biotin  with  benzyl  chloride 
in  pyridine  results  in  an  inactive  product  Nitrous 
acid  produces  mactivation ,  acetylation  also  causes 
inactivity  The  highest  purity  vitamin  H  is  ex- 
tremely potent  in  co-enzyme  R  activity.  In  conclu- 
sion these  investigators  report  that  a  crystalline 
preparation  of  biotin  methyl  ester  possesses  vita- 
min H  activity  to  a  high  degree  When  purified  to 
a  constant  melting  point  and  activity  it  possesses 
such  an  extremely  potent  yitamm  H  activity  as  to 
leave  no  doubt  that  vitamin  H  and  biotin  are  one 
and  the  same  compound 

Advances  continue  to  be  made  in  the  field  of  the 
sterols  and  hormones.  The  isolation  in  pure  form 
of  the  interstitial  cell-stimulating  (luteinizing) 
hormone  of  the  anterior  lobe  of  the  pituitary  gland 
has  been  reported  by  investigators  of  the  Rocke- 
feller Institute  for  Medical  Research  of  New  York 
and  of  the  Squibb  Institute  for  Medical  Research 
at  New  Brunswick,  NJ  This  protein  hormone, 
isolated  from  swine  pituitary  glands,  has  a  molec- 
ular weight  of  about  90,000  Its  isoelectric  point  is 
pH  7.45  It  was  shown  to  he  pure  by  tests  in  the 
electrophoretic  apparatus  of  Tiselius  and  in  the  ul- 
tracentrifuge.  The  hormone  so  obtained  was  found 
to  stimulate  the  interstitial  tissue  of  the  testis  or 
ovary,  and  caused  the  formation  of  corpus  lutea 


provided  that  maturing  follicles  were  present.  Ex- 
tracts of  swine  pituitary  with  purely  follicle-stimu- 
lating effects  did  not  cause  oestrus  in  immature 
hypophysectomized  female  rats  unless  luteinizing 
hormone  was  also  administered. 

R.  I.  Dorf  man  of  the  Yale  University  School  of 
Medicine  has  reported  that  he  has  obtained  evi- 
dence of  a  new  cstrogenic  substance  present  in  the 
neutral  fraction  of  human  pregnancy  urine.  From 
his  experiments  it  appears  that  in  addition  to  the 
well-defined  phenolic  estrogens  in  human  pregnancy 
urine  there  appears  to  be  another  estrogenic  sub- 
stance which  is  a  neutral  non-ketonic  compound 

Fernholz  and  his  co-workers  have  determined 
beyond  reasonable  doubt  the  structure  of  two  ster- 
ols, brassicasterol  and  spinasterol.  Marker  and  his 
students  have  continued  their  studies  on  the  sapoge- 
nins  Among  the  more  interesting  results  which 
have  been  obtained  may  be  mentioned  the  follow- 
ing* (a)  they  have  observed  that  under  suitable 
conditions  pseudo-sarsasapogcnin,  pseudo-tigoge- 
nin,  and  pseudo-chlorogemn  arc  isomenzed  by  hy- 
drochloric acid  to  the  original  sapogemns;  (b) 
they  have  shown  that  allopreganediols  can  be  ob- 
tained from  tigogemn  Sarsasapogenm  and  dios- 
genm  can  be  converted  into  testosterone  and  related 
compounds;  (c)  the  structure  of  pseudo-sarsasa- 
pogenm  has  been  further  elucidated  Evidence  has 
also  been  submitted  which  indicates  that  the  hy- 
droxyl  groups  in  chlorogemn  are  in  the  3-beta  and 
6-alpha  positions;  (d)  they  have  also  shown  that 
the  supposed  sapogen,  tnllangenin,  is  in  reality  a 
mixture  of  diosgemn  and  tnllm 

Walhs  and  his  students  have  also  continued  their 
studies  in  the  field  of  the  sterols  and  hormones 
From  their  experiments  a  new  route  has  been  sug- 
gested for  the  preparation  of  sterols  having  an 
hydroxyl  group  at  Q,.  This  is  of  practical  impor- 
tance because  of  the  position  of  the  hydroxyl  group 
at  the  Cj!  position  in  the  adrenal  cortex  hormone 
cortin.  These  investigators  have  also  published  a 
new  and  simple  method  for  the  synthesis  of  hex- 
oestrol,  a  synthetic  sex  hormone  of  high  potency 
Because  of  this  new  method  this  substance  can 
now  be  prepared  at  a  much  cheaper  cost 

In  1938  this  reviewer  reported  through  the  dis- 
covery of  the  utilization  of  sulfamlamide  a  new 
era  in  medicine — the  era  of  chemotherapy  of  bac- 
terial diseases  Again  this  year  the  work  has  con- 
sisted mainly  in  the  preparation  of  derivatives  of 
this  compound  and  in  the  investigation  of  their 
physiological  activity.  Although  there  is  no  com- 
plete record  of  all  the  sulfamlamide  derivatives 
which  have  been  made  it  is  conservative  to  state 
that  they  now  exceed  three  thousand.  Experiments 
show,  however,  that  only  a  few  are  valuable :  name- 
ly, sulfanilamide  itself,  sulfapyridine,  and  sulfa- 
thiazole.  Much  work  has  been  done  during  the  year 
in  an  attempt  to  find  out  the  significant  property 
necessary  for  this  activity.  But  just  how  the  potent 
ones  act,  why  they  act,  and  on  what  they  act  are 
not  yet  established.  At  present  it  may  be  said  only 
that  they  retard  the  growth  of  bacteria  The  re- 
sults obtained  with  this  treatment,  however,  are 
often  dramatic  Diseases  such  as  erysipelas,  scarlet 
fever,  tonsilitis,  mastoiditis,  meningitis,  peritonitis, 
septicemia,  pneumonia,  gonorrhea,  respond  to  this 
treatment  Although  the  streptococcus  haemoliticus 
is  affected,  streptococcus  viridens  seems  to  be  im- 
mune and  as  a  result  there  is  at  present  no  cure  for 
this  infection.  Evidence  has  also  appeared  during 
the  year  which  indicates  that  some  of  the  sulfa- 
nilamides  are  effective  in  the  treatment  of  tubercu- 


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74 


BIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY 


losis,  at  least  in  guinea  pigs.  They  are  also  effec- 
tive to  some  extent  in  gas  gangrene,  trachoma, 
undulent  fever,  and  lymphopathia  venereum.  Be- 
fore concluding  this  subject  it  would  seem  appro- 
priate to  mention  a  few  specific  compounds  which 
have  become  of  interest  because  of  their  poten- 
cy in  combatting  infections  of  various  types.  4,4' 
Diamino-diphenyl  sulfone  is  effective  in  many  in- 
fections in  mice.  Sulfathiazole  has  been  found  to 
be  a  particularly  valuable  drug  in  the  treatment  of 
gonorrheal  urethritis  in  the  male.  Certain  hetero- 
cyclic  derivatives  such  as  sulfaml-2-pyridylamide 
and  2,4-methyl  thiazylamide  have  curative  action. 
Sulfamlyl  guamdme  also  has  been  found  to  be  a 
good  agent  especially  for  certain  intestinal  infec- 
tions. 

It  is  possible  to  report  progress  in  the  chemo- 
therapeutic  treatment  of  certain  parasitic  diseases. 
Malaria  will  serve  as  an  example.  Here  the  most 
promising  results  have  been  obtained  with  qumo- 
line  and  acridine  derivatives.  While  none  is  the 
ideal  drug,  those  of  the  type  of  plasmoqume,  rhodo- 
quine,  and  atibrin  are  certainly  valuable  aids  to 
quinine.  Here  again,  however,  the  great  obstacle 
to  progress  is  the  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  mecha- 
nism by  means  of  which  the  drug  acts  and  what 
properties  it  should  have  to  be  effective. 

Progress  has  been  made  during  the  year  in  cer- 
tain other  fields  of  investigation.  Adams  and  his 
students  have  continued  their  studies  on  marihuana, 
that  part  of  the  hemp  plant,  or  extract  therefrom 
which  induces  somatic  and  psychic  changes  in  man. 
Their  researches  on  one  of  the  components  of  the 
"red  oil,"  cannabmol,  have  led  to  a  clearer  picture 
of  its  structure.  They  have  shown  that  the  hy- 
droxyl  group  and  n-amyl  group  occupy  different 
positions  from  those  first  suggested  by  Cahn  Their 
formula,  which  represents  cannabmol  as  1-methyl 
3-n-amyl-6,6,9-tnmethyl-6-dibenzopyran,  has  been 
demonstrated  to  be  correct  by  synthesis  They  have 
also  isolated  another  compound  cannabidiol  and 
work  on  its  structure  has  been  carried  out  Like 
cannabinpl  it  is  also  physiologically  inactive  When 
cannabidiol  is  isomenzed  with  various  acidic  re- 
agents it  produces  two  forms  of  a  new  compound 
tetrahydrocannabmol.  The  evidence  is  that  their 
structures  differ  mainly  in  the  location  of  the  dou- 
ble bond.  The  lower  rotating  form  has  high  ac- 
tivity; the  higher  rotating  form  is  less  active  Both 
can  be  hydrogenated  to  give  a  single  hexahydro- 
cannabmol  which  is  also  physiologically  active  Re- 
cently Todd  has  isolated  another  compound  from 
"red  oil"  which  he  has  named  cannibol.  There  is  as 
yet,  however,  no  information  regarding  its  chem- 
ical and  physiological  properties. 

A  protein-digesting  enzyme  resembling  pepsin 
in  its  action  has  been  found  in  the  weed  known  as 
horse  nettle  Experiments  show  that  it  is  even  more 
like  the  digestive  agent  found  in  papaya,  and  called 
papain.  Because  of  the  weed's  name,  solanum,  this 
newly  discovered  substance  is  called  solanain  Since 
papain  has  been  used  in  medicine  it  is  possible  that 
this  enzyme  may  also  be  of  value  It  is  also  to  be 
noted  that  it  may  find  an  economic  use  in  tanning, 
etc 

A  complex  vaccine  effective  against  different 
strains  of  influenza  virus  has  been  produced  by 
Dr.  F.  L.  Horsfall,  Jr  and  Dr.  E.  H  Lennette  of 
the  Laboratories  of  the  International  Health  Di- 
vision, The  Rockefeller  Foundation,  New  York.  By 
means  of  their  experiments  it  has  been  possible 
to  prepare  vaccines  capable  of  producing  active 
immunity  in  ferrets  against  the  influenza  virus. 


Ferrets  which  were  given  these  vaccines  and  sub- 
sequently inoculated  with  1000  infectious  doses  of 
heterologous  strains  of  influenza  virus  showed  nei- 
ther the  typical  signs  of  infection  nor  increase  in 
neutralizing  antibodies,  indicating  conclusively  that 
no  infection  by  the  virus  had  occurred.  This  vac- 
cine was  also  tested  on  small  groups  of  humans.  It 
was  found  that  a  vaccine  prepared  from  the  tissues 
of  ferrets  suffering  from  "concurrent  infections 
with  influenza  virus  and  the  strain  of  distemper 
virus  isolated  from  spontaneously  infected  ferrets" 
produced  a  definite  increase  in  antibodies  neutral- 
izing influenza  virus  in  every  case.  These  investi- 
gators are  now  conducting  experiments  to  deter- 
mine the  duration  of  the  immunity  in  man  produced 
by  this  complex  vaccine. 

From  a  statement  of  Dr.  Mary  Collier  of  the 
Mission  Station  in  Nan  Siam,  published  in  Science, 
scientists  have  gained  the  information  that  in  the 
use  of  diphtheria  toxoid  and  antitoxin  there  is  a 
treatment  for  leprosy  which  far  exceeds  any  meth- 
od yet  known.  Startling  results  are  obtained  It 
was  known  previously  that  the  leprosy  baccilus 
damaged  greatly  the  adrenal  glands  and  that  this 
injury  was  the  more  immediate  cause  of  trouble 
It  is  also  known  that  diphtheria  liberates  a  toxin 
which  damages  the  adrenal  glands  Thus,  it  oc- 
curred to  Dr  Collier  that  the  use  of  the  antitoxin 
and  toxoid  might  be  beneficial.  The  results  to  date 
are  so  favorable  that  it  is  hoped  to  immunize  the 
children  and  associates  of  lepers  and  so  in  time  to 
eradicate  the  disease 

At  last  it  is  possible  to  report  on  the  therapeutic 
effectiveness  of  certain  new  compounds  in  arthri- 
tis. Early  in  1939  Dr.  A.  B.  Sabm  reported  that 
by  intravenous  injection  of  a  newly  discovered 
pleuropncumonia-like  microorganism  it  was  pos- 
sible to  produce  an  experimental  chronic  arthritis 
in  mice  which  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  human 
arthritis  Continuing  these  experiments  this  inves- 
tigator now  reports  that  a  practically  non-toxic 
new  gold  compound,  calcium  aurothiomalate,  has 
been  prepared  which  has  high  therapeutic  effective- 
ness in  combatting  this  disease  It  is  interesting 
that  this  substance  is  approximately  ten  times  more 
effective  therapeutically  than  is  calcium  aurotbio- 
glycollate  Although  at  present  the  investigations 
have  been  carried  out  only  on  mice  it  is  hoped  that 
shortly  other  types  of  mammals  may  be  studied 

It  has  also  been  reported  by  Boyd  and  his  co- 
workers  that  treatment  of  arthritis  with  acetyl- 
beta-methylcholine  chloride  is  giving  encouraging 
results  Thirty-five  cases  of  arthritis  have  been  so 
treated.  Ten  of  sixteen  patients  whose  hands  were 
treated  showed  an  increased  flexibility  in  function 
and  usefulness  Pain  was  reduced  in  some  patients. 
Muscular  fatigue  was  markedly  relieved  in  almost 
all  cases  adequately  treated  Increased  endurance 
was  experienced  by  those  completing  a  full  course 
of  treatment  Maximum  effects  were  obtained  aft- 
er a  course  of  eighteen  to  twenty  treatments.  Cir- 
culatory changes  were  graphically  demonstrated 
Patients  with  circulatory  disturbances  of  the  ex- 
tremities— those  with  cool,  pale,  moist,  and  often 
cyanotic  hands  and  feet— gained  most  from  the 
treatment. 

To  this  reviewer  progress  during  the  past  twelve 
months  in  cancer  research  is  more  promising  than 
formerly  Early  in  the  year  Dr.  John  F  Menke  of 
Stanford  University  announced  that  he  had  suc- 
ceeded in  preparing  from  certain  cancers  of  human 
origin  an  extract  which  when  injected  into  mice 
produced  tumors.  This  is  the  first  time  in  medical 


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75 


BIRTH  CONTROL 


history  that  a  substance  from  human  cancer  has 
been  incontestibly  transmitted  to  an  animal.  Re- 
cently, in  Science,  Dr.  P.  E.  Steiner  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  has  reported  that  from  unaf- 
fected livers  of  persons  who  have  died  from  cancer 
he  has  prepared  an  extract  which  produces  cancer 
in  mice.  This  work,  it  can  be  seen,  goes  further 
in  that  it  shows  that  in  an  unaffected  organ  of  the 
body  there  is  stored  up  a  substance  which  is  car- 
cinogenic in  its  nature.  Although  sufficient  time 
has  not  elapsed  to  permit  a  final  conclusion,  to  date 
a  similar  extract  from  the  livers  of  non-cancer 
bearing  persons  has  not  induced  tumors  Dr  Stern- 
er reports  that  experiments  are  in  progress  on  the 
chemical  separation,  on  the  relation  to  the  type  of 
cancer  produced,  on  the  distribution  within  the 
body,  and  on  the  origin  of  this  most  highly  inter- 
esting compound. 

A  few  developments  have  been  made  with  the 
new  electron  microscope.  A  conservative  estimate 
based  on  the  examination  of  pictures  taken  with 
this  instrument  makes  the  resolving  power  20  times 
that  of  the  best  light  microscope  As  is  well  known 
this  instrument  uses  electricity  instead  of  light  and 
magnetic  fields  instead  of  lenses  In  a  lecture  by 
Dr  T.  F.  Anderson  given  in  the  Frick  Chemical 
Laboratory  of  Princeton  University  new  facts 
about  viruses  to  the  diphtheria  bacillus  were  de- 
scribed which  are  of  great  interest  For  example, 
since  1900  it  has  been  known  that  the  diphtheria 
bacillus  reduces  tellurite  salts  to  the  metal  It  has 
not  been  known,  however,  where  the  formation  of 
the  metal  occurred  This  new  microscope  shows 
clearly  that  the  crystals  are  not  only  contained 
within  the  diphtheria  cells  themselves,  but  that  in 
some  cases  they  protrude  through  the  cells  or  ex- 
tend the  cellular  membrane.  When  applied  to  vi- 
ruses one  can  see  from  the  picture  so  produced  the 
shape  of  the  individual  molecules  It  is,  thus,  re- 
vealed that  they  are  of  great  length  relative  to  their 
width  and  thickness.  See  also  CHFMISTRY  ;  MEDI- 
CINE AND  SURGERY 

EVERETT  S   WALITS 

BIOLOGICAL   SURVEY,  Bureau  of.  A 

bureau  of  the  U.S  Department  of  the  Interior 
which  was  consolidated  with  the  Bureau  of  Fish- 
eries on  June  30,  1940,  to  form  the  Fish  and  Wild- 
life Service  (qv.). 

BIRDS.  See  FISH  AND  WIIDLIFE  SERVICE;  ZO- 
OLOGY 

BIRTH  CONTROL.  The  inclusion  of  birth 
control  service  with  other  health  services  available 
to  the  public  in  the  United  States  gained  impetus 
in  1940.  This  may  be  attributed  to  increased  under- 
standing and  support  of  physicians,  health,  and  wel- 
fare officers,  and  the  lay  public.  Evidence  of  this 
support  appeared  in  the  response  to  a  Gallup  Poll, 
released  by  the  American  Institute  of  Public  Opin- 
ion in  January,  reporting  answers  to  the  question, 
"Would  you  approve  or  disapprove  of  having  gov- 
ernment health  clinics  furnish  birth  control  infor- 
mation to  married  people  who  want  it?"  The  vote 
of  those  who  expressed  opinions  was  77  per  cent 
affirmative 

At^the  close  of  1940,  physicians  were  serving  in 
606  birth  control  centers  in  this  country,  as  against 
553  at  the  close  of  1939.  Of  them,  109  were  in  hos- 
pitals, as  against  96  in  1939;  180  in  health  depart- 
ments, compared  with  162  in  1939;  252  were  sup- 
ported in  whole  or  m  part  by  public  funds,  as 
against  223  in  1939.  There  has  been  an  increased 
interest  in  the  teaching  of  contraception  in  medical 


schools.  Physicians  direct  the  work  of  all  birth  con- 
trol centers  listed  by  the  Birth  Control  Federation 
of  America. 

Public  health  nurses  acting  as  field  representa- 
tives of  the  Federation  in  eleven  States  during  the 
year,  have  been  able  under  medical  direction  to  take 
simple  contraceptives  to  women  in  isolated  rural 
areas  and  instruct  them  in  their  use.  Finding  that 
the  high  rates  of  infant  and  maternal  mortality 
among  Negroes  all  over  the  country,  were  due  in 
part  to  ill-advised  pregnancies,  the  Federation  set 
up  two  special  Negro  demonstration  projects,  one 
urban  and  one  rural.  The  Federation  sponsored  and 
took  part  in  regional  Conferences  on  Tomorrow's 
Children  in  Chapel  Hill,  N  C ,  and  in  connection 
with  the  Harvard  Summer  School  at  Boston, 
Mass.  It  participated  in  the  National  Conference 
of  Social  Work,  and  its  affiliated  State  Leagues 
took  part  in  State  Conferences  of  Social  Work  in 
many  states  during  the  year. 

The  State  health  departments  of  North  and 
South  Carolina  continued  extending  to  indigent 
women  medically  directed  contraceptive  service. 

During  the  year  the  Federal  Trade  Commission 
was  active  against  false  therapeutic  claims  of  nu- 
merous commercial  contraceptives,  issuing  "cease- 
and-desist"  orders,  and  bringing-  suits  against  a 
number  of  manufacturers  and  sellers  of  certain 
products.  The  Commission  has  moved,  also,  against 
several  firms  advertising  and  marketing  calendars 
and  slide  rules  for  the  so-called  "safe  period"  or 
"rhythm"  method  of  birth  control,  stating  that  the 
weight  of  medical  opinion  was  against  the  state- 
ment that  absolutely  accurate  calculations  of  such 
periods  could  be  made. 

On  Mar  21,  1940,  by  a  vote  of  three  to  two,  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Errors  of  the  State  of  Connecti- 
cut handed  down  a  decision  upholding  the  existing 
law  of  the  State,  which  is  the  only  one  in  the  coun- 
try forbidding  the  "use"  of  contraceptives,  and  rul- 
ing that,  tinder  the  statute,  it  was  illegal  for  physi- 
cians to  prescribe  contraceptives  or  for  patients  to 
use  them,  even  where  definite  medical  indications 
existed.  As  a  result  of  this  decision  all  birth  con- 
trol centers  in  the  State  were  closed,  pending  effort 
to  change  the  law. 

The  Massachusetts  Mothers'  Health  Council  se- 
cured 44,500  certified  names  on  its  initiative  peti- 
tion to  change  the  law  in  that  State.  The  question 
will  be  voted  upon  by  the  people  of  the  State  in 
November,  1941.  Mrs  Sanger  made  a  tour  of  the 
State,  speaking  in  a  number  of  the  larger  cities.  In 
Holyoke  opposition  of  some  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic leaders  resulted  in  cancellation  of  rental  of  two 
meeting  places,  and  she  spoke  finally  in  the  quar- 
ters of  a  local  textile  union,  urging  support  of  the 
initiative  petition  to  the  end  that  the  physicians  of 
Massachusetts  would  again  be  free  to  advise  pa- 
tients legally  on  contraception 

During  the  year,  groups  in  the  States  of  Maine 
and  Virginia  were  organized  and  affiliated  with  the 
Birth  Control  Federation,  making  32  co-operating 
State  leagues  D  Kenneth  Rose  became  Executive 
Vice-President  of  the  Federation  and  Woodbridge 
E.  Morris,  M  D.,  General  Medical  Director  Other 
officers  were  re-elected  The  work  of  the  Federa- 
tion is  sponsored  by  a  National  Committee  for 
Planned  Parenthood,  comprising  over  1600  leaders 
from  all  walks  of  life,  who  actively  subscribe  to  the 
principle  that  the  privilege  of  planning  a  pregnancy 
should  be  made  as  available  to  families  in  the  eco- 
nomically or  geographically  restricted  portions  of 
our  population  as  it  now  is  to  families  economically 


BIRTHS  AND  BIRTH  RATES 


76 


BOHEMIA  AND  MORAVIA 


or  geographically  better  off.  The  Federation's 
budget  for  1940  was  $152,000,  derived  mainly  from 
contributions,  which  are  tax-exempt.  The  program 
includes,  besides  the  above  mentioned  medical  and 
field  services,  consultation  service,  and  a  sustained 
program  of  public  education.  The  Journal  of  Con- 
traception, published  by  the  Federation,  changed  its 
name,  in  January,  to  Human  Fertility,  as  more 
truly  describing  the  nature  of  its  contents.  See 
CONNECTICUT  under  History 

Australia.  Birth  control  clinics  continued  opera- 
tions in  Australia,  despite  the  war.  Mothers  in  low 
income  groups  are  now  given  a  maternity  bonus  of 
twenty  dollars  on  the  birth  of  each  child,  with  a 
small  weekly  payment  for  each  child  after  the  first 
in  New  South  Wales. 

England.  The  Family  Planning  Association, 
headed  by  Lord  Horder,  continued  work.  Clinics 
still  functioned  and  reported  increased  attendance 
due  to  the  war,  with  its  attendant  uncertainty  and 
insecurity.  Dr.  Marie  Stopes*  clinic  was  bombed  in 
an  October  air  raid,  and  partly  wrecked 

France.  The  new  legal  code,  put  in  effect  during 
the  year,  provided  more  drastic  regulation  of  con- 
traceptive advertising  The  Vichy  government  bent 
all  efforts  to  induce  a  rise  in  the  birth  rate  and  to 
return  women  to  the  home. 

Germany.  Continued  strenuous  opposition  to 
birth  control  was  coupled  with  a  new  policy  to 
raise  the  birth  rate  and  prevent  loss  of  population 
due  to  the  war  Women  and  girls  were  told  that  it 
could  become  "an  exalted  task,  even  outside  of 
wedlock,  to  become  mothers  of  children  begotten 
by  soldiers  moving  to  the  front " 

India.  The  All-India  Women's  Conference  met 
in  Allahabad  in  January  and  adopted  a  resoultion 
calling  for  family  planning  as  essential  to  health, 
urging  instruction  in  contraceptive  technique  for  all 
medical  officers  connected  with  municipal  and  gov- 
ernment hospitals,  dispensaries,  and  health  centers, 
and  asking  that  advice  be  given  married  women  at 
such  agencies.  The  National  Planning  Commission 
also  passed  a  resolution  urging  the  establishment 
of  birth  control  clinics  under  State  direction. 

New  Zealand.  The  Family  Planning  Associa- 
tion, as  affiliate  of  the  British  organization  succeed- 
ed the  Sex  Hygiene  and  Birth  Regulation  Society 
and  continued  to  carry  on  its  work 

Puerto  Rico.  Birth  control  clinic  services  were 
established  under  the  Board  of  Public  Health  The 
Asociation  pro  Salud  Maternal  e  Infantil  continued 
its  work  to  bring  simple  forms  of  contraception  to 
the  low  income  group  on  the  Island 

WOODBRIDGE  E    MORRIS. 

BIRTHS  AND  BIRTH  RATES.  See  BIRTH 
CONTROL;  VITAL  STATISTICS;  and  major  countries 
under  Population 

BISMARCK  ARCHIPELAGO.  See  AUS- 
TRALIA. 

BITUMINOUS  COAL  COMMISSION. 
See  COAL  AND  COKE;  UNITED  STATES  under  Reg- 
ulation in  Other  Fields 

"BLACK  LIGHT."  See  ELECTRICAL  ILLUMI- 
NATION. 

BLIND  AND  HANDICAPPED,  Aid  to 
the.  See  SOCIAL  SECURITY  BOARD;  also,  CHIL- 
DREN'S BUREAU;  EDUCATION,  U.S.  OFFICE  OF;  RE- 
LIEF. 

BLISTER  RUST.  See  ENTOMOLOGY,  ECONOM- 
IC; FORESTRY. 

BLITZKRIEG  TACTICS.  See  EUROPEAN 
WAR;  MILITARY  PROGRESS. 


BLOCKADE.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR;  SHIP- 
PING ,  and  the  countries  affected,  as  BELGIUM,  BUL- 
GARIA, DENMARK,  FRANCE  (AND  COLONIES),  GER- 
MANY, GREAT  BRITAIN,  GREECE,  IRELAND,  NETH- 
ERLANDS, NORWAY,  RUMANIA,  SPAIN,  SWEDEN, 
SWITZERLAND,  IURKEY. 

BLOOD  PLASMA.  See  MEDICINE  AND  SUR- 
GERY 

BOBSLEDDING.  Miss  Katharin  Dewey,  24 
years  old,  attained  international  fame  when  she 
piloted  a  team  to  win  the  national  A.A  U.  senior 
"four  man"  bobsled  racing  championship  on  the 
Mount  van  Hoevenberg  run  at  Lake  Placid. 

Miss  Dewey,  skipper  of  the  Sno  Birds  of  the 
Lake  Placid  Club,  had  for  crew  three  hefty  young 
men,  Leo  and  Pat  Martin  and  Lawrence  Straight 
They  outstripped  such  favored  bobsledders  as  Bill 
Lmney  of  Lyon  Mountain  and  Francis  Tyler,  Lake 
Placid' s  Olympic  veteran  The  Linney-piloted  sled 
was  second  to  Miss  Dewey's  for  four  heats  and 
ended  as  runner-up. 

Linney,  however,  fared  better  in  other  competi- 
tions With  the  Republic  Miners  Club  team,  he 
captained  a  sled,  in  which  John  Kerr,  Jerry  Blanch, 
and  Angus  Clain  were  crew,  to  the  national  junior 
championship  of  the  A  A  U ,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  several  other  tournaments.  He  wrested 
the  North  American  championship,  the  Adirondack 
Association  A  A  U  senior  title,  the  Governor  Her- 
bert H  Lehman  Trophy,  the  Samuel  H  Packer 
Trophy,  and  the  Lowell  Thomas  International  Tro- 
phy. 

Tuffield  Latour,  an  undertaker,  and  Paul  Du- 
pree,  his  friend,  both  of  the  Saranac  Lake  A.  A , 
achieved  distinction  in  two-man  competitions  They 
won  the  national  AAU  senior  and  junior  titles, 
the  North  American  championship,  the  Adirondack 
Association  AAU  senior  crown,  and  the  Lowell 
Thomas  International  Trophy. 

BOHEMIA  AND  MORAVIA.  Two  former 
provinces  of  Czecho-Slovakia,  which  after  being 
shorn  of  their  Sudeten  districts  by  the  Munich 
Accord  of  Sept  29,  1938,  were  occupied  by  Ger- 
man troops  on  Mar  15,  1939,  and  proclaimed  a 
protectorate  of  the  Reich  the  following  day  Capi- 
tal, Prague. 

Area  and  Population.  The  protectorate  has 
an  area  of  19,058  square  miles  (Bohemia,  12,525; 
Moravia,  6533)  and  a  population  estimated  at 
6,804,875  on  Jan  1,  1939  (Bohemia,  4,472,353, 
Moravia,  2,332,522)  The  inhabitants  are  Czechs 
except  for  a  small  German  minority.  The  chief 
cities,  with  their  1937  populations,  are-  Praha 
(Prague),  962,200;  Brno  (Brunn),  291,800;  Mo- 
ravska  Ostrava,  178,099  in  1935;  Plzen  (Pilsen), 
124,353  in  1935. 

Production,  etc.  See  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  181- 
182  for  statistical  data  on  Czecho-Slovakia  before 
the  partition.  Little  statistical  information  on  the 
protectorate  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia  has  since 
become  available  Agriculture,  manufacturing,  for- 
estry, and  commerce  are  the  chief  occupations. 
Cereals,  corn,  potatoes,  beet  sugar,  tobacco,  and 
flax  are  the  chief  crops.  Leading  industrial  prod- 
ucts: Arms,  rayon  and  other  textiles,  wood  pulp, 
cement,  shoes,  glass,  leather  goods,  iron  and  steel 
products,  and  innumerable  others.  Western  Bo- 
hemia is  one  of  the  leading  industrial  areas  of 
Europe.  The  protectorate  is  an  important  source 
of  coal,  iron  ore,  salt,  zinc,  and  antimony. 

Finance.  The  budget  for  the  autonomous  ad- 
ministration of  the  Protectorate  in  1939  was  •  Re- 
ceipts, 4,638,000,000  crowns;  expenditures,  4,902,- 


BOHEMIA  AND  MORAVIA 


77 


BOHEMIA  AND  MORAVIA 


000,000  crowns  (1  reichsmark  equals  10  crowns). 

Government.  For  the  governmental  system 
previous  to  the  German  occupation,  see  1939  YEAR 
BOOK,  p  182.  The  terms  of  the  Protectorate  were 
set  forth  in  the  decree  signed  by  Chancellor  Hitler 
and  several  members  of  his  Cabinet  on  Mar.  16, 
1939.  Bohemia  and  Moravia  were  declared  to  "be- 
long henceforth  to  the  territory  of  the  Great  Ger- 
man Reich."  Germany  assumed  direct  control  of 
the  Protectorate's  defense,  foreign  affairs,  com- 
munications and  postal  and  telephone  systems, 
customs,  currency.  The  Protectorate  was  declared 
autonomous,  with  its  own  organs,  authorities,  and 
officials 

But  these  prerogatives,  according  to  the  decree, 
are  exercised  "in  accordance  with  the  political, 
military  and  economic  importance  of  the  Reich  " 
"The  Head  of  the  Protectorate  must  have  the 
confidence  of  the  Fuehrer  and  Reich  Chancellor 
for  the  discharge  of  his  duties."  The  German 
Chancellor  appoints  a  "Reich  Protector  in  Bo- 
hemia and  Moravia,"  who  as  Hitler's  representa- 
tive and  as  delegate  of  the  Reich  Government  "has 
the  task  of  seeing  that  the  lines  of  policy  laid 
down  by  the  Fuehier  .  are  observed."  The 
Protector  was  empowered  to  dismiss  all  members 
of  the  Protectorate's  government,  reject  its  meas- 
ures, and  prevent  the  promulgation  of  its  laws, 
decrees  and  ciders  as  well  as  the  execution  of 
administrative  measures  and  judicial  decisions. 
The  decree  gave  the  Reich  Government  blanket 
authority  to  "promulgate  orders  applicable  to  the 
Protectorate  in  so  far  as  the  common  interest  de- 
mands it " 

The  decree  made  all  German  inhabitants  of  the 
Protectorate  German  nationals  and  Reich  citizens, 
subject  to  German  jurisdiction  and  to  "the  regula- 
tions for  the  protection  of  German  blood  and  Ger- 
man honor  "  Other  inhabitants  were  declared  "na- 
tionals of  the  Protectoi  ate  "  Chancellor  Hitler  on 
Mar  18,  1939,  appointed  Baron  Constantin  von 
Neurath,  former  German  Foreign  Minister,  as 
Reich  Protector,  with  headquarters  at  Prague 
Karl  Hermann  Frank,  a  leader  of  the  Sudeten 
German  agitation  against  the  Czecho-Slovak  Re- 
public before  the  Munich  Accord,  was  appointed 
State  Secretary  of  the  Protectorate,  with  control 
over  both  Geiman  and  Czech  police  Dr  Emil 
Hacha,  elected  President  of  the  Czecho-Slovak 
Republic  by  the  National  Assembly  Nov  30,  1938, 
and  signer  of  the  capitulation  agreement  of  Mar 
15,  1939,  remained  in  office  as  President  of  the 
Protectorate  The  government  of  the  Protectorate, 
as  reconstructed  Apr  27,  1939,  was  headed  by 
Gen  Ing  Alois  Ehas  Over  and  above  the  rule 
of  the  Reich  Protector  and  the  puppet  govern- 
ment of  the  Protectorate  was  the  rule  of  the  Ger- 
man secret  police  and  military  commanders 

Measures  placed  in  effect  during  1939  under  the 
decree  of  March  16  completed  the  transformation 
of  Bohemia  and  Moravia  into  an  authoritarian 
state  completely  subservient  to  Berlin  and  serving 
as  a  political  and  economic  appendage  of  the 
Reich  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p  183  f)  The  Na- 
tional Unity  party  (Czech)  and  the  National  So- 
cialist party  (a  branch  of  the  German  Nazi  party) 
were  the  only  legal  political  groups  permitted,  and 
both  were  under  close  German  supervision 

HISTORY 

Nazi  administration  of  the  Protectorate  in  1940 
was  marked  by  an  extension  of  German  political 
and  economic  control,  a  determined  effort  to  de- 


nationalize and  Germanize  the  Czechs,  the  ruth- 
less crushing  of  efforts  at  opposition,  and  the 
continued  stubborn  resistance  of  the  Czechs  to  all 
forms  of  pressure. 

Under  its  new  German  managers  and  owners, 
Czech  industry  was  converted  into  a  vast  arms  fac- 
tory with  the  great  Skoda  and  Brno  munitions 
and  armament  works  as  a  basis.  Numerous  Jew- 
ish-owned textile  plants  were  taken  over  by 
Germans  and  converted  to  the  manufacture  of 
uniforms  and  other  war  supplies.  The  application 
of  anti-Semitic  measures  was  used  to  transfer 
control  of  further  industries  and  properties  to 
German  hands,  while  Czech  manufacturers,  bank- 
ers, and  business  men  were  increasingly  driven  out 
of  business  and  replaced  by  Germans.  Czech  pub- 
lic and  private  revenues  weie  expropriated.  More 
workers  were  drafted  for  labor  service  in  the 
Reich  More  Czech  properties  and  natural  re- 
sources were  appropriated  for  German  war  needs 
or,  it  was  charged,  simply  stolen  by  the  Nazi  party 
organization  in  the  Protectorate  and  the  Gestapo 
(secret  police).  There  was  systematic  persecu- 
tion of  intellectuals,  priests,  members  of  patriotic 
organizations  and  former  soldiers  and  public  serv- 
ants who  sought  to  "maintain  Czech  thought." 

Czech  universities  and  many  high  schools  were 
closed  as  centers  of  anti -Germanism  Books  of 
great  Czech  national  writers  were  banned.  Pub- 
lications of  all  kinds  were  strictly  censored  and 
many  articles  appearing  in  newspapers  under 
Czech  names  were  said  to  have  been  written  at 
German  dictation  From  time  to  time  during  the 
year  reports  from  the  Protectorate  by  way  of 
Prague,  Belgrade,  Rome,  Paris  or  London  told 
of  large-scale  arrests  of  Czechs  by  the  Gestapo, 
of  crowded  prisons,  of  persecution  in  concentra- 
tion camps,  of  continued  acts  of  violence  by  indi- 
vidual Czechs  against  Germans,  of  extensive 
sabotage  by  Czech  workers  in  munitions  and  other 
industries,  and  of  intensified  Czech  passive  resist- 
ance to  German  measures  and  demands 

There  was  a  steady  trickle  of  Czech  fugitives 
from  the  Protectorate  to  neighboring  countries.  At 
the  end  of  January  Dr  Jaromir  Necas,  Controller 
of  Prices  for  the  Ehas  Government,  and  Ladislav 
Feierabend,  Minister  of  Agriculture,  fled  from 
Prague  to  France  An  Associated  Press  report 
from  Prague,  dated  February  9,  stated  that  from 
500  to  600  leading  Czechs  had  been  placed  in 
"protective  custody."  Other  reports  indicated  that 
the  Gestapo  had  been  successful  m  arresting  many 
members  of  Czech  underground  organizations  en- 
gaged in  sabotage  and  anti-German  propaganda 
On  May  6,  after  several  killings  of  Germans  by 
Czechs,  the  Reich  Protector  decreed  the  death 
sentence  for  possession  of  firearms  or  munitions 
by  Czechs  without  permission  of  the  German  au- 
thorities Czech  sources  in  London  reported  in 
September  that  650  followers  of  Dr.  Benes  had 
been  arrested  during  the  previous  week  in  the 
Protectorate  A  total  of  43,000  Czechs  were  said 
to  be  in  concentration  camps  and  more  than  9000 
under  "protective  arrest"  Following  the  German 
victory  over  France,  the  Germans  were  reported 
to  have  adopted  a  much  harsher  attitude  toward 
the  Czechs. 

Meanwhile  the  German  authorities  lent  encour- 
agement to  the  activities  of  the  small  Czech  Fas- 
cist party — known  as  the  Vlajka— as  another 
instrument  of  warfare  upon  the  Czechs  Com- 
mencing in  January.  Ian  Rys,  militant  leader  of 
this  group,  fiercely  attacked  the  Czech  Govern- 


BOHEMIA  AND  MORAVIA 


78 


BOLIVIA 


ment  as  well  as  Jews,  Freemasons  and  other  anti- 
German  elements.  The  revered  Masaryk,  founder 
and  first  President  of  the  Czecho-Slovak  Republic, 
was  denounced  by  some  of  Rys'  leading  associates. 
Emboldened  by  the  special  privileges  extended  to 
its  members  by  the  Germans,  the  Vlajka  later 
demanded  replacement  of  all  Czech  police  by 
Germans,  removal  of  the  Czech  Government  and 
the  Czech  Mayor  of  Prague,  and  the  signing  by 
President  Hacha  of  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  Chan- 
cellor Hitler.  On  March  16  Rys  threatened  an 
armed  revolt  against  the  Czech  Government. 

Combined  pressure  from  Czech  Fascists  and 
from  German  authorities  was  reflected  in  the 
telegram  sent  to  Hitler  by  President  Hacha  on 
Mar.  15,  1940,  the  first  anniversary  of  the  German 
military  occupation.  It  referred  to  the  "valuable 
advantages"  bestowed  by  German  protection  and 
concluded  with  a  prayer  "for  blessing  and  fortune 
for  the  glorious  armies  of  Germany  which  pro- 
tect the  Czech  people." 

Hitler  replied  that  Germany  did  not  intend  to 
"threaten  Czech  national  existence  or  bring  their 
national  conscience  into  conflict  with  the  general 
necessities  of  the  Reich  "  He  expressed  hope  of 
"preserving  this  part  of  the  Reich  from  the  hor- 
rors of  war."  On  the  same  day  the  leader  of  the 
Czech  National  Unity  party  issued  a  statement 
accepting  the  German  version  that  President 
Hacha  on  Mar.  15,  1939,  had  of  his  own  accord 
requested  Hitler  to  take  Bohemia  and  Moravia 
under  his  protection.  He  declared  Hacha's  "de- 
cision" was  the  only  right  one  and  promised  to 
make  the  Protectorate  a  safe  base  for  the  German 
army  by  hard  work  in  factories,  offices,  and  fields. 
This  statement  was  apparently  inspired  by  fear 
that  the  German  authorities  planned  to  replace 
the  National  Unity  party  by  the  Czech  Fascist 
party  as  the  only  legal  Czech  political  group.  On 
April  23  the  Hacha  Government  dropped  its  per- 
sistent opposition  to  acceptance  of  the  German 
Nuremberg  laws  against  the  Jews.  Following  the 
arrest  of  many  National  Unity  party  leaders,  a 
reorganization  of  the  Hacha  Cabinet  was  an- 
nounced in  Berlin  on  August  17. 

In  March  and  April  the  Germans  organized 
an  armed  force  of  8000  Czechs,  formerly  non- 
commissioned officers  in  the  republican  army,  to 
maintain  internal  order.  They  were  distributed 
in  seven  garrison  towns,  thus  relieving  German 
troops  for  service  on  the  Western  Front.  Further 
measures  restricting  bank  payments  to  Jews  were 
announced  January  27.  The  forced  emigration  of 
Jews  to  Poland  and  elsewhere  continued.  Ger- 
mans from  the  Italian  Tirol  and  from  the  Reich 
proper  were  brought  into  the  Protectorate  to  take 
the  places  and  positions  of  deported  Jews  and  of 
Czech  farmers  and  other  workers  drafted  for 
labor  service  in  the  Reich. 

Another  important  step  toward  economic  ab- 
sorption of  Bohemia-Moravia  in  the  Reich  was 
the  unification  of  their  monetary  systems  and  the 
elimination  of  customs  and  exchange  barriers, 
effective  October  1.  The  par  value  of  the  Czech 
crown  was  fixed  at  one-tenth  of  one  reichsmark, 
the  ratio  in  effect  since  March  1939.  Previously 
the  Germans  had  partially  adjusted  the  Czech 
wage  and  price  structure  to  that  of  the  Reich. 
Nevertheless  higher  prices  prevailing  m  Germany 
tended  further  to  deplete  the  Protectorate's  com- 
modity reserves.  Competition  between  Czech  and 
German  industries  within  the  free  trade  area  was 
restricted  by  quota  and  price  agreements  between 


various  branches  of  industry  in  both  territories 
and  by  the  extension  to  Bohemia-Moravia  of  the 
German  import  and  export  permit  system.  Exports 
of  raw  materials,  semi-manufactures  and  foodstuffs 
from  Bohemia-Moravia  to  Germany  after  Octo- 
ber 1  were  made  subject  to  special  permit  from 
the  Minister  of  Commerce  or  the  Import-Export 
Office  at  Prague. 

See  CZECHO-SLOVAKIA  ;  GERMANY  under  His- 
tory. 

BOILERS.  See  POWER  PLANTS. 

BOK  FOUNDATION.  See  BENEFACTIONS 
under  Foundation  Activities 

BOLIVIA.  A  republic  of  South  America.  Su- 
cre is  the  seat  of  the  Supreme  Court  and  nominally 
the  capital,  but  La  Paz,  the  largest  city,  is  the  ac- 
tual seat  of  the  government. 

Area  and  Population.  Taking  into  account  the 
Chaco  boundary  settlement  of  1938  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 

1938,  p.  131  f.),  Bolivia  has  an  area  estimated  at 
537,792  square  miles.  The  population  on  Dec.  31, 

1939,  was  estimated  at  3,457,000,  divided  racially  as 
follows:  White,  13.08  per  cent;  mestizo  (mixed), 
27.51;  Indian,  52.34,  others,  707.  Foreigners  in 
Bolivia  in  1940  included  about  5000  Germans  and 
German-Bolivians,    475    citizens    of    the    United 
States,  and  about  500  British.  Estimated  1936  pop- 
ulations of  the  chief  cities  were  •  La  Paz,  200,000 
(250,000  in  1940)  ;  Cochabamba,  52,323 ,  Oruro, 
44,826;  Potosi,  35,900;  Santa  Cruz,  31,300;  Sucre, 
27,508.  Spanish  is  the  language  of  the  educated 
classes    The  Indians  speak  mainly  Quechua  and 
Aymara. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  illiteracy  rate, 
which  was  83  5  per  cent  for  that  part  of  the  popu- 
lation seven  years  and  over  in  1900,  remains  high 
The  school  enrollment  in  1936  was:  Elementary, 
73,854;  secondary,  5522 ,  special  schools,  4615 ,  uni- 
versities, 1482  Roman  Catholicism  is  recognized  as 
the  State  religion.  Public  exercise  of  other  forms 
of  worship  is  guaranteed. 

Defense.  There  is  compulsory  military  train- 
ing. The  Chaco  War  of  1932-35  with  Paraguay 
left  Bolivia  with  numerous  war  veterans  and  con 
siderable  armament.  Armed  effectives  in  Novem 
ber,  1940,  totaled  14,060  (army,  13,900 ;  air  force, 
160). 

Production.  Mining  is  the  chief  industry ;  min- 
erals accounted  for  94  per  cent  of  the  value  of  all 
1939  exports  Mineral  exports  in  1939  in  metric 
tons,  with  the  value  in  pounds  sterling  in  parenthe- 
ses, were:  Tin,  27,648  (£6,262,715);  silver,  225 
(£613,645)  ;  wolfram,  2002  (£465,070)  ;  antimony, 
10,060  (£344,021) ;  lead,  14,119  (£215,359)  ;  copper, 
4056  (£178,738) ;  zinc,  7769  (£114,853) ;  gold,  271,- 
595  fine  grams  (£65,124)  ;  bismuth,  13  (£5485) 
Crude  petroleum  production  was  about  14,000  met- 
ric tons  in  1938  Agriculture  and  stock  raising  are 
other  leading  occupations  Wheat,  qumoa,  corn, 
rice,  barley,  sugarcane,  cotton,  coca  leaves,  tobac- 
co, and  coffee  are  the  chief  crops  The  principal 
manufactures  are  alcohol  and  beverages,  food- 
stuffs, textiles,  and  clothing.  A  1937  survey  cov- 
ered 406  industrial  establishments  with  a  total  cap- 
ital of  128,744,159  bolivianos  and  a  production 
valued  at  192,391.300  bolivianos 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1939  were  valued 
at  66,401,727  bolivianos  (70,558,889  in  1938)  ;  ex- 
ports, 117,399,540  (94,829,659  in  1938).  In  current 
United  States  dollars,  the  1939  imports  totaled 
$24,237,000;  exports,  $42,851,000.  See  Production 
for  chief  exports.  Textiles,  wheat,  flour,  sugar, 
live  animals,  and  machinery  are  leading  imports. 


BOLIVIA 


79 


BOLIVIA 


For  distribution  of  trade,  see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939, 
p  81  Also  see  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  for  1939  balanced  at 
300,669,856  bolivianos  and  an  actual  surplus  of  61?- 
230,000  bolivianos  was  reported.  The  original  esti- 
mates for  1940  balanced  at  627,000,000  bolivianos, 
but  a  decree  of  June  29,  1940,  reduced  expendi- 
tures for  the  second  semester  of  the  year  by  65,- 
072,181  bolivianos,  or  20  76  per  cent 

As  of  Dec.  31,  1939,  the  Central  Bank  placed 
the  external  consolidated  dollar  debt  at  $100,202,- 
549  (principal,  $60,896,849;  unpaid  interest,  $39,- 
305,700),  the  external  sterling  debt  at  £634,739, 
and  the  internal  funded  debt  at  356,689,370  boli- 
vianos. There  was  in  addition  a  floating  debt  of 
986,939  pounds  sterling  and  42,668,914  bolivianos 
due  the  Central  Bank  as  of  Jan.  19,  1940,  and  an 
ordinary  floating  debt  of  22,847,854  bolivianos  as 
of  Dec.  31,  1939.  The  boliviano  was  linked  to  the 
pound  sterling  at  the  rate  of  140  per  pound  from 
June,  1938,  until  May  10,  1940,  when  it  was  pegged 
to  the  dollar  at  40  to  1  for  the  duration  of  the 
European  War  The  average  official  exchange  rate 
was  3233  bolivianos  to  the  dollar  in  1939;  curb 
rate,  July-December,  1939,  45  46  bolivianos  to  the 
dollar 

Transportation.  Exclusive  of  lines  under  con- 
struction, Bolivia  had  1402  miles  of  railway  line 
in  1940  Under  the  Bolivian-Brazilian  treaty  of 
Feb  25,  1938  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1938,  p  97)  work 
proceeded  during  1940  on  the  first  section  (Co- 
rumba-El  Carmen,  70  miles)  of  the  railway  that 
will  link  the  Corumba  terminus  of  the  Brazilian 
network  with  the  Bolivian  railways  at  Vila  Vila 
via  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra  Construction  of  the 
Sucre-Camin  railway  was  renewed  Commence- 
ment of  work  on  the  projected  extension  of  the 
Argentine  railway  system  from  the  border  station 
of  Yacuiba  to  Villa  Montes  and  beyond  was  en- 
visaged in  a  provisional  accord  signed  with  Ar- 
gentina (see  History  for  details).  Highway  mile- 
age (1939),  10,154  Five  steamers  operate  on  Lake 
Titicaca  (12,500  feet  above  sea  level)  Statistics 
of  Lloyd  Aereo  Boliviano,  a  Junkers  subsidiary, 
for  1939  were  •  Miles  flown,  478,030 ;  passengers, 
18,407;  freight,  3510  metric  tons.  La  Paz,  Oruro, 
and  Uyuni  are  stations  on  the  Pan  American- 
Grace  Airways  network  A  new  radio  telephone 
circuit  between  the  United  States  and  La  Paz  via 
Buenos  Aires  was  opened  Apr  26,  1940 

Government.  The  1938  Constitution  (see  YEAR 
BOOK,  1938,  p  96  for  chief  provisions)  was  sus- 
pended Apr.  24,  1939,  and  restored  Oct  6,  1939,  as 
described  in  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  pp  82-83.  President 
at  the  beginning  of  1940,  Gen.  Carlos  Quintanilla, 
who  assumed  office  "by  vote  of  the  officers  of  the 
La  Paz  garrison"  on  Aug  23,  1939,  upon  the  death 
of  President  German  Busch  For  developments  in 
1940,  see  History. 

HISTORY 

Constitutionalism  Restored.  The  steps  taken 
by  Provisional  President  Quintanilla  in  1939  to  re- 
store constitutional  government  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 

1939,  pp    83-84)   were  crowned  with  success  in 

1940.  Gen.    Enrique    Penaranda,   commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Bolivian  army  during  the  latter  part 
of   the   Chacp   War,   was    elected   President   on 
March  10  with  the  backing  of  the  Quintanilla  Gov- 
ernment and  of  four  of  the  five  established  politi- 
cal parties.  He  received  more  than  70  per  cent  of 
the  votes  cast  while  the  other  30  per  cent  were 
divided  between  Jos6  Antonio  Arce,  leader  of  the 


newly  organized  Young  Socialist  party,  and  Gen 
Bernardino  Bilbao  Rioja,  who  had  been  deported 
to  Chile  on  Oct.  27,  1939.  The  election  was  orderly 
and  uncontrolled  by  the  government.  Elections  for 
105  Deputies  and  27  Senators,  also  held  in  March, 
favored  the  moderate  and  rightist  parties.  A  Lib- 
eral-Republican Socialist  bloc  won  control  of  the 
Senate  and  held  a  strong  position  in  the  Chamber, 
but  the  election  of  numerous  independents  and 
some  leftists  to  the  lower  house  made  the  balance 
of  power  there  in  doubt. 

Displeased  by  the  electoral  results,  extreme  left- 
ist politicians  joined  with  some  of  the  younger 
army  officers  in  an  attempted  military  coup  on 
March  26  The  revolt  of  some  2000  troops  of  the 
La  Paz  garrison  was  frustrated  by  prompt  action 
on  the  part  of  Gen.  Antenor  Ichazo,  army  chief 
of  staff.  Four  leftist  leaders,  the  head  of  the  mili- 
tary school,  and  the  commander  of  the  Presidential 
Palace  Guard  were  arrested  as  leaders  of  the  con- 
spiracy. A  state  of  siege  was  proclaimed  through- 
out the  republic,  but  it  was  indicated  that  popular 
opinion  strongly  supported  the  government.  The 
inauguration  of  General  Penaranda  as  President 
followed  on  April  15  It  was  the  first  time  since 
the  installation  of  President  Salamanca  in  1931 
that  the  government  had  changed  hands  without  a 
military  coup 

Penaranda's  Policies.  The  new  chief  execu- 
tive continued  the  retreat  from  the  radical  and 
quasi-totalitarian  policies  of  President  Busch,  be- 
gun under  Provisional  President  Quintanilla  In 
his  inaugural  address  he  pledged  that  his  govern- 
ment would  be  democratically  inspired,  support 
inter- American  solidarity,  and  promote  economic 
collaboration  with  neighboring  States.  He  invited 
investments  of  foreign  capital  to  develop  Bolivia's 
agricultural  and  pastoral  riches,  pledged  resump- 
tion of  payments  on  the  foreign  debt  which  had 
been  in  default  since  1932,  and  said  his  government 
would  strive  to  revive  the  mining  industry,  devel- 
op internal  communications,  and  build  additional 
hydro-electric  power  plants  At  the  same  time  the 
President  sought  to  conciliate  potential  enemies  by 
granting  amnesty  to  ex- President  David  Toro,  who 
had  been  in  exile  since  1937,  and  by  appointing 
Gen.  Bilbao  Rioja  military  attache  to  the  Bolivian 
Legation  in  London.  Ringleaders  of  the  March  re- 
volt were  likewise  freed 

President  Penaranda's  cabinet  reflected  election 
returns  in  that  it  included  representatives  of  most 
of  the  political  parties  and  independents,  with  Lib- 
erals and  Republican  Socialists  predominant  Al- 
though the  President  continued  to  rule  by  decree 
pending  the  convening  of  Congress  on  August  6, 
he  ended  the  state  of  siege  on  May  7  and  abolished 
previous  curbs  on  the  press  and  public  agitation 
The  Young  Socialists  and  other  radical  groups 
meanwhile  had  organized  a  Left  Front  under  Dr 
Arce  and  launched  a  vigorous  campaign  against 
the  government's  middle-of-the-road  economic  and 
other  policies  On  July  26  rioting  broke  out  be- 
tween rival  political  factions  in  Oruro  during  a 
Left  Front  convention  The  government  then  ar- 
rested Dr.  Arce  and  other  prominent  leftists  and 
imposed  a  state  of  siege  in  Oruro  Department  The 
prisoners  were  liberated  by  an  amnesty  decree  af- 
fecting all  political  offenders,  issued  on  October  18 

The  cabinet  resigned  on  November  4  when  Con- 
gress passed  a  measure  requiring  reduction  of  the 
ministry  from  11  to  8  portfolios.  The  new  cabinet 
sworn  in  November  1 1  represented  diverse  political 
opinions  and  was  considered  more  strongly  pro- 


BOLIVIA 


80 


BOLIVIA 


democratic.  It  included  Gen.  Carlos  Blanco  Galin- 
do,  former  Provisional  President,  as  Minister  of 
Defense  and  Colonization. 

Legislation,  etc.  Among  the  measures  to  which 
the  leftists  objected  were  the  Qumtanilla  decrees 
of  January  13  and  February  9  prohibiting  strikes 
by  railway  employees  and  forbidding  their  par- 
ticipation in  certain  political  activities  Another 
highly  controversial  issue  was  the  progressive  re- 
peal of  President  Busch's  drastic  mining  legisla- 
tion of  June  7,  1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939).  On 
March  19  all  limits  on  the  amount  of  dividends  the 
mining  companies  could  pay  in  foreign  currencies 
were  abolished  On  May  15  the  companies  were 
granted  reduced  quotas  for  delivery  of  their  for- 
eign exchange  to  the  government  at  the  official 
rate.  Also  their  taxes  were  further  reduced  In  re- 
turn, the  companies  agreed  to  increase  monthly  tin 
exports  to  3000  metric  tons  As  a  result  of  this, 
production  and  exports  of  tin  showed  a  marked 
upturn.  The  rising  foreign  demand  for  tin  and 
other  Bolivian  minerals  virtually  doubled  the  total 
national  income  from  exports  as  compared  with 
the  months  preceding  the  European  War. 

At  the  same  time  the  government  took  steps  to 
curb  speculation  in  certain  types  of  goods,  estab- 
lish a  farm  credit  system,  restrict  importation  of 
luxuries,  and  establish  a  new  social  security  sys- 
tem and  wages-arid-hours  code  worked  out  by  two 
experts  of  the  International  Labor  Office  Eco- 
nomic conditions  remained  extremely  difficult,  how- 
ever, and  this  enhanced  the  government's  problem 
in  seeking  to  allay  discontent  Inflationary  factors 
caused  the  curb  exchange  rate  of  the  boliviano  to 
decline  to  81  to  the  dollar  on  July  17  The  Minister 
of  Finance  then  raised  the  compensation  rate  from 
53.40  to  70  bolivianos  per  dollar,  pegged  the  boli- 
viano to  the  dollar  at  2%  cents,  and  took  other 
steps  by  which  exchange  rates  were  stabilized  dur- 
ing the  last  quarter  of  the  year  as  follows  •  Con- 
trolled, 3990  bolivianos  to  the  dollar,  compensa- 
tion, 55 ;  curb,  about  60. 

Currency  in  circulation  increased  from  547,000,- 
000  bolivianos  in  June,  1939,  to  770,900,000  boli- 
vianos a  year  later.  The  price  index  for  the  city 
of  La  Paz  (Base  1931  =  100)  increased  from  746 
in  January,  1940,  to  769  in  June.  On  July  31  the 
government  extended  the  price  control  measures 
introduced  April  4  by  setting  up  price  regulating 
committees  in  each  departmental  capital.  They 
were  empowered  to  fix  prices  of  both  imported 
merchandise  and  domestic  products.  A  drought, 
combined  with  a  continued  shortage  of  foreign 
exchange,  resulted  in  a  scarcity  of  meat,  sugar, 
corn,  potatoes,  and  certain  other  foodstuffs  during 
the  last  quarter  of  the  year. 

President  Penaranda  on  October  5  recommend- 
ed that  Congress  renew  payments  on  the  defaulted 
public  debt,  appropriating  for  that  purpose  2  per 
cent  of  the  general  revenues  in  1941,  4  per  cent  in 
1942,  6  per  cent  in  1943,  8  per  cent  in  1944,  and  10 
per  cent  in  1945  and  annually  thereafter  A  suc- 
cession of  strikes  during  October  culminated  in  a 
serious  railway  tie-up.  This  was  ended  through 
government  intervention  and  the  concession  of  a 
wage  increase.  An  influx  of  Jewish  refugees  into 
La  Paz  and  other  cities  led  Opposition  deputies  on 
September  8  to  pass  a  bill  authorizing  cancellation 
of  immigration  permits  issued  to  Jews 

Nazi  Activities.  Unrest  was  also  stirred  up 
by  well-organized  German  propaganda,  directed 
against  both  British  and  American  "imperialism 
and  capitalism"  and  their  alleged  servants  in  Bo- 


livia. A  correspondent  of  the  New  York  Times, 
after  surveying  the  situation  in  Bolivia  in  July, 
1940,  charged  that  the  German  Legation  in  La  Paz 
and  the  Bolivian  branch  of  the  German  Nazi  party 
were  preparing  a  "fifth  column  ...  to  help  the 
Germans  wrest  control  of  the  Bolivian  tin  indus- 
try from  the  United  States  if  Germany  wins  the 
war."  He  reported  that  the  Nazis  and  their  Bo- 
livian sympathizers  were  strongly  entrenched  in 
the  government,  army,  and  all  departments  of  eco- 
nomic life,  that  they  subsidized  or  directly  con- 
trolled important  sections  of  the  press  and  radio, 
and  that  some  leftist  and  rightist  Bolivian  leaders 
were  in  their  pay  Guillermo  Gutierrez,  director  of 
La  Razon,  leading  La  Paz  newspaper,  charged  that 
German  and  pro-German  importers  in  Bolivia  were 
using  profits  from  the  sale  of  United  States  goods 
for  pro-Nazi,  anti-United  States,  and  anti-British 
propaganda 

Pro-Ally  sentiment  was  not  lacking,  however 
Italy's  entrance  into  the  war  and  the  collapse  of 
France  led  demonstrators  to  attack  the  German 
and  Italian  legations  in  La  Paz  on  June  12 

Foreign  Relations.  Foreign  Minister  Alberto 
Ostria  Gutierrez,  who  was  retained  in  his  post  by 
President  Penaranda,  was  active  during  1940  in 
forging  closer  economic  and  political  ties  with  all 
of  Bolivia's  neighbors  After  a  five-day  visit  to 
Buenos  Aires,  Dr.  Gutierrez  on  April  2  signed 
three  agreements  with  the  Argentine  Foreign  Min- 
ister Two  of  these  provided  for  quicker  clearance 
of  passengers1  baggage  at  the  frontier  and  exten- 
sion of  Argentine  telegraph  lines  from  Yacuiba  to 
Aguaray  in  Bolivia  The  third  accord  defined  the 
basis  for  the  construction  of  the  projected  rail- 
way between  Yacuiba  on  the  Argentine  frontier 
and  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra,  and  for  joint  Argen- 
tine-Bolivian exploitation  of  the  Bolivian  oil  fields 
tapped  by  the  railway  (sec  YEAR  BOOK,  1937,  p 
97  for  previous  accord). 

Under  this  provisional  agreement,  the  Argentine 
government  agreed  to  advance  funds  for  construc- 
tion of  the  first  section  of  the  railway  from 
Yacuiba  to  Villa  Montes  (62  miles)  The  sum  ad- 
vanced was  to  be  repaid  from  the  output  of  the 
San  Andita  oil  field  (25  miles  north  of  Yacuiba) 
The  Argentine  Government  also  undertook  to  ad- 
vance up  to  500,000  pesos  for  boring  new  wells  in 
the  San  Andita  field  and  to  build  a  pipeline  from 
Bolivian  wells  near  Aguas  Blancas  on  the  Bermejo 
River  to  the  railhead  at  Oran  in  the  Argentine 
Province  of  Salta  The  accord  bound  Argentina 
also,  if  the  output  of  the  Bolivian  wells  justified 
it,  to  finance  construction  of  the  other  sections  of 
the  railway  to  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra  and  of  a 
branch  line  from  Boyuibe  to  Sucre,  already  started 
by  the  Bolivian  Government  It  was  stipulated  that 
the  projected  railways  were  to  be  operated  and 
managed  exclusively  by  the  Bolivian  Government 

By  this  agreement,  La  Paz  officials  hoped  to 
avert  the  threatened  collapse  of  the  government 
petroleum  monopoly  established  to  exploit  Stand- 
ard Oil  properties  expropriated  in  1937.  Under 
management  of  the  monopoly,  Bolivian  fields  were 
producing  only  30  per  cent  of  the  republic's  needs. 
The  government  was  forced  to  import  petroleum 
at  high  prices  while  contributing  heavily  to  the 
expenses  of  the  monopoly 

Modification  of  Bolivia's  attitude  in  the  oil  ex- 
propriation controversy  appeared  likely  as  a  result 
of  this  situation  and  of  economic  collaboration  ex- 
tended by  the  United  States  Government.  In  Sep- 
tember the  La  Paz  authorities  accepted  an  offer  of 


BOLL  WORM 


81 


BOTANY 


United  States  technical  aid  in  reviving  the  once 
important  rubber  industry  of  northeastern  Bolivia. 
It  was  announced  October  4  in  Washington  that 
the  State  Department,  at  the  request  of  the  Bolivi- 
an Government,  had  assigned  two  officers  of  the 
Engineer  Corps,  U.S  Army,  to  survey  the  cost  and 
feasibility  of  completing  the  railway  between  Vila 
Vila  and  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra  (see  under 
Transportation).  Shortly  afterward  Warren  Lee 
Pierson,  president  of  the  United  States  Export- 
Import  Bank,  conferred  with  Bolivian  officials  in 
La  Paz. 

Following  conferences  in  Washington  with  Bo- 
livian tin  producers,  Jesse  Jones,  Federal  Loan 
Administrator,  announced  October  19  that  the 
Metals  Reserve  Company,  a  subsidiary  of  the  Re- 
construction Finance  Corporation,  would  build  or 
finance  a  large  tin  smelter  in  the  United  States 
In  contracts  signed  with  the  Metals  Reserve  Com- 
pany November  4,  five  Bolivian  tin  producers  un- 
dertook to  furnish  sufficient  tin  ores  and  concen- 
trates to  produce  18,000  tons  of  fine  tin  annually 
for  five  years  The  Bolivian  Government  guar- 
anteed faithful  performance  of  the  contracts  by 
the  producers 

No  appreciable  progress  was  recorded  during 
1940  toward  carrying  out  the  Bolivian-Paraguayan 
economic  accords  of  Apr  21,  1939  (see  YEAR 
BOOK,  1939),  and  of  Oct  20,  1939  The  latter  ac- 
cords provided  (1)  for  the  construction  as  soon 
as  possible  of  a  communications  route  uniting  the 
two  countries  by  land,  (2)  for  appointment  of  a 
mixed  commission  to  draft  a  trade  treaty,  (3)  for 
negotiation  of  a  convention  permitting  transit  of 
Bolivian  products  via  the  Paraguay  River,  (4)  for 
establishment  of  a  permanent  air  line  between  La 
Paz  and  Asuncion,  and  (5)  for  furtherance  of 
intellectual,  cultural,  and  scientific  exchange  be- 
tween the  two  countries  The  two  governments  in- 
dicated their  continued  collaboration,  however,  by 
jointly  pushing  plans  for  a  regional  economic  con- 
ference of  the  River  Plate  republics 

See  ARGENTINA  under  History,  PAN  AMERI- 
CANISM, PAN  AMERICAN  UNION,  TIN 

BOLLWORM.  See  ENTOMOIOGY,  ECONOMIC 

BONAIRE  ISLAND.  See  CURACAO 

BOND  PRICES.  See  FINANCIAL  REVIEW 

BOOKS.  See  LITERATURE,  ENGLISH  AND  AMER- 
ICAN ,  the  articles  on  foreign  literatures,  as  FRENCH 
LITIRATURF;  the  bibliographies  under  the  various 
topics,  COPYRIGHT,  LIBRARY  PROGRESS 

BOOTLEGGING.  See  AICOHOIIC  LIQUORS 
For  bootlegging  of  coal,  see  PFNNSYLVAMA  See 
also  SMUGGLING 

BORDER  PATROL.  See  IMMIGRATION,  EM- 
IGRATION, AND  NATURALIZATION 

BORNEO.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA;  NETHER- 
LANDS INDIES  under  Area  and  Population. 

BOTANY.  Physiology.  The  prize  of  The 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science,  given  annually  for  a  notable  contribution 
to  science,  was  awarded  this  year  to  Prof  Dennis 
R.  Hoagland,  Dr.  D.  I.  Arnon,  and  their  associates 
at  the  University  of  California  for  their  paper  on 
the  manner  in  which  the  roots  of  plants  take  in 
nutrients  These  investigators  reached  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  absorption  of  mineral  salts  by  the 
roots  is  a  dynamic  process,  the  necessary  energy 
being  supplied  by  the  protoplasm  of  the  roots  Tn 
order  to  take  in  the  mineral  nutrients,  the  roots 
must  be  actively  absorbing  oxygen 

Many  papers  alone;  physiological  lines  have  been 
published  during  the  year  These  have  dealt  with 


such  topics  as  the  carbohydrate  mechanism,  the 
structure  of  chloroplasts,  the  process  of  photo- 
synthesis, the  role  of  auxins  and  hormones,  the 
stimulating  effect  of  vitamins,  the  growth  of  ex- 
cised roots,  and  photopenodism  New  data  on  these 
various  topics  have  been  accumulated  and  published 
in  the  Annals  of  Botany,  Botanical  Gazette,  New 
Phytologist,  Plant  Physiology,  Contributions  from 
the  Boyce  Thompson  Institute,  Bulletin  of  the 
Torrcy  Botanical  Club,  the  American  Journal  of 
Botany,  Journal  of  Agricultural  Research,  and 
other  botanical  publications  Swingle  (Bot  Rev 
6'  301)  has  given  an  extensive  review  of  regenera- 
tion and  vegetative  propagation,  discussing  the  re- 
sults obtained  on  studies  not  involving  the  appli- 
cation of  growth  substances,  as  well  as  those 
which  do 

A  series  of  papers  (Amer  Aswc  Adv  Sci  Pub 
14),  presented  in  a  symposium  on  The  Cell  and 
Protoplasm  by  several  zoologists  and  botanists,  has 
been  published  These  papers  give  a  general  back- 
ground for  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge 
From  the  botanical  standpoint,  the  walls  of  the 
plant  cells,  the  structure  of  viruses,  and  vitamins 
are  discussed. 

Soil-less  gardening  still  attracts  a  great  deal  of 
attention  Gencke,  one  of  the  first  men  responsible 
for  its  recent  development,  has  published  a  book 
(Prentice  Hall,  Inc  )  describing  his  various  ex- 
periments and  methods  Laurie  has  also  published 
a  book  (McGraw-Hill)  along  the  same  general 
line  Both  books  give  practical  instructions  for  the 
successful  growing  of  plants  in  a  nutrient  culture 
The  history  of  the  culture  of  plants  in  nutrient 
solutions  has  been  reviewed  by  Shive  (Scicnt 
Monthly  51  233)  His  article  serves  as  a  very 
good  historical  background  and  emphasizes  the  im- 
portant part  that  the  subject  has  played  in  the  de- 
velopment of  plant  physiology. 

Ecology.  Many  contributions  have  been  pub- 
lished along  various  ecological  lines  in  the  1940 
volumes  of  the  Journal  of  Ecology,  Ecological 
Monographs,  New  Phytologist,  and  elsewhere  The 
studies  have  involved  such  topics  as  the  influence 
of  enyironal  factors  on  tree  growth,  the  natural 
establishment  of  white  pine,  the  regeneration  of 
longleaf  pine  in  abandoned  areas,  the  succession  of 
plants  on  abandoned  and  eroded  farmland,  the  oc- 
currence of  grasslands  and  relic  prairie  areas  in 
central  Wisconsin 

Genetics  and  Cytology.  Many  papers  dealing 
with  such  topics  as  the  mutations  caused  by  X-rays, 
the  effect  of  colchicme  in  changing  the  chromo- 
some number  and  the  structure  of  chromosomes, 
and  the  inheritance  of  various  characters,  have  ap- 
peared in  the  Annals  of  Botany,  Journal  of  Hctcd- 
ity,  Hereditas,  American  Journal  of  Botany,  and 
other  publications.  Chemicals  have  been  used  to 
induce  mutation  in  species  of  Aspergillus.  Inter- 
esting results  on  the  effect  of  colchicine  in  pro- 
ducing polyploids  in  cotton,  lily,  and  other  plants 
have  been  obtained  Tetraploids  in  dioecious  plants 
of  Melandrium  and  different  species  of  Amaranths 
have  resulted  from  the  colchicine  treatment  Other 
papers  have  dealt  with  such  subjects  as  root-knot 
resistance  in  beans  and  the  occurrence  of  natural 
hybrids  between  species 

Dermen  (Bot.  Rer  6  599)  has  reviewed  the 
very  extensive  recent  literature  on  colchicine  poly- 
ploidy  and  technique  Allen  (Bot  Rcr  6  227)  has 
summarized  the  data  on  the  genotypic  basis  of  sex- 
expression  in  Angiosperms. 

Evolution.  Campbell  has  published  an  extensive 


BOTANY 


82 


BOWLING 


volume  on  The  Evolution  of  the  Land  Plants 
(Stanford  Univ.  Press),  a  topic  in  which  he  has 
been  interested  for  many  years.  His  book  deals 
with  the  liverworts,  mosses,  ferns,  and  seed  plants, 
all  of  which  are  grouped  under  the  general  name 
of  Embryophyta  He  reviews  the  extensive  data 
on  the  development  of  individual  groups  of  the  land 
plants  and  the  possible  lines  of  their  evolution, 
considering  in  detail  the  many  theories  concerning 
their  origin  which  have  been  presented. 

Mycology  and  Plant  Pathology.  Insect  Trans- 
mission of  Plant  Diseases  has  been  treated  fully 
in  an  extensive  volume  by  Leach  (McGraw-Hill). 
The  important  role  of  insects  in  relation  to  certain 
plant  diseases  caused  by  bacteria,  fungi,  and  vi- 
ruses, is  very  completely  considered  Reed  (Amer. 
Jour.  Bot  27:  135)  has  summarized  extensive  data 
on  physiologic  specialization  in  the  oat  smuts;  29 
distinct  races  of  loose  smut  and  14  of  covered  smut 
have  been  differentiated  Papers  have  appeared  on 
the  life  history  of  several  of  the  water  molds,  a 
group  of  organisms  which  has  been  largely  neg- 
lected until  recent  years.  Christenberry  (Elisha 
Mitchell  Sci.  Soc.  Jour  56: 333)  has  described  the 
species  of  Mucprales  in  the  Southeastern  United 
States,  54  species  belonging  to  6  families  being 
listed  in  his  work.  Raper  (Elisha  Mitchell  Sci 
Soc.  Jour.  56  •  241 )  has  described  the  formation 
and  organization  of  the  pseudoplasmodia  in  a  mem- 
ber of  the  slime  mold  group 

Taxonomy.  In  the  Bulletin  of  the  Torrey  Bo- 
tanical Club  for  May  several  papers  on  The  Con- 
cept of  the  Genus  in  botany  have  been  published 
The  history  of  the  generic  concept,  the  conserva- 
tive view-point  in  the  delimitations  of  genera,  and 
changing  concepts  as  the  result  of  modern  studies, 
are  topics  considered  Hall  in  The  Genus  Tulipa 
(Royal  Hort  Soc,  London)  has  prepared  a  very 
complete  monograph  on  this  genus  of  great  impor- 
tant horticultural  value  The  main  center  for  the 
occurrence  of  the  species  of  tulips  is  in  Asia  Mi- 
nor, a  few  extending  into  Europe,  as  well  as  far- 
ther east  in  parts  of  Asia  Hall  recognizes  72  spe- 
cies, which  he  groups  into  two  mam  sections.  The 
text  is  accompanied  by  40  fine  color  plates  Ownbey 
(Ann.  Mo  Bot  Card  27*371)  has  studied  the 
genus  Calochortus,  which  belongs  to  the  lily  fam- 
ily. The  species  are  widely  distributed  throughout 
the  Western  United  States,  a  few  extending  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Three  sections  of  the 
genus  are  recognized  and  these  are  divided  into  12 
subsections.  The  basal  chromosome  number  of  the 
sections  differs,  in  one  being  7,  in  another  9,  and 
in  another  10  chromosomes  A  few  polyploids  are 
known.  Hybridization  apparently  is  very  rare  in 
nature  among  the  species  The  author  describes  57 
species  and  13  varieties.  Larisey  (Ann  Mo  Bot. 
Card.  27  -119)  has  monographed  the  species  of  the 
genus  Baptisia,  a  member  of  the  legume  family. 
This  genus  is  found  in  the  Eastern  United  States, 
extending  well  into  the  South  and  as  far  west  as 
Texas.  The  author  recognizes  30  distinct  species, 
6  being  described  as  new,  and  11  varieties  Fur- 
ther, there  are  at  least  8  clear-cut  cases  of  hybrids 
recorded  and  several  others  are  suspected  It  is 
evident  that,  under  favorable  natural  conditions, 
hybridization  commonly  occurs  between  species  of 
Baptisia.  A  further  series  of  papers  on  the  botany 
of  the  Maya  area  of  Central  America  (Carnegie 
Inst.  Wash.  Pub  522)  has  appeared  These  are 
based  on  the  materials  collected  by  the  1936  Michi- 
gan-Carnegie Botanical  Expedition  to  British  Hon- 
duras. Species  belonging  to  seven  large  families 


are  treated  by  specialists  of  each.  An  extensive 
monograph  by  Clausen,  Keck,  and  Hiesey  (Car- 
negie Inst  Wash  Pub.  520)  on  their  Experimental 
Studies  on  the  Nature  of  Species  has  appeared. 
This  work  deals  particularly  with  the  effect  of 
environment  on  Western  North  American  plants 
which  have  been  transplanted  to  new  areas  and 
their  behavior  observed.  Hiesey  (Bot.  Rev  6 : 181) 
has  published  a  review  of  the  papers  dealing  with 
the  environmental  influence  and  transplant  experi- 
ments. 

Jaeger  (Stanford  Univ.  Press)  has  prepared  an 
excellent  manual  on  the  Desert  Wild  Flowers 
found  in  the  two  main  desert  areas  of  California. 
The  book  is  a  very  useful  one  for  identifying  the 
plants  in  these  regions,  the  text  being  accompanied 
by  good  line  drawings  and  valuable  photographs. 
Steyermark  (Mo  Bot.  Card  ,  Field  Mus  Nat. 
Hist.,  Chicago)  has  prepared  an  excellent  Spring 
Flora  of  Missouri.  The  book  will  serve  also  for 
surrounding  areas.  Good  drawings  of  many  of  the 
species  accompany  the  text  Fassett  has  written  A 
Manual  of  Aquatic  Plants  (McGraw-Hill).  The 
territory  covered  is  from  the  Atlantic  Coast  to 
Minnesota  and  Missouri  Keys  and  illustrations 
of  the  higher  aquatic  plants  are  given.  A  special 
feature  is  a  key  based  on  vegetative  characters 

Microtechnique.  Two  up-to-date  books  on 
methods  of  preparing  plant  cells  and  tissues  for 
study  have  been  published  Johansen  (McGraw- 
Hill)  has  written  a  very  complete  book  which  will 
serve  not  only  as  a  laboratory  guide  but  as  a  gen- 
eral book  of  reference  on  methods.  The  book  by 
Sass  (McGraw-Hill)  is  more  elementary  in  char- 
acter and  is  primarily  adapted  for  use  as  a  labora- 
tory manual 

Textbook.  Transeau,  Sampson,  and  Tiffany 
have  written  a  Textbook  of  Botany  (Harper  & 
Bro.).  This  general  text  gives  more  than  the  usual 
amount  of  attention  to  physiological  and  ecological 
topics  A  special  feature  is  the  introduction  of  four 
color  plates 

GEORGE  M.  REED 

BOUNDARIES,  State.  See  SUPREME  COURT 

BOUNDARY  DISPUTES.  See  INTERNA- 
TIONAL LAW  and  the  following  countries  under 
History:  BULGARIA,  ECUADOR;  FRENCH  INDO- 
CHINA ;  GUATEMALA  ;  HUNGARY  ;  MANCHOUKUO  ; 
MONGOLIA;  RUMANIA;  SLOVAKIA;  THAILAND 

BOWLING.  Honors  in  bowling  in  1940  went 
almost  exclusively  to  the  mid-west.  The  only  east- 
erner to  gain  distinction  in  championship  tourna- 
ments was  Fred  Fischer  of  Buffalo  who  won  the 
all-events  crown  in  the  American  Bowling  Con- 
gress. In  the  A  B.C.  bowl-f  est  in  Detroit,  the  five- 
man  team  title  was  awarded  to  the  Monarchs  of 
Chicago;  Herbie  Frietag  and  Joe  Sinke  of  Chi- 
cago won  the  doubles  and  Ray  Brown  of  Terre 
Haute,  Ind ,  took  the  individual  honors. 

In  the  Women's  International  Bowling  Congress 
at  Syracuse,  Chicago  produced  all  the  victors  The 
winning  entrants  included  the  Logan  Square  Buicks 
team  of  five,  Tess  Morris  and  Dorothy  Miller  in 
the  doubles,  Sally  Twyford  in  the  individual  and 
Tess  Morns  in  the  all-events 

The  A.BC.  classic  at  Detroit's  State  Fair 
Grounds  attracted  30,000  bowlers  from  731  cities 
and  100,000  spectators  during  its  60-day  run.  The 
tournament  produced  two  perfect  games  George 
Pallage  of  Akron  rolled  300  on  April  15  and  his 
feat  was  duplicated  a  week  later  by  Angelo  (Mike) 
Domenico  of  Canton,  O. 


BOXING 


BRAZIL 


More  than  6000  women  entered  the  I.B.C.  com- 
petition for  a  cash  prize  total  of  $33,000. 

BOXING.  The  defeat  of  stout-hearted  Henry 
Armstrong  and  the  cool  destruction  of  opponents 
by  Joe  Louis  were  outstanding  features  in  the  prize 
ring  in  1940.  Armstrong  pitched  forward  on  his 
face  as  the  bell  ended  the  15th  and  final  round  of 
his  bout  with  Fritzie  Zivic  at  Madison  Square 
Garden  on  October  4  for  the  welterweight  cham- 
pionship of  the  world.  He  lost  therewith  the  last 
of  his  three  championship  titles,  crowns  which  he 
had  at  one  time  worn  simultaneously,  the  only  man 
to  achieve  that  distinction  in  the  whole  history  of 
boxing. 

The  heavyweight  championship  was  defended 
four  times  during  the  year  by  Joe  Louis,  but  there 
were  no  million  dollar  gates  When  Louis  knocked 
out  Arturo  Godoy  in  1 :  24  of  the  eighth  round  of 
their  bout  June  20  at  the  Yankee  Stadium,  the 
gross  receipts  amounted  to  $149,505,  which  was  the 
biggest  gate  of  the  year  Previously  Louis  had  de- 
feated Godoy  in  a  15-round  decision  in  February, 
an  undertaking  in  which  the  champion  was  not 
particularly  impressive  He  was  much  more  effec- 
tive in  his  fight  with  Johnny  Paychek  in  March, 
winning  the  encounter  hy  a  knockout  in  the  second 
round  His  last  bout  of  the  year  was  with  Al  Mc- 
Coy in  Boston  in  which  he  forced  his  opponent  to 
quit  under  the  impetus  of  a  terrific  beating  In  all 
Louis  earned  $129,312  during  the  year,  making  a 
total  of  earnings  of  $1,722,908  from  the  time  he 
first  entered  the  prize  ring  in  1934. 

For  action,  Armstrong  took  the  year's  honors 
He  successfully  defended  his  welterweight  crown 
against  Joe  Ghnouly,  Pedro  Montanez,  Paul  Junior 
(twice),  Ralph  (Ripper)  Zannelli,  and  Phil  Furr 
before  the  ill-starred  night  of  October  3  when  Frit- 
zie Zivic,  Pittsburgh  cyclone,  hammered  his  way 
to  the  title  in  a  smashing  victory  Besides  these 
tilts,  Armstrong  flattened  Jenkins  in  six  rounds 
when  the  lightweight  champion  sought  the  welter- 
weight crown  in  July 

After  becoming  the  title-holder,  Zivic  won  on  a 
foul  from  Al  Davis  in  October. 

Davis  began  the  year  by  losing  on  points  to  Lou 
Ambers  in  an  over-the-weight  match  in  February 
The  National  Boxing  Association  later  declared 
Ambers's  title  void,  and  recognized  Sammy  An- 
gott  as  champion  when  he  outclassed  Davey  Day 
in  May  Nevertheless,  Lew  Jenkins's  three-round 
knockout  of  Ambers  in  May  gave  him  what  many 
fans  regarded  as  a  serious  claim  to  the  lightweight 
title.  In  November,  Jenkins  successfully  defended 
his  alleged  title  by  putting  Pete  Lello  to  sleep  in 
two  rounds. 

In  the  middleweight  class,  Ceferino  Garcia  man- 
aged to  keep  his  title  in  a  bout  with  Armstrong 
only  to  lose  it  to  Ken  Overlin  who  thereafter  re- 
tained the  crown  against  the  challenge  of  Steve 
Bellpise  in  two  battles  in  Madison  Square  Garden 

Billy  Conn,  intent  on  entering  the  heavyweight 
division,  nevertheless  retained  his  light-heavyweight 
title  in  a  championship  fight  with  Gus  Lesnevich 

In  the  featherweight  class,  there  were  three 
claimants  to  the  crown,  with  Harry  Jeffra  and 
Petey  Scalzo  attracting  the  most  attention.  Lou 
Salica  pounded  his  way  to  general  recognition  as 
the  bantamweight  king.  Little  Dado  was  more  or 
les££e£  7rTd,ed  Is  the  flyweight  champion. 

?.R AfftIIl-  A  ^public  of  South  America,  com- 

^"Ll     r  ^f 'i     D?    PJ*?*    DistriCt'    M*    °nC 

Territory.  Capital,  Rio  de  Janeiro 
Area  and  Population.  Area,  3,286,170  square 


miles ;  population,  estimated  at  45,002,176  in  1940 
(30,635,605  at  1920  census).  Immigrants  in  1939 
included  15,120  Portuguese,  1975  Germans,  1414 
Japanese,  and  1004  Italians.  United  States  citizens 
residing  in  Brazil  Jan.  1,  1940,  numbered  4086. 
There  are  strong  infusions  of  Negro  and  Indian 
blood  in  the  northern  States.  Estimated  popula- 
tions of  the  chief  cities  in  1937  were:  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  1,801,784  (1,896,998  in  1940)  ;  Sao  Paulo, 
1,217,330 ;  Recife  (Pernambuco) ,  510,102 ;  Sao  Sal- 
vador (Bahia), 363,726  (1935)  ,  Porto  Alegre,  352,- 
068;  Belem  (Para),  303,740.  Portuguese  is  the 
official  and  principal  language,  but  Italian  and  Ger- 
man are  widely  used. 

Defense.  Military  training  is  compulsory  for 
all  males  from  21  to  45  years  of  age,  the  first  year 
in  the  ranks  and  the  rest  in  the  reserve.  The  army's 
peace  strength  in  1939  was  112,320 ,  air  force,  2700 
Trained  army  reserves  numbered  258,300.  The  na- 
vy consists  of  2  battleships  and  3  cruisers,  all  laid 
down  in  1907  but  extensively  refitted,  8  or  more 
destroyers  and  torpedo  boats,  3  river  monitors,  4 
submarines,  and  6  minelayers 

Education  and  Religion.  About  70  per  cent 
of  the  adult  inhabitants  are  illiterate  In  1936  there 
were  30,000  primary  schools,  447  high  schools,  383 
domestic  schools,  328  normal  schools,  874  special 
schools,  and  248  superior  schools  conferring  de- 
grees, with  an  aggregate  enrollment  of  3,064,440 
The  State  university  is  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  there 
are  three  private  universities  at  Porto  Alegre,  Bel- 
lo  Honzonte,  and  Curityba.  Roman  Catholicism  is 
the  predominant  religion. 

Production.  Agriculture,  stock-raising,  and 
manufacturing  are  the  chief  occupations.  Brazil 
ranks  first  in  coffee  production,  second  m  cacao, 
and  third  in  sugar  and  tobacco.  Coffee  accounted 
for  40  per  cent  of  the  value  of  all  1939  exports, 
raw  cotton  21  per  cent  The  value  of  all  agricul- 
tural production  was  estimated  at  8,550,000,000  mil- 
reis  m  1937 ;  industrial  production,  12,000,000,000 
milreis.  Coffee  production  in  1939-40  was  estimated 
at  22,561,300  bags  (of  132  Ib  )  ,  cotton,  1,525,000 
bales  (of  500  Ib.).  Yields  of  other  chief  crops  m 
1938-39  were  (m  metric  tons)  .  Sugar,  1,131,342, 
castor  beans,  170,707,  corn,  6,020,700  (1937-38)  ; 
rice,  1,327,000  (1937-38) ;  potatoes,  338,900  (1937- 
38)  ;  cacao,  136,100  (1937-38)  ;  cotton  seed,  1,060,- 
000. 

Mineral  and  metallurgical  production  in  1939 
was  valued  at  584,007,000  milreis,  of  which  gold 
(4350  kilograms)  accounted  for  110,400,000  mil- 
reis. Output  (in  metric  tons)  included :  Coal,  1,045,- 
975;  laminated  iron,  98,649;  pig  iron,  160,016; 
steel,  112,174;  cement,  497,793,  manganese  (ex- 
ports), 189,003  long  tons.  Salt,  diamonds,  mona- 
zite,  chrome,  and  other  minerals  are  produced.  The 
forests  yield  rubber,  carnauba  wax,  oil  seeds,  and 
hardwoods.  The  chief  manufacturing  industries 
are  cotton  weaving,  sugar  refining,  flour  milling, 
meat  packing,  and  the  fabrication  of  machinery, 
paper,  textile  products,  electric  power,  and  tobacco 
products. 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  m  1939  totaled  5,615,- 
519,000  milreis  (5,096,890,000  in  1938)  ;  imports, 
4,983,632,000  (5,195,570,000).  The  leading  exports 
in  1939  were  (in  milreis)  :  Coffee,  2,234,280,000; 
raw  cotton,  1,159,420,000;  hides  and  skins,  245,- 
345,000,  cacao,  224,586,000.  Of  the  imports  the 
United  States  supplied  33.6  per  cent  in  1939  (24.2 
in  1938)  ;  Germany,  192  (24.9)  ;  United  Kingdom, 
9.3  (10.4);  Argentina,  8.4  (11.8).  The  United 
States  took  36.2  per  cent  of  the  1939  exports  (34.3 


BRAZIL 


84 


BRAZIL 


in  1938)  ;  Germany,  12  (191)  ;  United  Kingdom, 

9.6  (8.8) ;  France,  6.3  (64).  See  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  Actual  ordinary  budget  returns  for 

1939  were*  Revenues,  3,795,000,000  milreis;  ex- 
penditures, 4,335,000,000 ,  deficit,  540,000,000 ;  new 
bond  issues,  633,000,000.  Under  the  extraordinary 
public  works  and  national  defense  budget,  revenues 
were  558,000,000  milreis,  expenditures,  516,000,- 
000.  The  1940  budget  estimates  placed  total  reve- 
nues at  4,209,417,000  and  expenditures  at  4,421,- 
842,000  milreis    On   Dec.  31,   1939,  the  internal 
funded  debt  was  5,081,000,000  milreis;    floating 
debt,  2,541,000,000  milreis.  On  Apr    2,  1940,  the 
Minister   of   Finance  reported   the   foreign  debt 
equivalent  to  £256,000,000  (Federal,  £155,000,000, 
State,  £77,000,000;  municipal,  £24,000,000)    The 
total  included  £156,000,000  in  sterling  obligations, 
£89,000,000  in  dollars,  £10,000,000  m  francs,  and 
£1,000,000  in  florins    (See  History  for  resumption 
of  debt  payments  )  The  official  exchange  rate  for 
the  milreis  was  $0.059  for  1939  ($0056  in  1938)  ; 
curb  rate,  $0.048  in  1939  ($005  in  1938) 

Transportation,  etc.  Brazil's  railway  mileage 
in  1939  was  about  21,200,  highway  mileage,  129,- 
057  (see  ROADS  AND  STREETS)  Financial  returns 
of  all  railways  for  1938,  considered  as  a  group, 
showed  a  combined  net  deficit  of  32,172,000  mil- 
reis; they  transported  174,026,000  passengers  and 
33,479,000  tons  of  freight  Work  went  forward 
during  1940  on  the  joint  Bolivian-Brazilian  line 
that  will  link  Santos  and  the  Brazilian  railway  net- 
work with  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra  (see  BOLIVIA) 
Among  important  highways  under  construction  in 

1940  were  the  Sao  Paulo-Jundiai  highway  and  sec- 
tions of  the  great  eastern  trunk  road  that  will 
eventually  link  Porto  Alegre  in  the  south  with 
Para  in  the  north 

Regular  mail  and  passenger  air  lines  cover  ap- 
proximately 50,000  miles  of  routes;  they  include 
Pan  American  Airways,  the  Condor  (German) 
Syndicate,  and  the  Rio  de  Janeiro-Santiago 
(Chile)  service  of  the  Deutsche  Luft  Hansa,  which 
was  resumed  Mar.  18,  1940,  after  a  six-months'  in- 
terruption The  French  transatlantic  air  service  was 
interrupted  by  France's  defeat  in  June  Ala  Lit- 
toria's  new  Rome-to-Rio  service  was  reported  dis- 
continued after  Italy's  entrance  into  the  European 
War.  In  September,  Pan  American  Airways  opened 
a  cut-off  route  between  Para  and  Rio  de  Janeiro 
that  reduced  flying  time  between  Miami  and  Rio 
to  three  days.  Routes  of  the  Brazilian  military  air- 
mail service  extended  9269  miles  in  1938  The  Bra- 
zilian merchant  marine  on  June  30,  1939,  included 
305  vessels  of  487,820  tons 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  Nov  10, 
1937,  provided  for  the  reorganization  of  Brazil 
along  the  lines  of  a  corporative  State  (see  YEAR 
BOOK,  1937,  p  102).  Actually  President  Getulio 
Vargas  continued  to  rule  as  a  personal  dictator 
He  became  provisional  President  Nov.  3,  1930,  aft- 
er leading  a  successful  military  revolt  Under  the 
Constitution  of  July  16,  1934,  he  was  elected  con- 
stitutional President  the  following  day  for  a  four- 
year  term  The  1937  Constitution  extended  his 
term  for  six  years  from  1938  For  1940  develop- 
ments, see  Histoiy 

HISTORY 

Internal  Politics.  Little  change  in  the  political 
situation  occurred  during  1940.  President  Vargas 
continued  his  personal  rule  without  creating  the 
governmental  organs  called  for  by  the  1937  Con- 
stitution, but  made  progress  with  his  nationalistic 


program  of  social  reform  and  economic  develop- 
ment. 

Another  of  the  sporadic  conspiracies  against  the 
Vargas  regime  was  reported  crushed  on  March  25 
The  Federal  Interventor  for  the  State  of  Sao 
Paulo  closed  a  leading  newspaper,  0  Estado  de 
Sao  Paulo,  and  arrested  the  editors  of  the  paper, 
most  of  the  State's  former  Deputies  in  the  Na- 
tional Congress  closed  by  Dr  Vargas,  and  other 
prominent  figures  affiliated  with  the  political  groups 
opposing  the  President's  rule.  At  the  same  time 
precautionary  measures  were  taken  in  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro The  police  alleged  that  45  machine  guns 
were  found  in  the  offices  of  the  suspended  news- 
paper However  the  Security  Tribunal  in  Rio  de 
Janeiro  found  evidence  against  the  41  prisoners 
insufficient  and  they  were  exonerated  O  Estado  dc 
Sao  Paulo  was  permitted  to  resume  publication 
with  governmental  control  of  its  editorial  policies 

Other  indications  of  unrest  were  the  arrest  of 
several  army  officers  in  Porto  Alegre,  capital  of 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  and  the  roundup  in  Rio  de 
Janeiro  in  mid-April  of  about  50  alleged  Commu- 
nists charged  with  plotting  a  revolution  On  April 
27  it  was  announced  that  64  "Communists"  had 
been  sentenced  to  three  to  seven  years  at  hard  la- 
bor These  developments  were  followed  by  reports 
that  President  Vargas  was  considering  the  advisa- 
bility of  restoring  a  genuinely  constitutional  re- 
gime On  January  4  he  had  established  a  new 
Press  and  Propaganda  Department  under  which 
the  worst  aspects  of  the  press  censorship  wen 
eliminated  During  a  visit  to  Montevideo  early  in 
February,  Foreign  Minister  Oswaldo  Aranha  was 
reported  to  have  attempted  unsuccessfully  to  effect 
a  rapprochement  between  President  Vargas  and 
Gen  J  A  Flores  da  Cunha,  former  political  leader 
of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  who  had  broken  with  the 
President  and  taken  refuge  in  Uruguay  (see  YKAK 
BOOK,  1937,  p  103)  The  arrest  of  10  Integralistas 
(Fascists)  at  Petropolis  on  October  12  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  new  drive  against  the  movement. 

In  a  sensational  speech  delivered  June  11  Presi- 
dent Vargas  outlined  his  ideas  concerning  Brazil's 
future  political  course  Speaking  immediately  fol- 
lowing Italy's  declaration  of  war  upon  France  and 
President  Roosevelt's  denunciation  of  that  act,  Var- 
gas tacitly  defended  the  policies  of  the  European 
dictatorships  by  asserting  that  "vigorous  peoples 
fit  for  life  must  follow  the  route  of  their  aspira- 
tions." He  said  the  world  was  "marching  toward 
a  future  different  from  all  we  know  in  economic, 
political,  and  social  organization,"  that  "old  sys- 
tems and  antiquated  formulas  have  entered  a  de- 
cline," and  that  it  was  necessary  to  "remove  the 
debris  of  old  ideas  and  of  sterile  ideals,"  including 
"improvident  liberalism"  and  the  "sterile  demagogy 
of  political  democracy  "  This  frank  espousal  of  pro- 
Fascist  principles  aroused  severe  criticism  in  dem- 
ocratic circles  in  Brazil  and  in  most  of  the  other 
American  republics  Similar  ideas  were  expressed 
by  Minister  of  Government  Francisco  Campos  in 
a  book,  Estado  National,  published  in  October. 

Economic  Developments.  Pressing  his  pro- 
gram for  rapid  industrialization  of  Brazil  under 
government  direction,  President  Vargas  sought  the 
co-operation  of  the  United  States  Steel  Corp.  in 
establishing  a  $44,000,000  steel  mill  to  exploit  the 
rich  Itabira  iron  ore  deposits.  The  plan  was  ap- 
proved by  the  corporation's  technical  experts,  but 
rejected  by  its  finance  committee.  The  President 
then  appointed  a  National  Steel  Plan  Executive 
Commission  to  carry  the  scheme  forward. 


BRAZIL 


85 


BRAZIL 


On  September  26  a  Brazilian  mission  in  Wash- 
ington obtained  from  Jesse  H.  Jones,  Federal  Loan 
Administrator,  a  pledge  of  a  $20,000,000  4-per  cent 
loan  from  the  United  States  Export- Import  Bank 
for  the  construction  of  the  mill.  Constituting  a 
first  claim  against  the  plant,  the  loan  was  guaran- 
teed by  the  Brazilian  Government  and  was  repay- 
able in  20  semi-annual  installments  starting  three 
years  from  the  first  advance  It  was  conditional 
upon  the  investment  of  milreis  to  the  value  of  $25,- 
000,000  in  the  enterprise  by  the  Brazilian  Govern- 
ment and  affiliated  interests  The  Export-Import 
Bank  reserved  the  right  to  concur  "in  the  selection 
of  the  managerial  officers  of  the  mill  company,  the 
engineers,  and  contractors,  and  the  purchase  of 
materials  " 

Through  the  government's  initiative,  a  United 
States  drilling  company  brought  in  several  small  oil 
wells  in  the  Bahia  field,  giving  Brazil  its  first  local 
petroleum  supply  By  a  decree  of  July  24  the  Pres- 
ident expropriated  the  Brazil  Railway  Co ,  a  large 
French-owned  holding  company  controlling  impor- 
tant railway,  colonization,  industrial,  and  hotel  en- 
terprises. The  company  also  held  large  blocks  of 
Brazilian  Federal  and  Slate  securities  It  was  ac- 
cused of  mismanagement,  corruption,  embezzlement, 
and  insolvency  A  private  corporation  operating 
the  Para  docks  was  taken  over  by  the  government 
in  April  to  secure  payment  of  a  debt  amounting  to 
$25,000,000 

It  was  announced  in  August  that  a  stoker  de- 
veloped by  a  United  States  concern  had  solved  the 
problem  of  making  the  low-grade  Brazilian  coal 
available  for  general  commercial  use,  thus  reduc- 
ing the  country's  long  dependence  upon  high-grade 
coal  imported  from  Britain  and  Germany  A  con- 
tract for  the  construction  of  an  airplane  factory  at 
Lagoa  Santa  to  build  planes  for  the  government 
was  approved  by  a  decree  law  of  May  6,  1940 

Other  economic  legislation  facilitated  the  tourist 
trade,  reserved  to  Brazilians  the  exclusive  right  to 
exploit  mineral  deposits,  provided  for  compulsory 
insurance  in  certain  fields  and  stipulated  that  all 
reinsurance  should  be  handled  by  the  government- 
controlled  National  Reinsurance  Institute  A  de- 
cree of  March  8  authorized  resumption  of  partial 
interest  and  amortization  payments  on  Brazil's  for- 
eign indebtedness,  effective  Apr  1,  1940,  to  Mar 
31,  1944  Instead  of  the  debt  service  payments  of 
£23,630,000  annually  called  for  under  the  original 
loan  agreements,  the  decree  fixed  payments  at 
£4,140,000  for  each  of  the  first  two  years,  at 
£4,170,000  for  the  third  year,  and  at  £4,550,000  for 
the  fourth  year  The  debt  situation  was  then  to  be 
re-examined  The  service  of  Brazil's  foreign  debt 
was  suspended  Nov  10,  1937 

The  spread  of  the  European  War  during  1940 
cut  Brazil  off  from  important  export  markets  and 
resulted  in  the  accumulation  of  additional  surpluses 
of  coffee,  cotton,  cacao,  rice,  and  other  products 
Heavy  price  declines  had  severe  repercussions  upon 
Brazil's  internal  economy  The  government  made 
strenuous  efforts  to  open  new  outlets  for  these 
products  in  the  United  States,  the  other  American 
republics,  South  Africa,  Japan,  and  elsewhere.  The 
United  States  loan  and  the  influx  of  some  $35,000,- 
000  of  investment  capital  brought  in  by  European 
refugees  had  a  stimulating  influence  upon  the  na- 
tional economy.  At  the  year  end  it  was  reported 
that  Brazil  was  almost  clear  of  foreign  exchange 
difficulties  and  that  manufacturing  and  real  estate 
were  booming. 

An  experimental  three-year  minimum  wage  law 


and  a  law  establishing  the  eight-hour  day  with 
overtime  for  Sunday  and  night  work  were  promul- 
gated May  1.  An  ambitious  public  works  program 
designed  to  facilitate  the  settlement  and  exploita- 
tion of  the  hinterland  was  carried  forward,  espe- 
cially after  President  Vargas's  10,000-mile  trip 
through  the  Amazon  region  in  October  In  August 
arrangements  were  made  to  end  the  labor  shortage 
at  the  Ford  rubber  plantations  and  other  Amazo- 
nian enterprises  by  moving  farm  laborers  from 
the  northeast  drought  region. 

Brazilianization.  The  Vargas  regime  continued 
its  efforts  to  stamp  out  German,  Italian,  and  Japa- 
nese political  activity  and  propaganda  among  colo- 
nists of  German,  Italian,  and  Japanese  origin  (see 
preceding  YEAR  BOOKS).  Seventy-eight  Japanese 
schools  in  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo  were  closed  for 
alleged  violation  of  the  Brazilian  school  laws.  Ger- 
man activities  proved  more  difficult  to  curb  Inves- 
tigations by  reliable  correspondents  revealed  that 
Nazi  and  Fascist  agents  and  propagandists  were 
actively  working  among  the  large  Brazilian-German 
and  Brazilian-Italian  colonies  to  secure  Brazil's  na- 
tional disintegration  and  economic  subjugation  as 
a  prelude  to  political  domination  Terrorism,  eco- 
nomic pressure,  bribery  and  corruption,  and  mdoc- 
trinization  of  Nazi-Fascist  principles  were  the  meth- 
ods used  Important  elements  of  the  Brazilian  press, 
radio,  and  moving  picture  industries  were  said  to 
be  in  German  pay  There  was  danger  of  a  revolu- 
tion supported  by  "fifth  column"  elements  that 
would  replace  President  Vargas  with  a  completely 
Nazified  regime  For  a  comprehensive  survey  of 
the  situation,  consult  the  series  of  articles  by  Rus- 
sell B  Porter  in  the  New  York  Times  of  June  26- 
July  2,  1940,  inclusive 

Foreign  Relations.  Brazilian  sympathies  were 
reported  to  be  strongly  pro-Ally,  particularly  after 
the  German  invasions  of  additional  neutral  coun- 
tries during  1940  However  many  army  officers  and 
some  other  influential  Brazilian  elements  were  said 
to  be  pro-Nazi,  as  well  as  the  hulk  of  the  popula- 
tion of  German  origin  With  Germany  master  of 
Europe  and  a  British  victory  seemingly  remote, 
Brazil  faced  the  prospect  of  having  its  products 
permanently  barred  from  that  continent  unless  the 
government  co-operated  with  Berlin  in  political  as 
well  as  economic  matters  This  situation  led  Presi- 
dent Vargas  to  follow  a  policy  of  strict  neutrality 
toward  European  affairs.  At  the  same  time  he  af- 
firmed Brazil's  adherence  to  the  Pan  American 
principles  of  continental  solidarity  against  over- 
seas economic,  military,  and  ideological  threats 

To  calm  the  alarm  aroused  throughout  the 
Americas  by  his  speech  of  June  11  (see  above), 
President  Vargas  on  June  15  cabled  President 
Roosevelt  that  his  remarks  were  "in  no  sense  con- 
tradictory" to  the  Charlottesville,  Va.,  address  of 
Mr.  Roosevelt  on  June  10.  His  loyalty  to  the  inter- 
American  mutual  defense  policy  was  demonstrated 
when  the  Uruguayan  Government  appealed  for  aid 
in  crushing  the  Nazi  revolt  plot  discovered  on  May 
29.  The  Vargas  Government  not  only  sold  Uru- 
guay 5000  rifles  and  ammunition  but  offered  mili- 
tary assistance  in  suppressing  the  threatened  up- 
rising. It  was  revealed  that  Brazil  had  made  Uru- 
guay a  similar  offer  of  naval  assistance  the  preced- 
ing December  when  the  German  pocket  battleship 
Graf  Spee  refused  to  leave  Montevideo  harbor 
within  the  time  limit  fixed  by  Uruguayan  authorities. 

The  United  States  steel  loan  and  the  growing 
collaboration  between  the  United  States  and  the 
British  Empire  served  to  offset  Axis  intrigues  and 


BREMEN 

propaganda  in  Brazil.  General  Pedro  Aurelio  de 
Goes  Monteiro,  chief  of  staff  of  the  Brazilian 
Army,  made  another  inspection  of  United  States 
defense  preparations  in  October  in  company  with 
the  Argentine  chief  of  staff.  Some  irritation  to- 
wards Britain  developed  toward  the  year  end  as  a 
result  of  the  removal  of  22  Germans  from  the 
Brazilian  freighter  Itapc  by  a  British  cruiser  only 
18  miles  from  the  Brazilian  coast  on  December  1, 
and  the  detention  at  Gibraltar  of  a  Brazilian 
steamer  bound  for  Brazil  from  Italy  with  German 
war  materials  purchased  by  the  Brazilian  Govern- 
ment in  1938.  However  an  Anglo-Brazilian  trade 
and  financial  accord  was  concluded  June  20  and  in 
mid-November  a  British  economic  mission  visited 
Rio  de  Janeiro  to  further  mutual  trade  and  iron 
out  difficulties  created  by  the  blockade 

A  commercial  accord  signed  with  Argentina  on 
January  23  after  a  four-day  visit  to  Buenos  Aires 
by  Foreign  Minister  Aranha  provided  for  recipro- 
cal reduction  of  tariffs  and  other  measures  to  pro- 
mote mutual  trade.  Finance  Minister  Pinedo  of 
Argentina  returned  this  visit  in  October.  On  Oc- 
tober 6  he  signed  an  Argentine-Brazilian  accord 
providing  "in  principle'1  for  the  exchange  of  sur- 
pluses between  the  two  countries  and  for  guaran- 
tees against  the  raising  of  tariffs  in  one  country 
against  the  products  of  new  industries  developed 
in  the  other.  A  trade  agreement  with  Italy  con- 
cluded in  January  called  for  purchases  of  Italian 
merchandise  by  Brazilian  Federal,  State,  or  mu- 
nicipal authorities  to  the  amount  of  200,000,000 
lire  annually,  to  be  balanced  by  Italian  purchases 
of  Brazilian  goods 

See  ARGENTINA  and  URUGUAY  under  History; 
COFFEE;  FASCISM;  INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY;  NA- 
VAL PROGRESS  ;  PAN  AMERICANISM  ;  PAN  AMERI- 
CAN UNION 

BREMEN,  State  of.  See  GERMANY  under 
Area  and  Population. 

BRETHREN,  German  Baptist  (Dunkers 
or  Dunkards).  A  religious  organization  founded 
in  Schwarzenau,  Germany,  in  1708  by  a  group 
of  Pietists  and  established  in  Germantown,  Pa, 
in  1719  under  the  leadership  of  Peter  Becker 
There  are  four  denominations  of  Brethren  in  the 
United  States,  the  largest  and  oldest  group  being 
the  Church  of  the  Brethren,  or  Conservative 
Dunkers,  with  headquarters  at  Elgin,  111  For  sta- 
tistics, see  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS. 

BRIDGES.  Bridge  design  and  construction 
were  extremely  active  during  1940,  due  largely  to 
the  rapid  extension  and  improvement  of  the  high- 
way system  of  the  country.  Besides  conspicuous 
large  bridges,  there  were  innumerable  minor  inter- 
esting and  notable  structures  of  both  steel  and  con- 
crete These  minor  structures  included  many  for 
separation  of  grades  at  intersections  of  railways 
with  highways  and  intersections  of  highways,  some 
of  these  being  complicated  structures  involving 
special  features  in  design  or  imposing  special  con- 
ditions in  construction  to  minimize  interference 
with  traffic  The  financing  of  many  of  these  high- 
way bridge  projects  was  assisted  by  Federal  aid, 
and  traffic  on  some  of  the  larger  bridges  is  subject 
to  toll  in  order  to  produce  revenue  for  retiring  the 
bridge  bonds.  A  bill  to  relieve  the  railways  from 
the  entire  cost  of  altering  any  of  their  bridges  over 
navigable  streams  was  vetoed  by  the  President  in 
June,  although  such  alterations  are  to  facilitate 
navigation  and  are  of  no  benefit  to  the  railways 
concerned. 

But  on  the  other  hand  from  new  bridge  construc- 


86  BRIDGES 

tion,  a  survey  of  the  national  highway  system  in 
relation  to  the  defense  program  has  disclosed  that 
large  numbers  of  old  bridges  are  unsafe  or  at  best 
inadequate  for  modern  traffic  and  military  require- 
ments. On  the  railway  system,  also,  there  are  many 
bridges  inadequate  to  carry  safely  the  loads  of 
modern  locomotives  and  trains.  Thus  there  must 
be  a  program  for  bridge  strengthening  and  replace- 
ment, as  well  as  a  program  for  new  construction. 
Awards  in  1940  for  the  handsomest  bridges  built 
in  1939  included-  (1)  large  bridges,  the  White- 
stone  suspension  bridge  of  2300- ft.  span  in  New 
York  City;  (2)  smaller  bridges,  the  Valley  River 
footbridge  of  girder  type  at  Murphy,  N  C  ;  (3) 
movable  bridges,  the  127-ft  double-leaf  bascule 
bridge  at  Alpena,  Mich 

Notable  Steel  Bridges.  Four  more  bridges 
over  the  Mississippi  River  were  opened  in  1940: 
at  Rock  Island,  111.,  July  17;  at  Baton  Rouge,  La , 
August  10;  at  Natchez,  Miss.,  September  26,  and 
at  Greenville,  Miss ,  October  5  All  carry  high- 
ways, but  the  Baton  Rouge  bridge  also  carries  the 
Louisiana  &  Arkansas  Railway  A  fifth  bridge,  at 
Jefferson  Barracks,  12  miles  below  St  Louis,  was 
begun 

Rock  Island  Bridge  -  five  steel  bowstring  arches 
with  floor  system  suspended  from  the  arch  ribs ; 
two  channel  spans  of  540  ft ,  two  of  395  ft  on  the 
Iowa  side,  and  one  of  395  ft.  on  the  Illinois  side; 
viaduct  approaches  ,  two  22-f  t  separated  roadways 
and  two  4-ft  walks  outside  the  trusses;  cost, 
$2,500,000  Baton  Rouge  Bridqe  three  continuous 
cantilevers  form  five  spans  of  490,  858,  650,  858, 
and  490  ft  ;  two  22-ft  roadways  between  the 
trusses,  and  two  railway  tracks  carried  outside 
Natchez  Bridge-  continuous  cantilevers  form  five 
spans  of  560,  875,  875,  798,  and  560  ft ,  counting 
from  east  end ,  the  875  ft  spans  are  the  longest  on 
the  Mississippi;  total  length,  3668  ft,  or  8136 
ft.  with  approaches;  cost,  $3,450,000  Greenville 
Bridge'  cantilever  main  span  of  840  ft,  with  two 
anchor  arms  or  side  spans  of  640  ft  ;  cost,  $4,200,- 
000.  Jefferson  Barracks  Bridge-  cantilever  main 
span  of  805  ft ,  with  anchor  arms,  of  670  ft ,  or 
2145  ft  in  all,  exclusive  of  approaches  consisting 
of  truss  and  girder  spans 

A  new  bridge  over  the  Ohio  River  at  Owens- 
boro,  Ky  ,  opened  in  June,  1940,  is  of  the  cantilever 
type,  with  four  successive  spans  of  343  ft  (anchor 
arm),  629  ft ,  751  ft ,  and  278  ft  (anchor  arm)  ; 
22-ft  concrete  roadway;  total  length,  4623  ft  ; 
cost,  $2,300,000 

Of  special  interest  is  the  Niagara  Falls  Bridqe, 
to  replace  the  steel  arch  structure  wrecked  by  ice 
in  January,  1938  It  consists  of  a  steel  arch  span 
of  960  ft ,  with  the  arch  ribs  seated  55  ft  above 
normal  water  level,  or  29  ft  above  those  of  the 
seats  of  the  old  bridge  arches  The  deck,  220  ft 
above  the  water,  will  have  two  22-ft  roadways, 
separated  by  a  4-ft.  strip,  and  a  10-ft  sidewalk  on 
the  upstream  side  Total  length  of  bridge,  1450 
ft  ;  to  be  completed  in  September,  1941. 

Two  steel  arch  spans  of  456  ft  are  included  in 
the  highway  bridge  being  built  over  the  Susque- 
hanna  River  at  Havre  de  Grace,  Md ,  and  a  240-f  t. 
steel  arch  is  the  main  item  of  a  bridge  1248  ft  long 
over  the  Alabama  River  at  Selma,  Ala  This  lat- 
ter bridge,  with  ten  concrete  arches  of  41^-  to 
154H-ft.  span  at  each  end,  has  a  total  length  of 
1248  ft. ;  it  has  two  20-ft.  roadways  and  two  S-ft 
walks. 

Among  outstanding  steel  bridges  of  1940  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  noted:  (1)  Shasta  Bridge.  Since 


BRIDGES 


87 


BRIDGES 


the  reservoir  formed  by  the  Shasta  Dam,  in  Cali- 
fornia, will  submerge  a  part  of  the  Southern  Pa- 
cific Railway,  the  line  has  been  relocated  at  a 
higher  level  and  will  cross  the  Pit  River  arm  of 
the  reservoir  by  a  double-deck  cantilever  bridge 
carried  by  the  highest  masonry  bridge  piers  ever 
built,  the  highest  of  the  two  rising  358  ft  above 
the  river  bed  and  being  95  X  90  ft  at  its  base.  The 
main  span  is  630  ft.,  with  two  anchor  arms  of  497 
ft.  and  three  side  spans  of  282  ft.  On  the  lower 
deck  is  the  double-track  railway,  and  on  the  upper 
deck  a  40-ft  roadway  with  two  narrow  walks  (2) 
Thomas  A  Ediwn  Bridge,  over  the  Rantan  River 
at  Perth  Amboy,  N  J.,  opened  in  September  for 
the  New  Jersey  State  Highway  Department  It  in- 
cludes the  largest,  deepest  and  heaviest  plate  gird- 
ers ever  built  for  bridges ;  for  the  main  span  of 
200  ft,  each  of  the  two  girders  is  260  ft  long 
(cantilevermg  60  ft  beyond  one  pier),  201/£  ft. 
deep  at  the  piers  and  12  ft  at  the  middle  and  ends, 
with  a  weight  of  198  tons  Next  to  it  is  a  250-ft 
span  over  the  ship  channel,  and  then  eight  spans  of 
200  ft ,  all  carrying  two  separated  24-f t  roadways , 
with  approaches,  the  total  length  is  4388  ft  and 
the  cost  $4,670,000  (3)  Potomac  River  Bndqc,  at 
Ludlow  Ferry,  between  Morgantown,  Md ,  and 
Dahlgren,  Va  ,  for  the  Maryland  State  Roads  Com- 
mission Cantilever  type,  with  800-ft  main  span 
and  two  366-ft  anchor  aims,  truss  spans  of  118 
to  350  ft  and  steel  trestle  approaches  make  a  total 
length  of  nearly  two  miles,  of  which  33  per  cent  is 
trestle  The  foundations  include  the  longest  steel 
piles  ever  driven,  194  ft  The  bridge  has  two  24-ft 
roadways  and  was  opened  to  traffic  on  Dec  14, 
1940  (4)  Loram  County,  Ohio,  dedicated  two  new 
four-lane  bridges  over  Black  River  for  an  im- 
proved highway  system  One  has  a  continuous- 
truss  structure  1700  ft  long,  covering  a  central 
span  of  400  ft ,  two  of  300  ft ,  two  of  250  ft ,  and 
one  of  200  ft  It  lias  a  four-lane  42-ft  undivided 
roadway  The  other  structure  was  a  bascule  bridge, 
noted  below  (5)  Narragansett  Bay  Bridge,  a  toll 
bridge  between  Rhode  Island  and  Conanicut  Island, 
completed  in  1940  The  640-ft  cantilever  channel 
span,  with  135-ft  headway  for  vessels,  has  two 
anchor  or  side  spans  of  256  ft ,  and  adjacent  spans 
of  270  ft  ;  total  length,  7000  ft  ;  cost,  $3,000,000 ; 
it  carries  a  22- ft  roadway  and  a  3-ft  sidewalk 
(6)  Havre  dc  Grace  Bridge,  a  highway  toll  bridge 
over  the  Susquchanna  River  Total  length,  7600  ft, 
including  two  steel  arch  spans  of  456  ft  ;  cost, 
$2,500,000 

Movable  Bridges.  Besides  the  novel  concrete 
floating  draw  span  of  the  Lake  Washington  pon- 
toon bridge  (noted  below),  two  steel  draw  spans 
of  different  types  were  built  in  1940  A  bridge  over 
the  Passaic  River  at  Newark,  N.J ,  has  a  vertical- 
lift  span  of  325%  ft  moving  between  steel  towers 
and  operated  by  cables  This  span,  weighing  650 
tons  without  its  floor,  was  floated  into  position  by 
barges  in  September.  It  is  40  ft  above  water  when 
lowered  and  135  ft  when  raised.  The  bridge  was 
opened  on  Jan.  27,  1941.  The  draw  span  in  the  Erie 
Ave.  bridge  over  the  Black  River  at  Lorain,  Ohio, 
is  a  double-leaf  bascule  333  ft  between  centers  of 
its  trunnion  bearings  It  is  the  longest  highway 
draw  span  of  its  type,  and  is  exceeded  only  by  a 
railway  bascule  bridge  of  338  ft.  span  at  Sault 
Sainte  Marie.  It  has  two  22-ft  roadways,  sepa- 
rated by  a  3  ft.  strip,  and  has  two  7-f t.  sidewalks 

Suspension  Bridges.  A  startling  event  in  bridge 
history  was  the  sudden  destruction  of  the  2800- 
ft.  suspension  span  over  the  Narrows  at  Tacoma, 


Wash.,  by  a  fierce  wind  on  November  7.  The  bridge 
had  only  been  m  service  a  few  weeks,  but  its  floor 
or  deck  had  been  found  to  be  excessively  flexible, 
partly  due  to  its  relatively  light  stiffening  girders 
and  floor  framing  The  wind  set  up  longitudinal 
waves  of  considerable  height  as  well  as  lateral  tilt- 
ing and  twisting  of  the  deck,  the  motion  culmi- 
nating in  the  entire  floor  system  and  the  stiffening 
girders  of  the  mam  span  tearing  loose  from  the 
suspenders  and  falling  into  the  water.  The  main 
and  suspender  cables  were  left  practically  intact 
By  good  fortune,  nobody  was  hurt.  Experiments 
had  been  started  to  find  some  way  of  stiffening  the 
bridge  and  checking  the  extreme  oscillation  of  the 
floor.  Somewhat  similar  troubles,  but  on  a  much 
smaller  scale,  had  occurred  on  the  new  Whitestone 
Bridge  of  2300  ft  span  in  New  York,  but  had  been 
overcome  by  means  of  diagonal  stay  cables  radi- 
ating from  the  tops  of  the  towers  to  the  longitudi- 
nal stiffening  girders.  Stay  cables  for  the  same 
purpose  have  been  applied  also  to  two  other  bridges, 
the  Deer  Isle  Bridge  of  1080  ft  span,  in  Maine, 
and  the  Thousand  Islands  Bridge  of  800  ft  span 
over  the  St  Lawrence  River 

The  new  Wabash  River  Bridge  of  350  ft  main 
span  at  Hutsonville,  111.,  is  one  of  the  five  suspen- 
sion bridges  of  the  self-anchoring  type  in  the 
United  States  In  this  type,  the  ends  of  the  cables 
are  attached  to  the  ends  of  the  stiffening  trusses  or 
girders,  instead  of  to  the  usual  massive  masonry 
anchorages  buried  in  the  ground  Another  feature 
of  this  bridge  is  that  each  cable  consists  of  nine 
separate  strands,  instead  of  having  all  the  strands 
bound  together  to  form  a  single  large  cable 

Pontoon  Bridge.  The  floating  highway  bridge 
across  Lake  Washington,  near  Seattle,  which  was 
opened  to  traffic  on  July  12,  differs  radically  from 
other  pontoon  bridges  and  is  the  first  of  its  type 
Instead  of  the  usual  series  of  boats  or  pontoons 
connected  by  timber  spans  which  carry  the  floor 
and  allow  for  free  passage  of  water,  the  Lake 
Washington  bridge  consists  of  a  continuous  line 
of  concrete  pontoons  rigidly  connected  end  to  end 
and  held  in  position  by  anchor  cables  on  both  sides 
Each  pontoon  is  59  ft  wide,  350  ft.  long  and  14% 
ft.  deep,  with  its  deck  7  ft.  above  the  water  and 
providing  a  45-ft.  roadway  and  two  4-ft  walks 
The  total  length  is  6561  ft  For  navigation,  there 
is  a  200-f  t  channel  which  is  opened  and  closed  by 
a  pontoon  378  ft.  long  which  is  moved  in  and  out, 
telescoping  a  forked  pontoon,  by  means  of  power 
operated  cables. 

Concrete  Bridges.  Of  the  many  arch,  girder, 
and  rigid-frame  concrete  bridges  built  in  1940,  few 
were  of  such  size  or  design  as  to  receive  the  at- 
tention accorded  to  the  larger  steel  bridges.  Never- 
theless, many  of  them  were  of  highly  attractive  ap- 
pearance, and  many  formed  parts  of  complicated 
grade-separation  projects  In  bridges  of  the  girder 
type,  a  development  is  the  use  of  hollow  box  gird- 
ers instead  of  the  conventional  web  girders,  thus 
making  it  practicable  to  use  longer  spans.  Some 
bridges  of  this  type  on  California  highways  have 
spans  up  to  120  and  130  ft 

A  handsome  concrete  arch  bridge  built  over 
Russian  Gulch  by  the  California  Division  of  High- 
ways, in  1940,  is  an  example  of  many  such  struc- 
tures. It  has  a  span  of  240  ft.,  with  two  graceful 
arch  ribs  on  which  stand  vertical  columns  support- 
ing the  deck  framing  and  floor.  The  longest  con- 
crete arch  in  the  world  is  said  to  be  the  672-f  t  span 
on  the  Esla  Bridge,  in  Spain,  completed  in  July, 
1940,  on  a  railway  between  Zamorra  and  Corunna 


BRIDGES 


BRITISH  COLUMBIA 


The  Ohio  State  Highway  Department  replaced 
an  old  steel  truss  bridge  by  two  concrete  arch 
spans  of  150  ft.  each,  carrying  spandrel  columns 
which  support  a  deck  having  two  24-ft  roadways 
separated  by  a  4- ft.  central  strip,  while  outside  are 
two  3-ft.  sidewalks  With  its  concrete  girder  ap- 
proach spans  the  bridge  is  514  ft  long. 

On  super-highways  extending  out  of  Toronto, 
Canada,  twin  bridges  of  girder  type  have  been  built 
in  place  of  a  single  wide  bridge  with  separated 
roadways  Each  bridge  has  a  34-ft.  three-lane 
roadway  Another  novel  structure  is  a  bridge  com- 
posed of  four  precast  concrete  slabs  or  girders 
placed  side  by  side  to  form  the  floor  and  span  of 
a  three-span  structure;  each  slab  is  85  ft.  long, 
weighs  135  tons,  and  also  carries  one  line  of  rails 
fastened  to  the  concrete  by  anchor  bolts.  The  two 
outside  girders  have  brackets  to  support  a  station 
platform,  the  structure  carrying  the  Canadian  Na- 
tional Railways  over  a  double  or  divided  road  The 
five  concrete  arches  of  250-ft.  span  for  the  new 
Waterloo  Bridge  over  the  Thames,  in  London, 
were  reported  as  completed  in  1940,  but  the  work 
may  have  been  damaged  or  halted  by  the  war. 

Foreign  Bridges.  War  conditions  have  resulted 
in  damage  and  destruction  of  a  vast  number  of 
bridges  in  European  countries  Three  bridges  in 
other  foreign  countries  may  be  noted  (1)  Hooghly 
River  highway  cantilever  bridge  at  Calcutta,  India 
Steel  erection  is  in  progress,  main  span  1500  ft, 
with  anchor  arms  or  side  spans  of  325  ft.  It  is 
unusually  wide,  having  a  71 -ft  roadway  (with 
double-track  electric  street-car  line)  between  the 
trusses,  and  two  15-ft  walks  outside  (2)  Haivkcs- 
bury  River  truss  bridge  in  Australia,  for  the  New 
South  Wales  Government  Railways  Work  is  in 
progress  on  the  foundations  for  a  bridge  having 
eight  truss  spans  of  348  ft,  with  floor  40  ft  above 
high  water  This  structure  will  replace  one  built 
in  1889  which  is  inadequate  for  present  tram  loads 
(3)  Brisbane  River  Bridge  at  Brisbane,  Queens- 
land, Australia,  opened  in  1940.  A  highway  bridge 
of  cantilever  type  with  main  span  of  924  ft  and 
two  anchor-arm  spans  of  270  ft.  In  length  of  span 
of  Australian  bridges  it  ranks  second  to  the  1000- 
ft.  steel-arch  bridge  at  Sydney,  New  South  Wales. 

Bridge  Design  and  Construction.  The  in- 
creasing use  of  welding  in  place  of  riveting  has 
influenced  both  the  design  and  the  construction 
work  of  steel  bridges.  And  there  has  been  marked 
increase  in  the  use  of  the  rigid-frame  type  of 
structure,  both  in  steel  and  concrete  In  this  type, 
the  supports  or  columns  are  formed  as  integral 
parts  of  the  span,  resembling  a  horseshoe  with  flat- 
tened top  Some  of  the  first  all-welded  rigid-frame 
bridges  in  the  United  States  are  included  in  the 
approaches  to  the  new  Main  Ave.  bridge  at  Cleve- 
land, Ohio  Each  of  these  bridges  consists  of  two 
parallel  frames  26^  ft.  apart,  with  the  girder  or 
top  member  130  ft.  long  and  welded  to  two  sup- 
porting columns  70  ft.  apart,  the  girders  extending 
30  ft.  beyond  them  to  rest  on  the  abutments 

Besides  new  construction,  there  has  been  inter- 
esting and  difficult  work  in  the  alteration,  strength- 
ening, and  improvement  of  existing  bridges  For 
example,  the  stringing  of  new  cables  for  the  Ohio 
River  suspension  bridge  at  Portsmouth,  Ohio, 
which  has  a  main  span  of  700  ft  and  side  spans  of 
350  ft.  The  bridge  had  been  closed  to  traffic  on 
account  of  the  discovery  of  broken  wires  in  the 
original  cables.  Owing  to  the  construction  of  the 
Bonneville  Dam  on  the  Columbia  River,  the  water 
level  was  raised  and  thus  necessitated  the  raising 


of  a  cantilever  highway  bridge  by  45  ft.  This  was 
done  by  means  of  jacks  on  the  piers  The  bridge, 
built  m  1926,  has  a  central  span  of  705  ft.  and 
anchor-arm  side  spans  of  211  ft.  See  FOUNDA- 
TIONS. 

E  E.  RUSSELL  TRAI MAN. 

BRIDGES  DEPORTATION  CASE.  See 

COMMUNISM. 

BRITAIN,  Battle  of.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR 
under  The  Battle  of  Britain. 

BRITISH  CAMEROONS.  See  CAMEROONS, 
BRITISH. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA.  Canada's  most 
westerly  province.  Area,  366,255  square  miles, 
population  (1939  estimate),  774,000  compared 
with  (1931  census)  694,263  Chief  towns  (1931 
census  figures  in  parentheses)  :  Victoria,  capital 
(39,082),  Vancouver  (246,593),  New  Westminster 
(17,524),  North  Vancouver  (8510),  Trail  (7573), 
Nanaimo  (6745),  Prince  Rupert  (6350),  Kam- 
loops  (6167).  Vital  statistics  (1939).  12,344  liv- 
ing births,  7511  deaths,  and  7862  marriages 
Education  ( 1938)  169,902  students  m  schools  and 
colleges  of  all  kinds 

Production.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural 
production  for  1939  totaled  $43,828,000.  Chief 
field  crops  (1939)  Oats  6,111,000  bu ,  wheat 
1,875,000  bu,  potatoes  96,900  tons,  roots  56,000 
tons,  hay  and  clover  315,000  tons,  alfalfa  160,000 
tons,  fodder  corn  70,000  tons,  grain  hay  113,000 
tons  Apple  crop  (1940)  •  2,026,100  barrels  Live- 
stock (1939)  314,700  cattle,  168,900  sheep,  68,- 
300  horses,  49,800  swine,  4,783,000  poultry.  The 
fur  production  in  1938-39  was  valued  at  $1,117,- 
000  ($814,532  in  1937-38).  Forestry  output  (1938) 
was  equal  to  598,402  M  cu.  ft  valued  at  $42,894,- 
803  The  1939  fish  catch  (208,610  tons)  was  worth 
$17,699,000,  of  which  salmon  accounted  for  $12,- 
995,000. 

Mineral  production  (1939)  was  valued  at  $65,- 
216,745  of  which  gold  (626,970  fine  oz.)  accounted 
for  $22,659,323,  lead  (378,440,666  Ib )  $11,992,- 
784,  zinc  (279,041,497  Ib  )  $8,563,784,  copper  (73, 
253,403  Ib  )  $7,392,734,  silver  (10,648,031  fine  oz  ) 
$4,311,175,  coal  (1,537,905  tons)  $9,464,061.  Manu- 
facturing (1938,  including  the  Yukon)  :  1785  fac- 
tories, 42,213  employees,  $90,471,828  net  value  of 
products  During  1939  a  total  of  11,993,815  net 
registered  tons  of  shipping  entered  the  port  of 
Vancouver 

Government.  Finance  (1939-40)  revenue, 
$32,826,438,  expenditure,  $33,043,243  (including 
$3,596,841  for  direct  relief)  On  Oct  31,  1939,  the 
gross  public  debt  was  $188,193,050  (including 
$40,119,668  ot  treasury  bills)  against  which  the 
sinking  funds  amounted  to  $36,131,705.  The  King 
is  represented  by  a  lieutenant-governor  (appointed 
by  the  governor-general  in  council)  who  is  aided 
by  a  ministry  which  is  responsible  to  the  legisla- 
ture and  resigns  when  it  fails  to  retain  the  con- 
fidence of  that  body  In  the  legislature  there  are 
48  members  (31  Liberals,  8  Conservatives,  7 
C.C  F.'s,  and  2  others  were  elected  on  June  1, 
1937),  elected  for  a  five-year  term  by  adult  suf- 
frage. Six  senators  (appointed  for  life)  and  16 
elected  commoners  represent  British  Columbia  in 
the  Dominion  parliament  at  Ottawa.  Lieutenant- 
Governor,  Eric  W  Hamber  (appointed  May  1, 
1936):  Premier,  T  D.  Pattullo  (Liberal). 

History.  It  was  announced  during  May,  1940, 
that  the  special  session  of  the  legislature  adjourned 
after  the  passage  of  two  measures  which  gave  the 


BRITISH  BAST  AFRICA 


BRITISH  GUIANA 


provincial  government  power  to  take  over  and 
operate  the  fuel-oil  and  gasoline  business  of  Brit- 
ish Columbia,  including  specific  powers  for  the 
expropriation  of  existing  oil  companies.  See 
CANADA. 

BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA.  See  KENYA, 
NYASALAND,  TANGANYIKA  TERRITORY,  UGANDA, 
ZANZIBAR 

BRITISH  EMPIRE.  The  world's  largest 
empire,  comprising  an  area  of  13,353,952  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  about  500,775,000  It 
consists  of 

1.  The  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and 
Northern  Ireland.  See  GREAT  BRITAIN  ,  IRELAND, 
NORTHERN. 

2.  Self-governing    Dominions — AUSTRALIA, 
CANADA,  NEWFOUNDLAND   (temporarily  adminis- 
tered as  a  crown  colony),  NEW  ZEALAISD,  UNION 
OF  SOUTH  AFRICA 

3  IRELAND   (EIRE),  a  sovereign,  independent 
slate,   associated   for   certain   purposes    with   the 
United  Kingdom  and  the  self-governing  domin- 
ions, which  are  sometimes  referred  to  collectively 
as  the  British  Commonwealth  of  Nations 

4  INDIA  and  BURMA 

5.  Self-governing  colonies — CEYLON  and 
SOUTHERN  RHODESIA 

6  Crown    colonies    and    protectorates — ADEN, 
BAHAMAS,  BARBADOS,  BASUTOLAND,  BI-CHUANA- 
LAND,  BERMUDA,  BRITISH  GUIANA,  BRITISH  HON- 
DURAS, BRIIISH  SOLOMON  ISLANDS,  BRITISH   So- 
MAUI  AND,    CYPRUS,    DOMINICA,    FALKLAND    IS- 
LANDS, FIJI,  GAMBIA,   GILBERT  AND   ELLICE  IS- 
LANDS, GIBRALTAR,  GOLD  COAST,  GRENADA,  HONG 
KONG,  JAMAICA,  Ki  NVA,  LEI  WARD  ISLANDS,  MAL- 
TA,  MAURITIUS,  NIGERIA,  NORTHERN  RHODFSIA, 
NYASALAND,   ST.  HELFNA,  ST    LUCIA,  ST    VIN- 
CENT, SEYCHELLES,  SIERRA  LEONE,  STRAITS  SET- 
TLEMENTS,  SWAZILAND,   TRINIDAD  AND  TOBAGO, 
UGANDA,  ZANZIBAR 

7  Protectorates  of  a  special  nature — BRITISH 
NORTH     BORNEO,     BRUNEI,     FEDERATED    MAI  AY 
STVTLS,  SARAWAK,  UNFEDERATTD  MALAY  STATES 

8  Mandates  held   by  the  United   Kingdom— 
BRITISH    CAMEROONS,    PALESTINE,   TANGANYIKA 
TERRITORY,    TRANS- JORDAN,    TOGOLAND    (British 
sphere) 

9  Mandates  held  by  Dominions — NAURU  (Aus- 
tralia), NFW  GUINEA  (Australia),  SOUTII-WFST 
AFRICA   (Union  of  South  Africa),  WESTERN  SA- 
MOA (New  Zealand) 

10  Dependencies  of  Dominions — LABRADOR 
(Newfoundland)  ,  ASHMORE  AND  CARTIER  IS- 
LANDS, PAPUA,  NORFOLK  ISLAND,  AUSTRALIAN 


Country  (Capital) 

Sq  mi     Population 

Location 

Basutoland  (Maseru) 

11,716      562,311  i 

South  Africa 

Bechuanaland  (Maleking8) 
Gambia  (Bathurst) 
Gilbert  and  Elhce  Is 

275,000      262,756  1 
4,068      199,520  « 

South  Africa 
West  Africa 

(Ocean  Is  ) 

216        15.000  « 

Oceania 

Mauritius  »  (Port  Louis) 
St  Helena  •  (Jamestown) 
Seychelles  (Victoria) 
Solomon  Islands  (TulaRi) 

807      415,492* 
81          4,611  « 
156        31,486* 
11,458        94,066* 

East  Africa 
West  Africa 
East  Africa 
Oceania 

Swaziland  (Mbabane) 

6,704      156,715  » 

South  Africa 

Tonga  or  Friendly  Is 

(Nukualofa) 

385        33,785  » 

Oceania 

1 1936  census.  The  total  for  Basutoland  is  exclusive  of  101,271 
absentee  natives  working  in  the  Union  of  South  Africa  at  the  time 
of  the  census.  »In  Cape  Province  » 1931  census  4 1°38 
estimate  *  Includes  dependent  islands  (87  sq  mi.,  pop.,  11,744) 
•Includes  the  dependent  island  of ^Ascension  (14  sq  mi  , pop, 159), 
the  islands  of  Tristan  da  Cunha,  Cough,  Nightingale,  and  Inacces- 
sible became  dependencies  of  St  Helena  on  Jan  12  1938,  7 1938 
census. 


ANTARCTIC  TERRITORY  (Australia)  ;  UNION  IS- 
LANDS or  TOKELAU  and  Ross  DEPENDENCY  (New 
Zealand) 

11.  Territories  held  under  condominium — 
ANGLO-EGYPTIAN  SUDAN  (United  Kingdom  and 
Egypt),  NEW  HLBRIDKS  (United  Kingdom  and 
France). 

See  the  sepaiate  articles  covering  each  of  the 
above  countries  except  those  included  in  the  pre- 
ceding table,  and  some  included  under  the  tables  of 
Area  and  Population  of  the  articles  on  AUSTRAL- 
IA, BRITISH  MALAYA,  NEW  ZEALAND,  and  WIND- 
WARD ISLANDS 

BRITISH  GUIANA.  A  British  crown  col- 
ony in  northern  South  America.  Area,  89,480 
square  miles,  population  (1938  estimate),  337,- 
521,  of  whom  142,736  were  East  Indian  immi- 
grants. During  1938  there  were  10,016  births  and 
8704  deaths  Capital,  Georgetown,  67,584  inhabi- 
tants in  1938.  Education  (1938)  237  primary 
schools  had  53,373  pupils  enrolled 

Production  and  Trade.  Sugar,  rice,  rum. 
coconuts,  coffee,  limes,  timber,  gold,  diamonds, 
and  bauxite  are  the  mam  products  There  are  de- 
posits of  manganese,  mica,  and  vegetable  pitch. 
Livestock  (1938)  •  134,951  cattle,  32,662  sheep, 
26,418  swine,  12,279  goats,  7344  donkeys,  and  2678 
horses.  Trade  (1939)  •  impoits,  $10,724,621  (flour, 
cotton  goods,  wearing  apparel,  sulphate  of  am- 
monia were  the  chief  items)  ;  exports,  $14,505,552, 
of  which  sugar  accounted  for  $8,131,239,  bauxite, 
(476,013  tons)  $2,889,368,  gold  (38,473  oz  ), 
$1,060,616,  rice,  $582,546;  rum,  $430,107;  dia- 
monds, £424,860  Shipping  (1938)  3472  vessels 
totaling  1,808,602  tons  entered  and  cleared. 

Government.  Finance  (1938)  •  revenue  £1,302,- 
520,  expenditure  £1,312,177,  funded  public  debt 
(Dec  31,  1938)  £4,467,300  The  British  Guiana 
(Constitution)  Orders  in  Council  of  1928  and  1935 
provide  for  the  government  of  the  colony,  and  for 
the  introduction  of  a  legislative  council  of  30  mem- 
bers (the  governor  as  president,  2  ex-officio,  8 
nominated  official,  5  nominated  unofficial,  and  14 
elected)  which  is  to  be  dissolved  every  five  years, 
unless  previously  dissolved,  and  a  general  election 
held.  A  governor,  aided  by  an  executive  council, 
heads  the  executive  and  administrative  branch  of 
the  government  Governor,  Sir  W  E  F.  Jackson 
(appointed  Jan.  19,  1937). 

History.  British  Guiana  was  one  of  the  British 
colonies  m  which  the  United  States  was  authorized 
to  establish  air  and  naval  bases  by  the  Anglo- 
American  accord  of  Sept  2,  1940  The  base  sites 
chosen  by  an  American  board  of  inspection  and  ap- 
proved by  the  British  authorities  were  announced 
November  18  as  follows  (a)  a  patrol  plane  squad- 
ron base,  with  airdrome,  on  the  bank  of  the  Deme- 
rara  River  25  miles  from  its  mouth;  (b)  a  sea- 
plane base  near  Suddie  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Essequibo  River.  The  American  con- 
sulate at  Georgetown,  closed  seven  years  before  as 
an  economy  measure,  was  ordered  reopened  July 
27,  1940,  due  to  Washington's  concern  over  the 
colony's  future. 

Plans  for  the  trial  settlement  of  European  refu- 
gees in  the  interior,  announced  in  1939  (see  YFAR 
BOOK,  1939),  were  delayed  in  1940  by  the  difficulty 
encountered  in  raising  private  funds  for  the  tinder- 
taking.  The  British  Government  had  agiecd  to 
build  a  motor  highway  to  the  interior  if  a  pri- 
vately-financed initial  settlement  proved  successful 

It  was  announced  in  May  that  £52,000  had  been 
allotted  to  British  Guiana  from  £350,000  appropri- 


BRITISH  HONDURAS 


90 


BRITISH  MALAYA 


ated  by  the  British  Government  for  immediate  de- 
velopment purposes  in  the  British  West  Indies 
(q.v.).  The  colony  contributed  toward  the  British 
war  effort  by  raising  two  detachments  of  volun- 
teers for  service  overseas  and  forming  three  vol- 
unteer units  for  local  defense  purposes.  A  self- 
sufficiency  program  to  lessen  the  colony's  depend- 
ence upon  foreign  sources  of  supply  was  carried 
forward  as  a  result  of  the  disruption  of  normal 
trade  by  the  war. 

See  BRITISH  WEST  INDIES  under  History. 

BRITISH  HONDURAS.  A  British  crown 
colony  in  Central  America.  Area,  8598  square 
miles;  population  (1938  estimate),  57,767.  During 
1938  there  were  2052  births,  1178  deaths,  and  447 
marriages.  Capital,  Belize  (16,687  inhabitants  in 

Production  and  Trade.  Mahogany,  chicle,  ba- 
nanas, grapefruit,  cedar  logs,  coconuts,  and  copra 
are  the  important  products.  Forest  products  repre- 
sented about  80  per  cent  of  the  exports  by  value. 
Trade  (1939):  Imports,  $3,532,059;  exports, 
$2,519,674  (mahogany,  $1,062,993;  chicle,  $722,- 
874;  bananas,  $186,702).  Shipping  entered  and 
cleared  the  port  of  Belize  during  1938  totaled  519,- 
481  tons.  There  is  an  airplane  service  for  passen- 
gers and  freight  to  Honduras,  Guatemala,  and 
other  southern  points. 

Government.  Finance  (1938)  :  $1,740,602  for 
total  revenue  and  $1,872,413  for  total  expenditure ; 
public  debt  (Dec.  31,  1938),  $3,337,210.  The  con- 
trol of  the  government  is  in  the  hands  of  a  gover- 
nor who  is  aided  by  an  executive  council.  There  is 
a  legislative  council  consisting  of  the  governor  as 
president,  5  official  and  8  unofficial  members  (2 
nominated  and  6  elected).  Governor  and  Com- 
mander-in-Chief,  J  A.  Hunter  (appointed  Nov 
18,  1939). 

History.  The  British  Colonial  Office  early  in 
1940  agreed  to  open  an  area  in  the  foothills  of  the 
Maya  Mountains  in  British  Honduras  to  settle- 
ment by  refugees  who  left  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Czecho- Slovakia  previous  to  the  outbreak  of  the 
European  War  In  an  agreement  reached  with  the 
Refugee  Industrial  Settlement  of  New  York,  the 
government  undertook  to  provide  a  house  and 
about  10  acres  of  land  to  each  family  in  return  for 
a  $600  family  entrance  fee.  Nearly  100  homes  were 
completed  before  the  end  of  1940  The  settlers 
planned  to  engage  in  wood  carving,  cabinet  mak- 
ing, forestry,  tobacco  growing,  embroidery,  and 
lace-making  on  a  co-operative  basis.  Legislation 
passed  during  1940  levied  an  additional  war  surtax 
on  incomes,  ranging  from  25  to  75  per  cent  on  in- 
comes over  $3000  Also  see  GUATEMALA  and  BRIT- 
ISH WEST  INDIES  under  History. 

BRITISH  MALAYA.  The  British  posses- 
sions and  dependencies  in  Malaya,  with  their  areas, 
latest  populations  and  capitals,  are  shown  in  the 
accompanying  table. 

The  combined  population  of  the  Federated  Malay 
States,  Straits  Settlements,  and  the  Un  federated 
Malay  States  at  the  end  of  1939  was  5,444,833, 
including  2,332,058  Chinese,  2,259,331  Malays,  744,- 
283  Indians,  30,319  Europeans  (including  the  mili- 
tary which  was  later  increased),  and  19,046  Eura- 
sians Populations  of  the  chief  cities  were  •  Singa- 
pore, 520,164  ( 1937) ;  George  Town,  149,408  ( 1936) ; 
Kuala  Lumpur,  136,068  (1937)  ;  Johore  Bahru, 
97,634;  Ipoh,  64,343  (1937);  Malacca,  43,258; 
Taiping,  38,719;  Seremban,  27,839;  Klang,  27,498; 
Alor  Star,  25,000 ;  Kuching,  25,000. 

Production.  The  principal  products  in  1939  were 


rubber  (419,000  metric  tons  shipped),  tin  (54,000 
metric  tons),  copra  (146,800  metric  tons,  net  ex- 
ports), rice  (340,000  tons),  palm  oil  (60,700  metric 
tons,  net  exports),  iron  ore  (1,260,000  metric  tons, 
metal  content),  tea  (1,553,094  Ib  ).  Other  prod- 
ucts :  Sugar,  areca  nuts,  timber,  resin,  palm-kernel 
oil,  phosphate,  and  manganese.  The  1939  area  of 
British  Malayan  (including  Brunei  and  British 
Borneo)  tappable  rubber  amounted  to  1,852,934 
acres.  Of  the  world's  total  shipments  of  rubber 
during  1939,  British  Malaya  shipped  36  6  per  cent. 


Division 

Sq  Mi 

Population 

Capital 

British  North  Borneo 

29,500 

299,000» 

Sandakan 

Brunei 

2,226 

35,963  » 

Brunei 

Federated  Malay 

States 
Negn  Sembilan 
Palang  . 
Perak*  .. 
Sdangor 

27,540 
2,580 
13,820 
7,980 
3,160 

2,125,274  « 
285,976 
212,755 
954,084 
672,459 

Kuala  Lumpur 
Seremban 
Pekan 
Taiping 
Kuala  Lumpur 

Sarawak 

50,000 

600,0001 

Kuching 

Straits  Settlements 

1,356 

1,372,568  » 

Singapore 

Labuan 

35 

8,717 

Victoria 

Malacca 

640 

228,307 

Malacca 

Penang* 

390 

405,702 

George  Town 

Singapore  ' 

291 

729,842 

Singapore 

Unfeclerated   Malay 

States 

22,276 

1,847,227  » 

Johore 

7,500 

709,870 

Johore  Bahru 

Kedah 

3,660 

481,242 

Alor  Star 

Kelantan 

5,750 

399,299 

Kota  Bharu 

Perhs 
Trengganu 

316 
5,050 

55,446 
201,370 

Kangar 
Kuala  Trengganu 

1  1938  estimate  * 1939  estimate  » Includes  Dmdmgs  «  In- 
cludes Province  Wellesley  *  Includes  Cocos  (Keeling)  and  Christ- 
mas Islands 

Trade.  Federated  Malay  States,  Straits  Settle- 
ments, and  Unfederated  Malay  States  (1939)  •  Im- 
ports, S$624,552,000 ,  exports,  S$748,505,000  (S$ 
averaged  $0  5125  in  1939)  Singapore  is  one  of  the 
most  important  oil-shipping  centers  of  the  East 
During4  1939  some  766,000  tons  of  liquid  fuel  and 
488,852  tons  of  gasoline  and  benzine  were  import- 
ed. Of  these  amounts  224,754  tons  of  liquid  fuel 
and  356,736  tons  of  gasoline  and  benzine  were  re- 
exported.  The  1939  trade  of  British  North  Borneo, 
Brunei,  and  Sarawak  (not  included  in  above  fig- 
ures) :  Imports,  US  $15,914,000;  exports,  U.S 
$26,073,000.  During  1939  a  total  of  12,930  ships 
aggregating  31,647,614  net  tons  entered  and  cleared 
the  port  of  Singapore 

Finance.  Federated  Malay  States  budget  ( 1940)  • 
Balanced  at  S$68,698,983.  Straits  Settlements  bud- 
get (1941).  Revenue,  S$46,294,000  ( S$43,300,000 
in  1940)-  expenditure,  S$57,292,000  (S$61,000,- 
000).  Unfederated  Malay  States  (actual  1938-39 
figures  for  Kedah  and  Perlis,  actual  1938  figures  for 
Johore,  Kelantan,  and  Trengganu)  •  Revenue,  S$30,- 
729,206;  expenditure,  S$31,730,903  British  North 
Borneo,  Brunei,  and  Sarawak  (actual  1938  fig- 
ures) :  Revenue,  S$8,661,313 ;  expenditure,  S$7,610,- 
238.  The  average  exchange  value  for  the  Straits 
dollar  (S$)  was  $04698  for  1940;  $05174,  1939, 
$0.5692,  1938 

Government.  The  Governor  of  the  Straits  Set- 
tlements also  serves  as  High  Commissioner  for 
the  Federated  and  Unfederated  Malay  States  and 
Brunei  and  as  Agent  for  British  North  Borneo 
and  Sarawak.  The  Straits  Settlements  constitute  a 
crown  colony;  it  is  administered  by  the  Governor 
with  the  aid  of  executive  and  legislative  councils 
The  other  Malay  States  are  all  protectorates  with 
different  degrees  of  British  control  British  Resi- 
dents advise  the  rulers  of  each  of  the  Federated 
and  Unfederated  Malay  States.  The  Federated 
Malay  States  have,  in  addition,  a  Federal  Council 


BRITISH  MALAYA 


91 


BRITISH  WEST  INDIES 


and  their  policy  in  Federal  matters  is  co-ordinated 
by  the  High  Commissioner  through  the  Federal 
Secretary.  British  North  Borneo  is  administered 
by  the  British  North  Borneo  Company  under  a 
royal  charter.  The  Sultan  of  Brunei  in  1906 
agreed  to  place  the  administration  in  the  hands  of 
a  British  Resident.  Sarawak  has  a  British  heredi- 
tary ruler  or  rajah,  Sir  Charles  Vyner  Brooke,  but 
a  Special  Commissioner  represents  the  Governor 
of  the  Straits  Settlements.  Governor  at  Singapore 
in  1940,  Sir  Thomas  Shenton  Whitelegge  Thomas. 

History.  British  Malaya  assumed  far-reaching 
importance  to  the  British  war  effort  during  1940. 
Following  the  defeat  of  France  and  Japan's  threat- 
ening advance  in  southeastern  Asia,  the  defenses 
of  the  great  fortress  and  naval  and  air  base  at 
Singapore  were  hurriedly  strengthened.  During  the 
latter  half  of  the  year  large  reinforcements  ar- 
rived from  India,  China,  and  Australia,  including 
a  number  of  Australian  air  units  Shipments  of 
heavy  bombers  came  from  the  United  States  and 
the  Near  East  On  November  13  London  authori- 
ties appointed  Air  Chief  Marshal  Sir  Robert 
Brooke-Popham  to  the  newly  established  post  of 
Commander  in  Chief  in  the  Far  East,  with  head- 
quarters at  Singapore  He  assumed  command  of 
Empire  forces  in  Malaya,  Burma,  Hong  Kong,  and 
the  East  Indies 

The  local  defense  resources  of  Malaya  were  mo- 
bilized also  Compulsory  service  for  Europeans  in 
the  Straits  Settlements  and  Federated  Malay  States 
was  adopted  early  in  the  summer  and  male  British- 
Europeans  were  not  permitted  to  leave  the  colonies 
without  a  special  permit  Later  a  local  defense 
corps,  modeled  on  the  Home  Guard  in  Britain,  was 
organized  in  each  of  the  Malay  States ;  it  was  com- 
posed of  white  British  subjects  over  41  years  of 
age  and  non -European  British  subjects  and  British- 
protected  persons  from  18  to  55  years  old  who  had 
had  training  in  the  use  of  arms 

According  to  the  Governor  of  the  Straits  Set- 
tlements, British  Malaya's  financial  contribution  to 
the  British  war  effort  during  the  first  year  of  the 
conflict  averaged  about  i\  per  capita  for  the  entire 
population  The  Malayan  governments  turned  over 
about  £2,500,000  while  popular  contributions  in- 
cluded £470,000  for  the  purchase  of  bombers  and 
£200,000  to  war  charities.  Later  in  the  year  the 
Straits  Settlements  and  Federated  Malay  States 
floated  war  loans  of  S$25,000,000  and  S$20,000,- 
000,  respectively  (£5,250,000  in  all).  The  money 
subscribed  was  turned  over  to  the  British  Govern- 
ment for  war  purposes.  A  far  greater  contribution 
was  made  through  rapidly  expanding  sales  of  rub- 
ber and  tin  to  the  United  States,  bringing  the  Brit- 
ish Treasury  more  than  £60,000,000  annually  in 
dollar  exchange  which  was  urgently  needed  for 
the  purchase  of  British  war  supplies  in  America 

Economic  control  measures  were  adopted  to  in- 
sure the  most  effective  utilization  of  the  region's 
material  and  financial  resources  in  support  of  Brit- 
ain. In  connection  with  the  food  control  program, 
a  rice  pool  was  established  August  1,  covering  all 
rice  imported  into  Singapore.  Exchange  control 
was  tightened  to  conserve  needed  foreign  exchange 
Quotas  were  imposed  on  exports  of  rice,  milk,  and 
other  foods.  War  taxes  were  increased  in  most  of 
the  States. 

Rapidly  rising  prices,  combined  with  agitation 
by  alleged  Communists  and  other  subversive  ele- 
ments, provoked  recurrent  strikes  and  labor  dis- 
turbances On  July  18,  the  authorities  introduced 
compulsory  arbitration  of  labor  disputes  and  a 


number  of  alleged  agitators,  mostly  Chinese,  were 
deported  or  imprisoned.  On  November  22,  the  press 
attache"  of  the  Japanese  Consulate  at  Singapore 
was  convicted  of  espionage  and  sentenced  to  three 
years'  imprisonment 

On  Jan.  23,  1940,  the  Rajah  of  Sarawak,  Sir 
Charles  Vyner  Brooke,  issued  a  decree  disqualify- 
ing his  27-year-old  nephew,  Anthony  Brooke,  as 
heir  presumptive  to  the  throne. 

See  GREAT  BRITAIN  and  JAPAN  under  History. 

BRITISH  NEW  GUINEA.  Same  as  Papua. 
See  AUSTRALIA  under  Overseas  Territories. 

BRITISH  NORTH  BORNEO.  See  BRITISH 
MALAYA 

BRITISH  SOLOMON  ISLANDS  PRO- 
TECTORATE. See  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

BRITISH  SOMALILAND.  See  SOMALI- 
LAND,  BRITISH. 

BRITISH  SOUTH  AFRICA.  See  SOUTH 
AFRICA,  UNION  OF. 

BRITISH  WEST  AFRICA.  See  CAMER- 
OONS,  BRITISH;  Gambia  under  BRITISH  EMPIRE; 
GOLD  COAST;  NIGERIA;  SIERRA  LEONE 

BRITISH  WEST  INDIES.  The  colonial 
possessions  of  Great  Britain  in  the  West  Indies, 
consisting  of  three  main  groups  of  islands.  (1) 
Bahamas,  (2)  Jamaica  and  adjacent  islands,  and 
(3)  other  islands  scattered  throughout  the  Lesser 
Antilles  (Leeward  Islands,  Windward  Islands, 
Barbados,  Trinidad,  and  Tobago).  Bermuda,  Brit- 
ish Guiana,  and  British  Honduras  (qq  v.)  are  ex- 
cluded. The  area  and  population  of  the  British 
West  Indies,  by  main  island  groups,  are  shown  in 
the  accompanying  table.  The  inhabitants  are  for 
the  most  part  Negroes. 


Island  group 

Sq  mi 

Pop  (1939) 

Capital 

Bahamas 

4,404 

67,726 

Nassau 

Jamaica  and  dependencies 
Jamaica 
Turks  &  Caicos  Isl 

4,450 
166 

1,173,645 
5,300 

Kingston 
Grand  Turk 

Cayman  Islands 
Leeward  Islands  a 

104 
423 

6,800 
101,063  fc 

Georgetown 
St  John 

Windward  Islands  ° 

820 

265,500  * 

St  George's 

Barbados 

166 

193,082 

Bridgetown 

Trinidad  and  Tobago 

1,980 

464,889 

Port  of  Spain 

Totals.   . 

12,513 

2,278,005 

•The  island  of  Dominica  was  transferred  from  the  Leeward 
Islands  to  the  Windward  Islands  effective  Jan  1,  1940.  *  1938 
figures. 

Agriculture  is  the  main  occupation  in  virtually 
all  of  the  islands,  the  chief  crops  being  sugar  (ex- 
ports estimated  at  502,086  tons  for  1939-40),  cacao, 
coconuts,  cotton,  citrus  fruit,  vegetables,  and  in 
Jamaica  bananas.  The  tourist  business,  manufac- 
turing for  local  consumption,  and  (in  Trinidad) 
the  production  of  petroleum  and  asphalt  are  the 
other  leading  sources  of  income.  There  is  no  uni- 
fied governmental  system,  the  island  groups  listed 
above  constitute  separate  colonies,  each  with  a  gov- 
ernor appointed  by  the  Crown  and  with  varying 
degrees  of  popular  representation  in  their  legisla- 
tive bodies  See  the  separate  article  on  each  colony 
and  its  main  subdivisions 

History.  On  Feb.  20,  1940,  the  British  Govern- 
ment made  public  a  summary  of  the  report  of  the 
Royal  Commission  headed  by  Lord  Moyne  which 
was  appointed  on  Aug  5,  1938,  to  investigate  social 
and  economic  conditions  in  the  British  West  In- 
dies, British  Guiana,  and  British  Honduras  and 
submit  recommendations  for  measures  to  improve 
them.  The  need  for  such  action  was  indicated  by 
the  development  of  unrest,  labor  troubles  and  mi- 


BRITISH  WEST  INDIES 


92     BROOKLYN  INSTITUTE  OF  ARTS 


nor  disorders  in  a  number  of  the  West  Indian  colo- 
nies (see  JAMAICA  and  TRINIDAD  AND  TOBAGO  in 
1938,  1939,  and  1940  YEAR  BOOKS). 

The  British  Government  published  at  the  same 
time  a  White  Paper  setting  forth  its  policy  with 
respect  to  both  the  British  West  Indies  and  the 
colonial  empire  as  a  whole.  In  the  White  Paper 
the  government  accepted  the  Royal  Commission's 
proposal  for  the  establishment  of  a  central  organi- 
zation headed  by  a  comptroller  and  staffed  with 
technical  officers  to  plan  the  co-ordinated  develop- 
ment of  welfare  services  throughout  the  British 
West  Indies  It  also  accepted  a  recommendation 
for  the  appointment  of  an  inspector-general  of  ag- 
riculture for  the  West  Indian  colonies.  These  ac- 
tivities were  to  be  financed  from  the  British  Gov- 
ernment's Exchequer  on  a  scale  approximating  the 
Commission's  recommendations  (The  Commission 
called  for  an  annual  grant  of  £1,000,000  for  a  pe- 
riod of  20  years,  to  be  spent  for  social  services  and 
development  alone  )  A  special  sum  of  £350,000  was 
set  aside  for  an  immediate  start  on  employment- 
creating  projects  in  Jamaica  and  British  Guiana 
and  on  other  parts  of  the  program  The  govern- 
ment announced  that  it  was  consulting  the  West 
Indian  Administrations  on  the  Commission's  other 
recommendations  with  a  view  to  prompt  action 

The  other  recommendations  included  •  Improve- 
ment of  educational,  public  health,  and  housing 
facilities ;  legislation  freeing  unions  of  legal  re- 
sponsibility for  damages  resulting  from  strikes, 
permitting  peaceful  picketing,  and  providing  for 
compulsory  registration  of  trade  unions  and  audit 
of  their  funds,  action  by  colonial  governors  and 
legislatures  to  improve  wages  and  conditions  of 
labor,  etc  ,  reonentation  of  the  agricultural  system 
in  the  direction  of  permanent  mixed  farming,  a 
land  settlement  program  ,  improvement  of  shipping 
and  other  communications ,  and  measures  to  make 
the  colonial  legislatures  more  representative,  with 
universal  adult  suffrage  as  the  object  of  policy 
The  Commission  rejected  proposals  for  political 
federation  of  the  British  West  Indies,  but  urged 
union  of  the  Leeward  and  Windward  Islands  as  "a 
practical  test  of  the  advantages  of  federation  " 

It  recommended  that  the  colonial  governments 
"adopt  a  much  more  positive  policy  of  bringing 
their  point  of  view  before  the  mass  of  the  people" 
and  urged  "an  organized  attempt  to  prevent  any 
further  extension  of  color  prejudice  " 

In  July  Sir  Frank  Stockdale,  an  experienced 
official  of  the  British  Colonial  Office,  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  newly  created  post  of  Comptroller 
for  Development  and  Welfare  in  the  West  Indies 
The  post  of  Inspector-General  of  Agriculture  went 
to  A  J  Wakefield,  former  Director  of  Agriculture 
in  Tanganyika  Other  experts  were  named  to  the 
Comptroller's  staff 

In  a  move  to  protect  the  interests  of  the  West 
Indian  colored  populations  in  connection  with  pos- 
sible changes  in  the  status  quo  of  that  region,  Brit- 
ish West  Indians  in  New  York  City  organized  an 
emergency  committee  on  the  eve  of  the  Havana 
Conference  (sec  PAN  AMERICANISM),  They  sent 
a  representative  to  Havana  to  insist  on  the  Carib- 
bean peoples1  npht  to  self  determination  and  self 
government,  and  this  was  tacitly  recognized  in  the 
program  adopted  bv  the  conference  Subsequently 
a  permanent  West  Indies  National  Council,  headed 
by  W.  A.  Domingo  of  lamaica,  was  formed  on 
which  most  of  the  British  West  Indian  colonies, 
including  those  of  British  Guiana  and  British  Hon- 
duras, were  represented. 


The  West  Indies  National  Council  joined  with 
the  Jamaican  People's  National  party  in  a  cam- 
paign to  prevent  racial  discrimination,  segregation, 
importation  of  foreign  unskilled  labor,  and  foreign 
interference  in  local  economic  and  political  matters 
in  connection  with  the  leasing  of  United  States 
bases  in  British  West  Indian  possessions.  The 
Council  supported  the  British  cause  in  the  Euro- 
pean War  and  most  of  its  members  were  said  to 
favor  eventual  self-government  for  the  West  In- 
dian colonies  as  units  of  the  British  Empire.  All 
of  the  governments  and  populations  of  the  individ- 
ual colonies  rallied  loyally  to  the  support  of  the 
British  cause. 

For  the  Moyne  Commission's  recommendations 
concerning  individual  colonies  and  their  respective 
war  contributions,  see  BARBADOS,  BRITISH  GUI- 
ANA, BRITISH  HONDURAS,  JAMAICA,  LEEWARD  IS- 
LANDS, and  WINDWARD  ISLANDS  under  History. 
For  details  of  the  U  S.  naval  and  air  bases,  see 
ANTIGUA,  BAHAMAS,  BRITISH  GUIANA,  JAMAICA, 
ST  LUCTA,  and  TRINIDAD  under  History 

BROADCASTING  STATIONS.  The  ta- 
bles on  page  93  list  the  larger  broadcasting  sta- 
tions, the  facsimile  broadcasting  stations,  and  high 
frequency  broadcasting  stations  of  the  United 
States  For  an  account  of  the  number  of  stations 
licensed  and  other  events  of  the  year,  see  FEDERAL 
COMMUNICATIONS  COMMISSION  See  also  RADIO, 
RADIO  PROGRAMS 

BROOKINGS  INSTITUTION.  An  organ- 
ization devoted  to  public  service  through  research 
and  training  in  the  social  sciences  Established  in 
Washington,  D  C  ,  in  1927,  it  maintains  as  operat- 
ing units  the  Institute  of  Economics,  the  Institute 
for  Government  Research,  and  a  division  of  train- 
ing in  which  only  those  who  have  had  at  least  two 
years  of  graduate  work  are  accepted  as  research 
fellows 

In  carrying  out  its  purpose  to  aid  constructively 
in  the  development  of  sound  national  policies  with- 
out regard  to  the  special  interests  of  any  group, 
whether  political,  social,  or  economic,  the  Institu- 
tion conducted  during  1940  several  significant  in- 
vestigations The  resulting  studies  were  published 
under  the  following  titles  Capital  Expansion,  Em- 
ployment and  Economic  Stability ;  Federal  Control 
of  Expenditures ,  Labor  Relations  in  the  Automo- 
bile Industry-  The  Federal  Financial  System, 
Wartime  Control  of  Prices;  Union  Policies  and 
Industrial  Management ,  Productivity,  Waqcs,  and 
National  Income,  Federal  Regulatory  Action  and 
Control;  Government  and  Economic  Life  (Vol  2)  , 
How  Nasi  Germany  Has  Mobilized  and  Con- 
trolled Labor. 

The  Institution  is  supported  from  endowment 
funds  and  annual  grants.  The  officers  of  the  board 
of  trustees  for  1940-41  were:  Chairman,  Dwight 
F.  Davis;  vice  chairman,  Dean  G  Acheson;  presi- 
dent, Harold  G  Moulton;  treasurer,  Henry  P 
Seidemann,  and  secretary,  Elizabeth  H  Wilson 
Headquarters  are  at  722  Jackson  Place,  Wash- 
ington, D  C 

BROOKLYN  INSTITUTE  OF  ARTS 
AND  SCIENCES.  One  of  America's  oldest  and 
largest  institutions  for  informal  education,  located 
in  Brooklyn,  N.Y  Its  public  activities  are  con- 
ducted at  four  centers  •  The  Institute  at  the  Acad- 
emy of  Music,  the  Central  Museum,  the  Children's 
Museum,  and  the  Botanic  Garden.  Founded  in 
1824,  the  Institute  was  incorporated  in  its  present 
form  in  1890  Total  membership  is  about  7000  and 
is  open  to  everyone. 


BROOKLYN  INSTITUTE  OF  ARTS      93      BROOKLYN  INSTITUTE  OF  ARTS 

UNITED  STATES  RADIO  BROADCAST  STATIONS  HAVING  POWER  OF  SO  KW  (Sept    1,  1940) 


Stote 

City 

Call  Letter 

Licensee                              Frequency  (kc) 

California 

Los  Angeles 

KFI 

EarleC  Anthony,  Inc 

640 

California 

Los  Angeles 

KNX 

Columbia  Broadcasting  System,  Inc 

1050 

California 

San  Francisco 

KPO 

National  Broadcasting  Co  ,  Inc 

680 

Colorado 

Denver 

KOA 

National  Broadcasting  Co  ,  Inc 

830 

Connecticut 
District  of  C  olumbia 

Hartford 
Washington 

WTIC 
WJSV 

Travelers  Broadcasting  Service  Corp 
C  olumbia  Broadcasting  System,  Inc 

1060 
1460 

Georgia 

Atlanta 

WSB 

Atlanta  Journal  Co 

740 

Illinois    . 
Illinois 

Chicago 
Chicago 

WBBM 
WENR 

Columbia  Broadcasting  System,  Inc 
National  Broadcasting  Co    Inc 

770 
870 

Illinois 

Chicago 

WGN 

WGN,  Inc 

720 

Illinois    . 

Chicago 

WLS 

Agricultural  Broadcasting  Co 

870 

Illinois 

Chicago 

WMAQ 

National  Broadcasting  f  o  ,  Inc 

670 

Iowa 

DCS  Momes 

WHO 

Central  Broadcasting  Co 

1000 

Kentucky 

Louisville 

WHAS 

Courier-  Journal  and  Louisville  Times  Co 

820 

Louisiana 

New  Orleans 

WWL 

Loyola  University 

850 

Louisiana 

Shreveport 

KWKH 

International  Broadcasting  Corp 

1100 

Massachusetts 

Boston 

WBZ 

Westmghouse  Electric  &  Mfg  Co 

990 

Michigan 
Minnesota 
Minnesota 

Detroit 
Minneapolis 
St  Paul 

WJR 
WCCO 
KSTP 

WJR,  The  Goodwill  Station 
Columbia  Broadcasting  System  Inc 
KSTP,  Inc  (construction  permit  authorized) 

750 
810 
1460 

Missouri 

St  Louis 

KMOX 

Columbia  Broadcasting  System,  Inc 

1090 

New  Jersey 
New  Mexico 

Newark 
Albuquerque 

WOR 
KOB 

Bamberger  Broadcasting  Service,  Inc 
Albuquerque  Broadcasting  Co  a 

710 
1180 

New  York 

New  York 

WABC 

Columbia  Broadcasting  System,  Inc 

860 

New  York 

New  York 

WEAF 

National  Broadcasting  Co  ,  Inc 

660 

New  York 
New  York 

New  York 
Rochester 

WJZ 
WHAM 

National  Broadcasting  Co  ,  Inc 
Strom  berg-Carlson  Telephone  Mfg  Co 

760 
1150 

New  York 

Schenectady 

WGY 

General  Electric  Co 

790 

North  Carolina 

Charlotte 

WBT 

Columbia  Broadcasting  System,  Iric 

1080 

Ohio 

Cincinnati 

WCKY 

L  B  Wilson,  Inc 

1490 

Ohio 

Cincinnati 

WLW 

The  Crosley  Corp 

700 

Ohio 

Cleveland 

WTAM 

National  Broadcasting  Co  ,  Inc 

1070 

Pennsylvania 

Philadelphia 

WCAU 

WCAU  Broadcasting  Co 

1170 

Pennsylvania 

Pittsburgh 

KDKA 

Westmghouse  Electric  &  Mfg  Co 

980 

Tennessee 

Nashville 

WSM 

National  Life  &  Accident  Insurance  (  u 

650 

Texas 

Dallas 

KRLD 

KRLD  Radio  Corp 

1040 

Texas 

Dallas 

WFAA 

A  II  Belo  Corp 

800 

Texas 

Fort  Worth 

WBAP 

Carter  Publications,  Tnc 

800 

Texas 

San  Antonio 

WOAI 

Southland  Industries,  Inc 

1190 

Utah 

Salt  Lake  City 

KSL 

Radio  Serxice  Corp  of  Utah 

1130 

Virginia 

Richmond 

\\R\A 

Larus  &  Brother  Co  ,  Tnc 

1110 

1-ACSIMILE  BROADCAST  STATIONS  (JULY  1,  1940) 


Licensee  and  Location 

Call  Letters 

Frequency  (kc) 

Power 

Bamberger  Broadcasting  Service,  Inc  ,  New  York,  New  York 

W2XUP 

25250 

lOOw 

A  II  Belo  Corporal  ion,  Dallas,  Texas 

W5XGR 

25250 

lOOw 

The  Cincinnati  Times-Star  Co  .Cincinnati,  Ohio 
Courier-  Journal  and  Louisville  Times  Company,  N  E  of  Eastwood,  Kentucky 

WRXVC 
W9XWT 

25175 
25250 

lOOw 
500w 

The  Crosley  Corporation,  Cincinnati,  Ohio 
\Vilham  G  H   Finch,  New  York,  New  York 

W8XUJ 
W2XBF 

25025 
43740 

Ikw 

Ikw 

The  Nat  lonal  Life  and  Accident  Insurance  Company,  Inc  ,  Nashv  ille,  1  cnnessee 

W4XIH 

25250 

Ikw 

"I  he  Pulitzer  Publishing  Company,  St   Louis,  Missouri 

W9X7Y 

25100 

lOOw 

Radio  Pictures,  Inc  ,  Long  Island  City,  New  York 

W2XR 

435KO 

SOOw 

Sparks-  Withington  Company,  Jackson,  Michigan 

W8XU* 

4WX) 

lOOw 

Star-Times  Publishing  Company,  St  Louis,  Missouri 

WQXSP 

25250 

lOOw 

Symons  Broadcasting  Co  ,  Spokane,  Washington 

W7XSW 

25  ISO 

lOOw 

United  Broadcasting  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio 

W8XE 

4^20 

lOOw 

WBEN,  Incorixirated,  Buffalo,  New  York 

\\8X\ 

4^700 

lOOw 

WBNS,  Inc«rix>rated,  Columbus,  Ohio 

W8XUM 

25200 

lOOw 

WOKO,  Inc  ,  Albany,  New  York 

W2XWE 

25050 

SOOw 

HIGH  FREQUENCY  BROADCAST  STATIONS  (JAN    1,  1941) 
[Construction  Permit  Only] 


Licensee  and  Location 

Call  Letters 

Frtquencv  (ki) 

Service  Area 

(Sg  Mt  ) 

Baml>erger  Broadcasting  Service,  Inc  ,  Newark,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  N  Y 

W71NY 

47,100 

8,500 

Raton  Rouge  Broadcasting  Co  ,  Inc  ,  Baton  Rouge,  La 

W45RG 

44,500 

8,100 

Capitol  Broadcasting  Company,  Lac  ,  Schenectady,  N  Y 
Evansville  On  the  Air,  Inc  ,  Evansville,  Ind 

W47A 
W45V 

44,700 
44,500 

6,589 
8,397 

The  Evening  News  Association,  Detroit,  Mich 

W45D 

44,500 

.6,820 

William  G  H  Finch,  New  York,  N  Y 

W55NY 

45,500 

8,500 

Frequency  Broadcasting  Corporation,  Brooklyn,  N   Y 
General  Electric  Company,  Schenectady,  N  Y 
Howitt-Wood  Radio  Co  ,  Inc  ,  Bmghamton,  N   Y 
The  Journal  Company,  Milwaukee,  Wis 
Don  Lee  Broadcasting  System,  Los  Angeles,  Calif 
Marcus  Loew  Booking  Agency,  New  York,  N  Y 
Metropolitan  Television,  Inc  ,  New  York,  N  Y 

W59NY 
W57A 
W49BN 
W55M 
K45LA 
W6JNY 
W75NY 

45,900 
45,700 
44,900 
45,500 
44,500 
46,100 
47,500 

8,500 
6,600 
6,500 
8,540 
6,944 
8,500 
8,500 

National  Broadcasting  Company,  Inc  ,  New  York.  N  Y 

W51NY 

45,100 

8,500 

National  Broadcasting  Company,  Inc  ,  Chicago,  111 
The  National  Life  and  Accident  Insurance  Company,  Nashville,  Tenn 
Radio  Service  Corporation  of  Utah,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 
The  Travelers  Brdcstg  Service  Corp  ,  Hartford,  Conn 
Walker  &  Downing  Radio  Corporation,  Pittsburgh,  Pa 
WBNS,  Incorporated,  Columbus.  Ohio 

W63C 
W47NV 
K47SL 
W53H 
W47P 
W45CM 

46,300 
44,700 
44,700 
45,300 
44,700 
44,500 

10,800 
16,000 
623 
6,100 
8,400 
12,400 

WCAU  Broadcasting  Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa 

W67PH 

46,700 

9,300 

WDRC,  Inc  .Hartford,  Conn                  l       ' 

W65H 

46,500 

6,100 

WGN.  Inc  ,  Chicago,  111 
The  Yankee  Network,  Inc  ,  Boston,  Mass 

W59C 
W39B 

45900 
43,900 

10,800 
31,000 

Zenith  Radio  Corporation,  Chicago,  111 

W51C 

..45,100 

10,760 

BROWDER 


94 


BUILDING 


The  Institute  at  the  Academy  of  Music  presents 
an  adult  education  program  annually  of  concerts, 
lectures,  forums  in  every  major  field  of  the  arts 
and  sciences,  and  courses  of  instruction  in  art, 
photography,  and  foreign  languages.  Approximate 
attendance  at  these  events  for  the  season  1939-40 
was  230,000.  The  Institute's  Museums  possess  col- 
lections in  art,  ethnology,  and  natural  science.  The 
Central  Museum  reference  library  contains  more 
than  27,000  volumes  as  well  as  many  pamphlets 
and  complete  sets  of  rare  periodicals.  It  includes 
the  Stewart  Culm  Library  on  Ethnology  and  the 
Charles  Edwin  Wilbour  Library  on  Egyptology 
Attendance  at  both  Museums  for  the  year  1940 
totaled  513,800  The  Institute's  Botanic  Garden 
comprises  more  than  50  acres  and  plant  houses 
containing  tropical  and  sub-tropical  species  The 
Botanic  Garden  reference  library  has  over  25,000 
volumes  and  pamphlets  Botanic  Garden  attendance 
for  the  year  1940  totaled  1,687,564. 

In  1940  the  permanent  funds  of  the  Institute 
amounted  to  $4,335,000  and  the  funds  to  meet 
current  expenses,  to  $881,000.  Under  a  general 
reorganization  plan  adopted  in  April,  1938,  James 
G.  McDonald  was  named  president  of  the  Insti- 
tute. Other  officers  are.  Edward  C.  Blum,  chair- 
man of  the  board  of  trustees ;  Julius  Bloom,  as- 
sociate director  of  the  Institute  at  the  Academy 
of  Music;  Laurance  P.  Roberts,  director  of  the 
Museums;  Mrs  William  Lloyd  Garrison,  3d, 
curator-in-chief  of  the  Children's  Museum;  C 
Stuart  Gager,  director  of  the  Botanic  Garden. 
Executive  offices  are  located  in  the  Academy  of 
Music,  30  Lafayette  Avenue,  Brooklyn. 

BROWDER,  Earl.  See  COMMUNISM;  ELEC- 
TIONS, U  S  NATIONAL 

BRUNEI.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA 

BRUNSWICK.  See  GERMANY  under  Area  and 
Population. 

BUDGET.  For  national  budgets,  see  BUDGET, 
BUREAU  OF  THE;  PUBLIC  FINANCE;  the  countries 
under  Finance.  For  family  budget  studies,  see  LIV- 
ING COSTS  AND  STANDARDS 

BUDGET,  Bureau  of  the.  The  Bureau  of  the 
Budget  became  a  part  of  the  Executive  Office  of 
the  President  at  the  beginning  of  the  fiscal  year 
1940.  Created  by  the  Budget  and  Accounting  Act 
of  1921  as  a  Bureau  in  the  Treasury  Department 
to  assist  the  President  in  the  performance  of  the 
duties  imposed  upon  him  by  the  Act,  it  was  trans- 
ferred by  Reorganization  Plan  I  to  the  Executive 
Office  of  the  President,  wherein  are  lodged  the 
five  agencies  assisting  the  President  in  the  over- 
all management  and  central  direction  of  the  execu- 
tive branch  of  the  Federal  Government  The  func- 
tions of  the  Bureau  and  of  the  other  Divisions  of 
the  Executive  Office  were  further  defined  by  Exec- 
utive Order  on  Sept.  8,  1939.  In  actively  assuming 
its  new  role  in  the  Executive  Office  of  the  Presi- 
dent, the  staff  of  the  Bureau  has  been  expanded 
and  its  internal  structure  crystallized  into  five  ma- 
jor Divisions  under  the  Director  and  Assistant 
Director — Estimates,  Legislative  Reference,  Ad- 
ministrative Management,  Fiscal,  and  Statistical 
Standards  ( formerly  the  Central  Statistical  Board) . 

The  best-known  function  of  the  Bureau  of  the 
Budget  is  the  formulation  of  the  Budget  document 
which  the  President  annually  submits  to  Congress 
In  this  document  are  set  forth  in  summary  and  in 
detail  the  proposed  fiscal  program  of  the  Govern- 
ment for  the  coming  year,  with  comparative  fig- 
ures as  to  past  and  current  programs.  After  the 
budgetary  program  becomes  operative  through  ap- 


propriations made  by  Congress  (see  UNITED 
STATES  under  Legislation),  the  Bureau  takes  up 
the  task  of  supervising  and  controlling  its  execu- 
tion by  a  continuous  review  of  expenditures  and 
operations  of  the  various  agencies. 

The  Bureau  is  also  concerned  with  the  improve- 
ment of  administrative  management  and  organiza- 
tion in  the  Federal  agencies  and  establishments.  It 
assisted  the  President  in  the  development  of  Re- 
organization Plans  III,  IV,  and  V,  which  were  ap- 
proved by  the  Congress  during  1940.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  year,  particular  attention  was  given  to 
problems  of  national  defense  organization.  Con- 
tinuous effort  is  being  directed  toward  the  im- 
provement of  fiscal  and  budgetary  administration 
in  the  Federal  Government.  A  step  in  this  direction 
was  the  issuance  of  an  Executive  Order  in  August, 
1940,  having  to  do  with  the  improvement  of  finan- 
cial reporting  and  budgetary  control 

An  additional  responsibility  of  the  Bureau  of  the 
Budget  is  to  keep  the  President  informed  of  the 
progress  of  activities  of  the  agencies  of  the  Gov- 
ernment with  respect  to  work  proposed,  work  ac- 
tually initiated,  and  work  completed  This  activity 
has  become  particularly  important  with  respect  to 
the  defense  program.  The  Bureau  likewise  assists 
the  President  by  clearing  and  co-ordinating  the  re- 
ports of  departments  and  agencies  on  proposed 
legislation  and  by  making  recommendations  as  to 
action  on  legislative  enactments ;  it  also  clears  pro- 
posed Executive  orders  and  proclamations.  Efforts 
to  improve  and  co-ordinate  the  statistical  services 
of  the  various  Federal  establishments  are  also  cen- 
tered in  the  Bureau 

In  addition  to  these  activities,  the  Bureau  of  the 
Budget,  as  a  staff  arm  of  the  President,  is  fre- 
quently called  upon  for  assistance  in  analyzing  and 
collecting  information  on  a  wide  variety  of  admin- 
istrative problems  that  arise  in  day-to-day  opera- 
tions in  the  Federal  Government  See  also  PUBLIC 
FINANCE. 

HAROLD  D.  SMITH 

BUHL  FOUNDATION.  See  BENEFACTIONS 
under  Foundation  Activities. 

BUILDING.  Home  building  activity  in  the 
fall  and  winter  of  1940  as  reported  by  the  Federal 
Housing  Administration  (q.v  )  closely  approached 
the  spring  peak  The  FHA  stated  that  one  half  of 
all  the  new  single- family  homes  built  in  1940  were 
financed  under  its  program,  and  were  required  to 
measure  up  to  its  standards.  During  the  first  11 
months  of  1940  new  home  mortgages  selected  for 
appraisal  numbered  202,039  and  amounted  to  $930,- 
158,830  a  gain  of  31  per  cent  in  number  and  26  per 
cent  in  amount  over  the  same  period  of  1939.  Prop- 
erty modernization  and  improvement  loans  insured 
by  the  FHA  in  1940  set  a  new  high  record,  totaling 
$280,000,000  as  compared  with  $233,067,349  of 
1939. 

Production  of  single-family  homes  in  the  United 
States  during  1940  was  close  to  the  average  num- 
ber built  annually  during  the  1920-29  decade,  and 
will  be  the  highest  in  12  years,  according  to  a  re- 
port from  the  FHA.  The  total  number  of  single- 
family  homes  built  approached  the  1920-29  annual 
average  of  427,000.  In  1928,  the  last  year  in  which 
the  current  volume  was  exceeded,  the  total  number 
of  single-family  homes  built  was  436,000.  In  1933, 
the  year  before  passage  of  the  National  Housing 
Act,  only  39,000  single-family  homes  were  built. 

Rents  and  vacancies  in  apartment  houses  for  the 
United  States  as  a  whole,  have  remained,  so  re- 


BUILDING 


95 


BUILDING 


ports  the  Federal  Home  Loan  Bank  Board,  practi- 
cally unchanged  over  almost  three  years,  evidence 
that  the  newly  built  dwelling  units  could  be  ab- 
sorbed without  inroads  into  the  occupancy  and  rent 
structure  Local  statistics  compiled  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Labor  for  32  industrial  cities  by  and  large 
confirm  the  movement  of  national  indices.  How- 
ever, a  number  of  cities  reported  lower  rents  and 
higher  vacancies  for  apartments  due  to  local  over- 
building in  this  type  of  dwelling  and  to  the  move- 
ment of  families  from  apartments  in  central  dis- 
tricts to  single-family  houses  in  suburbs. 

In  slum  sections  of  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Chicago,  and  other  large  cities,  tenement  houses 
and  old  buildings  were  torn  down,  and  there  were 
erected  through  Federal  aid  large,  modern,  low- 
rent  apartment  houses  Late  in  1940  there  was  in- 
creased industrial  building  activity,  particularly  by 
plants  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  aircraft  and 
war  equipment  and  others  engaged  in  shipbuilding. 
The  calling  out  of  the  National  Guard  and  the 
drafting  of  men  for  service  in  the  army  necessi- 
tated the  putting  up  of  barracks  in  many  parts  of 
the  country,  and  modernizing  others  that  had  not 
been  used  since  the  World  War. 

The  defense  program,  according  to  F.  W.  Dodge 
Corporation's  construction  outlook,  will  dominate 
1941  construction  and  industrial  production.  In- 
creased industrial  production  will  bring  about  in- 
creased employment,  purchasing  power,  and  nation- 
al income,  which  in  turn  will  tend  to  increase 
demand  for  private  construction  As  to  construction 
facilities,  contractors  have  not  been  employed  to 
capacity  within  the  past  ten  years,  so  they  should 
be  able  to  handle  a  program  substantially  larger 
than  that  of  1940  As  to  building  costs,  after  con- 
sidering various  economic  phases,  it  is  assumed 
that  during  most,  if  not  all,  of  1941  they  will  be 
kept  within  moderate  bounds  The  table  at  the  foot 
of  this  page  gives  the  value  of  construction  con- 
tracts for  1939,  with  estimates  for  1940  and  1941 

The  building  industry  in  1940  set  a  new  peak 
during  the  past  decade  according  to  Dun  &  Brad- 
street,  Inc.  Building  permits  for  the  entire  year 
1940  for  215  cities  in  the  United  States  had  a  total 
valuation  of  $1,362,666,270,  or  98  per  cent  more 
than  the  $1,240,813,598  for  the  preceding  twelve 


months.  With  all  sections  except  in  the  Middle 
Atlantic  and  West  Central  sharing  in  the  rise,  the 
volume  of  contemplated  construction  during  last 
year  reached  the  highest  figure  since  1930.  Ex- 
cluding New  York  City,  the  gain  over  the  previous 
year  amounted  to  13.4  per  cent.  The  record  of 
building  permit  values  for  the  twelve  months  of 
1940  and  1939  for  215  cities,  as  compiled  by  Dun 
&  Bradstreet,  Inc ,  follows : 


Divisions 

New  England 
Mid  Atlantic 
South  Atlantic 
East  Central 
South  Central 
West  Central 
Mountain 
Pacific 

1940 

$85,642,592 
339,352,325 
169,014,746 
304,116,397 
138,391,942 
68,898,089 
32,302,140 
224,948,039 

1939          Change  % 

$75,147,690      +140 
352,777,147      -  3  8 
137,831,366      +226 
252,001,589      +20  7 
134,326,658      +  3  0 
71,509,577       -  3  7 
26,505,722      +21  9 
190,714,209      +180 

Total  U  S 
New  York  City 
Outside  N  Y  C 

$1,362,666,270 
$222,116,804 
$1,140,549,466 

$1,240,813,958 
$235,069,542 
$1,005,744,416 

til 

+134 

Permit  valuations  for  20  leading  cities  during 
the  twelve  months  of  1940  and  1939  are  given 
below 


Ctty 

1940 

1939 

New  York,  NY 
Detroit,  Mich 

$222,116,804 
81,138,722 

$235,069,542 
61,664,099 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 

74,300,510 

74,790,441 

Washington,  D  C 

42,717,450 

38,619,876 

Chicago,  111 

39,928,116 

42,280,686 

San  Francisco,  Cal 
Baltimore,  Md 

32,042,968 
30,994,323 

24,950,593 
16,183,696 

Philadelphia,  Pa 
Houston,  Tex 

30,471,690 
24,253,838 

32,612,370 
25,373,545 

Cleveland,  Ohio 
Cincinnati,  Ohio 
Seattle,  Wash 

21,874,000 
21,797,975 
19,488,770 

18,305,000 
15,201,430 
11,615,600 

Oakland,  Cal 

16,672,853 

11,083,083 

Miami  Beach,  Fla 

16,240,535 

11,505,870 

Miami,  Fla 

15,214,518 

16,825,532 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

15,156,577 

10,532,253 

Atlanta,  Ga 
San  Diego,  Cal    . 

14,558,861 
14,236,535 

10,007,831 
8,241,862 

Indianapolis,  Ind. 

13,739,728 

13,625,905 

St  Louis,  Mo. 

13,543,312 

11,538,044 

See  ARCHITECTURE;  BUSINESS  REVIEW,  FEDER- 
AL HOUSING  ADMINISTRATION;  HOUSING  AU- 
THORITY, U.S. 

CHAS.  H  HUGHES 


VALUE  OF  TOTAL  CONSTRUCTION  CONTRACTS— 37  EASTERN  STATES 


1939  Actual 

•1940  Estimate 

1941  Estimate 

Ckunfitatoon 

Million 
Dollars 

Million 
Dollars 

Change  % 
from  1939 

Million 
Dollars 

%  Change 
from  1940 

Commercial  Buildings 

247 

320 

+  30 

370 

+  16 

Manufacturing  Buildings 

175 

380 

+117 

440 

+  16 

Educational  Buildings 
Hospital  &  Institutional 

201 
83 

145 

75 

-  28 
-  10 

160 
90 

+  10 
+  20 

Public  Buildings 

110 

85 

-  23 

95 

+  12 

Religious  Buildings 
Social  &  Recreational 

38 
82 

45 

70 

+  18 
-  15 

45 
80 

±     0 
+  14 

Misc  Non-Residential 

29 

80 

+176 

120 

+  50 

Total  Non-Residential 

965 

1200 

+  24 

1400 

+  17 

Public 

416 

450 

+    8 

550 

+  22 

Private    . 

549 

750 

+  37 

850 

+  13 

Apartments  and  Hotels 
1  &  2  Family  Houses 

186 
912 

320 
1130 

-  17 
+  21 

350 
1200 

+    9 
+    6 

Other  Shelter 

17 

80 

+370 

150 

+  87 

Total  Residential 

1135 

1530 

+  15 

1700 

+  11 

Public 

797 

260 

+  36 

550 

+//* 

Private 

1144 

1270 

+  // 

1150 

-    9 

Public  Works  &  Utilities 

1251 

1120 

-  11 

1300 

+  16 

Public 

.       ..        1102 

970 

-  12 

1100 

+  13 

Private 

149 

150 

+    / 

200 

+  33 

Total  Construction 

3«1 

3850 

+    8 

4400 

+  H 

Public 

1709 

1680 

—    2 

2200 

+  31 

Private 

1842 

2170 

+  18 

2200 

+    / 

*  Based  on  ten  months  data,  compiled  by  F  W.  Dodge  Corp 


BULGARIA 


96 


BULGARIA 


BULGARIA.  A  Balkan  monarchy.  Capital, 
Sofia.  King  in  1940,  Boris  III,  who  succeeded  to 
the  throne  Oct.  3,  1918 

Area  and  Population.  Including  2982  square 
miles  of  Southern  Dobruja,  with  a  population  of 
378,344,  annexed  from  Rumania  on  Sept  7,  1940, 
Bulgaria  has  an  area  of  42,797  square  miles  and  a 
population  estimated  at  6,720,000  Estimated  popu- 
lation of  Sofia  (with  suburbs)  in  1937.  350,000; 
of  other  cities  in  1936:  Plovdiv  (Philippopohs), 
125,000;  Varna,  75,000;  Ruse  (Ruschuk),  51,000, 
Burgas,  30,000 

National  Defense.  The  military  restrictions 
imposed  upon  Bulgaria  by  the  Treaty  of  Neuilly 
in  1919  were  removed  July  31,  1938  As  of  Nov- 
ember, 1940,  there  were  an  estimated  350,000  men 
under  arms,  not  including  the  air  force  of  3200 
men,  and  320,000  trained  reserves  The  defense 
force  was  relatively  weak  in  modern  armaments, 
but  this  deficiency  was  being  made  up  rapidly  with 
German  aid 

Education  and  Religion.  At  the  1934  census 
20  4  per  cent  of  the  males  and  42  8  per  cent  of  the 
females  were  illiterate  Schools  of  all  classes  num- 
bered 7782,  with  1,086,849  students,  in  1937-38  (in- 
cluding 5335  elementary  schools  with  659,633  pu- 
pils). The  1934  census  showed  5,128,890  members 
of  the  Orthodox  Church  of  Bulgaria,  821,298 
Moslems,  48,398  Jews,  45,704  Roman  Catholics, 
23,476  Arrnenian-Gregonans,  and  8371  Protestants 

Production.  About  four-fifths  of  the  popula- 
tion live  by  agriculture  and  fishing  The  National 
Bank  estimated  national  income  for  1939  at  51,- 
800,000,000  leva,  divided  as  follows  (in  millions) 
Agriculture,  29,000;  manufacturing,  4150;  salaries 
and  pensions.  4500;  commerce,  3700;  artisans, 
3150;  real  estate,  2900,  transportation  and  com- 
munications, 1700,  banking  and  insurance,  1500 
Production  of  cereals  in  1940  was  estimated  at 
3,400,000  metric  tons  (3,560,000  in  1939)  ,  leaf  to- 
bacco, 40,000  tons ,  rose  oil,  1600  kilograms ,  cot- 
ton, about  14,000  tons,  beet  sugar,  30,000  tons; 
raw  silk,  19,200  tons  (1939)  Other  production  in 
1938  was  (in  metric  tons)  Lignite,  1,941,000; 
coal,  145,000;  cement,  194,000,  salt,  77,000 

Foreign  Trade.  A  law  published  June  1,  1940, 
established  a  Foreign  Trade  Administration  to  or- 
ganize and  control  both  imports  and  exports  and 
direct  commercial  policy.  Imports  in  1939  were 
valued  at  5,196,747,000  leva  (4,934,193,000  in  1938) ; 
exports,  6,064,754,000  (5,578,341,000)  Of  the  1939 
imports,  Germany  supplied  65  5  per  cent,  with 
Italy,  Poland,  Bohemia-Moravia,  and  Rumania 
next  in  order  Germany  took  67  8  per  cent  of  Bul- 
garia's 1939  exports  (589  in  1938),  with  Italy 
Poland,  the  United  States,  and  Bohemia-Moravia 
following  in  order  See  TRADE,  FOREK.N 

Finance.  Ordinary  budget  returns  for  1939- 
Receipts,  8,281,292,506  leva;  expenditures,  8,001,- 
462,279;  surplus,  279,830,227  The  separate  State 
railways  budget  showed  actual  receipts  of  1,937,- 
869,572 leva;  expenditures,  1,771,464,013  For  1940, 
ordinary  budget  estimates  were  Receipts,  8,472,- 
018,000  leva,  expenditures,  8,461,754,000  Total 
public  debt  on  June  30,  1939,  was  21,751,213,181 
leva  (foreign,  12,945,525,685;  internal,  8,80S,687,- 
496).  Nominal  average  exchange  value  of  the  lev 
in  first  half  of  1939  was  $0  0121  ($0  0124  in  1938). 

Transportation.  In  1939  Bulgaria  had  2129 
miles  of  railway  line,  all  State-owned ,  16,354  miles 
of  highways;  and  air  lines  connecting  with  the 
principal  European  cities.  The  State  railway  bud- 
get for  1940  balanced  receipts  and  expenditures  at 


2,185,600,000  leva.  A  new  Sofia-Moscow  air  line 
was  opened  in  March,  1940.  Freight  handled  at 
Danube  and  Black  Sea  ports  of  Bulgaria  in  1939 
was  estimated  at  990,000  metric  tons. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  1879  re- 
mained suspended  from  the  Georgiev  coup  d'etat 
of  May  19,  1934,  through  1940.  All  political  parties 
were  dissolved  in  1934  and  the  formation  of  new 
ones  was  prohibited.  King  Boris  ruled  as  virtual 
dictator  after  overthrowing  Premier  Georgiev's 
dictatorship  on  Jan  22,  1935.  The  parliaments 
elected  in  March,  1938,  and  in  December,  1939- 
January,  1940,  were  deprived  of  practically  all 
legislative  powers  The  former  political  parties 
were  not  permitted  to  present  candidates  or  other- 
wise participate  in  the  electoral  campaigns  Depu- 
ties were  elected  on  a  personal  basis  and  govern- 
ment manipulation  of  the  electoral  machinery  pro- 
duced pro-government  majorities  See  History  for 
1940  developments. 

HISTORY 

Southern  Dobruja  Recovered.  Bulgaria  util- 
ized the  Balkan  crisis  precipitated  by  the  Soviet 
Government's  forcible  annexation  of  Bessarabia 
and  Northern  Bukovina  from  Rumania  (q  v  )  late 
in  June,  1940,  to  win  back  Southern  Dobruja, 
which  was  taken  from  Bulgaria  by  Rumania  after 
the  Second  Balkan  War  of  1913  Under  the  agree- 
ment signed  in  Craiova,  Rumania,  between  Ruma- 
nian and  Bulgarian  delegations  on  September  7, 
Bulgaria  received  2982  square  miles  of  territory 
with  378,344  inhabitants,  including  about  78,000 
Rumanians  An  exchange  of  these  Rumanians  for 
some  91,000  Bulgarians  remaining  under  Ruma- 
nian jurisdiction  was  provided  for 


BESSARABIA  TO 


BULGARI 


Burgas 


SO  MILES 


ovrtesy  of  New  York  Times 


TRANSFER  OF  SOUTHERN  DOBRUJA 

The  provinces  of  Durostor  and  Caliacra  forming  Southern 
Dobruja  (the  striped  area),  restored  to  Bulgaria  by  Rumania  under 
the  treaty  of  Sept  7,  1940  Rumania  annexed  Southern  Dobruja 
after  the  Second  Balkan  War  of  1913 


BULGARIA 


97 


BULGARIA 


The  transfer  was  peacefully  negotiated  as  a 
result  of  German  and  Italian  diplomatic  pressure 
upon  Rumania,  coupled  with  Rumania's  fear  that 
the  Bulgarians  would  seize  all  of  the  Dobruja  by 
force  if  the  claim  to  the  southern  sector  was  not 
granted.  Clashes  between  Rumanians  and  Bulgar- 
ians in  the  territory  multiplied  preceding  the  nego- 
tiations and  Rumania  on  July  19  agreed  to  the 
formation  of  a  mixed  commission  to  investigate 
the  treatment  of  the  Bulgarians  in  the  disputed  re- 
gion. Bulgarian  civil  officials  entered  Southern  Do- 
bruja on  September  15  and  Bulgarian  troops  oc- 
cupied it  in  four  stages  between  September  21  and 
31  Compulsory  exchange  of  minority  populations 
was  scheduled  for  completion  within  three  months 
Bulgaria  undertook  to  pay  Rumania  a  blanket  sum 
of  450,000,000  leva  as  compensation  for  improve- 
ments made  in  Southern  Dobruja  by  the  Rumani- 
ans and  in  settlement  of  all  other  claims  Rumania 
agreed  to  pay  Bulgarians  in  both  Northern  and 
Southern  Dobruja  for  losses  from  requisitioning 
by  the  Rumanian  army 

All  these  provisions  of  the  transfer  agreement 
were  approved  by  a  special  session  of  the  Bulgari- 
an National  Assembly  on  September  21  In  a  mani- 
festo issued  the  same  day  King  Boris  asserted  that 
the  cession  had  eliminated  seeds  of  future  quarrels 
However  resentment  was  subsequently  expressed 
in  Bulgaria  at  the  alleged  unfriendly  treatment  ac- 
corded Bulgarian  evacuees  from  Northern  Dobru- 
ja leaving  Rumania  under  the  population  exchange 
agreement  Extreme  nationalist  circles  in  Bulgaria 
began  to  advocate  the  annexation  of  Northern  Do- 
bruja 

Other  Territorial  Claims.  Ten  days  after  the 
Dohruja  treaty  was  signed,  the  Sofia  press  began 
a  campaign  for  the  satisfaction  of  Bulgaria's  ter- 
ritorial claims  on  Greece  (see  YFAR  BOOK,  1939, 
p  99)  Later  the  Sofia  Government  made  formal 
representations  to  Athens  on  the  matter,  without 
securing  satisfaction  The  Bulgarians  attempted  to 
utilize  the  Italian  invasion  of  Greece  to  obtain 
their  objective  Eleven  hours  after  the  Italian  in- 
vasion began,  King  Boris  on  October  28  indicated 
that  Bulgaria  was  ready  to  abandon  its  previous 
policy  of  "peace  and  neutrality"  if  a  favorable  op- 
portunity for  intervention  in  Greece  presented  it- 
self This  policy  was  balked  by  the  Greek  repulse 
of  the  Italian  invasion  and  by  warnings  from  Tur- 
key and  Yugoslavia  that  they  would  fulfill  their 
obligations  under  the  Balkan  Pact  and  join  in  the 
military  defense  of  Greece  if  Bulgaria  attacked 
that  country  The  establishment  of  British  air 
bases  in  Greece  within  bombing  range  of  Bulgari- 
an cities  was  another  deterrent. 

The  question  of  the  Bulgarian  claims  against 
Yugoslavia  was  allowed  to  lie  dormant  by  the 
government  pending  an  adjustment  with  Greece 
However  the  issue  was  brought  up  in  the  National 
Assembly  at  Sofia  early  in  December  by  a  govern- 
ment deputy,  causing  a  strain  on  Yugoslav- Bulgar- 
ian relations  The  controlled  press  in  Belgrade 
took  the  position  that  Bulgaria  had  renounced  her 
claims  in  1928  and  that  no  discussion  of  the  matter 
was  possible. 

The  German  Menace.  The  Sofia  Government 
expressed  its  gratitude  to  the  Reich  for  Hitler's  aid 
in  the  Dobruja  deal  It  ardently  hoped  that  German 
collaboration  would  enable  Bulgaria  to  regain  the 
lost  territories  from  Greece  and  Yugoslavia  in  the 
same  fashion  But  it  was  even  more  desirous  of 
avoiding  the  fate  of  Rumania,  Hungary,  and  Slo- 
vakia, which  had  accepted  Hitler's  aid  only  to  be- 


come his  vassals.  Nor  had  it  any  desire  to  become 
the  battleground  of  all  the  warring  European  na- 
tions. Consequently  Bulgaria  extended  its  close  co- 
operation with  Germany  in  both  economic  and  dip- 
lomatic affairs  during  1940,  but  withstood  pressure 
both  from  Berlin  and  from  pro-Nazi  elements  in 
Bulgaria  to  join  the  Rome-Berlin-Tokyo  alliance. 

During  a  conference  with  Hitler  on  November 
17  King  Boris  was  reported  to  have  side-stepped 
the  German  offer  of  an  alliance  by  stating  that  his 
government  could  not  accept  unless  Russia  also 
entered  the  Axis  bloc  or  specifically  approved  Bul- 
garia's adhesion  Russia,  however,  opposed  Bulgar- 
ia's entry  into  the  Axis  and  Turkey  on  November 
22  increased  her  military  preparations  along  the 
Bulgarian  frontier  The  Turks  threatened  to  enter 
the  war  if  Bulgaria  permitted  German  troops  to 
pass  through  its  territory  to  attack  Greece  These 
dangers  were  enhanced  by  the  concentration  of 
large  numbers  of  German  troops  in  Rumania  along 
the  Bulgarian  frontier  in  December  Despite  a  Ger- 
man offer  of  November  19  to  aid  Bulgaria's  recov- 
ery of  her  former  Aegean  outlet,  Boris  and  his 
Ministers  affirmed  their  determination  to  remain 
neutral  and  to  avoid  the  establishment  of  "foreign 
regimes"  in  Bulgaria  On  December  26  it  was  re- 
ported that  Boris  had  dismissed  27  high-ranking 
army  officers  who  urged  entry  into  the  war  on  the 
side  of  the  Axis 

Nevertheless  Germany  by  the  end  of  1940  had 
established  virtually  complete  economic  domination 
of  Bulgaria  On  June  20  a  German-Bulgarian  cul- 
tural and  educational  convention  was  signed  In 
July  several  thousand  Bulgarian  peasants  and 
workmen  were  sent  to  Germany  to  relieve  the  labor 
shortage.  A  new  German  scientific  institute  was 
opened  at  Sofia  in  October  In  December  a  German 
purchasing  combine  contracted  to  purchase  the  un- 
sold remainder  of  Bulgaria's  1939  tobacco  crop 
plus  about  half  the  1940  crop— a  total  of  40,000,- 
000  to  50,000,000  kilograms  valued  at  3,000,000,000 
to  4,000,000,000  leva  Numerous  German  officials, 
business  men  and  "tourists"  entered  Bulgaria  dur- 
ing the  year  and  it  v\as  suspected  that  Berlin  was 
organizing  a  "fifth  column"  to  align  Bulgaria  with 
the  Reich  at  the  proper  time.  Significantly,  it  was 
intimated  in  Sofia  late  in  December  that  Bulgaria 
would  be  unable  to  resist  if  German  troops  de- 
manded a  right-of-way  through  the  country 

Relations  with  Russia.  In  its  struggle  to  re- 
sist German  domination,  the  Sofia  Government  de- 
pended primarily  upon  the  clashing  interests  of 
Russia  and  Germany  in  the  Balkans.  The  rap- 
prochement between  Sofia  and  Moscow  initiated  in 
1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p  100)  was  car- 
ried farther  during  1940  Their  collaboration  was 
marked  by  the  establishment  of  a  direct  Sofia-Mos- 
cow air  service  in  January,  the  conclusion  on  Jan- 
uary 5  of  a  three-year  trade  pact,  and  Soviet  dip- 
lomatic support  of  Bulgaria  in  her  negotiations 
with  both  Rumania  and  Germany  The  Communist 
party  in  Bulgaria  was  given  much  more  freedom 
than  in  previous  years,  and  it  used  this  opportunity 
to  agitate  vigorously  for  a  Soviet-Bulgarian  mutu- 
al assistance  pact  that  would  bring  Bulgaria  within 
the  Soviet  orbit.  Such  a  pact  was  proposed  to  the 
Sofia  Government  by  the  Secretary  General  of  the 
Soviet  Commissariat  of  Foreign  Affairs  during  a 
conference  with  King  Boris  on  November  25  Boris 
rejected  this  proposal,  as  well  as  a  Turkish  move 
to  form  a  neutral  bloc  comprising  Bulgaria,  Tur- 
key, and  Yugoslavia  to  bar  further  German  and 
Soviet  encroachments  in  the  Balkans. 


BULGARIA 


98 


BURMA 


British  Overtures.  The  British  Government 
also  made  a  bid  to  keep  Bulgaria  neutral.  A  gov- 
ernment spokesman  said  in  the  House  of  Commons 
on  November  26  that  if  Bulgaria  did  not  actively 
or  passively  assist  Britain's  enemies,  the  British 
Government  would  strive  to  insure  the  integrity 
and  independence  of  Bulgaria  in  any  eventual  peace 
settlement  to  which  it  might  be  a  party.  Previously 
the  British  Government  had  indicated  that  it  ap- 
proved Bulgaria's  demand  for  the  return  of 
Southern  Dobruja. 

Military  Preparations.  Anticipating  possible 
involvement  in  the  war,  the  government  rushed  its 
rearmament  program  at  full  speed  during  1940. 
The  new  mechanized  army,  equipped  mainly  with 
German  and  British  armaments,  paraded  through 
Sofia  on  May  6.  A  bill  for  the  compulsory  military 
service  of  all  men  between  17  and  65  was  intro- 
duced by  the  Minister  of  War  on  May  25  A  sup- 
plementary arms  appropriation  of  900,000,000  leva 
was  voted  by  the  National  Assembly  September  23. 
Anti-aircraft  equipment  from  Germany  made  its 
appearance  in  Bulgaria  m  large  quantities  in  Octo- 
ber. A  number  of  reserve  divisions  were  called  up 
for  active  service  late  in  the  year.  See  above  under 
National  Defense. 

Internal  Politics.  The  parliamentary  elections 
held  in  December,  1939,  and  January,  1940,  in- 
creased the  Kiosscivanov  Government's  strength  in 
the  National  Assembly  to  140  out  of  160  seats  The 
Opposition  groups  retained  only  20  of  the  56  seats 
formerly  held  Eleven  of  these  new  deputies  were 
Communists.  The  elections  were  followed  by  the 
resignation  of  Premier  Kiosseivanov,  who  had 
headed  eight  successive  cabinets  since  1935.  The 
King  accepted  his  resignation  in  order  to  avoid  a 
split  in  the  government  ranks  between  the  adher- 
ents of  Kiosseivanov  and  Ivan  Bagnanov,  majority 
leader  and  Minister  of  Agriculture  The  new  min- 
istry formed  February  16  was  headed  by  Prof. 
Bogdan  Philov,  with  Ivan  Popov  holding  the  im- 
portant Foreign  Affairs  portfolio 

The  new  National  Assembly,  composed  of  depu- 
ties elected  as  individuals  from  nominees  hand- 
picked  by  the  government,  convened  on  February 
24  and  approved  the  King's  address  affirming  a 
policy  of  peace  and  neutrality  Although  control- 
ling a  large  majority  in  the  National  Assembly, 
the  government  was  harassed  by  the  rapid  growth 
of  Communist  influence  Communist  propaganda 
called  for  a  military  alliance  with  Soviet  Russia 
and  vigorously  opposed  the  government's  pro-Ger- 
man policy.  In  response  to  Communist  appeals,  the 
King  amnestied  more  than  3000  political  prisoners 
on  October  2,  the  22d  anniversary  of  his  accession 
to  the  throne.  The  government  found  it  necessary 
on  December  28  to  launch  an  intensive  campaign 
to  explain  its  foreign  policy  to  the  people  On  De- 
cember 29  Foreign  Minister  Popov  informed  par- 
liament that  Bulgaria's  foreign  policy  would  not  be 
influenced  by  Communist  propaganda 

The  government  also  resisted  the  clamor  of  Nazi 
elements  for  the  transformation  of  Bulgaria  into  a 
totalitarian  State  on  the  German  model  However 
some  steps  were  taken  in  this  direction  Govern- 
ment pressure  forced  the  Bulgarian  Grand  Lodge 
of  Freemasons  to  dissolve  on  July  27  A  decree 
issued  October  8  barred  all  national  and  secret  or- 
ganizations receiving  material  or  ideological  sup- 
port from  abroad,  placed  severe  restrictions  upon 
the  civil  rights  of  Jews,  and  barred  all  anti -national 
propaganda.  This  measure  was  approved  by  the 
National  Assembly  December  20  after  a  stormy 


debate.  It  was  aimed  in  part  at  Communist  propa- 
ganda. 

A  strike  of  industrial  workers,  attributed  to 
anti-national  propaganda,  was  broken  on  June  26 
by  an  order  calling  the  strikers  to  the  colors.  About 
150  ringleaders  of  the  strike  were  arrested  and  in- 
terned in  the  provinces.  Labor  unrest  was  fanned 
by  rapidly  rising  prices  for  necessities  and  the  in- 
troduction of  rationing.  This  was  attributed  partly 
to  a  bad  harvest  and  partly  to  German  demands  for 
increased  shipments  of  foodstuffs. 

See  BALKAN  ENTENTE  ,  COMMUNISM  ;  FASCISM  ; 
JEWS;  LABOR  CONDITIONS;  and  GERMANY,  GREAT 
BRITAIN,  GREECE,  ITALY,  RUMANIA,  TURKEY,  UN- 
ION OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS,  and  YUGO- 
SLAVIA under  History 

BUNA.  See  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL;  RUBBER. 

BUND,  German-American.  See  DIES  COM- 
MITTEE; FASCISM. 

BUREAUS,  Federal.  See  under  the  descrip- 
tive word  of  each  title,  as  CUSTOMS,  BUREAU  OF. 

BURIAL  ASSOCIATIONS.  See  CO-OPERA- 
TIVE MOVEMENT. 

BURMA.  A  British  dependency.  Total  area, 
261,610  square  miles  comprising  Burma  proper, 
with  Chin  Hills  and  Kachm  Hills  Tracts  (192,158 
sq.  mi.),  Shan  States  (62,335  sq.  mi.),  and  unad- 
mmistered  territory  (7117  sq.  mi  ).  Total  popula- 
tion (Dec  31, 1937,  estimate),  15,797,000  compared 
with  (1931  census)  14,667,146  (843  per  cent  Bud- 
dhists, 52  per  cent  Ammists,  4  per  cent  Moham- 
medans, 39  per  cent  Hindus,  and  23  per  cent 
Christians).  Chief  cities  (1931  populations)  •  Ran- 
goon (capital),  400,415;  Mandalay,  147,932,  Moul- 
mem,  65,506  Education  (1938-39)  •  8039  recog- 
nized schools  and  colleges  (611,938  students)  and 
19,020  unrecognized  schools  (213,295  students). 

Production  and  Trade.  The  chief  agricukuial 
products  are  rice,  sesamum,  maize,  jewar  (Indian 
millet),  cotton,  beans,  groundnuts,  and  grain.  A 
net  area  of  some  17,677,587  acres  was  sown  in 
1937-38.  The  output  of  rice  (rough)  from  12,522,- 
900  acres  in  1938-39  was  8,173,100  metric  tons 
Forest  reserves  covered  31,374  square  miles  and 
the  output  of  teak,  by  lessees,  during  1937-38 
reached  283,857  tons.  Rubber  produced  in  1939 
totaled  7200  metric  tons  Mineral  production 
(1939),  in  metric  tons,  included  petroleum  1,092,- 
000,  tin  6000  (metal  content),  lead  81,600  (1938), 
zinc,  tungsten  concentrates  3342  long  tons,  silver, 
rubies,  jadestone,  wolfram,  gold,  and  copper  Trade 
(1939)  :  imports,  Rs224,640,000 ;  exports,  R&529,- 
200,000  (rupee  averaged  $03328  for  1939) 

Communications.  Railways  (1938-39)  2069 
route  miles,  4,240,394  tons  of  freight  and  18,920,- 
308  passengers  carried.  The  Irrawaddy  and  its 
navigable  arms  form  an  important  artery  of  com- 
merce. Highways  extended  10,530  miles.  The  Bur- 
ma Road  from  the  railhead  at  Lashio  in  northern 
Burma  to  Chungking,  China,  was  an  important 
avenue  of  supply  for  the  Chinese  in  their  war 
against  Japan. 

Government.  Finance  (1938-39  actual)  :  reve- 
nue, Rsl64,200,000;  expenditure,  Rsl53,800,000 
Budget  (1940-41):  revenue,  Rs  160,306,000;  ex- 
penditure, Rsl64,660,000.  The  Government  of  In- 
dia Act  provided  for  the  separation  of  Burma  from 
India  on  Apr.  1,  1937.  Executive  power  is  vested 
in  a  governor  (appointed  by  the  Crown)  who  is 
advised  by  a  council  of  ministers  of  not  more  than 
10  members.  There  is  a  legislature,  having  powei 
over  Burma's  internal  affairs,  consisting  of  a  sen- 
ate of  36  members  (18  elected  by  the  house  of 


BURMA  ROAD 


99 


BUSINESS  REVIEW 


representatives  and  18  appointed  by  the  governor) 
and  a  house  of  representatives  of  132  members 
elected  by  popular  suffrage.  Large  areas  in  the 
northern  and  eastern  hill  districts  were  excluded 
from  the  legislature's  control  and  placed  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  governor.  Col  Sir  Reginald 
Hugh  Dorman- Smith  was  appointed  Governor, 
Dec.  24,  1940,  succeeding  Sir  Archibald  D.  Coch- 
rane. 

History.  Burma  was  drawn  closer  to  the  vortex 
of  the  war  in  eastern  Asia  during  1940.  Japan  suc- 
ceeded in  cutting  Chinese  supply  routes  through 
French  Indo-Chma  and  concentrated  her  attention 
on  closing  the  Burma  Road  to  the  Chungking  Gov- 
ernment's vital  war  trade  Japanese  agents  fanned 
the  political  and  religious  dissensions  that  had 
been  chronic  in  Burma  for  several  years  (see  pre- 
ceding YEAR  BOOKS)  In  January  and  April  there 
were  new  outbreaks  of  large-scale  rioting  be- 
tween Hindus  and  Moslems  in  Rangoon  The 
nationalist  movement  for  immediate  autonomy 
and  eventual  independence  continued  to  harass 
British  authorities  intent  upon  mobilizing  Burma's 
resources  to  aid  the  Empire's  war  effort.  The 
cabinet  was  reorganized  on  January  20,  Premier 
Maung  Pu  having  eliminated  Home  Minister  U 
Ba  Pe  on  grounds  of  disloyalty  After  the  collapse 
of  France  in  June,  the  British  Parliament  au- 
thorized the  Governor  of  Burma  to  govern  with- 
out reference  to  London  in  the  event  of  the  sever- 
ance of  communications  with  England. 

The  British  Government  on  July  3  went  a  step 
beyond  the  political  promises  made  in  1939  (see 
1939  YEAR  BOOK,  pp  101-2)  and  agreed  to  con- 
sider dominion  status  for  Burma  when  the  war 
had  been  won  A  representative  Burman  was  in- 
vited to  serve  as  one  of  the  governor's  counselors. 
This  action  was  in  answer  to  a  message  from 
Premier  Pu  stating  that  his  government's  policy 
of  giving  the  utmost  help  to  Britain  could  be 
fully  effective  only  if  Burma  were  granted  the 
same  rights  as  the  dominions  in  respect  to  defense 
and  foreign  relations  The  pledge  to  consider 
dominion  status  did  not  satisfy  the  extreme  Bur- 
mese nationalists,  who  formed  a  "freedom  bloc" 
under  the  leadership  of  ex-Premier  Ba  Maw.  Dr. 
Maw  was  arrested  on  August  6  and  sentenced  on 
August  29  to  a  year's  imprisonment  on  undis- 
closed charges  At  Japanese  instigation,  the  na- 
tionalist Miochit  movement  issued  a  manifesto  to 
the  British  governor  and  to  the  government  in 
London  demanding  the  stoppage  of  shipments  of 
war  supplies  to  China  through  Burmese  territory 

The  Japanese  also  continued  to  foment  labor 
disturbances  in  Burma  to  hamper  shipments  to 
China  By  pressure  upon  the  British  Government, 
they  succeeded  in  closing  the  Burma  Road  from 
mid-July  to  mid-October  (see  CHINA,  GRFAT 
BRITAIN  and  JAPAN  under  History).  The  entrance 
of  Japanese  troops  into  French  Indo-Chma  also 
raised  the  danger  of  a  Japanese  military  invasion. 
Beginning  in  August,  the  British  authorities  were 
reported  to  be  building  frontier  defenses  and  in- 
stalling anti-aircraft  defenses  at  Lashio  and  other 
towns  in  northern  Burma 

BURMA  ROAD.  See  BURMA,  CHIN  A,  FRENCH 
INDO-CHINA,  and  JAPAN  under  History. 

BURNS.  See  ACCIDENTS  ;  MEDICINE  AND  SUR- 
GERY 

BUSINESS  REVIEW!' Industrial  artmtj  in 
the  United  States  declined  during  the  first  four 
months  of  1940,  but  the  trend  was  reversed  in  the 


latter  part  of  the  year  and  the  volume  of  produc- 
tion rose  to  a  new  high  record  level  in  the  closing 
months.  The  initial  recession,  which  carried  the 
revised  index  of  industrial  production  of  the  Fed- 
eral Reserve  Board  from  122  in  January  down  to 
111  in  April,  represented  the  usual  reaction  from 
the  period  of  active  forward  buying  and  inventory 
accumulation  that  marked  the  outbreak  of  the  Eu- 
ropean war  in  the  fall  of  1939  When  it  became  ap- 
parent that  commodity  prices  would  remain  stable 
and  that  exports  to  Europe  were  not  going  to  in- 
crease by  leaps  and  bounds,  business  men  generally 
became  more  conservative  and  displayed  a  desire 
to  cut  down  inventories  The  German  invasion  of 
the  Low  Countries  and  the  defeat  of  France,  how- 
ever, made  certain  the  adoption  of  a  very  intensive 
and  ambitious  national  defense  program  by  the 
United  States.  By  June,  the  initial  effects  of  the 
new  armaments  program  already  became  apparent 
in  industry,  many  business  men  launching  plans  for 
new  capacity  and  adding  to  inventories  in  anticipa- 
tion of  huge  Government  purchases  During  the 
later  months  of  the  year,  the  placing  of  billions  of 
dollars  of  Government  defense  contracts  was  the 
major  influence  on  the  course  of  business  activity. 

National  defense  expenditures  during  the  first 
six  months  of  1940  averaged  only  $145,000,000  per 
month  By  December,  such  outlays  had  risen  to 
$470,000,000  for  the  month.  By  the  end  of  1941, 
according  to  the  official  estimates,  national  defense 
spending  is  to  approach  a  billion  dollars  monthly. 
During  the  closing  weeks  of  the  year,  therefore,  a 
wide  range  of  industries  felt  the  stimulus  not  only 
of  actual  Government  contracts,  but  of  anticipatory 
plant  construction  and  preparations  for  such  con- 
tracts that  were  expected  in  1941  The  effects  of 
the  national  defense  program  were  felt  not  only  by 
the  numerous  concerns  receiving  the  contracts,  but 
also  by  thousands  of  smaller  enterprises  that  re- 
ceived orders  as  sub-contractors  to  provide  materi- 
als and  supplies  for  the  original  contractors,  while 
many  concerns  with  excess  productive  capacity 
were  diverting  their  facilities  to  the  production  of 
armaments  Manufacturers  of  railway  equipment, 
for  example,  took  on  large  orders  for  tanks  and 
other  implements  of  war  The  Office  of  Production 
Management  and  other  special  agencies  of  the  Gov- 
ernment organized  during  the  year  to  foster  de- 
fense production  were  making  earnest  efforts  to 
mobilize  the  entire  industrial  capacity  of  the  nation 
for  defense  work  as  far  as  feasible 

By  the  closing  months  of  the  year,  industry  be- 
gan to  reflect  the  impact  of  the  huge  defense  pro- 
gram, which  called  for  the  expenditure  of  upwards 
of  ^$25,000,000,000,  apart  from  the  cost  of  aid  to 
Britain,  within  a  period  of  tuo  years  or  so  The 
durable  goods  group  of  industries  expanded  their 
output  by  leaps  and  bounds,  whereas  consumer 

DURABLE  AND  NON-DURABLE  MANUFACTURES 
INDICES  Ot  PRODUCTION 


Durable 

Nan  Durable 

1939 

1940 

1939 

1940 

January 
February 

98 
97 

135 
124 

104 
104 

113 
110 

March 

96 

118 

104 

106 

April 
May 

93 
90 

113 
119 

101 
104 

107 

no 

June 

97 

131 

106 

114 

July 
August 

101 
105 

132 
135 

106 
108 

112 
112 

September 

114 

146 

111 

112 

October 

129 

150 

115 

116 

November 

133 

155 

117 

120 

December 

140 

164 

118 

123 

Year 

108 

135 

108 

113 

BUSINESS  REVIEW 


100 


BUSINESS  REVIEW 


goods  lines  increased  their  output  far  more  slowly. 
Because  the  armament  orders  went  largely  to  con- 
cerns whose  productive  capacity  was  already  fully 
employed,  a  huge  volume  of  industrial  construc- 
tion and  machinery  purchases  became  necessary 

The  effect  of  the  defense  program  upon  durable 
and  non-durable  goods  manufacturers  is  shown  by 
the  preceding  table,  comparing  indices  of  manu- 
factures of  each  of  these  two  classes  compiled  by 
the  Board  of  Governors  of  the  Federal  Reserve 
System. 

The  course  of  industrial  production  during  1940, 
with  comparisons  with  previous  years,  was  reflect- 
ed as  follows  in  the  revised  index  of  the  Federal 
Reserve  Board: 

INDEX  OF  INDUSTRIAL  PRODUCTION 
FEDERAL  RESERVE  BOARD 

Adjusted  for  seasonal  Donations,  monthly  average  1935-39  -  100] 


Months 

1935  1936 

1937 

1938 

/9J9 

1940 

January 

83 

95 

116 

86 

102 

122 

February 

85 

92 

117 

84 

101 

116 

March 

85 

94 

120 

84 

101 

113 

82 

99 

120 

82 

97 

111 

May 

82 

101 

121 

80 

97 

115 

June 
July 

84 
84 

103 
105 

119 
120 

81 
86 

102 
104 

121 
121 

August 

87 

107 

120 

90 

104 

121 

September  . 
October 

89 
93 

108 
109 

115 
107 

92 
95 

113 
121 

125 
129 

November 

94 

113 

95 

100 

124 

132 

December  . 

96 

116 

87 

101 

126 

137 

Annual  Indices  (unadjusted) 

1922   73 

1929 

110 

1936 

103 

1923   88 

1930 

91 

1937 

113 

1924   82 

1931 

75 

1938 

88 

1925   91 

1932 

58 

1939 

108 

1926   % 

1933 

69 

1940 

122 

1927   95 

1934 

75 

1928   99 

1935 

87 

By  the  end  of  the  year,  the  industries  affected  by 
the  armament  program  were  confronted  by  a  basic 
question  as  to  future  policy.  There  was  consider- 
able pressure  from  Washington  for  the  inaugura- 
tion of  ambitious  construction  programs  to  expand 
capacity.  Congress  had  taken  steps  to  encourage 
the  expansion  of  armament  capacity  by  amend- 
ing the  Revenue  Act  to  permit  amortization  of 
such  plant  within  five  years  through  depreciation 


charges  against  taxable  income,  disregarding  Treas- 
ury regulations  requiring  the  spreading  of  depre- 
ciation over  a  much  longer  period.  However,  in 
such  industries  as  iron  and  steel  it  was  argued  that 
too  much  time  would  be  required  to  construct  the 
new  productive  capacity,  and  that  the  added  facili- 
ties would  constitute  a  disrupting  factor  when  the 
defense  emergency  was  over  Resort  to  priority 
rules  to  assure  an  adequate  supply  for  defense 
purposes,  if  necessary,  was  held  the  preferable 
course  of  action  in  the  iron  and  steel  and  other 
industries.  As  the  scope  of  defense  requirements 
mounted  steadily,  especially  when  a  rapid  increase 
in  aid  to  Britain  was  envisaged,  it  became  apparent 
that  both  new  construction  and  priorities  would  be 
required  in  time  to  meet  the  vast  armament  require- 
ments. See  NATIONAL  DEFENSE  ADVISORY  COM- 
MISSION, RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE  CORPORATION. 

The  course  of  industrial  activity  may  be  traced 
from  the  comparisons  of  indices  for  six  major  in- 
dustries shown  at  the  foot  of  this  page 

New  Construction.  While  residential  construc- 
tion expanded  further  during  the  year  and  ap- 
proached the  1929  level  in  the  value  of  contracts 
awarded,  a  far  more  spectacular  recovery  occurred 
in  industrial  and  military  construction  Key  indus- 
tries, such  as  aircraft,  machine  tool,  and  heavy  ma- 
chinery manufacture,  embarked  upon  large-scale 
plant  expansion  programs  Also,  the  Government 
rushed  work  on  new  army  cantonments,  military 
airports,  and  other  defense  works  As  a  result,  the 
total  value  of  non-residential  construction  contracts 
by  the  end  of  the  year  had  recovered  above  the 
1930  level,  despite  the  continued  very  restricted 
volume  of  commercial  building  The  Government 
shifted  its  interest  from  slum  clearance  to  the  pro- 
vision of  special  defense  housing,  to  prevent  seri- 
ous residential  shortages  in  communities  in  which 
defense  activities  were  centered  See  BUILDING; 
CONSTRUCTION  INDUSTRY. 

Iron  and  Steel.  Except  for  a  dip  in  production 
during  the  spring  and  early  summer  months,  the 
iron  and  steel  industry  operated  close  to  capacity 
levels  during  1940  The  launching  of  the  enlarged 
national  defense  program  brought  a  new  steel  buy- 
ing wave  during  the  late  summer  and  early  fall, 


INDICES  OF  ACTIVITY  IN  CHIEF  INDUSTRIES 


1929 
1930 
1931 
1932 
1933 
19H 
1935 
1936 
1937 
1938 
1939 

Freight  car 
loadings* 
107 
92 
74 
55 
58 
62 
64 
75 
78 
62 
70 

Iron 
and  steel* 
135 
98 
62 
33 
55 
62 
82 
114 
123 
68 
114 

Bituminous 
coal* 
135 
118 
96 
78 
84 
90 
94 
110 
112 
88 
99 

Construction  b 
117 
92 
63 
28 
25 
32 
37 
55 
59 
64 
72 

Automobiles* 
139 
87 
62 
36 
50 
71 
102 
116 
125 
65 
93 

Manufac- 
tured Food 
Products  * 
101 
100 
90 
79 
8T 
88 
89 
98 
103 
101 
108 

1940 

76 

144 

114 

82 

113 

113 

7939 

1940 

1939 

1940 

19  39 

1940 

1939 

1940 

/9?9 

1940 

1939 

1940 

January 
February 

69 
67 

78 
73 

96 
93 

147 
118 

100 
95 

119 
103 

86 
73 

75 
63 

107 
102 

129 
129 

105 
104 

112 
113 

March 

66 

69 

91 

106 

106 

109 

69 

62 

96 

120 

106 

113 

April. 
May 

60 
62 

70 
72 

86 
79 

99 
118 

37 
62 

120 
122 

67 
63 

64 
64 

88 
77 

103 
101 

106 
107 

112 
112 

t;  ' 

June 

67 

75 

94 

154 

97 

116 

63 

74 

86 

106 

108 

115 

July 

69 

75 

103 

156 

103 

121 

67 

85 

77 

87 

105 

110 

August 

70 

76 

111 

158 

108 

122 

73 

90 

84 

76 

111 

114 

September  . 
October 

77 
80 

77 
77 

128 
161 

164 
165 

114 
123 

119 
98 

73 
76 

93 
95 

92 
96 

109 

no 

111 
109 

110 
117 

November 

82 

83 

161 

166 

119 

112 

83 

103 

91 

133 

110 

116 

December 

78 

84 

167 

181 

106 

113 

86 

120 

121 

134 

112 

118 

•  New  Federal  Reserve  Index,  1935-39  -  100.      »  Federal  Reserve  Index,  1923-25  -  100. 


BUSINESS  REVIEW 


101 


BUSINESS  REVIEW 


and  operations  hovered  close  to  capacity  through 
the  final  months  of  the  year  A  good  deal  of  pro- 
ductive capacity  previously  retired  was  returned 
to  active  operation,  and  several  major  concerns  in 
the  industry  announced  plans  for  the  construction 
of  new  open  hearth  and  finishing  capacity  Largely 
due  to  Government  opposition,  the  industry  re- 
frained from  advancing  its  price  structure  despite 
the  active  demand  for  its  products  and  some  in- 
creases in  costs  See  IRON  AND  STEEL 

Automobiles.  The  expansion  in  purchasing 
power  brought  a  sharp  increase  in  automobile  sales 
during  1940,  so  that  production  was  higher  than  in 
any  previous  year  except  1929  and  1937.  A  total  of 
4,692,338  cars  and  trucks  was  produced  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  and  Canada  during  the  year,  which  com- 
pared with  3,732,718  units  produced  in  1939  Sales 
of  1941  model  cars  were  stimulated  by  fears  of 
price  increases,  possible  artificial  restrictions  on 
production  in  1941  due  to  priorities,  and  expecta- 
tions that  model  changes  would  be  few  for  the 
1942  season,  in  order  to  permit  the  diversion  of 
machine  tool  capacity  to  defense  work  Automobile 
plants  took  on  a  growing  volume  of  defense  busi- 
ness late  in  the  year  The  Packard  Motor  Car 
Company  undertook  to  produce  the  Rolls-Royce 
aircraft  engine  for  both  the  United  States  and 
British  Governments,  while  the  General  Motors 
Corporation  perfected  its  liquid-cooled  Allison  en- 
gine and  also  embarked  upon  other  defense  work. 
See  AUTO  MOBILES 

Other  Industries.  A  number  of  other  indus- 
tries felt  the  stimulus  of  the  national  defense  pro- 

PRODUCTTON  IN  LEADING  INDUSTRIES 


1919    1940 
101,674   110,316 


Flour  milling,"  (1,000  bbl ) 

Cotton  Textiles'1 

Cotton  used,  (1,000  bales)                                  7,167  8,018 

Spindle  Activity,  (million  spindle  hours)          92,500  98,183 

Petroleum  Re6nmg,  output  e 

Gasoline,  (1,000  bbl)                                       611,043  611,359 

Fuel  Oil,  (1,000  bbl)                                        305,944  316,218 

Tire  Production,''  (1,000  units)                             57,613  59.3S3 

Paint  Sales,"  ($1,000)                                          379,277  396,623 

Shoes ' 

Production,  (1,000  pairs)                                 424,136  398,766 

Average  Price                                                     $1 75  $1 85 

Tobacco  Production  o 

Cigarettes,  (billions)                                           172  4  180  7 

Manufactured  Tobacco  (million  Ib )                   302  8  304  3 

Copper  Refining,  from  domestic  Ore,*  (tons)       818,289  1,013,710 

Furniture  Production/  x  alue,  ($1,000)                 405,000  450,000 

Motion  Pictures,*  cost  of  production  ($1 ,000)       165,000  160,000 

Number  of  features                                               455  530 

Radio,  Net  Sales,*  (1,000  sets)                             10,538  11,600 

Value.  ($1,000) 337.000  400.000 

B  Russell-Pear  sail,  b  U  S  Bureau  of  Census,  *  U  S  Bureau  of 
Mines,  «*  Rubber  Manufacturers  Association,  •  U  S  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce,  /  Tanners  Council,  »  U  S  Treasury,  col- 
lections report,  *  Copper  Institute,  *  Seidman  &  Seidman- 
turmture  Industry,  'Film  Daily  Yearbook,  *  Radio  Today 


gram.  The  demand  for  lumber  increased  sharply, 
chiefly  for  cantonment  construction,  and  cotton  and 
woolen  mills  received  large  orders  from  the  armed 
services. 

Consumer  goods  industries  that  were  not  recipi- 
ents of  defense  orders  showed  smaller  increases  in 
production  The  table  in  the  preceding  column 
compares  the  output  of  a  number  of  industries  for 
1940,  as  compared  with  1939. 

Minerals.  Mineral  production  was  stepped  up 
sharply  during  the  later  months  of  the  year  be- 
cause of  the  national  defense  program.  This  was 
particularly  true  of  metals,  in  view  of  the  major 
role  they  play  in  armament  manufacture  The  Gov- 
ernment imposed  licensing  requirements  upon  ex- 
ports of  a  number  of  metals,  both  to  conserve  sup- 
plies for  domestic  needs  and  to  prevent  the  flow  of 
strategic  materials  to  the  Axis  countries. 

Domestic  consumption  of  petroleum  and  its  prod- 
ucts increased  to  a  new  record  level  during  the 
year,  but  exports  were  lower  The  industry  assured 
the  defense  authorities  of  its  ability  to  produce  all 
the  petroleum  products  needed  for  the  defense  pro- 
gram, including  greatly  increased  quantities  of  avi- 
ation gasoline  that  were  to  be  produced  with  the 
aid  of  new  facilities  that  the  industry  was  con- 
structing for  this  purpose 

The  Reconstruction  Finance  Corporation  (q  v  ) 
undertook  to  finance  the  building  up  of  substantial 
stocks  of  strategic  imported  metals  within  the 
United  States  The  Metals  Reserve  Company,  es- 
tablished for  this  purpose,  acquired  large  stock 
piles  of  tin  from  the  Far  East,  copper  from  Chile 
and  other  Latin  American  producing  countries,  and 
manganese  from  Cuba  and  other  available  sources 

Indices  of  domestic  minerals  production  comput- 
ed by  the  Federal  Reserve  Board  compared  dur- 
ing 1939  and  1940  as  shown  in  the  table  at  the  foot 
of  this  page  (See  also  COAL,  IRON,  ETC.) 

Wholesale  and  Retail  Trade.  The  volume  of 
distribution  increased  to  an  all-time  record  level  in 
terms  of  physical  volume,  but  not  dollar  value, 
during  1940.  This  reflected  the  rise  in  national  in- 
come due  to  increased  armament  spending  and  in- 
dustrial activity  Moderate  increases  occurred  also 
in  farm  income  (see  AGRICULTURE)  and  distn- 

MONTHLY  INCOME  PAYMENTS' 
[MtUton  Dollars] 


1939  1940 

January  .  S,703  6,093 

February  5,247  5,604 

March  5,727  5,987 

April  5,654  5,%5 

May  5,432  5,689 

June  5,918  6,288 


July 
August 


September  6,010 

October  6,195 

November  5,804 

December  6,890 

Year  


1919  1940 
5,695  6,103 
5,400  5,787 


6,467 
6,680 
6,231 
7,367 
70,100  74,300 


INDICES  OF  MINERAL  PRODUCTION  • 


Bituminous  Coal 

Anthracite  Coal 

Crude  Petroleum 

Iron  Ore 

Zinc 

Lead 

Copper 

1939 

1940 

1939 

1940 

1939 

1940 

1939 

1940 

1939 

1940 

1939 

1940 

1939 

1940 

January 

100 

119 

103 

111 

105 

116 

60 

132 

101 

119 

114 

114 

113 

147 

J  ebruary 

95 

103 

96 

78 

105 

118 

68 

142 

100 

130 

106 

116 

108 

140 

March 

106 

109 

78 

84 

106 

120 

77 

151 

100 

124 

98 

117 

97 

141 

April 

37 

120 

124 

83 

108 

118 

79 

149 

100 

123 

95 

118 

98 

144 

May 

62 

122 

107 

82 

108 

116 

85 

152 

98 

119 

104 

124 

98 

143 

June 
July 

97 
103 

116 
121 

89 
90 

113 
129 

109 
112 

116 
114 

98 
102 

155 
159 

% 

98 

118 
129 

102 
102 

117 
120 

102 
103 

143 
150 

August 

108 

122 

115 

112 

79 

108 

108 

159 

100 

125 

108 

117 

144 

September 

114 

119 

120 

105 

112 

114 

119 

155 

104 

131 

107 

108 

132 

October 

123 

98 

112 

91 

116 

115 

133 

157 

116 

131 

111 

119 

140 

November 

119 

112 

97 

94 

120 

115 

155 

180 

127 

134 

109 

107 

141 

December 

106 

113 

88 

105 

118 

109 

122 

169 

130 

135 

112 

112 

141 

Year 

99 

115 

101 

99 

108 

115 

112 

155 

106 

126 

106 

116 

142 

«  New  Federal  Reserve  Index. 


BUSINESS  REVIEW 


102 


BUSINESS  REVIEW 


tuitions  of  profits  by  corporations.  Estimates  of 
monthly  income,  prepared  by  the  Department  of 
Commerce,   compared   with   those   of    1939   are 
shown  in  the  table  on  page  101. 
Department  store  sales  during  the  year  averaged 
4.4  per  cent  higher  than  in  1939.  The  Federal  Re- 
serve Board's  indices  of  department  store  sales  and 
inventories  compared  as  follows  with  those  of  the 
preceding  year  : 

INDICES  OF  MONTHLY  DEPARTMENT  STORE  SALES 
AND  STOCKS 

[1923-25  -  100,  adjusted  for  seasonal  variation] 

repetition  of  the  World  War  spiral  of  price  and 
wage  increases,  but  insisted  that  a  measure  of  flexi- 
bility should  be  retained  for  the  price  structure  to 
cover  circumstances  where  unavoidable  advances 
in  costs  made  individual  increases  necessary.  At 
the  same  time,  business  men  warned  that  should 
sweeping  wage  increases  occur,  such  as  those  urged 
by  a  number  of  C  I  O  union  leaders,  it  would  not 
be  possible  to  avoid  price  increases  for  many  prod- 
ucts, regardless  of  the  attitude  adopted  by  the  Gov- 
ernment. Also,  the  adoption  of  defense  priorities  in 
major  industries  was  expected  to  produce  price  in- 
creases because  of  competitive  bidding  among  non- 
defense  consumers  for  the  limited  supplies  that 
would  then  remain  available  for  them. 
The  index  of  wholesale  prices  of  the  Bureau  of 
Labor  Statistics  fluctuated  as  follows  during  the 
year: 

WHOLESALE  PRICE  MOVEMENT 
[1926  -  100} 

1939                    1940 
Sales  Stocks        Sales  Stocks 
January                                              88       67             92        68 
February                                            87       68             90        71 
March                                                  88        68             89        70 
April                                                   88       67             89       69 
May                                                   85        66             89        68 
June                                                   86       67             91        67 
July                                                  86       67            92       68 
August                                                89       67             98        69 
September                                          91        68             97        70 
October                                                90        69             94        71 
November                                            95        71            100        72 
December                                           %       68           101        71 
Year                                               90       68             94        69 

Combined    Farm                   Other  Corn- 
Index     Products     Foods     modifies 
1929                                      953        1049         999         916 
1930                                      864         883          90S          852 
1931                                       730         648          746         750 
1932                                      648          482         610         702 
1933                                      659         514         605          712 
1934                                      749         653          705          78.4 
1935                                       800          788          837         779 
1936                                      808          809          821          796 
1937                                      863          864          855          853 
1938                                       78  6         68  5          73  6          817 
1939                                      771          653          704          813 

Combined  index        Farm  products  only 
1939        1940              1939        1940 
January                               769          794               672         691 
February                             769          787               672         687 
March                                767         784              658         679 
April                                     76  2          78  6               61  7          69  4 
May                                      76  2          78  4               63  7          67  9 
June                                    756          775               624         662 
July                                     754          777               626         665 
August                                750          774               610         656 
September                           791          780               687         662 
October                                 79  4          78  7               67  1          66  4 
November                           792          796               673         682 
December                            792          800               676         697 
Year                               771         786              653         67.7 

Commodity  Prices.  Commodity  prices  declined 
slowly  during  the  early  months  of  the  year,  when 
the  disappointing  level  of  exports  to  the  belligerent 
countries  and  a  desire  to  reduce  inventories  led  to 
a  curtailment  of  current  buying  The  sweep  of  the 
German  armies  across  western  Europe  brought  a 
sharp  decline  during  the  summer  months,  by  which 
time  the  bulge  in  the  price  level  incident  to  the  out- 
break of  the  war  had  been  virtually  wiped  out  The 
imminent  defeat  of  Great  Britain  expected  at  that 
time  occasioned  special  caution  among  purchasers 
in  primary  markets,  as  the  end  of  the  war  was  ex- 
pected to  bring  a  sharp  drop  in  exports,  a  flood  of 
imports,  and  a  severe  downward  readjustment  in 
prices  of  those  commodities,  trade  in  which  had 
been  disrupted  by  the  conflict.  When  it  became  evi- 
dent that  the  war  would  be  prolonged,  however, 
and  the  American  defense  effort  got  under  way, 
the  price  level  stiffened  and  retraced  all  the  ground 
lost  during  the  first  six  months  in  the  closing  weeks 
of  the  year. 
Agricultural  prices  were  stabilized  through  loans 
made  by  the  Commodity  Credit  Corporation  (q  v  ) 
to  farmers.  Owing  to  the  national  elections,  there 
was  a  tendency  to  liberalize  these  loans,  particu- 
larly in  the  case  of  corn  The  higher  corn  loan,  in 
turn,  led  to  a  curtailment  of  livestock  production 
and  strength  in  meat  prices  late  in  the  year 
A  major  factor  tending  to  stabilize  prices  of 
manufactured  goods  was  the  activity  of  the  price 
stabilization  division  of  the  Advisory  Commission 
to  the  Council  on  National  Defense.  Leon  Hender- 
son, head  of  this  division,  repeatedly  intervened  to 
discourage  price  increases  in  strategic  industries 
When  prices  rose  in  the  pulp  and  paper  industry, 
Mr.  Henderson  issued  a  report  on  prospective  sup- 
ply and  demand  which  halted  the  rise  Threats  of 
action  under  the  anti  -trust  laws  also  were  made 
repeatedly  by  Mr   Henderson  and  other  Govern- 
ment spokesmen  As  time  wore  on,  the  Government 
adopted  an  increasingly  firm  attitude  in  opposing 
price  increases,  finally  going  so  far  as  to  threaten 
price  fixing  and  the  taking  over  of  needed  supplies 
at  fixed  prices  under  the  authority  given  by  the  Se- 
lective Service  Act.  Industrialists  generally  showed 
a  readiness  to  co-operate  with  the  Government  in 
keeping  prices  stable,  recognizing  the  danger  of  a 

MAJOR  WHOLESALE  COMMODITY  PRICES- 
[End  of  December} 

1939                1940 
Wheat,  #2  hard,  K  City,  bu                       $  1  00             $  0  84tf 
Beef,  Steers,  cwt                                           14  50               18  00 
Pork  loins,  cwt.                                            12  00               14  50 
Butter,  92  score,  cwt                                         30                   33 
Potatoes,  Long  Island,  cwt  *                          1  80                   75 
Sugar,  raw,  cwt                                            2  80                2  90 
Cotton,  W,  middling,  Ib                                  1136                1043 
Wool,  territory,  Ib**                                      104                 108 
Silk,  raw,  Ib.                                                 4  50                1  99 
Rubber,  sheets,  Ib                                            19tf               20tf 
Hides,  light  native,  Ib  ***                                  15                    13  ^ 
Coal,  bituminous,  ton                                     2  60                2  50 
Petroleum,  crude,  bbl  ****                              1  02                 1  02 
Southern  pine,  1,000  bd  ft  *****                  25  16               32  54 
Linseed  Oil,  Ib                                                  108                  088 
Copper,  electrolytic.  Ib                                    .12V£                12 
Zinc^E  St  Louis,  li>                                        05%              07* 
Lead,  pig,  Ib.                                                  055                 055 
Pig  Iron,  basic,  ton                                      22  50               22.50 
Steel  sheets,  cwt  ******                                  1  95                 2  10 
Sulphuric  acid,  ton                                      16  50              16  50 
Print  Cloths,  fe',  64  X  60,  yd                     05>*              .05« 

•  Journal  of  Commerce,  basis  New  York  unless  otherwise  in- 
dicated 
*  Average     **  Boston     ***  Chicago    ****  Kansas—  Oklahoma 
*****  Kansas  City     ******  Pit  tsburgh 

Retail  prices  held  reasonably  stable  during  the 
year,    although   moderate   advances   occurred   in 
clothing  and  certain  other  items  in  the  later  months. 

BUSINESS  REVIEW 


103 


BUSINESS  REVIEW 


Labor  union  leaders  recognized  that  the  cost  of 
living,  remaining  little  changed,  did  not  justify  in- 
creases in  wages,  and  based  their  demands  rather 
upon  increased  productivity  per  man-hour  and  larg- 
er reported  profits 

The  movement  of  major  groups  of  retail  prices 
during  1940,  compared  with  1939,  was  as  follows, 
according  to  the  cost  of  living  indices  compiled  by 
the  National  Industrial  Conference  Board: 

INDICES  OF  RETAIL  PRICES 
(1923  -  100] 


Fuel  and 

Total  Cost 

Mon. 

Food* 
1939  1940 

Clothing 
1939  1940 

Light 
1939  1940 

of  Living  • 
1939  1940 

Jan 

771 

763 

727 

730 

859 

858 

847 

846 

Feb 

763 

778 

724 

732 

859 

860 

844 

851 

March 

761 

769 

723 

732 

858 

858 

843 

848 

April 

758 

774 

722 

732 

852 

854 

842 

850 

May 

757 

781 

721 

731 

840 

841 

841 

852 

T 

June 
July 

753 
759 

791 
784 

720 
719 

731 
731 

834 
838 

842 
845 

838 
842 

855 
854 

AUR 

753 

774 

719 

730 

840 

848 

840 

851 

Sept 

792 

782 

722 

73  1 

844 

853 

854 

856 

Oct 

786 

774 

726 

7M 

852 

859 

853 

855 

Nov 

778 

772 

729 

731 

856 

863 

851 

855 

Dec 

764 

782 

729 

730 

856 

865 

846 

858 

Year 

766 

777 

723 

731 

849 

854 

845 

853 

«  Revised  senes,  based  on  U  S  Department  of  Labor  on  1935-39 
-  100  basis 

Industrial  Earnings.  The  increased  volume  of 
sales  produced  larger  profits  in  most  industries, 
particularly  those  concerned  with  the  manufacture 
of  producers'  goods  and  armaments  While  there 
was  some  tendency  for  wage  costs  to  rise,  particu- 
larly because  of  greater  resort  to  overtime  work, 
the  larger  volume  of  production  permitted  an  off- 
setting cut  in  unit  costs  However,  the  two  revenue 
acts  of  1940  brought  about  a  sharp  increase  in  the 
normal  corporate  income  tax  and  the  imposition  of 
an  excess  profits  tax  which  cut  sharply  into  the 
earnings  of  many  concerns  directly  affected  by  the 
armament  program  As  a  result,  earnings  in  many 
cases  did  not  come  fully  up  to  expectations  in  the 
final  quarter  of  the  year,  except  in  the  case  of  such 
industries  as  railroads  and  iron  and  steel  manufac- 
ture which,  because  of  their  large  investment  in 
fixed  plant,  were  not  as  hard-hit  by  the  excess 
profits  tax  as  others.  The  public  utilities  and  many 
consumer  goods  enterprises,  moreover,  suffered  a 
decline  in  net  income  for  the  year  because,  while 
receiving  little  direct  benefit  from  the  armament 
program,  they  were  comparatively  vulnerable  in 
many  instances  to  higher  corporate  income  and  ex- 
cess profits  taxes 

Commercial  Failures.  The  high  level  of  busi- 
ness activity  again  held  commercial  failures  down 
to  relatively  low  levels  The  number  of  failures 
and  the  liabilities  involved  compared  as  follows 
during  1940  and  the  preceding  year : 

COMMERCIAL  FAILURES  «  BY  DIVISIONS  OF  INDUSTRY 


Current  Liabilities 

Industry 

Number 
1939        1940 

(thousands  of  dottars) 
1939          1940 

Manufacturing 
Wholesale  Trade 
Retail  Trade 
Construction 
Commercial  Services 
Total 

2.919 
1,534 
9.050 
646 
619 
14,768 

2,621 
1,316 
8,329 
760 
593 
13,619 

71,152 
23,942 
67,378 
11,031 
9,017 
182,520 

67,585 
20,405 
57,329 
13,311 
8,054 
166,684 

Dun  &  Bradstreet 


Some  progress  was  made  during  the  year  toward 
consummating  the  many  railroad  reorganizations 
that  have  been  pending  for  years,  but,  owing  to  the 


complicated  procedure  involved,  only  one,  the  Chi- 
cago &  Eastern  Illinois  Railway,  was  brought  to 
actual  completion  by  the  end  of  1940.  See  RAIL- 
WAYS Progress  on  public  utility  holding  company 
simplifications  and  integrations  under  the  provi- 
sions of  the  Public  Utility  Holding  Company  Act 
of  1935  also  was  quite  slow,  particularly  because 
of  the  increasingly  strict  stand  taken  by  the  Se- 
curities and  Exchange  Commission  in  passing  upon 
all  proposals  for  conforming  with  the  law  emanat- 
ing from  public  utility  holding  companies.  Despite 
many  requests  from  the  public  utility  industry  that 
the  application  of  the  Public  Utility  Holding  Com- 
pany Act  of  1935  be  suspended  during  the  duration 
of  the  defense  emergency,  to  avoid  interference 
with  the  expansion  of  power  capacity,  the  SEC 
insisted  upon  proceeding  with  the  enforcement  of 
this  law  and  favoring  the  most  strict  interpretation 
of  the  obscure  provisions  governing  geographical 
integration  of  operating  subsidiaries  of  holding 
companies. 

World  Business  Trends.  The  war  brought 
sweeping  changes  in  business  conditions  outside  the 
United  States  also  The  continent  of  Europe  was 
virtually  cut  off  from  intercourse  with  the  outside 
world  by  the  British  blockade.  Most  of  the  conti- 
nent became  an  armed  camp,  suffering  from  short- 
ages of  foodstuffs  and  other  raw  materials  and  or- 
ganized chiefly  for  the  production  of  war  supplies 
for  the  German  military  machine  In  Great  Britain, 
the  more  effective  German  attacks  on  British  ship- 
ping and  the  air  raids  forced  stricter  rationing  of 
foodstuffs  and  other  consumers'  poods,  while  every 
effort  was  made  to  maintain  military  production  at 
a  maximum  By  the  end  of  the  year,  however,  it 
became  apparent  that  Britain  could  continue  tc 
fight  effectively  only  with  the  help  of  the  United 
States,  for  liquid  resources  were  rapidly  depleted 
Efforts  were  made  also  to  expand  arms  production 
in  British  Empire  countries,  but  owing  to  their 
limited  previous  industrialization  only  a  bare  start 
could  be  made  in  this  direction. 

Japan  suffered  a  further  decline  in  living  stand- 
ards, as  the  dram  of  the  war  with  China  and  re- 
strictions on  trade  with  the  United  States  added  to 
the  economic  burdens  on  that  country 

The  vast  cost  of  the  war  produced  conditions 
favorable  to  commodity  price  inflation  in  a  number 
of  European  countries.  In  France  and  other  coun- 
tries occupied  partly  or  wholly  by  Germany,  the 
heavy  costs  of  military  occupation  were  being  paid 
for  largely  by  paper  money  emissions,  which  made 
for  price  increases  despite  strict  control  measures 
imposed  by  the  government  In  Great  Britain  also 
the  enormous  cost  of  the  war  was  being  financed 
in  part  by  the  sale  of  bonds  to  the  banks,  laying 
the  basis  for  inflationary  price  increases  later  In 
Italy  and  Japan  similarly,  there  was  a  marked 
tendency  for  commodity  prices  to  rise  despite  rigid 
control  measures  adopted  by  the  government,  ow- 
ing to  the  expansion  of  purchasing  power  through 
enormous  government  spending 

The  loss  of  the  continental  European  market  and 
the  need  for  Great  Britain  to  conserve  her  rapidly 
dwindling  foreign  exchange  resources  imposed  a 
serious  burden  upon  Latin  America  Exports  of 
these  countries  declined,  while  they  were  forced 
to  turn  to  the  United  States  for  many  manufac- 
tured products  formerly  purchased  in  Europe  As 
a  result,  their  trade  balances  with  the  United  States 
became  highly  adverse,  and  it  became  necessary  to 
impose  new  import  restrictions  and,  in  the  case  of 
Argentina  particularly,  there  was  a  considerable 


BUSINESS  SCHOOLS 


104 


CALIFORNIA 


loss  of  gold  to  this  country  The  United  States,  as 
part  of  its  hemisphere  defense  policy,  offered  to 
aid  Latin  American  nations  during  the  emergency, 
and  made  loans  to  several  countries  through  the 
Export-Import  Bank  (qv.)  and  the  Stabilization 
Fund  Consideration  was  given  to  the  formation  of 
a  hemisphere  cartel  which  would  store  commodi- 
ties produced  in  the  western  hemisphere  and  sell 
them  abroad  whenever  feasible,  the  storage  of 
these  products  being  financed  by  the  United  States 
in  the  interim  This  project  was  strongly  opposed 
by  commercial  banks  and  others  who  charged  that 
it  was  tantamount  the  adoption  of  totalitarian  trade 
methods  before  the  need  for  them  had  been  demon- 
strated. A  measure  of  relief  was  given  to  Latin 
America  by  United  States  purchases  of  various 
products  for  strategic  reserves. 

Active  consideration  was  given  in  official  circles 
to  far-reaching  measures  for  expanding  trade  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  other  western  hemi- 
sphere countries,  so  that  the  latter  would  become 
less  dependent  upon  European  outlets,  particularly 
in  the  event  of  a  German  victory  and  the  conse- 
quent prospective  utilization  of  economic  depend- 
ence by  the  Axis  powers  to  effect  political  pene- 
tration. However,  little  concrete  progress  on  such 
a  program  was  registered  in  1940 

A  review  of  the  agricultural  situation  is  to  be 
found  under  AGRICULTURE  and  of  labor  under  LA- 
BOR CONDITIONS  See  BANKS  AND  BANKING  ,  COM- 
MODITY EXCHANGE  ADMINISTRATION  ;  FINANCIAL 
REVIEW;  LIVING  COSTS,  MANUFACTURES,  CENSUS 
or;  MARKETING;  TRADE,  FORHGN,  and  separate 
articles  on  the  branches  of  industry,  as  ELECTRICAL 
INDUSTRIES,  GARMENT  INDUSTRY,  INSURANCE, 
RAILWAYS. 

JULES  I  BOGEN. 

BUSINESS  SCHOOLS.  See  SCHOOLS 
BUTTER  AND  BUTTERFAT.  See  DAIRY- 

ING. 

BYELO  RUSSIAN  SOVIET  SOCIAL- 
IST REPUBLIC.  Same  as  WHITE  RUSSIAN 
SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLIC 

CAA.  Civil  Aeronautics  Authority  See  AERO- 
NAUTICS. 

CABINET,  U.S.  See  UNITED  STATES  under 
A  dministratwn. 

CADMIUM.  This  by-product  of  zinc  smelting 
was  priced  at  80#  per  Ib  throughout  1940,  com- 
pared with  an  average  of  about  60tf  per  Ib  in  1939 
The  principal  uses  of  the  metal  are  in  bearings, 
batteries  for  submarines,  plated  hardware,  and  as 
pigments  in  red  and  yellow  hthopones  The  im- 
portance of  Mexican  production  of  cadmium  in 
the  United  States  market  was  demonstrated  in 
1940  by  the  labor  strike  in  Mexico. 

H.  C.  PAR  MELEE. 

CALIFORNIA.  Area,  158,297  square  miles, 
including  (1930)  water,  2645  square  miles  Popu- 
lation, April  1,  1940  (census),  6,907,387,  1930, 
5,677,251.  Sacramento,  the  capital  (1940),  105,958; 
Los  Angeles,  1,504,277;  San  Francisco,  634,536; 
Oakland,  302,163  California's  gain  in  population 
(1930-40)  came  to  21  7  per  cent,  a  rate  surpassed 
in  but  two  States,  Florida  and  New  Mexico  Los 
Angeles  gamed,  in  the  decade,  258,744  inhabitants, 
a  greater  number  than  any  other  city  in  the  Union, 
save  New  York 

Agriculture.  The  harvest  of  1940  covered 
5,755,000  acres  of  California's  main  field  crops; 
but  this  did  not  include  acreage  in  orchards  and 


vineyards,  the  sources  of  much  of  the  agricultural 
return.  The  year's  indicated  crop  of  oranges,  48,- 
287,000  boxes,  was  estimated  as  having  a  value,  to 
the  growers,  of  $49,010,000.  Lemons  yielded  about 
13,430,000 boxes  (estimated at  $18,936,000) ,  grapes, 
2,186,000  tons  ($33,986,000)  ;  peaches,  22,418,000 
bu  ($11,609,000) ;  pears,  9,543,000  bu.  ($5,426,000) 
Among  field  crops,  tame  hay,  on  1,565,000  acres, 
made  4,657,000  tons  ($37,256,000) ;  cotton,  on  348,- 
000  acres,  with  a  large  average  yield  of  723  Ib  to 
the  acre,  the  Union's  highest  for  1940,  produced 
525,000  bales  ($25,462,000) ,  barley,  1,197,000  acres, 
33,516,000  bu.  ($12,401,000) ,  potatoes,  75,000  acres, 
22,740,000  bu.  ($16,900,000)  ;  dry  beans,  374,000 
acres,  5,492,000  100-lb  bags  ($17,216,000)  ;  wheat, 
758,000  acres,  11,370,000  bu  ($8,755,000);  rice, 
118,000  acres,  8,968,000  bu  ($5,560,000)  ,  sugar 
beets,  173,000  acres,  2,791,000  tons  (the  crop  of  the 
previous  year  had  a  farm  value  of  $13,346,000) 
The  value  of  truck  crops  for  1940,  combined,  at- 
tained $84,811,000. 

Mineral  Production.  California's  yearly  pro- 
duction of  native  minerals,  as  given  in  the  Minerals 
Year  Book  of  1940,  totaled  $489,948,802  for  1938 
petroleum,  natural  gas,  and  gasoline  derived  from 
natural  gas  furnished  nearly  four-fifths  of  this 
total ,  gold  made  up  much  of  the  remainder ;  ce- 
ment, clay  products,  and  boratcs  also  counted  as 
considerable  factors 

The  yield  of  the  petroleum  wells  declined  to 
224,354,000  bbl  approximately,  for  1939,  from  249,- 
749,000  (value,  $257,250,000 )  for  1938  The  drop 
was  attended  by  a  diminution  of  the  export  market, 
but  a  stronger  domestic  demand  offset  this  and  cut 
into  the  stock  of  petroleum  on  hand  Efforts  at 
effectual  curtailment  of  output  continued  despite  a 
popular  vote  against  a  measure  for  compulsory 
regulation  The  production  of  the  great  Kettleman 
Hills  district  dropped,  for  1939,  by  some  6,000,000 
bbl ,  but  four  new  fields  were  discovered  in  Kern 
and  Fresno  counties  The  yield  of  natural  gas,  370 
billion  cu  ft,  almost  equaled  that  of  1938  Of 
1938's  total,  315,168  million  cu  ft  was  delivered  to 
consumers  and  was  valued  at  $88,225,000  at  points 
of  consumption  Gasoline  extracted  from  natural 
gas  attained  606,631,000  gal  for  1939,  as  against 
660,890,000  (value,  $41,085,000)  for  1938  Produc- 
ers' shipments  of  cement  rose  to  11,293,989  bbl 
($15,889,395)  for  1939,  from  10,539,010  bbl  ($15,- 
689,210)  for  1938  Clay  products  (except  pottery 
and  refractories)  totaled  $6,636,860  for  1938  The 
output  of  borates  (including  a  small  component 
from  Nevada)  rose  to  249,976  short  tons  ($5,882,- 
302)  for  1939,  from  219,513  tons  ($4,570,316)  for 
1938.  A  well  dug  for  petroleum,  near  Brawley, 
struck  in  November,  1940,  a  huge  initial  flow  of 
1,000,000  cu  ft  a  day  of  carbon  dioxide  gas 

The  production  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  and 
zinc  was  valued  at  $52,528,081  for  1940  and  $52,- 
918,012  for  1939  Approximate  totals  for  output 
and  value  (each  with  definite  totals  for  1939  sub- 
joined) were.  Gold,  1,408,700  oz  (1,435,264  oz  ), 
$49,304,500  ($50,234,240),  silver,  2,235,000  oz. 
(2,599,139  oz),  $1,589,333  ($1,764,264);  copper, 
13,366,000  Ib.  (8,360,000  Ib),  $1,510,358  ($869,- 
440). 

Manufacturing.  Yearly  production  of  manu- 
factured goods  in  California  totaled  $2,796,221,903 
for  1939;  $2,899,865,426  for  1937.  Other  totals  for 
1939  (each  with  that  for  1937  subjoined)  •  12,329 
(10,861)  manufacturing  establishments  employed 
275,477  (302,189)  persons  for  wages  of  $365,110,- 
474  ($389,132,068),  paid  for  materials,  etc.,  and 


CALIFORNIA 


105 


CALIFORNIA 


contract  work  $1,654,318,758  ($1,808,268,678),  and 
added  to  material,  by  process  of  manufacture, 
$1,141,903,145  ($1,091,596,748). 

History.  The  Legislature  held  a  succession  of 
sessions  in  1940,  mainly  by  reason  of  Governor 
Olson's  efforts  to  wear  down  its  opposition  to  his 
demands  for  poor-aid  on  what  the  economizers 
thought  a  too  liberal  scale  The  first  special  session 
voted  $12,200,000  as  a  supplementary  appropria- 
tion to  meet  the  need  for  the  next  three  months , 
this  fell  far  short  of  what  Olson  wanted,  and  he 
vetoed  the  bill  It  was  promptly  enacted  (February 
23)  over  his  veto.  One  of  the  act's  secondary  pro- 
visions set  a  top  to  the  State's  doles,  at  $58  a 
month  for  a  family ;  another,  after  the  manner  of 
the  Federal  Hatch  Act,  prohibited  certain  abuses 
of  political  activity  The  appropriation's  insufficien- 
cy for  the  scale  of  spending  necessitated  cuts  in 
the  dispensations  to  the  370,000  dependents  on  poor- 
aid  and  reduction  in  the  number  of  the  State  Re- 
lief Administration's  force  of  6500  Another  en- 
actment of  this  session  made  changes  in  the  law 
on  taxation  of  gifts  and  inheritances,  rendering  the 
wife's  share,  transferred  to  the  husband,  taxable, 
as  well  as  (under  previous  law)  the  transfer  of  the 
husband's  share  to  the  wife  A  second  special  ses- 
sion met  on  May  2  and  voted  about  $25,000,000  to 
supply  poor-aid  for  ten  months  The  year's  third 
special  session  convened  on  September  14,  to  add  a 
relatively  small  sum  for  the  same  purpose  and  to 
give  statutory  authorization  to  a  State  Council  of 
Defense,  already  created  by  the  Governor,  for  fur- 
thering I'ecleral  defensive  preparations  Another 
enactment  excluded  candidates  of  the  Communist 
party  from  the  ballot 

The  Legislature's  resistance  to  Olson's  demands 
for  more  appropriations  toward  poor-aid  reflected 
a  widespread  dread  of  additional  taxation  and  a 
suspicion  that  the  dispensations  were  serving  politi- 
cal uses  A  movement  to  initiate  by  popular  peti- 
tion a  vote  tor  the  recall  of  the  Governor  was  car- 
ried on  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  year  A  Legisla- 
tive committee  spent  months  investigating  suspect- 
ed abuses  in  the  operation  and  personnel  of  the 
State  Relief  Administration  Among  the  results  of 
this  investigation  was  the  discharge  of  18  State 
relief  employees  for  refusal  to  tell  whether  they 
were  Communists  Relations  between  the  Legisla- 
ture and  the  Governor  were  further  impaired  by 
the  discovery  that  a  dictograph  had  been  secretly 
set,  in  February,  so  as  to  divulge  talk,  at  Sacra- 
mento, in  the  hotel  rooms  of  Speaker  Garland  of 
the  Assembly ,  investigation  by  special  committee 
of  the  Assembly  led  to  the  resignation  of  State 
Motor  Vehicle  Director  Howard  R  Philbnck,  who 
assumed  responsibility  for  the  attempted  espionage 
Olson  denied  all  personal  knowledge  of  the  dicto- 
graph intrigue  M  Stanley  Mosk,  executive  Secre- 
tary to  the  Governor,  reportedly  signed  a  check  for 
$236,  out  of  the  Governor's  secret-service  fund,  to 
the  order  of  a  concern  called  Sound  Laboratories, 
and  this  check  was  allegedly  cashed,  upon  Phil- 
brick's  assurance,  by  the  hotel,  the  cash  being  paid 
to  a  public  employee,  who  hired  the  room  where 
the  receiving  end  of  the  dictograph  was  installed. 
Lieut-Col.  L  F  Henderson,  a  member  of  the  Gov- 
ernor s  staff,  reportedly  admitted  providing  a  sound- 
machine 

Governor  Olson  changed  the  membership  of  the 
State  Board  of  Prison  Directors ;  acting  on  a  dis- 
closure that  41  prisoners  at  San  Quentm  State 
Prison  had  been  flogged  in  March  1939  and  on 
his  own  subsequent  investigation,  he  rid  the  Board 


of  all  but  one  of  its  members  and  filled  the  vacan- 
cies with  his  own  appointees.  These  soon  disagreed 
on  the  penal  policy  and  two  of  them  demanded  in 
September  the  resignation  of  a  third. 

Parts  of  the  State  remained  beset  by  troubles 
with  pauper  migrants,  disturbances  in  the  field  of 
organized  labor,  heavy  costs  of  poor-aid,  and 
Communist  and  other  ultra-liberal  activity.  The 
U  S  Supreme  Court  held,  April  22,  that  Shasta 
County's  ordinance  to  restrain  picketing  in  strikes 
— one  of  similar  ordinances  in  numerous  agricul- 
tural counties— clashed  with  the  Constitutional 
right  of  free  speech  and  was  invalid ;  this  affected 
labor  on  the  Shasta  Dam,  where  members  of  the 
A  F  L.  were  engaged  on  work  sought  by  members 
of  the  C.I  O  A  strike  of  ship  clerks  started  late 
in  1939,  ended  on  Jan  3,  1940,  in  an  agreement  to 
negotiate  a  limited  list  of  issues  with  employers, 
the  strike  had  interrupted  shipping  for  54  days  and 
caused  great  loss  in  business  The  recipients  of 
poor-aid,  totaling  over  100,000  "cases,"  conducted 
widespread  public  demonstrations  in  March, 
against  the  Legislature's  failure  to  make  on  their 
behalf  the  full  appropriations  demanded  by  the 
Governor  Machinery  coming  into  use  in  wide  va- 
riety— for  topping  and  harvesting  sugar  beets, 
cracking  nuts,  picking  hops,  and  performing  other 
former  manual  operations — threatened  to  cut  down 
the  need  for  the  largely  unionized  farm  labor  in 
the  State  The  San  Francisco  salmon-packers  an- 
nounced, May  4,  the  abandonment  of  the  summer's 
Alaskan  fishing  in  Bristol  Bay,  they  had  failed 
to  reach  an  agreement  with  the  Alaska  Fisher- 
men's Union.  The  Associated  Farmers  continued 
under  investigation  by  the  LaFollette  Committee 
of  the  U  S  Senate,  which  brought  to  view  the  or- 
ganization's receipt  of  support  from  chambers  of 
commerce,  railroads,  and  canning  interests  and  its 
devices  for  circumventing  labor-leaders'  plans  (as 
by  Mendocmo  County's  ordinance  for  the  licensing 
of  labor  unions)  Though  much  investigated,  the 
Associated  Farmers  remained  in  great  measure  the 
masters  of  the  agricultural  labor  situation ;  they 
had  the  firm  adherence  of  farmers  who  had  seen 
their  own  or  their  neighbors'  perishable  crops  spoil 
while  organized  workers  failed  to  handle  them 

Concurrent  floods  of  the  Sacramento  and  San 
Joaquin  rivers  at  the  end  of  February  did  damage 
said  to  approach  $10,000,000  An  earthquake  in  the 
Imperial  Valley,  May  19,  killed  seven  persons,  in- 
jured about  100,  and  did  damage  put  at  $2,000,000 
See  FLOODS,  RECLAMATION,  BUREAU  OF 

Decisions  in  the  Six  Labor  Cases.  The  State 
Supreme  Court  (October  14)  overthrew  in  a  num- 
ber of  points  the  State's  labor  code  and  divers  lo- 
cal laws,  as  previously  enforced  or  interpreted ,  its 
decision,  supported  by  a  majority  of  four,  opposed 
by  three  members,  granted  contentions  of  labor 
unions  that  had  appealed  from  lower  courts  in  six 
cases  The  opinion  (by  Justice  Douglas  L  Ed- 
monds) indicated  that  the  Court  had  to  follow 
principles  laid  down  by  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court 
in  recent  decisions  See  also  SUPREME  COURT,  un- 
der Amendment  XIV 

San  Francisco.  The  U  S  Supreme  Court  ruled 
against  San  Francisco  (April  22)  in  a  suit  brought 
to  settle  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior's  proceed- 
ings against  the  city's  contract  with  the  Pacific 
Gas  and  Electric  Company  for  the  commercial  dis- 
tribution of  electric  current  from  the  city's  Hetch 
Hetchy  water  system  (See  SUPRFME  COURT,  un- 
der Public  Domain  )  A  plan  that  sought  to  give 
the  system  of  distribution  more  of  the  municipal 


CALIFORNIA 


106 


CANADA 


character,  yet  to  preserve  the  company'*  services 
as  far  as  possible  and  to  avoid  the  need  for  mu- 
nicipal outlay  in  acquiring  the  needed  distributing 
facilities  was  presented  to  Ickes  on  October  1, 
later  on  the  city  prepared  to  rent  from  the  com- 
pany its  facilities  for  distributing  electricity,  under 
an  arrangement  said  to  satisfy  Ickes. 

The  Golden  Gate  Exposition,  despite  receipts 
short  of  costs  in  1939,  reopened  in  May,  1940. 
Its  second  season  brought  substantial  further  at- 
tendance and  returns,  greatly  helping  to  meet  the 
total  expense  of  the  enterprise  (see  FAIRS)  The 
city  issued  $945,000  of  bonds  in  June  for  the  de- 
velopment of  airport  facilities.  The  affairs  of  a 
number  of  bridges,  interurban  railroads,  and  fer- 
ries running  over  the  waters  near  San  Francisco 
were  in  course  of  adjustment  the  Golden  Gate 
ferries  ceased  profitless  competition  with  the  great 
bridge  over  their  route  and  quit  operation  to  Oak- 
land, May  16;  the  Southern  and  the  Interurban 
Railway  companies  took  proceedings  for  the  aban- 
donment of  electric  lines  serving  sunounding  com- 
munities such  as  Berkeley;  a  plan  for  the  reor- 
ganization of  the  San  Francisco  Bay  Toll  Bridge 
Company,  owning  and  operating  the  structure  be- 
tween San  Mateo  and  Hayward,  was  condemned 
by  the  Federal  Securities  and  Exchange  Commis- 
sion on  the  ground  that  proposed  bonded  debt 
greatly  exceeded  the  property's  going  value  and 
prospects  The  California  Toll  Bridge  Authority 
purchased  the  Carquinez  and  Antioch  bridges,  is- 
suing therefor  $6,444,000  of  revenue  bonds  at  low 
interest  and  designing  to  do  away  with  the  toll 
charges  in  seven  years  San  Francisco's  Funston 
Avenue  approach  to  the  Golden  Gate  Bridge,  made 
at  a  cost  of  $1,500,000  and  giving  access  to  the 
westerly  parts  of  the  city,  was  opened  on  April  1 

San  Francisco's  relative  freedom  from  strikes 
in  1940  was  credited  to  the  Employers'  Council,  a 
collective  bargaining  group 

Los  Angeles,  The  persistent  contest  of  the  Los 
Angeles  Times  against  its  conviction  of  contempt 
of  court  for  editorial  criticisms  of  justice  dealt  in 
some  Cahforman  courts  was  carried  to  the  U  S 
Supreme  Court  after  the  State  Supreme  Court  had 
sustained  the  original  conviction  The  case  aroused 
general  interest  in  the  world  of  journalism,  as  one 
involving  the  constitutionally  assured  freedom  of 
the  press  The  questioned  editorials,  "Sit-Strikers 
Convicted,"  "Probation  for  Gorillas,"  and  "The 
Fall  of  an  ex-Queen"  were  charged  with  tending 
to  interfere  with  the  administration  of  justice 

After  nearly  16  years  of  litigation  the  Standard 
Oil  Company  of  California  paid  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment $7,138,297  and  resigned  control  of  1232 
acres  valued  at  $20,000,000  or  more,  in  accordance 
with  U  S.  District  Judge  Yankwich's  decision  on 
the  parties'  rights  in  the  Elk  Hills  petroleum  field 

See  PORTS  AND  HARBORS;  WATLRWORKS 

Elections.  At  the  general  election  (Novem- 
ber 5)  the  popular  vote  cast  for  Roosevelt  (Dem.), 
1,877,618,  and  Willkic  (Rep.),  1,351,419,  approxi- 
mated the  ratio  of  ten  to  seven;  the  Republican 
minority  cast  about  60  per  cent  more  votes  than  in 
1936.  U.S.  Senator  Hiram  Johnson  was  re-elected 
as  candidate  of  both  parties.  The  Democrats  kept 
a  bare  majority  of  the  State's  U.S  Representa- 
tives, losing  a  seat  that  they  had  won  in  1938 
Among  eight  propositions  adopted  by  the  popular 
vote  were  laws  doing  away  with  pledges  of  proper- 
ty, etc.,  given  to  assure  old-age  assistance  to  per- 
sons not  wholly  destitute  of  the  means  of  support , 
giving  the  Legislature  more  powers  to  legislate 


for  the  government  of  institutions  for  felons ;  and 
permitting  the  State  to  own  shares  in  mutual  wa- 
ter companies,  under  particular  circumstances. 

Officers.  California's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  Culbert  L.  Olson  (Dem.)  , 
Lieutenant  Governor,  Ellis  E.  Patterson;  Secre- 
tary of  State,  Paul  Peek ;  Treasurer,  Charles  G 
Johnson;  Comptroller,  Harry  B.  Riley;  Attorney 
General,  Earl  Warren,  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  Walter  F.  Dexter. 

CAMBODIA.  See  FRENCH  INDO-CHINA. 

CAMERAS.  See  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

CAMEROON,  French.  A  West  African  ter- 
ritory, part  of  the  former  German  protectorate  of 
Kamerun,  confirmed  as  a  mandate  of  France  by 
the  League  of  Nations  in  1922  Area,  162,934 
square  miles;  population  (Jan.  1,  1938,  estimate), 
2,516,623.  Capital,  Yaounde  (20,000  inhabitants) 
The  mam  products  are  groundnuts,  maize,  palm 
and  palm-kernel  oil,  cacao,  gold,  diamonds,  hides, 
timber,  and  ivory.  Livestock  (1939)  900,000  oxen, 
25,000  asses  Communications  3105  miles  of  roads, 
314  miles  of  railways.  Trade  (1938)  .  imports, 
215,212,000  francs,  exports,  251,959,000  francs 
Budget  (1938)-  revenue,  139,439,747  francs;  ex- 
penditure, 118,328,574  francs  (franc  averaged 
$0.0288  for  1938)  High  Commissioner,  Henri 
Brunot 

History.  With  the  apparent  support  of  both  the 
European  and  native  population,  High  Commis- 
sioner Brunot  aligned  French  Cameroon  behind 
Gen  Charles  de  Gaulle's  "Free  French"  move- 
ment late  in  August,  1940  An  order  from  the 
Vichy  Government  dismissing  him  from  his  post 
was  ignored  See  FRANCE  under  History,  EURO- 
PEAN WAR  under  Effects  of  the  Fall  of  France 

CAMEROONS,  British.  A  British  mandated 
territory  in  western  Africa  Area,  34,081  square 
miles;  population  (1938),  831,103  The  important 
products  are  palm  kernels,  palm  oil,  cocoa,  rubber, 
and  bananas  Trade  (1938)  imports,  £296,520, 
exports,  £337,694  Finance  (1938)  •  £100,249  for 
revenue  and  £188,427  for  expenditure  During 
1938  some  421  vessels  aggregating  570,632  tons 
entered  and  cleared  the  ports  of  Victoria  and 
Tiko  The  territory  is  attached  to  various  prov- 
inces of  Nigeria  Administrator,  the  Governor  of 
Nigeria. 

CANADA.  A  Dominion  of  the  British  Com- 
monwealth of  Nations,  comprising  nine  provinces 
and  two  territories  (See  separate  articles  on  the 
provinces  and  territories.)  Capital,  Ottawa. 

Area  and  Population.  The  land  area,  the  cen- 
sus population  of  June  1,  1931,  and  the  estimated 
population  on  June  1,  1939,  are  shown  by  provinces 
and  territories  in  the  accompanying  table. 

AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  CANADA 


Pronnces  and 

Land  Area, 

Population 

Terntones 

sg  miles 

1931 

1939 

Prince  Edward  Island 

2,184 

88,038 

95,000 

Nova  Scotia 

20,743 

512,846 

554,000 

New  Brunswick 

27,473 

408,219 

451,000 

Quebec 
Ontario 
Manitoba. 
Saskatchewan 

523,534 
363,282 
219,721 
237,975 

2,874,255 
3431683 
700,139 
921,785 

3,210,000 
3,752,000 
727,000 
949,000 

British  Columbia 
Yukon  Territory 

248,800 
359,279 
.       205,146 

731,605 

•as 

789,000 
774,000 
4,000 

Northwest  Territories 

1,258,217 

9,723 

10,000 

Total 

3,466,556 

10,376,786 

11,315,000 

The  total  estimated  population  on  June  1,  1940, 
was  11,422,000.  The  Indian  population  in  1931  was 


CANADA 


107 


CANADA 


122,920.  Of  the  white  population  in  1931,  5,381,071 
were  of  British  origin  (English,  2,741,419;  Scot- 
tish, 1,346,350;  Irish,  1,230,808;  other,  62,494)  and 
2,927,990  of  French  origin. 

In  1931,  4,804,728  inhabitants  resided  in  rural 
districts  and  5,572,058  in  urban  communities.  Pop- 
ulations of  the  chief  cities  in  1931  were .  Montreal, 
818,577  (1,294,792m  1940)  ;  Toronto, 63 1,207  (648,- 
309  in  1938) ;  Vancouver,  246,593 ;  Winnipeg,  218,- 
785  (215,814  in  1936) ;  Hamilton,  155,547,  Quebec, 
130,594;  Ottawa,  126,872;  Calgary,  83,761  (83,- 
407  in  1936)  ;  Edmonton,  79,197  (85,774  in  1936)  ; 
London,  71,148;  Windsor,  63,108,  Verdun,  60,745 
(64,144  in  1939)  ;  Halifax,  59,275;  Regina,  53,209 
(53,354  in  1936)  ;  Saint  John,  47,514;  Saskatoon, 
43,291  (41,734  in  1936). 

Immigrants  entering  in  Canada  during  1939  num- 
bered 16,994,  of  whom  5649  came  from  the  United 
States,  3544  from  the  United  Kingdom,  and  7801 
from  other  countries.  Living  births  in  1939  num- 
bered 229,063  (203  per  1000);  deaths,  108,874 
(9.6  per  1000)  ;  marriages,  103,608  (92  per  1000). 
The  1939  birth  rate  was  highest  in  the  province  of 
New  Brunswick  (25  per  1000)  and  lowest  in  Brit- 
ish Columbia  (159  per  1000) 

Education  and  Religion.  Illiteracy  rate,  1931 
census,  7  2  per  cent  of  all  over  five  years  of  age. 
Of  2,502,510  pupils  enrolled  in  educational  institu- 
tions in  1937-38,  2,251,711  were  in  provmcially  con- 
trolled schools,  118,560  in  privately  controlled 
schools,  46,818  m  courses  of  university  standard, 
20,847  in  university  and  college  preparatory  courses, 
and  45,831  in  other  university  courses 

The  principal  religious  groups  in  Canada  at  the 
1931  census  were  Roman  Catholics,  including  186,- 
654  Greek  Catholics,  4,285,388;  United  Church 
(Methodists,  Congregationalists,  and  Presbyteri- 
ans), 2,017,375;  Anglicans,  1,635,615;  Presbyteri- 
ans (not  included  in  United  Church),  870,728; 
Baptists,  443,341 ;  Lutherans,  394,194 ;  Jewish,  1 15,- 
614.  Of  the  2,927,990  Canadians  of  French  origin 
in  1931,  2,849,096  were  Roman  Catholics. 

National  Income.  The  official  preliminary  es- 
timate of  national  income  for  1940  placed  it  at 
$4,800,000,000,  as  contrasted  with  $4,409,000,000  in 
1939  The  net  value  of  production  in  1938  was 
$2,975,000,000  and  the  gross  value  $5,432,000,000. 
Manufactures  accounted  for  38.78  per  cent  of  the 
net  value ,  agriculture,  24  94  per  cent ,  mining,  12  59 
per  cent.  The  average  per  capita  net  value  of  pro- 
duction in  1938  was  $265  38  The  Secretary-Treas- 
urer of  the  Associated  Credit  Bureau  of  Canada 
stated  before  the  organization's  annual  convention 
in  1940  that  "93  per  cent  of  the  people  of  Canada 
had  an  income  of  $2000  or  less  annually,  6  per 
cent  had  from  $2000  to  $5000,  and  only  1  per  cent 
had  more  than  $5000  "  He  estimated  that  about  25 
per  cent  of  the  peoples'  income  was  diverted  to 
municipal,  provincial,  and  Federal  governments. 

Agriculture.  Cash  income  from  the  sale  of 
farm  products  in  1940  was  officially  estimated  at 
$715,000,000  ($703,000,000  in  1939).  The  gross 
value  of  farm  production  in  1939  was  $1,170,943,- 
000  and  the  net  value  about  $815,663,000.  Of  the 
gross  value,  field  crops  accounted  for  $634,130,000, 
dairy  products,  $217,716,000;  farm  animals,  $170,- 
837,000 ;  fruits  and  vegetables,  $55,911,000 ;  poultry 
products,  $55,483,000;  tobacco,  $19,248,000.  The 
preliminary  estimate  of  the  gross  value  of  field 
crops  in  1940  was  $648,286,000,  compared  with  the 
revised  estimate  of  $669,672,000  for  1939.  The  acre- 

?^nandJPirn°luction.of  ^e  Principal  field  crops  in 
IStfSJ  and  1940  are  given  in  the  accompanying  table. 


CANADIAN  FIELD  CROPS,  1939  AND  1940 


Area 

Production 

Crops 

1939 

1940* 

1939 

1940  « 

1%000 

itooo 

1,000 

1,000 

acres 

acres 

bu 

bu 

Wheat 
Oats 
Barley 

26,756 
12,790 
4,347 

28,726 
12,298 
4,341 

489,623 
384,407 
103,147 

547,179 
387,805 
105,454 

Rye    . 

1,102 

1,035 

15,307 

14,294 

Peas 

76 

81 

1,307 

1,347 

Beans 

73 

97 

1,527 

1,471 

Buckwheat 

335 

326 

6,848 

6,717 

Mixed  grams 
Flaxseed 

1,218 
307 

1,220 
406 

44,072 
2,169 

43,602 
3,406 

Corn  for  husking 

183 

186 

8,097 

6,789 

0  Preliminary 

The  root  and  fodder  crops  for  1940  were  esti- 
mated (preliminary)  as  follows :  Potatoes,  42,058,- 
000  cwt.;  turnips,  etc.,  39,153,000  cwt. ;  hay  and 
clover,  14,156,000  tons,  alfalfa,  2,584,000  tons; 
fodder  corn,  4,176,000  tons,  sugar  beets,  847,000 
tons.  The  livestock  census  of  June  1,  1940,  showed 
5,882,000  swine,  8,565,000  cattle,  3,452,000  sheep, 
and  2,858,000  horses.  The  1939  wool  clip  was  esti- 
mated at  17,888,000  Ib. 

Manufacturing.  Statistics  for  1938:  Establish- 
ments, 25,200;  capital  invested,  $3,485,583,018; 
number  of  employees,  642,016  (25  9  per  establish- 
ment) ;  salaries  and  wages,  $705,668,589,  cost  of 
materials,  $1,807,478,028;  value  added  in  manufac- 
ture, $1,428,286,778;  gross  value  of  production, 
$3,337,681,366  ($132051  per  establishment  and 
$5183  per  employee).  Production  of  leading  manu- 
factures in  1939  were  (estimates,  in  metric  tons)  . 
Cement,  908,000 ;  rayon,  6438 ,  pig  iron  and  ferro- 
alloys, 845,000 ,  steel  ingots  and  castings,  1,407,000. 
The  gross  value  of  production  of  the  paper  and 
pulp  industry  in  1939  was  $208,152,000;  it  included 
2,926,600  tons  of  newsprint  worth  $120,858,600 
Output  of  chemicals  was  valued  at  $157,407,000. 
Production  of  power  by  central  electric  stations 
in  1939  was  28,352,000,000  kw-hr.  Also  see  YEAR 
BOOK,  1939,  a  112. 

Mineral  Production.  Mineral  production  in 
1939  was  valued  at  $474,602,059  ($441,823,237  in 
1938).  The  quantity  and  value  of  the  chief  min- 
erals produced  was :  Gold,  5,094,379  fine  oz  ,  $105,- 
310,157;  copper,  608,825,570  Ib ,  $60,934,859 ,  nick- 
el, 226,105,865  Ib  ,  $50,920,305 ;  coal,  15,537,443  tons, 
$48,315,224,  asbestos,  364,472  tons,  $15,859,212, 
lead,  388,569,550  Ib ,  $12,313,768;  zinc,  394,533,860 
Ib,  $12,108,244;  natural  gas,  35,185,146  M  cu.  ft, 
$12,507,307;  petroleum,  7,826,301  bbl.,  $9,846,352, 
silver,  23,163,629  fine  oz.,  $9,378,490 ,  platinum,  148,- 
902  fine  oz ,  $5,222,589 ,  palladium,  rhodium,  ind- 
ium, etc ,  135,402  fine  oz ,  $4,199,622;  salt,  424,500 
tons,  $2,486,632.  The  output  of  sand  and  gravel 
was  31,294,341  tons  valued  at  $11,241,102;  stone, 
5,443,522  tons,  $6,455,696;  cement,  5,731,264  bbl, 
$8,511,211;  lime,  552,209  tons,  $4,003,514 

Forest  Products.  Forest  production  in  1938 
was  equivalent  to  2,652,698  M  cu.  ft  of  standing 
timber  and  was  valued  at  $148,265,857  (logs  and 
bolts,  $52,759,660,  pulpwood,  $53,761,999,  fire- 
wood, $32,740,566)  The  total  value  of  lumber  pro- 
duction in  1938  was  $92,856,000,  chiefly  accounted 
for  by  3,768,351,000  ft.  of  cut  lumber  valued  at 
$72,633,000 

Fisheries.  The  value  of  the  1939  fish  catch  was 
$40,073,000  ($40,493,000  in  1938).  The  catch  of  in- 
land fisheries  was  valued  at  $6,101,000  m  1939;  of 
sea  fisheries,  $33,972,000.  Salmon  accounted  £or 
$13,409,000,  lobsters,  $3,782,000;  herring,  $3,780,- 
000;  cod,  $3,234,000,  sardines,  $2,301,000;  halibut, 


CANADA 


108 


CANADA 


$2,118,000 ;  whitefish,  $1,722,000 ,  haddock,  $1,357,- 
000. 

Fur  Production.  Production  of  raw  furs  in 
Canada  for  the  season  ending  in  June,  1939,  was 
valued  at  $14,207,000.  About  three-fifths  of  this 
total  represented  pelts  of  wild  animals  taken  by 
trapping,  while  the  remainder  came  from  animals 
on  fur  farms  Pelts  taken  included  319,673  silver 
fox  valued  at  $5,660,000 ;  219,186  mink,  $2,092,600 ; 
2,260,400  muskrat,  $1,983,700 ,  63,688  beaver,  $980,- 
000.  The  number  of  animals  on  fur  farms  in  1938 
was  270,431,  valued  at  $8,930,000. 

Tourist  Trade.  According  to  Canadian  official 
estimates,  United  States  tourists  spent  262,000,000 
Canadian  dollars  in  Canada  during  1939  against 
expenditures  of  $95,000,000  by  Canadian  tourists 
in  the  United  States  Travelers  from  overseas 
spent  about  $13,000,000  in  Canada  against  expendi- 
tures of  about  $15,000,000  by  Canadians  traveling 
overseas. 

Foreign  Trade.  Canada's  total  foreign  trade 
increased  from  $1,526,135,487  in  the  calendar  year 
1938  to  $1,686,977,247  in  1939  Imports  for  con- 
sumption in  1939  were  $751,055,534;  exports  of 
Canadian  produce,  $924,926,104;  exports  of  for- 
eign produce,  $10,995,609  The  chief  export  classes 
in  1939  were  Wood,  wood  products  and  paper, 
$242,541,043,  agricultural  and  vegetable  products, 
$220,118,056,  non-ferrous  metals  and  their  pro- 
duce, $182,890,103 ,  animals  and  animal  products, 
$131,803,706  Leading  imports  were :  Iron  and  its 
products,  $183,159,650;  non-metallic  minerals  and 
their  products,  $132,823,892,  agricultural  and  vege- 
table products,  $127,835,146,  fibers,  textiles,  and 
tissues,  $100,866,078 

The  chief  sources  of  Canadian  imports  for  con- 
sumption in  1939  were  •  United  States,  $496,898,- 
466;  United  Kingdom,  $114,007,409,  Straits  Set- 
tlement, $13,144,970;  Australia,  $11,269,594,  Ger- 
many, $8,947,155  Exports  went  mainly  to  United 
States,  $380,392,047;  United  Kingdom,  $328,099,- 
242,  Australia,  $32,028,744,  Japan,  $28,167,607; 
British  South  Africa,  $17,965,280 

Finance.  The  accompanying  table  shows  the 
total  Dominion  budget  receipts,  ordinary  expendi- 
tures, and  total  expenditures  for  the  period  1936- 
37  to  1940-41 

DOMINION  FINANCES 
[Thousands  of  Canadian  dollar  i] 

Ordinary  Total  Surplus  (+) 

Years  ended       7  otal  expendt-  expendt-              or 

March  31  revenues         lures  tures  defictt(-) 

1936-37  $454,154  $387,112  $532,005  -$  77,851 

1937-3H              516,693        414,891  534,408  -     17,715 

1938-39             502,171        413,032  553,063  -    50,892 

1939-40             562,093        398,323  680,794  -  118,700 

1940-41 «           760,000       448,000  1,148.000*  -  388,000* 

•Estimates  *  Excluding  additional  war  commitments  esti- 
mated at  $150,000,000  to  $200,000,000. 

The  Dominion  funded  debt  and  Treasury  bills 
outstanding  on  Mar.  31,  1940,  totaled  $3,695,685,- 
192  ($3,385,697,034  on  Mar.  31,  1939).  The  annual 
average  exchange  rate  of  the  Canadian  dollar  was 
$0.9942  in  1938,  $09602  in  1939,  $0.8514  in  1940 

Shipping.  During  the  calendar  year  1939  a  to- 
tal of  40,894  vessels  of  33,997,984  net  registered 
tons  entered  the  eight  leading  seaports  (40,467 
ships  of  34,030,575  tons  in  1938).  The  leading  ports, 
in  order  of  tonnage  entered  in  1939,  were-  Van- 
couver, 11,993,815;  Montreal,  7,588,940;  Halifax, 
6,054,412;  Quebec,  4,219,192;  Saint  John,  2,500,- 
598;  Three  Rivers,  1,549,829.  Inward  cargo  ton- 
nage at  the  eight  ports  was  18,007,242  m  1939; 


outward,  11,686,915.  Traffic  through  Canadian  ca- 
nals in  1939  included  24,768  Canadian  vessels  of 
18,240,632  registered  tons  and  2757  United  States 
and  other  vessels  of  3,095,648  registered  tons. 

Railways,  etc.  As  of  Dec  31,  1938,  Canada  had 
42,742  single  track  miles  of  steam  railways,  owned 
by  34  companies,  exclusive  of  1957  miles  of  street 
and  interurban  electric  railways  and  1016  miles  of 
industrial  railways.  Gross  revenues  of  the  34  steam 
railways  in  1939  were  $363,325,824 ;  operating  ex- 
penses, $301,986,407.  The  profit  and  loss  account, 
after  payment  of  interest,  taxes,  etc.,  showed  a 
debit  of  $55,023,359  in  1938,  compared  with  an  av- 
erage debit  during  the  five  years  1933-37  of  $73,- 
312,927.  Passengers  carried  during  1939  numbered 
19,097,316,  revenue  freight,  91,042,896  tons 

The  total  highway  mileage  in  1939  was  599,040 
and  the  number  of  automobiles  registered  1,375,- 
133  Aviation  statistics  for  1939  were  Miles  flown, 
10,969,271,  passengers  carried,  161,503,  freight 
carried,  including  excess  baggage,  21,253,364  Ib  , 
mail  carried,  1,900,347  Ib  The  new  Trans-Canada 
air  system  in  1939  earned  21,569  passengers,  500,- 
000  Ib  of  mail  and  45,819  Ib  of  express 

Government.  Executive  power  is  exercised  in 
the  King's  name  by  the  Governor-General  of  Can- 
ada, acting  through  a  responsible  ministry  Legis- 
lative power  rests  in  a  parliament  of  two  houses 
— a  Senate  of  96  members  appointed  for  life  by  the 
Governor-General  on  advice  of  the  Cabinet  and  a 
House  of  Commons  of  245  members  elected  for  five 
years  (unless  the  government  is  sooner  dissolved) 
by  popular  male  and  female  suffrage  The  nine 
provinces  enjoy  a  large  measure  of  local  auton- 
omy, there  being  a  separate  parliament  and  ad- 
ministration for  each  A  lieutenant-governor  ap- 
pointed by  the  Governor-General-in-Council  heads 
each  provincial  executive  Baron  Tweedsmuir  of 
Elsfield  (John  Buchan),  who  assumed  office  as 
Governor-General  Nov  2,  1935,  died  Feb.  11,  1940 
(see  NECROLOGY).  On  April  4  the  Earl  of  Athlone, 
uncle  of  King  George  VI,  was  appointed  to  the 
post;  he  was  installed  June  21,  1940 

The  composition  of  the  Liberal  Government, 
sworn  in  Oct  23,  1935,  and  reconstructed  in  Sep- 
tember, 1939,  was  as  follows  at  the  beginning  of 
1940,  in  order  of  precedence  Prime  Minister, 
President  of  the  Privy  Council,  Secretary  of  State 
for  External  Affairs,  W.  L  Mackenzie  King; 
Minister  without  Portfolio,  Raoul  Dandurand; 
Mines  and  Resources,  Thomas  Alexander  Crerar; 
Justice,  Attorney-General,  and  Acting  Secretary 
of  State,  Ernest  Lapointe;  Public  Works,  Pierre 
Joseph  Arthur  Cardin,  Trade  and  Commerce, 
William  Daum  Euler ;  Finance,  James  L  Ralston , 
Pensions  and  National  Health,  Ian  Alastair  Mac- 
kenzie ,  Postmaster-General,  Charles  Gavan  Pow- 
er; National  Revenue,  James  Lorimer;  Fisheries, 
Joseph  Enoil  Michaud ;  National  Defense,  Norman 
McLeod  Rogers;  Transport,  Clarence  Decatur 
Howe;  Agriculture,  James  Garfield  Gardiner; 
Labor,  Norman  A.  McLarty;  Minister  without 
Portfolio,  James  A.  MacKinnon.  For  changes 
during  1940,  see  History. 

HISTORY 

The  war  in  Europe  dominated  every  aspect  of 
Canada's  internal  and  external  affairs  during  1940, 
particularly  after  the  collapse  of  France  in  June 
enhanced  the  prospect  of  a  German  victory.  The 
general  election  of  March  26,  the  intensification 
of  Canada's  war  effort,  the  rapid  expansion  of 
industrial  production  and  employment,  and  the 


CANADA 


109 


CANADA 


unprecedented  steps  taken  toward  politico-military 
collaboration  with  the  United  States  were  all 
determined  or  strongly  influenced  by  the  spread- 
ing European  conflagration. 

Liberals  Re-elected.  The  opening  of  1940 
found  Prime  Minister  Mackenzie  King's  Liberal 
Government  under  vigorous  attack  from  the  Con- 
servative opposition  for  alleged  inefficient  and 
partisan  conduct  of  the  war  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK, 
p.  116).  Early  in  January  Mitchell  Hepburn,  Lib- 
eral Premier  of  Ontario,  joined  in  these  attacks, 
thus  reviving  his  old  quarrel  with  Mackenzie 
King  On  January  18  he  induced  the  Ontario  Leg- 
islature to  adopt  a  resolution  condemning  the 
Federal  Government  for  the  "weakness"  of  its  war 
effort 

On  January  25  the  Canadian  Parliament  con- 
vened for  its  first  regular  session  since  the  out- 
break of  war  With  a  general  election  due  to  be 
held  sometime  during  1940,  the  Conservatives  and 
dissident  Liberals  came  prepared  to  press  their 
charges  against  the  government  With  his  custom- 
ary political  acumen,  the  Prime  Minister  fore- 
stalled this  plan  by  dissolving  Parliament  on  the 
first  day  of  the  new  session  and  calling  the  gener- 
al election  for  March  26.  In  a  short  but  bitter 
campaign,  the  Conservatives,  led  by  Dr  R  J 
Manion,  redoubled  their  charges  of  inefficiency 
and  partisanship  in  the  prosecution  of  the  war 
They  said  the  government  had  sent  the  1st  Di- 
vision of  the  Active  Service  Force  overseas  with 
insufficient  clothing  and  out-moded  arms,  that  it 
had  withheld  full  co-operation  from  the  British 
Government  in  war  preparations,  and  it  was 
wasting  war  appropriations  through  maladminis- 
tration and  political  patronage  Dr  Manion  prom- 
ised that  if  elected  he  would  form  a  "national  gov- 
ernment" containing  the  best  brains  of  the  country 
to  carry  on  the  war 

The  Mackenzie  King  Government  stood  on  its 
war  record,  denied  the  Conservative  charges,  re- 
jected the  demand  for  a  "national  government"  as 
inadvisable  and  dangerous,  and  contended  that  it 
alone  could  maintain  the  unity  between  French- 
and  English-speaking  Canada  essential  to  the  suc- 
cessful prosecution  of  the  war  Of  the  4,458,861 
votes  cast  on  March  26  the  Liberals  received  53 
per  cent  and  increased  their  standing  in  the  House 
of  Commons  from  176  seats  at  the  time  of  dis- 
solution to  183.  The  Conservatives  captured  40 
seats,  or  1  more  than  before  The  Co-operative 
Commonwealth  Federation  (Socialists)  increased 
their  standing  from  7  to  8,  while  the  other  minority 
groups  lost  ground,  as  follows  Social  Credit-New 
Democracy  coalition,  reduced  from  16  to  9  seats , 
Independents,  reduced  from  7  to  5  Isolationist 
and  pacifist  candidates  were  overwhelmed  Dr 
Manion  and  many  other  veteran  leaders  of  the 
Conservative  party  were  defeated.  As  a  result  of 
this  electoral  debacle,  Dr.  Manion's  resignation 
as  leader  of  the  party  was  accepted  on  May  13. 
He  was  succeeded  as  parliamentary  leader  for  the 
next  session  by  R  B  Hanson,  who  was  Minister 
of  Trade  and  Commerce  in  the  last  Conservative 
Government. 

Governmental  Changes.  Prime  Minister  Mac- 
kenzie King,  asserting  that  the  election  vindicated 
the  personnel  and  policies  of  his  government,  con- 
tinued to  reject  all  demands  for  a  coalition  or 

national  government.  There  were  several  changes 
in  his  cabinet,  however.  A  separate  Air  Ministry 
was  established  late  in  May.  On  June  10  Defense 
Minister  Rogers  was  killed  in  an  airplane  ac- 


cident On  June  18  a  new  Ministry  of  National 
War  Services  was  established  to  co-ordinate  the 
care  of  refugees,  the  provision  of  comforts  for 
soldiers,  economic  use  of  food  supplies,  etc.  Then 
the  National  Defense  Ministry  was  split  into  three 
separate  Ministries  in  charge  of  Military  Affairs, 
Naval  Affairs,  and  Military  Aviation,  respectively. 
Three  more  Liberals  were  brought  into  the  Cabi- 
net and  there  was  a  reshuffling  of  some  other 
posts.  Heads  of  the  new  and  reorganized  Min- 
istries, announced  for  the  most  part  on  July  8, 
were:  National  Defense  (Army),  Col.  J.  L 
Ralston  (former  Finance  Minister)  ;  National 
Defense  (Navy),  Premier  Angus  L.  Macdonald 
of  Nova  Scotia;  National  Defense  (Air),  C  G 
Power;  Finance,  J.  L  Ilsley,  National  Revenue, 
Col.  C.  W  Gibson ,  Transport  and  Public  Works, 
P  J  A.  Cardin;  War  Services  and  Agriculture, 
J.  G.  Gardiner;  Postmaster-General,  W.  P.  Mu- 
lock. 

At  the  same  time  the  Prime  Minister  invited  the 
Conservative  party  leaders,  R  B  Hanson  and 
Grote  Stirling,  and  leaders  of  the  smaller  Oppo- 
sition groups  to  become  associate  members  of  the 
War  Committee  of  the  cabinet.  They  replied  that 
they  would  not  accept  office  and  surrender  the 
right  of  criticism  unless  they  were  offered  mem- 
bership and  full  responsibility  in  a  genuine  coali- 
tion government 

War  Parliament  Meets.  When  the  newly 
elected  Parliament  assembled  on  May  16  the  Ger- 
man invasion  of  Norway,  Denmark,  the  Nether- 
lands, and  Luxemburg  had  been  crowned  with 
success  Belgium  and  France  were  crushed,  the 
British  Army  defeated  in  Flanders  and  Northern 
France,  and  Italy  brought  into  the  war  during  the 
ensuing  weeks  These  events  shocked  the  Canadian 
Government  and  people  into  action  The  govern- 
ment had  planned  a  war  of  "limited  liability"  in 
which  Canadian  materials  and  air  power  would 
be  its  principal  contribution  The  great  Empire 
air  training  program,  centering  in  Canada,  was 
designed  to  turn  out  pilots  in  quantity  only  in  the 
second  or  third  year  of  the  war.  Industrial  mobili- 
zation had  been  geared  to  a  similar  time  schedule 

When  Hitler's  blitzkrieg  demonstrated  these 
plans  to  be  woefully  inadequate,  the  Opposition 
intensified  its  attack  upon  the  government's  prose- 
cution of  the  war  But  when  Parliament  adjourned 
on  August  7  Prime  Minister  Mackenzie  King  was 
politically  stronger  than  at  the  outset  of  the 
session.  This  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Chamber- 
lain Government  in  London  was  shown  to  be 
mainly  responsible  for  Canada's  half-way  measures 
up  to  the  outbreak  of  "total  war"  in  Europe.  It 
discouraged  the  raising  of  a  large  army,  and 
failed  to  give  Canadian  industry  sufficient  military 
orders  either  before  or  after  the  outbreak  of  war 
to  secure  capacity  production.  Moreover  there  was 
no  other  leader  available  with  the  experience  and 
prestige  to  fill  Mackenzie  King's  shoes.  The 
Prime  Minister  also  allayed  criticism  by  speeding 
the  mobilization  of  Canada's  full  resources  to  sup- 
port the  hard-pressed  mother  country,  reorganizing 
his  cabinet  as  described  above,  and  taking  firm 
measures  against  "fifth  column"  and  other  ob- 
structionist elements 

Parliament  reconvened  on  November  7.  On 
December  3  the  House  defeated,  140  to  51,  an 
Opposition  move  to  censure  the  government  for 
"soothing"  the  Canadian  people  into  a  false  sense 
of  security  and  failing  to  alleviate  the  condition 
of  the  fanners. 


CANADA 


110 


CANADA 


Conscription  Introduced.  Immediately  after 
the  collapse  of  France,  Parliament  on  June  20 
empowered  the  government  to  mobilize  the  entire 
manpower  and  material  resources  of  the  Dominion 
for  war  purposes  The  bill  was  adopted  with  only 
two  French- Canadian  members  of  the  House  dis- 
senting. The  Prime  Minister  had  previously  re- 
newed his  pledge  never  to  conscript  Canadians 
for  overseas  service. 

Under  this  act  and  a  measure  of  July  10  es- 
tablishing the  Department  of  War  Services,  all 
Canadian  men  and  women  over  16  years  of  age 
were  registered  for  possible  war  service  during 
August  19-21.  On  October  9  compulsory  military 
training  in  the  Non-Permanent  Active  Militia 
was  begun  when  30,000  men,  of  21  to  23  years  of 
age,  were  called  up  for  30  days.  It  was  planned 
to  give  300,000  unmarried  men  the  30-day  course 
during  the  ensuing  year  and  later  to  call  up 
married  men.  The  government  gave  assurances 
that  this  conscription  related  "solely  and  ex- 
clusively to  the  defense  of  Canada  on  our  own 
soil  and  in  our  own  territorial  waters."  The 
Canadian  air  force,  navy,  and  divisions  raised  for 
overseas  service  were  composed  entirely  of  vol- 
unteers. 

Fears  that  French-Canadian  opinion  would  op- 
pose conscription  were  allayed  by  the  hearty  sup- 
port accorded  the  measure  by  most  French- 
Canadian  leaders  and  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  Quebec  Province  The  notable  excep- 
tion to  this  rule  was  Mayor  Camilhen  Houde, 
mayor  of  Montreal,  who  on  August  2  asked  the 
people  of  his  city  to  support  him  in  defying  the 
national  registration  law.  On  August  6  he  was 
interned  for  the  duration  of  the  war  on  orders  of 
Minister  of  Justice  Lapomte.  This  action  ap- 
peared to  have  the  approval  of  most  French- 
Canadians.  The  French-Canadian  press  likewise 
approved  the  British  attack  upon  the  French  fleet 
at  Oran  (see  EUROPEAN  WAR)  as  lessening  the 
danger  of  a  German  attack  upon  Canada  Houde 
sought  to  run  for  re-election  but  this  plan  was 
balked  by  an  Order  in  Council  of  October  29  mak- 
ing interned  persons  ineligible  for  public  office. 
See  QUEBEC  under  History 

Aid  to  Britain  Speeded.  In  addition  to  train- 
ing men  for  home  defense,  the  government  late  in 
May  greatly  accelerated  its  program  for  supply- 
ing military  and  economic  aid  to  Britain  Recruit- 
ing for  overseas  service  was  speeded  up  By 
October  1  the  Active  Service  Force  numbered 
more  than  167,000  men,  of  whom  53,000  were 
serving  overseas — two  divisions  and  additional 
corps  troops  in  England  and  detachments  in  Ice- 
land, Newfoundland,  and  the  West  Indies.  The 
Royal  Canadian  Air  Force,  which  numbered  450 
officers  and  4000  airmen  in  September,  1939,  in- 
creased to  1950  officers  and  23,000  airmen  by  Oct. 
1,  1940.  A  few  squadrons  were  already  in  action 
in  England.  The  Canadian  Navy  had  about  130 
vessels  and  more  than  11,000  officers  and  men,  as 
against  13  ships  and  1700  officers  and  men  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war.  It  was  engaged  in  protect- 
ing the  Canadian  coasts  and  providing  invaluable 
aid  to  the  British  navy  in  guarding  transatlantic 
convoys.  In  all,  about  500,000  men  were  under 
arms  by  December  31 

Economic  Mobilization.  All  of  these  services 
were  undergoing  rapid  expansion  as  the  year 
ended  By  the  beginning  of  1942  it  was  expected 
that  the  air  training  schools  would  be  turning 
out  7500  to  8000  pilots  and  14,000  to  16,500  air 


observers  and  air  gunners  annually.  To  equip  and 
maintain  these  increasing  forces  and  to  aid  British 
rearmament,  Canadian  factories  in  October,  1940, 
were  producing  about  130  planes,  minus  engines, 
monthly;  rifles,  small  arms,  machine  guns,  and 
munitions;  and  a  small  but  increasing  supply  of 
tanks,  field  artillery,  antitank  and  antiaircraft 
guns  Under  construction  for  the  navy  were  54 
patrol  vessels,  some  30  minesweepers,  and  25 
motor  torpedo  boats.  Contracts  for  Canadian  war 
orders  totaling  $345,000,000  and  British  war  orders 
aggregating  $100,000,000  had  been  distributed 
among  4400  Canadian  firms.  War  plant  expan- 
sions totaling  approximately  $225,000,000  were 
under  way. 

It  was  estimated  that  by  the  end  of  1941 
Canadian  industry  would  be  producing  arms  and 
war  supplies  of  almost  every  kind  at  the  rate  of 
over  $1,000,000,000  annually.  The  co-ordination  of 
this  effort  was  in  charge  of  the  Department  of 
Munitions  and  Supplies.  In  August,  1940,  it  de- 
centralized its  activities,  establishing  three  gov- 
ernment-owned, non-profit  corporations,  headed  by 
leading  businessmen,  to  administer  the  armament 
industries.  A  Wartime  Industries  Control  Board 
was  set  up,  with  extensive  powers  to  control  the 
steel,  metals,  timber,  machine  tool,  electric  power, 
and  oil  industries  On  May  23  key  munitions  in- 
dustries were  placed  on  a  24-hour  basis. 

War  Financing.  To  finance  this  program,  the 
Dominion  budget  for  the  fiscal  year  1940-41 
carried  war  appropriations  of  $940,118,000.  Direct 
and  indirect  war  expenditures  of  the  Dominion, 
provincial,  and  municipal  governments  were  esti- 
mated at  nearly  $1,975,000,000.  Taxes  were  drasti- 
cally increased  The  income  tax  was  raised  300 
per  cent  in  some  brackets  On  an  income  of  $3000 
a  year  a  married  man  with  no  dependents  paid 
$195 ;  on  $5000,  he  paid  $555 ;  on  $10,000,  he  paid 
$2170.  In  addition  a  10  per  cent  tax  was  paid  on  all 
goods  purchased  in  the  United  States  and  other 
non-Empire  sources,  the  aim  being  to  conserve 
Canada's  dollar  exchange  On  industrial  profits, 
the  tax  was  raised  to  18  per  cent  of  all  profits 
plus  75  per  cent  of  whatever  profits  remained  in 
excess  of  the  average  profits  made  during  the 
preceding  four  years  A  2  per  cent  tax  was  levied 
on  salaries  But  despite  the  new  taxes  the  govern- 
ment anticipated  a  deficit  of  nearly  $600,000,000 
in  1940-41  This  was  to  be  covered  by  borrowing. 
A  bill  for  the  refunding  of  $750,000,000  in  matur- 
ing obligations  was  passed  May  31.  Besides  in- 
terest-bearing loans,  the  government  in  July  of- 
fered $10,000,000  worth  of  non-interest-bearing 
bonds.  A  substantial  part  of  these  were  quickly 
disposed  of  In  addition  more  than  $500,000  was 
donated  to  the  government  for  war  expenses. 

The  government's  financial  policy  sought  to 
prevent  price  inflation  and  an  excessive  increase 
in  the  public  debt.  Steps  to  control  prices  were 
taken  beginning  in  August  To  prevent  deprecia- 
tion of  the  Canadian  dollar  on  foreign  exchange 
markets,  the  Foreign  Exchange  Control  Board  on 
May  1  took  over  at  the  current  market  price  the 
entire  holdings  of  gold  and  foreign  exchange  of 
the  Bank  of  Canada.  All  residents  of  Canada 
holding  foreign  currency  were  required  to  sell  it 
to  the  Exchange  Control  Board.  On  December  6 
Parliament  imposed  a  25  per  cent  excise  tax  on 
"luxury"  manufactures,  partly  in  order  to  en- 
able industry  to  concentrate  on  war  necessities 

Labor  Measures.  As  a  result  of  heavy  war 
expenditures,  the  number  of  unemployed  in  Canada 


CANADA 


111 


CANADA 


declined  steadily  during  1940  to  the  lowest  point 
since  1929.  By  autumn,  shortages  of  skilled  labor 
were  reported  in  many  industries.  This  trend  was 
accompanied  during  April,  May,  and  June  by  an 
increase  in  labor  disputes,  which  threatened  to 
hold  up  production 

The  government  adopted  a  liberal  policy  in  an 
effort  to  secure  better  co-operation  from  labor 
In  an  Order-in-Cotincil  of  June  20  it  reaffirmed 
labor's  right  to  unionize  and  bargain  collectively. 
It  requested  employers  to  adopt  "fair  and  reason- 
able standards  of  wages  and  working  conditions" 
and  warned  against  undue  extension  of  hours  of 
labor.  At  the  same  time  it  insisted  that  there 
should  be  no  interruption  of  production  or  distri- 
bution through  strikes  or  lockouts,  declaring  that 
all  employer-labor  controversies  should  be  settled 
through  government  conciliation  agencies  No  ma- 
chinery for  enforcement  of  these  principles  was 
provided,  nor  were  penalties  mentioned  in  the 
Order-in-Council  However  the  National  Mobili- 
zation Act  provided  ample  authority  for  any  dis- 
ciplinary action  the  government  considered  nec- 
essary 

The  government  took  another  step  calculated  to 
win  labor's  approval  of  its  war  efforts  by  securing 
the  enactment  by  Parliament  on  July  30  of  Can- 
ada's first  national  unemployment  insurance  law 
The  program  covered  2,100,000  workers  earning 
less  than  $2000  annually,  but  persons  within  that 
income  range  employed  m  certain  professions, 
domestic  service  and  seasonal  occupations  were  ex- 
cluded Employers  and  employees  contributed  ap- 
proximately equal  amounts  to  the  insurance  fund, 
while  the  government  paid  one-fifth  of  the  total 
and  assumed  the  administrative  costs 

Labor  was  given  equal  representation  with  em- 
ployers upon  the  National  Labor  Supply  Council 
appointed  June  20,  1940  In  addition,  maximum- 
hour  and  minimum-wage  provisions  were  em- 
bodied in  contracts  for  the  manufacture  of  air- 
craft and  other  war  equipment  awarded  by  the 
War  Supply  Board  The  Minister  of  Labor  an- 
nounced on  November  28,  however,  that  because 
of  air-raid  damage  to  British  industry  and  ship- 
ping, it  would  be  necessary  to  extend  the  woiking 
week  from  44  to  48  hours.  An  Order  in  Council 
of  December  18  established  a  conciliation  commis- 
sion to  adjust  wages  to  rising  living  costs 

Aid  to  Agriculture.  The  spread  of  the  war 
increased  the  difficulty  of  finding  markets  for 
Canadian  wheat,  fruit,  bacon,  and  dairy  products 
Larger  purchases  of  farm  products  by  Great 
Britain  failed  to  make  up  for  the  normal  pur- 
chases of  the  European  continent,  cut  off  by  the 
British  blockade  The  wheat  problem  became  acute 
when  the  1940  crop  proved  to  be  the  second  largest 
on  record  Despite  the  sale  of  100,000,000  bu  of 
stored  wheat  to  the  British  Government  on  Au- 
gust 2,  the  carry-over  from  the  1939  crop  was  also 
exceptionally  large.  The  Canadian  Government 
on  May  18  pegged  the  price  on  wheat  futures  at 
70  cents;  the  cash  price  was  fixed  at  a  slightly 
higher  level.  To  maintain  this  price  and  to  compen- 
sate growers  for  storing  surplus  wheat,  Parlia- 
ment on  August  3  enacted  a  processing  tax  of  15 
cents  a  bushel  on  wheat  processed  into  flour  and 
other  products  for  domestic  consumption  Govern- 
ment aid  in  financing  and  marketing  their  crops 
was  also  extended  to  fruit  growers  and  dairy 
farmers. 

Drive  on  "Fifth  Column."  With  the  intensi- 
fication of  Canada's  war  effort,  beginning  in  April 


and  May,  the  government  took  more  stringent 
measures  to  curb  subversive  and  pacifist  activi- 
ties Under  the  Defense  of  Canada  Regulations 
adopted  Sept  9,  1939,  three  men  were  sentenced 
to  prison  terms  and  fines  by  an  Ottawa  court  on 
May  15  for  circulating  Communist  literature  of 
a  seditious  nature  The  court  declared  the  Com- 
munist party  of  Canada  an  illegal  organization  and 
many  leaders  of  the  party  were  subsequently  taken 
into  custody.  Canadian  officials  charged  that  the 
Communist  party  and  press  were  spreading  Nazi 
propaganda,  and  in  some  cases  receiving  German 
financial  aid 

On  May  30  Adrian  Arcand,  leader  of  the  Na- 
tional Unity  (Fascist)  party,  and  a  number  of 
his  associates  were  arrested  in  Montreal  on 
charges  of  plotting  against  the  state.  Minister  of 
Justice  Lapomte  on  June  21  announced  the  ban- 
ning of  the  National  Unity  party  and  the  intern- 
ment of  Arcand  and  10  other  leaders,  mostly 
French-Canadians,  for  the  duration  of  the  war. 
Correspondence  was  made  public  indicating  that 
Arcand  was  in  contact  with  German  and  Italian 
propaganda  agencies 

Minister  Lapointe  on  June  5  introduced  an 
Order  in  Council  in  Parliament  declaring  illegal  a 
dozen  organizations  described  as  fronts  for  Com- 
munist, Nazi,  and  Fascist  activities  Among  them 
were  the  Communist  party  of  Canada,  Labor  De- 
fense League,  League  for  Peace  and  Democracy, 
German  Labor  Front,  the  Canadian  branch  of 
the  German  Nazi  party,  etc  With  Italy's  entrance 
into  the  war,  several  hundred  Italian  citizens 
were  rounded  up  for  questioning  and  all  others 
were  registered  and  fingerprinted  Most  of  the 
Italian  organizations  adopted  resolutions  of  loyalty 
to  Canada  and  denounced  Mussolini's  entrance  into 
the  conflict.  Of  some  16,000  German  and  15,000 
Italian  aliens  in  Canada,  only  about  300  Germans 
and  a  smaller  number  of  Italians  were  interned. 
The  others  were  required  to  report  to  the  authori- 
ties weekly  or  monthly  On  August  23  the  govern- 
ment cancelled  naturalizations  of  all  men  and 
women  immigrants  from  Germany  and  Italy  who 
took  out  papers  after  Sept  1,  1922,  and  they  were 
required  to  report  as  enemy  aliens  unless  they 
were  able  to  obtain  certificates  establishing  their 
status  as  loyal  subjects 

Repeated  attempts  at  sabotage  of  war  industries 
and  evidence  of  widespread  German  espionage 
activities  led  Parliament  on  July  25  to  adopt  the 
so-called  Treachery  Bill  making  anyone  assisting 
the  armed  forces  of  the  enemy  or  imperiling  the 
safety  of  Canada  liable  to  the  death  penalty  or 
life  imprisonment.  At  the  same  time  the  gov- 
ernment decided  to  organize  Provincial  Civil 
Guard  units  to  aid  the  militia  and  other  armed 
forces  in  maintaining  order  and  curbing  sabotage 
In  addition  to  the  camps  established  for  interned 
residents  of  Canada,  the  government  undertook 
in  June  to  assume  charge  of  6700  war  prisoners 
and  internees  sent  from  the  United  Kingdom.  The 
first  of  these  prisoners  arrived  on  July  1.  Canada 
also  provided  a  refuge  for  some  thousands  of 
British  children  and  for  a  number  of  prominent 
refugees,  including  Ciown  Princess  Juliana  of  the 
Netherlands  and  her  daughters 

Constitutional  Problems.  In  the  midst  of  the 
war,  the  constitutional  issues  that  had  aroused 
controversy  during  previous  years  (see  1939  YEAR 
BOOK,  p.  116)  were  for  the  most  part  postponed. 
On  May  16  the  House  of  Commons  tabled  the 
report  of  the  Commission  on  Dominion-Provincial 


CANADA 


112 


CANADA 


Relations,  appointed  in  1937.  The  Commission's 
recommendation  concerning  unemployment  insur- 
ance were  put  into  effect  (see  above),  but  no 
other  action  was  taken  on  its  proposals.  It  recom- 
mended that  the  Dominion  assume  40  per  cent  of 
the  Quebec  provincial  debt  and  the  entire  debts  of 
the  other  provinces ;  that  all  future  provincial  bor- 
rowings be  handled  through  a  central  commission, 
under  Dominion  guarantee ;  that  the  Dominion  as- 
sume complete  responsibility  for  relief  of  unem- 
ployed employables,  leaving  the  provinces  and 
municipalities  to  administer  poor  relief  and  care 
for  unemployables ;  that  the  Dominion  receive  sole 
power  to  collect  income,  inheritance,  and  corpora- 
tion taxes ,  and  that  it  should  assist  the  provinces 
through  national  adjustment  financial  grants,  re- 
newable every  five  years,  instead  of  through  the 
existing  subsidies. 

Another  important  constitutional  development 
was  the  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Canada 
on  January  19  that  Parliament  had  authority  to 
abolish  appeals  to  the  Privy  Council  in  London 
from  the  Canadian  courts.  On  June  25  the  Cana- 
dian House  of  Commons  formally  requested 
amendment  of  the  British  North  America  Act  to 
legalize  the  Dominion  unemployment  insurance 
scheme,  mentioned  above  under  Labor  Measures. 
In  invalidating  a  similar  law  adopted  in  1935,  the 
courts  held  that  the  provinces  had  jurisdiction  in 
this  field. 

Empire  Relations.  The  spread  of  the  Euro- 
pean War,  the  entrance  of  Italy,  Japan's  alliance 
with  the  Axis  powers,  and  the  growing  possibility 
of  an  Axis  victory  drew  Canada  into  ever  closer 
relations  with  both  the  mother  country  and  the 
United  States.  The  German  occupation  of  Den- 
mark and  defeat  of  France  brought  the  war  near 
Canadian  shores  as  it  opened  the  possibility  of 
German  control  over  Greenland  and  the  French 
islands  of  St  Pierre  and  Miquelon  Canada  as- 
sumed responsibility  for  the  defense  of  New- 
foundland and  Labrador,  contributed  contingents 
to  the  British  expedition  that  occupied  Iceland, 
and  sent  other  forces  to  relieve  British  and  French 
troops  garrisoning  strategic  territories  in  the 
West  Indies  During  the  German  drive  into 
France,  Prime  Minister  Mackenzie  King  informed 
the  House  of  Commons  June  4  that  the  Dominion 
had  placed  her  naval,  military,  and  air  forces  at 
the  complete  disposal  of  the  British  Government 
On  June  10  Canada's  declaration  of  war  upon 
Italy  was  unanimously  approved  by  Parliament 
The  Prime  Minister  on  June  14  pledged  Canada's 
"unwavering  support"  to  Great  Britain  and  France, 
and  when  France  capitulated  the  pledge  of  soli- 
darity with  Britain  was  reaffirmed  by  the  govern- 
ment and  people 

When  Japan  joined  the  Axis,  the  Canadian 
Government  moved  more  troops  to  the  Pacific 
Coast,  strengthened  its  fortifications  there,  and 
dispatched  contingents  to  aid  the  British  in  the 
defense  of  Empire  positions  in  the  Pacific  and  the 
Far  East  On  October  8  the  export  of  copper  to 
Japan  was  embargoed.  The  shipment  of  other 
strategic  war  metals  to  Japan  previously  had  been 
banned 

Defense  Pact  with  United  States.  On  Au- 
gust 18,  Prime  Minister  Mackenzie  King  met 
President  Roosevelt  at  Heuvelton,  near  Ogdens- 
burg,  N  Y.,  for  a  conference  of  historic  signifi- 
cance They  agreed  to  establish  a  Permanent 
Joint  Board  on  Defense  to  "consider  in  the  broad 
sense  the  defense  of  the  north  half  of  the  Western 


Hemisphere"  and  "commence  immediate  studies 
relating  to  sea,  land,  and  air  problems  including 
personnel  and  material." 

Members  of  the  Board  were  appointed  August 
22.  Those  representing  the  United  States  were 
Mayor  Fiorello  H.  La  Guardia  of  New  York  City , 
Lt.  Gen.  Stanley  D.  Embick,  commanding  the 
Fourth  Corps  Area,  Atlanta,  Ga. ;  Capt  Harry 
W.  Hill,  U  S  N  ,  War  Plans  Division,  Office  of 
Chief  of  Naval  Operations;  Comdr.  Forrest  P. 
Sherman,  U.S  N  ,  Lt.  Col.  Joseph  T.  McNarney, 
U  S.  Army  Air  Corps ;  John  D  Hickerson,  As- 
sistant Chief,  Division  of  European  Affairs,  De- 
partment of  State  The  Canadian  members  were . 
O.  M.  Biggar;  Brigadier  K  Stuart,  Deputy  Chief, 
General  Staff;  Capt  L  W  Murray,  RCN,  Dep- 
uty Chief,  Naval  Staff,  Air  Comdr.  A  A.  L 
Cuffe,  Air  Staff,  Royal  Canadian  Air  Force, 
Hugh  L.  Keenleyside,  Counselor,  Department  of 
External  Affairs. 

The  Board  assembled  in  Ottawa  August  26  to 
commence  its  task  Meetings  in  various  American 
and  Canadian  cities  and  inspections  of  Pacific  and 
Atlantic  Coast  defenses  of  Canada,  the  United 
States,  and  of  Bermuda  followed  On  October  4, 
after  consulting  representatives  of  Newfoundland, 
the  Board  issued  its  first  definitive  report  at 
Halifax,  N  S ,  fixing  defense  responsibilities  of 
both  Canada  and  the  United  States  in  case  of  an 
attempted  invasion  of  either  country 

While  these  studies  were  in  progress,  the  Brit- 
ish Government  on  September  2  authorized  the 
United  States  to  lease  naval  and  air  bases  in  New- 
foundland, Bermuda,  and  the  British  West  Indies 
(see  GRLAT  BRITAIN  under  History,  UNITTD 
STATES)  The  Canadian-American  and  Anglo- 
American  agreements  established  a  new  relation- 
ship between  the  three  countries,  the  far-reaching 
implications  of  which  were  recognized  and  wel- 
comed by  Canadian  opinion  They  were  followed 
by  supplementary  moves  The  Washington  Gov- 
ernment on  September  5  agreed  to  supply  80,000 
rifles,  many  obsolete  tanks,  and  other  large  stocks 
from  its  World  War  reserves  for  use  in  training 
and  equipping  Canadian  armed  foices  An  agree- 
ment facilitating  air  transportation  between  the 
two  countries  was  concluded  September  24  Can- 
ada obtained  a  favored  position  in  purchasing 
vital  machine  tools  in  the  United  States 

On  October  14  Washington  authorized  the  On- 
tario hydroelectric  system  to  take  more  water 
from  the  Niagara  River  for  its  power  needs  at 
Niagara  Falls.  In  return  the  province  was  re- 
ported to  have  withdrawn  its  opposition  to  the 
Canadian- American  St  Lawrence  waterpower  and 
ship  canal  project  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  117). 
Engineering  studies  for  the  installation  of  the 
projected  power  stations  were  started  toward  the 
end  of  1940  On  October  19-20,  the  Earl  of  Ath- 
lone  paid  a  two-day  visit  to  President  Roosevelt 
at  the  latter's  Hyde  Park,  N.Y.,  home.  President 
Roosevelt  announced  December  5  that  he  would 
seek  the  earliest  possible  Senate  approval  of  a 
treaty  for  completion  of  the  St.  Lawrence  seaway 

Commencing  July  1  Canadians  visiting  the 
United  States  were  required  to  have  passports  or 
visas,  due  to  the  "critical  international  situation." 
Thousands  of  visas  were  issued  by  the  United 
States  consular  offices  in  the  Dominion  No  re- 
strictions were  placed  on  United  States  citizens 
entering  Canada.  The  U  S.  Attorney  General, 
Robert  H.  Jackson,  attended  a  conference  in  Ot- 
tawa November  1J-J2,  ^here  proposals  were 


CANADA 


113 


CARNEGIE  ENDOWMENTS 


adopted  for  simplifying  formalities  for  crossing 
the  border  and  preventing  subversive  elements 
from  taking  refuge  alternately  in  Canada  and  the 
United  States  On  December  6  Canada  banned 
imports  of  a  long  list  of  "luxury"  goods  from  the 
United  States  in  order  to  conserve  dollar  exchange 
for  the  purchase  of  American  munitions  and 
other  war  supplies. 

See  INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  ,  LABOR  CONDITIONS  ; 
Music;  NAVAL  PROGRESS,  NEWFOUNDLAND  under 
History,  UNITED  STATES  under  loreicjn  Affairs. 
CANADA,  The  United  Church  of.  The  des- 
ignation applied  to  the  single  body  formed  by  the 
union  in  1925  of  the  Congregational,  Methodist, 
and  Presbyterian  churches  in  Canada,  the  Meth- 
odist churches  of  Newfoundland  and  Bermuda  are 
also  included.  Foreign  mission  work  is  carried  on 
in  Japan,  Korea,  China,  India,  Trinidad,  and  An- 
gola (West  Central  Africa)  In  1939  there  were 
in  Canada,  Newfoundland,  and  Bermuda  7389 
preaching  places  (including  home  missions)  in 
2815  pastoral  charges,  711,712  communicant  mem- 
bers, and  1,768,098  persons  under  pastoral  care 
A  total  amount  of  $11,673,098  was  raised  for  all 
purposes  At  the  Ninth  General  Council  held  in 
Toronto,  Ont.,  in  September,  1940,  the  Rev 
Aubrey  S  Tuttle,  MA,  D  D  ,  was  chosen  mod- 
erator for  the  ensuing  bienmum  Rev  Gordon  A 
Sisco,  MA,  D  D ,  is  general  secretary  Head- 
quarters 421  Wesley  Building,  Toronto,  Ont 

CANALS.  See  AQUEDUCTS  ,  NICARAGUA  under 
History,  PANAMA  CANAL  ZONE,  PANAMA  CA- 
NAL, RECLAMATION,  BURLAU  OF,  SUEZ  CANAL, 
WATERWAYS,  INLAND 

CANARY  ISLANDS.  An  archipelago  off  the 
coast  of  Rio  dc  Oro  in  northwest  Africa  Admin- 
istratively they  form  two  provinces  of  Spain,  and 
are  named  after  their  respective  capitals  (1) 
Las  Palmas  (comprising  the  islands  of  Gran  Ca- 
nana,  Lanzarote,  Fuerteventura,  and  the  islets  of 
Alegranza,  Roque  del  Este,  Roque  del  Oeste, 
Graciosa,  Montana  Clara,  and  Lobos),  area,  1279 
square  miles;  population  (1939),  286,154,  capital, 
Las  Palmas  (83,553  inhabitants)  on  Gran  Ca- 
nana  (2)  Santa  Cruz  de  Tenenfe  (comprising 
the  islands  of  Tenenfe,  Palma,  Gomcra,  and 
Hicrro),  area,  1528  square  miles;  population 
(1939),  350,647;  capital,  Santa  Cruz  de  Tenenfe 
(66,429  inhabitants)  A  decree  expropriating  land 
at  Las  Palmas  for  immediate  construction  of  a 
large  military  base  was  issued  by  General  Franco, 
dictator  of  Spain,  on  Dec  29,  1940  See  SPAIN 
under  History 

CANCER.  See  BIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY  ,  MEDI- 
CINE AND  SURGERY,  PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE, 
SOCIETIES  under  Control  of  Cancer. 

CANNING  INDUSTRY.  See  AGRICULTURAL 
MARKETING  SERVICE,  WAGE  AND  HOUR  DIVISION 
CANTON  ISLAND.  An  atoll  of  the  Phoe- 
nix group  in  the  central  Pacific  which  with  En- 
derbury  Island  of  the  same  group  is  under  the 
joint  control  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  (Anglo-U  S  A  Pact  of  Aug  10,  1938  and 
Notes  of  Apr  6,  1939).  Canton  is  29  miles  in 
circumference  and  has  a  land  mass  of  from  50 
to  600  yards  wide  which  encloses  a  lagoon  of  9 
miles  in  diameter.  Enderbury  is  2  5  miles  long 
and  1  mile  wide  On  Mar.  15  1940,  six  U  S  Navy 
patrol  bombers  landed  safely  at  Canton  after  a 
mass  flight  of  nearly  2000  miles  from  Honolulu 
Canton  is  a  port  of  call  on  Pan  American  Air- 
ways transpacific  air  service  from  Los  Angeles 
to  Auckland,  New  Zealand,  which  commenced  on 


July  12,  1940.  A  complete  air  base,  a  24-room 
hotel,  and  other  facilities  for  passengers  have  been 
established.  In  March,  1938,  several  Hawaiian 
colonists  were  established  on  Canton  and  Ender- 
bury islands  by  the  U  S  Department  of  the  In- 
terior to  maintain  American  sovereignty.  In  Oc- 
tober, 1940,  this  responsibility  was  transferred  to 
the  Pan  American  Airways  staff  and  the  colonists 
were  withdrawn 

CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE.  See  SOUTH  AF- 
RICA, UNION  OF  under  Area  and  Population. 

CAPE  VERDE  ISLANDS.  A  dependency 
of  Portugal,  320  miles  west  of  Cape  Verde,  French 
West  Africa  The  islands  comprise  the  Barla- 
vento  (windward)  group  (Sao  Vicente,  Santo 
Antao,  Sao  Nicolau,  Santa  Luzia,  Sal,  Boavista, 
Branco,  and  Raso)  and  the  Sotavento  (leeward) 
group  (Santiago,  Maio,  Fogo,  Brava,  Rei,  and 
Rombo).  Total  area,  1557  square  miles;  popula- 
tion (Jan.  1,  1938,  est),  165,000  including  6318 
Europeans  Capital,  Praia  (on  Santiago),  6188 
inhabitants  The  chief  products  are  sisal,  castor 
oil,  mustard,  coffee,  oranges,  maize,  tobacco,  salt, 
brandy,  and  hides  Trade  (1938)  imports,  107,- 
089,584  escudos,  exports,  117,754,489  escudos. 
Budget  (1939)  19,452,000  escudos  (escudo  av- 
eraged $00404  for  1939,  $0443  for  1938)  During 
1938  some  4488  ships  aggregating  4,246,395  tons 
cleared  the  ports.  Governor,  Maj  A  G  de  Figuei- 
redo 

CAPITAL  LEVY.  See  FINIAND  and  SWITZ- 
ERLAND under  History 

CAPITAL  MOVEMENTS.  Sec  FINANCIAL 
REVIEW,  BRAZIL,  CHINA,  JAPAN,  and  MANCHOU- 
KUO  under  History 

CARIBBEAN,  Inter-American  Union  of 
the.  See  INTER- AMERICAN  UNION  OF  THE  CARIB- 
BEAN 

CARNEGIE  ENDOWMENTS.  Carnegie 
Corporation  of  New  York.  Established  by  An- 
drew Carnegie  in  1911,  this  corporation  was 
formed  for  the  advancement  and  diffusion  of 
knowledge  and  understanding  among  the  people  of 
the  United  States  and  the  British  Dominions  and 
Colonies  Its  total  endowment  is  approximately 
$135,000,000,  of  which  $10,000,000  is  applicable  in 
the  British  Dominions  and  Colonies  The  annual 
report  of  the  president,  Frederick  P  Keppel, 
showed  that  during  the  fiscal  year  1939-40  the  sum 
of  $4,692,682  was  appropriated  See  BENEFACTIONS  ; 
EDUCATION  ,  LIBRARY  PROGRESS  under  Gifts,  Grants, 
and  Buildings 

The  trustees  of  the  corporation  as  of  Dec  1, 
1940,  were  Thomas  S  Arbuthnot,  W  Randolph 
Burgess,  Vannevar  Bush,  Nicholas  Murray  But- 
ler, Samuel  Harden  Church,  Henry  James,  Walter 
A  Jessup,  Nicholas  Kelley,  Frederick  P.  Keppel, 
Russell  Leffingwell,  Margaret  Carnegie  Miller, 
Frederick  Osborn,  Arthur  W  Page,  and  Ehbu 
Root,  Jr  Officers  of  administration  were :  Freder- 
ick P.  Keppel,  president ,  Robert  M.  Lester,  secre- 
tary; and  Robertson  D  Ward,  treasurer.  Office 
522  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City.  See  ART  MU- 
SEUMS. 

Carnegie  Endowment  for  International 
Peace.  Founded  by  Andrew  Carnegie  in  1910  and 
operated  as  an  unincorporated  association  until 
1929  when  it  was  chartered  under  the  laws  of  the 
State  of  New  York  The  endowment  consists  of  a 
trust  fund  of  $10,000,000,  "the  revenue  of  which," 
in  the  words  of  the  donor  to  his  original  Trustees, 
"is  to  be  administered  by  you  to  hasten  the  aboli- 
tion of  international  war,  the  foulest  blot  upon 


CARNEGIE  ENDOWMENTS 


114 


CARNEGIE  ENDOWMENTS 


our  civilization."  The  work  of  the  Endowment  is 
carried  on  in  three  Divisions:  (1)  Division  of  In- 
tercourse and  Education ;  (2)  Division  of  Interna- 
tional Law;  (3)  Division  of  Economics  and  His- 
tory. 

Under  the  first  Division,  contacts  with  the  pub- 
lic at  large  are  maintained  principally  through  the 
promotion  of  international  visits  of  representative 
groups  and  individuals,  international  exchanges  of 
professors  and  students,  the  organization  of  and 
assistance  to  International  Relations  Clubs  in  col- 
leges and  universities  in  the  United  States  and 
foreign  countries,  and  the  dissemination  of  infor- 
mation in  books,  pamphlets,  and  other  literature 
dealing  with  the  history,  culture,  and  institutions 
of  foreign  countries 

The  work  of  the  second  and  third  Divisions  con- 
cerns mainly  research  and  publication 

The  Division  of  International  Law  has  pub- 
lished several  series  dealing  with  the  development 
of  international  law  and  arbitration,  the  proceed- 
ings of  diplomatic  conferences,  the  application  of 
international  law  in  national  and  international 
courts,  and  specialized  legal  problems  in  the  inter- 
national field  Representatives  of  this  Division 
participated  effectively  in  the  formulation  of  the 
statute  of  the  Permanent  Court  of  International 
Justice  at  The  Hague  It  has  awarded  a  number  of 
fellowships,  and  from  1923  to  1940  it  supported 
the  Academy  of  International  Law  at  The  Hague 
during  the  summer  months  where  courses  were 
given  by  an  international  faculty  and  attended 
each  year  by  between  three  and  four  hundred  stu- 
dents from  all  parts  of  the  world  By  these  and 
various  other  means,  it  has  consistently  sought  to 
improve  the  teaching,  and  promote  a  better  under- 
standing, of  international  law 

The  Division  of  Economics  and  History  pre- 
pared and  published  the  Economic  and  Social  His- 
tory of  the  World  War,  now  completed  in  some 
two  hundred  volumes  It  was  assisted  in  this  work 
by  editorial  boards  in  all  the  countries  seriously 
affected  by  the  World  War  It  has  under  prepara- 
tion and  in  course  of  publication  special  series 
dealing  with  the  Paris  Peace  Conference,  Cana- 
dian-American relations,  international  economic 
relations  of  the  United  States,  and  commercial  and 
tariff  histories  of  the  principal  European  coun- 
tries. 

A  special  library  containing  65,000  volumes  on 
all  aspects  of  public  international  relations  is 
maintained  in  Washington  During  the  fiscal  year 
ended  June  30,  1940,  the  Endowment's  income 
amounted  to  $605,087,  which  included  a  grant  of 
$100,000  from  the  Carnegie  Corporation  of  New 
York  During  this  period,  the  Endowment  expend- 
ed $537,871  The  officers  are  President,  Nicholas 
Murray  Butler;  Vice-President,  John  W.  Davis; 
Secretary,  George  A.  Finch;  Treasurer,  Alanson 
B.  Houghton;  Assistant  Treasurer,  Roland  S 
Morris  Administrative  offices  are  at  700  Jackson 
Place,  Washington,  D.C. 

Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement 
of  Teaching,  The.  A  foundation  established  in 
1905  by  Andrew  Carnegie,  who  placed  an  endow- 
ment of  $10,000,000  in  trust  tor  the  purpose  of  en- 
couraging higher  education  in  the  United  States, 
Canada,  and  Newfoundland.  Following  its  incor- 
poration by  Congress  in  1906,  its  resources  were 
increased  by  a  further  gift  of  $5,000,000  from  Mr. 
Carnegie  in  1908  and  by  appropriations  of  $1,250,- 
000  in  1913  and  $12,000,000  in  1918  from  the  Car- 
negie Corporation  of  New  York.  On  June  30, 


1940,  its  endowments  and  accumulated  reserves 
amounted  to  $24,504,468 

The  foundation  publishes  extensive  annual  re- 
ports, which  deal  with  many  phases  of  the  educa- 
tional process  In  1940  it  was  engaged  upon  vari- 
ous studies  concerning  higher  education  in  the 
United  States,  the  relations  between  secondary 
and  higher  education  in  Pennsylvania,  and  gradu- 
ate instruction  Dr  Walter  A  Jessup  is  president, 
and  Howard  J  Savage,  secretary  and  treasurer 
Headquarters  are  at  522  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 
City. 

Carnegie  Hero  Fund.  A  Fund  established  in 
1904  by  Andrew  Carnegie  to  help  those  who  have 
risked  their  lives  to  an  extraordinary  degree  to 
save  human  life  or  to  aid  dependents  of  rescuers 
who  have  lost  their  lives  in  the  performance  of 
their  acts  The  original  endowment  was  $5,000,- 
000,  the  amount  expended  to  Get  31,  1940,  was 
$6,000,500  Dr  Thomas  S  Arbuthnot  is  President 
and  Mr.  C.  B.  Ebersol  is  Assistant  Secretary  and 
Manager  of  the  Fund,  the  address  of  which  is 
2307  Oliver  Building,  Pittsburgh,  Pa 

Carnegie  Institute,  located  in  Schenley  Park, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  founded  and  endowed  by  Andrew 
Carnegie  in  1896,  comprises  a  group  of  cultural 
and  educational  departments  as  follows:  The  De- 
partment of  Fine  Arts,  with  a  representative  and 
growing  collection  of  modern  painting  and  sculp- 
ture, and  with  the  distinction  of  having  the  only 
annual  international  exhibition  of  paintings  in  the 
world ;  the  Carnegie  Museum,  covering  the  natural 
sciences  and  applied  arts ;  and  the  Carnegie  Music 
Hall,  where  from  October  to  July  free  organ  re- 
citals are  given  on  Saturday  evenings  and  Sunday 
afternoons  The  Music  Hall  is  also  used  by  many 
distinguished  musical  artists  and  lecturers  The 
Carnegie  Institute  building,  a  modification  of  the 
Italian  Renaissance  style,  covers  about  four  acres, 
and  stands  among  the  world's  great  works  of  ar- 
chitecture Thirty-six  prominent  citizens  of  Pitts- 
burgh constitute  the  Board  of  Trustees  The  offi- 
cers of  the  Board  are  as  follows  Samuel  Harden 
Church,  President,  William  Frew,  Vice-Presi- 
dent ;  Augustus  K  Oliver,  Secretary ;  Richard  K 
Mellon,  Treasurer 

Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington.  An  or- 
ganization founded  in  1902  by  Andrew  Carnegie 
"to  encourage  in  the  broadest  and  most  liberal 
manner  investigation,  research,  and  discovery,  and 
the  application  of  knowledge  to  the  improvement 
of  mankind  "  The  Institution  attempts  to  advance 
fundamental  research  in  fields  not  normally  cov- 
ered by  the  activities  of  other  agencies,  and  to  con- 
centrate its  attention  upon  specific  problems,  with 
the  idea  of  shifting  attack  from  time  to  time  to 
meet  the  more  pressing  needs  of  research  as  they 
develop  with  increase  of  knowledge 

Income  on  investments  for  the  year  1940 
amounted  approximately  to  $1,300,000,  and  was 
required  almost  entirely  for  support  and  mainte- 
nance of  major  projects  undertaken  by  the  Institu- 
tion, mostly  in  the  physical  and  biological  sciences. 
Results  of  its  work  were  made  known  through 
technical  and  scientific  journals,  its  yearbook,  and 
a  series  of  scientific  monographs  and  news  re- 
leases. To  date  the  Institution  has  issued  about  750 
monographic  publications 

The  Institution  has  offered  its  services  to  the 
U.S.  Government  for  co-operation  in  the  national 
defense  program,  and  a  number  of  contracts  have 
been  effected  whereby  personnel  and  facilities  are 
being  utilized  in  conduct  of  special  defense  proj- 


CAROLINE  ISLANDS 


115 


CEYLON 


ects,  in  cooperation  with  governmental  agencies. 

W.  Cameron  Forbes  is  Chairman  of  the  Board 
of  Trustees  of  the  Institution,  and  Vannevar  Bush 
is  President.  Other  Trustees  are:  Thomas  Bar- 
hour,  James  F.  Bell,  Robert  Woods  Bliss,  Freder- 
ic A.  Delano,  Homer  L.  Ferguson,  Walter  S  Gif- 
ford,  Herbert  Hoover,  Walter  A  Jessup,  Frank 
B  Jewett,  Charles  A  Lindbergh,  Alfred  L.  Loom- 
is,  Roswell  Miller,  Henry  S.  Morgan,  Stewart 
Paton,  John  J.  Pershing,  Elihu  Root,  Jr.,  Henry 
R.  Shepley,  Richard  P.  Strong,  Charles  P.  Taft, 
James  W.  Wadsworth,  Frederic  C.  Walcott,  and 
Lewis  H.  Weed  Headquarters  Sixteenth  and  P 
Streets,  N.W.,  Washington,  D  C. 

CAROLINE  ISLANDS.  See  JAPANESE  PA- 
CIFIC ISLANDS. 

CARPET  INDUSTRY.  See  RAYON. 

CASTELROSSO  ISLAND.  See  AEGEAN  IS- 
LANDS, ITALIAN 

CATALONIA.  A  region  in  northeastern  Spain, 
consisting  of  the  provinces  of  Barcelona,  Gerona, 
Lerida,  and  Tarragona.  Chief  city,  Barcelona.  See 
SPAIN  under  History 

CATHOLICS.  See  CATHOLIC  WELFARE  CON- 
FERENCE ,  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS  ;  ROMAN 
CATHOLIC  CHURCH  ,  FRANCE,  GERMANY,  IRELAND, 
MEXICO,  POLAND,  and  SPAIN  under  History,  VAT- 
ICAN CJTY 

CATHOLIC  WELFARE  CONFER- 
ENCE, National.  The  official  agency  of  the 
Archbishops  and  Bishops  of  the  American  Hier- 
archy for  the  promotion  of  unity  in  Catholic  work, 
organized  in  1919.  The  "N  C  W.C.,"  as  it  is  now 
popularly  known,  succeeded  the  emergency  Na- 
tional Catholic  War  Council,  one  of  the  seven 
agencies  recognized  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment for  welfare  work  during  the  World  War 

The  Conference  is  administered  by  a  Board  of 
Archbishops  and  Bishops  elected  at  the  annual 
meetings  of  the  Hierarchy  held  in  the  Nation's 
Capital  each  year.  The  personnel  of  the  Board,  as 
elected  November,  1940,  was  as  follows  • 

Most  Rev  Edward  Mooney,  chairman  of  the 
Administrative  Board  and  episcopal  chairman  of 
the  Executive  Department;  Most  Rev.  John  B. 
Peterson,  vice  chairman  of  the  Administrative 
Board  and  episcopal  chairman  of  the  Department 
of  Education ;  Most  Rev.  Francis  J.  Spellman, 
secretary ;  Most  Rev  Francis  C.  Kelley,  treasurer 
and  episcopal  chairman  of  the  Department  of  Lay 
Organizations;  Most  Rev.  John  Gregory  Murray, 
episcopal  chairman,  Department  of  Catholic  Ac- 
tion Study;  Most  Rev.  Hugh  C.  Boyle,  Legal 
Department;  Most  Rev.  Edwin  V.  O'Hara,  So- 
cial Action  Department;  Most  Rev.  John  Mark 
Gannon,  Press  Department;  Most  Rev  John  A 
Duffy,  Department  of  Youth;  and  Most  Rev 
John  T.  McNicholas,  O.P  ,  member  of  the  Board 
without  portfolio.  Right  Rev.  Msgr.  Michael  J. 
Ready  is  General  Secretary  and  Rev.  Howard  J. 
Carroll,  Assistant  General  Secretary. 

The  National  Catholic  Welfare  Conference  op- 
erates through  the  above-mentioned  Departments 
(see  1939  YEAR  BOOK  for  details).  The  Depart- 
ment of  Youth  was  newly  set  up  in  1940.  It  fa- 
cilitates exchange  of  information  regarding  the 
philosophy,  organization,  and  program-content  of 
Catholic  youth  organizations;  promotes  the  Na- 
tional Catholic  Youth  Council,  the  federating 
agency  for  all  existing,  approved  Catholic  youth 
groups;  contacts  and  evaluates  national  govern- 
mental and  non-governmental  youth  organizations 
and  youth  servicing  organizations. 


At  their  22d  annual  meeting,  held  in  Washing- 
ton, D.C ,  Nov.  13-14,  1940,  the  Archbishops  and 
Bishops  of  the  United  States  took  action  on  many 
important  matters.  They  received  from  Pope  Pius 
XII  a  message  conveying  as  a  pledge  of  abundant 
divine  grace  and  guidance  Paternal  Apostolic 
Benediction  upon  the  assembly,  and  cabled  a  mes- 
sage of  filial  homage  to  His  Holiness.  They  also 
called  attention  to  the  appeal  of  Pope  Pius  XII 
for  universal  prayers  for  peace  on  November  24 
and,  taking  cognizance  of  the  Nation's  peacetime 
efforts  to  defend  American  institutions,  asked  the 
Faithful  "to  give  themselves  unstintingly"  to  their 
Country's  "defense  and  its  lasting  endurance  and 
welfare."  A  plan  was  adopted  looking  to  the  co- 
ordination of  Catholic  interests  and  activities 
stemming  from  the  Nation's  program  for  pre- 
paredness and  the  unification  of  all  Catholic  relief 
and  refugee  work.  More  than  $1,200,000  was  re- 
ported as  provided  for  the  relief  of  suffering 
peoples  abroad.  Close  co-operation  and  encourage- 
ment was  given  to  the  U.S  Committee  for  the 
Care  of  Refugee  Children  in  its  appeal  for  finan- 
cial support.  The  American  Board  of  Catholic 
Missions  was  reorganized,  and  a  new  National 
Catholic  Community  Service  was  set  up,  com- 
posed of  the  Administrative  Board  and  the  Mili- 
tary Vicar  of  the  Army  and  Navy  Ordmariate 
This  service  was  calculated  to  give  life  to  the 
Bishops'  pledge  of  loyalty  to  our  Government  and 
the  basic  ideals  of  the  American  Republic  The 
Bishops'  meeting  also  authorized  erection  of  a 
new  headquarters,  indorsed  a  declaration  of  stand- 
ards for  religious  work  in  penal  and  correctional 
institutions,  and  authorized  observance  of  "Bible 
Day"  in  the  spring  of  1941 

CATTLE.  See  DAIRYING,  LIVESTOCK;  VET- 
ERINARY MEDICINE;  and  the  countries  under  Pro- 
duction 

CAYMAN  ISLANDS.  See  under  JAMAICA 

CCC.  Civilian  Conservation  Corps  (qv);  or, 
sometimes,  Commodity  Credit  Corporation  (qv.) 

CELEBES.  See  NETHERLANDS  INDIES  under 
Area  and  Population 

CELEBRATIONS.  Sec  FAIRS,  EXPOSITIONS, 
AND  CELEHBATIONS 

CENSORSHIP.  See  NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAGA- 
ZINES; RADIO,  RADIO  PROGRAMS,  ROMAN  CATHO- 
LIC CHURCH;  TELEGRAPHY,  and  the  following 
countries  under  History  AUSTRALIA  ,  BELGIUM  , 
BRAZIL;  CANADA;  CHILE;  DENMARK;  FRANCE, 
GREAT  BRITAIN,  IRELAND,  NETHERLANDS;  SOUTH 
AFRICA  ;  SWITZERI  AND  See  also  articles  on  litera- 
ture, as  SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE. 

CENSUS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 
Sixteenth.  See  POPULATION 

CENTRAL  AMERICA.  See  BRITISH  HON- 
DURAS, COSTA  RICA,  GUATEMALA,  HONDURAS,  NIC- 
ARAGUA, PANAMA,  and  SALVADOR,  EL. 

CENTRAL  BANKING  POLICIES.  See 
INTERNATIONAL  BANKING  AND  FINANCE 

CERAMICS.  See  SCULPTURE. 

CEREALS.  See  AGRICULTURE  ;  CORN,  WHEAT, 
OATS,  ETC, 

CEYLON.  A  self-governing  insular  colony  of 
Great  Britain.  Area,  25,332  square  miles,  popu- 
lation (1938),  5,780,000.  Vital  statistics  (1938)  . 
208,389  births,  122,299  deaths,  and  35,466  mar- 
riages. Buddhism  and  Hinduism  are  the  principal 
religions.  Chief  cities :  Colombo,  the  capital,  310,- 
000  inhabitants  in  1936;  Jaffna,  47,700;  Kandy, 
40,100;  and  Galle,  38,000.  Education  (1938): 


CEYLON 


116 


CHEMISTRY 


792,761  students  (average  attendance)  m  the  5952 
primary  and  secondary  schools. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  chief  agricul- 
tural crops  are  tea  (228,539,767  Ib.  exported  in 
1939),  rubber  (62,400  metric  tons  in  1939),  copra, 
rice,  coir,  cinnamon,  cacao,  tobacco,  and  citronella 
Livestock  (1938)  1,670,400  cattle,  232,500  goats, 
62,500  sheep,  36,700  swine,  and  1350  horses  There 
were  160  plumbago  mines  working  at  the  end  of 
1938  and  75,397  tons  were  exported  Ilmenite  and 
monazite  exist  in  commercial  quantities.  Small 
gems  such  as  rubies,  moonstones,  cat's-eyes,  and 
sapphires  are  found  in  the  quarries.  Trade  (1939) 
imports,  Rs242,369,500 ,  exports  (including  re- 
exports of  Ks22,726,262),  Rs326,888,229  (tea, 
Rsl88,029,000,  rubber,  Rs67,564,000 ,  coconut 
products,  Rs35,596,000).  The  rupee  averaged 
$0,3328  for  1939. 

Communications.  In  1938  there  were  17,806 
miles  of  highways  and  951  miles  of  railways  (in- 
cluding 117  miles  of  narrow  gauge).  During  the 
same  year,  shipping  aggregating  12,123,097  tons 
cleared  the  ports. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  •  (1939-40)  revenue, 
Rsl  17, 426,650,  expenditure,  Rs  128,952,900.  The 
net  public  debt  on  Sept.  30,  1938,  totaled  Rs214,- 
597,525.  In  order  to  meet  a  deficit  of  Rs9,464,637 
in  the  1940-41  budget,  increases  were  made  in 
income  tax,  sugar  tax,  and  gasoline  duty. 

Government.  The  administration  is  headed  by 
a  governor  who  is  assisted  by  a  state  council  of 
61  members  (50  elected  on  a  territorial  basis,  8 
nominated  unofficial,  and  3  officers  of  state) 
This  state  council,  which  deals  with  administrative 
as  well  as  legislative  matters,  is  divided  into  7 
executive  committees  in  charge  of  various  sub- 
jects, and  the  chairmen  of  these  committees  are 
ministers  for  the  subject  concerned  Governor, 
Sir  Andrew  Caldecott  (appointed  Jan  19,  1937). 

Maldive  Archipelago.  A  dependency  of  Cey- 
lon Area,  115  square  miles,  population  (1931 
census),  over  79,000  Moslems.  Capital,  Male. 

History.  For  the  first  time  in  Ceylon's  history 
a  wave  of  strikes  and  riots  occurred  in  1939-40 
among  Indian  laborers  on  the  estates  of  Ceylon 
planters  The  situation  was  variously  attributed 
to  a  newly  imposed  ban  on  the  immigration  of 
Indian  laborers  into  Ceylon,  the  rapid  rise  in  the 
cost  of  living  resulting  from  the  war,  and  "Com- 
munist agitation"  among  newly  enfranchised  and 
largely  illiterate  estate  laborers  In  March  the 
planters  decided  to  pay  a  monthly  bonus  to  regular 
workers  on  estates  over  and  above  the  fixed  wage 
scale,  and  later  negotiations  were  opened  with 
the  Government  of  India  for  an  adjustment  of 
immigration  and  other  issues  The  planters  finally 
agreed  to  recognize  the  laborers'  right  to  form 
unions  and  bargain  collectively 

During  a  strike  riot  on  the  Mooloya  estate  early 
in  the  year,  police  shot  one  of  the  laborers  and 
arrested  their  ringleaders.  At  the  request  of  the 
State  Council,  the  Governor  appointed  a  com- 
mission to  investigate  the  riot  The  Minister  of 
Home  Affairs  requested  the  Inspector-General  of 
Police  to  postpone  trial  of  the  strike  leaders  until 
the  commission  had  submitted  its  findings.  When 
the  Inspector-General  refused  and  was  supported 
by  the  Governor,  all  the  ministers  resigned  in 
protest  at  the  end  of  February.  Shortly  afterwards 
the  Governor  issued  a  stern  warning  of  the  ille- 
gality of  seeking  "to  use  either  labor  unions  or 
political  associations  as  an  engine  of  incitement 
to  subversion  of  established  law  and  order  " 


The  planters  and  other  European  interests  ex- 
pressed deep  dissatisfaction  with  recently  enacted 
liberal  constitutional  reforms  and  in  a  joint  mem- 
orandum asked  the  appointment  of  a  Royal  Com- 
mission to  study  the  constitutional  problem  As  a 
result  of  their  stand,  the  election  scheduled  for 
not  later  than  January,  1941,  was  ordered  post- 
poned for  two  years. 

CHACO.  See  PARAGUAY  under  Area  and  Pop- 
ulation ,  BOLIVIA  and  PARAGUAY  under  History. 

CHAD.  See  FRENCH  EQUATORIAL  AFRICA. 

CHAHAR.  See  CHINA  under  Area  and  Popu- 
lation. 

CHAIN  STORES.  See  MARKETING. 

CHANNEL  ISLANDS.  See  GREAT  BRITAIN 
under  Area  and  Population  and  History. 

CHARITIES.  See  BENEFACTIONS 

CHECKERS.  The  year  1940  was  more  than 
ordinarily  quiet  in  the  quarters  patronized  by  lovers 
and  principals  of  checker  games  No  national  com- 
petitions were  held,  but  tournaments  of  some  im- 
portance were  staged  under  the  auspices  of  the 
New  York  State  Checkers  Association  and  the 
Southern  Checkers  Association 

The  former,  at  Schenectady,  N.Y  ,  was  duly  won 
by  William  F  Ryan  of  New  York  City,  who  is 
also  the  champion  of  the  National  Checkers  As- 
sociation The  latter  contest,  held  at  Henderson- 
ville,  N  C ,  was  won  by  Basil  Case  of  Nashville, 
Tenn. 

Asa  W  Long  of  Toledo,  O  ,  continued  as  cham- 
pion of  the  American  Checkers  Association,  the 
older  of  the  two  national  checker  organizations, 
and  thus  was  considered  by  many  to  be  the  world's 
champion 

CHEESE.  See  DAIRYING 

CHEKIANG.  See  CHINA  under  Area  and 
Population 

CHEMISTRY.  Superpressures,  a  revolution- 
ary microscope  for  seeing  molecules,  more  infor- 
mation on  tapping  the  nuclear  energy  of  uranium, 
another  synthetic  vitamin,  elements  No  93  and  up , 
these  are  some  chemical  milestones  in  1940 

Apparatus.  Enormous  pressures  were  achieved 
during  the  year.  The  Aluminum  Company  of 
America  built  a  machine  for  actual  plant  produc- 
tion which  can  apply  pressures  of  three  million 
pounds  per  square  inch  and  yet  is  so  sensitive  that 
it  can  crush  a  watch  crystal  without  stopping  the 
watch  Bndgman  found  that  record  pressures  of 
three  and  one-half  million  pounds  did  not  convert 
graphite  into  diamond  at  room  temperature  but 
made  the  diamond-hard  alloy,  Carboloy,  plastic  In 
April  Goranson  and  Johnson  of  the  Carnegie  In- 
stitute of  Washington  described  a  pressure  appa- 
ratus. Oil  at  300,000  Ib  pressure  between  two  con- 
centric chambers  imparted  a  strength  of  at  least 
ten  times  that  amount  to  the  inner  steel  chamber  ; 
and  with  a  "cascade"  of  such  chambers,  pressures 
would  be  limited  only  by  the  plastic  flow  of  steel, 
something  which  could  only  be  guessed.  The  ap- 
paratus will  duplicate  pressures  750  miles  inside 
the  earth 

At  its  fortieth  anniversary,  the  General  Electric 
Company  Research  Laboratories  dedicated  the  first 
industrial  million-volt  X-ray  apparatus.  Three  sim- 
ilar machines  are  already  in  use  in  hospitals. 

Clark  and  Shafer  exhibited  photomicrographs 
taken  of  X-ray  pictures  of  metals.  The  X-rays  pass 
through  the  specimen,  revealing  internal  irregu- 
larities of  structure,  and  obviating  the  usually  care- 
ful preparation  and  polishing  of  the  metal  surface 
A  spectrophotometer  described  by  G  R.  Harrison 


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117 


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which  automatically  graphs  the  curves  and  ana- 
lyzes the  spectrum  in  less  than  two  minutes  will 
undoubtedly  find  wide  application  in  studying  al- 
loys and  for  special  problems  such  as  following 
the  rates  of  biochemical  reactions 

An  ordinary  X-ray  tube  operates  at  less  than  an 
ampere  C  M  Slack  of  the  Westmghouse  Lamp 
Division  has  devised  a  special  tube  operating  at 
2000  amperes,  making  possible  exposures  short 
enough  to  photograph  the  passage  of  a  bullet 
through  wood  See  also  PHOTOGRAPHY,  under  Ap- 
plied and  Scientific  Photography 

Archaeology.  The  reading  and  photographing 
of  cuneiform  tablets  of  ancient  Babylonia  are  fa- 
cilitated by  dusting  the  surface  with  powdered  am- 
monium chloride,  according  to  N  C  Debevoise 

To  assist  artists  in  choosing  durable  oil  paints 
the  National  Bureau  of  Standards  is  classifying 
artist's  paints  as  regards  color,  quality,  durability, 
and  nomenclature 

The  world's  oldest  steel  weapon,  dating  from 
1500  BC.,  a  battle-axe  mounted  in  a  beautifully 
ornamented  bronze  socket,  was  unearthed  by  the 
French  Archaeological  Expedition  to  northern 
Syria 

Astronomy.  Cunningham's  comet  which  made 
its  appearance  £t  the  end  of  this  year  contains 
hydrogen  in  its  atmosphere  This  element  has  never 
before  been  associated  with  comets 

Researches  at  the  Mount  Wilson  Observatory 
indicate  that  the  compounds  CI1  and  CN  exist  in 
interstellar  space  Hitherto  elements  only,  such  as 
calcium,  sodium,  potassium,  arid  titanium  had  been 
detected 

"Forbidden  lines"  in  the  spectrum  is  one  of  the 
astronomer's  great  gifts  to  the  chemist  For  ex- 
ample, the  gaseous  metallic  jackets  surrounding 
the  stars  at  temperatures  well  above  the  boiling 
point  of  iron  emit  forbidden  lines  which  are  not 
attainable  on  the  earth ,  and  a  study  of  them  con- 
tributes to  our  understanding  of  the  structure  of 
metallic  atoms  Similar  forbidden  lines  are  found 
in  the  northern  lights,  a  phenomenon  which  was 
reproduced  this  year  by  J  Kaplan  who  passed  an 
electric  discharge  through  nitrogen  gas  at  a  few 
millimeters  of  pressure  Other  forbidden  lines  of 
oxygen  were  pronounced  responsible  for  the  spec- 
tral lines  previously  assigned  to  the  hypothetical 
element  "ncbulum"  in  the  sun 

Atomic  Energy.  The  public  became  speedily 
aware  of  the  significance  of  uranium  fission  as  an 
inexhaustible  source  of  energy  for  man  Recogni- 
tion of  uranium  235  as  the  source  of  this  energy, 
and  current  progress  on  this  vital  problem  is  re- 
ported under  PHYSICS  Other  nuclear  research  is 
reviewed  under  this  same  heading. 

Electron  Microscope.  The  scientist  today 
stands  at  the  threshold  of  a  vast  new  world  of 
chemistry  opened  up  by  the  electron  microscope 
(1938  YEAR  BOOK,  pages  136,  622).  The  ordinary 
microscope  reveals  clusters  of  several  thousand 
molecules,  and  its  resolving  power  can  be  increased 
by  using  shorter  wave  lengths  of  light.  Electrons 
behave  like  light  of  very  short  wave-length ,  and 
therefore,  in  1926  when  E.  Busch  showed  that  a 
beam  of  electrons  can  be  focused  by  electric  and 
magnetic  lenses,  just  as  a  light-wave  is  focused 
with  a  glass  lens,  many  scientists  turned  their  en- 
ergies into  developing  a  microscope  using  electrons 
E>  R??k ,( W'  X:  Zworyldn  (1929),  and  Davis- 
s?n  (194,{)»  described  electrostatic  focusing  ma- 
chines. The  first  compound  magnetic-lens  micro- 
scope was  built  by  Ruska  (1932)  in  Germany ;  and 


in  1934  L  Marton  at  the  University  of  Brussels 
used  a  similar  machine  in  biological  studies  Other 
machines  have  been  erected  at  Toronto  by  Burton, 
Hillier,  and  Prebus,  at  the  Eastman  Kodak  Lab- 
oratories by  Prebus,  for  Siemens  and  Halske  in 
Berlin,  by  Ruska,  van  Ardenne,  and  Bruechc ,  and 
in  Metropolitan-Vickers,  England,  by  Martin 

Zworykm,  Hillier,  Marton,  and  Vance,  the  latter 
designing  the  intricate  electrical  circuits,  developed 
a  machine  in  the  RCA  laboratories  at  Camden, 
New  Jersey,  which  was  put  in  commercial  produc- 
tion at  a  price  of  $9500  in  July,  1940.  The  first 
instrument  was  delivered  in  December  to  the  Amer- 
ican Cyanamid  Company  for  research  on  pigments 
in  the  paper  industry 

The  electron  microscope  differs  from  the  ordi- 
nary microscope  in  that  it  focuses  electrons  with 
magnetic  lenses  instead  of  focusing  visible  light 
with  glass  lenses  The  electrons  are  generated  from 
a  tungsten  filament,  accelerated  to  30,000-60,000 
volts  in  an  electric  field,  and  focused  upon  the 
sample  just  as  light  is  focused  above  the  stage  of 
an  ordinary  microscope  The  object— for  example 
germs  too  small  to  be  studied  in  an  ordinary  mi- 
croscope— is  mounted  in  a  film  of  nitrocellulose  a 
millionth  of  an  inch  thick  supported  on  a  fine  wire 
cloth  The  RCA  instrument  is  so  simplified  that  it 
is  almost  automatic  Samples  may  be  examined  in 
rapid  succession,  for  although  the  entire  apparatus 
must  be  evacuated  to  10~*  mm  pressure,  air-locks 
are  provided  so  that  air  is  admitted  to  only  a  small 
isolated  chamber  in  the  apparatus  when  changing 
samples  The  electrons  pass  through  the  sample, 
and  through  a  magnetic  field  to  a  fluorescent  screen 
where  an  image  100  times  the  size  of  the  original 
object  is  formed  This  image  is  further  magnified 
to  20,000  diameters  by  a  projection  coil,  similar 
to  that  used  in  television  The  picture  so  obtained 
is  called  an  electron  micrograph,  to  distinguish  it 
from  photographs  taken  with  photons  Portions  of 
the  electron  micrograph  may  be  photographically 
enlarged  to  100,000  diameters  Magnifications  great- 
er than  this  do  not  improve  the  resolution  In  con- 
trast, the  electron  microscope  at  100,000  diameters 
gives  as  good  resolution  as  the  ordinary  micro- 
scope gives  with  magnifications  of  1500  An  ordi- 
nary microscope  can  examine  particles  1500  ang- 
stroms in  diameter;  the  electron  microscope  can 
go  down  to  30  angstroms  Since  an  atom  is  of  the 
order  of  two  or  three  angstroms,  the  present  in- 
strument is  on  the  threshold  of  the  world  of  atoms 
It  readily  photographs  individual  molecules  of 
large  proteins,  such  as  the  tobacco  mosaic  virus 

Some  excellent  work  has  come  from  Ruska,  v 
Ardenne,  and  other  German  workers  this  year 
They  investigated  mine  dusts,  for  health  protec- 
tion. Ruska  examined  the  adsorption  of  red  col- 
loidal gold  on  tobacco  mosaic  virus,  showing  that 
the  gold  sol  is  held  so  tightly  below  pH  4  5  that 
it  does  not  aggregate,  as  it  normally  does,  upon  the 
addition  of  sodium  chloride  Micrographs  of  giant 
protein  molecules  were  also  made,  including  the 
single  molecules  of  hemocyanin  from  the  blood  of 
mollusks,  and  edestin  particles  from  vegetable  oils 

Stuart  Mudd  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
collaborating  with  the  RCA  Laboratories,  studied 
the  structures  of  a  number  of  germ  cells  too  tiny 
to  be  examined  under  the  ordinary  compound-mi- 
croscope. He  reported  continuous  rigid  membranes 
binding  streptococcus  germs  in  long  chains,  the 
structure  of  the  long  curved  flagellae  on  typhoid 
germs,  and  curious  internal  structure  in  whooping- 
cough  germs.  H  Morton  and  F.  Anderson  reported 


CHEMISTRY 


118 


CHEMISTRY 


the  production  of  tellurium  crystals  by  the  reduc- 
tion of  telluntes  within  diphtheria  bacilli,  some  of 
the  crystals  piercing  the  walls  of  the  bacilli.  W.  H. 
Stanley  and  F.  Anderson  micrographed  tobacco 
mosaic  virus. 

Many  industrial  products  are  yielding  the  secrets 
of  their  molecular  structure  to  the  electron  micro- 
scope •  synthetic  fibers  and  plastics,  soap  films  and 
colloidal  carbon,  silver  and  gold  sols.  Electron  mi- 
croscopes have  been  used  both  in  Germany  and  in 
the  United  States  to  study  the  formation  of  the 
photographic  image  and  the  mechanism  of  grain- 
development,  with  a  view  toward  producing  fine- 
grain  films  Under  this  enhanced  magnification  it 
is  seen  that  the  so-called  silver  "gram"  looks  more 
like  a  clump  of  seaweed  that  a  nugget  or  grain. 

The  scientist  stands  before  a  new,  unexplored 
field  of  molecular  research 

M.  Ploke  of  Dresden  has  assigned  to  Zeiss  Ikon 
A.-G.  an  electron  microscope  in  which  the  electron 
beam  is  generated  by  the  object  itself.  X-rays  are 
allowed  to  impinge  upon  the  sample,  and  the  elec- 
trons which  are  thereby  emitted  are  focused  upon 
a  television  transmitting  surface,  where  they  may 
be  subsequently  amplified  The  object  does  not  need 
to  be  evacuated  as  in  the  electron  microscope  Ploke 
also  described  a  microscope  using  X-rays  instead 
of  visible  light 

Isotopes.  Valley  and  Anderson  found  that  the 
abundance  of  the  stable  isotopes  of  iron  are  the 
same  in  meteontic  and  terrestrial  iron 

Concentration  of  heavy  isotopes  continues.  Urey 
described  the  concentration  of  heavy  sulphur,  84S 
by  interchange  between  sulphur  dioxide  gas  and 
a  water  solution  of  sodium  bisulfite,  at  a  cost  of 
$1500  per  oz.  It  is  to  be  used  in  tracing  the  course 
of  sulphur  compounds  through  the  body.  Urey  has 
also  employed  exchange  reactions  using  the  zeo- 
lites In  a  patent  covering  this  use  for  zeolites  with 
a  view  to  the  possibility  of  concentrating  uranium 
235  for  tapping  atomic  energy  (see  PHYSICS),  J. 
G.  Dean  of  the  Permutit  Company  revealed  how 
heavy  potassium,  lithium,  and  nitrogen  can  be  ob- 
tained by  such  interchange  reactions 

Radioactive  isotopes  produced  in  the  cyclotron 
have  been  used  for  a  number  of  biological  studies 
this  year.  Radioactive  calcium  in  the  bones  and 
teeth  was  studied  at  California  The  distribution 
of  radioactive  phosphorus  in  various  portions  of 
the  brain  was  studied  by  Chaikoff,  Fries,  and 
Changus;  the  greatest  drop  in  the  concentration 
of  phosphorus  occurs  in  the  spinal  column  soon 
after  birth.  Kistiakpwsky  and  Cramer  prepared 
radioactive  lactic  acid  containing  UC  in  the  car- 
boxylic  position.  Radioactivity  was  sufficiently 
strong  to  follow  the  course  of  the  lactic  acid  in 
biological  experiments  for  five  hours 

With  their  million-volt  X-ray  machine,  M.I  T. 
scientists  have  produced  three  new  radioactive 
forms  of  indium.  One  of  these  isotopes  has  a  half- 
Hfe  of  four  hours,  making  it  suitable  for  medical 
use;  but  another  has  a  half -life  of  only  12  seconds. 
Radioactive  yttrium  made  in  the  cyclotron  from 
strontium  has  a  half-life>  of  100  days,  considerably 
longer  than  most  artificial  radioactive  substances 
This  will  make  it  suitable  as  a  source  of  gamma 
rays  in  the  laboratory.  In  fact,  C  Pecher  has  al- 
ready made  a  quantity  of  it  equivalent  to  25  milli- 
grams of  radium  for  use  in  taking  gamma-ray 
(X-ray)  photographs  of  airplane  parts  to  discover 
internal  defects. 

Radioactive  14C  was  obtained  by  bombarding 
ammonium  nitrate  m  the  cyclotron.  This  may  prove 


an  important  material,  since  it  has  a  half -life  of 
1000  years,  compared  with  radium,  1590  years ;  and 
therefore  it  has  a  radiation  activity  a  little  greater 
than  radium. 

Molecular  Films.  The  use  of  thin  films  to 
eliminate  glare  (1939  YEAR  BOOK,  pages  123,  322) 
has  found  its  way  into  the  lens  industry.  The  cam- 
era and  projection  lenses  are  etched  on  their  ex- 
posed outer  surfaces  and  fluoride-coated  on  their 
inner  surfaces. 

Langmuir  demonstrated  a  number  of  interesting 
properties  of  mono-layers  on  water.  A  thin  sheet 
of  plastic  held  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  above  a  tray 
of  water  became  limp  from  the  water  vapor  If  a 
monomolecular  layer  of  tricosanic  acid  were  first 
spread  upon  the  water,  however,  the  plastic  re- 
mained rigid  since  the  mono-layer  kept  the  water 
from  evaporating.  In  another  experiment  a  mono- 
layer  of  oleic  acid  extinguished  a  tray  of  burning 
ether-and-water,  not  because  it  kept  oxygen  away, 
but  because  it  prevented  rapid  motion  bringing 
fresh  ether  to  the  surface.  Also,  Langmuir  showed 
how  a  colored  mono-layer  of  olive-oil  on  water 
became  invisible  as  the  oil  aged,  and  suggested  a 
quick  method  for  measuring  the  extent  to  which 
the  oil  is  oxidized  by  measuring  the  amount  of  new 
oil  which  must  be  added  to  restore  the  color  of 
the  films 

W  D  Harkins  described  the  peculiarities  of 
two-dimensional  systems  on  water  As  a  film  of 
pentadecylic  acid  was  compressed,  it  contracted 
from  a  gas  to  a  highly  compressible  liquid,  and 
finally  to  an  incompressible  solid,  all  in  two-dimen- 
sions There  was  no  heat  of  fusion  for  this  peculiar 
two-dimensional  solid ;  but  the  heat  of  expansion 
of  the  two-dimensional  liquid  was  very  great 

New  Substances.  No  longer  are  there  92  ele- 
ments This  has  often  been  falsely  heralded ;  but 
with  some  authority  in  the  Physical  Review  for 
June,  1940,  McMillan  and  Abelson  confirmed  the 
experiments  of  Fermi  made  several  years  ago  in 
discovering  element  93  2Q828U  bombarded  with  25- 
volt  neutrons  produced  29^U  which  is  radioactive, 
half-life  23  minutes  The  disintegration  product  is 
^  or  element  number  93  m  the  periodic  table  This 
is  the  reaction  discovered  by  Fermi  in  his  original 
experiments  with  uranium  which  led  to  the  tapping 
of  nuclear  energy  (see  PHYSICS,  under  Nuclear 
Energy)  Element  20329  is  itself  radioactive,  with  a 
half -life  of  2  3  days ,  and  probably  disintegrates 
into  another  new  element  2£9  Still  other  heavier 
elements  may  be  discovered  as  research  progresses 
In  the  same  issue  of  Physical  Review  a  group  of 
Japanese  scientists  also  announced  element  number 
93  from  uranium  bombarded  with  fast  neutrons. 

Lane,  reporting  for  Wahl  of  Helsmgfors,  postu- 
lated the  existence  of  a  fourth  series  of  radioactive 
substances  present  in  very  old  geological  minerals, 
of  which  an  element  of  weight  237  is  a  member. 

Cut  off  from  supplies  of  amino-acids  from  Ger- 
many and  Switzerland,  laboratories  and  medical 
clinics  have  increased  their  demand  for  those  of 
the  23  rare  amino-acids  manufactured  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  California.  Manufactured  from  glue, 
human  hair,  cottage  cheese,  dried  blood,  etc.,  some 
of  them  so  difficult  to  prepare  that  they  cost  $1000 
a  lb.,  these  rare  acids  are  in  constant  demand  for 
medical  research  on  baldness,  cancer,  muscular  dis- 
eases, and  gastric  ulcers;  also  as  flavorings  for 
soups  and  gravies. 


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119 


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Anpjther  vitamin,  the  eighth  to  be  synthesized  by 
chemists,  was  announced  by  the  Merck  Labora- 
tories. Named  pantothenic  acid,  from  the  Greek 
meaning  "everywhere,"  this  new  product  is  uni- 
versally present  in  animal  tissue,  including  man. 
R.  J.  Williams  partially  synthesized  it  in  1933  and 
Elvehjem  identified  it  with  the  chicken  antiskin- 
infection  factor.  Collaboration  between  Williams 
and  the  Merck  Laboratories  led  to  the  present  ac- 
complishment. 

One  of  the  most  important  food-forming  proces- 
ses in  nature  has  been  duplicated  this  year  in  the 
Cambridge  Laboratories  by  C.  S  Hanes.  Glucose 
containing  phosphorus  was  transformed  into  starch 
under  the  action  of  phosphorylase  enzyme.  The 
synthetic  starch  shows  the  usual  reactions  of  natu- 
lal  starch:  grain-structure,  iodine  blue  reaction, 
and  reversion  to  glucose  upon  acid  hydrolysis 
Twenty  grams  of  the  new  synthetic  starch  has 
been  prepared. 

Research  Activity.  As  a  rough  index  of  the 
research  activity  in  different  countries,  the  Ameri- 
can Chemical  Society  released  interesting  statistics 
on  the  number  of  articles  selected  for  Chemical 
Abstracts  during  the  past  quarter-century.  The 
figures  for  the  number  of  abstracts  for  the  years 
1913,  1929,  and  1939  respectively  are  for  the  United 
States,  3940,  7498,  and  12,615 ;  for  Germany,  6539, 
7841,  and  8503 ,  for  the  British  Empire,  2741,  3929, 
and  6423  of  which  4776  came  from  Great  Britain, 
for  Russia  474,  990,  and  5063,  for  France  2481, 
2045,  and  4142;  and  for  Japan  71,  1079,  and  2029 
Most  significant  changes  in  these  figures,  calcu- 
lated as  percentage  of  abstracts  from  each  country, 
is  the  drop  from  1913  to  1939  by  Germany  from 
184  to  34  4 ;  and  the  rise  by  Russia  from  2  5  to 
19  9  Most  countries  did  not  change  considerably 
percentage-wise,  the  figures  for  1939  being  the 
United  States  27  5,  the  British  Empire  14  4,  and 
France  13  0  Prewar  suppression  of  publications 
on  important  research  may  well  impair  the  signifi- 
cance of  these  figures,  however 

Awards  and  Medals.  The  American  Chemical 
Society  Award  in  Pure  Chemistry  for  1940  went 
to  L  O  Brockway  for  his  electron  diffraction 
studies  of  molecular  structure  The  $1000  was  pro- 
vided by  Alpha  Chi  Sigma  E  G  Ball  received  the 
Eli  Lilly  and  Company  Award  in  Biological  Chem- 
istry for  his  studies  of  the  oxidation-reduction 
properties  of  cell  pigments,  adrenaline,  Vitamins 
C  and  Ba,  and  nicotmic  acid  amide  Some  of  his 
best  work  has  been  on  the  enzyme  xanthine  oxi- 
dase.  This  enzyme  brings  about  the  oxidation  of 
punnes  to  uric  acid ;  and  during  the  research  Ball 
obtained  a  preparation  related  to  Vitamin  B»,  thus 
establishing  another  role  for  Vitamin  B»  in  bio- 
logical oxidations 

Franklin  Institute  awards  were  as  follows  the 
Longstreth  Medal  to  L  Godowsky  and  L.  Mannes 
for  development  of  Kodachrome,  and  to  G  Slayter 
for  improved  methods  of  spun  and  blown  glass 
filaments ,  the  Levy  Medal  to  C.  Rosenblum  and 
J  Flagg  for  their  paper  on  artificial  radioactive 
indicators;  the  Cresson  Medal  to  F.  Becket  for 
process  development  of  low  carbon  ferroalloys, 
and  to  R.  R.  Williams  for  his  researches  on  Vita- 
min Bi;  and  the  Franklin  Medal  to  Leo  Bakeland 
for  his  well-known  plastic. 

R.  E.  Gibson  received  the  Hillebrand  Prize 
Award  for  his  work  on  the  behavior  of  solutions 
under  high  pressures.  To  W  H.  Sebrell  for  his 
discovery  of  the  cure  for  the  sometimes  blinding 
disease  keratitis,  and  to  a  five-man  team  at  the 


Merck  Laboratories,  who  synthesized  Vitamin  Be, 
went  the  Mead,  Johnson  and  Company  $1000  award 
for  advances  in  the  knowledge  of  the  Vitamin  B 
complex  Linus  Hauling  has  been  announced  as  the 
1941  Nichols  Medalist,  in  recognition  of  his  dis- 
tinguished and  pioneer  work  on  the  application  of 
quantum  mechanics  to  chemistry,  and  on  the  size 
and  shape  of  chemical  molecules. 

See     ASTRONOMY,     BIOLOGICAL     CHEMISTRY; 
CHEMISTKY,  INDUSTRIAL  ,  PHOTOGRAPHY  ;  PHYSICS. 
HUBERT  N.  ALYEA. 

CHEMISTRY,  Industrial.  The  astonishing 
variety  of  synthetic  plastics,  fibers,  rubber,  and 
textiles  expanded  in  1940. 

Canada  Rearms.  Forty-five  hundred  profession- 
ally trained  workers  in  1000  laboratories  with  an 
annual  outlay  of  $14,500,000  are  participating  in 
the  half -billion  dollar  chemical  war -expansion  pro- 
gram. This  includes  the  erection  of  a  munition 
plant,  Britain's  largest,  at  Fraser,  Ont.,  a  $8,000,- 
000  ammonium  nitrate  plant  using  Albertan  natural 
gas,  and  a  $1,500,000  nylon  plant  at  Kingston,  Ont., 
utilizing  imported  nylon  polymer. 

The  government  uncovered  large  magnesium  ore 
deposits,  developed  ferro-uramum  steels,  hydro- 
genated  peat  with  77  per  cent  yields,  and  studied 
cold-packing  of  fruit.  It  is  standardizing  and  cen- 
tralizing extraction  of  cod-liver  oil,  200,000  gallons 
yearly  from  Nova  Scotia  Oil  exports  were  for- 
bidden after  September.  New  methods  for  storing 
liver  in  isolable  communities  may  elevate  New- 
foundland's importance  in  the  industry.  Whaling 
operations,  resumed  in  1940,  resulted  in  a  catch  of 
219  whales  yielding  132,000  gallons  of  whale  oil, 
269,000  gallons  of  sperm  oil,  181  tons  of  bone  meal, 
and  434  tons  of  fertilizer  On  the  west  coast  850,- 
000  gallons  of  pilchard  oil  were  produced  for  na- 
tive consumption 

The  Canadian  Pulp  and  Paper  Association  em- 
phasized the  importance  of  wood  research.  Pulp 
and  paper  has  increased  from  400,000  tons  in  1914 
to  4,300,000  tons  in  1939.  Wood  has  been  com- 
pletely hydrogenated  into  liquid  cyclohexanol-like 
products. 

The  cinnabar  deposits  discovered  in  British  Co- 
lumbia in  1937  yielded  36,000  standard  flasks  of 
mercury  for  fulminate  detonators  during  the  first 
half  of  1940,  a  considerable  achievement  when  it  is 
recalled  that  the  entire  1939  world  output  was  only 
160,000  flasks 

The  most  important  item  from  Central  Amer- 
ica was  the  continued  activity  in  Cuban  manga- 
nese ore  which  supplied  the  United  States  with 
one-fifth  of  its  needs  for  special  steels.  A  plant 
for  extracting  chemicals  from  sea  water  com- 
menced operations  near  Havana  A  consolidating 
law  on  medicinals,  64  per  cent  of  which  was  sup- 
plied by  the  United  States,  was  put  into  effect.  Ap- 
proximately a  million  dollars  worth  of  chemicals 
reached  Nicaragua,  the  Bahamas,  and  Haiti 
from  the  United  States.  German  imports  hereto- 
fore amounted  to  from  10  to  20  per  cent.  Mexican 
mercury,  produced  in  crude  peasant  stills,  soared 
in  price  from  $75  in  1937  to  $200  in  1940,  while 
production  rose  correspondingly  from  170  tons  to 
over  600  tons.  This  reflects  efforts  by  Germany 
and  Japan  to  stock-pile  mercury  for  fulminate 
detonators. 

The  Chinese  Industrial  Co-operatives  arc  rap- 
idly decentralizing  chemical  industry  Chemical 
journals  resumed  publication.  The  universities  are 
scattered  inland  as  a  protection  against  bombings ; 


CHEMISTRY 


120 


CHEMISTRY 


and  research,  directed  entirely  toward  military 
and  economic  needs,  is  handicapped  from  want  of 
ordinary  chemical  reagents.  Motor  fuel  from  vege- 
table oils  is  produced  in  three  localities.  The  Yung 
Li  Co.,  foremost  chemical  company,  will  operate 
a  Solvay  soda  plant  with  Szechuan  natural  brines 
China  supplied  15  per  cent  of  the  silk  imported  to 
the  United  States  in  1940,  8  per  cent  in  1939 

Egyptian  exploitation  of  resources  has  pro- 
gressed. Nine  governmental  research  centers,  one 
for  chemistry,  have  been  created  Plate-glass  and 
sardine-canning  industries  are  to  be  established.  A 
500,000-ton  tin  deposit  was  discovered  Phosphate 
rock  valued  at  500,000  Egyptian  pounds  was  mined 
in  1939,  and  4000  metric  tons  of  caustic  soda  was 
obtained  from  natural  carbonates  occurring  70 
miles  northwest  of  Cairo 

German  industry  is  completely  mobilized,  and 
research  is  co-ordinated  at  the  House  of  German 
Research  in  Berlm-Dahlem 

Youth  organizations  gather  plants  previously 
imported  for  drugs  Sodium  dibromphenol  sulpho- 
nate  replaces  Chilean  iodine  in  hospitals,  where 
iodine  is  reclaimed  from  old  swabs  Iodine  as  well 
as  silver  is  also  reclaimed  from  photographic  films 
Vitamin  C  and  D  tablets  are  administered  to  chil- 
dren under  governmental  supervision  One-fifth  of 
the  food  storage  is  by  quick-freezing  Production 
of  fats  from  petroleum  reached  35,000  tons  yearly 
Motor  fuel  probably  reached  6,000,000  bhl ,  up 
50  per  cent  over  1939,  and  of  this,  500,000  bbl 
came  from  Alsatian  fields  exploited  since  the  capit- 
ulation of  France  Dicscl-engmed  airplanes  were 
rumored  English  reports  on  captured  planes  rated 
most  German  gas  at  64-octane,  none  above  85- 
octane.  Forty  thousand  cars  operated  on  liquid 
propane-butane  Petroleum  was  forbidden  in  cos- 
metics and  putties 

The  death  penalty  enforces  the  gathering  of 
scrap  me tals—  zinc,  aluminum,  and  magnesium  alone 
being  exempt  Glass,  enamelled-iron,  and  plastics 
replaced  metals,  although  there  are  restrictions  on 
plastics  from  phenol  which  is  the  raw  material  for 
picric  acid  explosive  Lead  has  been  requisitioned 
from  the  storage  batteries  of  unused  cars  The 
government  has  offered  $4000  for  a  battery  con- 
taining neither  lead  nor  nickel ,  such  an  invention 
would  have  far-reaching  consequences  in  relieving 
fuel  consumption  Research  intensified  on  plastic 
powdered  metals,  aluminum-magnesium  alloys,  and 
the  recovery  of  vanadium  from  Bessemer  slag 

A  mtroqcn  supply  of  1,500,000  tons  annually,  it- 
self probably  adequate  for  hostilities,  was  aug- 
mented by  the  450,000-ton  capacity  of  conquered 
Belgium,  Norway,  and  the  Netherlands  Nitroge- 
nous fertilizer  quotas  of  85,  115,  and  100  per  cent 
of  prewar  consumption  were  allocated  the  Old 
Reich,  Austria,  and  Sudetcnland  Potash  companies 
are  diversifying  their  interests,  for  example,  the 
chief  operator  has  also  entered  the  petroleum  and 
magnesium  fields. 

Search  for  textile  raw  materials  continues  Ital- 
ian cane  cultivated  near  Vienna  is  claimed  to  yield 
10,000  Ib  of  fiber  per  acre,  in  contrast  to  200  Ib 
for  cotton  Plastic  substitutes  flooded  the  market; 
of  these,  cellulose  acetate  for  transmission  belts 
was  pronounced  especially  successful 

Many  restrictions  have  been  proclaimed:  on 
cuprous  insecticides,  on  sulphur  for  vineyards,  on 
borax  for  beet  diseases ;  curtailment  of  phosphate 
fertilizers  to  25  per  cent  the  1939-40  quota,  for 
Germany  has  depended  chiefly  upon  Florida  phos- 
phate rock ;  decrees  to  check  a  flood  of  worthless 


soap  substitutes  which  came  at  the  beginning  of 
the  war,  abolishing  trade  names  and  requiring  the 
admixing  of  15  to  45  per  cent  of  sodium  silicate  in 
washing  soda;  and  prohibition  against  packaging 
common  commodities  such  as  soap 

The  demand  for  calcium  carbide  for  synthetic 
rubber,  plastics,  fibers,  and  solvents  is  so  great  that 
it  is  difficult  to  meet  Since  a  150-ton  calcium- 
carbide  electric  furnace  consumes  30,000  kilowatts 
daily,  Germany  with  insufficient  hydroelectric  pow- 
er is  forced  to  produce  its  electricity  from  coarse 
lignites 

By  1940  Great  Britain's  chemical  industry  was 
on  a  wartime  footing  Key  Import  Duty  licenses 
were  strictly  applied 

A  newly  created  Secretary  for  Petroleum  has 
initiated  six  lines  of  fuel  research  low  tempera- 
ture coal  carbonization,  high  temperature  carboni- 
zation, liquid  products,  substitute  fuels,  colloidal 
fuels,  and  efficient  use  of  fuels  Private  motor  cars 
are  beginning  to  use  sewage  and  coke-oven  meth- 
ane, natural  gas  in  Scotland,  and  producer  gas 

Metal  research  is  intense  Britain  lost  72  per 
cent  of  her  iron  supply  from  the  continent,  al- 
though 16  per  cent  still  comes  from  Spain  The 
new  X-ray  and  metallographic  Tin  Research  Lab- 
oratories in  Middlesex  are  investigating  tin  coat- 
ings and  bearing  metals  Metal  news  includes  30 
new  plants  for  treating  colliery  effluents ;  Bright- 
ray,  a  80-nickcl-20-chromium  steel  for  aircraft  en- 
gines ,  Vulcof erran,  an  ebonite  lining  for  steel , 
domestic  ferroalloys,  formerly  imported  from  Nor- 
way, and  electro-deposition  of  white  bronze 

Textile  news  includes  resin  impregnations  for 
transparent  and  fluid-impermeable  fabrics ,  stiff- 
ness and  transparency  imparted  to  cotton  by  ethyl - 
ene  oxide ,  use  of  the  Italian  Pomilio  process  for 
paper  pulp  from  grasses ,  nylon  bristles  by  the 
ICI,  although  yarn  production  has  been  postponed, 
and  a  dycstuffs  industry  8-fold  greater  than  in 
1914,  meeting  90  per  cent  domestic  textile  demands 

Miscellaneous  notes  include  development  of  na- 
tive barytes  for  paint,  latex  paint  or  cellophane 
tape  to  protect  windows  from  bombs,  seventeen 
new  flexible  resin  substitutes  for  glass,  water- 
soluble  melamme  resin  powders,  hot-spray  shellac, 
Distrene  and  Polythene  resins,  extended  applica- 
tions of  cellulose  esters  and  ethers,  potassium 
dichromate-mercuric  chloride  wood  preservative 
containing  sodium  nitrite  or  sulphite  to  prevent 
corrosion  of  steel,  fire-resistant  electric  household 
wiring,  a  peanut-oil  substitute  for  cod-liver  oil, 
potassium  metabisulphite  tablets  for  preserving 
fruit  at  home,  and  paper  wrappings  impregnated 
with  35  parts  of  hexamine  to  170  parts  of  o-phenyl- 
phcnol  for  preventing  green-mold  on  citrus  fruits 

The  government-sponsored  rise  of  Greek  chem- 
ical industry  slumped  badly,  since  60  per  cent  of 
its  raw  materials  are  imported  Soap,  alcohol,  and 
naval  stores  are  the  only  wholly  domestic  com- 
modities. 

In  Hungary  the  exigencies  of  war  have  in- 
creased employment  27  per  cent  in  the  petroleum, 
aluminum,  and  iron  industries  There  are  96,500 
men  employed.  News  items  included  a  new  10,000- 
ton  aluminum  plant,  Budapest  using  sewage  and 
coal  waste  methane,  and  a  semi-plant  production  of 
cellulose  from  cornstalks  which  has  interested  Ger- 
man capitalists 

An  opportunity  to  capture  India's  huge  chemical 
market,  $36,000,000  in  1939,  is  open  to  America  for 
a  number  of  years  to  come  At  present  chemical 
exports  are  virtually  banned  Twelve  important  in- 


(  ourU\y,  Science  SVrwrt 

HYDROGEN  ATOMS  AF1LR  COLLISION  WITH  NEUTRONS 

\ckmdchamberphotographed  in  1/1 00  second  by  Dr  f   ]\    T)   Kune  showing  the  great  activity  caused  by  a  neutron  beam  from 
the  cyclotron  at  the  University  of  California   The  test  chamber  was  six  feet  from  the  Riant  machine 


SYN1HETIC  RUBBER 


"fi-f 

Sii 


CHEMISTRY 


121 


CHEMISTRY 


dustrial  chemicals  will  be  in  production  by  1941. 
The  United  Provinces  and  Bihar,  which  consume 
one-tenth  the  gasoline  of  India,  passed  bills  in  1939 
and  1940  requiring  that  5  to  20  per  cent  power  al- 
cohol be  added  to  all  gasoline.  The  potentialities  of 
this  movement  are  apparent  when  it  is  realized 
that  1,500,000,000  gal.  of  power  alcohol  could  be 
produced  from  surplus  molasses  each  year.  Drug 
legislation  has  been  consolidated  into  a  single  bill. 
A  new  tough  hybrid  of  bamboo  and  sugar  cane 
may  well  revolutionize  the  sugar  industry.  The 
electric  power  industry  is  expanding,  attention 
being  given  to  electrochemical  industries.  Four 
native-fish  oils  3  to  19  times  more  potent  than  cod- 
liver  oil  were  reported.  The  1939  government  re- 
port advised  aluminum  stearate  for  keeping  red 
lead  particles  from  settling  in  the  paint  can;  sub- 
stitution of  native  pyrplusite  for  a  portion  of  the 
artificial  manganese  dioxide  in  dry  cells ;  and  15 
per  cent  of  molasses  to  increase  tensile  strength  in 
lime-cement  mortars 

Italy  is  attempting  to  develop  zinc,  lead,  manga- 
nese, antimony,  copper,  iron,  and  mineral  combus- 
tibles in  Sardinia ,  mercury,  iron,  marble,  and  lig- 
nites in  Tuscany ,  mercury,  bauxite,  and  coal  in 
Veneto ;  and  iron  and  anthracite  in  Piedmont 

Food  requirements  are  carefully  controlled  Sugar 
rations  for  each  person  are  500  grams  per  month 
Beets  formerly  used  for  alcohol  have  been  diverted 
to  sugar  production.  Prizes  had  been  offered  to  in- 
crease the  cultivation  of  beets,  and  importation  of 
saccharin  has  been  prohibited  Garogho  and  Cifern 
have  made  preliminary  studies  on  the  industrial 
production  of  fats  from  carbohydrates  by  the  use 
of  microbes ,  their  method  overcomes  the  necessity 
of  the  large  surfaces  required  in  the  German  proc- 
ess Sapomfiable  fats  are  being  extracted  from 
coffee  grounds  Soapmaking  fat,  75,000  tons  an- 
nually, is  under  governmental  distribution  85  per 
cent  for  laundry  soaps,  10  per  cent  for  medicinal 
soaps  and  dentifrices,  and  5  per  cent  for  shaving 
and  toilet  soaps 

The  exploitation  of  coal  and  lignite  for  furl  con- 
tinues, with  an  expanded  program  of  7,000,000 
tons  for  1944  Three  new  pits,  1,000,000  tons  each, 
are  to  be  opened  up  Leghorn  and  Ban  are  produc- 
ing aviation  fuel,  lubricating  oils,  and  paraffins, 
and  production  of  isopentane  is  being  considered 
A  new  source  of  methane,  discovered  in  February 
at  Pietramelara,  will  possibly  replace  4,000,000 
liters  of  gasoline  a  year  Motor  fuel  must  contain 
20  per  cent  power  alcohol. 

Aluminum  production,  40,000  tons  in  1940,  will 
be  increased  to  50,000  tons  by  a  new  plant  just 
opened  up  Six  thousand  tons  of  magnesium  are  ex- 
pected for  1941  from  new  factories  now  under 
construction  in  Northern  Italy.  Substitution  of 
copper  oxychloride  has  saved  35  per  cent  of  the 
copper  consumed  Although  Italy  makes  1,000,000 
tons  of  steel  from  domestic  ore,  the  program  calls 
for  two  and  one-half  times  that  production. 

The  first  butadiene  rubber  factory  went  into 
operation  in  1940,  and  two  more  factories  will  he 
in  operation  by  1941  One  plant  is  to  locate  at 
Umbna,  near  the  undeveloped  lignite  resources 
Glyptal,  acrylic,  and  vinyl  resins  have  appeared 
The  Talgius  process  for  making  direct  photo- 
graphic reproductions  of  costly  woods  on  plywood 
has  been  pronounced  successful 

The  hostilities  in  Europe  were  a  severe  blow  to 
Japanese  chemical  industry  in  1940.  Half  of  her 
sulphite  pulp  comes  from  Scandinavia ;  and  Man- 
churian  pulp  production  has  been  held  up  by  the 


limited  capacity  of  the  trans-Siberian  railroad  for 
delivering  German  equipment  in  return  for  Man- 
chunan  soybeans.  The  loss  of  cryolite  from  Green- 
land will  seriously  hamper  Japan's  aluminum  in- 
dustry, since  the  German  synthetic  cryolite  is  no 
longer  obtainable  Sixty  per  cent  of  Japan's  in- 
dustrial salt  for  making  lye  for  the  rayon  industry 
came  from  East  Africa  Although  the  Japanese 
are  negotiating  trade  relations  with  South  Amer- 
ica, it  does  not  seem  likely  that  Japan  can  supply 
the  process  equipment  which  South  America  will 
need  Actually,  Japan  leans  most  heavily  on  the 
United  States,  who  obligingly  supplied  her  in  1939 
with  55  7  per  cent  of  Japan's  imported  war  goods, 
despite  the  "moral  embargo"  of  June  11,  1938 
The  1940  embargoes  on  solvents,  copper,  and  ma- 
chine tools  (July  2),  aviation  fuel  (July  26),  and 
scrap  iron  (October  16)  finally  cut  off  Japan  from 
the  mainstay  of  her  war  imports  She  does  not  need 
cotton  for  explosives,  for  her  reopening  of  the 
natural  camphor  trade  in  1940,  despite  the  syn- 
thetic product,  will  furnish  the  necessary  explo- 
sives The  largest  Japanese  investment  is  in  rubber 
plantations,  producing  10,000,000  Ib  of  crude  rub- 
ber and  latex  annually 

Nitrogenous  fertilizers  are  to  enjoy  a  $50,000,- 
000  expansion  over  the  next  two  years  The  first 
shipment  of  ammonium  nitrate  from  China  ar- 
rived in  1940  Manufacturers  were  turning  from 
ammonium  sulphate  to  ammonium  nitrate  because 
of  the  sulphur  shortage  Fifty  per  cent  of  the 
United  States  phosphate  rock  formerly  went  to 
Japan,  who  is  now  planning  to  mine  90,000  tons 
of  apatite  in  Korea  each  year  She  is  also  turning 
to  Korea  for  100,000  tons  of  potash  alum  to  re- 
place the  potash  supply  from  Germany  and  Pal- 
estine 

The  fuel  program  has  lagged  Less  than  500,000 
tons  will  be  produced  by  1941,  one-quarter  the 
figure  called  for  by  the  five-year  plan  The  30,- 
000-ton  Fischer-Tropsch  plant  at  Kyusha  produced 
only  1000  tons  this  year,  and  it  is  assumed  that 
the  largest  unit,  52,000-tons  at  Chinchow,  did  no 
better  The  600,000,000-yen  investment  in  coal  lique- 
faction is  chiefly  for  low-temperature  carboniza- 
tion, and  the  large  semi-coke  by-product  will  be 
popularized  for  automobile  producer-gas.  Poly- 
merization units  for  aviation  fuel  have  been  erect- 
ed for  the  Mitsubishi  Oil  Company  by  Universal 
Oil  and  Tide- Water,  the  latter  having  a  50  per 
cent  interest  in  Mitsubishi  Output  will  be  so  small, 
however,  that  Japanese  firms  are  preparing  to 
manufacture  tetraethyl  lead  as  soon  as  the  last 
American  patent  expires  in  June,  1941.  Because  of 
the  shortage  of  coal,  steel  works  substituting  it  as 
bunker  fuel  were  instructed  to  revert  to  heavy  oil 
Soybean  oil  was  evaluated  as  a  Diesel  fuel.  Fur- 
fural, a  solvent  for  aviation  lubricants,  is  being 
made  from  rice  straw,  17  per  cent  of  the  straw 
being  recovered  as  99  per  cent  furfuraldehyde. 

The  soap  industry  is  virtually  self-sufficient, 
using  hydrogenated  sardine  oil ;  62  per  cent  of  this 
is  for  soap,  21  per  cent  for  glycerine,  and  17  per 
cent  for  wax.  Thirty-three  thousand  tons  of  ex- 
plosives are  produced  in  Chosen  from  this  glycer- 
ine, in  which  Japan  is  self -sufficient  A  guild  of 
sodium  silicate  manufacturers  will  control  their 
80,000-ton  annual  product.  Manchukuo  grew  4,500,- 
000  tons  of  soybean  in  1940,  60  per  cent  of  the 
world  crop. 

The  textile  industry  is  in  the  doldrums  Short- 
ages of  salt  and  pulp  have  created  stagnation  in 
the  rayon  industry,  export  of  which  was  half  that 


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122 


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of  1937.  Carbon  disulphide  production,  too,  was 
inadequate  for  the  viscose  demands,  the  electric 
power  necessary  to  manufacture  carbon  disulphide 
having  been  diverted  to  wartime  electrochemicals 
Patents  are  paying  little  attention  to  viscose  and 
concentrating  on  fibers  from  soybean  protein,  ca- 
sein, and  fish  protein  The  advent  of  nylon  has 
caused  considerable  concern  and  foreshadows  in- 
tense governmental  research.  Thirty  years  ago 
Japan  met  a  similar  announcement  about  rayon  by 
building  up  the  largest  rayon  industry  in  the  world. 
The  answer  is  not  as  simple  this  time,  for  foreign 
companies  are  reluctant  to  divulge  their  processes 
in  detail.  Silk  stock  surpluses  were  so  large  that 
the  government  ordered  the  admixing  of  20  per 
cent  silk  with  all  other  fabrics  after  Oct.  1,  1940. 
New  fibers  included  a  wool-like  acetate  rayon  cost- 
ing 50  per  cent  more  than  ordinary  rayon ;  Silkool 
and  Sova  wool,  soybean-protein  fibers ;  and  three 
fibers  in  experimental  production :  Kanebiyan-60, 
a  vinyl  fiber  substitute  for  silk;  Kanepron-60,  a 
viscose-soybean  protein  substitute  for  wood-pulp; 
and  Kaneralia-60,  a  rayon  substitute  derived  from 
Korean  and  North  Chinese  reed-pulp  mixed  with 
an  undisclosed  acetylene  derivative  Sample  hosiery 
made  with  these  synthetics  compared  favorably 
with  nylon  excepting  in  wet-strength  A  hemp  sub- 
stitute was  reported  from  banana  skins,  4,000,000 
Ib.  of  which  are  available  yearly. 

The  islands  of  the  Pacific  are  being  explored  for 
mineral  wealth  In  Australia  vermiculite,  mercury, 
phosphates,  and  dolomite  were  uncovered ,  and  oil 
shales  are  expected  to  yield  10,000,000  gal  of  gaso- 
line yearly  Synthetic  ammonia,  phosphate,  and 
Solvay  plants  began  operation  in  1940  Power  alco- 
hol in  Queensland  is  to  be  tripled  to  4,000,000  gal  a 
year  A  substantial  export  market  for  soap  has 
been  built  up.  Alkyd  resins,  ramie  cloth,  and  an  un- 
shrinkable wool  made  their  appearance  The  Neth- 
erlands Indies  retained  their  position  of  fifth 
most  important  crude-oil  producer  in  1939,  2  8  per 
cent  of  the  world's  total.  Royal  Dutch  Shell  con- 
trols 56  5  per  cent  of  the  output  New  Zealand 
sulphur  imports  were  up  50  per  cent  over  1939. 
Synthetic  fibers  were  produced  from  bagasse  by 
the  Pomilio  process  in  the  Philippines;  adsorb- 
ent charcoal  was  manufactured  from  rice  hulls  and 
cocoanut  shells;  and  the  economically  important 
nickel -chromium  ores  were  further  examined 

Intense  Russian  activity  in  diversified  industrial 
fields  attests  a  growing,  if  not  yet  thriving,  era  of 
chemical  industry. 

Food  quotas  for  1940  included  23,000,000  tons  of 
beet  sugar  and  3,000,000  tons  of  potatoes  Caffeine 
is  being  extracted  with  ethylene  chloride  from 
Georgia  tea  dust.  Nitrate,  potash,  and  phosphate 
fertilizer  output  are  to  be  doubled  by  1942 

Widespread  metallurgical  research  included 
chromium-silicon,  and  chromium-manganese  alloys, 
cast  magnesium  alloys,  nitrocementation  of  steels, 
anticorrosion  films  with  silico-organic  compounds, 
and  alloys  of  aluminum  with  titanium  and  chromi- 
um. Low-grade  tungsten  ores  in  Siberia  have  not 
been  worked,  and  aluminum  production  has  lagged 
from  lack  of  ore  and  electric  power. 

By-products  of  butadiene  rubber  from  grain  and 
potato  fermentation  were  investigated ,  also,  chlo- 
rinated transformer  oils,  synthetic  tannins,  sun- 
flower oil  substitute  for  linseed  oil  in  alkyd  lac- 
quers, and  cracking  of  methane  to  acetylene  by  the 
electric  discharge 

In  Scandinavia,  Denmark  abandoned  its  su- 
perphosphate and  sulphuric  acid  industries  for  lack 


of  raw  materials.  Greenland  cryolite  is  under  the 
protection  of  the  United  States.  The  German  I.  G 
is  exploiting  the  nickel  deposits  m  northern  Fin- 
land. Norway  oil-whale  for  the  1939-40  season 
amounted  to  909,200  bbl.  Germany  did  not  partici- 
pate, Great  Britain  and  Norway  sending  10  ex- 
peditions each,  Japan  6,  and  Panama  and  the  Unit- 
ed States  1  each  A  plant  at  Oslo  is  studying  the 
electrolytic  recovery  of  potash  from  sea  water. 
With  her  9,200,000-kw  water  power  Norway  ranks 
high  as  an  aluminum  producer,  40,000  tons  an- 
nually; and  abrasive  industries  are  contemplated. 
Sweden  has  mobilized  100,000  workers  for  de- 
fense In  a  new  oil  laboratory  at  Nynashamn  the 
Bergius  and  Fischer-Tropsch  processes  are  being 
examined;  although  the  fermentation  of  sugar  in 
sulphite  pulp-liquor  holds  more  promise,  represent- 
ing a  potential  source  of  200,000,000  liters  of  power 
alcohol.  Ten  thousand  wood-gas  and  15,000  char- 
coal-gas automobiles  operate  in  Stockholm.  Super- 
phosphate operations  continue  at  full  scale  An 
institute  for  organic  chemical  research  was  inaugu- 
rated in  Stockholm  this  summer,  with  biochemist 
Hans  V.  Euler  as  director 

In  South  Africa  the  United  States  may  find  a 
market  for  dyes,  medicmals,  superphosphate  ferti- 
lizers, and  sulphur ;  while  potential  native  indus- 
tries include  sugar,  fermentation,  and  coal  products 

South  American  products  normally  exported  to 
Europe  were  diverted  to  the  United  States  in  1940 
The  Argentine  vegetable-oil  production  has  in- 
creased 248  per  cent  during  the  past  ten  years  The 
first  pilot-plant  batch  of  coffee-plastic  was  made  in 
November,  1940  Universal  Oil  and  Foster- Wheel- 
er are  installing  a  Dubbs  petroleum-cracking  unit 
in  Rio  de  Janeiro 

The  birth  of  Brazil's  chemical  industry  is  ex- 
pected to  occur  from  the  necessities  of  the  current 
war,  just  as  its  other  industnes  originated  from 
the  exigencies  of  the  World  War  of  1914-18  The 
Institute  Naciondl  de  Technologia,  created  by  the 
government  to  develop  Brazilian  raw  materials, 
and  the  important  industrial  research  organization 
Institute  de  Pesquizas  Technologicas,  are  contrib- 
uting much  to  this  national  advancement  Experts 
were  brought  from  the  United  States  to  inspect 
the  iron,  chromium,  manganese,  and  petroleum  re- 
sources ;  and  Brazilian  commissions  visited  the 
steel  and  Georgia  pine  factories  in  the  Northern 
Hemisphere 

By  law,  imported  products  must  be  blended  with 
coal;  with  1,000,000  tons  manioc  flour,  and  with 
10  per  cent  of  jute  substitute,  mostly  caroa  from 
the  dry  northeastern  portion  of  the  country 

New  projects  include  a  fifth  Dubbs  cracking 
unit  for  Brazil,  4000-bbl.  capacity,  to  be  built  near 
Nictheroy ;  a  10,000-ton  superphosphate  plant ;  and 
treatment  of  5  per  cent  nickel  deposits,  and  argen- 
tiferous galena,  in  Sao  Paulo.  Bauxite  transporta- 
tion costs  still  inhibit  aluminum  production  Native 
castor-oil  mixed  with  mineral  oil  and  triethanpl- 
amine  is  used  as  a  lubricant  Cultivation  of  a  native 
tree  which  yields  a  fatty  oil,  bati-fat,  has  been 
urged.  A  plastics-from-coffee  plant  is  under  con- 
struction. Henry  Ford  invested  $9,000,000  in  native 
rubber  trees  in  1928,  and  is  considering  another 
$20,000,000  investment 

All  chemical  groups  of  the  country  were  merged 
into  a  single  group  patterned  after  the  American 
Chemical  Society  whose  by-laws  were  copied.  An- 
other society  was  formed  in  September  with  aims 
similar  to  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Mate- 
rials. A  large  number  of  German  manufacturers 


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123 


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belong  to  the  new  society.  By  national  edict  the 
professions  of  chemist,  engineer,  physician,  and  so 
forth  are  limited  to  native-born  Brazilians  Loss 
of  Chile  nitrate  trade  to  Europe  was  more  than 
offset  by  increasing  shipments  to  Japan,  the  United 
States,  and  Egypt.  Chile  hopes  to  capture  the  25 
per  cent  fertilizer  imports  of  the  United  States. 
Coal-tar  dyes  will  probably  become  a  native  indus- 
try, since  88  per  cent  was  supplied  by  Germany, 
only  1  per  cent  by  the  United  States.  Ecuador 
produces  large  quantities  of  ethanol. 

Spain  is  giving  greatest  consideration  to  nitrog- 
enous fertilizers  Cestor,  a  government  organiza- 
tion, plans  to  fix  10,000  tons  annually;  and  provi- 
sions are  also  made  for  a  nitric  acid  plant  The 
olive-oil  crops  reached  350,000,000  liters  this  year, 
up  10  per  cent.  Potash  shipments  to  the  United 
States  have  been  renewed. 

United  States.  Butadiene  rubbers,  synthetic  fi- 
bers, and  plastics  dominated  the  industrial  field  in 
1940  In  the  closing  months  of  the  year  the  govern- 
ment embarked  upon  an  enormous  expansion  pro- 
gram in  explosives,  metals,  and  other  strategic  ma- 
terials. 

Explosives.  Contract  awards  were  $15,000,000 
to  DuPont  for  an  ammonia  plant  near  Morgantown, 
W.Va  ;  $11,132,440  to  Allied  Chemicals  and  Dye 
for  a  similar  unit  at  West  Henderson,  Ky. ,  $6,500,- 
000  to  TVA  for  Muscle  Shoals  rehabilitation, 
$20,000,000  to  treble  the  TNT  and  DNT  duPont 
plant  at  Wilmington,  111  ,  $14,000,000  to  Procter 
and  Gamble  for  an  ammunition-loading  factory  at 
Milan,  Tenn  ,  and  $11,000,000  to  the  Trojan  Pow- 
der Co ,  for  a  TNT  plant  at  Sandusky,  Ohio  Du- 
Pont plants  near  Louisville,  Ky  ,  will  soon  turn  out 
200,000  Ib  of  smokeless,  flashless,  non-hydroscop- 
ic  Army  powder  per  day,  tripling  national  output 

The  consumption  of  explosives  during  the  pres- 
ent war  is  greater  than  heretofore  since  airplane 
bombs  carry  considerably  more  explosive  than  ar- 
tillery projectiles,  60  and  20  per  cent  respectively 
This  increased  demand  can  be  met  by  substituting 
ammonium  nitrate  explosive  for  nitioglycerme,  m- 
trotoluene,  and  nitrophcnol  types  of  explosives  On 
the  other  hand,  synthetic  glycerine  (1939  YI:AR 
BOOK,  page  142),  toluene  and  phenol  are  now  avail- 
able in  unlimited  quantities  from  petroleum  gases 
Also  lower  nitroparaffins  from  petroleum  gases 
may  be  converted  into  explosives 

Newspaper  notoriety  given  L  Barlow  for  his 
oxygen-carbon  bomb  "ghmite"  was  ignored  by 
chemists,  who  recognized  it  as  L  O  X ,  a  liquid- 
oxygen  explosive,  5,346,000  Ib.  of  which  were  pro- 
duced by  the  Germans  in  little  portable  air-liquefy- 
mg  machines  during  the  last  war.  About  as  danger- 
ous as  dynamite,  thousands  of  pounds  are  used  in 
Midwest  coal-mines 

Miscellaneous  items  include  a  cold-setting 
printers'  ink  which  dries  instantly ;  paints  contain- 
ing iodine  or  chlorine  to  kill  germs  and  prevent 
mold;  paint  reflecting  72  per  cent  of  ultra-violet 
light ,  chlorite  for  bleaching  pine-pulp  and  fabrics , 
HTS,  a  salt  bath  for  290°-1000°  F,  containing  ni- 
trates and  nitrites  of  sodium  and  potassium,  and 
used  commercially  in  the  Houdrey  petroleum  cata- 
lytic process;  discovery  of  Iceland-spar  in  New 
Mexico,  from  which  500  Ib.  of  fine  calcite  crystals 
have  already  been  removed ;  potassium  cyanide  by 
duPont,  it  having  heretofore  been  imported ;  large- 
scale  maleic  anhydride  production  by  Carbide  and 
Carbon,  commercial  production  of  over  80  poly- 
hydric  alcohols  and  their  esters ;  water-waxes,  such 
as  Carbowax  by  Carbide  and  Carbon ;  self -heating 


canned  goods  which  warm  when  a  false  bottom  is 
punctured,  admitting  air  to  chemicals ;  and  Benahte 
lignin  containers  by  Masonite* 

Petroleum.  In  11  years  the  petroleum  industry 
has  expanded  539  per  cent,  rising  from  seventh  to 
second  place.  Twenty-six  billion  gal.  of  gasoline 
were  produced  in  1940,  and  this  could  be  pushed  up 
to  40  billions  on  short  order. 

The  modern  100-octane  aviation  fuel  approaches 
Diesel  engine  efficiency,  and  in  addition  gives 
maneuverability  and  lifting  power.  It  is  thought 
that  125-octane  is  the  ceiling  of  the  present  move- 
ment which  will  undoubtedly  lead,  in  peacetime,  to 
a  redesigning  of  private  automobiles  to  burn  these 
superfuels  For  good  octane  gas,  the  hydrocarbon 
must  be  as  branched  as  possible ,  and  present  pe- 
troleum practice  is  to  limit  the  gasoline  to  two  or 
three  hydrocarbons  and  thereby  simplify  control 
over  the  final  product  This  also  facilitates  adjust- 
ment of  the  motor  to  any  given  fuel 

The  Polyform  polymerization-cracking  process 
of  Gulf  Oil  was  disclosed  New  safety-fuels  with 
flash  points  a  hundred  degrees  above  present  avia- 
tion fuels  have  been  developed  to  curtail  fire  haz- 
ards Schweitzer  of  Penn  State  predicted  the  use 
of  liquid  oxygen  for  Diesel  airplanes  at  the  take- 
off where  one-third  more  power  is  required  than 
for  continuous  flight. 

E  Bed  described  laboratory  experiments  for 
converting  plant  carbohydrates  into  coal  and  oil  of 
high  antiknock  characteristics  The  process  in- 
volves heating  the  plants  with  limestone  for  an 
hour  at  slightly  elevated  pressure,  and  is  claimed 
to  be  cheaper  than  high  pressure  hydrogenation  of 
coal 

Petroleum  Gases.  Three  hundred  million  gal 
of  liquefied  petroleum  gases,  an  increase  of  32.5 
per  cent  over  1939  included  19,000,000  gal.  for 
small  city  gas  plants,  and  128,000,000  gal.  for  home 
use,  the  number  of  retail  customers  passing  the 
million  mark  Expansion  is  attributed  to  increased 
use  in  internal  combustion  engines  such  as  for  lo- 
comotives, electric  generator  and  air-conditioning 
units,  drilling  and  construction  equipment,  and  in 
industrial  plants  where  natural  gas  supply  is  di- 
minishing. The  future  demands  which  the  budding 
mtroparaffin  and  synthetic  rubber  industries  will 
make  upon  these  refinery  gases  can  only  be  con- 
jectured; but  it  is  sure  to  be  enormous 

Phenol.  Phenol  is  an  important  intermediate  for 
explosives  (picrates)  and  plastics  (Durez,  Bake- 
lite).  In  Germany,  synthetic  phenol  has  been  manu- 
factured by  the  Raschig  Company  on  patents  issued 
in  1930.  In  1940  Durez  Plastics  and  Chemicals, 
Inc  ,  having  acquired  these  patents,  opened  a  $2,000,- 
000  plant  with  a  capacity  of  7500  tons  annually,  at 
North  Towanda,  N  Y  The  process  is  so  automatic 
that  only  six  men  and  a  supervisor  are  in  attend- 
ance. Stage  ( 1 )  is  the  catalytic  chlorination  of  ben- 
zene at  230°  C :  CflHe  +  HC1  +  %Ot  -*  C9H8C1  + 
H,O ,  for  which  the  yield  is  10  per  cent,  the  un- 
changed benzene  being  recovered  by  condensation 
and  scrubbing.  Stage  (2)  also  gives  a  10  per  cent 
yield  at  425°  C  for  the  endothermic  reaction 
CflHBCl  +  H,O  -»  C0HBOH  +  HC1.  Phenol,  resid- 
ual products  as  a  gaseous  azeotropic  mixture,  and 
only  0.1  per  cent  waste  products  are  obtained  Aft- 
er bubbling  the  gases  through  hot  water,  they  may 
be  re-circulated  through  the  second  stage;  while 
the  phenol  is  scrubbed  out,  and  may  be  extracted 
from  its  water  solution  by  a  counter-current  of 
benzene. 

Plastics.  The  1940  news  included  transparent 


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124 


CHEMISTRY 


shoes  and  belts,  vinyl  acetate  and  polyamide  photo- 
graphic films,  Vinyon  hats  which  look  like  felt, 
transparent  plastic  packaging  of  syrupy  foodstuffs, 
wood  rendered  flexible  by  soaking  in  urea;  poly- 
vinyl  acetates  by  duPont  for  textile  sizes  and  ad- 
hesives;  Plastacele,  a  steel  wire  coated  with  col- 
ored cellulose  acetate  for  binding  books ,  melamme 
resins  for  molding  and  enamels ;  water-soluble  plas- 
tics, including  methyl  cellulose  and  polyvinyl  alco- 
hols, for  grease-proofing  fabrics  and  making  them 
flexible,  and  a  group  of  new  thermoplastic  resins 
based  on  vinyl idene  chloride,  trade  name  "Saran" 
by  Dow  (Ind  Eng  C  hem  ,  Ncivs  Ed  Vol  18,  page 
923,  1940),  for  fishing  leaders,  seat  coverings,  ab- 
rasive bonding,  and  so  forth 

Four  aircraft  companies  have  produced  experi- 
mental planes  of  molded  and  resin-bonded  plywood 
types 

Rubber.  Four  centuries  ago,  the  white  man 
found  the  Indians  of  South  America  sporting  with 
strangely  resilient  and  elastic  balls  obtained  from 
the  gum  of  a  tree  It  was  first  known  as  "Indian 
Rubber"  after  the  discovery  by  Priestley  that  it 
would  rub  out  lead-pencil  marks ,  for  which  pur- 
pose Britain  imported  it  Grcnville  Williams  in 
1860  showed  that  the  destructive  distillation  of  nat- 
ural rubber  yields  a  product  named  "isoprene,"  and 
in  1875  Bouchardat  conceived  the  idea  that  this  was 
a  primary  unit,  which  he  succeeded  in  polymerizing 
back  to  natural  rubber  As  a  result  of  the  English 
blockade  during  the  World  War,  Germany  intensi- 
fied her  research  on  the  problem,  and  by  1918  had 
produced  2350  tons  of  2-3-dimethylbutadiene  rub- 
ber from  acetylene,  precursor  of  modern  German 
Buna  rubber 

After  the  war,  chemists  realized  that  only  by 
making  a  synthetic  rubber  better  than  the  natural 
product  could  it  compete  economically  As  a  re- 
sult, they  disregarded  the  chemical  composition  of 
natural  rubber,  and  turned  to  cheaper  long-chain 
hydrocarbons  as  a  basis  for  a  natural  rubber  type 
In  1926  Father  Nieuwland  interested  E  K  Bolton 
of  the  duPont  Company  in  researches  conducted  at 
Notre  Dame  on  the  production  of  vinylacetylenes, 
using  ammonium  and  cuprous  chlorides  as  cata- 
lysts Feverish  industrial  research  followed,  and 
produced  2-chlorobutadiene,  marketed  at  first  as 
chloroprene,  but  subsequently  trade-marked  Neo- 
prene  The  steps  were  2  CH  =  CH  (acetylene) 
-+  CH  EE  C  -  CH  =  CH3-i!!£L  CH,  =  CO  - 
CH  =  CH,  (2-chlorobutadiene) 

From  the  researches  of  1934-40,  four  types  of 
synthetic  rubbers  have  emerged  (1)  Di-olefins, 
which  includes  isoprene,  CH2  =  C(CH,)  —  CH  — 
CHS,  or  natural  rubber,  Buna  or  butadiene,  CH,  = 
CH-CH  =  CH2,  Methyl  Rubber  or  dimethyl- 
butadiene,  and  SKA  or  Russian  rubber ,  (2)  chlo- 
roprene which  includes  Neoprene  and  Sovprene, 
(3)  di-olefins  plus  modifiers  such  as  Buna  S,  which 
is  Buna  compounded  with  styrene  CflH5  —  CH  = 
CHa  for  rubber  tires,  Buna  N  compounded  with 
acrylonitrile,  CH,  =  CH  —  C  s  N,  Perbunan  con- 
taining still  more  acrylonitrile  for  an  oil  resistant 
rubber;  and  (4)  olefins  plus  di-olefins,  such  as 
Butyl  Rubber 

Most  of  these  have  the  compound  butadiene  as  a 
base.  Each  country  manufactures  the  butadiene 
from  her  most  abundant  resources :  Russia  via  bu- 
tyl alcohol  from  gram  and  potato  fermentation, 
Germany  and  Italy  via  acetylene  from  limestone 
and  coal,  and  the  United  States  via  butane  from 
petroleum  The  chemical  steps  for  some  of  these 
processes  has  already  been  treated  in  detail  (1937 


YEAR  BOOK,  pages  136-7).  In  1940  Standard  Oil  of 
New  Jersey  entered  the  Buna  arena  with  the  pro- 
duction of  Butyl  Rubber,  in  this  process,  second- 
ary butyl  alcohol  is  obtained  from  petroleum  gas, 
butane.  This  is  dehydrated  over  phosphoric  acid  at 
450°  C,  yielding  butylene.  The  butylene  is  bromi- 
nated.  Then  two  molecules  of  hydrogen  bromide 
are  removed,  forming  butadiene.  The  chemical  for- 
mulas for  these  steps  are  CH,  —  CH,  —  CHS  — 
CHa  (butane)  ->  CH,  -  CHOH  -  CH,  -  CH,  -> 
CH8  -  CH  =  CH  -  CH8  ->  CH.  -  CHBr  -  CHBr 
-  CH,  ->  CH,  =  CH  -  CH  =  CH,  (butadiene) 

The  double  bonds  (=)  in  the  formula  for  buta- 
diene are  the  points  at  which  the  units  will  link 
with  other  units  to  form  solid  rubber.  The  proc- 
esses of  polymerization  and  vulcanization  break 
and  relieve  the  unsaturation  of  these  double  bonds, 
so  that  the  finished  product  will  have  no  tendency 
to  react  further.  Since  the  amount  of  unsaturation 
in  the  synthetic  product  can  be  controlled,  two 
types  of  rubbers  may  be  produced  ( 1)  those  which 
are  unsaturated  like  natural  rubber  and  which  can 
therefore  be  compounded  and  vulcanized  with  it  in 
tire  manufacture  and  (2)  saturated  synthetic  rub- 
bers such  as  chloroprene,  sovprene,  Buna  N,  and 
Perbunan.  This  second  type,  being  saturated,  is  ex- 
tremely resistant  to  sunlight,  oxidation,  and  the  ac- 
tion of  oils ;  but  it  cannot  be  vulcanized  and  com- 
pounded with  natural  rubber 

Natural -rubber  milling-equipment  is  used  with 
synthetic  rubbers  Chloroprene  rubbers  are  easily 
handled,  and  just  as  zinc  oxide,  sulphur,  and  an 
accelerator  are  mixed  with  natural  rubber,  so  zinc 
oxide,  magnesia,  and  wood  rosin  are  compounded 
with  chloroprenes  Buna  rubbers  which  are  un- 
saturated are  considerably  more  difficult  to  mill, 
and  only  a  small  bulk  can  be  handled  at  one  time , 
on  the  other  hand  they  can  be  vulcanized  into  that 
portion  of  the  tire  which  requires  most  resistance 
to  deterioration,  such  as  the  side-walls 

Sodium  (Na)  was  the  original  polymerization 
catalyst ,  hence  the  name  Buna  (Butadiene  +  Na). 
This  has  been  replaced  today  by  emulsion  poly- 
merization, with  styrene  or  other  co-polymer,  form- 
ing a  synthetic  latex 

The  commercial  secrets  of  a  half -decade  of  syn- 
thetic rubber  research  were  suddenly  released  in 
1940:  Standard  Oil  using  IG  patents  for  Butyl 
Rubber,  produced  5  tons  per  day  by  the  end  of 
1940;  Firestone  Butyl  Rubber  tires  were  on  ex- 
hibit at  the  New  York  World's  Fair,  Goodrich 
Amenpol  rubber  tires  are  available  at  the  rate  of 
1000  a  month,  costing  one-third  more  than  natural 
rubber  tires ,  and  Goodyear  Chemigum  tires  reached 
a  production  rate  of  5500  tons  annually.  Dow  has 
licensed  the  Universal  Oil  Products  process  for  a 
$300,000  butadiene  plant  near  Harnsburg,  Texas 
About  11,000  tons  of  synthetic  rubber  were  made 
in  the  United  States  in  1940 ;  and  a  production  of 
20,000  tons  by  the  fall  of  1941  is  anticipated  In 
1939,  592,000  tons  of  natural  rubber  were  used. 

Other  rubber  products  included  Hewprene,  a 
synthetic  rubber  hose;  Ty-Ply,  an  adhesive  for 
bonding  synthetic  rubber  to  metals ;  Ablo,  a  syn- 
thetic rubber  putty  There  are  also  rubber  substi- 
tutes which  do  not  lend  themselves  to  vulcaniza- 
tion :  Koroseal,  a  polymer  of  vinyl  chloride ;  Thi- 
okol,  a  condensation  product  of  aliphatic  chlorine 
compounds  and  sodium  polysulphide ;  and  Vistanex 
Polybutene,  a  blend  of  fully  saturated  Butyl  Rub- 
ber and  natural  rubber 

Textiles.  Nylon  made  an  indelible  impression  in 
its  first  public  appearance.  Save  for  test  sales  in 


CHEMISTRY 


125 


CHILDREN'S  BUREAU 


Wilmington  last  year,  nylon  hosiery  was  offered 
for  the  first  time  on  May  15,  1940  For  five  months 
the  hosiery  manufacturers  had  been  building  up 
stocks  from  such  thread  as  the  Sea  ford  plant  could 
supply.  The  stock  was  quickly  exhausted.  The 
Seaf ord  plant  doubled  production  in  1940 ;  another 
plant  at  Martmsville,  Va ,  will  produce  late  in 
1941 ,  and  the  total  capacity  for  nylon  yarn  will  be 
16,000,000  Ib  for  1942  Consumption  was  by  no 
means  confined  to  hosiery  other  outlets  were 
brushes,  surgical  sutures,  fishing  leaders,  knitted 
fabrics  and  undergarments,  velvet  dresses,  and  ten- 
nis racquet  strings  Additional  posthumous  patents 
were  granted  to  Carothers  for  transparent  nylon 
(polyamide)  films  for  making  paper  flexible  and 
fabrics  waterproof,  for  motion-picture  film  much 
tougher  than  cellulose  acetate  and  therefore  more 
suitable  for  color  photography,  linings  for  con- 
tainers, transparent  window  sheets,  and  artificial 
patent  leather.  DuPont  also  announced  two  wool- 
like  fibers .  one  of  rayon,  Fiber  D,  which  will  be 
used  for  light-colored  carpets,  the  other  a  poly- 
amide  said  to  have  the  crimp  and  heat-insulating 
properties  of  wool ,  also,  a  variety  of  methacrylate 
emulsion  finishes  for  bodying  fabrics  The  name 
prolon  has  been  suggested  for  casein  wool 

Toluene.  The  lower-boiling  hydrocarbons  in  pe- 
troleum are  mostly  straight-chains  Catalytic  cy- 
clization  at  932°  F  and  atmospheric  pressure  con- 
verts them  into  toluene,  benzene,  and  the  xylencs, 
basic  materials  for  explosives  such  as  TNT,  picric 
acid,  and  tnnitro-xylenes  First  barrel  of  synthetic 
toluene  from  petroleum  was  taken  off  during  the 
summer  of  1940  by  Shell  from  a  2,000,000  gal 
plant  at  Houston,  Texas,  using  an  extraction  proc- 
ess By  catalytic  tychzation  Shell  can  boost  this 
output  five- fold,  if  necessary,  furnishing  50,000 
tons  of  TNT 

X-Ray  in  Industry.  The  X-ray  machine  has 
gone  into  business  Detroit  Fdison  Company  peri- 
odically examines  poles  for  sound  interiors  Citrus- 
fruit  growers  sort  out  frozen  fruit,  in  one  case 
$250,000  worth  of  X-ray  equipment  saved  $7,500,- 
000  worth  of  oranges,  Peanuts,  candy,  chewing- 
gum,  and  tobacco  are  examined  for  pebbles  and 
dirt  The  Firestone  Tire  and  Rubber  Company 
Service  Stations  are  installing  machines  to  detect 
hidden  nails,  and  fabric  breaks,  potential  blow-out 
spots  X-rays  make  feet  comfortable  in  5000  shoe 
stores  Golf  balls  are  X-rayed  to  check  on  the  cen- 
tering of  the  core  Airplane  parts,  steam  tubing 
for  submarines,  80  miles  of  welds  in  Boulder  Dam 
all  are  scrutinized  by  this  piercing  ray  Cultured 
pearls  are  quickly  spotted  In  the  museum  old  mas- 
terpieces are  identified,  and  in  one  instance  a  4000- 
year-old  crime  was  exposed  when  it  was  discovered 
that  some  ancient  undertaker  had  cleverly  wrapped 
head,  arms,  and  legs  to  resemble  a  perfect  mummy 

Awards  and  Medals.  The  Royal  Society  con- 
ferred its  Copley  Medal  on  Prof.  Paul  Langevm, 
French  physicist;  its  Davy  Medal  went  toH  C 
Urey  of  Columbia,  discoverer  of  heavy  hydrogen , 
and  the  Hughes  Medal  to  A  H  Compton,  author- 
ity on  cosmic  rays.  Other  awards  were-  Perkm 
Medal  for  1941  to  J  V.  Door,  Schoelkopf  Medal 
to  W  H  Bradshaw  who  developed  Cordura  ray- 
on;  T.  W  Richards  Medal  to  C.  S.  Hudson ;  Herty 
Medal  to  J  Sam  Guy  of  Emory  University 

One  of  the  highest  honors  of  the  American  Sec- 
tion of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  the  Per- 
kin  Medal  was  awarded  to  C  M  Stine  of  duPont 
for  his  contribution  to  the  growth  of  chemical  in- 
dustry in  the  United  States.  In  his  acceptance 


speech  Stine  pointed  out  that,  contrary  to  popular 
belief,  American  Chemical  industry  was  large  pri- 
or to  the  World  War,  but  chiefly  in  the  inorganic 
field.  For  example,  the  United  States  produced 
three  times  as  much  sulphuric  acid  as  Germany  in 
1910,  and  twice  as  much  alkalies  as  England  The 
organic  field  was  sadly  neglected  in  the  United 
States  until  the  start  of  the  war.  The  gigantic  in- 
dustry which  has  since  arisen  represents  enormous 
American  investments  and  effort.  Stine  revealed 
that  the  duPont  Company  alone  spent  $40,000,000 
in  research  before  a  single  cent  of  profit  was  re- 
alized 

The  medal  of  the  Canadian  Section  of  the  Soci- 
ety of  Chemical  Industry  was  presented  to  F.  J. 
Hambly  in  recognition  of  his  services  to  Canadian 
industries  in  the  electric  reduction  of  phosphates 
and  the  production  of  chemicals  therefrom 

See  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY  AND  ENGINEER- 
ING, BUREAU  OF;  GLASS,  HORTICULTURE  RUBBER, 
etc 

HUBERT  N   ALYEA 

CHESS.  Mental  colossi  waged  sedentary  com- 
bat for  hours  on  hours  in  1940  and  the  world  of 
chess  was  more  or  less  enriched  thereby  Dr  Max 
Euwe  of  Amsterdam,  Holland,  crossed  intellectual 
swords  with  Paul  Keres  of  Estonia  and  the  latter 
was  pronounced  the  victor  by  one  slim  point  Keres 
afterward  engaged  in  the  12th  tournament  for  the 
championship  of  the  Soviet  Union  at  Moscow, 
where  he  finished  fourth  This  important  contest 
ended  in  a  tie  between  Igor  Bonderefsky  of  Ros- 
tov-on-Don and  Andrea  Lihenthal  of  Budapest, 
who  acquired  Russian  citizenship  in  1939 

An  international  master's  tournament  was  played 
in  Havana  early  in  the  year  with  Isaac  I  Kashdan 
of  New  York  carrying  off  the  honors  His  nearest 
rival  was  George  Koltanowski  of  Belgium. 

In  the  United  States,  the  chief  event  of  the  year 
was  the  national  championship  tournament  held 
(for  the  first  time)  under  the  auspices  of  the  new- 
ly organized  United  States  Chess  Federation  in 
New  York.  Samuel  Reshevsky,  for  the  third  time 
in  a  row,  was  the  victor  The  "open"  tournament 
of  the  federation,  staged  subsequently  in  Dallas, 
was  won  by  Reuben  Fine  of  New  York,  who  was 
runner-up  to  Reshevsky  in  the  New  York  tilt 

Chessy  women  continued  to  command  their  por- 
tion of  attention  The  national  championship  was 
captured  by  Mrs  Adele  Rivero  of  New  York, 
with  Miss  N.  May  Karff  of  Boston,  the  ex-cham- 
pion, as  runner-up  Miss  Karff  won  the  play-off 
that  broke  the  triple  tie  among  herself,  Mrs  Mary 
Bain,  and  Dr  Helen  Weissenstem  for  the  Ameri- 
can Chess  Federation  title 

Reuben  Fine  won  the  championship  at  the  Mar- 
shall Chess  Club  and  Arnold  S.  Denker,  former 
State  champion,  was  first  at  the  Manhattan  Chess 
Club  contest  The  New  York  State  title  devolved 
on  Robert  Willman  The  Manhattan  Chess  Club 
was  supreme  in  the  Metropolitan  Chess  League 

Yale  was  victor  in  the  annual  tournament  of  the 
H  Y.P.D  College  Chess  League,  and  Brooklyn 
College  won  the  Harold  M  Phillips  Trophy  in  the 
Intercollegiate  Chess  League. 

CHILD  LABOR.  See  CHILDREN'S  BUREAU, 
LABOR  CONDITIONS;  LABOR  LEGISLATION;  NEW 
JERSEY  under  History 

CHILD  PSYCHOLOGY.  See  PSYCHOLOGY 

CHILDREN'S  BUREAU.  The  Children's 
Bureau,  U  S.  Department  of  Labor,  was  established 
in  1912  to  carry  on  research  and  provide  informs- 


CHILDREN'S  BUREAU 


126 


CHILDREN'S  BUREAU 


tion  and  advisory  service  on  child  life  in  the  Unit- 
ed States.  In  1935  it  was  authorized  by  the  Social 
Security  Act  to  administer  three  programs  for 
grants  to  States  for  maternal  and  child- welfare 
services.  In  1938  it  was  designated  the  Federal 
agency  to  administer  the  child-labor  provisions  of 
the  Fair  Labor  Standards  Act 

The  White  House  Conference  on  Children  in  a 
Democracy,  called  by  the  Secretary  of  Labor  at 
the  direction  of  the  President,  at  its  meeting,  Jan. 
18-20,  1940,  adopted  a  general  report  reviewing 
the  record  of  progress  in  the  United  States  in  re- 
lation to  children  for  the  decade  1930-40  and  out- 
lined objectives  to  be  sought  during  the  decade 
ahead  The  keynote  of  the  report  was  "Our  con- 
cern, every  child"  The  recommendations  dealt 
with  the  family  as  the  threshold  of  democracy,  the 
economic  basis  of  family  life,  the  family  dwelling, 
religion  in  the  lives  of  children,  education,  leisure- 
time  services,  protection  against  child  labor,  youth 
and  their  needs,  child  health,  social  services  for 
children,  including  those  in  need  of  protection  in 
migrant  families  and  in  minority  groups,  and  pub- 
lic administration  and  financing  of  services  for 
children.  The  Chief  of  the  Children's  Bureau 
served  as  the  executive  secretary  of  the  confer- 
ence, and  the  Children's  Bureau  is  issuing  the  con- 
ference publications. 

A  National  Citizens  Committee,  a  Federal  In- 
teragency  Committee,  and  national  organizations 
are  taking  the  lead  in  follow-up  activities  State 
follow-up  committees  and  local  groups  are  con- 
sidering action  needed  to  bring  their  children's  pro- 
grams in  line  with  the  recommendations  made.  The 
National  Citizens  Committee  in  June,  1940,  ex- 
pressed its  belief  that  child  welfare  and  national 
security  are  inseparable  and  that  the  program  rec- 
ommended will  make  for  national  unity  and  will 
strengthen  the  democratic  institutions  of  the  coun- 
try 

Pursuant  to  an  order  issued  by  the  U  S  Depart- 
ments of  State  and  Justice  permitting  the  entry  of 
children  to  the  United  States  for  the  duration  of 
the  war,  the  Children's  Bureau  issued  standards 
for  the  reception,  placement,  and  care  of  children 
brought  over  under  the  auspices  of  the  U  S  Com- 
mittee for  the  Care  of  European  Children  and 
similar  organizations  and  established  a  register  of 
children  coming  to  the  United  States  without  both 
parents  Up  to  the  first  of  January,  1941,  approxi- 
mately 850  children  had  entered  the  United  States 
under  the  auspices  of  the  committee,  and  approxi- 
mately 4000  under  other  auspices  The  British 
Cabinet  decided  in  October  to  suspend  temporarily 
the  sending  of  children  overseas 

The  Council  of  National  Defense  in  November, 
1940,  established  the  office  of  defense  co-ordinator 
of  health,  welfare,  and  related  activities  affecting 
national  defense,  and  designated  the  administrator 
of  the  Federal  Security  Agency  as  co-ordmator. 
The  Children's  Bureau  is  co-operating  in  the  de- 
velopment of  this  program.  See  NATIONAL  DE- 
FENSE ADVISORY  COMMISSION 

The  research  program  of  the  Children's  Bureau 
during  1940  included  studies  of  the  growth  and  de- 
velopment of  newborn  infants,  incubators  for  pre- 
mature infants,  the  effect  of  rickets  on  the  pelves 
of  adolescent  children ;  community  studies  of  con- 
ditions affecting  children ;  a  demonstration  project 
in  the  prevention  of  juvenile  delinquency  in  St 
Paul,  Minn. ;  studies  of  State  training  schools  for 
socially  maladjusted  children;  and  studies  of  the 
employment  of  minors  in  vegetable  canneries,  in 


industrial  home  work,  and  in  certain  occupations 
particularly  hazardous  for  the  employment  of  mi- 
nors. Current  statistics  are  collected  on  health  and 
welfare  activities  in  urban  areas,  on  delinquency 
cases  handled  by  juvenile  courts,  and  on  the  issu- 
ance of  employment  certificates.  Information  and 
advisory  services  are  currently  given  on  child 
growth  and  development,  problems  associated  with 
illegitimacy,  housekeeper  and  homemaker  service 
for  families,  administrative  problems  of  public  and 
private  child-placing  and  child-caring  agencies,  the 
prevention  and  treatment  of  juvenile  delinquency, 
employment  of  children  and  minors,  and  legislation 
relating  to  these  and  similar  subjects 

Research  publications  issued  during  1940  includ- 
ed No.  250,  Children  in  the  Courts,  1937,  No.  256, 
Junior  Placement — a  survey  of  junior-placement 
offices  in  public-employment  centers  and  in  public- 
school  systems  of  the  United  States;  No  262, 
Problems  and  Procedures  in  Adoption;  No  263, 
Methods  of  Assessing  the  Physical  Fitness  of 
Children ;  and  No.  264,  Directory  of  State,  Coun- 
ty, and  Municipal  Training  Schools  Caring  for 
Delinquent  Children  in  the  United  States.  The 
Children's  Bureau  issues  a  monthly  news  bulletin, 
The  Child,  that  contains  articles  on  current  re- 
search and  activities  in  the  fields  of  child  health 
and  welfare 

More  than  2,000,000  copies  of  the  Children's  Bu- 
reau publications  on  child  care  and  training  were 
distributed  during  the  year  ended  June  30,  1940. 
More  than  1,000,000  copies  of  Infant  Care  were 
distributed  A  new  series  of  folders  on  child 
growth  and  nutrition  were  issued  in  the  fall  of 
1940 

Federal  grants  to  the  States  for  maternal  and 
child-health  services  administered  by  the  Children's 
Bureau  were  substantially  increased  in  1940  as  a 
result  of  the  Social  Security  Act  Amendments  of 

1939  that  raised  to  $5,820,000  the  sum  authorized 
for  annual  appropriation  for  this   purpose    The 
State  health  agencies  used  the  increased  funds  in 
large  part  to  extend  local  maternal  and  child-health 
services,  thereby  increasing  the  number  of  centers 
where  prenatal  and  child-health  conferences  are 
conducted  by  physicians  and  the  number  of  home 
and  office  visits  made  by  public-health  nurses  for 
maternal,  infant,  pre-school,  and  school  hygiene, 
and  increasing  the  medical  and  dental  supervision 
of  the  health  of  school  children  Two-thirds  of  the 
State  health  agencies  now  employ  nutritionists  to 
give  consultation  service  on  nutrition  in  relation  to 
the  maternal  and  child-health  program   The  pro- 
gram for  postgraduate  education  of  practicing  phy- 
sicians has  been   further  developed  through  the 
employment  of  additional  obstetric  and  pediatnc 
consultants  in  State  bureaus  of  maternal  and  child 
health  and  through  resident  courses  at  university 
medical  centers.  Ten  States  have  undertaken  local 
demonstration  projects  in  complete  maternity  care, 
including  prenatal  care,  medical  and  nursing  care 
at  delivery  with  hospitalization  if  necessary,  and 
postpartum  care  for  mothers  in  families  that  can- 
not provide  such  care.  The  Children's  Bureau  in 

1940  issued  two  publications  for  use  in  the  mater- 
nal   and   child-health    program — A    Manual   for 
Teaching  Midwives  and  The  Child-Health  Con- 
ference ;  Suggestions  for  Organisation  and  Proce- 
dure. 

The  maternal  mortality  rate  for  1939  was  40 
deaths  from  puerperal  causes  per  10,000  live  births, 
a  decrease  of  31  per  cent  from  the  rate  in  1935 
(58),  the  year  in  which  Federal  aid  to  the  States 


CHILDREN'S  BUREAU 


127 


CHILDREN'S  BUREAU 


for  maternal  and  child-health  services  was  author- 
ized. The  infant  mortality  rate  for  1939  was  48 
deaths  of  infants  under  1  year  per  1000  live  births, 
a  decrease  of  14  per  cent  from  the  1935  rate  (56). 
Special  effort  is  being  made  in  the  State  and  local 
maternal  and  child-health  programs  to  provide 
care  for  infants  born  prematurely  and  to  prevent 
deaths  during  the  first  month  of  life. 

The  Children's  Bureau  Advisory  Committee  on 
Maternal  and  Child  Health  Services  in  December, 
1940,  recommended  development  of  an  adequate 
maternal  and  child-health  program  commensurate 
with  existing  needs  for  health  services  and  medical 
care  through  substantially  increased  Federal  grants 
to  States. 

Federal  grants  to  the  States  for  services  for 
crippled  children  were  also  increased  during  1940 
to  $3,870,000  annually  as  a  result  of  the  Social  Se- 
curity Act  Amendments  of  1939  Although  previ- 
ously it  was  necessary  for  the  State  crippled  chil- 
dren's agencies  to  match  all  the  Federal  grants  ac- 
cepted, the  1939  amendments  made  one  million  dol- 
lars available  each  year  for  grants  to  the  States 
without  a  matching  requirement  This  fund,  al- 
lotted on  the  basis  of  need,  has  permitted  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  crippled  children's  programs  in  the 
States  where  financial  resources  are  limited,  and 
has  enabled  other  States  to  expand  their  programs 
to  take  care  of  needs  hitherto  unmet 

The  State  crippled  children's  registers  in  Sep- 
tember, 1940,  showed  280,000  crippled  children  list- 
ed after  examination  by  a  physician  Each  year 
crippled  children  are  making  approximately  190,- 
000  visits  to  the  State  crippled  children's  clinics 
for  diagnosis  or  treatment ,  about  29,000  crippled 
children  are  being  given  approximately  1,400,000 
days  of  hospital  care ,  and  additional  care  in  con- 
valescent homes  and  foster  homes  is  being  provid- 
ed The  State  agencies  increasingly  are  able  to 
make  provision  for  medical  care  for  children  who 
need  to  be  hospitalized,  and  to  provide  medical, 
nursing,  and  social  supervision  and  physical  thera- 
py for  children  who  have  returned  home  from  the 
hospital 

To  date,  most  of  the  children  cared  for  under 
the  State  programs  have  been  children  suffering 
from  orthopedic  or  plastic  conditions  With  the 
additional  funds  made  available  in  1940,  10  States 
have  undertaken  programs  for  children  with  heart 
disease,  usually  the  result  of  rheumatic  fever 
Other  States  are  preparing  to  start  similar  pro- 
grams 

During  1940  the  incidence  of  poliomyelitis  was 
relatively  high  in  the  north-central  and  western 
States,  although  the  total  number  of  cases  for  the 
country  as  a  whole  was  not  abnormally  high  Be- 
cause Federal  funds  were  available  for  grants 
without  a  matching  requirement,  the  Children's 
Bureau  was  able  to  arrange  promptly  for  addition- 
al grants  to  the  States  affected  so  as  to  enable  the 
State  crippled  children's  agencies  to  give  immedi- 
ate care  when  needed  and,  following  the  acute 
stage  of  the  disease,  to  give  the  treatment  that  in 
many  cases  will  prevent  the  crippling  effects  of  the 
disease. 

On  June  30,  1940,  the  welfare  agencies  of  the  48 
States,  the  District  of  Columbia,  Ahska,  Hawaii, 
and  Puerto  Rico  with  Federal  grants  for  child- 
welfare  services  administered  by  the  Children's 
Bureau,  were  providing  part  of  the  cost  of  child- 
welfare  services  in  512  counties  and  10  local  areas 
composed  of  69  towns.  In  six  States  workers  on 
State  staffs  were  giving  some  service  to  individual 


children  on  a  district  basis.  In  addition,  a  large 
number  of  other  areas  were  aided  by  State  services 
through  consultation  and  occasional  case  work  Re- 
ports from  46  States,  Alaska,  and  Hawaii  for  Oc- 
tober, 1940,  showed  that  42,500  children  were  re- 
ceiving service  from  workers  paid  in  whole  or  in 
part  from  Federal  funds  Seventy-five  per  cent  of 
these  children  were  in  their  own  homes  or  the 
homes  of  relatives  and  the  others  were  receiving 
foster  care  or  were  under  care  elsewhere. 

To  the  child-welfare  worker  are  referred  chil- 
dren who  are  homeless,  dependent,  neglected,  and 
in  danger  of  becoming  delinquent  She  studies  with 
the  family  the  child's  need  and  draws  upon  the 
available  community  resources  for  meeting  that 
need.  Her  reports  to  community  agencies  of  facili- 
ties needed  for  children  frequently  result  in  joint 
effort  to  provide  the  necessary  facilities.  The  work 
of  the  local  child-welfare  worker  is  strengthened 
by  advisory  and  consultation  service  from  the  su- 
pervisory unit  for  child-welfare  services  in  the 
State  welfare  department,  which  is  also  responsi- 
ble for  the  development  of  local  child- welfare 
services  in  additional  areas  and  other  functions  re- 
lating to  community  child-welfare  services 

The  Children's  Bureau  Advisory  Committee  on 
Community  Child  Welfare  Services  in  December, 
1940,  recommended  additional  Federal  grants  for 
this  purpose  in  order  to  assure  the  continuation 
and  progressive  development  of  such  services  and 
urged  the  provision  of  child-welfare  services  sore- 
ly needed  in  many  communities  affected  by  the  de- 
fense program. 

Puerto  Rico  was  made  eligible  for  Federal 
grants  under  title  V  of  the  Social  Security  Act  by 
the  1939  amendments.  By  July,  1940,  grants  to 
Puerto  Rico  were  being  made  under  all  three  pro- 
grams administered  by  the  Children's  Bureau 

During  1940  the  Children's  Bureau  made  prog- 
ress in  the  enforcement  of  the  child-labor  provi- 
sions of  the  Fair  Labor  Standards  Act  of  1938 
that,  in  effect,  prohibit  the  employment  of  minors 
under  16  years  of  age  in  establishments  producing 
goods  for  shipment  in  interstate  commerce  and  the 
employment  of  minors  under  18  in  such  establish- 
ments at  occupations  found  and  declared  hazardous 
by  the  Chief  of  the  Children's  Bureau  At  the  close 
of  the  year  the  Children's  Bureau  had  designated 
42  States  and  the  District  of  Columbia,  Hawaii, 
and  Puerto  Rico  in  which  the  State  employment 
certificate  in  the  hands  of  the  employer  is  recog- 
nized as  satisfactory  proof  of  age  under  the  Fair 
Labor  Standards  Act  In  4  States  the  Children's 
Bureau  was  issuing  Federal  certificates  of  age 
with  the  co-operation  of  State  and  local  officials, 
and  the  other  two  States  and  Alaska  were  still 
operating  under  the  regulation  providing  that  em- 
ployers may  protect  themselves  from  unintentional 
violation  by  obtaining  birth  certificates  or  baptis- 
mal certificates  for  their  minor  employees  Investi- 
gations were  made  of  2264  establishments  by  rep- 
resentatives of  the  Children's  Bureau  in  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1940  Working  arrangements  with 
the  Wage  and  Hour  Division  (q  v  )  and  the  Divi- 
sion of  Public  Contracts  of  the  Department  of  La- 
bor extended  the  effectiveness  of  the  inspection 
program.  Connecticut,  Minnesota,  North  Carolina, 
and  the  District  of  Columbia  are  co-operating  with 
the  Wage  and  Hour  Division  and  the  Children's 
Bureau  in  making  inspections  under  the  Fair  La- 
bor Standards  Act  with  reimbursement  for  such 
service.  A  total  of  1049  children  tinder  36  years  of 
age  were  found  employed  in  violation  of  the  child- 


CHILDREN'S  FUND  OF  MICHIGAN    128 


CHILE 


labor  provisions  of  the  Federal  act  during  the  fis- 
cal year  1940.  Forty  minors  under  18  years  of  age, 
including  seven  of  those  under  16,  were  found  em- 
ployed in  violation  of  hazardous-occupations  or- 
ders. In  two  criminal  cases  during  the  year  ended 
June  30,  1940— one  against  a  manufacturer  of  lot- 
tery tickets  and  the  other  against  a  manufacturer 
of  artificial  flowers — oppressive  child  labor  in  in- 
dustrial home  work  was  found  to  exist  in  violation 
of  the  Federal  act.  Fourteen  civil  cases  which  were 
closed  by  consent  decrees  enjoining  against  future 
violations  involved  seven  canneries,  one  boot  and 
shoe  factory,  one  manufacturer  of  crates,  cups, 
and  boxes,  and  industrial  home  work  in  connection 
with  five  establishments  manufacturing  hairpins, 
shade  pulls,  or  paper  cups 

Three  orders  under  the  Fair  Labor  Standards 
Act  have  been  issued  by  the  Chief  of  the  Children's 
Bureau  declaring  occupations  in  certain  industries 
hazardous  for  minors  16  and  17  years  of  age,  there- 
by making  illegal  such  employment  in  establish- 
ments producing  goods  for  shipment  in  interstate 
commerce.  The  first,  effective  July  1,  1939,  declared 
hazardous  for  minors  16  and  17  years  of  age  all 
occupations  in  establishments  manufacturing  ex- 
plosives or  articles  containing  explosive  compo- 
nents ,  the  second,  effective  Jan  1,  1940,  declared 
hazardous  for  such  minors  the  occupations  of  mo- 
tor-vehicle driver  and  helper  in  establishments  sub- 
ject to  the  act ,  the  third,  effective  Sept  1,  1940, 
declared  hazardous  for  workers  under  18  all  occu- 
pations in  or  about  coal  mines  except  certain  speci- 
fied surface  occupations  Investigation  is  under  way 
of  the  hazards  for  minors  in  the  sawmill  industry, 
on  woodworking  machines,  and  in  the  shipbuilding 
industry  See  JUVENILE  DELINQUENCY.  For  aid  to 
dependent  children,  see  table  under  RELIEF 

KATHARINF  F.  LENROOT 

CHILDREN'S  FUND   OF  MICHIGAN. 

See  BENEFACTIONS 

CHILD  WELFARE.  See  BKNEFACTIONS; 
CHILDREN'S  BUREAU,  SOCIAL  SLCURITY  BOARD 

CHILE.  A  South  American  republic  Capital, 
Santiago 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  286,396  square 
miles ,  population,  5,000,782  at  1940  census  (4,287,- 
445  in  1930)  Of  105,463  aliens  residing  in  Chile 
in  1930,  23,439  were  Spaniards,  11,070  Italians, 
and  10,861  Germans.  United  States  citizens  num- 
bered 1215  on  Jan.  1,  1940  Chileans  are  predomi- 
nantly of  European  (chiefly  Spanish)  origin  but 
there  is  a  considerable  Indian  strain  in  the  lower 
classes.  Estimated  populations  of  the  chief  cities 
in  1939  were  Santiago,  829,830 ,  Valparaiso,  263,- 
228;  Concepcion,  77,589;  Antofagasta,  53,591;  Vi- 
na del  Mar.  49,488,  Iquique,  46,458;  Talca,  45,- 
020,  Chilian,  39,511 

Defense.  Under  the  compulsory  military  serv- 
ice system,  all  youths  of  20  are  called  to  the  colors, 
mostly  for  a  year  and  a  half,  and  then  serve  in 
the  reserve  until  45  As  of  Nov  1,  1939,  the  active 
army  numbered  40,915  and  trained  reserves  212,- 
000;  active  air  force,  2962  men,  with  over  200 
airplanes  The  navy  comprises  1  battleship,  3 
cruisers,  8  large  destroyers,  9  submarines,  and  var- 
ious auxiliary  vessels,  manned  by  about  8000  men 
in  all. 

Education  and  Religion.  Elementary  educa- 
tion is  conpulsory,  but  about  25  per  cent  of  all 
adults  remain  illiterate.  In  1940  there  were  esti- 
mated to  be  900,000  children  of  school  age,  of 
whom  583,664  were  enrolled  in  public  schools  and 


90,595  in  834  private  schools.  Of  the  private 
schools,  657  received  state  aid.  The  five  universi- 
ties had  6195  students  in  1938.  Roman  Catholicism 
is  professed  by  the  great  majority  of  Chileans, 
but  the  Church  was  disestablished  in  1925. 

Production.  At  the  1930  census,  37.8  per  cent 
of  the  working  population  was  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture and  22  1  per  cent  in  industry  and  mining. 
Yields  of  the  chief  crops  in  1938-39  were  (in 
metric  tons)-  Wheat,  967,100;  barley,  109,000; 
oats,  152,700;  corn,  63,450;  beans,  71,340;  lentils, 
19,130;  peas,  20,000;  potatoes,  486,600,  chickpeas, 
5000.  Grapes  and  other  fruit  are  extensively  culti- 
vated In  1938  there  were  2,634,499  cattle,  5,749,- 
069  sheep,  527,827  horses,  571,495  swine,  and  93,- 
525  mules  and  asses.  Wool  exports  (1939),  were 
36,579,400  Ib  Mineral  output  in  1939  was  (in  met- 
ric tons)  Copper,  339,173;  nitrate,  1,445,999, 
iron  ore,  1,625,622;  coal,  1,882,206,  gold,  22,242 
Ib. ;  silver,  73,034  Ib.  The  average  number  of 
workers  employed  in  mining  in  1939  was  61,560 
Industrial  output  in  1939  included  Cement,  8,018,- 
000  bags  (of  93.5  Ib  )  ,  coke,  85,032,000  kilos  (of 
2.2  Ib.)  ;  knitting  wool,  354,000  kilos ,  cloth,  3,243,- 
000  meters,  refined  sugar,  120,921,000  kilos;  beer, 
68,272,000  liters.  Paper,  tobacco,  shoes,  glass,  etc  , 
are  manufactured.  Wages  paid  to  industrial  work- 
men in  1939  totaled  2,018,900,000  pesos 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1939  were  valued  at 
410,833,000  gold  pesos  ($84,673,000)  and  exports 
at  671,365,000  gold  pesos  ($138,368,000)  As  com- 
pared with  1938,  imports  declined  by  177  per  cent 
and  exports  by  1  7  per  cent.  Leading  1939  exports 
were  (in  gold  pesos)  •  Copper  bars,  331,640,000, 
nitrate,  127,426,000;  gold  and  silver  ores,  35,612,- 
000 ,  wool,  27,740,000  The  United  States  supplied 
31  1  per  cent  of  the  1939  imports;  Germany,  227, 
Great  Britain,  83  Of  the  exports  (excluding  ni- 
trate), the  United  States  took  30.5  per  cent,  Great 
Britain,  12  3  ,  Germany,  8  4  See  TRADE,  FOREIGN 

Finance.  Ordinary  budget  estimates  for  1940 
Revenues,  1,771,433,000  paper  pesos,  expenditures, 
1,771,373,000.  Actual  returns  for  1939  (ordinary 
budget)  Revenues,  1,792,524,000  paper  pesos,  ex- 
penditures, 1,777,383,000  The  1939  receipts  in- 
cluded a  surplus  of  14,940,000  pesos  carried  over 
from  1938  For  special  budget,  see  History  Long- 
term  foreign  debt  on  Dec  31,  1939:  $176,424,000 
(U.S.  currency),  £27,763,571,  and  108,994,000 
Swiss  francs  Unfunded  foreign  debt  (Dec.  31, 
1938),  $26,593,082  and  £ 3,434,350,  total  internal 
debt,  1,851,732,768  paper  pesos 

The  gold  peso,  used  only  for  foreign  trade  sta- 
tistics, was  equivalent  to  $02060.  Average  ex- 
change rates  of  the  paper  peso  for  1939:  Official, 
$0.052  C$0  052  in  1938)  ,  curb,  $0  0308  ($0.0363  in 
1938);  free,  $00322. 

Transportation,  etc.  Chile  in  1940  had  about 
5450  miles  of  railway  line  (1815  miles  privately 
owned),  22,613  miles  of  highways  (see  ROADS 
AND  STREETS),  and  domestic  and  foreign  air  serv- 
ices linking  all  the  chief  cities  with  the  inter- 
American  and  European  air  networks.  The  State 
railways  showed  an  operating  loss  of  4,142,172  pe- 
sos for  1939  (ordinary  budget  for  1940,  482,000,- 
000  pesos).  Reconditioning  of  the  Transandine 
tunnel  to  permit  both  railway  and  automobile  traf- 
fic to  and  from  Argentina  was  announced  in  Feb- 
ruary. The  Deutsche  Luft  Hansa  line  between 
Santiago  and  Rio  de  Janeiro  was  reopened  Mar. 
18,  1940,  after  a  six-months1  interruption.  Chilean 
national  airlines  in  1939  carried  3174  passengers, 
14,483  kilos  of  freight,  and  8310  kilos  of  mail. 


CHILE 


129 


CHILE 


The  Chilean  merchant  marine  comprised  106  ships 
of  176,289  tons  on  June  30,  1939. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  Oct.  18, 
1925,  vested  executive  powers  in  a  President,  elect- 
ed by  popular  vote  for  six  years  and  ineligible  to 
succeed  himself,  and  legislative  powers  in  a  popu- 
larly elected  Congress  consisting  of  a  Senate  of 
45  members  serving  for  eight  years  and  a  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  of  146  members  serving  four 
years.  Pedro  Aguirre  Cerda  (Radical)  was  elected 
President  by  a  Popular  Front  coalition  on  Oct 
25,  1938,  and  assumed  office  Dec.  24,  1938.  His 
cabinet  as  reorganized  Dec.  26,  1939,  represented 
a  coalition  of  the  Radical,  Socialist,  and  Demo- 
cratic parties. 

HISTORY 

President  Aguirre  Cerda's  Popular  Front  gov- 
ernment continued  throughput  1940  on  the  stormy 
course  that  had  marked  its  first  year  in  office 
(see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  135  f.).  Seething  politi- 
cal passions  repeatedly  threatened  to  erupt  into 
civil  war.  The  spread  of  the  European  conflict 
eliminated  additional  Chilean  export  markets  and 
added  to  the  difficulties  of  the  government's  eco- 
nomic and  financial  problems.  While  the  country 
was  still  struggling  to  recover  from  the  destructive 
earthquake  of  1939,  two  great  storms  inflicted 
heavy  damage  in  north  and  central  Chile.  Never- 
theless the  government  proceeded  with  its  program 
of  economic  and  social  rehabilitation  and  won  in- 
creased political  support. 

Political  Trends.  The  Popular  Front  coalition 
of  Radicals,  Socialists,  Communists,  Radical  So- 
cialists, and  Democratics  held  together  during 
1940  only  because  of  the  constant  threat  of  a 
rightist  coup.  Deep  cleavages  developed  within 
the  two  largest  parties  supporting  the  government 
— the  Radicals  and  Socialists.  Strong  elements  in 
both  parties  displayed  increasing  reluctance  to  con- 
tinue their  co-operation  with  the  Communists,  and 
made  repeated  moves  to  form  a  new  coalition  ex- 
cluding the  Communists  and  including  middle-of- 
the-road  elements  within  the  opposing  right  wing 
coalition.  These  dissensions  within  the  Popular 
Front  were  reflected  in  successive  reshufflmgs  of 
the  cabinet  and  frequent  changes  in  party  execu- 
tive committees. 

Lacking  majorities  in  both  houses  of  Congress, 
the  government  was  obliged  to  make  deals  with 
small  groups  within  the  opposition  coalition  to  ob- 
tain the  enactment  of  legislation.  The  secession 
from  the  government  ranks  of  the  extremist  Chil- 
ean Nazi  party,  which  had  been  reorganized  as  the 
Popular  Socialist  Vanguard,  added  to  the  general 
political  tension.  Its  affiliation  with  the  conserva- 
tive opposition  bloc  had  precisely  the  same  effect 
as  the  presence  of  the  Communists  in  the  Popular 
Front  Co-operation  by  elements  within  the  bloc 
was  made  more  difficult  while  the  opposing  coali- 
tion was  forced  into  closer  unity  by  the  threat  of 
violence  implicit  in  the  Popular  Socialist  Van- 
guard's program.  At  the  same  time  the  political 
situation  was  further  complicated  by  the  increas- 
ingly bold  propaganda  and  activities  of  the  Ger- 
man Nazi  groups  in  Chile  following  the  German 
military  successes  in  Europe. 

In  this  delicate  situation,  President  Aguirre 
Cerda  followed  a  middle-of-the-road  policy  that 
antagonized  extremists  in  both  camps.  His  politi- 
cal appointments  and  his  outlawing  of  a  long 
strike  of  Santiago  newspaper  workers,  directed  at 
both  rightist  and  leftist  publications,  provoked  at- 


tacks from  Communists  and  extreme  Socialists. 
The  rightist  groups  violently  criticized  him  for 
invoking  the  internal  security  law  against  opposi- 
tion conspiracies  and  refusing  to  permit  the  return 
to  Chile  of  Gustavo  Ross,  unsuccessful  rightist 
Presidential  candidate  in  the  1938  elections.  De- 
spite their  deep  differences,  the  Popular  Front  par- 
ties rallied  to  the  support  of  the  President  when- 
ever he  became  involved  in  controversy  with  the 
opposition. 

Tension  between  right  and  left  again  neared  the 
breaking  point  when  President  Aguirre  Cerda  on 
July  11  pardoned  police  officers  serving  prison 
sentences  for  their  pan  in  the  "massacre"  of  58 
youths  participating  in  the  Nazi  revolt  of  Septem- 
ber, 1938.  This  provoked  new  and  more  virulent 
attacks  by  the  Popular  Socialist  Vanguard,  the 
Fascist  Nationalist  party  and  other  rightist  ele- 
ments. The  police  then  raided  the  headquarters 
of  these  two  parties  and  arrested  many  of  their 
leaders,  announcing  that  they  had  nipped  a  re- 
actionary revolt  plot  in  the  bud.  (Later  20  lead- 
ers of  the  Nationalist  party  were  convicted  and 
sentenced  to  prison  for  subversive  activity.)  The 
government  also  ordered  the  suspension  of  two 
violently  anti-administration  newspapers  in  San- 
tiago. 

Immediately  afterward  (July  16)  the  Franco 
Government  in  Spain  severed  diplomatic  relations 
with  Chile,  adding  to  the  tension.  There  appeared 
imminent  danger  that  the  well-organized  and 
armed  Nazi  movement  among  Chileans  of  Ger- 
man descent  would  seize  the  opportunity  present- 
ed by  internal  disorders  to  install  a  pro-German, 
totalitarian  regime  at  Santiago.  To  forestall  this 
danger,  moderate  leaders  in  the  Popular  Front 
and  opposition  blocs  made  successive  efforts  to  ne- 
gotiate a  political  truce.  This  caused  further  dis- 
sension within  the  Popular  Front,  leading  to  an- 
other severe  cabinet  crisis  at  the  end  of  July. 

The  effort  to  find  a  basis  of  co-operation  be- 
tween the  government  parties  and  the  opposition 
broke  down  in  September  when  the  President  re- 
jected a  10-point  program  drawn  up  by  the  right- 
ist leaders.  It  called  for  the  outlawing  of  the 
Communist  party,  a  general  amnesty,  the  return 
of  Gustavo  Ross,  strict  application  of  the  Labor 
Code,  etc.  The  opposition  Conservative  and  Lib- 
eral parties  then  joined  forces  with  the  Popular 
Socialist  Vanguard  in  an  anti-Communist  crusade. 
On  October  18  they  held  a  great  mass  meeting  in 
the  capital  in  protest  against  Communist  activities, 
while  a  larger  Popular  Front  demonstration 
against  "Nazism  and  rightist  reaction"  was  held 
a  short  distance  away.  Four  days  later  the  Con- 
servative President  of  the  Senate  called  Congress 
into  special  session,  over  the  opposition  of  Presi- 
dent Aguirre  Cerda,  to  consider  a  bill  outlawing 
the  Communist  party. 

After  a  series  of  victories  in  by-elections  early 
in  the  year,  the  Popular  Front  captured  the  Sena- 
torial seat  for  Valparaiso  and  Aconcagua  prov- 
inces on  November  17  for  the  first  time  in  history. 
The  following  day  the  rightists  introduced  their 
anti-Communist  bill  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
and  on  November  19  they  decided  to  boycott  the 
Congressional  elections  scheduled  for  March,  1941. 
The  rightist  majority  in  the  Chamber,  charging 
the  Minister  of  the  Interior  with  failing  to  pre- 
serve order  during  the  November  17  election, 
voted  on  November  30  to  suspend  him  from  of- 
fice. Popular  Front  leaders  blamed  the  election 
disorders  (1  man  was  killed  and  60  injured)  on 


CHILB 


130 


CHILE 


rightist  gunmen  and  charged  the  opposition  with 
fostering  a  revolutionary  movement 

The  bill  declaring  Communists  and  all  Com- 
munist activities  illegal  was  passed  by  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies,  72  to  42,  on  November  30.  Be- 
lieving that  the  Communists  constituted  a  liability 
in  the  impending  showdown  with  the  rightists, 
some  Popular  Front  leaders  endorsed  the  anti- 
Communist  bill  and  urged  expulsion  of  the  Com- 
munists from  the  government  bloc.  The  Socialist 
party's  central  committee  made  a  recommendation 
to  this  effect,  following  an  open  break  between 
the  Communists  and  the  Socialist  Minister  of  De- 
velopment, Oscar  Schnake.  The  executive  com- 
mittee of  the  Popular  Front  on  December  21  re- 
fused to  oust  the  Communists  but  negotiations  for 
a  coalition  of  non-Communist  leftist  parties  con- 
tinued. 

The  Nazi  Threat.  Activities  of  the  Chilean 
branch  of  the  German  Nazi  party  and  their  native 
allies  aroused  much  criticism  and  alarm  during  the 
year.  Pro-democratic  Chileans  in  June  organized 
the  League  of  Defense  to  investigate  and  expose 
the  Nazi  program  and  to  take  other  measures  for 
the  defense  of  democracy.  This  movement  enrolled 
thousands  of  adherents  among  Chilean  youths  of 
all  classes.  It  began  publication  of  an  anti-Nazi 
newspaper  and  sent  agents  all  over  Chile  to  re- 
cruit members  and  assist  authorities  in  dealing 
with  the  Nazi  threat 

The  government  took  no  effective  measures 
against  the  Nazis  and  pursued  a  policy  of  cautious 
neutrality  toward  the  European  War.  However  a 
United  States  military  aviation  mission  was  con- 
tracted for  on  April  23  and  late  in  the  year  Con- 
gress authorized  the  expenditure  of  1,000,000,000 
pesos  for  defense. 

For  a  full  description  of  German  Nazi  activities 
in  Chile,  see  the  series  of  articles  by  Russell  B. 
Porter  in  the  New  York  Times  of  July  13-18, 
1940,  inclusive. 

Economic  Situation.  Economic  conditions  in 
Chile  became  increasingly  unfavorable  as  a  result 
of  the  slackening  in  the  export  demand  for  agri- 
cultural and  mineral  products,  a  tightening  of  pre- 
vious exchange  difficulties,  and  a  decline  in  gov- 
ernmental revenues  that  forced  the  government  to 
curtail  its  expenditures. 

To  make  matters  worse,  a  storm  severely  dam- 
aged the  port  of  Valparaiso  on  May  22,  wrecking 
a  floating  dock  that  was  indispensable  to  Chilean 
shipping,  and  inflicting  total  damages  estimated  at 
75,000,000  to  100,000,5)0  pesos.  This  was  followed 
on  July  25-26  by  a  48-hour  cloudburst  that  hit  the 
normally  rainless  northern  provinces  with  devas- 
tating effect  A  large  number  of  people  were  re- 
ported drowned,  killed,  or  injured  by  floods  and 
gales.  The  nitrate  mines  suffered  heavy  financial 
losses  and  there  was  much  damage  to  Antofagasta, 
Iquique,  and  other  cities,  as  well  as  to  railways, 
roads,  and  communications.  Rain  m  this  region  is 
a  phenomenon  that  occurs  only  two  or  three  times 
in  a  century. 

Legislation  and  Measures.  In  the  face  of  po- 
litical and  economic  setbacks,  the  government  con- 
centrated its  major  efforts  upon  carrying  out  the 
program  of  earthquake  rehabilitation  and  econom- 
ic development  adopted  during  1939  (see  YEAR 
BOOK,  1939,  p.  136).  For  financing  this  five-year 
plan  during  1939,  the  government  obtained  486,- 
900,000  pesos  as  follows :  Taxes,  160,000,000 ;  bank 
loan  and  advances,  293,000,000;  contributions,  30,- 
000,000;  exchange  profits,  3,900,000.  Of  this  sum, 


108,900,000  pesos  were  spent  during  1939  by  the 
Corporation  for  Development  of  Production  and 
254,300,000  pesos  by  the  Reconstruction  Corpora- 
tion, leaving  a  balance  of  123,700,000  pesos  on  Jan* 
1,  1940.  Total  expenditures  of  both  corporations 
for  1940  were  estimated  at  about  424,000,000  pesos. 
of  which  180,000,000  was  to  come  from  taxes  and 
120,000,000  from  domestic  bank  loans  and  advances. 

The  Reconstruction  Corporation  announced  May 
18  that  of  the  840,000,000  pesos  to  be  expended  by 
it  during  the  remaining  four  years  of  the  plan,  about 
400,000  pesos  would  go  to  public  works,  300,000,- 
000  to  loans  to  private  individuals  for  reconstruc- 
tion of  homes  and  industries,  and  149,000,000  for 
direct  assistance  to  city  governments,  insurance  in- 
stitutes, fire  departments,  etc.,  in  the  earthquake- 
ravaged  districts. 

The  Development  Corporation,  after  long  nego- 
tiation, obtained  a  $12,000,000  credit  from  the  Ex- 
port-Import Bank  of  Washington  in  May  for  the 
purchase  of  hydro-electric  and  other  machinery 
in  the  United  States.  An  additional  $5,000,000  cred- 
it was  advanced  by  private  American  manufactur- 
ing interests.  A  program  for  the  intensification  of 
Chilean  production  through  investment  of  these  and 
other  funds  was  approved  by  President  Aguirre 
Cerda  on  July  22.  During  July  authorizations  were 
granted  for  the  establishment  of  factories  to  pro- 
duce cloth,  furniture,  foodstuffs,  knit  goods,  and 
clothing,  and  a  contract  was  concluded  with  an 
American  company  for  the  formation  of  a  corpo- 
ration to  manufacture  tires  in  Chile.  Steps  were 
taken  to  attract  additional  private  investors  and 
enterprises  from  the  United  States.  The  govern- 
ment also  made  vigorous  efforts  to  find  American 
and  Far  Eastern  markets  for  Chilean  goods  that 
formerly  went  to  Europe.  The  provisional  com- 
mercial agreement  concluded  with  the  United  States 
early  in  1938  was  put  into  effect  as  of  Jan.  5, 1940. 

The  danger  that  the  government's  whole  eco- 
nomic program  would  be  nullified  by  labor  difficul- 
ties and  drastic  price  rises  led  the  President  on 
July  10  to  warn  that  the  government  "would  not 
tolerate  either  strikes  or  lockouts  that  interfere 
with  production."  The  Minister  of  Interior  on  De- 
cember 24  ruled  that  all  strikes  not  settled  within 
10  days  must  be  submitted  to  arbitration.  He  barred 
farm  strikes  until  after  the  next  harvest.  Due  to 
the  growing  exchange  shortage,  amortization  pay- 
ments on  the  foreign  debt  were  temporarily  sus- 
pended on  December  4. 

Foreign  Relations.  The  Franco  Government 
in  Spain  abruptly  severed  diplomatic  relations  with 
Chile  on  July  16,  citing  alleged  insulting  remarks 
concerning  General  Franco  and  Nationalist  Spain 
made  during  a  Popular  Front  demonstration  in 
Santiago  on  June  17.  The  old  issue  of  Chile's  re- 
fusal to  surrender  Spanish  Loyalists  who  had  tak- 
en refuge  in  the  Chilean  Legation  in  Madrid  was 
a  factor  in  the  situation  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939. 
p.  137).  The  Chilean  Government  again  received 
general  support  from  the  other  American  repub- 
lics. The  Franco  Government  finally  agreed  to 
permit  the  last  Republican  refugees  in  the  Chilean 
Legation  to  leave  Spain  and  on  October  12  diplo- 
matic relations  were  renewed. 

Efforts  to  revive  the  Argentine-Chilean  contro- 
versy over  islands  in  the  Beagle  Channel  (see 
YEAR  BOOK.  1938.  p.  57)  were  made  in  some  Ar- 
gentine ana  Chilean  newspapers.  This  was  de- 
nounced by  Chilean  government  spokesmen  as  a 
Nazi-inspired  move  to  create  dissension  among  the 
American  republics.  The  two  governments  decided 


CHINA 


131 


CHINA 


to  select  a  new  United  State*  arbiter  to  determine 
ownership  of  the  islands,  in  place  of  former  Atty. 
Gen.  Homer  S.  Cummings.  Another  dispute  arose 
when  Chile  on  November  6  laid  claim  to  all  of  the 
Antarctic  territories  between  53  and  90  degrees 
West  Longitude,  some  of  which  were  claimed  by 
Argentina.  It  was  announced  December  20  that  an 
Argentine  technical  commission  would  go  to  San- 
tiago early  in  1941  to  delimit  Argentine-Chilean 
frontiers  in  the  Antarctic. 

The  Popular  Front  Government  and  its  adher- 
ents gave  a  warm  welcome  to  a  Mexican  good- 
will mission  of  more  than  300  members  which 
spent  nearly  a  month  in  Chile  during  March  and 
April.  The  visit  was  interpreted  as  a  move  by  the 
Cardenas  Government  to  secure  Chilean  support  of 
Mexico  in  her  oil  and  other  controversies  with  the 
United  States. 

The  Communists,  opposing  co-operation  with  the 
United  States  in  the  ran  American  policy  of  hemi- 
sphere defense  and  solidarity,  continued  their  at- 
tack upon  "Yankee  imperialism"  along  much  the 
same  lines  as  the  German-inspired  propaganda  of 
the  Chilean  Nazis  and  some  of  their  rightist  allies. 
However  the  Aguirre  Cerda  Government  adopted 
an  increasingly  cordial  attitude  toward  the  United 
States,  particularly  after  the  Export-Import  Bank 
loan  was  obtained.  In  July  the  U.S.  cruiser  Phoe- 
nix made  a  "good-will0  visit  to  Valparaiso  follow- 
ing revelation  of  the  Nazi  conspiracy  in  Uruguay 
(q.v.)  and  reports  of  a  similar  danger  in  Chile. 
The  Chilean  press  almost  unanimously  praised  the 
role  of  the  United  States  at  the  Havana  Confer- 
ence in  July.  Government  organs  subsequently  sup- 
ported Washington's  proffer  of  financial  and  tech- 
nical aid  in  establishing  naval  and  air  bases  in  Latin 
American  countries  for  the  joint  use  of  the  Pan 
American  republics  in  repelling  overseas  aggres- 
sion. However  all  sections  of  Chilean  opinion  in- 
sisted that  if  such  bases  were  established  in  Chile 
they  must  remain  under  her  sovereignty  and  con- 
trol. 

See  ARGENTINA,  MEXICO,  and  URUGUAY  under 
History ;  COMMUNISM  ;  FASCISM  ;  INDUSTRIAL 
CHEMISTRY;  LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS:  NAVAL  PROG- 
RESS ;  PAN  AMERICANISM  ;  PAN  AMERICAN  UN- 
ION ;  TUNNELS. 

CnlNA.  A  republic  of  eastern  Asia.  Provi- 
sional capita],  Chungking.  Nanking,  the  former 
capital,  was  captured  by  the  Japanese  in  Decem- 
ber, 1937,  and  Hankow,  to  which  most  of  the 
Chinese  Ministries  were  then  transferred,  fell  in 
October,  1938. 

Area  and  Population.  Including  the  nominal 
dependencies  of  Sinkiang  (Chinese  Turkestan), 
Outer  Mongolia  (see  MONGOLIA),  and  Tibet  (q.v.), 
over  which  the  Central  Government  exercised  lit- 
tle or  no  actual  control,  and  the  former  Chinese 
Provinces  incorporated  in  the  Japanese  protecto- 
rate of  Manchoukuo  (q.v.),  China  has  an  area 
estimated  by  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior  in  1937 
at  4.516,934  square  miles  and  a  total  population  of 
466,785,856.  Official  1937  estimates  of  the  area  and 
population  by  Provinces  are  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying table. 

As  no  census  has  been  taken  in  modern  times, 
the  above  figures  are  merely  rough  estimates.  In- 
cluding the  nominal  dependencies,  the  area  is 
roughly  equal  to  that  of  the  United  States  and 
Mexico  combined,  while  the  population  is  approxi- 
mately one-fourth  of  the  world's  total  In  addi- 
tion there  were  estimated  to  be  7,828  888  Chinese 
residing  abroad  in  1936.  The  Japanese  civilian  pop- 


ulation of  China  on  Jan.  1,  1940,  was  345,700,  an 
increase  of  300  per  cent  since  July,  1937.  The  esti- 
mated population  of  Shanghai  and  its  environs  in 
1936  was  3,489,998  including  1,450,685  persons  in 
the  Foreign  Settlements;  of  Peiping,  capital  of 
China  until  1928, 1,556,364;  of  Tientsin,  1,292,025; 
of  Nanking,  1,019,948;  of  Tsingtao,  514,769.  Esti- 
mated populations  of  the  other  chief  cities  in  1931 
were:  Canton,  861,024;  Hankow  (including  Wu- 
chang and  Hanyang),  777,993;  Chungking,  635,- 
000 ;  Wenchow,  631,276 ;  Changsha,  606,972 ;  Hang- 
chow,  606,930;  Weihaiwei,  390,337;  Foochow, 
322,725;  Soochow,  260,000;  Amoy,  234,159;  Ning- 
po,  218,774;  Wanhsicn,  201,937;  Chinksang,  199,- 
776. 

AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  CHINA 


Proiiiu*  (Capital') 

Anhwd  (Anking) 

Chahar*    (Wanchuan,    Kalgfm,    Chang- 

chiakow) 

JhekianK  (Hanghsien,  Hangchow) 
Fukien  (Minhou.  Foochow) 
Heilungkiang '  (Lungkiang,  Tsitsihar)    . 
Honan  (Kaifcng) 
Hopei  (Paoting  since  June  1, 1935) 

Hunan  (Changsha) 

Hupeh  (Wuchang) 

"  "   "   f  Chengteh)  .  .... 

(Kaolan,  Lanchow)  .  ... 

^ji(Nanchang)     

KiangsuYChinkiang)    

Kirin  •  (Tungki,  Kirin)     

Kwangsi  (Yungning,  Nanning) 
Kwangtung    (Fanyu,    Canton,    Kwang- 

chow)  

Kweichow  (Kweiyang) 

Liaoning'    (Shenyang,    Mukden,    Feng- 

tien)      

Ningsia»(Ning8ia) 

Outer  Mongolia  *  (Kulun,  Urga  •) 

Shansi  (TaiyOan) 

Shantung  (Tsinan) 

Shensi  (Changan,  Sian) 

Sikang  (Kangting).          

Sinkiang  -  (TOiwa,  Ururotehi) 


nang       iwa.nimc 
Suiyuan  »  (Kweisui,  Kweihua) 
Szechwan  (Chengtu) 
Tibet<(Lhasa) 
Tsinghai  (SiningJ 
Yttnnan  (Kunming,  Yttnnanfu) 


Sq.miks 
51,902 

107,705 
39,791 
61.275 

173,600 
66,693 
59,377 
91,595 
80,190 
74,297 

145,968 
77,301 
41,830 

109,413 
84,007 

83,940 
69,297 

124,256 
106.143 
625,946 
58,662 
69,216 
72,353 
143475 
705,953 
125,220 
166,529 
469,416 
269,187 
123,572 


Population 
23,265,368 

,957 


2,035, 


28293735 
25,541,635 
3,054,306 
6,705,445 
15,820,406 
36.469^28 


32,385,215 
9,043,207 

16,465,303 
1,023,143 
2,077,669 

11,601,026 

38,029,294 

7,717,881 

968,187 

4,360,020 

2,083,693 

52963,269 
3,722,011 
1,196,054 

11,994,549 


•  Where  more  than  one  name  is  given  for  the  respective  capitals 
in  parentheses,  they  represent  the  official  name,  postal  map  name, 
and  popular  or  ancient  name,  in  the  order  given.  *  Chahar,  Ning- 
sia,  and  Sulyuan  Provinces,  together  with  part  oflehol,  form  the 
aphical  region  known  as  Inner  Mongolia  •  The  Provinces  of 
' '  f,  Kirin,  and  Liaoning  constitute  the  geographical 
*n  as  Manchuria,  which  on  Feb  18,  1932,  was  pro- 
j  free  State  of  Manchoukuo  Jehol  Province  was  in- 
corporated in  Manchoukuo  in  1933.  *  Dependencies.  •  The  Mon- 
gol name  for  Urga  has  been  changed  to  Ulan  Bator  Khoto. 

Education  and  Religion.  Between  25  and  50 
per  cent  of  the  population  were  estimated  to  be 
literate  in  1937,  compared  with  an  estimated  15 
per  cent  in  1912.  In  1935  there  were  16,000,000 
children  in  primary  schools,  of  whom  12,383,479 
were  in  259,095  regular  schools  and  the  rest  in 
one-year  primary  schools.  For  secondary  educa- 
tion, there  were  in  1934-35,  3140  schools  of  all 
kinds,  with  541,479  students.  There  were  107  in- 
stitutions of  higher  learning  in  1937  and  41,768 
students  attending  them  in  1935  (6200  women). 
Between  the  outbreak  of  war  in  1937  and  October, 
1939, 17  universities  and  colleges  moved  from  Jap- 
anese-occupied areas  to  Yunnan,  Kweichow,  and 
Kwangsi  provinces,  17  to  Hunan  and  Szechwan, 
and  5  to  Shensi  and  Kansu.  Several  new  techni- 
cal and  normal  colleges  were  founded  during  this 
period  by  the  Chungking  Government.  In  1938, 
9081  men  and  2038  women  passed  examinations 
qualifying  them  to  enter  institutions  of  higher  edu- 
cation under  the  jurisdiction  of  Chungking. 


CHINA 


132 


CHINA 


With  the  exception  of  Christians  and  Moham- 
medans, most  Chinese  practise  and  profess  all 
three  indigenous  or  adopted  religions — Confucian- 
ism, Buddhism,  and  Taoism.  The  Mohammedans 
are  estimated  at  about  20,000,000.  In  1934  there 
were  2,623,560  native  Roman  Catholics  and  123 
Catholic  missions,  with  a  staff  of  16,241.  The  Prot- 
estant churches,  with  1130  mission  stations  and 
488,539  communicants  in  1932,  had  19  colleges,  267 
middle  schools,  and  37,714  students  in  1934. 

Production.  Previous  to  the  outbreak  of  the 
Chino- Japanese  War  in  1937,  China  was  the  world's 
leading  producer  of  rice,  soybeans,  tea,  kaoliang, 
sweet  potatoes,  millet,  and  vegetable  oils ;  it  ranked 
second  in  the  output  of  raw  silk  and  wheat ;  third 
in  cotton,  and  was  an  important  producer  of  corn, 
tobacco,  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  cane  sugar,  as 
well  as  the  leading  exporter  of  eggs  and  tung  oil. 
Estimated  production  of  rough  rice  in  1940-41  was 
2,440,000,000  bu.;  winter  wheat  in  1940,  700,000,- 
000  bu.;  cotton  in  1940,  2,000,000  bales  of  500  Ib. 
(compared  with  an  average  of  3,000,000  bales)  ; 
flue-cured  tobacco  in  1940, 140,000,000  Ib.  (average 
production,  155,000,000  Ib.).  Production  of  other 
crops,  in  metric  tons,  was:  Barley,  6,371,000  in 
1937;  oats,  852,500  in  1937;  corn,  6,130,100  in 
1936;  rape-seed,  1,987,300  in  1937;  sesamum,  865,- 
000  in  1936;  peanuts,  2,631,100  in  1936;  soybeans, 
5,911,000  in  1936.  Exports  of  raw  silk,  excluding 
Manchuria,  were  4777  metric  tons  in  1939.  Tea 
production  is  estimated  at  from  300,000  to  500,000 
metric  tons  annually.  Production  of  wool  and  mo- 
hair for  China  and  Manchuria  was  about  55,000 
metric  tons  in  1938. 

China  is  normally  one  of  the  world's  principal 
producers  of  antimony,  tin,  tungsten,  and  manga- 
nese. It  produces  substantial  quantities  of  coal,  oil, 
fluorite,  mercury,  galena,  gold,  silver,  and  many 
other  metals.  Tungsten  exports  in  1939  were  10,- 
689  metric  tons;  manganese  (1938),  600  metric 
tons ;  iron  ore  (excluding  Manchuria),  40,000  met- 
ric tons  in  1939;  tin  (smelter),  10,600  metric  tons 
in  1939.  Antimony  production  was  estimated  at 
8100  metric  tons  in  1938.  China's  rapidly  expand- 
ing industries  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1937,  p.  152)  suf- 
fered a  severe  setback  as  a  result  of  the  war,  but  a 
marked  development  of  manufacturing  in  the  west- 
ern provinces  ensued.  New  iron  and  steel  plants 
were  established  in  Szechwan  and  Yunnan  prov- 
inces. Copper  deposits  in  Szechwan,  Sikang,  and 
the  southwestern  provinces  were  operied  and  several 
electric  copper  refineries  constructed.  Among  the 
418  factories  moved  to  the  western  provinces  from 
Japanese-occupied  territory  during  the  first  two 
years  of  the  war  were  168  for  the  manufacture  of 
war  equipment  and  supplies.  Also  see  History. 

Foreign  Trade.  Merchandise  imports  in  1939 
were  1,333,653,896  yuan  (Chinese  standard  dol- 
lars) ;  exports,  1,027,246,508  yuan.  The  chief 
sources  of  imports  were :  Japan,  313,398,000  yuan ; 
United  States,  214,100,000  yuan;  India,  119,439.- 
000  yuan ;  Germany,  87,167,000  yuan ;  Great  Brit- 
ain, 77360,000  yuan.  Of  the  exports,  the  United 
States  took  225,873,000  yuan ;  Hong  Kong,  222,- 
099,000  yuan ;  Great  Britain,  90,863,000  yuan ;  Ja- 
pan, 66,621,000  yuan.  Animal  products,  raw  silk, 
metals  and  minerals,  piece  goods,  and  oils,  tallow 
and  wax  were  the  chief  exports,  in  order  of  value. 
The  main  imports  were  raw  cotton,  chemicals, 
metals  and  ores,  dyes  and  paints.  See  TRADE,  FOR- 
EIGN. 

Finance.  The  budget  announced  by  the  Nation- 
alist Government  at  Chungking  for  the  calendar 


year  1939  was  2,850,000,000  yuan,  or  three  times 
the  size  of  the  prewar  1936  budget.  Expenditures 
during  1940  were  estimated  at  about  3,500,000,000 
yuan.  Actual  revenues  in  1939  were  variously  esti- 
mated at  from  200,000,000  to  1,200,000,000  yuan. 
The  balance  between  actual  receipts  and  expendi- 
tures was  made  up  by  loans  and  inflation  of  the 
currency. 

Loans  floated  by  the  Chinese  Nationalist  Gov- 
ernment from  July  1, 1937.  to  June  30, 1940,  totaled 
3,430,000,000  yuan,  100,000,000  customs  gold  units, 
100,000,000  U.S.  dollars,  and  £20,000,000  sterling, 
according  to  the  Central  Bank  of  China.  The  Min- 
istry of  Finance  estimated  the  Chungking  Gov- 
ernment's indebtedness  on  June  30,  1939,  at  8,100,- 
000,000  yuan  (domestic,  5,600,000,000;  foreign, 
2,500,000,000). 

As  of  June  30,  1940,  note  issues  of  the  four 
Chinese  Government  banks  were  estimated  at  about 
4,000,000,000  yuan,  representing  an  expansion  of 
150,000,000  yuan  monthly  during  the  first  half  of 
1940.  Estimated  issues  of  provincial  and  private 
banks  and  military  scrip  of  the  Eighth  Route 
Army  were  placed  at  500,000,000  yuan. 

Revenues  of  the  Japanese-sponsored  Nanking 
regime  were  estimated  at  about  250,000,000  yuan 
for  the  first  half  of  1940.  Currencies  issued  under 
Japanese  sponsorship  up  to  June  30,  1940,  were 
estimated  to  total  more  than  1,200,000,000  yuan 
The  total  note  circulation  in  China,  including  both 
Chinese  and  Japanese  issues,  was  about  5,700,000,- 
000  yuan,  or  three  times  as  much  as  before  the 
outbreak  of  hostilities.  Inflationary  commodity 
prices  prevailed  in  all  areas.  The  average  nominal 
exchange  rate  of  the  Chinese  yuan  in  Shanghai 
was  $0.2136  in  1938,  $0.1188  in  1939,  and  $0.0569 
in  December,  1940 

Transportation.  As  of  Aug.  1, 1939, 4546  miles 
of  China's  railways  were  reported  to  be  in  Japa- 
nese-occupied territory  and  about  2285  miles  in 
Chinese-held  territory.  Operations  on  many  of  these 
lines  were  suspended  or  restricted  to  military  traf- 
fic. The  Japanese-controlled  North  China  Rail- 
ways, aggregating  3429  miles  of  line,  reported  a 
freight  traffic  of  30,525,084  tons  for  the  year  ended 
Mar.  31,  1940,  or  a  50  per  cent  increase  over  1938- 
39.  The  Yunnan-Indo-China  Railway  was  forced 
to  suspend  shipments  of  supplies  to  the  Chungking 
Government  (see  History)  but  a  new  railway  con- 
necting Yunnan  with  Burma  was  under  construc- 
tion. Several  new  railway  lines  were  opened  in  the 
Japanese-occupied  section. 

Highway  mileage  in  all  China  was  estimated  at 
61,430  in  1939.  In  western  and  southwestern  China, 
the  Chungking  Government  constructed  about  3500 
miles  of  new  roads  and  improved  10,000  miles  of 
existing  roads  between  1937  and  1939,  bringing  the 
length  of  highways  in  Chinese-controlled  territory 
to  52,000  miles.  Highways  in  North  China  and 
Inner  Mongolia  open  to  motor  traffic  were  esti- 
mated at  about  12,000  miles  in  1940.  Air  services 
were  operated  over  6000  miles  of  routes  late  in 
November,  1939 ;  3300  miles  had  been  opened  since 
July,  1937.  In  September,  1940,  commercial  air 
lines  connected  Chungking  with  Hong  Kong,  Kun- 
ming, Hanoi,  Burma,  Chengtu,  Sianfu,  Lanchow. 
and  Moscow.  In  Japanese-occupied  territory,  all 
air  lines  were  in  Japanese  hands. 

During  the  first  six  months  of  1940,  the  total 
tonnage  entering  the  port  of  Shanghai  from  abroad 
was  about  20  per  cent  less  than  for  the  first  half 
of  1937.  The  Yangtze  River  remained  closed  to 
other  than  Japanese  shipping. 


CHINA 


133 


CHINA 


Government.  The  Nationalist  Government  at 
the  beginning  of  1940  represented  a  Kuomintang 
(Nationalist  party)  dictatorship.  The  Organic  Law 
of  Oct.  4,  1928,  revised  on  Dec.  29.  1931,  and  Dec. 
27,  1932,  vested  supreme  power  in  the  National 
Congress  of  the  Kuomintang,  acting  through  the 
Central  Executive  Committee,  the  Central  Super- 
visory Committee,  and  the  Central  Political  Coun- 
cil. Executive  control,  however,  rested  mainly  in 
the  hands  of  Gen.  Chiang  Kai-shek,  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Nationalist  armies.  Pending  the 
establishment  of  representative  government,  gov- 
ernmental functions  were  carried  on  by  means  of  a 
committee  system  (for  description,  see  1932  YEAR 
BOOK).  The  chairman  of  the  State  Council  and 
nominal  head  of  the  government  was  Lin  Sen.  The 
chairmen  of  the  five  yuan  (committees)  of  the 
government  were:  Executive,  Gen.  Chiang  Kai- 
shek,  assisted  by  Dr.  H.  H.  Kung  as  vice-chair- 
man; Legislative,  Sun  Fo;  Judicial,  Chu  Cheng; 
Examination,  Tai  Chi-tao;  Control,  Yu  Yu-jen. 
Under  the  chairman  of  the  Executive  Yuan  are 
nine  ministries,  headed  as  follows  in  1940 :  Interior, 
Chow  Chung-yueh;  Foreign  Affairs,  Dr.  Wang 
Chung-hui ;  Military  Affairs,  Gen.  Ho  Ying-chin ; 
Finance,  Dr.  H.  H.  Kung ;  National  Economy,  Dr. 
Wang  Wen-hao;  Communications,  Chang  Chia- 
ngau;  Education,  Chen  Li-fu  Attached  to  the 
Executive  Yuan  are  three  subordinate  Commis- 
sions, supervising  Mongolian  and  Tibetan  Affairs, 
Overseas  Chinese  Affairs,  and  Famine  Relief.  Also 
see  HISTORY. 

HISTORY 

Another  year  of  sanguinary  fighting  on  many 
fronts  failed  to  break  the  military  stalemate  in  the 
Chino- Japanese  War  that  developed  toward  the 
end  of  1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939).  By  the  end  of 
1940  the  conflict  had  lasted  three  and  one-half 
years,  but  prospects  of  a  Japanese  victory  ap- 
peared more  remote  than  ever.  Repeated  Japanese 
military  offensives  and  continuous  destructive  air 
raids  on  Chinese-held  cities  during  the  year  failed 
to  extend  the  Japanese  territorial  conquests  per- 
ceptibly or  to  weaken  the  morale  of  Gen.  Chiang 
Kai-shek's  forces  operating  from  Chungking. 

The  Japanese  made  correspondingly  little  prog- 
ress in  organizing  the  economic  exploitation  of  the 
conquered  Chinese  provinces.  The  collapse  of 
France  in  June  enabled  Japan  to  improve  its  stra- 
tegical and  diplomatic  position  against  China, 
largely  through  concessions  extracted  by  threat 
and  force  from  France  and  Britain.  But  the  United 
States  and  the  Soviet  Union  continued  to  give  the 
Chungking  Government  moral  and  material  sup- 
port. 

Military  Campaigns.  Japan's  first  major  mili- 
tary reverse  of  1940  was  in  the  drive  launched  in 
December,  1939,  from  Canton  northward  along  the 
railway  line  to  Hankow.  After  advancing  about 
100  miles  from  Canton  into  northeastern  Kwang- 
tung  Province,  the  Japanese  columns  were  halted 
early  in  January  and  by  the  middle  of  the  month 
were  driven  back  to  the  environs  of  Canton  in  a 
disastrous  retreat. 

Toward  the  end  of  January  the  Japanese  forces 
that  had  captured  Wanning  in  Kwangsi  Province 
the  preceding  November,  started  a  series  of  drives 
to  widen  the  area  under  their  control.  They  cap- 
tured Pmyang,  40  miles  north  of  Manning,  and 
pushed  on  30  miles  more  before  vigorous  Chinese 
counterattacks  .drove  them  back  to  Nanning  in 
mid-February  in  some  disorder.  Casualties  were 


heavy  on  both  sides.  A  simultaneous  Japanese 
drive  in  Inner  Mongolia  met  a  similar  fate.  Start- 
ing from  Paotow,  western  terminus  of  the  Peiping- 
Suiyuan  railway,  a  mechanized  column  of  30,000 
men  struck  westward  in  an  effort  to  cut  the 
Lanchow-Urumchi  motor  and  caravan  route  over 
which  Soviet  supplies  were  reaching  the  Chinese. 
After  capturing  Wuyuan  and  Linho,  more  than 
150  miles  distant,  the  Japanese  column  was  forced 
by  a  Chinese  flank  attack  to  retreat  hurriedly  to 
Paotow. 

Faring  no  better  in  smaller-scale  fighting  on 
other  fronts,  the  Japanese  army  command  in  South 
China  on  February  14  announced  in  a  manifesto 
addressed  to  Chiang  Kai-shek  that  "in  the  future 
we  will  not  expand  our  operations  but  will  await 
your  offensive.  The  manifesto  explained  that  the 
Japanese  had  won  "sufficient  areas  in  China  for 
the  establishment  of  the  new  order  in  Asia,"  cut 
the  supply  routes  to  Chungking,  and  was  making 
rapid  progress  in  forming  a  new  central  govern- 
ment in  China  under  Wang  Ching-wti.  However 
the  Chinese  opened  new  highway  routes  into 
French  Indo-China  further  inland  to  replace  that 
severed  by  the  fall  of  Nanning.  Traffic  on  the 
Yunnan  railway,  interrupted  by  Japanese  bombing 
early  in  January,  was  soon  resumed  on  a  reduced 
schedule. 

Shansi  Offensive.  With  the  Japanese  remain- 
ing inactive  in  the  south,  the  fighting  shifted  to 
the  central  and  northern  fronts.  In  April  the  Japa- 
nese began  their  llth  effort  to  sweep  the  Chinese 
out  of  the  Chungtiao  Mountains  and  the  Ching 
Valley  in  southern  Shansi  Province  and  secure  the 
strategic  crossings  of  the  Yellow  River.  Advanc- 
ing in  five  columns,  the  60,000  Japanese  engaged 
in  this  operation  met  the  usual  stubborn  resistance. 
Their  communications  were  partially  severed  and 
their  efforts  to  cross  the  river  were  balked.  In- 
decisive fighting  continued  in  this  region  through- 
out the  year. 

Meanwhile  Chinese  armies  maintained  pressure 
upon  Japanese  garrisons  at  Nanchang  in  Kiangsi, 
Yochow  in  Hunan,  and  various  other  points.  Late 
in  April  the  Chinese  recaptured  temporarily  the 
capital  of  Honan  Province,  Kaifeng,  which  the 
Japanese  had  occupied  since  1938. 

Capture  of  Ichang.  In  an  effort  to  drive  a 
wedge  between  Chinese  armies  on  the  northern 
and  southern  fronts,  the  Japanese  early  in  May 
launched  another  offensive  from  Sinyang  on  the 
Hankow-Peiping  Railway  westward  along  the 
Honan-Hupeh  border  toward  the  upper  Han  River 
valley.  Again  the  invaders  suffered  heavy  casual- 
ties and  withdrew  before  fierce  flank  attacks.  The 
Chinese  claimed  to  have  driven  the  Japanese  out 
of  their  base  at  Sinyang. 

Meanwhile  a  stronger  Japanese  force  had 
launched  the  major  offensive  of  the  year  from 
Hankow  northwestward  through  Hupeh.  Crossing 
the  Han  River,  they  captured  Siangyang,  200  miles 
from  Hankow,  on  June  3.  From  Siangyang  the 
Japanese  columns  swung  southward  toward  the 
Yangtze  and  on  June  11  announced  their  most 
important  military  success  of  the  year — the  cap- 
ture of  Ichang,  the  most  important  river  port  be- 
tween Hankow  and  Chungking.  Shasi,  another 
strategic  river  port,  was  occupied  on  June  10. 

Raids  on  Chungking.  A  further  Japanese  ad- 
vance from  Ichang  upon  the  Chinese  capital  at 
Chungking,  260  miles  distant,  was  blocked  by 
strong  Chinese  armies  defending  the  difficult 
Yangtze  gorges.  Consequently,  while  severe  but 


CHINA 


134 


CHINA 


mdecitive  fighting  continued  at  various  points 
along  the  extended  front,  the  Japanese  intensified 
their  mass  air  raids  on  Chungking  and  other  Chi- 
nese-held cities  of  the  interior.  The  air  attacks  on 
Chungking  began  in  May,  when  the  douds  that 
concealed  the  provisional  capital  during  the  winter 
months  cleared  away.  Throughout  the  summer  the 
city  was  subjected  to  almost  daily  raids  whenever 
weather  permitted,  with  more  than  150  bombers 
participating  on  occasions.  Casualties  ran  into  the 
tens  of  thousands,  while  most  of  the  buildings 
were  pulverized  by  high  explosives  or  burned  by 
great  fires  started  by  incendiary  bombs. 

With  the  Japanese  occupation  of  Hanoi  and 
neighboring  territory  in  French  Indo-Giina  in 
September,  they  gained  new  vantage  points  for 
extending  bombing  raids  in  South  China.  On  Sep- 
tember 30  they  began  destructive  air  attacks  on 
Kunming,  capital  of  Yunnan  Province,  and  a  key 
point  on  the  Burma  Road. 

Guerrilla  Warfare  Extended.  Undeterred  by 
these  raids,  the  Chinese  during  the  summer  and 
fall  increased  their  military  pressure  upon  the 
Japanese  lines  at  various  points,  while  innumer- 
able guerrilla  bands  successfully  harassed  the 
invaders  within  the  "occupied"  territories.  In 
August  the  Communist  Eighth  Route  Army  pene- 
trated Japanese  lines  to  the  environs  of  Peiping 
and  cut  the  Tientsin-Peiping  railway  line.  In  Sep- 
tember a  general  attack  upon  Japanese  garrisons 


and  outposts  in  occupied  territories  was  begun  by 
some  300,000  guerrillas.  Railway  and  highway 
communications  were  repeatedly  disrupted.  In  Oc- 
tober the  Chinese  regulars  reported  important  suc- 
cesses in  South  Anhwei  Province,  in  Northern 
Kiangsi  where  the  Yangtze  port  of  Matang  was 
recaptured,  to  the  west  of  Nanchang  in  north  cen- 
tral Kiangsi,  in  Chekiang  Province,  and  at  in- 
numerable other  widely  scattered  points.  The  ex- 
tent of  the  conflict  was  indicated  by  Chinese 
announcements  stating  that  2889  separate  engage- 
ments took  place  with  Japanese  troops  during 
September. 

Japanese  Shorten  Lines.  On  October  28  the 
Chinese  recaptured  Nanning,  the  capital  of  Kwang- 
si  Province,  taken  by  the  Japanese  in  November, 
1939.  Soon  afterward  it  was  announced  that  the 
Japanese  had  abandoned  all  of  the  territory  con- 
quered in  Kwangsi  and  were  shortening  their  lines 
through  south  and  central  China.  During  Novem- 
ber Japanese  forces  were  withdrawn  from  Wai- 
chow  Island  off  the  Kwangtung  coast  and  from 
Yamchow  and  surrounding  territory  in  southwest- 
ern Kwangtung  Province. 

Some  of  the  troops  withdrawn  from  these  sec- 
tors were  reported  to  have  been  concentrated  in 
Hankow,  while  others  assembled  at  Kwangchow- 
an  and  Hainan  Island  in  South  China  and  at  Haip- 
hong in  French  Indo-  China,  apparently  in  prepa- 
ration for  an  attack  on  French,  British,  and  Dutch 


soviet 

^ 

ANNUTUVA 


OUTER.  MONGOLIA 


BURMA  .   HANO( 
IN 


Areas  oP  farthest  Japanese 
penetration 


Covrtoy  tf  N «*  York  Times 


Hie  arcM  of  farthest  Ji 
•ponsorad  WMBMJOB 

OuO.OOO  inhJESjiu. 

mflct  with  »  population  of  about  237; 


RIVAL  GOVERNMENTS  IN  CHINA 


CHINA 


possessions.  Lftte  in  November  heavy  fighting 
again  broke  out  in  central  and  northern  Hupeh 
Province,  northwest  of  Hankow.  On  December  4 
the  Chinese  announced  that  they  had  inflicted  one 
of  the  worst  defeats  of  the  war  upon  Japanese 
troops  engaged  in  another  offensive  operation  in 
that  area. 

The  year  ended  with  nearly  a  million  Japanese 
troops  still  guarding  the  key  cities  and  communi- 
cation centers  of  the  occupied  provinces  against 
Chiang  Kai-shek's  armies,  estimated  to  number 
some  five  million  men.  Neutral  military  experts  in 
China  estimated  in  July  that  the  war  had  already 
cost  Japan  more  than  1,000,000  casualties  includ- 
ing 200,000  killed,  while  Chinese  military  losses 
were  placed  at  over  3,000,000  including  1,000,000 
or  more  killed.  An  official  Japanese  report  gave 
the  number  of  Chinese  killed  up  to  Nov.  30,  1940, 
at  3,500,000  and  the  number  of  Japanese  killed  at 
101,899. 

Wang  Ching-wei's  "Government."  Japan's 
recognition  on  November  30  of  the  puppet  regime 

Cning-wei 


established  at  Nanking  by  Wang 
cated  that  Nippon's  army  leaders  had  given  up 
hope  of  forcing  Chiang  Kai-shek  to  accept  their 
peace  terms.  Recognition  of  Wang  had  been  fore- 
cast repeatedly  since  early  in  January,  when  the 
military  and  political  authorities  in  Tokyo  ratified 
die  unpublished  "peace  agreement"  reached  be- 
tween Wang  and  Japanese  army  commanders  in 
Shanghai  in  December,  1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 
1939,  p.  143). 

The  Japanese  military  created  Wang's  puppet 
government  to  provide  a  basis  for  consolidating 
their  gains  in  China.  They  hoped  it  would  weaken 
Chiang  Kai-shek's  position  and  force  him  either 
to  capitulate  or  reach  a  compromise  settlement. 
In  addition,  Wang's  regime  was  expected  to  aid 
in  the  pacification  and  economic  exploitation  of 
the  conquered  Chinese  territories  and  to  serve  as  a 
useful  tool  in  pressing  foreign  interests  in  China 
to  recognize  Japan's  "new  order  in  East  Asia." 

This  program  encountered  innumerable  obsta- 
cles. In  January  two  of  Wang's  Chinese  support- 
ers deserted  to  Chiang  Kai-shek.  They  made  pub- 
lic at  Hong  Kong  the  conditions  which  they  said 
Wang  had  accepted  in  order  to  win  Japanese  sup- 
port. Publication  of  these  conditions,  envisaging  a 
permanent  colonial  status  for  China,  alienated 
much  of  the  support  Wang  had  managed  to  enlist 
among  the  Chinese,  Efforts  to  create  a  Chinese 
armed  force  under  the  nominal  direction  of  Wang 
Ching-wei  to  aid  the  Japanese  in  their  military 
struggle  proved  of  little  avail.  Many  of  these 
soldiers  deserted  to  Chiang  Kai-shek  with  Japa- 
nese weapons,  or  mutinied  against  their  Japanese 
officers.  There  were  numerous  assassinations  of 
Wang  adherents  by  Chinese  gunmen,  and  Wang 
himself  lived  under  heavy  Japanese  guard. 

Moreover  factionalism  within  the  Japanese 
army  prevented  establishment  of  a  centralized  gov- 
ernment for  the  Japanese-occupied  areas.  The  sep- 
arate puppet  regimes  established  in  North  China 
and  Inner  Mongolia  continued  to  take  orders  from 
the  Japanese  commanders  in  Peiping  even  after 
the  establishment  of  Wang's  "central  govern- 
ment" on  March  30.  The  Tokyo  Government  ad- 
vanced Wang  60,000,000  Chinese  dollars  in  cash 
and  in  April  sent  ex-Premier  Nobuyuki  Abe  to 
Nanking  to  conclude  a  formal  treaty  with  Wang's 
"government"  However  the  signing  of  this  ac- 
cord was  repeatedly  postponed,  while  the  Japanese 
made  wider-cover  efforts  to  negotiate  a  settlement 


135  CHINA 

with  Chiang  Kai-shek.  In  May,  in  July,  and  again 
in  November  the  Japanese  submitted  peace  pro- 
posals to  the  Nationalist  leader,  but  he  continued 
to  insist  upon  "complete  and  unconditional  with- 
drawal of  all  Japanese  forces  from  China." 

Terms  of  Nanking  Accords.  General  Abe 
finally  signed  the  treaty  "readjusting  Chinese-Jap- 
anese relations"  in  Nanking  on  November  30.  The 
treaty  pledged  the  co-operation  of  the  Wang  and 
Tokyo  Governments  in  "establishing  a  new  order," 
eradicating  mutually  hostile  propaganda  and  fight- 
ing communism.  It  gave  Japan  special  rights  to 
control  and  exploit  the  natural  resources  of  Inner 
Mongolia  and  North  China  and  to  station  troops 
in  those  regions  permanently.  Wang  also  agreed 
to  give  Japan  and  its  subjects  "positive  and  full 
facilities"  in  trade  and  economic  matters.  All  Chi- 
nese territory  was  opened  to  Japanese  residence 
and  business  in  return  for  Japan's  relinquishment 
of  her  concessions  and  extraterritorial  rights  in 
China. 

In  addition  to  this  basic  treaty,  there  was  signed 
at  the  same  time  a  protocol  governing  relations 
between  Tokyo  and  Nanking  during  the  continu- 
ance of  hostilities  with  Chiang  Kai-shek,  a  sup- 
plementary understanding,  and  a  joint  declaration 
by  the  governments  of  Japan  and  Manchoukuo 
and  the  Wang  administration.  In  the  protocol 
Wang  authorized  the  Japanese  to  take  all  neces- 
sary war  measures,  while  the  Japanese  undertook 
to  commence  the  evacuation  of  troops  from  China 
when  the  war  ended  and  to  complete  it  within  two 
years  except  for  special  areas  in  North  China  and 
Inner  Mongolia.  Evacuation,  however,  was  condi- 
tional upon  the  restoration  of  peace  and  order  in 
China  by  the  Wang  regime. 

The  supplementary  understanding  provided  for 
the  transfer  to  the  Wang  regime  of  the  Japanese 
Army's  tax-collecting  machinery  in  China.  It 
called  for  the  return  to  Chinese  control  of  mines, 
industries,  and  commercial  establishments  seized 
by  the  Japanese  and  for  a  readjustment  of  the 
Chinese  share  in  joint  Chino- Japanese  enter- 
prises. It  also  admitted  the  Nanking  regime's  right 
to  tariff  autonomy  subject  to  the  maintenance  of 
the  principle  of  Chino- Japanese  co-operation  in 
establishing  the  "new  order  in  East  Asia."  This, 
the  official  Japanese  news  agency  pointed  out, 
meant  Nanking's  co-operation  with  Japan  "against 
powers  who  oppose  the  new  order,"  particularly 
the  United  States.  In  the  joint  declaration,  Wang's 
regime  formally  recognized  Manchoukuo  (q.v.) 
as  an  independent  state— -a  concession  which  the 
Japanese  had  sought  since  1931  to  obtain  from 
Chiang  Kai-shek's  Nationalist  Government.  Japan 
and  Manchoukuo  in  return  recognized  the  Nank- 
ing administration  as  the  national  government  of 
China. 

Japanese  Economic  Measures.  The  eco- 
nomic clauses  of  the  foregoing  accords  were  de- 
signed to  provide  a  legal  basis  for  the  ambitious 
measures  already  taken  or  projected  for  making 
China  an  economic  as  well  as  a  political  protector- 
ate of  Japan  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  143  f.). 
By  currency  manipulation,  the  control  of  customs, 
trade  regulations  and  communications,  military 
pressure,  etc.,  the  Japanese  worked  energetically 
throughout  the  year  to  drive  out  foreign  and  other 
influences  opposed  to  the  Japanese  program  and 
to  bring  virtually  all  forms  of  economic  activity 
under  their  direct  or  indirect  control. 

As  in  Manchoukuo,  the  principal  method  adopted 
was  the  monopoly  system.  Companies  controlled 


CHINA 


136 


CHINA 


by  Japanese  but  with  both  Japanese  and  Chinese 
capital  were  granted  exclusive  rights  to  operate 
and  exploit  natural  resources,  public  utilities,  etc., 
within  specified  areas.  The  secret  agreement  nego- 
tiated by  Wang  with  the  Japanese  in  December, 
1939,  allegedly  called  for  the  establishment  of  such 
monopolies  over  mineral  deposits,  railways,  and 
other  communications,  water  supplies,  electricity, 
etc.,  in  Central  as  well  as  North  China. 

According  to  the  Tokyo  director  of  the  Eco- 
nomic Department  of  the  Asiatic  Development 
Board,  investments  of  this  character  made  by  the 
Japanese  Government  in  China  during  1939  totaled 
285,000,000  yen  (247,000,000  yen  in  North  China 
and  38,000,000  yen  in  Central  China).  The  rich 
rewards  in  prospect  for  the  Japanese  once  China 
was  subjugated  and  order  restored  were  indicated 
by  the  North  China  Development  Company's  an- 
nouncement of  a  net  profit  of  2,200,000  yen  in 
1939  on  total  revenues  of  6,100,000  yen  This  com- 
pany was  organized  by  the  Japanese  Government 
in  1938  to  finance  and  supervise  the  economic  ex- 
ploitation of  North  China  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1938, 
p.  157). 

Another  step  to  strengthen  Japanese  economic 
control  was  the  announcement  at  Nanking  on  De- 
cember 9  that  Wang's  regime  would  open  a  new 
central  bank  December  15,  the  notes  of  which 
would  replace  those  of  the  Chungking  Govern- 
ment as  legal  currency  in  all  Japanese-occupied 
parts  of  China. 

The  Chungking  Government.  The  progres- 
sive revelation  of  Japan's  sweeping  political  and 
economic  aims  in  China  deprived  Wang  Ching-wei 
of  all  but  a  vestige  of  Chinese  support  and  enabled 
Chiang  Kai-shek  to  continue  the  struggle  with 
growing  prospects  of  success.  The  only  important 
defection  during  the  year  was  that  of  Gen.  Shih 
Yu-shan,  former  governor  of  Chahar  Province 
and  outstanding  war  lord,  who  was  executed  early 
in  December  for  conniving  with  Wang  Ching-wei. 

During  1940  Chiang's  government  made  further 
progress,  despite  Japanese  air  raids,  in  converting 
the  free  provinces  of  Western  China  into  a  mili- 
tary, economic,  and  cultural  base  for  protracted 
warfare  with  Japan.  New  mines  were  opened,  light 
and  heavy  industries  established,  motor  roads  con- 
structed, universities,  schools,  and  military  train- 
ing centers  founded.  Chinese  arsenals  and  muni- 
tions factories  produced  most  of  the  arms  and 
ammunition  needed  for  mobile  and  guerrilla  war- 
fare. The  phenomenal  development  of  producers 
and  consumers  co-operatives  continued. 

In  June  China's  major  supply  route  through 
French  Indp-China  was  cut  permanently  through 
Japanese  military  pressure  on  the  French  authori* 
ties.  Shortly  afterwards  the  British  yielded  to  Jap- 
anese pressure  and  ended  the  munitions  traffic  over 
the  Burma  Road.  This  left  the  Chungking  Gov- 
ernment entirely  dependent  upon  the  Soviet  Union 
and  the  long  motor  route  through  Sinkiang  for 
imported  supplies,  until  the  British  Government 
reopened  the  Burma  Road  in  October.  The  Chin- 
ese uted  the  three  months  during  which  the  Burma 
Road  was  closed  to  improve  it  and  to  push  con- 
struction of  a  network  of  local  highways  to  feed 
into  and  supplement  this  vital  traffic  artery.  Re- 
ports toward  the  end  of  1940  indicated  that  truck 
traffic  over  the  Burma  Road  was  proceeding  de- 
spite Japanese  efforts  to  bomb  bridges  and  other 
weak  links  in  the  highway. 

It  was  reported  in  December  that  another  sup- 
ply route  for  Chiang's  armies  had  been  opened 


from  Vladivostok  via  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway 
to  Chita  or  Verkhneudinsk,  from  there  to  Urga  in 
Outer  Mongolia  by  military  road,  and  thence  to 
Ningsia  and  Lanchow  by  truck  or  caravan.  See 
map  in  YEAR  BOOK,  1938,  p.  152. 

The  major  internal  threat  to  the  Chungking 
government  was  the  continuance  during  the  first 
months  of  1940  of  the  struggle  between  its  Com- 
munist and  anti-Communist  supporters  in  and 
around  the  Shensi-Kansu-Ningsia  border  region, 
the  stronghold  of  the  Communist  Eighth  Route 
Army  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  142).  Early  in 
April  the  Central  Government  negotiated  an  agree- 
ment between  the  Communists  and  anti-Commu- 
nists, which  for  the  time  being  ended  their  unde- 
clared war.  The  area  of  the  Communist-controlled 
region  was  reduced,  the  district  in  which  Com- 
munist military  units  were  to  operate  was  de- 
limited, and  Chungking  undertook  to  support  six 
instead  of  three  regular  divisions  of  the  Eighth 
Route  Army.  Friction  between  Communists  and 
an ti- Communist  elements  continued,  but  not  on  a 
scale  preventing  effective  military  operations 
against  the  Japanese. 

During  April  1-10  the  fifth  session  of  the  Ku- 
omintang  People's  Political  Council  was  held  in 
Chungking.  It  approved  the  final  revised  draft  of 
a  new  Constitution,  to  be  submitted  to  a  National 
Assembly  in  November  in  accordance  with  the 
decision  reached  by  the  party's  Central  Executive 
Committee  the  preceding  year  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 
1939,  p.  141). 

The  regions  under  Chungking's  control  were 
reported  to  be  better  off  economically  than  those 
of  the  Japanese-occupied  areas.  Floods,  guerrilla 
activities,  and  the  exactions  of  the  Japanese  pro- 
duced serious  food  shortages  in  the  Tientsin-Peip- 
ing  area.  There  was  famine  in  rural  districts  of 
Hopei  Province  in  the  north  and  in  Eastern 
Kwangtung  in  the  south,  where  cannibalism  was 
officially  admitted.  In  many  other  districts  of  both 
occupied  and  free  China,  inflated  prices  and  scarci- 
ties caused  hunger  riots  and  other  disorders. 

Drive  against  Western  Powers.  The  Japa- 
nese made  much  more  definite  progress  in  their 
campaign  to  oust  the  Western  powers  from  China 
than  in  their  military  and  diplomatic  struggle  with 
Chungking  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  143  f.,  for 
background).  By  the  end  of  1940  France  and 
Great  Britain  had  been  forced  to  give  up  practi- 
cally all  of  their  footholds  in  China,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  British-owned  Hong  Kong.  Only  the 
stubborn  opposition  of  the  United  States  pre- 
vented Japanese  seizure  of  the  Foreign  Settle- 
ment at  Shanghai. 

On  March  28,  the  British  Ambassador  at  To- 
kyo tacitly  acquiesced  in  the  establishment  of 
Wang's  Nanking  regime.  A  Japanese  effort  to  gain 
control  of  the  Shanghai  Municipal  Council  in  the 
April  elections  was  rebuffed,  but  on  June  19  Brit- 
ain and  France  capitulated  to  Japanese  pressure  at 
Tientsin,  where  the  foreign  settlement  had  been 
blockaded  since  1939  by  local  Japanese  military 
authorities.  They  agreed  to  accept  Japanese  "help" 
in  policing  their  concessions,  to  permit  the  cir- 
culation of  the  Japanese-sponsored  currency,  to 
turn  over  10  per  cent  of  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment's silver  stocks  held  in  the  concessions  to  the 
Japanese  for  relief  purposes,  and  to  seal  the  re- 
mainder pending  final  disposition. 

On  June  20  the  French  Ambassador,  following 
the  example  of  the  British  Ambassador  a  year  be- 
fore, formally  recognized  Japan's  "special  require- 


Wide  World 

JAPANESE  DROP  INCENDIARY  BOMBS  ON  CHUNGKING 

More  than  a  square  mile  of  buildings  in  the  ancient  walled  section  of  the  Chinese  capital  was  destroyed  by  the  fire  thus  started 

on  August  19-20 


Wide  World 

WANG  CHING-WEI  (CENTER)  AND  MEMBERS  OF  THE  CHINESE  PUPPET  GOVERNMENT 


SPECIAL  CLASSES  AMONG  CCC  ENROLLEES 

Above'  A  group  of  students  in  the  Cooks'  and  Bakers'  School  being  instructed  m  tests  for  the  freshness  of  meat  Over  8500 
enrollees  received  practical  training  in  the  30  schools  and  1500  kitchens  during  1940  Below  A  group  m  a  radio-communications 
~i..«  nwr  3000  m«*n  w*«.  t mmerf  in  short-wave  radio  operation  duruur  1940 


CHINA 


137 


CHINA 


ments"  in  China.  He  pledged  that  French  nationals 
and  authorities  there  would  not  be  permitted  to 
obstruct  or  hamper  Japan  in  prosecuting  the  war 
against  Chiang  Kai-shek.  A  few  days  later  French 
authorities  in  Shanghai,  without  consulting  other 
foreign  defense  forces,  turned  over  one  of  their 
defense  sectors  to  the  Japanese.  At  the  same  time 
the  French  agreed  to  stop  virtually  all  shipments 
of  supplies  to  China  through  French  Indo-China 
and  to  permit  Japanese  inspectors  to  supervise  the 
remaining  traffic. 

While  Japan  proceeded  to  win  a  stranglehold 
upon  French  Indo-China  (q.v.),  further  pres- 
sure was  applied  to  the  British.  On  June  24  Tokyo 
demanded  that  Britain  stop  shipments  of  supplies 
to  China  through  Hong  Kong  and  Burma.  The 
demand  was  rejected  on  July  8.  But  on  July  12, 
after  further  Japanese  pressure,  Britain  agreed  to 
close  the  Burma  Road  for  three  months  to  ship- 
ments of  arms,  ammunition,  gasoline,  trucks  and 
railway  material,  and  to  prohibit  exports  of  the 
same  categories  of  goods  from  Hong  Kong.  The 
British  action  was  linked  with  an  appeal  for  a 
Chino-Japanese  peace,  but  this  was  bluntly  re- 
jected by  Chiang  Kai-shek. 

During  July  the  Japanese  and  Chinese  associ- 
ates acting  under  Wang  Ching-wei's  orders  also 
instituted  a  reign  of  terror  in  the  International 
Settlement  at  Shanghai.  There  were  assassina- 
tions and  assaults.  American  marines  arrested  16 
armed  Japanese  gendarmes  in  civilian  clothes  dis- 
covered in  the  American  defense  sector. 

On  August  9  the  British  Government  ordered 
the  withdrawal  of  its  troops  from  North  China 
and  Shanghai.  The  200  British  troops  in  Tientsin 
and  Peiping  withdrew  August  18,  leaving  250 
American  marines  in  Peiping  and  100  in  Tientsin 
in  addition  to  about  230  French  and  130  Italian 
troops  divided  between  the  two  cities.  Departure 
of  1570  British  troops  from  Shanghai  on  August 
23-25— ending  a  century  of  British  control  of  the 
International  Settlement — provoked  a  serious  con- 
troversy between  American  and  Japanese  authori- 
ties in  Shanghai  and  their  respective  governments. 
The  Shanghai  Defense  Committee,  on  which  com- 
manders of  the  foreign  troops  were  represented, 
placed  the  defense  of  the  sector  vacated  by  the 
British  in  the  hands  of  the  American  marines.  The 
Japanese  refused  to  accept  this  arrangement.  Ac- 
cordingly the  British  sector  was  turned  over  to 
the  Shanghai  Volunteer  Corps,  a  local  militia, 
while  Tokyo  and  Washington  sought  to  negotiate 
a  settlement. 

While  these  negotiations  proceeded,  the  Japa- 
nese intensified  their  tactics  of  terrorism  and  in- 
timidation toward  Americans  and  British  remain- 
ing in  the  International  Settlement.  Anti-Japanese 
gunmen  were  also  active.  These  numerous  inci- 
dents threatened  repeatedly  to  precipitate  an  armed 
clash  between  American  and  Japanese  forces.  It 
was  under  these  circumstances,  combined  with 
growing  tension  between  Washington  and  Tokyo, 
that  many  American  private  citizens  began  to 
leave  Shanghai  for  Manila  and  other  points,  on 
the  advice  of  the  State  Department,  early  in  Oc- 
tober. 

The  British  retreat  before  Japanese  threats  was 
checked  on  October  9,  after  Japan  concluded  its 
alliance  with  Germany  and  Italy.  Prime  Minister 
Churchill  announced  that  the  Burma  Road  would 
be  reopened,  effective  October  17,  and  indicated 
that  Britain  would  extend  further  financial  and 
technical  aid  to  China.  On  December  10  London 


announced  another  credit  of  £10,000,000  to  Chung- 
king. Negotiations  for  an  Anglo-Chinese  alliance 
were  reported  in  progress  at  the  year  end. 

United  States  Policy.  Throughout  this  criti- 
cal year  for  foreign  interests  in  China,  the  major 
obstacle  to  Japan's  anti-foreign  drive  was  the  at- 
titude of  the  Washington  Government.  It  firmly 
opposed  violations  of  its  treaty  rights  in  China  by 
Japan  and  gave  repeated  encouragement  to  Chung- 
king. On  March  7  the  Export-Import  Bank  of 
Washington  advanced  a  $20,000,000  loan  to  China, 
to  be  repaid  by  shipments  of  Yunnan  tin  to  the 
United  States.  On  March  30,  the  day  Wang 
Ching-wei's  regime  was  established,  Secretary 
Hull  scored  this  move  as  another  attempt  "of  one 
country  by  armed  force  to  impose  its  will  upon 
a  neighboring  country."  He  said  the  United  States 
would  continue  to  recognize  the  Chungking  Gov- 
ernment as  the  government  of  China. 

Early  in  July  the  American  Government  cur- 
tailed shipments  of  machine  tools,  petroleum,  and 
scrap  metals  to  Japan.  On  July  16  it  protested 
against  the  British  decision  to  close  the  Burma 
Road.  Repeated  protests  were  made  against  the  in- 
discriminate Japanese  bombing  of  Chungking  and 
other  Chinese  cities  as  well  as  Japanese  air  attacks 
upon  American  mission  and  other  properties  in 
China.  On  September  25  the  Export-Import  Bank 
of  Washington  advanced  China  another  loan  of 
$25,000,000,  secured  by  $30,000,000  worth  of  Chi- 
nese tungsten.  Upon  Japan's  ratification  of  the 
treaties  with  Nanking,  the  United  States  on  No- 
vember 30  advanced  additional  credits  of  $100,000,- 
000  to  Chungking— $50,000,000  by  the  Export-Im- 
port Bank  and  $50,000,000  from  the  U.S.  Treasury 
stabilization  fund.  Like  the  preceding  loans,  these 
were  to  be  covered  by  purchases  of  Chinese  tung- 
sten, antimony,  and  tin. 

Soviet  Role  in  China.  In  order  to  facilitate 
its  advance  against  the  French,  British,  and  Dutch 
possessions  in  southeastern  Asia  and  Malaya,  the 
Tokyo  Government  strove  throughout  1940  to  neu- 
tralize the  Soviet  Union.  The  Soviet- Japanese  dis- 
pute over  the  Manchoukuoan-Mongolian  frontier 
was  settled  in  Russia's  favor  on  June  9.  The  Jap- 
anese also  proposed  the  division  of  all  China  into 
Soviet  and  Japanese  spheres  of  influence,  provided 
Moscow  withdrew  its  support  of  the  Chungking 
Government.  Negotiations  to  this  end  were  still 
under  way  in  Moscow,  with  German  support,  when 
the  year  ended. 

Meanwhile  Moscow  continued  to  send  war  ma- 
terials and  other  aid  to  Chiang  Kai-shek,  obtain- 
ing in  return  further  concessions  in  Sinkiang.  By 
threatening  in  January  to  cut  off  its  aid,  the  Soviet 
Government  forced  Chungking  to  negotiate  a  set- 
tlement satisfactory  to  the  Communists  of  the  un- 
official civil  war  between  Kuomintang  and  Com- 
munist forces  in  northwestern  China.  In  April 
Chiang  Kai-shek  sent  Shao  Li-tse,  leader  of  the 
left-wing  faction  of  the  Kuomintang,  as  his  new 
ambassador  to  Moscow  to  secure  increased  Soviet 
assistance.  On  July  27  the  conclusion  of  a  new 
Soviet-Chinese  trade  treaty  was  announced.  The 
Soviet  Government  on  December  6  informed  Japan 
that  Moscow's  policy  with  regard  to  China  re- 
mained unchanged.  This  meant  that  Russia  would 
continue  to  support  the  Chungking  Government 
despite  Japan's  recognition  of  Wang  Ching-wei's 
regime. 

See  BRITISH  MALAYA,  BURMA,  FRANCE,  FRENCH 
INDO-CHINA,  GERMANY,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  JAPAN, 
KOREA,  MANCHOUKUO,  MONGOLIA,  THAILAND,  Ti- 


CHINCH  BUG 


13* 


CHRONOLOGY 


BET,  and  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS 

UNITED 


,  ECONOMIC 

CHOSSN.  See  KOREA. 

CHRISTIAN  FRONT.  See  FASCISM;  NEW 
YORK. 

CHRISTIAN  REFORMED  CHURCH.  See 
RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS. 

CHRISTIAN  SCIENCE.  A  system  of  meta- 
physical or  spiritual  healing,  discovered  by  Mrs. 
Mary  Baker  Eddy  in  1866  and  set  forth  in  her 
textbook  of  the  movement,  Science  and  Health 
with  Key  to  the  Scriptures,  first  published  in  1875. 
The  first  church  was  established  by  Mrs.  Eddy  in 
Boston  in  1879.  In  1892  it  was  reorganized  as  a 
voluntary  religious  association,  known  as  The 
First  Church  of  Christ,  Scientist,  in  Boston,  but 
called  more  frequently  by  its  adherents  "The 
Mother  Church."  The  total  number  of  recognized 
branches  of  The  Mother  Church  in  the  United 
States  reported  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  May  31» 
1940,  was  2176  and  74  college  and  university  or- 
ganizations. Total  branches  for  the  world  2858. 

The  affairs  of  The  Mother  Church  are  adminis- 
tered by  a  board  of  directors  which  supervises  the 
work  of  the  board  of  education,  board  of  lecture- 
ship, and  committee  on  publication.  The  board  of 
education  instructs  and  authorizes  students  to 
teach  Christian  Science.  The  board  of  lectureship 
consists  of  23  members  who  are  engaged  in  de- 
livering free  lectures  on  Christian  Science. 

The  Christian  Science  Publishing  Society,  whose 
affairs  are  administered  by  a  board  of  trustees  ac- 
cording to  the  Manual  of  the  church,  issues  the 
daily  paper  of  the  organization,  The  Christian 
Science  Monitor.  Other  periodicals  include  The 
Christian  Science  Journal,  Christian  Science  Sen- 
tinel, Christian  Science  Quarterly,  and  four  edi- 
tions of  The  Herald  of  Christian  Science  in  the 
German,  French,  Dutch,  and  Scandinavian  langu- 
ages, each  with  the  English  translation  opposite, 
and  in  Braille. 

The  benevolent  association  of  the  church  con- 
ducts sanatoria  in  Brookline,  Mass.,  and  San  Fran- 
cisco, California.  Pleasant  View  Home  at  Con- 
cord, N.H.  is  a  home  for  Christian  Scientists  of 
advanced  years.  Mrs.  Margaret  Matters  is  presi- 
dent of  The  Mother  Church  for  the  year  1940-41. 
Headquarters  are  at  107  Falmouth  Street,  Boston, 
Mass. 

CHROMIUM.  This  strategic  metal  was  the 
subject  of  deep  interest  and  concern  in  1940  on 
account  of  its  importance  as  a  war  mineral.  The 
shipping  situation  was  critical,  and  freight  rates 
were  high.  The  principal  countries  of  production 
were  Turkey,  Cuba,  Rhodesia,  and  the  Philippines. 
Imports  of  ore  for  the  year  1940  aggregated  657,- 
689  gross  tons  containing  301,672  tons  CriOa,  valued 
at  $8,754,770.  The  price  in  December,  1940,  for 
metallurgical  grade  ore,  48  per  cent  CnO*  was 
$32-34  per  long  ton,  ca.f.  Atlantic  ports;  43-45 
per  cent  refractory  ore  brought  $22-24 ;  interme- 
diate grades  $28-30.  All  prices  were  nominal.  The 
Geological  Survey  and  Bureau  of  Mines  made  ex- 
tensive explorations  for  chrome  ore  in  Montana, 
Wyoming,  and  Oregon  without  discovering  much 
ore  of  metallurgical  grade.  Some  was  found  suit- 
able for  refractory  and  chemical  uses.  U.S.  con- 
sumption of  all  three  grades  of  chrome  ore— met- 
allurgical, chemical,  and  refractory— was  about 
500,000  tons.  See  GEOLOGY. 

H.  C  PARMELEE. 


CHRONOLOGY.  The  following  chronology 
lists  the  more  important  happenings  of  the  year 
1940  according  to  the  dates  of  occurrence.  In  most 
cases,  these  events  are  treated  in  detail  under  their 
respective  headings.  To  such  articles,  particularly 
those  on  leading  countries  and  states,  such  as 
UNITED  STATES,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  and  NEW  YORK, 
the  reader  is  referred  for  additional  information. 
For  a  list  of  prominent  persons  who  died  during 
the  past  year,  reference  should  be  made  to  the  arti- 
cle NECROLOGY  and  the  more  important  obituary 
notices  there  listed.  See  also  EUROPEAN  WAR  for 
important  military  events. 

JANUARY 

1 — German  freighter,  Tacoma,  interned  by  Uruguay  as 
a  naval  auxiliary. 

2— United  States  protested  to  Britain  against  the  seising 
of  American  mail  on  neutral  ships. 

3 — Soviet  Union  and  Japan  agreed  on  demarcation  of 
Manchoukuo — Outer  Mongolian  borders. 

Seventy-sixth  Congress  convened  at  Washington. 

4 — President  Eoosevelt's  budget  message  foresaw  a 
1940-41  deficit  of  $1,716,000,000. 

Attorney  General  frank  Murphy  was  appointed  to  U.S. 
Supreme  Court.  Bobert  H.  Jackson  named  Attorney  Gen- 
eral. 

Irish  parliament  gave  Prime  Minister  de  Valera  special 
powers  to  deal  with  Irish  Republican  Army  agitation. 

5 — Negotiations  for  United  States-Argentine  reciprocal 
trade  treaty  collapsed. 

6 — King  Carol  stated  that  Rumania  was  determined  to 
defend  her  borders  from  invasion. 

8 — Finland  destroyed  another  Russian  division. 

Japanese  Cabinet  approved  Wang  Ohing-wel'i  terms 
for  establishing  pro-Japanese  regime  at  Nanking. 

Stricter  deportation  law  was   passed   by  U.S.   Senate 

Australia  and  United  States  established  direct  diplo- 
matic relations. 

10 — An  explosion  in  Hartley  No.  1  coal  mine.  Hartley. 
W.Va.,  killed  91  men. 

JJ— Dr.  Carlos  Arroyo  del  Rio  won  Presidential  elec- 
tion in  Ecuador. 

13 — Belgian  soldiers  on  leave  were  called  back  to  their 
posts. 

14 — Furloughs  of  all  British  soldiers  in  France  were 
cancelled. 

Admiral  MltBTimasa  Tonal  named  Premier  of  Japan. 

15 — Russia  protested  against  Swedish  and  Norwegian 
aid  to  Finland. 

Charged  with  plotting  to  overthrow  U  S.  Government, 
17  young  men,  almost  all  members  of  the  Christian  Front, 
were  arrested  in  New  York  City. 

16— President  BooMvelt  urged  financial  aid  to  Finland. 

Great  Britain  announced  loss  of  three  submarines. 

JP— Senator  William  B.  Borah  of  Idaho  died. 

20 — Winston  Churchill  warned  neutrals  of  Europe  that 
war  was  inevitable  for  them  and  asked  them  to  join  the 
Allies. 

21 — British  destroyer  Grenville  and  81  men  lost. 

22 — British  destroyer  Exmouth  and  175  men  lost. 

Barl  Browdar,  U.S.  Communist  leader,  was  convicted 
in  New  York  Federal  court  of  using  a  passport  that  was 
falsely  obtained. 

Japan  protested  British  seizure  of  21  Germans  on  Japa- 
nese ship.  Partial  settlement  was  reached  February  6. 

2/— Dies  Committee  was  extended  for  another  year  by 

Parliament  was  dissolved  and  a  general 


U.S.  House, 


election  called  for  .March  26. 


_-.!  City  of  PUnt,  an  American  freighter,  arrived 
in  the  United  States,  after  a  116-day  voyage  through  Eu- 
ropean waters,  part  of  the  time  under  control  of  a  German 


Ex-Premier  J.  B.  M.  Hertiog'i  motion  to  restore  peace 
with  Germany  was  defeated  in  South  African  House  of 
Assembly,  81  to  59. 

28 — The  Vatican  released  a  denunciatory  report  on  con- 
ditions in  German-occupied  Poland. 

30— Hitler  asserted  that  the  second  or  more  active  part 
of  the  war  was  at  hand. 

FEBBUAET 
1— Russians  began  heavy  assault  on  Finland's  Manner- 

2 — Finland  asked  Soviet  Union  for  "honorable  peace." 
U.S.  Senate  increased  the  lending  authority  of  the  Ex- 
pert-Import Bank,  thereby  making  a  loan  to  Finland  pos- 
sible. 

7— Two  Irish  Republican  Army  members  were  hanged 
in  Birmingham,  England,  for  complicity  in  bombing  out- 
rage, 


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139 


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P—  President  Roosevelt  tent  Under-Secretary  of  State 
•nmnor  Wellts  on  diplomatic  tour  of  Europe. 

10—  French  Chamber  of  Deputies  gave  PaUdltr  Gov- 
ernment unanimous  vote  of  confidence. 

11—  Cotta  Rican  Presidential  election  was  won  by  Dr. 
Bafael  Angel  Oalder6n  Qnardia. 

12—  First  contingent  of  30,000  Australian  troops  arrived 
in  Egypt. 

Trade  treaty  between  Soviet  Russia  and  Germany  signed 
in  Moscow. 

14-~  Finland  called  the  class  of  1897  to  the  army  and 
avowed  that  she  would  not  surrender  to  Russia,  . 

IS  —  Great  Britain  offered,  unofficially,  to  provide  con- 
voys for  all  shipping,  regardless  of  destination. 

Prof.  Bogdan  Phllov  was  called  to  form  a  new  Bulgar- 

ia-British destroyer  Cossack  invaded  Norwegian  wa- 
ters to  board  the  German  prison  ship  Altmark,  rescuing 
326  British  captives.  ,  ,  ,  t  _ 

18—  President  Roosevelt  inspected  defenses  of  the  Pana- 
ma Canal. 

President  Estigarrlbia  established  a  dictatorship  in  Para- 

1  pi-British  destroyer  Darling  was  torpedoed  and  sunk 
with  a  loss  of  157  men. 

20—  Russian!  captured  Komsto,  key  fortress  of  Man- 
nerheim  Line 

21—  Soviet  planes  bombed  a  Swedish  town  near  the  Finn- 
ish border.  Sweden  accepted  Soviet  explanation  that  it  was 
a  mistake. 

22—  Rumania  called  to  the  colors  all  army  reserves  and 
barred  export  of  all  war  material. 

24—  Prime  Minister  Chamberlain  declared  that  Britain 
would  never  surrender  to  the  present  German  government. 

26  —  Stunner  Welles  conferred  with  Mussolini  in  Rome. 

27  —  Myron  0.  Taylor  was  presented  to  the  Pope  as  the 
personal  representative  of  President  Roosevelt 

MARCH 

I  —  Russians   entered  Vnpuri    (Viborg)    after  breaking 
Mannerheim  Line. 

All-India  National  Congress  executive  committee  au- 
thorized civil  disobedience  campaign  to  further  independ- 

2—  Sumner  Welles  conferred  with  Chancellor  Hitler. 

4  —  Italian  ships  freighting  German  coal  to  Italy  were 
seized  by  British  warships 

6  —  Russia  submitted  peace  terms  to  Finland  through 
Sweden. 

Land  distributed  among  peasants  by  Spanish  Republic 
was  returned  to  grandees  by  decree  of  franco  Govern- 
ment. 

7—  The  world's  largest  passenger  liner,  Queen  Elisabeth, 
arrived  in  New  York  City. 

King  Carol  reaffirmed  Rumania's  neutrality  in  European 

if^-Gen.  Enrique  Pefiaranda  del  Castillo  was  elected 
President  of  Bolivia. 

II  —  Allies  proffered  full  military  aid  to  Finland. 
12—  The  Russo-Finnish  war  ended  with  the  signing  of 

16  —  President  Roosevelt  proclaimed  his  basic  terms  for 
"a  sound  peace  " 

Stunner  Welles  returned  to  Italy  for  a  conference  with 
Mussolini,  Count  Clano.  and  the  King  . 

An  explosion  in  the  Willow  Grove  coal  mine,  St  Clairs- 
ville.  Ohio,  killed  73  miner* 

J7—  District  Attorney  William  O'Dwyer  revealed  a 
crime  syndicate  in  Brooklyn,  New  York,  which  committed 
murder  by  contract 

German  air  raiders  bombed  British  fleet  anchorage  at 
Scapa  Flow.  _ 

15—  Hitler  and  Mussolini  conferred  at  Brenner  Pass. 

J9—  James  H.  R.  Cromwell,  U.S  Minister  to  Canada. 
made  a  pro-Ally  speech  in  Toronto.  He  was  reprimanded 
by  Secretary  Hull. 

British  planes  raided  German  air  base  at  Sylt. 

20—  Daladlcr  retired  as  French  Premier  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Paid  Beynaud.  _ 

Z^—Canada'i  Liberal  Government  was  returned  to  office 
with  bigger  majority  in  general  election. 

2  9—  Sumner  Welles  made  his  report  to  President  Roose- 
velt upon  his  return  to  the  United  States. 

2P—  Germany  made  public  documents,  claimed  to  have 
been  obtained  from  captured  Polish  archives,  which  ac- 
cused American  diplomats  of  helping  to  brine  on  the  war. 
"  H  M  forgeries  by  U.S.  officials  named. 


APRIL 

2—The  decennial  U.S.  census  began. 

Britain  began  an  intensified  blockade  of  Germany. 
«?~^Prir!&™!ifter  ^"rtwrt^n  revamped  his  cabinet. 
Winston  Olmrchill  wai  given  general  supervision  over  all 
Britain  s  ngnting  forces. 

U.S.  Government  asked  Mexico  to  arbitrate  dispute  over 
expropriation  of  American-owned  oil  properties. 


^  The  Bar!  of  Athlon*  was  named  Governor  General  of 
Canada 

4— Supreme  Soviet  of  U.S.S.R.  incorporated  territory 
ceded  by  Finland  in  new  Karelian-Finnish  Soviet  Socialist 

5— President  Roosevelt's  power  to  negotiate  reciprocal 
foreign  trade  agreements  was  extended  for  three  years. 

9 — Germans  occupied  Denmark  and  invaded  Norway, 
capturing  Oslo,  Bergen,  Trondheim,  and  Narvik. 

10— German  supply  line  across  the  Kattegat  and  Slcag- 
errak  to  Norway  was  attacked  by  British  planes  and  war- 
ships. 

IJ—Janan  was  defeated  in  attempt  to  gain  control  of 
Municipal  Council  of  Shanghai's  International  Settlement. 

13— British  warships  forced  their  way  into  Narvik  har- 
bor, sinking  seven  German  destroyers. 

16 — British  expeditionary  force,  arriving  in  Norway, 
was  heavily  attacked  by  German  bombers. 

1 7— Secretary  of  State  Hull  upheld  status  quo  in  Neth- 
erlands Indies. 

J«— A  naval  appropriation  bill  of  $963,797,478  was 
passed  by  U.S.  Senate. 

Thousands  of  Iron  Guardists  were  liberated  from  Ru- 
manian concentration  camps  by  King  Carol. 

19 — The  Ford  Motor  Company  was  accused  by  the  Na- 
tional Labor  Relations  Board  of  encouraging  brutality 
against  union  workers  in  the  Ford  plant  at  Dallas,  Texas. 

Reynaud  Cabinet  received  unanimous  vote  of  confidence 
from  French  Chamber. 

The  Lake  Shore  Limited,  New  York  Central  express 
between  New  York  and  Chicago,  jumped  the  track  at 
Little  Falls,  N.Y.;  28  were  killed,  70  injured 

23— Britain's  1940-41  war  budget  of  £2,667,000,000 
was  published. 

24 — The  German  High  Command  announced  that  hence- 
forth Germany  would  rule  Norway  with  "unrestricted 
control." 

27 — Germany  attempted  to  justify  invasion  of  Norway 
by  making  public  documents  purporting  to  Drove  that  the 
Allies  planned  a  landing  in  Norway  with  Oslo's  consent. 

30 — Germany  captured  Dombaas  and  control  of  the  rail- 
way between  Oslo  and  Trondheim 

MAY 

2 — Philippine  National  Assembly  applied  an  annual  im- 
migration quota  of  500  to  every  nationality  including  the 
Japanese. 

3 — Mexican  Government  rejected  United  States  bid  to 
arbitrate  oil  controversy. 

Allies  were  forced  to  quit  Narasos  and  abandon  southern 
Norway  to  Germans.  The  struggle  for  Narvik  continued. 

6 — U.S.  Supreme  Court  ruled  that  price-fixing  agree- 
ment by  Mid-West  oil  companies  violated  anti-trust  laws. 

Fire  destroyed  the  municipal  palace  of  Sandona,  Colom- 
bia, during  patriotic  celebration,  killing  103  persons  and 
injuring  125. 

Marshal  Timoshenko  replaced  Marshal  VoroihiloT  as 
Soviet  Defense  Commissar. 

Chamberlain  Government  was  upheld  on  foreign  policy, 
281  to  200,  by  British  House  of  Commons 

10 — Germany  invaded  the  Netherlands,  Belgium,  and 
Luxemburg  by  land  and  air. 

Chamberlain  Government  resigned  and  Winston 
Churchill  formed  new  coalition  cabinet  with  Labor  leaders 
holding  important  offices  On  May  13  both  houses  of  Par- 
liament unanimously  endorsed  the  new  government. 

11 — Allies  rushed  aid  to  the  Low  Countries. 

13 — German  motorized  column  reached  vicinity  of  Rot- 
terdam, cutting  the  Netherlands  in  two  Queen  Wilhelmina 
fled  to  London 

Dutch  and  British  assured  Tapan  no  Allied  troops  would 
be  landed  in  Netherlands  Indies 

14 — Dutch  armies  ceased  resistance,  except  in  Zeeland. 

15 — Battle  of  the  Meuse  began;  Germans  pierced  the 
hinge  of  the  Maginot  Line  at  Sedan;  occupied  The  Hague. 

16 — President  Roosevelt  requested  Congress  to  appro- 
priate $1,823,000,000  for  defense 

17 — Germans  penetrated  35  miles  into  France.  The  Brit- 
ish were  forced  back  in  Belgium 

18 — Germans  took  Louvain  and  Brussels  in  the  north, 
while  in  the  south  they  pushed  to  within  85  miles  of  Paris. 

The  21  American  republics  jointly  protested  the  Ger- 
man invasion  of  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  and  Luxemburg. 

IP— Gen.  Ifaxlme  Weygand  succeeded  Gamelin  as 
Fraob  cc«mander-in-chief.  ..  „  *  «  , 

20 — Germans  reached  Laon,  75  miles  from  Paris. 

M— German  drive  attained  French  coast  at  Abbeville, 
cutting  off  British,  Belgian,  and  some  French  divisions 
from  main  French  forces 

22 — The  Allies  dug  in  on  the  Somme-Aisne  front  to 
protect  Paris* 

British  Parliament  passed  a  bill  granting  the  govern- 
ment the  right  to  conscript  all  persons  and  properties  for 
defense  purposes 

25—Sfr  Oswald  Mosley,  British  Fascist  leader,  and 
man/  other  suspected  "fifth  columnists"  were  interned. 

2*— Earthquakes  rocked  Lima,  Peru,  and  the  surround- 


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140 


CHRONOLOGY 


ing  area,  killing  350  persons,  injuring  5000,  and  destroy- 
ing many  buildings. 

25 — France  replaced  15  generals  aa  German  advance 
continued. 

27 — The  Germans  continued  to  tighten  their  ring  around 
the  Allied  armies  in  Belgium  and  Northern  France. 

2J— A  Council  of  National  Defense,  similar  to  that  of 
1916,  was  appointed  by  President  Roosevelt. 

KingLeojpold  ordered  Belgian  army  to  lay  down  its 
arms.  The  Belgian  cabinet  disowned  the  King,  asserting 
government  would  continue  to  fight. 

Some  400,000  Allied  troops  began  the  evacuation  from 
Dunkirk  under  heavy  German  pressure. 

The  Allies  captured  Narvik,  Norwegian  iron-ore  port, 
after  a  long  siege. 

30 — Germany  set  up  civil  administration  in  the  Nether- 
lands. 

J1— President  Boosevelt  sent  a  special  defense  message 
to  .Congress  requesting  $1,000,000,000  in  additional  appro- 
priations. 

Most  of  the  B.E.F.  reached  England  from  Dunkirk. 

JUMB 

1 — Marseille,  France,  was  bombed  by  German  air  raid- 
ers. 

2— Dr.  Arnulfo  Arlaa  wes  elected  President  of  Panama. 

3 — U.S.  Senate  approved  an  11  per  cent  increase  in 
naval  ships  and  planes,  costing  $654,902,270. 

Paris  was  bombed  by  German  planes;  254  persons  killed. 

British  evacuation  from  Dunkirk  was  completed. 

S — Attorney  General  Jackson  ruled  that  the  sale  of 
World  War  arms  and  ammunition  to  the  Allies  was  legal. 

Approximately  1,500,000  Germans  began  a  drive  to- 
ward Paris  on  a  120-mile  front  from  the  English  Channel 
to  Laon. 

6 — U.S.  Navy  transferred  50  naval  reserve  planes  to 
the  Allies. 

Premier  Beynaud  reshuffled  his  cabinet,  dropping  Dala- 
dier  and  naming  Marshal  Henri  P6taln  as  Vice  Premier. 

8 — Germans  broke  through  French  lines  at  four  places; 
advanced  to  within  48  miles  of  Paris. 

British  merchant  cruiser  Cannthia  was  sunk  by  Ger- 
man submarine. 

Drafting  of  new  Cuban  Constitution  was  completed  by 
Constituent  Assembly. 

9 — Norwegian  army  surrendered  to  Germany  when  the 
Allies  withdrew  from  Narvik.  King  Haakon  and  his  fugi- 
tive government  moved  to  London 

Manchoukuo-Outer  Mongolian  border  controversy  was 
settled  by  Russia  and  Japan. 

10 — Italy  declared  war  on  France  and  England;  the 
Germans  crossed  the  Seine. 

11 — The  Mediterranean  was  closed  to  American  shipping 
by  order  of  the  President. 

In  an  air  crash  near  Newtonville,  Canada,  National  De- 
fense Minister  Norman  Rogers  and  three  others  were 
killed. 

12 — A  $1,706,053,908  supplemental  defense  appropria- 
tion was  passed  by  the  U.S.  House. 

The  Germans  crossed  the  Marne  and  took  Chateau 
Thierry. 

Egypt  severed  diplomatic  relations  with  Italy 

1J— Paris  was  declared  an  open  city  by  the  French. 

Premier  Beynaud's  urgent  "final"  plea  for  aid  from  the 
United  States  was  published. 

14— The  Germans  marched  into  Paris,  and  pushed  on  to 
capture  Le  Havre  and  threaten  Tours. 

15 — Germans  broke  through  the  Maginot  Line  on  a  wide 
front.  The  French  fell  back  to  the  Loire  Riyer,  60  miles 
south  of  Pans. 

16 — The  Maginot  Line  was  abandoned;  Verdun  and 
Chaumont  were  captured 

17 — Marshal  Henri  P6taln  became  Premier  of  France 
and  asked  Germany  for  peace  terms;  Britain  announced 
that  she  would  fight  on  alone. 

Two  bombers  locked  wings  over  Bellerose,  Queens,  N.Y., 
and  crashed,  killing  11  army  men 

Senate  resolution,  adopted  76  to  0,  warned  that  the 
United  States  would  not  recognize  transfer  from  one  Eu- 
ropean power  to  another  of  "any  geographic  region  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere  " 

Hitter  and  Mussolini  met  in  Munich  to  draw  up  terms 
for  the  French  armistice. 

jp — U.S.  Government  warns  the  European  belligerents 
that  it  will  not  permit  any  transfer  of  territory  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere  from  one  non-American  power  to 

accord  was  reached  ending  Japan's  block- 


,  former  U  S. 

Secretary  of  State,  and'  Col.  ^rank  Knox,  'candidate  for 
Vice-president  in  1936,  were  named  Secretary  of  War 
and  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  respectively. 

21— -Selective  military  service  bill  was  introduced  in 
U.S.  House. 

French  received  German  armistice  terms  at  Compiegne 
In  same  railway  car  in  which  World  War  armistice  waa 
signed. 


Rumania  was  transformed  into  completely  totalitarian 
state  by  King  Carol's  order. 

22— Franco-German  armistice  was  signed. 

23— U.S.  Minister  in  Montevideo  assured  Uruguay  of 
Washington's  readiness  to  co-operate  in  suppressing  threat- 
ened revolt  by  German  Nazis.  Brazil  offered  similar  aid. 

24 — Republican  National  Convention  opened  in  Phila- 
delphia. 

Armistice  between  France  and  Italy  was  signed,  and 
fighting  in  France  came  to  an  end  early  the  next  day. 

27— Wendell  Lewis  Willkie  was  nominated  by  the  Re- 
publicans  for  President,  with  Charles  Llnxa  McNary  as 
his  running  mate  for  Vice-President. 

Rumania  ceded  Bessarabia  and  Northern  Bukovina  to 
Russia. 

JULY 

1 — Rumania  renounced  Anglo-French  guarantee  of  her 
independence. 

3 — British  Navy  moved  to  take  over  all  scattered  units 
of  the  French  fleet;  attacked  warships  at  Oran. 

Ill  health  prompted  President  Ortiz  of  Argentina  to 
transfer  his  powers  temporarily  to  Vice-President  Bamon 
8.  Castillo. 

4— At  the  New  York  World's  Fair,  a  bomb  found  in  the 
British  Pavilion  exploded  when  taken  outside,  killing  two 
policemen  and  injuring  two  others 

5 — Petain  Government  severed   relations  with   Britain. 

7 — The  government  candidate,  Gen  Manuel  Avtta 
Oamacho,  was  declared  elected  in  Mexico's  Presidential 
poll. 

9 — Duke  of  Windsor  was  appointed  governor  and  com- 
mander-m-chief  of  the  Bahama  Islands. 

10 — President  Boosevelt  asked  Congress  for  an  addi- 
tional emergency  defense  appropriation  of  $4,848,171,957; 
he  stated  that  the  administration  would  not  send  troops 
overseas. 

French  Parliament  voted  for  a  totalitarian  regime  and 
went  out  of  existence 

11 — U  S.  Congress  completed  action  on  the  "two-ocean" 
navy  bill 

Marshal  Pctam  assumed  the  full  powers  of  dictator  of 
France. 

14 — Prime  Minister  Churchill  declared  that  Britain  was 
ready  to  continue  fighting  for  years 

Col.  Fulgencio  Batista,  "strong  man"  of  Cuba  since 
1933,  was  elected  President 

14-15 — With  candidates  restricted  to  the  Communist- 
controlled  "Working  People's  Bloc,"  parliaments  pledged 
to  "closer  union"  with  Soviet  Russia  were  chosen  in 
Estonia,  Latvia,  and  Lithuania  On  July  21  the  three 
countries  proclaimed  themselves  soviet  republics  and  asked 
for  incorporation  in  Soviet  Union. 

15 — The  Democratic  National  Convention  opened  in 
Chicago. 

Explosion  in  a  coal  mine  at  Sonman,   Pa.,  killed  63 

16 — War  Cabinet,  including  two  Opposition  leaders,  was 
formed  by  New  Zealand's  Labor  Government. 

17 — President  Roosevelt  was  renominated  for  a  third 
term.  His  selection  for  the  Vice-Presidency,  Henry  A. 
Wallace,  was  nominated  July  18 

Britain  was  warned  by  General  Franco  that  Nationalist 
Spain  expected  cession  of  Gibraltar 

18 — Prime  Minister  Churchill  announced  that  Britain 
had  agreed  to  close  the  Burma  Road  to  Chinese  munitions 
shipment  for  three  months. 

19 — Hitler,  in  Reichstag  speech,  said  Britain  must  end 
the  war  or  the  British  empire  would  be  destroyed 

20 — The  "two-ocean"  navy  bill  was  signed  by  President 
Roosevelt. 

21 — Foreign  Ministers  of  the  21  American  republics  met 
in  Havana  to  discuss  measures  for  mutual  defense  against 
overseas  threats. 

22 — Prince  Konoye  formed  totalitarian  Japanese  gov- 

24 — The  P6taln  Government  revoked  the  citizenship  and 
confiscated  the  property  of  ex-Premier  Daladler  and  other 
former  French  leaders. 

25 — President  Boosevelt  barred  export  of  American  oil 
and  scrap  metal,  except  under  special  license. 

27 — European  colonies  in  Western  Hemisphere  threat- 
ened with  transfer  to  Germany,  would  be  taken  over  by  a 
joint  trusteeship  of  Pan  American  countries  under  agree- 
ment reached  at  Havana  Conference 

29 — Germany  launched  mass  air  raid  against  Britain. 


type  gasoline  to  countries  outside  of  the  Western  Hemi- 

>P  Britain  extended  the  blockade  to  the  entire  European 
continent 

AUGUST 

I— Royal  Air  Force  began  a  more  intensive  bombing  of 
German  factories  and  naval  concentrations. 


CHRONOLOGY 


141 


CHRONOLOGY 


4  —  Britain  withdrew  her  troops  from  Shanghai  and 
North  China. 

d—  United  States-Soviet  trade  agreement  was  renewed 
for  fourth  coniecutive  year. 

British  SomalUand  invaded  by  Italians. 

*—  James  A.  rarity  resigned  as  U.S.  Postmaster  Gen- 

U.S.  Senate  passed  bill  authorizing  President  to  mobilize 
National  Guard  for  training  and  service  within  the  West- 
ern Hemisphere. 

Hundreds  of  German  bombers  intensified  German  raids 
on  Channel  convoys  and  British  towns. 

H—  British  airmen  bombed  Italian  airplane  factories. 

15—  Japan  became  a  one-party  State  with  dissolution  of 
the  Minseito  party. 

J7—  Wendell  L.  Wlllkie  formally  accepted  the  Republi- 
can nomination  for  the  Presidency. 

President  Eoosevelt  and  Prime  Minister  Mackenzie 
Xing  of  Canada  agreed  to  establish  a  joint  United  States- 
Canadian  defense  board. 

Germany  announced  a  total  blockade  of  waters  around 
Britain. 

19  —  Italy  conquered  British  SomalUand. 

Olande  R.  Wickard  succeeded  Secretary  of  Agriculture 

20  —  Prime  Minister  Churchill  in  report  to  House  of 
Commons  announced  plan  to  lease  bases  in  the  Western 
Hemisphere  to  the  United  States 

Leon  Trotsky  was  assassinated  in  Mexico  City 

21  —  Rumania  agreed  to  cede  Southern  Dobruja  to  Bui- 

22—  The  Canadian-United  States  joint  defense  board 
members  were  appointed 

2?  —  President  Roosevelt  urged  Congress  to  approve  mil- 
itary conscription  bill  within  two  weeks. 

24  —  Jesse  H.  Jones  succeeded  Harry  L.  Hopkins  as 
U  S  Secretary  of  Commerce. 

Argentine  Congress  voted  170  to  1  to  reject  proffered 
resignation  of  President  OritB,  thus  blocking  an  anti- 
democratic conspiracy. 

27  —  The  National   Guard  mobilization  bill  was  signed 
by  President  Roosevelt. 

Alien  registration  began  in  the  United  States 

28  —  The  Burke-  Wadsworth  conscription  bill  was  passed 
by  the  U  S    Senate 

29  —  Japanese  submarine  sank  in  a  storm  during  maneu- 
vers south  of  Tokyo  Bay;   100  sailors  lost. 

30  —  Rumania  was  compelled  by  Germany  and  Italy  to 
cede  part  of  Transylvania  to  Hungary 

31—  Prank  0.  Walker  succeeded  James  J.  Farley  as 
U  S  Postmaster  General 

Airliner  cranh  near  Lovettsville,  Va.,  killed  Sen  Ernest 
Lnndeen  of  Minnesota  and  20  others. 

SEPTEMBER 

1  —  Sixty  thousand  U.S.  National  Guardsmen  were  called 
to  active  service  for  one  year,  beginning  Sept  16,  1940 

Two  rival  congresses  were  inducted  in  separate  meetings 
in  the  Mexican  capital. 

3  —  President  Roosevelt  announced  that  50  over-age  de- 
stroyers would  be  given  to  Britain  in  exchange  for  naval 
and  air  bases  in  Newfoundland,  Bermuda,  the  British  West 
Indies,  and  British  Guiana 

4  —  Secretary  Hull  warned  Japan  against  interference  in 
French  IndoChina  or  the  Netherlands  Indie* 

Hitler  threatened  to  raze  British  cities  if  night  bombing 
of  Germany  continued 

Following  an  abortive  Iron  Guard  revolt.  King  Carol 
dissolved  his  puppet  parliament,  suspended  the  Constitu- 
tion, and  granted  dictatorial  powers  to  a  new  Premier. 
General  An  tone  sen.  On  September  6,  amid  Iron  Guard 
rioting  in  capital,  Carol  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son, 
Prince  Michael,  and  fled  to  Switzerland  with  his  mistress, 
Magda  Lupescn. 

5—Prime  Minister  Churchill  defied  Hitler,  stating  that 
warfare  would  soon  become  intensified 

6—  Congressional  action  on  the  $5,000,000,000  U  S.  de- 
fense bill  was  coniummalM 

„£-"*>«  Bwk«-Wadsworth  conscription  bill  passed  the 
U.S.  House. 

London  was  subjected  to  the  heaviest  aerial  bombing  of 
the  war. 

The  Potato  Government  interned  ex-Premiers  Daladier 
and  Beynrad  and  General  Oamelin. 

General  Aptonescn  assumed  title  of  chief  of  State  in 
Rumania  and  took  over  four  posts  in  the  new  cabinet 

President  Bstlgarribla  of  Paraguay,  commander  of  the 
republic's  armies  during  the  Chaco  War,  was  killed  in  an 
airplane  crash. 

*  *~K-i?Wen\  B?08evrtt 
fense  bill;  contracts  were  let 

J2-The  Hercules  Powder 
N.J.,  was  wrecked  by  fire  and 
of  51  workers. 

—  Buckingham   Palace  was  bombed  by   German  air 


the  $5,000,000,000  de- 
or  200  warships 

'T  pUn'st  Kenvil, 
causing  the  death 


Italy  invaded  Egypt. 

15— British  claimed  that  185  German  planes  were  de- 
stroyed in  the  heaviest  air  battle  of  the  war  over  Britain. 
.  Id— President  Roosevelt  signed  the  Burke-Wadsworth 
bill. 

17 — Storms  broke  up  a  heavy  concentration  of  German 
barges  and  supply  ships  in  the  English  Channel 

20— Congress  authorized  $1,500.000,000  increase  in  lend- 
ing powers  of  Reconstruction  Finance  Corporation,  two- 
thirds  for  purchase  of  strategic  materials  and  aid  to  de- 
fense industries  and  one-third  for  development  loans  to 
Western  Hemisphere  countries  through  the  Export-Import 
Bank 

21 — Australian  parliamentary  deadlock  was  tightened  by 
Labor  gains  in  general  election. 

Eight  German  Nazi  leaders  in  Uruguay  were  arrested 
on  charge  of  plotting  revolt. 

22 — British  ship  carrying  refugee  children  and  adults 
to  Canada  was  torpedoed,  with  heavy  casualties. 

France,  under  strong  pressure,  agreed  to  entry  of  6000 
Japanese  troops  and  establishment  of  air  bases  in  northern 
part  of  French  Indo-Chma  Unauthorized  Japanese  forces 
crossed  border  from  China  and  attacked  French  and  native 
troops. 

25 — Nazi  press  warned  Greece  and  Turkey  to  recant 
their  ties  with  England 

24 — United  States  relinquished  control  of  customs  col- 
lections in  Dominican  Republic 

A  Defense  Communications  Board  was  created  by  the 
President  to  co-ordinate  U  S  communication  systems. 

25— China  obtained  $25,000,000  loan  from  the  United 
States. 

German  Commissioner  in  Norway  placed  all  civil  affairs 
in  the  hands  of  the  Norwegian  traitor.  Major  Vldknn 
Quisling,  and  ordered  dissolution  of  parliament,  the  mon- 
archy and  the  political  parties. 

"Free  French"  and  British  attack  on  Dakar  was  repelled 
after  three-day  struggle. 

26— President  Roosevelt  placed  embargo  on  export  of 
scrap  steel  and  iron,  except  to  the  Western  Hemisphere 
and  Great  Britain. 

A  $20,000,000  U.S.  Government  credit  was  granted 
Brazil  for  the  construction  of  a  large  steel  mill 

Two  thousand  Japanese  troops  landed  at  Haiphong, 
French  Indo-Chma. 

27 — U  S  Senate  unanimously  ratified  Havana  Conven- 
tion, which  established  inter-American  machinery  to  pre- 
vent transfer  of  sovereignty  or  control  over  European  colo- 
nies in  the  Western  Hemisphere  to  a  non-American  state. 


nan  .Province,  China. 


OCTOBER 


raiders. 


*• 


1 — Rationing  of  foodstuffs  in  unoccupied  France  began. 

2 — U.S.  Navy  Department  announced  plans  for  early 
establishment  of  Atlantic  naval  force  of  125  ships  plus 
airplanes 

/ — U.S.  Attorney  General  warned  that  government  might 
withhold  defense  contracts  from  firms  violating  National 
Labor  Relations  Act 

Neville  Chamberlain  resigned  from  Churchill  Cabinet. 

4 — Hitler  and  Mussolini  met  at  Brenner  Pass  for  an- 
other conference 

6 — General  Antonescu  assumed  leadership  of  Rumanian 
Iron  Guard. 

7 — London  reported  that  up  to  September  30  the  Royal 
Air  Force  had  bombed  more  than  200  "military  objectives" 
in  Germany  and  German-occupied  territory. 

8 — President  Roosevelt  signed  the  Excess  Profits  Tax- 
Amortization  Bill. 

U.S.  Government  advised  Americans  to  leave  the  Far 
East 

9 — Prime  Minister  Churchill  was  elected  leader  of  the 
Conservative  party  in  Britain. 

Col.  Fulgencio  Batista  was  inaugurated  as  President 
of  Cuba. 

10 — German  troops  moved  into  Rumania;  Bulgaria  be- 
gan partial  mobilization 

Foreign  Minister  Matsnoka  stated  that  Japan's  alliance 
with  Germany  and  Italy  was  not  directed  against  the 
United  States. 

11 — President  Roosevelt  ordered  "freezing"  of  Ruma- 
nian credits  in  the  United  States. 

Germany  admitted  widespread  damage  by  British  bomb- 
ers. 

12 — Clarence  A.  Dykstra,  president  of  University  of 
Wisconsin,  was  appointed  National  Director  of  Selective 
Service  by  President  Roosevelt. 

14 — All-India  National  Congress  began  organization  of 
passive  resistance  campaign  to  secure  independence. 

15 — Wendell  L.  Willkle  accused  Roosevelt  administra- 
tion in  Buffalo,  N.Y ,  speech  of  delaying  defense  prepara- 

British  Admiralty  reported  lowest  week's  shipping  losses 
in  five  months. 


CHRONOLOGY 


142 


CHRONOLOGY 


Id-Registration  of  about  16,000,000  men  between  21 
and  35  took  place  under  U.S.  Selective  Service  Act 

Germans  continued  heavy  air  attacks  on  England. 

British  destroyed  German  convoy  of  three  supply  ships 
and  two  escorts. 

Berlin  began  evacuation  of  children  due  to  British  aif 


Serrano  Sufier,  Franco's  brother-in-law  and 
leader  of  Falangist  (Fascist)  movement,  became  Foreign 
Minister  of  Spam. 

Jews  were  barred  from  high  public  office  and  from  the 
press,  radio,  and  movies  by  decree  of  the  Vichy  Govern- 
ment. 

Burma  Road  was  reopened  by  British* 

29  —  London  reported  that  6954  persons  had  been  killed 
by  air  bombing  during  preceding  month. 

Japanese  airplanes  bombed  key  stations  and  bridges  along 
the  Burma  Road. 

22—  Italian  planes  bombed  Cairo  for  first  time. 

22—  President  Boosevelt  established  a  defense  priorities 
board;  requisitioned  110  military  planes  ordered  in  United 
States  by  Sweden. 

London  advised  British  subjects  in  Japan  and  Japanese- 
occupied  territories  to  leave 

23—  Japan  denounced  Bering  Sea  fur-seal  treaty. 
Hitler  and  General  Franco  conferred  at  the  French- 

Spanish  border. 

24  —  Vichy  Government  was  warned  by  President  Boose- 
velt that  French  colonies  in  Western  Hemisphere  would 
be  occupied  under  Act  of  Havana  if  it  gave  military  aid 
to  Germany. 

U.S.  War  Department  announced  reinforcement  of  its 
air  squadrons  in  Philippines. 

25  —  Military  pact  between  Britain  and  exiled  Czecho- 
slovak Government  signed. 

John  L.  Lewis,  head  of  the  C.I.O.,  urged  labor  to  vote 
for  Republican  Presidential  candidate.  He  said  he  would 
resign  bis  post  if  President  Boosevelt  were  re-elected. 

26  —  Liner  Empress  of  Britain  was  sunk  off  the  Irish 
coast. 

27  —  Establishment  of  a  'Tree  French"  government  was 
announced  by  Gen.  Charles  de  Gaulle  in  London 

29  —  Pierrs  Laval,  Vice  Premier  of  Petain  Cabinet,  was 
named  Foreign  Minister  to  undertake  negotiations   with 
Germany. 

Chinese  troops  recaptured  Nanning. 

Greece  was  invaded  by  Italy. 

29—  The  selection  of  prospective  draftees  under  U.S. 
Selective  Service  Act  began. 

German  planes  dropped  tons  of  explosives  on  English 
coastal  towns  and  industrial  centers  in  the  Midlands. 

England  admitted  shipping  losses  during  the  week  of 
October  14-21  were  the  greatest  of  either  World  War  — 
32  vessels  totaling  146,528  tons. 

30  —  Reiterating  his  pledge  not  to  send  American  youths 
into  foreign  wars,   President  Boosevelt  said  in   Boston 
campaign   speech  that   U.S.   industry  had   undertaken  to 
produce  12,000  more  warplanes  for  Britain 

31  —  British  Government  ordered  large  number  of  freight- 
er! in  United  States  to  offset  mounting  losses  from  Ger- 
man submarine  and  air  attacks. 

NOVEMBER 

1  —  German  invasion  ports  were  bombed  again  by  R  A.F. 

2  —  Italv  unloosed  violent  air  attacks  on  Greek  cities  and 
ports,  including  Athens  and  Salonika. 

3  —  British  landed  forces  on  Greek  territory. 
4—  Spain  assumed  junsdiction  over  Tangier. 
Washington  received  assurances  from  Marshal  Pftaln 

that  France  would  not  surrender  her  fleet  to  Reich  or  join 
war  against  Britain 

5  —  President  Roosevelt  was  re-elected  for  a  third  term; 
Democrats  increased  their  control  of  House  of  Representa- 

Prime  Minister  ObnrchlU  declared  Britain  needed  air- 
naval  bases  on  south  and  west  coast  of  neutral  Ireland  to 
fight  German  submarine  and  air  blockade.  , 

Tokyo  published  ten-year  plan  for  creation  of  self-suffi- 
cient Japan-Chma-Manchoukuo  economic  bloc. 

6  —  Washington  reported  an  agreement  among  American 
republics  for  joint  use  of  their  military,  naval,  and  air 
bases. 

Hawaiian  Islands  voted  for  statehood  in  plebiscite. 

7  —  The   new   suspension   bridge   over  the   Narrows  at 
Taooma,  Wash.,  collapsed  due  to  wind  vibration  and  fell 
190  feet  into  Puget  Sound. 

Berlin  claimed  that  German  naval  and  air  forces  sank 
between  21  and  27  British  merchant  ships  in  attacks  on 
two  convoys. 

g  —  Five  members  of  Hungarian  parliament  were  charged 
with  conspiracy  to  kidnap  the  Regent  and  establish  Naxi 

'^—President  Boosevelt  stated  that  about  half  of  U.S. 
production  of  military  planes  would  be  released  to  Britain 


"Free  French"  forces  attacked  Libreville  in  French 
Equatorial  Africa. 

J0— Rumania  experienced  the  worst  earthquake  in  Its 
history. 

Mussolini  placed  Gen.  Ubaldo  ftoddu  in  charge  of  cam- 
paign in  Albania  following  Italian  reverses. 

Jl— -The  Greeks,  aided  T)y  British  airmen,  routed  Ital- 
ians in  the  Pindus  Mountains. 

Wendell  L.  Wfflkto  in  radio  broadcast  urged  his  sup- 
porters to  follow  constructive  policy  as  "loyal  opposition- 
ists" during  President  Boossvelt's  third  term. 

12 — U.S.  Government  recognized  election  of  Gen.  Man- 
uel Avlla  Oamaoho  as  President  of  Mexico. 

Explosions  occurred  in  following  plants  working  on  na- 


Minister  Nerttle  cmwnkerlain  died. 
Italian  army  division  was  trapped  by  the  Greeks. 


s*w«,   micuiuwu,    A  a..    »»    JM 

Edmburg,  Pa.,  3  kfiled. 

An  agreement  signed  in  Batavia  gave  Japan  1,800,000 
tons  of  Netherlands  Indies  oil  annually. 

Soviet  Premier  and  Foreign  Commissar  Molotov  con- 
ferred with  Hitler  in  Berlin 

13 — British  torpedo-carrying  planes  caused  heavy  dam- 
age to  Italian  warships  at  Taranto. 

14 — British  reported  762  British,  Allied,  and  neutral 
ships  "lost  as  a  result  of  enemy  action"  during  first  year 
of  war. 

15 — Dr.  Harry  A.  Millis  of  the  University  of  Chicago 
was  appointed  chairman  of  the  National  Labor  Relations 
Board. 

Coventry,  English  industrial  city,  was  devastated  in  all- 
night  German  air  raid. 

16 — American  Communist  party  voted  to  sever  its  con- 
nections with  Communist  International  to  avoid  prosecu- 
tion under  the  newly  enacted  Voorhis  Act,  requiring  for- 
eign-controlled organizations  to  register  with  the  State 
Department. 

20 — Birmingham,  England,  was  heavily  bombed. 

Hungary  joined  the  German-Italo-Japanese  alliance.  Ru- 
mania followed  suit  on  November  23. 

21 — John  L.  Lewis  resigned  as  head  of  the  C.I.O.  and 
was  succeeded  by  Philip  Murray. 

23 — Britain  would  need  U  S.  financial  aid  during  1941, 
the  British  Ambassador  to  Washington  announced  on  his 
return  from  London 

26— The  Ramspeck  Bill,  putting  200,000  employees  of 
emergency  Federal  agencies  under  merit  system,  was  signed 
by  President  Boosevelt. 

27 — Rumania's  Iron  Guard  executed  64  former  officials 
of  exiled  King  Carol's  government.  Disorder  spread 
throughout  the  country 

29 — Explosion  in  Nelms  coal  mine  near  Daciz,  Ohio, 
caused  death  of  31  men. 

30 — Germany  annexed  French  province  of  Lorraine. 

Japan  signed  treaty  recognizing  Wang  Chlng-wei's  Nan- 
king regime  and  providing  for  permanent  Japanese  mili- 
tary and  economic  control  of  North  China  and  Inner  Mon- 
golia. 

Washington  extended  an  additional  $50,000,000  credit  to 
Chungking  Government. 

Provisional  President  Morinigo  established  dictatorship 
in  Paraguay. 

DECEMBER 

/ — Joseph  P.  Kennedy  resigned  as  U.S.  Ambassador 
to  Britain. 

3 — Italian  defense  line  in  Albania  was  broken  by  Greeks. 

5 — Motion  for  peace  overtures  was  rejected  by  British 
House  of  Commons,  341  to  4. 

Washington  extended  government  credits  totaling  $50,- 
000,000  to  Argentina. 

^-Marshal  Pietro  Badogllo,  Italian  Chief  of  Staff, 
resigned. 

Porto  Edda  fell  to  Greeks. 

7 — President  Boosevelt  promised  Greece  all  possible 
help  short  of  war. 

jf_ Japanese  Foreign  Minister  said  Nippon  was  bound 
by  its  alliance  to  fight  United  States  if  the  latter  attacked 
Italy  and  Germany 

British  offensive  against  Italian  army  in  Egypt  began. 

/0— -Great  Britain  declared  it  could  not  permit  American 
food  to  be  sent  to  countries  under  German  domination,  but 
agreed  to  allow  shipments  of  medical  supplies. 

Chiang  Kai-shek's  Chungking  Government  received  a 
Britisbloan  of  £10,000,000. 

11 — British  captured  Sidi  Barrani  and  thousands  of 
Italian  prisoners. 

British  Ambassador  in  Washington  said  amount  of 
United  States  aid  to  Britain  would  determine  outcome  of 
war. 

J2— Marquess  of  Lothian  died.  .         „  „. 

/{—Marshal  Petain  announced  the  ousting  of  Vice 
Premier  ^fT*1* f rom  Vlchy  Government. 

13 — British  forced  Italians  out  of  Egypt  and  invaded 

if—President  Bootevalt  proposed  that  the  United  States 
lend  arms  and  munitions  to  countries  resisting  aggression. 


CHURCHES 


19~- German  land  and  air  foroea  were  reported 
in  Italy. 
20— President  Boosmlt  appointed  a  four-man 


appointed 

board  to  speed  up  arms  production. 
21— Viicount  Halifax,  British  F 


defente 


---------  ---  ,  .  ------  Foreign  Secretary,  was 

appointed  Ambassador  to  Washington. 

Anthony  Bden  became  Foreign  Secretary  in  British 
Cabinet. 

2J—  Prime  Minister  Churchill  appealed  to  Italians  by 
radio  to  renounce  Mussolini's  leadership  and  end  war. 

24  —  Field  Marshal  von  Brauchitsch,  German  army  Com- 
mander-in-chief, in  Christmas  broadcast  to  his  troops  said 
that  British  resistance  would  soon  be  broken. 

25  —  Large-scale  movements  of  German  troops  into  Ru- 
mania were  reported. 

26—  Registration  of  nearly  5,000,000  aliens  in  the  United 


called  42,000  additional  Na- 
tional Guard  troops  into  active  service. 

After  Christmas  truce,  British  and  German  air  raiders 
renewed  Attacks. 

2P—  -Calling  for  increased  aid  to  Britain  and  ruling  out 
proposals  for  peace  negotiations  with  the  Axis  powers, 
President  Roosevelt  in  national  radio  broadcast  charted  a 
course  of  "dynamic  non-belligerency"  for  the  United 
States. 

31  —  Hitler,  in  year-end  speech  to  German  people,  pre- 
dicted victory  in  1941. 

CHURCHES.  See  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS. 
For  edifices,  see  ARCHITECTURE 

CHURCHES  OF  CHRIST.  See  DISCIPLES 
OF  CHRIST;  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS 

CHURCH  OF  CHRIST,  SCIENTIST.  See 
CHRISTIAN  SCIENCE;  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND.  See  ENGLAND, 
CHURCH  OF. 

CHURCH  OF  GpD.  A  name  used  by  a 
number  of  small  religious  groups  in  the  United 
States.  For  statistics  on  the  larger  bodies  bearing 
this  name,  see  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS;  also, 
KENTUCKY  under  History. 

CIGARS,  CIGARETTES.  See  TOBACCO. 

C.I.O.  See  CONGRESS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ORGANI- 
ZATIONS. 

CITY  MANAGER  PLAN.  See  MUNICIPAL 
GOVERNMENT 

CITY  PLANNING.  See  PLANNING. 

CIVIL  AERONAUTICS  AUTHORITY 
(CAA).  See  AERONAUTICS. 

CIVILIAN  CONSERVATION  CORPS 
(CCC).  During  1940,  the  Civilian  Conservation 
Corps  directed  its  job  training  program  toward 
skills  closely  related  to  national  defense.  As  virtu- 
ally all  of  the  work  done  by  CCC  enrollees  is  of 
the  type  done  in  wartime  by  engineering  troops, 
the  quartermaster  corps,  the  front  line  soldiers, 
and  by  workers  in  industries  and  agriculture  behind 
the  lines,  this  did  not  necessitate  any  major  change 
in  the  training  or  the  job  phases  of  the  CCC  pro- 
gram. It  did  however  result  in  a  general  over- 
hauling of  the  training  program  provided  enrollees 
after  work  hours.  In  this  program  emphasis  was 
placed  upon  all  subjects  related  to  national  defense. 

The  Corps  operated  a  chain  of  1500  barrack 
camps  throughout  1940,  with  a  maximum  enroll- 
ment of  300,000,  plus  100  camps  on  Indian  reserva- 
tions and  in  Alaska,  Hawaii,  Puerto  Rico,  and  the 
Virgin  Islands.  By  legislation  the  maximum  en- 
rollment is  270,000  junior  enrollees,  aged  17  to 
23%,  and  30,000  war  veterans,  all  housed  in  the 
1500  barrack  camps,  10,000  Indians,  and  5000  ter- 
ritorials. 

r  ?,ca£inff  ****  CPC  is  th«  Director,  now  James 
J.  McEntee,  appointed  by  the  President  and  con- 
firmed by  the  Senate.  The  wlary  is  fixed  at  $10,000 
per  year.  The  War  Department  is  in  charge  of  the 
administration  of  the  camps.  The  Departments  of 
the  Interior  and  Agriculture  arc  in  charge  of  the 
work  projects.  The  Office  of  the  Director  handles 


143      CIVILIAN  CONSERVATION  CORPS 


the  selection  of  junior  enrollees  and  the  Veterans 
Administration  the  selection  of  war  veterans. 

As  a  result  of  the  disturbed  international  situa- 
tion and  the  rapid  expansion  of  the  Army  and 
Navy,  Director  McEntee  issued  instructions  early 
in  June  for  all  camp  officials  to  emphasize  those 
phases  of  the  academic  and  vocational  training 
program  which  bore  most  directly  on  national  de- 
fense. A  15-minute  daily  calisthenics  drill  was  ini- 
tiated for  all  junior  enrollees.  Instructions  also 
were  issued  requiring  all  enrollees  and  camp  ad- 
ministrative personnel  to  take  the  standard  20-hour 
Red  Cross  First  Aid  Course. 

Congress  recognized  the  possibilities  of  the  CCC 
as  a  training  agency  for  national  defense  by  its 
adoption  of  Sec.  38,  Public  Resolution  No.  88, 
which  authorized  the  President  to  direct  that  CCC 
enrollees  be  trained  in  skills  most  vital  to  military 
operations.  These  skills  would  include,  ".  .  .  but 
are  not  restricted  to  cooking,  baking,  first  aid  to 
the  injured,  operation  and  maintenance  of  motor 
vehicles,  road  and  bridge  construction,  photogra- 
phy, signal  communications,  and  other  matters  in- 
cident to  the  successful  conduct  of  military  and 
naval  activities." 

By  the  end  of  the  calendar  year,  the  CCC  had  in 
operation  43  Central  Motor  Repair  Shops,  where 
the  trucks,  tractors,  and  other  pieces  of  automotive 
equipment  used  by  the  CCC  are  repaired.  As  the 
shops  were  placed  on  an  operating  basis,  enrollees 
were  assigned  to  them  to  receive  training  under  the 
direction  of  skilled  automotive  mechanics.  It  is  es- 
timated that  between  2000  and  3000  enrollees  can 
receive  training  at  one  time  in  these  shops  when  all 
of  the  63  planned  are  in  operation.  An  additional 
5000  or  more  enrollees  are  working  in  the  1500 
camp  garages  as  maintenance  mechanics,  perform- 
ing all  types  of  maintenance  and  repair  duties  ex- 
cept those  which  require  the  precision  equipment 
and  heavy  hoists  available  only  in  the  Central  Re- 
pair Shops. 

The  43,000  pieces  of  automotive  equipment  used 
by  the  Corps  require  the  training  annually  of  ap- 
proximately 60,000  enrollee-operators.  They  learn 
to  operate  trucks,  tractors,  bulldozers,  draglines, 
power  shovels,  road  graders,  and  other  heavy  ma- 
chinery which  are  not  far  removed  from  the  com- 
bat cars,  tanks,  and  military  engineering  equipment 
used  by  the  armed  forces. 

Thirty  Cooks  and  Bakers  Schools  are  now  being 
operated  by  the  CCC  to  train  enrollees  to  man  the 
1500  camp  kitchens.  Because  of  the  demand  from 
private  employers  and  the  armed  forces  for  com- 
petent cooks  and  bakers,  these  schools  operate  con- 
tinuously. Enrollees  who  have  had  experience  as 
kitchen  helpers  are  assigned  to  the  schools,  as  well 
as  are  junior  officers  who  need  experience  in  mess 
management.  Upon  the  completion  of  their  course, 
which  ranges  from  two  weeks  to  two  months,  they 
are  returned  to  their  camps  where  they  gain  fur- 
ther practical  training  as  cooks,  bakers,  and  mess 
stewards.  Approximately  9000  enrollees  receive 
training  in  these  fields  at  one  time. 

Schools  for  the  training  of  subalterns,  who  serve 
as  second  in  command  of  the  camps,  were  being 
established  at  the  close  of  the  year.  Subalterns,  as 
well  as  camp  commanders,  formerly  were  reserve 
officers  serving  in  a  civilian  capacity.  It  is  now  the 
intention  of  the  Director  to  train  enrollees  to  as- 
sume these  positions.  There  are  two  reasons  for 
this :  one,  because  it  gives  the  enrollees  an  incentive 
to  gain  a  promotion  within  the  Corps  itself,  and, 
two,  many  of  the  reserve  officers  who  have  served 


CIVILIAN  CONSERVATION  CORPS   144        CIVIL  SERVICS  COMMISSION 


in  CCC  camps  are  now  being  called  for  active  duty 
because  of  the  experience  they  gained  in  handling 
CCC  camp  administrative  matters. 

Instruction  in  radio  operation  and  maintenance, 
both  code  and  voice,  is  given  at  many  camps.  In 
the  west,  where  camps  are  well  removed  from 
cities  and  sometimes  isolated  by  weather  conditions 
from  contact  through  telephone  and  telegraph,  the 
radio  has  been  widely  used  for  reasons  of  economy 
and  practicability.  It  also  finds  a  valuable  use  in 
fighting  forest  fires  and  in  rescue  operations  dur- 
ing floods,  hurricanes,  and  other  disasters.  In  the 
Fourth  Army  Corps  Area,  which  embraces  the 
southeastern  states,  a  radio  school  is  conducted  at 
Fort  McPherson,  Georgia,  to  provide  enrollee- 
operators  for  the  camp  stations.  These  enrollees 
are  required  to  pass  a  standard  test  which  qualifies 
them  for  positions  not  only  in  the  Corps,  but  with 
the  Army,  Navy,  Coast  Guard,  and  private  radio 
firms. 

Telephone  line  construction  has  been  one  of  the 
important  activities  of  the  Corps  to  provide  ade- 
quate communications  systems  in  forests  and  parks 
as  part  of  their  protection  systems.  The  CCC  has 
constructed  80,000  miles  of  telephone  lines. 

Photography  has  been  carried  on  principally  as 
a  recreational  subject,  but  it  has  been  enthusiasti- 
cally accepted  by  enrollees.  Most  of  the  camps  have 
equipped  a  small  darkroom  for  the  development 
and  printing  of  film. 

The  Corps  has  constructed  in  its  nearly  eight 
years  of  operations  115,000  miles  of  roads  and 
truck  trails  and  44,000  bridges.  This  work  has 
provided  a  wide  range  of  jobs  which  are  closely 
akin  to  military  engineering.  Approximately  60,000 
men  received  training  during  1940  in  road  con- 
struction work,  including  truck,  tractor  and  jack- 
hammer  operation,  map  making  and  reading,  sur- 
veying, blasting,  stone  masonry,  carpentry,  and 
steel  and  concrete  construction. 

Supplementing  the  training  given  on  the  work 
projects  and  in  camp  administrative  duties  are  the 
courses  conducted  after  working  hours  in  the  camp 
classrooms  and  shops  and  nearby  schools.  Courses 
range  from  the  "three  R's"  for  illiterates  to  col- 
lege and  vocational  subjects  related  to  the  work 
training.  More  than  90  per  cent  of  the  enrollees 
participate  in  organized  classes  and  activities. 

Under  an  order  effective  Jan.  1,  1941,  savings 
accounts  are  set  up  for  enrollees  in  the  office  of  the 
Chief  of  Finance,  War  Department,  who  acts  as 
fiscal  officer  for  the  CCC  Previously  $22  of  each 
enrollee's  $30  a  month  basic  pay  was  sent  to  his 
dependents  and  the  remainder  turned  over  to  him 
to  meet  personal  needs  in  camp.  Under  the  new  ar- 
rangement, $7  each  month  will  be  placed  in  a  sav- 
ings account  for  him,  $15  will  be  allotted  to  his 
dependents,  and  $8  will  be  given  him  for  personal 
use.  At  the  conclusion  of  his  enrollment  the  ag- 
gregate of  his  savings  account  will  be  given  him  in 
a  lump  sum  to  provide  a  "nest  egg"  until  he  is 
earning  in  private  enterprise. 

Another  change  during  the  last  year. opened  the 
CCC  rolls  to  a  wider  range  of  applicants.  The  in- 
terpretation of  the  eligibility  requirement,  "unem- 
ployed and  in  need  of  employment/'  was  broadened 
to  include  applicants  whose  families  were  not  nec- 
essarily in  financial  distress.  It  was  held  by  the 
Director  that  many  young  men  coming  from  fam- 
ilies of  moderate  means  could  not  obtain  jobs 
because  they  lacked  job  training  and  therefore  were 
"unemployed  and  in  need  of  employment."  The 
necessary  job  training  was  available  in  the  CCC 


and  he  felt  that  it  was  only  fair  that  they  be  given 
the  chance  to  acquire  this  experience.  However, 
youths  from  families  most  in  need  of  the  $15  al- 
lotments are  given  preference  in  selection. 

In  connection  with  the  national  defense  program, 
the  Director  of  the  CCC  during  1940  approved  the 
assignment  of  several  CCC  companies  to  work 
projects  on  military  lands  in  connection  with  the 
expansion  of  the  Army.  These  projects  included 
construction  of  a  military  airplane  landing  stage 
at  Metlakatla,  Alaska,  requiring  two  CCC  com- 
panies totaling  400  men,  clearance  of  land  at  Fort 
Benning,  Georgia,  and  Fort  Bragg,  North  Caroli- 
na, for  training  grounds,  and  the  assignment  of  one 
company  to  the  Military  Reservation  in  Okaloosa 
County,  Florida.  Other  military  projects  were  be- 
ing proposed  as  the  year  came  to  a  close. 

From  April,  1933,  when  the  Corps  was  estab- 
lished, to  Nov.  30,  1940,  the  CCC  furnished  em- 
ployment to  2,798,207  individuals,  of  which  2,563,- 
007  were  junior  and  veteran  enrollees  and  the 
remaining  235,200,  non-enrolled  personnel  charged 
with  the  administration  of  the  camps,  the  work 
projects,  and  the  general  program.  Total  obliga- 
tions during  that  period  were  $2,570,000,000,  of 
which  $616,000,000  was  allotted  to  dependents  of 
enrollees. 

The  conservation  work  program  up  to  Nov.  30, 
1940,  included  the  planting  of  1,961,000,000  forest 
trees,  improvement  of  forest  stands  on  3,728,000 
acres,  fire  hazard  reduction  of  2,047,000  acres,  ex- 
penditure of  5,935,000  man  days  fighting  forest 
fires,  planting  of  shrubs  and  grasses  for  erosion 
control  purposes  on  3,611,000,000  square  yards, 
planting  of  212,000,000  quick  growing  trees  for 
erosion  control,  and  construction  of  5,570,000  ero- 
sion control  check  dams,  80,000  miles  of  telephone 
lines,  115,700  miles  of  truck  trails  and  minor  roads, 
and  44,500  bridges  of  all  types.  Tree  and  plant 
disease  and  pest  control  operations  were  carried  on 
over  an  aggregate  of  20,470,000  acres. 

See  EDUCATION,  U.S.  OFFICE  OF;  SOIL  CONSER- 
VATION SERVICE  RELIEF. 

JAMES  J.  McENTEE. 

CIVILIAN    PILOT    TRAINING    PRO- 
GRAM. See  AERONAUTICS. 
CIVIL  SERVICE  COMMISSION,  U.S. 

The  unprecedented  demands  for  personnel  which 
have  arisen  from  the  national-defense  program 
have  been  successfully  met  by  the  U.S.  Civil  Serv- 
ice Commission  throughout  1940.  In  normal  years 
only  60,000  to  80,000  appointments  are  made  in  the 
entire  classified  service,  but  during  the  calendar 
year  1940  over  200,000  placements  were  made  in 
the  War  and  Navy  Departments  alone,  more  than 
160,000  of  them  between  June  1  and  the  first  week 
in  November.  In  August,  1940,  the  central  office  of 
the  Commission  certified  the  names  of  27,209  eli- 
gibles.  as  compared  with  11,166  eligibles  in  Janu- 
ary. Other  offices  of  the  Commission  experienced 
similar  increases. 

Thanks  to  advance  planning  which  had  been 
done  as  early  as  the  summer  of  1939,  the  Commis- 
sion regularly  fills  the  requests  of  national-defense 
agencies  for  personnel  within  24  hours  after  re- 
ceipt. To  do  this,  it  has  revived  methods  which  had 
not  been  used  since  the  first  World  War  and  has 
devised  new  ones.  Posters  stressing  the  need  for 
personnel  in  the  skilled  trades  are  displayed  on 
bulletin  boards  in  Federal  buildings  and  on  mail 
tracks,  and  have  been  reproduced  in  hundreds  of 
newspapers.  Through  the  generosity  of  over  800 


CIVIL  SERVICE  COMMISSION        145        CIVIL  SERVICE  COMMISSION 


broadcasting  stations  which  are  donating  time  for 
this  purpose,  "spot"  notices  concerning  the  need 
for  personnel  in  certain  positions  are  being  read 
several  times  daily  during  breaks  for  station  iden- 
tification. In  addition,  the  radio  industry  has  ar- 
ranged several  coast-to-coast  broadcasts  by  offi- 
cials of  the  Commission  on  the  employment  needs 
of  the  national-defense  program.  Consolidated  lists 
of  local  examinations  for  which  local  publicity  and 
recruiting  has  failed  to  secure  sufficient  eligibles 
are  distributed  weekly  to  first-,  second-,  and  third- 
class  post  offices,  and  monthly  to  fourth-class  post 
offices.  A  national  roster  of  professionally  trained 
men  and  women  available  for  specialized  defense 
work  is  being  established,  and  will  be  maintained 
on  cards  for  machine  sorting.  To  make  possible  the 
rapid  transfer  of  experienced  Government  employ- 
ees to  meet  emergency  needs,  the  experience  and 
educational  background  of  approximately  600,000 
Government  employees  are  being  tabulated  on 
punch-cards.  Testing  procedures  are  being  im- 
proved rapidly,  faster  rating  methods  have  been 
devised,  and  arrangements  have  been  made  to  over- 
come shortages  in  certain  occupations  by  resorting 
to  other  sources  of  manpower  and  by  training  per- 
sons who  are  potentially  qualified.  Liaison  officers 
of  the  Commission  have  been  assigned  to  many 
national-defense  agencies,  with  full  responsibility 
for  having  personnel  on  the  job  by  the  time  it  is 
needed. 

Nearly  all  of  the  defense  expansion  in  the  Fed- 
eral service  has  come  since  the  delivery  of  the 
President's  preparedness  message  in  May,  1940. 
Consequently,  detailed  statistics  on  the  Commis- 
sion's national-defense  work  are  not  yet  available. 
The  figures  given  below  relate,  unless  otherwise 
indicated,  to  the  1940  fiscal  year—July  1,  1939,  to 
June  29,  1940— and  reflect  comparatively  little  of 
the  expansion  which  has  resulted  from  the  pre- 
paredness program. 

On  June  29,  1940,  the  classified  service  included 
726,827  positions,  or  72.5  per  cent  of  the  1,002,820 
positions  in  the  executive  civil  service  on  that  date. 
There  were  816,610  men  and  186,210  women  in  the 
executive  civil  service  on  June  29,  1940  Within 
the  District  of  Columbia  39.7  per  cent  of  the  em- 
ployees were  women.  Outside  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia 15.3  per  cent  of  the  employees  were  wom- 
en; this  relatively  small  proportion  is  caused  by 
the  large  number  of  men  employed  in  the  Postal 
Service  and  in  the  navy  yards,  arsenals,  and  other 
manufacturing  and  construction  projects. 

Civil-Service  Examinations.  During  the  past 
fiscal  year,  1,052,110  applications  for  civil-service 
examinations  were  received.  Ratings  were  com- 
pleted and  eligible  registers  established  in  examina- 
tions for  which  981,930  persons  applied.  Of  these 
846,824  took  the  examinations,  and  381,012  received 
eligible  ratings.  The  various  Federal  departments 
and  establishments  appointed  68,578  persons  from 
civil-service  registers. 

Under  the  act  of  July  11, 1919,  as  interpreted  by 
various  Executive  orders  and  court  decisions,  vet- 
eran preference  is  granted  all  persons  discharged 
under  honorable  conditions  at  any  time  from  the 
Army,  Navy,  Marine  Corps,  or  Coast  Guard.  Such 
preference  will  be  granted  to  persons  inducted  into 
the  land  or  naval  forces  of  the  United  States  un- 
der the  National  Guard  Act  of  Aug.  27,  1940,  or 

in5nSelcctlvc  £c™c.e  and  Tra«™g  Act  of  Sept  16, 
1940,  upon  submission  of  official  proof  of  honor- 
able separation  from  active  military  service. 
During  the  fiscal  year  1940,  166,340  persons  ap- 


plied for  veteran  preference  m  examinations.  Of 
those  who  passed  civil-service  examinations,  47,- 
429  had  been  granted  veteran  preference.  Of  the 
appointees  to  the  classified  service  from  open  com- 
petitive entrance  examinations  during  the  fiscal 
year,  20.88  per  cent  had  veteran  preference,  includ- 
ing 13,686  men  and  24  women  receiving  preference 
because  of  their  own  service,  514  widows  of  vet- 
erans, and  95  wives  of  disabled  veterans. 

Recent  Legislation  and  Executive  Orders. 
The  President  approved  a  number  of  Executive 
orders  which  were  recommended  to  him  by  the 
Commission  to  meet  emergency  needs  of  the  na- 
tional-defense program.  These  emergency  needs  al- 
so affected  certain  Executive  orders  of  a  more  per- 
manent character,  such  as  Executive  Order  No. 
8587  of  Nov.  7,  1940,  which  made  a  number  of 
changes  in  the  civil-service  rules.  Schedules  A  and 
B  of  the  civil-service  rules,  which  are  lists  of  po- 
sitions excepted  from  examination  or  from  open 
competitive  examination,  were  revised  by  Execu- 
tive Order  No.  8534  of  Sept.  6,  1940.  Executive 
Order  No.  8576  of  Oct.  29,  1940,  revised  the  labor 
regulations,  which  govern  the  appointment  of  un- 
skilled laborers  at  a  number  of  Federal  establish- 
ments such  as  arsenals  and  navy  yards,  and  apply 
to  all  appointments  to  unskilled-laborer  positions 
in  some  cities.  Unskilled-laborer  positions  are  not 
subject  to  the  provisions  of  the  Civil  Service  Act. 

The  scope  of  the  Commission's  work  as  the  cen- 
tral personnel  agency  of  the  Federal  Government 
was  extended  by  the  establishment  within  the  Com- 
mission, under  Executive  Order  No  8467  of  July 
1,  1940,  of  the  Council  of  Personnel  Administra- 
tion, which  had  previously  been  an  independent 
agency.  The  Council  is  an  interdepartmental  com- 
mittee to  deal  with  personnel  matters,  and  provides 
machinery  for  co-ordinating  the  action  of  the  per- 
sonnel directors  of  Federal  departments  and  inde- 
pendent establishments,  who  are  members  of  the 
Council. 

The  act  of  July  19,  1940,  Public,  No.  753,  76th 
Cong.,  known  as  the  "Second  Hatch  Act,"  pro- 
hibited "pernicious  political  activities"  on  the  part 
of  officers  and  employees  of  State  and  municipal 
agencies  whose  principal  employment  is  in  connec- 
tion with  activities  financed  in  whole  or  in  part  by 
loans  or  grants  made  by  the  United  States  or  by 
any  Federal  agency.  The  United  States  Civil  Serv- 
ice Commission  was  made  an  administrative  tri- 
bunal to  pass  upon  such  cases,  and  a  procedure  was 
provided  for  appeals  from  its  decisions  to  the 
courts. 

Title  I  of  the  "Ramspeck  Act"  of  Nov.  26, 1940, 
Public,  No.  880,  76th  Cong ,  authorized  the  Presi- 
dent to  extend  the  provisions  of  the  Civil  Service 
Act,  by  Executive  order,  to  all  positions  previously 
exempted  from  it  by  statute,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Tennessee  Valley  Authority,  the  Work  Proj- 
ects Administration,  assistant  United  States  district 
attorneys,  and  persons  appointed  by  the  President 
and  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  Title  II  of  the  act 
authorized  the  President  to  extend  the  provisions 
of  the  Classification  Act  of  1923,  as  amended,  to 
positions  and  employees  not  at  the  time  subject  to 
its  provisions,  with  certain  specified  exceptions 

The  act  of  June  29,  1940,  Public,  No.  680,  76th 
Cong.,  extended  the  provisions  of  the  Alaska  Rail- 
road Retirement  Act,  which  it  amended,  to  clerical 
employees  of  the  Alaska  Railroad.  The  act  of 
June  28, 1940,  Public,  No.  671,  76th  Cong.,  permits 
the  re-employment  in  the  War  and  Navy  Depart- 
ments of  former  employees  retired  for  age  under 


CLOTHING 


146 


COAST  GUARD 


the  act  of  May  29,  1930.  whose  re-employment 
would  otherwise  be  prohibited.  This  provision  is 
solely  in  the  interest  of  the  recruiting  of  employees 
experienced  in  occupations  essential  for  the  nation- 
al-defense program,  and  extends  in  no  case  beyond 
June  30,  1942,  unless  Congress  shall  otherwise  pro- 
vide. 

HAB*Y  B.  MITCHELL. 

CLOTHING.  See  FASHION  EVENTS;  GAR- 
MINT  INDUSTRY;  LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS; 
SHOE  INDUSTRY  ;  TEXTILES. 

COAL  AND  COKE.  According  to  the  Na- 
tional Coal  Association,  1940  output  of  bituminous 
coal  was  450,000,000  tons.  This  was  more  than  50,- 
000,000  tons  greater  than  the  production  of  1939, 
and  100,000,000  tons  more  than  that  of  1938.  It 
was  the  best  annual  production  since  1930  when 
467,000,000  tons  was  produced.  The  dollar  value  at 
the  mine  price  was  greater  than  the  1940  combined 
value  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  pig  iron. 

Fixed  prices  for  bituminous  coal  at  the  mines 
were  put  into  effect  October  1,  after  more  than 
three  years  of  fact-finding  investigations  by  the 
Bituminous  Coal  Division  of  the  Department  of 
the  Interior. 

Electric  power  generation  was  still  dependent  on 
coal  as  a  source  of  primary  energy,  two-thirds  of 
the  nation's  kilowatt  output  being  produced  from 
coal  and  one-third  from  water  power. 

The  accompanying  table  gives  the  preliminary 
estimate  of  the  U  S.  Bureau  of  Mines  on  produc- 
tion of  Pennsylvania  anthracite  and  beehive  coke 
for  the  year  1940. 

PRODUCTION  OF  PENNSYLVANIA  ANTHRACITE  AND 
BEEHIVE  COKE 


1939 
Antfancite'   ........  (short  tons)    50,024,000  51,487,000 

Beehive  coke    ......  (short  tons)      2,883,500  1,444,300 

1  Preliminary  for  1940. 

1  Total  production,  including  colliery  fuel,  washery  and  dredge 
coal,  and  coal  shipped  by  truck  from  authorized  operations. 

New  by-product  coke  ovens  built  or  under  con- 
struction in  1940  numbered  699,  of  which  142  re- 
placed some  old  ovens.  This  was  the  largest  new 
construction  of  coke-making  facilities  since  1926. 
Additional  construction  was  in  prospect  to  meet 
the  demand  for  steel  for  national  defense. 

See  GENERAL  LAND  OFFICE;  PENNSYLVANIA. 
H.  C.  PARICELEE. 

COAST  GUARD,  U.S.  A  part  of  the  military 
forces  of  the  United  States,  operating  under  the 
Treasury  Department  in  time  of  peace  and  as  a 
part  of  the  Navy  in  time  of  war. 

The  Coast  Guard  has  a  personnel  averaging  for 
the  fiscal  year  1941  about  600  commissioned  offi- 
cers, 750  chief  warrant  and  warrant  officers,  15,- 
000  enlisted  men  and  4000  civilian  personnel.  At 
present  the  Coast  Guard  materiel  is  composed  of 
a  fleet  of  267  cutters  (consisting  of  vessels  of 
over  65  feet  in  length  with  armaments  of  1-pound- 
ers,  to  the  largest  cutters  of  327  feet  in  length 
carrying  5-inch  broadside  batteries)  ;  229  picket 
boats,  15  auxiliary  craft,  30  lightships,  and  9  re- 
lief lightships.  The  aviation  wing  comprises  10 
air  stations,  encircling  the  coast,  and  operates  50 
planes.  The  shore  establishment  includes  197  active 
Coast  Guard  lifeboat  stations,  47  inactive  stations, 
and  3  houses  of  refuge.  Training  facilities  include 
the  Coast  Guard  Academy,  4  training  stations  for 


enlisted  men,  4  Maritime  Service  Training  Sta- 
tions, and  the  Coast  Guard  Institute.  In  addition 
to  these,  there  are  the  Coast  Guard  Depot  for  the 
construction  and  repair  of  boats  and  vessels,  a 
communication  system  consisting  of  radio  stations 
and  some  three  thousand  miles  of  coastal  land 
wire  and  submarine  cable,  administrative  offices, 
stores,  and  bases.  About  2800  small  boats  are  at- 
tached to  the  ships  and  stations  of  the  Service.  All 
Coast  Guard  vessels  are  being  equipped  on  a  war 
time  basis. 

With  a  total  membership  of  over  3000  men  and 
with  about  2700  boats  enrolled  and  divided  into 
150  flotillas,  the  Coast  Guard  Reserve  on  Oc- 
tober 5  celebrated  its  first  anniversary.  Created  by 
act  of  Congress  for  the  principal  purpose  of  pro- 
moting safety  at  sea  through  the  education  of 
yachtsmen  and  other  small  boat  operators  in  the 
proper  handling  of  their  craft,  the  Coast  Guard 
Reserve  movement  was  instantly  accepted  by 
yachtsmen  and  other  owners  in  possession  of  small 
craft.  Applications  for  membership  have  exceeded 
the  facilities  of  die  Coast  Guard  and  of  the  vari- 
ous Reserve  flotillas,  and  further  expansion  has 
been  temporarily  retarded  to  permit  of  the  order- 
ly organization  of  flotillas  and  the  establishment 
of  an  educational  program. 

In  line  with  the  national  defense  program  of 
the  nation,  Congress  appropriated  approximately 
$10,700,000  for  the  needs  of  the  Coast  Guard,  to 
be  expended  in  the  fiscal  year  1941.  It  is  estimated 
that  $8,200,000  of  the  total  amount  requested  of 
Congress  will  cover  the  cost  of  emergency  con- 
version of  Coast  Guard  vessels  for  Naval  use, 
and  of  the  installation  of  effective  aircraft  ord- 
nance. Conversion  work  involves  the  revision  of 
armament  and  ammunition  stowage  arrangements ; 
installation  of  guns;  enlargement  of  magazines; 
fitting  of  depth  charge  racks  and  Y  guns ;  instal- 
lation of  underwater  sound  detection  apparatus; 
and  structural  changes  incident  to  these  installa- 
tions. An  estimated  $2,500,000  is  to  be  used  for 
pay,  allowances,  subsistence  and  equipment  of  2500 
additional  men  during  the  fiscal  year  1941.  The 
men  would  be  the  first  increment  of  a  program  to 
enlist  5000  additional  men  in  the  Coast  Guard 
over  a  period  of  two  years. 

A  total  of  1581  new  aids  to  navigation  were  es- 
tablished during  the  past  year,  consisting  largely 
of  daymarks,  buoys,  and  minor  lights.  In  the  same 
period  767  aids  were  discontinued,  leaving  a  net 
increase  of  815  aids  and  bringing  the  total  of  aids 
in  use  to  30,420. 

Application  of  the  neutrality  laws  in  the  exist- 
ing international  situation  has  resulted  in  the  Coast 
Guard  establishing  its  Neutrality  Patrol,  the  duty 
of  which  is  to  prevent  any  vessel  from  using 
United  States  ports  for  an  unneutral  act.  Due  to 
the  marked  decrease  and  almost  total  lack  of 
weather  data  normally  furnished  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau  by  ships  at  sea  of  all  nationali- 
ties, the  Atlantic  Weather  Patrol  was  established 
in  February,  1940.  Two  cutters,  equipped  as  float- 
ing weather  bureaus,  were  stationed  between  the 
Azores  and  Bermuda  to  collect  this  data.  The 
President's  Proclamation  of  June  27,  1940.  gave 
to  the  Coast  Guard  the  control  of  the  anchorage 
and  movement  of  vessels  and  the  supervision  of 
the  loading  and  unloading  of  explosives  and  other 
dangerous  cargoes. 

In  carrying  out  its  functions  as  the  Federal 
maritime  policy  agency,  the  Coast  Guard  rescued 
9249  persons  in  peril;  assisted  32,084  persons  on 


COCHIN  CHINA 


147 


COLOMBIA 


board  vessels;  cared  for  410  persons  in  distress; 
assisted  vessels  and  cargoes  valued  at  £88,016,268; 
boarded  and  examined  papers  of  39,450  vessels; 
and  seized  21  vessels.  The  fines  and  penalties  in- 
curred by  vessels  reported  totaled  $235,459.  The 
Coast  Guard  destroyed  193  derelicts  and  other 
obstructions  to  navigation  and  recovered  prop- 
erty valued  at  $82,945.  It  patrolled  481  regattas 
and  marine  parades,  and  examined  2527  persons 
for  certificates  as  lifeboatmen. 

Other  activities  of  the  Coast  Guard  included :  a 
water-fowl  survey  for  the  Biological  Survey; 
transportation  of  mail  where  commercial  shipping 
was  disrupted;  towing  vessels  of  the  Maritime 
Commission;  transporting  census  enumerators  to 
sparsely  settled  coastal  sections  of  the  United 
States  and  Alaska;  servicing  South  Pacific  Is- 
lands for  the  Department  of  Interior;  co-operat- 
ing with  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries  in  fishery  obser- 
vations and  oceanographic  studies  in  Alaskan  wa- 
ters. 

The  Coast  Guard  provided  an  armed  detail  to 
guard  approximately  9299  tons  of  silver  bullion 
valued  at  $90,297,200  transported  from  the  Treas- 
ury Department  in  New  York  to  the  depository 
at  West  Point 

Coast  Guard  relief  forces  were  dispatched  to 
the  aid  of  communities  stricken  by  the  flood  of 
the  Susquehanna  River  during  April,  1940,  and 
into  southern  Alabama  during  the  flood  there  in 
August,  1939.  Considerable  survey  work  and  plan- 
ning concerning  Coast  Guard  activities  in  future 
floods  in  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  Valleys  were 
undertaken  during  the  past  year. 

RUSSELL  R.  WAESCHE. 

COCHIN  CHINA.  See  FRENCH  INDO-CHINA. 

CODLING  MOTH.  See  ENTOMOLOGY,  ECO- 
NOMIC. 

COFFEE.  The  world  coffee  crop  in  1939-40, 
according  to  statistics  of  the  International  Insti- 
tute of  Agriculture,  totaled  4841  million  Ib,  the 
least  in  years  except  for  the  small  production  in 
1935-36,  and  was  91  million  Ib.  below  1938-39,  and 
compared  with  the  1933-34  to  1937-38  average  of 
5274  million  Ib.  The  season  in  Brazil  was  charac- 
terized by  unfavorable  weather  conditions  from 
blooming  through  ripening  to  drying  and  in  certain 
areas  by  crop  pests,  which  continued  to  reduce  vol- 
ume of  production — although  conditions  in  other 
American  countries  usually  were  favorable.  Brazil- 
ian production  approximated  2756  million  Ib.  in 
1939-40  compared  to  2923  million  Ib.  in  1938-39 
from  around  8  million  acres.  Coffee  production  in 
other  American  countries  was  for  Colombia  589 
million  Ib.,  Venezuela  143  million  Ib.,  Guatemala 
121  million  Ib.,  Salvador  119  million  Ib.,  Mexico 
110  million  lb.?  Cuba  71  million  Ib.,  and  Dominican 
Republic  46  million  Ib. ;  and  the  total  for  American 
countries  was  estimated  at  4109  million  Ib.  Nether- 
lands Indies,  the  leading  non-American  producer, 
had  a  crop  of  236  million  Ib. 

The  1940-41  crop  of  Brazil,  as  estimated  by  the 
New  York  Coffee  and  Sugar  Exchange,  would 
total  about  20  850,000  bags  compared  to  21,861,000 
bags  in  193™J  «st«nates  of  world  totals  in  these 
years  were  30  850,000  and  32,361,000  bags. 

The  Republic  of  Brazil  had  pledged  8,628,749 
bags  against  the  1939-40  coffee  loan,  and  had  de- 

8VY^  ™WuJuly  V  1919'  tSLD«-  30>  1940'  a  total 
of  4,454,000  bags  of  coffee.  The  total  destroyed  to 

Oct.  .31,  1940  approximated  71,069,000  bags,  in 
addition  to  479,000  bags  destroyed  before  June, 


1931,  by  the  Sao  Paulo  Institute.  Exports  from 
Brazil,  1939-40,  aggregated  15,553.000  bags,  and 
from  Colombia  3,781,864  bags.  Coffee  delivered  in 
the  United  States  in  1939-40  amounted  to  13,886,- 
594  bags.  Spot  prices  in  New  York  in  1940  ( Jan.- 
Dec.)  averaged  from  5%  to  (ffoi  per  Ib.  for  Santos 
No.  4  and  6%  to  9%4  for  Colombian. 

COFFERDAMS.  See  FOUNDATIONS. 

COINS.  See  ARCHAEOLOGY.  (For  value  of  coins, 
see  INTERNATIONAL  BANKING  AND  FINANCE.) 

COKE.  See  COAL  AND  COKE. 

COLLECTIVE  BARGAINING.  See  LABOR 
CONDITIONS:  NATIONAL  LABOR  RELATIONS  BOARD. 

COLLEGES.  See  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES. 

COLOMBIA.  A  South  American  republic. 
Capital,  Bogota. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  estimated  at  439,- 
828  square  miles ;  population  at  the  census  of  July 
5,  1938,  8,724,839,  of  whom  20  per  cent  were  white, 
5  per  cent  Negro,  7  per  cent  Indian,  and  about  68 
per  cent  of  mixed  race.  Of  27,437  foreigners  in 
the  country  in  January,  1939,  16.6  per  cent  were 
Venezuelans,  13.3  per  cent  Spaniards,  and  8.3  per 
cent  Germans.  United  States  citizens  numbered 
2191  as  of  Jan.  1,  1940.  The  1938  census  popula- 
tions of  the  chief  cities  were:  Bogota,  331,400: 
Medellin,  170,622;  Barranquilla,  152,348;  Calf, 
110,579;  Manizales,  86,346;  Cartagena,  86,197; 
Ibague,  61,860;  Cucuta,  57,251. 

Defense.  Military  training  for  one  year  and 
service  in  the  reserve  for  nine  years  is  compulsory. 
The  army's  peace  strength  in  1940  was  14,750  men ; 
trained  reserves.  100,000;  active  air  force,  1150. 
Police  number  about  5000.  The  navy  has  2  modern 
destroyers,  3  seagoing  gunboats,  3  coastal  patrol 
vessels,  and  4  river  gunboats.  The  air  force  has 
relatively  few  modern  planes.  United  States  mili- 
tary aviation  and  naval  missions  were  contracted 
for  in  1938  and  a  French  military  mission  in 
March,  1940. 

Education  and  Religion.  About  48.2  per  cent 
of  Colombians  over  10  years  of  age  were  illiterate 
in  1928  (68  per  cent  in  1918).  Schools,  with  the 
number  of  pupils  in  parentheses,  are  as  follows: 
Kindergarten,  293  (12,823) ;  elementary,  8554  (561.- 
948)  ;  high.  449  (31,685)  ;  colleges  and  universi- 
ties, 30  (3548) ;  religious,  31  (1624) ;  special  and 
vocational,  325  (17,036).  Roman  Catholicism  is  the 
dominant  religious  faith;  the  Church  was  dises- 
tablished in  1936. 

Production.  The  national  economy  is  geared 
to  production  of  coffee,  gold,  petroleum,  and  ba- 
nanas for  export.  In  1939  these  four  products  ac- 
counted for  95  per  cent  of  the  value  of  all  exports. 
Mineral  output  in  1939  was :  Petroleum,  23,857,000 
bbl.  (of  42  gal.) ;  gold,  570,017  troy  oz.;  platinum, 
23,671  troy  oz.;  cement,  167,000  tons;  gasoline, 
889,000  bbl.  Estimated  yields  of  the  chief  crops 
were  (in  metric  tons) :  Coffee,  267,000  in  1939-40; 
cacao,  11,400  in  1937-38;  cane  sugar,  41,000  in 
1939-40;  tobacco,  14,800  in  1937-48;  wheat,  90,800 
in  1937-38;  corn,  490,500  in  1937-48;  rice,  74,600 
in  1937-48.  Manufacturing  is  confined  largely  to 
oil  refining  and  the  production  of  textiles,  flour, 
cigars,  cigarettes,  etc..  for  local  consumption. 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  in  1939  totaled  177,- 
054,000  pesos  (163,226,000  in  1938)  ;  imports,  183,- 
462,000  (159,259,000  in  1938).  The  chief  1939  ex- 
ports by  value  were:  Coffee,  87,125,000  pesos; 
gold,  40,582,000  pesos;  petroleum,  31,903,000  pe- 
sos ;  bananas,  8,679,000  pesos.  Cotton  cloth,  auto- 
mobiles, iron  and  steel  bars  and  pipes,  Pharmaceu- 
ticals, and  machinery  were  the  leading  imports. 


COLOMBIA 


148 


COLOMBIA 


The  United  States  supplied  54  per  cent  of  the  1939 
imports,  Germany  12.8,  United  Kingdom  9.5.  Of 
the  exports,  the  United  States  took  66.9  per  cent, 
Curacao  8.1,  Germany  7.3,  Canada  7.0.  See  TRADE, 
FOREIGN. 

Finance.  Ordinary  budget  receipts  in  1939  were 
96,095,267  pesos  (preliminary),  including  a  surplus 
of  4,541,419  pesos  from  1938,  and  total  ordinary 
expenditures  were  89,331,267  pesos.  Total  1940 
budget  estimates  for  receipts  and  expenditures  bal- 
anced at  91,626,690  pesos  (ordinary,  86,107,000; 
special  purposes  budget.  2,745,000;  budget  under 
Law  12  of  1932,  2,775,000).  The  national  public 
debt  on  Dec.  31, 1939,  totaled  about  200,741,000  t>e- 
sos  (216,873,000  on  Dec.  31,  1938).  Average  ex- 
change rates  of  the  Colombian  peso  in  1939  were : 
Controlled,  $0.5714  ($0.5587  in  1938)  ;  curb,  $0.5618 
($0.5435  in  1938). 

Transportation,  etc.  Colombia  has  slightly 
over  2000  miles  of  railway  line,  14,700  miles  of 
highways,  and  a  comprehensive  network  of  air- 
ways linking  all  the  chief  cities.  The  Magdajena 
River,  on  which  849,000  metric  tons  of  freight 
were  carried  in  1938,  is  an  important  transporta- 
tion route.  The  German-controlled  SCADTA  Air- 
ways in  1939  carried  54,621  passengers  and  5659 
tons  of  freight.  The  Pan  American  Airways  west 
coast  route  connects  at  Barranquilla  and  Cali  with 
the  Colombian  air  network  (see  History  for  1940 
merger  of  air  lines).  Construction  of  the  follow- 
ing railway  lines  was  under  way  in  1940  or  project- 
ed with  proceeds  of  the  15,000,000-peso  bond  issue 
authorized  in  1939 :  Extension  of  Narifto  Railway 
and  construction  of  port  facilities  at  Tumaco; 
completion  of  the  La  Virginia-El  Pintado  and 
Antioquia  sections  of  Western  Trunk  Railway; 
Ibaque-Armenia  line ;  extension  of  North  Central 
Railway.  A  new  national  radio  station  was  opened 
at  Bogota  early  in  1940.  Port  developments  at 
Santa  Marta  also  were  under  way  in  1940 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  Aug  5,  1886, 
vests  executive  power  in  a  President  elected  for 
four  years  by  direct  popular  vote  and  ineligible  for 
re-election  for  four  years  after  completion  of  his 
term.  A  Congress  of  two  houses  exercises  the  leg- 
islative power.  The  Senate  has  56  members,  elected 
for  4  years  by  departmental  assemblies ;  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies,  118  members,  elected  for  2  years 
by  direct  suffrage.  Extensive  amendments  to  the 
Constitution  were  voted  in  1936  (see  1936  YEAR 
BOOK,  p.  174  f.).  President  in  1940,  Dr.  Eduardo 
Santos  (Liberal),  who  assumed  office  Aug.  7, 1938. 
In  the  1939  elections  77  Liberals  and  41  Conserva- 
tives were  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and 
37  Liberals  and  19  Conservatives  to  the  Senate. 

HISTORY 

Colombia  was  primarily  concerned  during  1940 
with  meeting  internal  problems  that  were  aggra- 
vated by  Chancellor  Hitler's  sensational  victories 
in  Europe.  One  involved  Nazi  propaganda  and 
military  preparations  for  an  attack  upon  the  Pana- 
ma Canal  from  Colombian  bases.  The  other  was 
the  problem  of  adjusting  Colombia's  economy  to 
the  drastic  fall  in  coffee  prices  resulting  from  the 
European  War. 

The  Nazi  Threat.  The  invasion  of  European 
neutrals  by  Germany  Italy's  entrance  into  the  war 
and  the  collapse  of  France  aroused  further  anti- 
Nazi  sentiment  in  Colombia.  There  were  violent 
anti-Italian  and  anti-Nazi  demonstrations  in  Bo- 
gota on  June  11,  forcing  the  government  to  pro- 
hibit all  demonstrations.  Nazi  successes  in  Europe, 


however  added  new  vigor,  boldness,  and  effective- 
ness to  German  propaganda  and  activities.  Leaflets 
attacking  the  United  States  and  Pan  Americanism 
and  promising  the  return  of  Panama  and  the  canal 
to  Colombia  if  she  threw  in  her  lot  with  Germany 
and  Italy  were  widely  distributed.  They  appeared 
to  have  been  printed  in  the  Reich  and  shipped  to 
Colombia  on  Italian  ships.  In  June  Nazi  commer- 
cial agents  offered  German  manufactures  to  Co- 
lombian merchants  at  attractive  prices,  with  de- 
livery promised  for  September.  When  contracts 
were  made,  the  Germans  were  said  to  have  ordered 
the  goods  called  for  in  the  United  States  and  at- 
tempted to  conceal  its  origin. 

Although  German  exports  to  Colombia  had  been 
cut  off  since  the  first  months  of  the  European 
War,  the  German  commercial  organization  was 
maintained  intact,  making  intensive  preparation 
for  the  resumption  of  barter  trade  when  the  war 
was  ended.  It  was  closely  integrated  with  efficient 
propaganda,  political  and  military  organizations, 
all  controlled  by  the  leader  of  the  German  Nazi 
party  in  Colombia  and  all  working  in  close  col- 
laboration with  German  diplomatic  and  consular 
offices. 

Propaganda  Inroads.  After  the  collapse  of 
France,  Nazi  propaganda  was  reported  to  have 
made  rapid  progress  in  winning  over  many  Co- 
lombian Conservatives  to  a  pro-German  attitude. 
This  was  reflected  in  the  changed  attitude  of  some 
Conservative  leaders  and  newspapers  that  former- 
ly supported  the  Liberal  policy  of  close  co-opera- 
tion with  the  United  States.  The  old  resentment 
over  the  secession  of  Panama  was  stirred  up.  Con- 
servatives joined  in  the  attacks  upon  "Yankee  im- 
perialism" previously  made  by  Colombian  Nazis 
and  Communists.  A  number  of  new  Nazi  and 
Communist  publications  were  launched  that  strove 
to  create  a  breach  between  the  Bogota  and  Wash- 
ington governments.  The  issue  was  taken  up  by 
the  Liberals  and  became  the  subject  of  charges 
and  counter-charges  between  the  leading  Liberal 
and  Conservative  newspapers 

Anti-Nazi  Precautions.  The  Liberal  Govern- 
ment took  steps  to  frustrate  German  plans  for  us- 
ing the  republic  as  a  base  for  air  attacks  upon  the 
Panama  Canal.  It  was  announced  at  Washington 
March  3  that  President  Roosevelt  during  his  cruise 
near  the  Panama  Canal  had  obtained  assurances 
from  Colombia  that  its  air  fields  would  be  made 
available  to  United  States  military  planes  if  nec- 
essary for  defense  of  the  canal  against  a  foreign 
power. 

The  elimination  of  the  German  local  manage- 
ment and  the  remaining  28  German  military  pilots 
and  60  other  German  technicians  holding  key  posi- 
tions in  the  Colombian  national  airlines  company 
(Avianca)  was  carried  out  June  11.  Preliminary 
steps  toward  this  end  had  been  taken  on  the  initia- 
tive of  President  Santos  in  1939.  United  States 
and  Colombian  pilots  and  technicians  replaced  the 
Germans.  Avianca  was  thereafter  co-operatively 
owned,  managed,  and  operated  by  Colombian  and 
United  States  interests,  with  Pan  American  Air- 
ways controlling  64  per  cent  of  the  stock  and  the 
Colombian  Government  holding  a  five  to  ten  year 
option  to  take  over  51  per  cent.  Pan  American 
Airways  undertook  to  assist  in  the  expansion  and 
re-equipment  of  the  Colombian  air  lines  and  to 
train  pilots  and  technicians  for  future  operation 
of  all  Avianca  services  by  a  completely  Colombian 
personnel. 

By  another  decree  issued  in  June  the  govern- 


COLOMBIA 


149 


COLORADO 


ment  established  strict  control  over  foreigners  re- 
siding in  Colombia. 

Economic  and  Financial  Measures.  On  Dec. 
15,  1939,  Congress  gave  President  Santos  extraor- 
dinary powers  to  deal  with  the  economic  and  fi- 
nancial crisis  arising  from  the  European  War. 
Previous  to  the  expiration  of  these  powers  on  July 
19,  1940,  the  government  issued  a  series  of  decrees 
putting  into  effect  a  carefully  worked  out  and 
comprehensive  program  for  the  financial  and  eco- 
nomic rehabilitation  and  development  of  the  re- 
public. 

The  internal  public  debt  was  converted  at  re- 
duced interest  rates  of  4  and  6  per  cent  through  a 
20,000,000-peso  loan  from  the  Bank  of  the  Repub- 
lic. This  loan  was  made  possible  largely  through  a 
$10,000,000  credit  advanced  to  the  Bank  of  the  Re- 
public by  the  Export-Import  Bank  of  Washington. 
Co-operation  of  commercial  banks  was  enlisted  in 
extending  agricultural  and  industrial  credits.  The 
state  undertook  to  guarantee  loans  to  individuals 
and  agricultural  co-operatives  for  the  development 
of  new  crops,  such  as  rubber,  quinine,  and  coco- 
nuts. The  work  of  the  Ministry  of  National  Econ- 
omy and  the  Exchange  Control  Office  was  careful- 
ly co-ordinated  with  government  trade,  credit,  and 
transportation  policies  and  with  related  private 
economic  interests  in  order  to  stimulate  farming, 
stock  raising,  and  manufacturing. 

The  Institute  of  Industrial  Development  was 
founded  with  state  and  private  banking  capital  to 
promote  industrialization.  A  public  works  program 
was  adopted  calling  for  completion  of  existing 
railway  projects  (s«e  under  Transportation),  the 
Tumaco  port  works,  and  highways  linking  roads 
in  the  center  and  south  of  the  country  with  those 
of  the  Atlantic  coastal  region,  on  both  sides  of  the 
Magdalena  River.  The  government  undertook  to 
repay  most  of  the  debt  it  owed  to  the  administra- 
tive council  of  the  national  railways,  thus  restor- 
ing the  railways1  financial  equilibrium  and  permit- 
ting purchase  of  needed  equipment.  Another  de- 
cree provided  for  conversion  of  the  1927  and  1928 
6-per-cent  dollar  loans  into  a  new  issue  of  about 
$45,000,000  bearing  not  more  than  3  per  cent  in- 
terest. 

Among  other  aspects  of  this  many-sided  devel- 
opment plan  were  such  measures  as  restrictions  on 
rice  and  wheat  imports  to  encourage  home-grown 
crops;  regulation  of  insurance  activities^;  inaugu- 
ration of  a  large  public  works  program  in  Bogota 
in  preparation  for  the  Pan  American  Conference 
scheduled  for  1943;  establishment  of  a  national 
merchant  marine,  etc.  While  these  measures  were 
in  preparation,  the  government  on  April  26  grant- 
ed a  temporary  export  bountry  of  1.50  to  2  pesos 
per  sack  on  coffee  shipments  to  offset  drastic  price 
declines.  The  signing  of  the  inter-American  coffee 
marketing  agreement  of  Nov.  28,  1940  (see  COF- 
FEE; PAN  AMERICANISM)  led  to  an  improvement 
in  coffee  prices  and  in  Colombian  economic  condi- 
tions. 

Following  a  lengthy  tie-up  of  Magdalena  River 
steamers  by  strikers,  the  government  on  October 
26  promulgated  a  law  declaring  the  river  services 
a  public  utility  and  prohibiting  their  suspension 
through  labor  troubles.  The  law  authorized  the 
government  to  establish  agricultural  colonies  or 
co-operatives  to  provide  work  for  superfluous  la- 
borers engaged  in  river  services 

Internal  Politic!.  Although  the  next  presiden- 
tial election  was  not  due  until  May  1942  cam- 
paign maneuvering  started  on  July  24,  1940,  when 


a  majority  of  the  Liberal  members  of  Congress 
agreed  to  support  ex-President  Alfonso  Lopez  as 
their  candidate.  The  anti-L6pez  minority  within 
the  Liberal  party  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  154) 
retaliated  by  combining  with  the  Conservatives  in 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  to  elect  an  anti-L6pez 
president  of  the  Chamber  and  a  Conservative  vice- 
president.  The  dissenting  Liberals  also  tacitly  aid- 
ed the  Conservatives  in  their  attack  upon  the  gov- 
ernment's policy  of  collaboration  with  the  United 
States. 

Although  President  Santos  was  leader  of  the 
conservative  wing  of  the  Liberal  party,  he  de- 
nounced the  tactics  of  the  minority  Liberals.  He 
also  charged  that  the  Conservative  party's  opposi- 
tion to  his  request  for  a  large  national  defense 
loan  was  due  to  the  spread  of  totalitarian  ideas  in 
its  ranks.  Confirmation  of  this  charge  was  seen  in 
the  repudiation  of  the  Conservative  leaders  by  a 
minority  faction  of  the  party  in  August.  This 
group  supported  President  Santos'  policies  and 
accused  their  leaders  of  fanatical  partisanship. 
Undismayed  by  this  split  in  the  party  ranks,  the 
Conservative  leader,  Laureano  Gomez,  on  Septem- 
ber 26  threatened  civil  war  if  Dr.  Lopez  again  be- 
came President.  He  attacked  President  Santos  as 
an  "assassin"  and  "shielder  of  criminals."  Three 
days  later  Gomez  received  a  rebuke  from  the  high 
command  of  the  army,  which  invited  President 
Santos  to  attend  a  demonstration  of  loyalty  by  the 
cadets  of  the  Military  Academy 

After  a  stormy  legislative  session  that  was  ex- 
tended for  an  additional  month  by  partisan  debate, 
President  Santos  secured  passage  of  the  national 
defense  loan  bill,  ratification  of  the  inter-Ameri- 
can coffee  quota  agreement,  and  approval  of  other 
important  legislation.  At  the  year  end  he  made 
formal  announcement  of  the  government's  neutral- 
ity in  the  forthcoming  Presidential  election  and 
demanded  the  resignation  of  all  government  offi- 
cials planning  to  participate  in  the  political  cam- 
paign. 

See  PAN  AMERICANISM  ;  PAN  AMERICAN  UN- 
ION. 

COLORADO.  Area,  103,948  square  miles,  in- 
cluding (1930)  water,  290  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion, Apr.  1, 1940  (census),  1,123,296;  1930,  1,035,- 
791.  Population  of  Denver,  the  capital  (1940), 
322,412.  The  State's  urban  population  (dwelling  in 
places  of  2500  or  more)  rose  to  590,756  (19$)), 
from  519,882  (1930). 

Agriculture.  Colorado  harvested,  in  1940,  about 
5,559,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops;  this  ex- 
ceeded 1939's  acreage  by  more  than  one-tenth  and 
almost  equaled  the  previous  ten  years'  average. 
Tame  hay,  on  1,032,000  acres,  gave  1,684,000  tons; 
in  approximate  value  to  the  farmer,  $12,967,000. 
Wheat,  the  chief  grain,  occupying  1.096,000  acres, 
made  13,560,000  bu.;  value,  about  $8,136,000.  Of 
the  two  great  root  crops,  potatoes,  on  78,000  acres, 
produced  15,210,000  bu.  (value.  $7,301,000)  ;  sug- 
ar beets,  on  140,000  acres,  2,304,000  tons  (1939's 
smaller  crop  was  valued  at  $7,160,000).  Corn,  on 
888,000  acres,  grew  10,656,000  bu.  ($6,394,000) ; 
dry  beans,  332,000  acres,  1,760,000  100-lb.  bags 
($3,929,000)  ;  barley,  457,000  acres,  9,368,000  bu. 
($3,841,000) ;  grain  sorghums,  500,000  acres— 
twice  the  usual  area—,  5,000,000  bu.  ($2,000,000) ; 
oats,  151,000  acres,  4,530,000  bu.  ($1,495,000). 

Mineral  Production.  Colorado's  yearly  pro- 
duction of  native  minerals  totaled  $60,369,440  for 
1938  (U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines'  estimate  made  in 
1940).  Coal  and  molybdenum  each  furnished  about 


COLORADO 


150 


COLOR,  DYES,  PIGMENTS 


one-fourth  of  this;  gold,  over  one-fifth;  silver, 
one-twelfth.  Coal  mines  yielded  about  5,890,000  net 
tons  for  1939,  as  against  5,663,144  tons,  in  value 
$14,828,000,  for  1938.  The  mining  of  molybdenum, 
after  a  long  rise  from  small  beginnings,  declined  in 
production,  to  21,796,116  Ib.  (metal  contained  in 
concentrates)  for  1939,  from  28,242,085  Ib.  for 
1938;  the  value  of  these  poundages  in  extracted 
metal  would  approximate  $14,570,000  for  1939  and 
$19,750,000  for  1938.  To  the  contrary  of  mines' 
production,  yearly  shipments  for  1939  exceeded 
those  for  1938.  The  Climax  Molybdenum  Company 
remained  the  world's  chief  producer  of  the  metal's 
ore,  the  only  substantial  producer  in  Colorado,  and 
the  chief  single  mining  operation  of  any  sort  in  the 
State.  Petroleum  in  relatively  small  quantity  was 
produced  in  several  fields:  in  1939,  about  1,391,000 
bbL:  in  1938,  1,412,000  bbl.  (value,  $1,540,000). 

The  combined  value  of  recoverable  gold,  silver, 
copper,  lead,  and  zinc  in  mines'  yearly  production 
increased  to  $24,233,889  for  1940,  from  $22,319,041 
for  1939.  Gold,  still  the  main  element  in  these  to- 
tals, rose  to  368,798  oz.  (1940),  from  366,852  oz. 

(1939)  ;  by  value,  to  $12,907,930,  from  $12,839,820. 
Production  of  silver  increased,  to  9,559,762  oz. 
(1940).  from  8,496,488  (1939),  and  to  $6,798,053, 
from  $5,767,313.    Copper  totaled  24,592,000   Ib. 

(1940)  and  26,430,000  Ib.  (1939) ;  by  value,  $2,778,- 
896  (1940)  and  $2,748,720  (1939).  The  less  im- 
portant yield  of  lead  was  valued  at  $1,118,900  for 
1940.  and  that  of  zinc  at  $630,110. 

History.  The  movement  for  the  payment  of  old- 
age  pensions  at  the  rate  of  $45  a  month  in  Colo- 
rado strove  by  two  routes  in  1940  toward  its  goal 
— to  bring  into  actual  effect  advantages  won,  in 
law  but  to  no  great  extent  in  fact  when  pension- 
seekers  put  through  the  pension  amendment  to  the 
State  constitution  in  1936.  Litigants  obtained  from 
the  District  Court  of  Denver  two  decisions :  first, 
that  the  pension  fund  was  entitled  to  85  per  cent 
of  all  ad-valorem  taxes  on  stocks  of  liquor,  col- 
lected since  1937,  whether  by  State,  counties,  cities, 
or  school  districts;  second  (January  8),  that  the 
pensions  must  be  paid  at  the  full  rate  and  not 
scaled  down,  as  was  the  monthly  practice  of  the 
Board  of  Social  Welfare,  in  accordance  with  the 
money  available.  The  National  Annuity  League 
moved  to  create  possibly  $5,000,000  of  further  rev- 
enue by  bringing  about,  through  a  popular  refer- 
endum, the  taxation  of  intangible  values  at  the  rate 
of  five  mills  a  year  on  the  dollar  of  valuation.  A 
petition  to  this  effect  was  circulated  for  several 
months,  went  to  the  Secretary  of  State  (June  19) 
with  46,174  names  to  it,  and  won  a  place  on  the 
November  ballot.  The  pro-pensioner  decisions  of 
the  District  Court,  being  appealable,  awaited  rul- 
ings from  the  higher  courts  before  going  into  ef- 
fect The  actual  monthly  payments  of  the  pensions 
continued  much  below  the  required  $45;  in  May 
they  averaged  $26.08  and  went  to  about  43,000 
recipients.  Proposed  pro-pensioner  amendments  to 
the  constitution  failed  at  the  polls  (see  Elections, 
below). 

Efforts  to  establish  Colorado's  contentions  in  the 
long-standing  disputes  with  other  interested  States 
over  respective  shares  of  the  flow  of  rivers  cross- 
ing Colorado's  borders  fell  into  some  confusion. 
Governor  Carr,  differing  with  Attorney  General 
Rogers  over  how  to  handle  the  defense  against 
Wyoming's  suit  before  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court, 
as  to  withdrawal  of  water  from  the  Laramie  River, 
ordered  Rogers  not  to  act  for  Colorado.  Rogers 
ignored  the  order  and  presented  a  brief,  while  Carr 


deputed  the  task  to  another  attorney.  The  decision 
(April  22)  while  dismissing  the  actual  proceedings 
against  Colorado  for  contempt  of  the  existing 
court  order  limiting  the  water  for  use  in  Colorado, 
reaffirmed  the  limit  set  by  that  order.  Carr  was  left 
with  the  recourse  to  a  direct  negotiation  with 
Wyoming  for  better  terms,  and  this  was  tried.  In- 
veterate disputes  with  the  downstream  States  of 
Nebraska  (as  to  the  North  Platte)  and  Kansas 
(over  the  Arkansas  River)  remained  at  the  time 
unsettled,  and  the  turn  of  the  Wyoming  case  of- 
fered other  States  some  inducement  to  press  their 
own  demands  by  litigation. 

The  State  Supreme  Court  ruled,  April  9,  that 
two  of  its  former  members,  who  had  retired  before 
the  enactment  in  1939  of  a  system  of  pensions  ap- 
plying to  this  court,  could  not  qualify  for  the  pen- 
sions ;  their  previous  retirement,  it  was  held,  had 
cost  them  their  pensionable  status.  In  a  case  of  in- 
terest to  stock-raisers,  the  court  upheld  the  State's 
law  of  1877  making  it  lawful  to  kill  dogs  chasing 
or  attacking  livestock. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  public  works  in 
the  State,  the  Colorado-Big  Thompson  undertak- 
ing, to  divert  water  from  the  western  slope  through 
the  Continental  divide,  for  irrigation  on  the  eastern 
slope,  was  advanced  by  the  noling-through  of  a 
13-mile  tunnel  under  the  divide  (June  23). 

Denver.  The  State  called  on  Denver  to  pay 
over  to  it  (as  constitutionally  marked  for  old-age 
pensions)  $121,500  of  the  collections  from  the 
municipal  fees  for  liquor  licenses;  this  further 
pinched  the  city's  income  in  January.  Despite 
strong  objection  to  more  local  taxes,  licenses  to 
conduct  various  businesses  were  made  more  ex- 
pensive and  other  businesses  were  added  to  the 
licensed  list  Figures  of  April  1  showed  about  one- 
fifth  of  the  city's  population  to  be  receiving  sup- 
port from  public  aid  of  the  divers  sorts.  In  an 
effort  to  put  the  administration  of  Denver's  civil- 
service  system  on  a  better  basis  the  District  Court 
judges  appointed  a  new  member,  John  J.  Cory,  to 
the  Civil  Service  Commission,  in  place  of  an 
ousted  member  (April  3). 

Elections.  In  the  popular  vote  for  President  on 
November  5  the  State  went  to  Willkie  (Rep.), 
total  279,576,  by  a  narrow  margin,  the  total  for 
Roosevelt  (Dem.),  265,554,  falling  short  of  that 
which  he  had  obtained  in  1936.  Ralph  L.  Carr 
(Rep.)  was  re-elected  Governor,  defeating  George 

E.  Saunders  (Dem.).  Republicans  took  two  of  the 
four  seats  in  the  U.S.  House  of  Representatives, 
as  against  none  in  1938.  The  voters  rejected  four 
submitted  proposals  for  amendments  to  the  State 
constitution :  one  would  have  replaced  the  high  but 
uncertain  old-age  pension  with  a  "guaranteed"  pen- 
sion at  $30  a  month,  to  rank  with  the  State's  or- 
dinary expenses  as  a  first  charge  on  the  general 
fund;  another  would  have  prevented  reduction  of 
the  rates  of  taxation  on  income  and  permitted  the 
taxation  of  intangibles  for  pension  money ;  a  pro- 
posed law,  also  rejected,  would  have  allowed  horse 
racing  and  a  system  of  betting  thereon,  under  the 
pari-mutuel  system. 

Officers.  Colorado's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  Ralph  L.  Carr  (Rep.); 
Lieutenant  Governor,  John  C.  Vivian ;  Secretary 
of  State,  George  E.  Saunders;  Auditor,  Homer 

F.  Bedford;  Treasurer,  Charles  M.  Armstrong; 
Attorney  General,  Byron  G.  Rogers ;  Superintend- 
ent of  Public  Instruction,  Inez  Johnson  Lewis. 

COLOR,  DYES,  PIQMBNTS.  See  CHEMIS- 
TIY;  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL;  FASHION  EVENTS; 


COMBT8 


151       COMMODITY  EXCHANGE  ADM. 


POOD  AND  DRUG  ADMINISTRATION;  LEATHER; 
MOTION  PICTURES  ;  NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAGAZINES  ; 
PHOTOGRAPHY. 

COMETS.  See  ASTRONOMY. 

COMMERCE.  See  BUSINESS  REVIEW;  FED- 
ERAL TRADE  COMMISSION  ;  INTERSTATE  COMMERCE 
COMMISSION  ;  TRADE,  FOREIGN  ;  and  the  countries 
under  Foreign  Trade.  _  _ 

COMMERCE,  U.S.  Department  of.  See 
UNITED  STATES  under  Administration;  PATENT 

(COMMERCIAL  BUILDINGS.  See  ARCHI- 

TECOMMODITY  CREDIT  CORPORA- 
TION.  A  Federal  lending  institution  making 
loans  principally  to  producers  of  farm  commodi- 
ties. Such  loans  are  designed  to  protect  and  in- 
crease farm  income,  to  stabilize  farm  prices  and 
to  assure  adequate  supplies  of  farm  products.  Un- 
der its  charter,  the  Corporation  is  empowered, 
among  other  things,  to  buy  and  sell,  lend  upon,  or 
otherwise  deal  in  commodities,  agricultural  or  oth- 
erwise. Except  for  certain  legal  technicalities  at- 
tributable to  the  corporate  form  of  organization, 
the  Corporation  operates  as  a  regularly  established 
bureau  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  under 
the  control  and  supervision  of  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture.  .  f  . 

The  Commodity  Credit  Corporation  has  made 
loans  on  butter,  corn,  cotton,  dates,  figs,  hops,  mo- 
hair, peanuts,  pecans,  prunes,  raisins,  rye,  tobacco, 
turpentine  and  rosin,  wheat,  and  wool.  All  loans 
made  by  the  Corporation  have  been  secured  by 
commodities  pledged  as  collateral  under  either 
warehouse  receipts  or  chattel  mortgages. 

Under  the  provisions  of  the  Agricultural  Ad- 
justment Act  of  1938  loans  are  mandatory,  under 
certain  conditions,  on  three  commodities ;  namely, 
cotton,  corn,  and  wheat.  On  cotton  and  wheat  the 
minimum  rate  of  the  loan  is  52  per  cent  of  parity 
price  and  the  maximum  rate  of  loan  is  75  per  cent 
of  parity,  but  within  these  limits  the  rate  of  loan 
is  discretionary.  In  the  case  of  corn,  the  rate  of 
loan  is  fixed  by  a  statutory  formula  with  a  maxi- 
mum of  75  per  cent  of  parity  price. 

Commodity  Credit  Corporation  was  created  as 
an  agency  of  the  United  States,  under  the  laws  of 
the  State  of  Delaware,  on  Oct.  17,  1933,  pursuant 
to  Executive  Order  No.  6340,  dated  pet.  16,  1933. 
It  has  an  authorized  and  paid  in  capital  of  $100,- 
000,000.  Under  the  act  of  Mar.  8, 1938,  as  amended 
the  Corporation  is  authorized,  with  the  approval  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  to  issue  and  have 
outstanding  at  any  one  time,  bonds,  notes,  deben- 
tures, and  other  similar  obligations  in  an  aggregate 
amount  of  not  to  exceed  $1,400,000,000. 

On  Nov.  30,  1940,  the  Commodity  Credit  Corpo- 


Commodity 
Cotton    

Dollars 
775,237,03609 

Cotton  Pool         
Corn  

51415841.82 
482863,609.04 

Tobacco  ...                 ... 
Turpentine,  Rosin  .             ".   
Figs  .  
Peanuts 

• 

14,768,362.50 

13,437,388.54 
3  134,748  73 

Raisins  '.. 
Wheat             ...             .             
Wool,  Mohair    .... 
Butter  

; 

5795701.34 
80719,407.83 
3355,91300 
34053.566.03 

Dates  .     ... 

'        ^6130200 

485',941.63 

Hops  "     ' 

1,520  930.85 

Rye  
Barley  

ration  reported  that  it  had  disbursed  since  its 
inception  a  total  of  $1,503-301,803,  of  which  $635,- 
804,454  was  outstanding.  Loans  held  by  the  Cor- 
poration totaled  $289,275,231  and  loans  held  by 
banks  through  arrangement  with  the  Corporation 
totaled  $346,529,105.  As  a  result  of  its  operations 
the  Corporation  owned  on  the  above  date  6,199,915 
bales  of  cotton,  154,325,327  bu.  of  com,  and  1,091,- 
231  bu.  of  wheat  The  total  disbursements,  by  com- 
modities, as  reported  on  Nov.  30,  1940,  are  shown 
in  the  accompanying  table.  See  DAIRYING, 

CARL  B.  ROBBINS. 

COMMODITY  EXCHANGE  ADMINIS- 
TRATION. The  agency  of  the  U.S.  Department 
of  Agriculture  which  provides  regulation  of  fu- 
tures trading  in  the  principal  agricultural  commod- 
ities. The  functions  of  the  Administration  include 
the  prevention  of  manipulation  of  commodity  prices 
on  exchanges,  the  enforcement  of  limitations  on 
speculative  trading,  and  the  elimination  of  harmful 
types  of  trading  operations  and  trade  practices. 
Such  regulatory  work  is  designed  to  strengthen 
the  futures  trading  system,  to  the  end  that  futures 
prices  will  truly  reflect  actual  conditions  of  supply 
and  demand,  and  thus  facilitate  the  orderly  mar- 
keting of  agricultural  products. 

Originally  established  under  the  Grain  Futures 
Act  of  1922  as  the  Grain  Futures  Administration, 
the  agency  became  known  as  the  Commodity  Ex- 
change Administration  in  1936  when  Congress 
amended  the  original  act  in  many  important  re- 
spects and  extended  its  provisions  to  cotton,  but- 
ter, eggs,  potatoes,  and  other  commodities.  An  act 
of  Congress  in  1938  added  wool  tops ;  and  another 
in  1940,  known  as  the  Pace  act,  added  all  fats  and 
oils,  soybeans,  and  several  other  commodities. 

The  total  amount  of  futures  trading  in  commod- 
ities supervised  by  the  Commodity  Exchange  Ad- 
ministration was  estimated  at  $10,376,000,000  for 
the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1940.  This  repre- 
sented a  sharp  increase  over  the  amount  for  the 
preceding  fiscal  year  which  was  $6,715.000,000. 
However,  both  figures  were  far  below  the  $23,000,- 
000,000  annual  average  for  the  10-year  period, 
1929-38. 

The  outbreak  of  war  in  Europe  tended  to  upset 
normal  forces  of  supply  and  demand,  and  increased 
speculative  activity  in  futures  trading.  Many  for- 
eign markets  were  dosed  and  futures  exchanges 
in  the  United  States  became  the  only  world  mar- 
kets not  subject  to  wartime  restrictions.  To  guard 
against  the  possibility  of  manipulation  or  attempts 
to  depress  prices  by  foreign  traders,  the  Commod- 
ity Exchange  Administration  carefully  investigated 
the  transactions  of  foreigners  in  both  the  grain 
and  cotton  markets. 

In  May  and  June,  1940,  the  German  invasion  of 
the  Low  Countries  and  France  demoralized  grain 
markets  and  grain  futures  prices  were  temporarily 
pegged  by  the  exchanges  at  the  request  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture.  After  panic  selling  had 
ceased  the  pegged  prices  were  lifted  by  the  ex- 
changes. During  the  last  part  of  1940  the  Admin- 
istration began  the  regulation  of  futures  trading  in 
fats  and  oils,  and  other  commodities,  as  provided 
in  the  Pace  act. 

To  conduct  a  futures  market  in  any  of  the  speci- 
fied commodities,  an  exchange  or  board  of  trade 
must  be  designated  as  a  "contract  market"  by  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture;  and  all  futures  com- 
mission merchants  and  floor  brokers  operating  on 

these  markets  must  register  with  the  Secretary 


COMMODITY  PRICES 

each  year.  During  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30, 
1940,  a  total  of  1338  registration  certificates  were 
issued* 

In  addition  to  the  main  office  in  Washington,  the 
Commodity  Exchange  Administration  maintains 
field  offices  in  Chicago,  New  York,  and  five  other 
cities  where  important  commodity  exchanges  are 
located. 

JOSEPH  M.  MEHL. 

COMMODITY  PRICES.  See  BUSINESS  RE- 

VIEW. 

COMMONWEALTH  FUND.  This  endow- 
ment, established  in  1918  by  Mrs.  Stephen  V.  Hark- 
ness  "to  do  something  for  the  welfare  of  man- 
kind," and  later  increased  by  gifts  from  the  found- 
er and  from  Mr.  Edward  S.  Harkness,  President 
of  the  Fund  from  its  inception  until  his  death  on 
Jan.  29,  1940,  now  amounts  to  approximately  $49,- 
000,000.  In  1940  the  Fund  appropriated  some 
$2,000,000.  Of  this  total  more  than  two-thirds  was 
devoted  to  the  promotion  and  maintenance  of  phys- 
ical health.  Appropriations  for  needs  arising  out 
of  the  war  amounted  to  $135,000.  Public  health  ac- 
tivities, designed  to  raise  standards  of  rural  serv- 
ice, centered  in  Tennessee,  Mississippi,  Oklahoma, 
and  Alabama.  The  twelfth  in  a  group  of  rural 
community  hospitals  built  or  remodeled  with  aid 
from  the  Fund  was  opened  in  1940 ;  two  more  are 
under  way.  These  hospitals  stress  opportunities  for 
professional  education  as  well  as  standards  of  med- 
ical, nursing,  and  technical  service.  Fellowships 
were  offered  to  instructors  in  medical  schools,  with- 
out restriction  as  to  field  of  study,  as  a  means  of 
encouraging  able  young  investigators  and  strength- 
ening teaching  resources ;  continued  aid  was  given 
to  departments  of  preventive  medicine  and  psy- 
chiatry, to  extension  teaching  and  other  forms  of 
postgraduate  medical  education,  and  to  teaching 
arrangements  designed  to  promote  interplay  be- 
tween pediatrics  and  psychiatry.  Some  $450,000 
was  given  for  medical  research.  The  Common- 
wealth Fund  Fellowships  for  British  graduate  stu- 
dents at  American  universities  were  curtailed  but 
not  suspended.  The  Fund  continued  to  aid  child 
guidance  enterprises  in  England;  maintained  an 
advisory  service  for  community  mental  hygiene 
clinics  in  the  United  States;  supported  studies  in 
administrative  law  and  legal  history;  and  pub- 
lished in  1940  eleven  books  and  pamphlets  of  edu- 
cational significance  in  its  fields  of  operation.  The 
Fund  directors  for  1940  were  Malcolm  P.  Aldrich 
(President),  Robert  A.  Lovett  (Vice- President 
and  Treasurer),  Phil  W.  Bunnell,  Samuel  H.  Fish- 
er, George  Welwood  Murray,  Dean  Sage,  and  Wil- 
liam E.  Stevenson.  Headquarters  are  at  41  East 
57  Street,  New  York  City. 

BARRY  C.  SMITH. 

COMMUNICATIONS.  See  FEDERAL  COM. 

MUNICATIONS  COMMISSION;  RADIO;  TELEGRAPHY; 

TELEPHONY  ;  and  the  countries  under  Transporta- 
tion. 

COMMUNISM.  The  orthodox,  or  Stalinist, 
world  Communist  movement  exhibited  four  main 
aspects  during  1940— expansion  of  the  area  and 
population  under  direct  Communist  rule,  the  pro- 
gressive revision  of  Communist  ideology  and  prac- 
tice in  the  U.S.S.R.,  the  spread  of  Communist  in- 
fluence in  northwestern  China  and  in  parts  of  the 
Balkans,  and  an  immense  decline  in  the  prestige 
and  strength  of  the  movement  throughout  the  rest 
o!  the  world 


152  COMMUNISM 

Of  no  less  importance  was  the  assassination  of 
Leon  Trotsky  in  a  Mexico  City  suburb  on  August 
20.  This  removed  Joseph  Stalin's  most  able  critic 
and  principal  rival  for  the  leadership  of  world 
communism.  Both  the  Mexican  police  and  Trot- 
sky's adherents  accused  Stalin's  secret  agents  in 
Mexico  and  the  Mexican  Communist  party  of  com- 
plicity in  the  crime.  See  NECROLOGY;  MEXICO  un- 
der History. 

Extension  of  Communist  Rule.  The  Russian 
Soviet  political  and  economic  system  was  extended 
in  March  into  that  part  of  Finland  ceded  by  the 
Russo-Finnish  peace  treaty.  In  Tune  the  Baltic 
States—Estonia,  Latvia,  and  Lithuania— and  the 
Rumanian  provinces  of  Bessarabia  and  Northern 
Bukovina  were  annexed  to  the  Soviet  Union.  Vir- 
tually the  entire  population  of  the  newly  acquired 
Finnish  territory  withdrew  to  what  was  left  of 
that  republic  before  the  Soviet  occupation.  But 
relatively  few  of  the  anti-Communist  elements  in 
the  Baltic  States,  Bessarabia  and  Northern  Buko- 
vina had  an  opportunity  to  escape.  They  were 
squeezed  into  the  Soviet  mould  by  the  same  meth- 
ods of  arbitrary  confiscation,  force  and  terror  ap- 
plied to  opposition  groups  in  Russia  since  1917  and 
to  large  numbers  of  Poles  after  the  seizure  of 
Eastern  Poland  in  1939.  See  ESTONIA,  FINLAND, 
LATVIA,  LITHUANIA,  POLAND,  and  RUMANIA  un- 
der History  for  details. 

This  new  demonstration  of  the  aims  and  meth- 
ods of  Russia's  Communist  regime  revived  anti- 
Communist  sentiment  throughout  most  of  the  non- 
Communist  world.  It  forced  many  countries  in 
Eastern  Europe  threatened  with  Soviet  aggression 
and  domination  into  closer  co-operation  with  Nazi 
Germany  and  Fascist  Italy  (see  BULGARIA,  FIN- 
LAND, HUNGARY,  RUMANIA,  SLOVAKIA,  and  SWE- 
DEN under  History).  On  the  other  hand,  Russian 
occupation  of  the  newly  annexed  territories  in 
Eastern  Europe  gave  many  Soviet  troops  their  first 
contact  with  the  relative  economic  abundance  pre- 
vailing in  areas  retaining  the  capitalist  system. 
According  to  neutral  observers,  this  tended  to  un- 
dermine the  faith  of  the  Russians  in  the  Soviet 
system.  A  similar  effect  was  attributed  to  the  fierce 
Finnish  resistance  offered  to  the  Soviet  invasion. 
This  discredited  Communist  propaganda  which 
had  induced  the  Red  Army  to  believe  that  the  Fin- 
nish masses  would  welcome  incorporation  in  the 
Soviet  Union  as  a  means  of  deliverance  from  their 
"capitalist  masters." 

Changes  in  Soviet  Union.  The  trend  toward  a 
more  nationalistic  form  of  dictatorship  led  to  the 
progressive  revision  of  Communist  ideology  and 
practice  within  the  Soviet  Fatherland.  This  was 
reflected  in  the  abolition  of  Communist  political 
commissars  and  of  "pseudo-democratic11  customs 
in  the  armed  forces,  the  tightening  of  labor  disci- 
pline, the  greater  powers,  privileges,  and  honors 
bestowed  upon  the  higher  officials  of  the  bureauc- 
racy and  Red  Army,  the  abolition  of  free  higher 
education,  and  especially  in  the  subordination  of 
Communist  doctrine  to  Russia's  national  interests 
in  the  realm  of  foreign  policy.  See  UNION  OP  SO- 
VIET SOCIALISTIC  REPUBLICS  under  History. 

The  annual  May  Day  manifesto  of  the  Comin- 
tern predicted  the  spread  of  the  war  in  both  Eu- 
rope and  Asia,  denounced  the  "Socialist  reactionary 
trade  union  leaders"  who  supported  the  Allied 
cause,  and  urged  workers  in  all  countries  to  unite 
against  capitalism  and  war  under  the  banner  of 
communism.  However  the  main  propaganda  effort 
of  the  international  Communist  movement  was 


COMMUNISM 


153 


COMMUNISM 


aimed  at  "Anglo-American  imperialism.11  In  the 
interests  of  Stalin's  uneasy  partnership  with  Hit- 
ler, no  effort  was  made  to  revive  the  Comintern's 
pre-war  propaganda  offensive  against  "Fascist  ag- 
gressors. 

This  policy  aroused  bitter  criticism  both  within 
and  without  the  world  Communist  movement.  In 
the  New  York  Times  of  June  19,  1940,  Leon  Trot- 
sky wrote  that  Stalin's  unexpected  jump  "into  the 
camp  of  the  'Fascist  aggressors' "  had  "paralyzed 
the  military  power  of  the  'democracies' "  and  de- 
moralized the  popular  masses  in  Europe  and  else- 
where. The  results  of  these  policies,  he  asserted, 
were  the  capitulation  of  France,  the  freeing  of 
Germany's  mighty  army  for  "a  gigantic  move  to- 
ward the  East,"  and  the  worsening  to  an  extreme 
degree  of  the  international  position  of  the  Soviet 
Union.  The  attack  upon  Finland  had  revealed  the 
demoralization  and  weakness  of  the  Red  Army  to 
the  world.  Trotsky  concluded  that  "only  the  over- 
throw of  the  Moscow  totalitarian  clique"  and  "the 
regeneration  of  Soviet  democracy"  could  protect 
Russia  "against  the  inevitable  and  fast-approach- 
ing blow  of  imperialist  Germany." 

Communism  in  China.  Stalinist  influence 
spread  in  northwestern  China  due  to  Gen.  Chiang 
Kai-shek's  growing  dependence  upon  Russian  aid 
in  his  struggle  with  Japanese  militarism.  By 
threatening  to  cut  off  war  supplies  and  other  aid, 
Moscow  forced  the  Chungking  Government  in 
April  to  end  a  minor  civil  war  between  Commu- 
nist and  anti-Communist  elements  in  northwestern 
China  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  the  Chinese 
Communists.  The  subsequent  closing  of  the  Bur- 
ma Road  by  Britain  increased  Chungking's  de- 
pendence upon  Soviet  assistance.  These  and  other 
circumstances  enabled  Moscow  to  strengthen  its 
influence  in  China  and  tighten  its  hold  upon  Sin- 
kiang  and  parts  of  the  provinces  of  Shensi,  Kansu, 
and  Ningsia.  See  CHINA  under  History. 

Gains  in  the  Balkans.  Similar  circumstances 
enabled  the  Communist  movement  to  make  head- 
way in  the  Balkans.  The  German  victory  over 
France  in  June  and  Italy's  entrance  into  the  war 
left  the  Balkan  countries  seemingly  at  the  mercy 
of  the  Axis  powers.  Rumania,  forced  to  choose 
immediately  between  Russia  and  Germany,  ac- 
cepted the  role  of  vassal  to  the  Reich.  Bulgaria 
and  Yugoslavia,  hoping  to  stay  out  of  the  war  and 
retain  their  independence  as  long  as  possible, 
sought  closer  relations  with  the  Soviet  Union  to 
counter  growing  pressure  from  the  Rome-Berlin 
Axis.  This  policy  obliged  them  to  adopt  a  more 
lenient  attitude  toward  Communist  propaganda 
within  their  own  boundaries. 

Expertly  guided  from  Moscow,  Balkan  Commu- 
nists availed  themselves  of  this  opportunity  to  agi- 
tate for  still  closer  co-operation  with  the  Soviet 
Union.  They  revived  the  Pan  Slav  propaganda  that 
Czarist  Russia  had  used  so  effectively  in  strength- 
ening its  influence  among  the  Slav  peoples  of  the 
Balkans.  At  the  same  time,  they  attacked  the  "im- 
perialist war'  between  the  Allied  and  Axis  powers 
as  responsible  for  the  growing  economic  hardships 
of  the  Balkan  countries.  A  Utopian  version  of 
Russian  communism  was  spread  among  discon- 
tented Balkan  peasants.  This  propaganda  was  re- 
ported to  be  effective  among  the  Balkan  masses. 
The  more  literate  classes  regarded  the  Communist 
proijagamfc  as  a  Russian  instrument  for  combat- 
ing both  Axis  and  Allied  influence  in  the  Balkans 
and  preparing  the  way  for  a  Soviet  effort  to  obtain 
control  of  the  Straits.  See  BULGARIA,  GREECE, 


HUNGARY,  RUMANIA,  TURKEY,  and  YUGOSLAVIA 
under  History. 

Revulsion  against  Stalinism.  Throughout  the 
democratic  and  pro-democratic  world,  violent  hos- 
tility to  the  Stalinist  brand  of  communism,  fired 
by  the  Hitler-Stalin  pact  of  August,  1939,  gained 
new  strength.  It  was  intensified  by  the  Soviet  at- 
tack upon  Finland,  the  rape  of  the  Baltic  States, 
the  seizure  by  threat  and  force  of  Rumanian  ter- 
ritories, and  the  treatment  accorded  the  non-Com- 
munist majorities  in  Poland  and  in  the  other  newly 
annexed  areas. 

An  object  lesson  as  to  the  aims  and  consequences 
of  Stalinist  policies  was  given  in  France.  The 
Communist  anti-war  agitation  and  sabotage  pro- 
gram played  an  important  part  in  the  republic's 
demoralization  and  defeat.  It  helped  to  produce  a 
French  Fascist  regime  under  which  Communists 
suffered  more  persecution  than  under  the  Daladier 
and  Reynaud  war  governments.  In  Finland,  in  Brit- 
ain and  the  other  Allied  countries,  and  in  the  non- 
belligerent democratic  and  pro-democratic  coun- 
tries, the  Stalinists  displayed  equal  readiness  to 
sacrifice  their  individual  and  national  interests  to 
the  interests  of  the  Soviet  Union  as  conceived  by 
Stalin  and  proclaimed  by  the  Comintern.  This  not 
only  aroused  the  contempt  and  hatred  of  non-Com- 
munists but  provoked  deep  dissensions  within  the 
Communist  movement  itself. 

Great  Britain  remained  the  only  belligerent 
country  in  which  Communists  retained  full  politi- 
cal rights.  A  few  Communists  were  detained  as 
suspected  "fifth  columnists"  but  the  British  Com- 
munist party's  organ,  the  Daily  Worker,  and  its 
single  member  of  Parliament  suffered  no  official 
discrimination.  In  Australia  and  Canada,  however. 
the  Communist  parties  were  outlawed  during  1940 
and  their  political  activities  prohibited.  In  New 
Zealand  Communists  were  classified  as  subversive 
elements  and  barred  from  public  services.  See 
AUSTRALIA,  CANADA,  and  GREAT  BRITAIN  under 
History. 

Among  democratic  non-belligerent  countries, 
Switzerland  and  Chile  passed  legislation  dissolv- 
ing their  Communist  parties.  Similar  legislation 
was  sought  in  Sweden,  the  United  States,  Cuba, 
and  Mexico.  In  all  countries  where  Communist 
political  activities  were  permitted,  there  were  nu- 
merous resignations  of  Communist  party  members 
and  of  "innocents"  and  "fellow  travelers"  affiliated 
with  Communist  front  organizations. 

Schisms  in  Latin  America.  Dissensions  with- 
in the  Communist  party  organizations  and  between 
Communist  and  democratic  elements  were  particu- 
larly acute  in  Latin  America.  The  Soviet-German 
pact,  Communist-Nazi  collaboration  in  conducting 
anti-British  and  anti-American  propaganda,  and 
Communist  attacks  upon  the  inter- American  move- 
ment for  mutual  solidarity  and  defense  all  ran 
counter  to  the  basic  democratic  principles  and  ob- 
jectives of  the  Latin  American  masses.  Their  na- 
tionalist sentiments  were  outraged  by  Moscow's 
interference  in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  Latin 
American  republics. 

These  resentments  led  some  Latin  American 
Communists  to  oppose  Moscow's  new  policies,  as 
relayed  from  the  New  York  office  of  the  Comin- 
tern, at  an  inter-American  conference  of  Com- 
munist leaders  held  in  Santiago,  Chile,  in  October. 
The  Stalinists  brought  the  Latin  American  party 
organizations  into  line  only  by  ousting  many  in- 
fluential members  and  introducing  factional  strug- 
gles in  many  branches  of  the  party.  See  BRAZIL, 


COMMUNISM 


154 


COMMUNISM 


CHILE,  COSTA  RICA,  CUBA,  and  MEXICO  under  His- 
tory. 

Communism  in  United  States.  The  American 
reaction  to  the  Hitler-Stalin  pact  and  the  ensuing 
switch  of  Soviet  foreign  policy  was  tested  indi- 
rectly by  a  poll  taken  by  the  American  Institute  of 
Public  Opinion  early  in  January,  1940.  The  ques- 
tion whether  it  was  more  important  for  the  Dies 
Committee  to  investigate  Communist  or  Nazi  ac- 
tivities in  the  United  States  was  put  to  a  cross- 
section  of  voters  in  all  walks  of  life.  Of  those  ex- 
pressing opinions,  70  per  cent  believed  an  investiga- 
tion of  Communist  activities  was  more  important 
The  Institute  pointed  out  that  a  similar  poll  taken 
less  than  a  year  before  indicated  that  the  Ameri- 
can people  were  at  that  time  more  concerned  with 
Nazi  than  with  Communist  activities. 

Another  of  the  Institute's  polls,  taken  early  in 
October  during  the  Presidential  campaign,  revealed 
further  evidence  of  widespread  anti-Communist 
sentiment  Of  persons  expressing  opinions,  71  per 
cent  opposed  allowing  the  Communist  party's  can- 
didate the  same  amount  of  time  on  the  radio  as 
the  Democratic  and  Republican  Presidential  can- 
didates, while  63  per  cent  did  not  believe  the  Com- 
munist candidate  should  be  allowed  any  time  on 
the  radio.  The  Institute  pointed  out  that  the  pub- 
lic's attitude  toward  the  Communist  party  was  con- 
ditioned by  the  widespread  belief  that  it  was  "just 
a  tool  of  Russia." 

Dies  Committee  Findings.  This  belief  was 
deepened  by  two  additional  reports  on  Communist 
activities  in  the  United  States,  issued  by  the  Dies 
Committee  on  January  3  and  November  28,  respec- 
tively, and  by  supplementary  revelations  made  at 
various  hearings  of  the  Committee  during  the  year. 
In  its  January  report  to  Congress,  the  Committee 
asserted  that  the  American  Communist  party  was 
the  primary  instrument  of  the  Russian  Communist 
party  in  protecting  the  interests  of  the  Stalin  dic- 
tatorship. The  November  report,  describing  Com- 
munist plans  for  sabotaging  American  industry  in 
the  event  of  war,  contained  data  which  the  Com- 
mittee set  forth  as  proof  of  "the  Communist  par- 
ty's supreme  loyalty  to  the  Soviet  Union."  See 
DIES  COMMITTEE. 

Communist  Party  Activities.  The  public  ac- 
tivities of  the  American  Communist  party  were 
another  source  of  mounting  anti-Communist  senti- 
ment. To  many  Americans,  these  activities  fully 
confirmed  the  Dies  Committee  charge  that  ortho- 
dox communism  in  the  United  States  was  follow- 
ing a  program  dictated  in  Moscow  with  Russian 
rather  than  American  interests  in  mind. 

The  American  Communist  party's  national  con- 
vention in  New  York  City  at  the  beginning  of 
June  adopted  a  platform  conforming  in  every  re- 
spect to  the  new  party  line  adopted  by  the  Comin- 
tern following  the  Nazi -Soviet  pact.  It  opposed  the 
rearmament  program  of  the  Roosevelt  administra- 
tion and  any  American  intervention  in  Latin  Amer- 
ca,  China,  or  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  while 
endorsing  the  "peace  policy  of  the  Soviet  Union." 
Other  planks  called  for  better  pay  and  working 
conditions  for  labor,  pensions  of  $60  a  month  for 
all  persons  over  60  years  of  age,  additional  social 
legislation,  expansion  of  the  Federal  youth  and 
farm  aid  programs. 

The  convention  unanimously  re-elected  William 
Z.  Foster  and  Earl  Browder  as  national  chairman 
and  general  secretary,  respectively.  Browder  and 
James  W,  Ford,  Negro,  were  nominated  as  the 
party's  candidates  for  President  and  Vice-Preti- 


dent  Browder  conducted  his  campaign  while  at 
liberty  on  appeal  from  his  conviction  for  passport 
fraud,  carrying  a  four-year  Federal  prison  sen- 
tence. Forbidden  to  leave  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Federal  District  Court  of  Southern  New  York,  he 
was  obliged  to  campaign  with  phonograph  records 
in  other  States.  However  he  was  able  to  present 
his  case  to  the  public  by  radio  under  the  Federal 
Radio  Law  requiring  broadcasting  companies  to 
give  all  qualified  political  parties  equal  facilities. 
During  the  campaign  Browder  and  his  associates 
stressed  a  demand  for  an  alliance  of  the  United 
States,  the  Soviet  Union,  and  China  as  a  "people's 
peace  movement."  Ruled  of!  the  ballot  in  24  States, 
the  Communist  candidate  received  only 
votes  as  against  80,159  in  1936  and  102,991  in  19 

Federal  Anti-Communist  Measures.  Mean- 
while the  growing  anti-Communist  trend  of  popu- 
lar sentiment  was  reflected  in  a  series  of  laws  and 
measures  designed  to  expose  and  curb  Communist 
activities.  A  Federal  jury  in  New  York  City  on 
January  22  convicted  Earl  Browder  of  using  a 
United  States  passport  obtained  by  making  a  false 
statement  He  was  immediately  sentenced  to  four 
years  in  prison  and  a  $2000  fine,  but  was  given  his 
liberty  on  a  $7500  bond  pending  appeal. 

Clarence  A.  Hathaway,  editor  of  the  Commu- 
nist parry  organ,  the  Daily  Worker,  was  convicted 
of  criminal  libel  by  New  York  County  jury  on 
May  3,  1940.  He  was  sentenced  to  30  days  in  the 
workhouse  and  fined  $500.  A  similar  fine  was  im- 
posed on  the  Comprodaily  Publishing  Company, 
publisher  at  the  time  the  libel  was  committed.  The 
complaint  was  made  by  Mrs  Edith  Liggett,  widow 
of  a  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  editor.  The  effort  to  se- 
cure the  deportation  of  Harry  Bridges,  Australian- 
born  leader  of  West  Coast  maritime  workers,  on 
the  ground  that  he  was  a  Communist  was  ended 
when  Secretary  of  Labor  Perkins  on  January  8 
cancelled  the  deportation  proceedings.  This  action 
was  based  on  the  finding  of  James  M.  Landis,  dean 
of  the  Harvard  Law  School,  that  the  government 
had  failed  to  prove  that  Bridges  was  a  member  of 
the  Communist  party.  J.  Edgar  Hoover,  chief  of 
the  Federal  Bureau  of  Investigation,  on  Decem- 
ber 16  issued  a  report  stating  the  Bridges  was  a 
Communist  and  that  the  party  advocated  over- 
throw of  the  United  States  Government. 

The  Department  of  Justice  early  in  the  year  con- 
ducted an  investigation  of  the  Communist  party 
and  its  organ  that  led  to  the  registration  of  the 
Daily  Worker  with  the  State  Department  in  April, 
under  the  law  requiring  registration  of  agents  of 
foreign  principals.  This  was  followed  late  in  July 
by  the  sale  of  the  Daily  Worker  to  three  women 
sympathetic  to  the  Communist  cause  and  the  an- 
nouncement that  it  had  ceased  to  function  as  "the 
official  central  organ  of  the  Communist  party." 
However  it  was  stated  that  the  paper  would  re- 
ceive the  party's  "whole-hearted,  continued,  and 
ever-extending  support." 

On  November  16  a  special  national  convention 
of  the  Communist  party  in  New  York  City  voted 
to  terminate  its  affiliation  with  the  Communist  In- 
ternational and  all  other  foreign  organizations  "for 
the  specific  purpose  of  removing  (the  party)  from 
the  terms  of  the  so-called  Voorhis  Act"  This  law, 
signed  by  President  Roosevelt  in  October  and  ef- 
fective Jan.  1,  1941,  required  foreign-controlled 
organizations  engaging  in  political  activity  to  reg- 
ister with  the  Attorney  General,  report  the  names 
and  addresses  of  all  persons  contributing  or  pay- 
ing dues,  and  file  detailed  reports  on  their  activi- 


COMMUNISM 


1SS 


COMMUNISM 


ties.  The  constitution  of  the  party  was  revised  in 
line  with  the  special  convention's  decision,  but  the 
delegates  reaffirmed  the  "unshakable  adherence  of 
our  party  to  the  principles  of  proletarian  interna- 
tionalism of  Marx.  Engels,  Lenin,  and  Stalin."  As- 
serting that  the  Voorhis  Act  was  aimed  directly 
at  the  Communist  party,  Browder  declared  that  the 
party  had  decided  to  sever  its  formal  tie  to  the 
Communist  International  to  prevent  it  from  being 
driven  underground. 

Congress  also  tightened  the  naturalization  laws 
so  as  to  make  it  harder  for  Communists,  Fascists, 
and  other  anti-democratic  elements  to  obtain  citi- 
zenship. The  1940  Relief  Appropriations  Act 
barred  Communists  and  Nazis  from  the  WPA 
rolls.  On  January  2  Attorney  General  Murphy  ac- 
cused 8  persons  and  3  business  houses,  all  with  al- 
leged Communist  party  connections,  with  military 
espionage.  The  charges  were  submitted  to  an  ex- 
traordinary grand  jury  in  Washington.  In  Novem- 
ber and  December,  charges  that  Communists  were 
responsible  for  initiating  and  prolonging  strikes  in 
airplane  and  other  defense  industries  provoked 
numerous  demands  in  Congress  for  further  re- 
strictive legislation. 

Action  by  States.  Many  of  the  State  govern- 
ments also  enacted  laws  or  regulations  curbing  or 
penalizing  Communist  activities.  In  the  1936  Pres- 
idential campaign  Earl  Browder,  the  party's  Pres- 
idential candidate,  appeared  on  the  ballot  in  35 
States.  In  1940  he  was  permitted  to  appear  on  the 
ballot  in  only  24  States.  The  principal  grounds 
given  for  barring  Communist  candidates  in  1940 
were  fraud  or  misrepresentation  in  the  party's 
election  petitions,  failure  to  poll  sufficient  votes 
in  prior  elections,  and  the  party's  advocacy  of  the 
overthrow  of  the  American  form  of  government 
The  Dies  Committee  on  September  26  reported 
that  its  investigation  of  Communist  party  petitions 
in  10  States  had  revealed  evidence  of  fraud  in 
every  case. 

The  Communist  candidate  for  Governor  of 
West  Virginia  was  convicted  on  August  6  of 
fraudulent  solicitation  of  names  to  a  nominating 
petition.  He  was  sentenced  to  1  to  10  years  in 
prison.  On  October  8  the  wife  of  the  secretary  of 
the  Maryland  Communist  party  was  convicted  of 
perjury  in  connection  with  the  circulation  of  nom- 
inating petitions.  In  cases  where  Communist  can- 
didates were  barred,  however,  their  supporters  re- 
tained the  customary  right  of  writing  in  their 
names.  Browder  received  10,206  write-in  votes  in 
New  York  State. 

In  Oklahoma  the  drastic  State  Criminal  Syn- 
dicalism Act  of  1919,  prohibiting  membership  in 
any  organization  advocating  overthrow  of  the  gov- 
ernment by  violence,  was  revived  Under  this  law 
the  secretary  of  the  State's  Communist  party, 
Alan  Shaw,  was  convicted  on  December  9  by  an 
Oklahoma  City  jury.  The  jury  recommended  and 
the  court  imposed  a  sentence  of  10  years  in  prison 
and  a  fine  of  $5000  for  party  membership.  Shaw 
was  one  of  12  persons  arrested  on  August  20  on 

ESS!??1 .? yndl?.alism  charges.  He  was  freed  on 
$7500  bail  pending  appeal. 

Communism  and  Labor.  The  struggle  between 
Communist  and  anti-Communist  forces  also  had 
wide  repercussions  within  the  labor  movement. 
The  American  Labor  party,  which  made  its  ap- 
pearance m  New  York  State  in  the  1936  cam- 
paign, was  split  wide  open  in  1940  by  the  struggle 
tor  control  between  the  pro-Communist  left  wing 
and  the  anti-Communist  right  wing.  In  the  Sep- 


tember primaries  the  right  wing  captured  a  ma- 
jority of  the  delegates  to  the  State  convention 
while  the  left  wing  won  control  of  the  party  ma- 
chinery in  Manhattan.  The  State  convention  sub- 
sequently adopted  a  platform  attacking  the  left- 
wing  faction  as  "tools  of  the  Communist-Nazi 
alliance." 

In  scores  of  labor  unions  and  civic  organizations 
the  issue  of  Communist  influence  or  control  caused 
heated  controversy  and  not  a  few  schisms.  The 
demand  for  ousting  Communists  from  the  labor 
movement  was  voiced  by  Secretary  of  Labor  Per- 
kins on  June  4.  American  Federation  of  Labor 
unions  conducted  an  active  drive  to  expel  Com- 
munist influences.  Many  local  unions  amended 
their  constitutions  to  bar  Communists,  Nazis,  Fas- 
cists, and  their  sympathizers  from  either  mem- 
bership or  official  positions,  and  this  position  was 
supported  by  most  of  the  State  and  national  lead- 
ers of  the  Federation.  See  AMERICAN  FEDERATION 
OF  LABOR. 

Similar  efforts  to  oust  Communists  and  their 
"fellow-travelers"  from  positions  of  control  in 
some  of  the  newly  organized  C.I.O.  unions  met 
with  less  success.  The  Dies  Committee  report  of 
January  3  asserted  that  Communist  leadership  was 
entrenched  in  the  following  C.I.O.  unions:  Na- 
tional Maritime  Union,  United  Cannery,  Packing 
and  Allied  Workers,  Federation  of  Architects, 
Engineers,  Chemists  and  Technicians,  Fur  Work- 
ers International  Union,  International  Longshore- 
men's and  Warehousemen's  Union,  Transport 
Workers  Union,  United  Office  and  Professional 
Workers  Union,  American  Communications  As- 
sociation, United  Electrical,  Radio  and  Mechanical 
Workers  of  America,  United  Furniture  Workers 
of  America.  The  leaders  of  these  unions  for  the 
most  part  supported  policies  identical  with  the 
Communist  party  line  during  the  Presidential  cam- 
paign and  at  the  C.I.O.  national  convention  in 
November.  See  CONGRESS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ORGAN- 
IZATIONS; LABOR  CONDITIONS. 

Other  unions  torn  by  controversy  over  Commu- 
nist influence  during  the  year  were  the  American 
Federation  of  Teachers,  the  American  Newspaper 
Guild,  and  the  Workers  Alliance  of  America. 
David  Lasser,  president  of  the  latter  organization, 
resigned  on  June  19  in  protest  against  Communist 
domination  and  control.  On  August  14  he  started 
a  new  movement  of  unemployed  WPA  workers 
and  others. 

The  third  national  Negro  conference  held  in 
Washington  in  April  split  on  the  issue  of  Com- 
munist intervention  in  the  struggle  of  the  Negroes 
for  equality  of  opportunity.  The  American  Civil 
Liberties  Union  in  February  barred  from  office  or 
committee  membership  both  Communists  and  Fas- 
cists and  their  sympathizers.  Turmoil  continued 
in  the  American  Youth  Congress,  which  at  its 
"citizenship  institute"  in  Washington  in  February 
and  at  its  annual  convention  in  College  Camp, 
Wis.,  in  July,  again  demonstrated  its  adherence  to 
the  Communist  party  line.  There  were  further 
secessions  of  non-Communist  youth  groups  from 
the  Youth  Congress,  and  in  August  a  rival  organ- 
ization of  "pro-American  groups,"  the  National 
Foundation  for  American  Youth,  was  founded  un- 
der the  chairmanship  of  Gene  Tunney.  A  similar 
schism  took  place  within  the  American  Artists 
Congress  when  the  Congress  on  April  4  endorsed 
the  Soviet  invasion  of  Finland  and  declared  Brit- 
ain and  France  responsible  for  the  European  War. 

Many  of  the  organizations  under  Communist 


COMMUNITY  CHESTS 


156 


CONCILIATION  SERVICE 


domination  participated  in  an 
mobilization*  in  Chicago  on  August  31-5  . 
her  2.  Senator  Nye  of  North  Dakota,  Senator 
Clark  of  Missouri,  and  a  number  of  other  promi- 
nent figures  who  accepted  invitations  to  address 
the  conference  withdrew  when  charges  were  made 
that  the  sponsoring  Committee  to  Defend  America 
by  Keeping  out  of  War  was  "Communist  inspired 
and  controlled  from  end  to  end." 

See  also  ARIZONA,  ARKANSAS,  CALIFORNIA  un- 
der History;  BELGIUM,  BRITISH  MALAYA,  FIN- 
LAND, and  SLOVAKIA  under  History;  DIES  COM- 
MITTEE ;  EDUCATION  ;  FASCISM  ;  LABOR  CONDITIONS. 

COMMUNITY  CHESTS  AND  COUN- 
CILS, Inc.  A  membership  association  of  com- 
munity chests  and  councils  of  social  agencies, 
organized  in  February,  1918,  as  the  American  As- 
sociation for  Community  Organization.  For  or- 
ganization and  purpose  see  the  1939  YEAR  BOOK. 

Of  the  552  chests  and  councils  in  operation,  536 
are  in  continental  United  States,  2  in  the  territory 
of  Hawaii,  1  in  the  Virgin  Islands,  11  in  Canada, 
and  2  in  foreign  countries.  All  but  five  cities  of 
100,000  population  and  over  in  the  United  States 
have  community  chests.  More  than  9,000,000  con- 
tributors in  552  cities  gave  $86,186,466  to  com- 
munity chests  to  be  used  for  private  social  work 
in  their  communities  during  1940 

The  officers  in  1940-41  were:  Honorary  presi- 
dent, George  E.  Vincent,  Greenwich,  Conn. ;  pres- 
ident, Robert  Cutler,  Boston,  Mass.;  vice-presi- 
dents, John  Stewart  Bryan,  Richmond,  Va.,  and 
Kenneth  Sturges,  Cleveland ;  treasurer,  J.  Herbert 
Case,  Plamfield,  NJ. ;  secretary,  Lynn  Mowat, 
Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

COMMUNITY  SERVICE  FOR  CHIL- 
DREN. See  JUVENILE  DELINQUENCY. 

COMMUNITY  TRUSTS.  The  charitable  re- 
sources of  the  76  Community  Trusts  established 
in  the  United  States,  Canada,  and  Hawaii  since 
1914  increased  by  upwards  of  $4,000,000  during 
1939  and  totaled  approximately  $52,000,000  at  the 
beginning  of  1940.  These  philanthropic  trusts  were 
created  to  provide  a  mechanism  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  multiple  funds  dedicated  to  charitable 
uses.  Customarily  the  donor  of  a  fund  selects  a 
bank  or  trust  company  as  trustee  and  lodges  in  it 
responsibility  for  the  custody  and  fiscal  manage- 
ment of  the  contributed  sum. 

Outpayments  of  distributable  proceeds  are  di- 
rected by  a  central  Distribution  Committee,  a  por- 
tion of  whose  members  are  nominated  by  such 
public  sources  as  the  presidents  of  the  Bar  As- 
sociation, Chamber  of  Commerce,  and  Academy 
of  Medicine.  This  Committee  is  responsible  for 
the  observance  of  the  desires  of  the  founders  of 
the  funds  but  is  empowered  to  take  remedial  ac- 
tion if  the  execution  of  these  desires  should  be 
rendered  impossible  or  impracticable  by  changes 
in  social  or  economic  conditions — thus  constituting 
an  effort,  in  the  words  of  the  late  Newton  D. 
Baker,  "to  substitute  contemporary  wisdom  for 
foresight."  The  placement  of  fiscal  power  in  the 
trustee  and  sociological  authority  in  the  Distribu- 
tion Committee  provides,  in  the  opinion  of  Col. 
Leonard  P.  Ayres,  "a  business  control  of  the  in- 
vestments and  a  social  control  of  expenditures." 

At  the  beginning  of  1940.  the  Chicago  Com- 
munity Trust  held  principal  funds  aggregating 
$9,734,331,  and  the  New  York  Community  Trust 
had  resources  of  $8,779,225.  The  Cleveland  Foun- 
dation's resources  were  $6,100,761.  Other  sizable 
accumulations  were  held  by  foundations  in  Bos- 


ton, 
Combined 


Minneapolis. 


in  1939  exceeded  $1,000,- 
000  for  the  ninth  consecutive  year,  aggregating 
$1,277.927.  The  New  York  Community  Trust  dis- 
bursed $205,028,  Boston  $181374,  Cleveland  $163,- 
321,  and  Chicago  $159,640.  Fifty-four  individual 
funds  constitute  The  New  York  Community 
Trust,  organized  in  1923  and  located  at  120  Broad- 
way, New  York  City.  Its  outpayments  of  over 
$1,000,000  during  the  past  five  years  have  been  the 
largest  made  by  any  Community  Trust. 

COMORO  ISLANDS.  See  under  MADAGAS- 
CAR. 

COMPENSATION,  Workmen's.  See  LABOR 
LEGISLATION  ;  also,  ARKANSAS  under  History ;  IN- 
SURANCE under  Casualty  Insurance. 

CONCENTRATION  CAMPS.  See  JEWS; 
FRANCE,  NETHERLANDS  INDIES,  POLAND,  and  UN- 
ION OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS  under  His- 

CONCILIATION  SERVICE,  U.S.  Con- 
gress, in  creating  the  Department  of  Labor,  gave 
the  Secretary  of  Labor  authority  to  mediate  or 
conciliate  labor  disputes.  This  function  was  carried 
on  in  the  Secretary's  office  until  1917  when  a  Divi- 
sion of  Conciliation  was  established. 

The  activities  of  the  Service  for  the  fiscal  year 
ended  June  30,  1940,  embraced  work  in  46  States, 
the  District  of  Columbia,  and  Alaska.  It  rendered 
service  in  3751  situations  involving  directly  1,145,- 
205  workers.  Of  the  total  number  of  situations, 
1977  were  classified  as  labor  disputes  which  in- 
cluded strikes,  threatened  strikes,  lockouts,  and 
controversies.  These  accounted  for  1,015,540  work- 
ers. The  remaining  1774  situations  involving  129,- 
665  workers  were  classified  as  other  services  ren- 
dered and  included  arbitrations,  conducting  consent 
elections,  technical  services,  supplying  information, 
consultations  with  employees  or  employers,  and 
complaints. 

Tht  most  significant  work  of  the  Service  was  in 
the  prevention  of  threatened  strikes,  these  being 
defined  as  situations  in  which  a  definite  commit- 
ment has  been  made  with  regard  to  a  strike.  Be- 
cause Commissioners  of  Conciliation  were  made 
available  in  322  of  these  situations,  the  Service 
prevented  approximately  300  of  them  from  devel- 
oping into  actual  strikes.  These  involved  over  194,- 
000  workers  and  if  computed  on  the  basis  of  Bu- 
reau of  Labor  Statistics  man  days  lost  by  strikes, 
would  reveal  a  potential  saving  of  3,882,900  man 
days  of  work  and  wages. 

Of  the  total  situations  handled  during  the  fiscal 
year,  over  700  were  terminated  on  the  basis  of 
signed  agreements.  This  indicates  clearly  the  es- 
tablishment of  better  relationships  between  labor 
and  management,  and  further,  that  they  are  finding 
it  more  advantageous  to  reduce  their  agreements  in 
collective  bargaining  to  written  instruments.  Eight- 
een major  provisions  were  included  in  these  signed 
agreements — the  most  important  having  reference 
to  hours  of  labor,  wages,  overtime,  grievance  pro- 
cedure, and  union  recognition.  Under  the  grievance 
procedure  it  is  revealed  in  numerous  instances  that 
either  an  arbiter  is  to  be  designated  by  the  Concili- 
ation Service  or  that  a  conciliator  shall  be  called  in 
before  there  is  an  actual  stoppage  of  work. 

There  has  been  a  marked  interest  on  the  part  of 
both  labor  and  management  in  the  work  of  the 
Conciliation  Service—in  numerous  instances  this 
Agency  has  been  called  upon  to  explain  to  labor  as 
well  as  to  managerial  groups,  its  functions,  and  all 

-i  especially  interested  in  the  fact  that  it  has  no 


CONGO 


157       CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCHES 


law  to  enforce.  Commissioners  of  Conciliation- 
acting  as  interpreters  of  principles,  clarifying  is- 
sues, and  making  suggestions  for  shortcuts  based 
on  practical  experience  as  to  methods,  practices, 
and  procedure—  have  aided  materially  in  establish- 
ing more  satisfactory  relationships  between  em- 
ployee and  employer. 

All  this  work  has  assumed  even  greater  impor- 
tance under  the  defense  program.  The  adaptation 
of  the  Conciliation  Service  to  emergency  condi- 
tions may  be  summarized  as:  (1)  Designation  by 
the  Secretary  of  Labor  of  seven  of  the  Service's 
most  experienced  Commissioners  of  Conciliation  to 
work  in  constant  touch  with  labor  and  management 
in  seven  of  the  key  defense  industries;  (2)  The 
practice  of  giving  every  priority  to  situations  af- 
fecting defense  ;  (3)  The  closest  possible  co-opera- 
tion with  the  National  Defense  Advisory  Commis- 
sion and  with  the  Departments  of  War  and  Navy 
on  government  contracts.  The  U.S.  Conciliation 
Service  has  been  designated  a  defense  agency  by 
the  U.S.  Civil  Service  Commission. 

During  the  calendar  year  1940  the  Conciliation 
Service  participated  in  4665  situations  involving 
1,709,348  workers. 

J.  R.  STEELMAN. 

CONGO,  Belgian.  A  Belgian  colony  in  central 
Africa.  Area,  902,082  square  miles;  population 
(Jan.  1,  1939)  ,  10,304,084  natives  and  25,20C  whites. 
The  language  spoken  by  the  natives  is  KiswahilL 
Chief  towns:  Leopoldville  (capital),  Matadi,  Eliz- 
abethville,  Jadotville,  Stanleyville,  and  Coquilhat- 
ville.  Education  (1939)  :  228,101  students  in  4295 
schools. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  chief  agricultural 
products  comprise  palm  and  palm-kernel  oil,  cot- 
ton, coffee,  copal  gum,  cacao,  sugar,  maize,  rubber, 
groundnuts,  timber,  and  bananas  Copper  (120,000 
metric  tons  exported  in  1939),  diamonds,  gold, 
silver,  tin,  manganese,  radium,  uranium,  cobalt, 
and  iron  are  the  principal  minerals.  Cattle  raising 
is  successfully  carried  on  in  districts  free  from 
tsetse  flies.  Trade,  with  Belgo-Luxemburg  Eco- 
nomic Union  only  (1939)  :  Imports,  370,800,000 
francs;  exports,  1,622,400,000  francs  (franc  aver- 
aged $0.3328  for  1939). 

Communications.  The  river  Congo  and  its 
tributaries  form  an  important  means  of  transport 
to  the  interior.  On  Jan.  1,  1939,  there  were  43,923 
miles  of  roads,  3051  miles  of  railways,  4209  miles 
of  telegraph  lines,  and  4000  miles  of  telephone 
lines.  During  1938  the  railways  carried  274,800 
passengers  and  4,187,921  metric  tons  of  freight. 
The  interior  airplane  services  of  the  Belgian  Con- 
go are  operated  over  4757  miles  of  routes. 

Government.  Budget  estimates  (1940)  :  747,- 
208,000  francs  for  revenue  and  779,822,000  francs 
for  expenditure.  The  preliminary  1939  figures  in- 
dicate actual  revenue  of  675,453,000  francs  and 
expenditure  of  730,780,000  francs.  The  adminis- 
tration is  under  the  control  of  the  Belgian  minister 
for  the  colonies,  aided  by  a  colonial  council  of 
which  he  is  president.  The  Belgian  government  is 
represented  m  the  colony  by  a  governor-general 
(aided  by  a  vice-governor-general,  state  inspectors, 
and  six  provmcial  commissioners).  Governor- 
General,  Pierre  Ryckmans  (appointed  December, 


. 

Ruanda-Urundi.  Two  districts  mandated  to 
Belgium  by  the  League  of  Nations.  Area,  21,230 
square  miles;  population  (Jan.  1,  1939),  3,752,742. 
Capital,  Usumbura.  The  chief  products  are  maize, 


cotton,  potatoes,  groundnuts,  tin,  and  fold.  Live- 
stock raising  is  an  important  occupation.  Trade 
(1938)  :  Imports,  83,963,498  francs;  exports,  93,- 
860,221  francs.  Finance  (1939) :  Revenue,  45,165,- 
000  francs;  expenditure,  42,158,400  francs.  The 
public  debt  on  Dec.  31, 1938,  was  150,000,000  francs. 
Both  districts  were  united,  for  administrative  pur- 
poses and  placed  under  the  supervision  of  a  vice- 
governor. 

History*  The  future  of  the  Belgian  Congo  was 
linked  to  the  outcome  of  the  European  War  when 
Germany  invaded  Belgium  on  May  10,  1940.  When 
King  Leopold  surrendered,  the  refugee  Belgian 
cabinet  in  Paris  on  May  28  informed  the  Gover- 
nor-General of  the  colony  that  he  was  to  ignore 
the  King's  action  as  Belgium  was  still  at  war.  At 
the  same  time  the  British  Government  gave  as- 
surances of  its  support  of  the  Belgian  administra- 
tion in  the  colony  as  long  as  Belgium's  elected 
representatives  functioned  as  British  allies.  In  a 
broadcast  from  Elizabethville  on  July  22  Gov- 
ernor-General Ryckmans  declared  that  the  Belgian 
Congo  was  determined  to  stand  by  Britain  until 
victory  was  achieved  and  Belgium  liberated. 

Anglo-Belgian  co-operation  in  Africa  became 
progressively  closer  as  the  war  progressed,  espe- 
cially in  the  economic  field.  On  May  31  the  Bel- 
gian Congo  government  ordered  the  sale  to  it  of 
all  gold  produced  in  the  colony  and  its  delivery 
to  the  South  African  Reserve  Bank  at  Pretoria. 
In  June  the  Belgian  Congo  franc  was  pegged  to 
sterling  at  176.625  to  the  pound  The  Governor- 
General  announced  in  September  that  a  British 
military  and  economic  mission  had  arrived  at  L6o- 
poldville  to  help  organize  the  colony's  defenses 
and  to  mobilize  its  economic  and  financial  re- 
sources in  the  Allied  cause.  British  aid  was  ex- 
tended in  supplying  essential  imports  and  provid- 
ing markets  for  exports  formerly  sent  to  Belgium. 
A  consequence  of  this  collaboration  was  the  exten- 
sion of  the  colony's  air  network  to  Entebbe  in 
Uganda  and  Takoradi  in  the  Gold  Coast.  This  pro- 
vided rapid  communication  with  the  British  West 
and  East  African  colonies,  the  Cape-to-Cairo 
trunk  air  route,  and  Egypt. 

Belgian  Congo  authorities  also  granted  refuge 
to  French  colonial  citizens  and  officials  from 
French  Equatorial  Africa  who  were  sympathetic 
to  General  de  Gaulle's  movement  This  aid  en- 
abled the  Free  French  forces  to  win  control  of 
French  Equatorial  Africa  at  the  end  of  August 
and  ended  the  immediate  threat  of  the  seizure  of 
the  Belgian  Congo  by  Germans  operating  from 
Equatorial  Africa  on  the  north  and  Angola  on 
the  south.  A  large  number  of  German  agents  were 
said  to  have  been  concentrated  in  Angola  for  this 
purpose. 

See  BELGIUM,  FRENCH  EQUATORIAL  AFRICA,  and 
GREAT  BRITAIN  under  History. 

CONGO,  French.  See  FRENCH  EQUATORIAL 
AFRICA. 

CONGREGATIONAL  CHRISTIAN 
CHURCHES,  The  General  Council  of  the. 
A  general  council  was  instituted  at  Seattle,  Wash., 
June  27,  1931,  when  the  National  Council  of  the 
Congregational  Churches  in  the  United  States  and 
the  General  Convention  of  the  Christian  Church 
merged  their  activities  in  this  new  organization. 
The  International  Congregational  Council  to  have 
been  held  at  Wellesley,  Mass.,  July,  1940,  has  been 
indefinitely  postponed  because  of  war  conditions. 
The  General  Council's  biennial  meeting  •  Hanover, 
N.H.,  June,  1942.  For  the  officers  elected  at 


CONGRESS 


158 


CXO. 


the  last  btennium,  see  the  YXAI  BOOK  for  1939. 

The  headquarters  of  the  General  Council  of  the 
Congregational  Christian  Churches  are  at  287 
Fourth  Avenue,  New  York  City,  those  of  the 
Board  of  Home  Missions  at  the  same  address, 
with  offices  also  at  14  Beacon  St,  Boston,  Mass., 
and  those  of  the  American  Board  at  14  Beacon 
St,  Boston,  Mass.  For  statistics,  see  RELIGIOUS 
ORGANIZATIONS. 

CONGRESS,  U.S.  See  REPRESENTATIVES,  U.S. 
HOUSE  OF;  SENATE,  U.S.;  UNITED  STATES  under 
Legislation. 

CONGRESS  OP  INDUSTRIAL  OR- 
GANIZATIONS. Substantial  organizational  ad- 
vances of  the  Congress  of  Industrial  Organiza- 
tions in  1940  were  reflected  in  a  succession  of  La- 
bor Board  election  victories  in  most  of  the  basic 
industries,  and  in  many  new  and  renewed  collec- 
tive bargaining  agreements  with  the  country's  big- 
gest industrial  employers. 

The  third  constitutional  convention  of  the  C.I.O., 
was  held  in  Atlantic  City,  N J.,  from  November 
18  to  November  22.  At  this  convention,  Pres.  John 
L.  Lewis  and  Vice-Pres.  Sidney  Hillman  declined 
to  run  for  re-election,  and  the  following  officers 
were  elected:  President,  Philip  Murray;  Secre- 
tary, James  B.  Carey;  Vice-Presidents,  Joseph 
Curran,  S.  H.  Dalrymple,  Emil  Rieve,  Reid  Robin- 
son. Frank  Rosenblum,  and  R.  J.  Thomas. 

The  report  of  retiring  Pres.  John  L.  Lewis  to 
the  1940  convention  noted  that  C.I.O.  unions  dur- 
ing the  year  received  60  per  cent  of  all  the  votes 
cast  in  Labor  Board  elections  and  three  times  as 
many  votes  as  were  cast  for  unions  of  the  Ameri- 
can Federation  of  Labor.  It  continued : 

"The  General  Motors  election,  the  largest  Labor  Board 
election  ever  held,  was  won  overwhelmingly  by  the  C.I.O. 
United  Automobile  Workers  of  America,  as  were  elec- 
tions in  nearly  all  the  other  major  automobile  plants. 

"The  United  Electrical,  Radio  and  Machine  Workers 
of  America  if  another  C.I.O.  union  which  has  won  elec- 
tion after  election  in  the  past  year  in  the  great  plants  of 
General  Electric,  Westinghouse,  RCA,  and  other  com- 
panies. 

"The  Packinghouse  Workers  Organising  Committee  can 
also  record  an  almost  unbroken  record  of  election  vic- 
tories in  the  plants  of  Armour  and  the  other  big  meat 
packing  companies. 

"These  are  but  a  few  examples  of  the  many  election 
successes  of  C.I.O.  unions  in  industry  after  industry. 
Through  their  votes  the  workers  have  registered  their 
emphatic  preference  for  the  modern  industrial  form  of 
organization  which  the  C.I.O.  was  formed  to  promote. 

7'New  and  improved  contracts  in  the  steel,  automobile, 
electrical,  packing,  glass,  and  scores  of  other  industries 
have  testified  to  the  solidity  and  permanence  of  the  new 
C.I.O.  unions  and  their  ability  to  raise  the  wages  and 
improve  the  conditions  of  the  workers. 

"The  CI.O.  has  also  pushed  ahead  into  new  territory 
during  the  past  year,  as  witness  the  progress  of  the 
United  Construction  Workers  Organizing  Committee  and 
the  advances  into  unorganized  territory  of  many  other  al- 
ready established  unions. 

"Noteworthy  among  the  new  organizing  campaigns 
launched  during  the  past  year  are  the  campaign  to  or- 
ganize the  employes  of  the  Ford  Motor  Company,  the 
expanding  drive  in  the  aircraft  industry,  the  campaign  to 
complete  organization  in  the  steel  industry,  notably  in 
the  plants  of  Bethlehem  steel  and  other  independents,  and 
the  organizing  drive  among  the  wood  workers  of  the 
northwest. 

On  the  legislative  field,  the  report  noted  that 
during  the  year  "the  C.I.O.  has  had  to  devote  most 
of  iti  energies  to  preserving  existing  labor  and 
social  legislation  against  vicious  attacks.  Its  out- 
standing achievement  in  the  past  year  has  been 
the  preservation  of  the  National  Labor  Relations 
Act  against  determined  efforts  to  force  through 
destructive  amendments.  Amendments  designed  to 
destroy  the  Wage-Hour  law  were  also  defeated, 
due  chiefly  to  the  efforts  of  the  CI.O. 


"Other  important  legislative  actions  of  the 
CI.O.  have  included  defense  of  American  civil 
liberties  against  the  flood  of  anti-alien,  anti-labor, 
and  generally  restrictive  bills  that  usually  accom- 
pany a  period  of  war  hysteria." 

The  report  also  stressed  the  efforts  of  the  C.I.O. 
during  the  year  to  obtain  Congressional  action  or 
a  Presidential  executive  order  to  require  observ- 
ance of  the  National  Labor  Relations  Act  and 
other  labor  laws  on  government  contract  work. 

The  attitude  of  the  C.I.O.  toward  the  question 
of  national  defense  was  expressed  in  a  declaration 
adopted  at  the  Organization's  executive  board 
meeting  in  Washington  on  June  4,  1940,  and  this 
position  was  later  reaffirmed  at  the  Atlantic  City 
convention.  The  declaration  follows  in  full : 

'The  Congress  of  Industrial  Organizations,  Its  officers, 
constituent  unions,  and  membership  are  fully  prepared  to 
discharge  our  responsibilities  in  the  approaching  national 
emergency,  to  the  best  interests  of  the  United  States  of 
America. 

"At  the  outset  let  us  state  most  unequivocally  that  we 
are,  and  always  shall  be,  unalterably  opposed  to  any  move- 
ment or  activity  of  subversive  character,  Trojan  horses,  or 
fifth  columns,  which  are  aimed  against  our  nation  and 
government,  or  the  basic  free  and  democratic  institutions 
upon  which  our  Republic  has  been  founded. 

"The  Congress  of  Industrial  Organizations  is  the  labor 
movement  in  our  first  line  of  defense — the  mass  producing 
industries  of  mines,  mills,  factories,  and  workshops.  By 
the  strength  and  discipline  of  our  organizations,  the  affili- 
ates of  the  Congress  of  Industrial  Organizations  have 
substituted  industrial  peace  and  stability  for  industrial 
warfare,  in  these  first  lines  of  defense. 

"We  are  prepared  to  lend  practical,  wholesome,  and 
feasible  co-operation  in  any  undertaking  to  protect  this 
nation  and  prepare  for  national  defense. 

"The  ideals  and  objectives  of  the  Congress  of  Industrial 
Organizations  are  an  essential  part  of  national  policy. 
•"•— -  are  inherent  in  our  democratic  society.  They  are 


predicated  upon  the  maintenance  and  preservation  __  — 
bor's  rights,  so  clearly  set  forth  in  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States;  in  Congressional  statutes,  and  in  Supreme 
Court  decisions  validating  such  statutes. 

"Throughout  any  national  emergency,  labor's  rights,  as 
embodied  in  the  National  Labor  Relations  Act,  the  Wage 
and  Hour  Act,  the  Walsh-Healey  Act,  the  Guffey  Coal 
Stabilization  Act,  the  Social  Security  Act,  and  other  legis- 
lation must  be  preserved. 
"These  rights  are: 
"1.  The  right  of  wage  earners  to  organize  into  unions 

of  their  own  choosing. 
"2.  The  right  of  organized  wage  earners  to  bargain 

collectively  with  their  employers. 
"3.  The  right  of  wage  earners  to  freedom  of  speech, 

assembly,  action,  and  worship. 

"This  declaration  of  labor's  rights  ia  designed  to  stabi- 
lize industrial  relations  and  promote  industrial  peace.  It 
does  not  contemplate  industrial  strife.  It  seeks  to  improve 
the  relationship  between  wage  earners  and  their  employ- 
ers: to  increase  the  productive  efficiency  of  industry;  to 
maintain  labor's  existing  wage  and  hour  standards,  and  to 
improve  these  standards  with  changing  economic  condi- 

"Any  national  defense  program  must  contemplate  this 
kind  ol  co-operation. 

"It  is  imperative  for  the  national  welfare  that  steps  be 
taken  to  end  unemployment. 

"It  is  recognized  that  large  numbers  of  idle  workers 
will  be  re-employed  through  the  impetus  given  our  econ- 
omy by  the  present  situation.  But  it  must  also  be  recog- 
nized that  industry  generally,  especially  the  mass  pro- 
ducing industries,  is  capable  of  turning  out  maximum 
production  with  a  much  smaller  working  force  than  ever 
before,  due  to  tremendous  strides  in  technology. 

"This  means  that  large  numbers  of  able-bodied  and 
wflHng  workers  will  not  find  places  in  private  employ- 
ment;  and  tight  must  not  be  lost  of  the  necessity  of  pro- 

"And  after  the  current  war-stimulated  recovery  hat  run 
Hs  course,  what  then? 

"When  war  orders  stop,  as  stop  they  win,  millions  who 
win  have  been  employed  in  the  armament  and  related  in- 
dustries  wfll  be  cast  out  of  their  jobs.  For  them,  their 
families,  and  for  millions  of  others  like  them,  provision 
must  be  mad*,  lest  misery  and  suffering,  the  like  of  which 
no  civilized  country  hat  teen  before,  trail  in  the  wake  of 
Var  boom'  dislocations. 

"Our  industrial  unions  constitute  a  great  reservoir  of 
technical,  and  administrative  tkUl  and  re- 
The  brains  ol  labor  should  be  utilized  to 


cxo. 


1» 


COHNBCTICUT 


,  agencies,  administrative  bodies,  and  policy-making 

groups  concerned  with  the  execution  and  administration 
of  any  national  defense  program. 

"Finally,  we  the  executive  board  of  the  Congress  of  In- 
dustrial Organisations,  meeting  this  4th  dayoTjune,  1940, 
in  the  nation's  capital,  declare  in  unequivocal  terms  that 
we  will  defend  the  free  institutions  oTthis  Republic,  un- 
der which  the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  the  Con- 
stitution give  us  the  greatest  democracy  on  earth — a  gov- 
ernment of  the  people,  for  the  people,  and  by  the  people. 

"We  offer  this  program  in  a  sincere  endeavor  to  make 
our  contribution  toward  achieving  the  goal  which  is  in 
the  heart  of  every  true  American— *o  assure  the  security 
of  our  nation,  to  preserve  the  peace  for  our  people,  and 
not  to  become  involved  in  the  present  horrible  war  raging 
in  Europe." 

Among  important  resolutions  adopted  at  the  At- 
lantic City  convention  were: 

1.  A  resolution  calling  for  the  protection  of  la- 
bor in  the  administration  of  the  conscription  law. 
This  called  for  labor  being  given  an  active  voice 
in  the  administration  of  the  draft  law  and  for 
"equal  treatment  without  discrimination."   Safe- 
guards were  demanded  against  discrimination  be- 
cause of  union  activity  and  attempts  "to  break 
down  and  destroy  union  standards  through  repres- 
sive means";  reinstatement  of  workers  without 
loss  of  seniority  or  other  rights  upon  completion 
of  their  service;  continuation  of  benefits  under  the 
Social  Security  laws ;  adequate  housing  and  sani- 
tation facilities;  protection  of  the  civil  rights  of 
conscripted  men;  and  provisions  against  foreclo- 
sures, evictions,  and  lapsing  of  insurance  policies 
were  among  the  points  stressed  in  this  resolution. 

2.  A  resolution  against  "foreign  entanglements 
which  may  in  any  way  drag  us  down  the  path  of 
entering  or  becoming  involved  in  foreign  wars." 

This  resolution  reiterated  the  support  of  the 
C.I.O.  for  national  defense  and  its  determination 
"to  protect  and  defend  this  nation  not  only  against 
our  foreign  enemies  who  may  dare  to  attack  us 
directly  but  also  against  those  forces  within  our 
nation  who  place  the  profits  of  their  financial  and 
industrial  enterprises  above  the  well-being  of  the 
millions  of  common  people." 

3.  A  resolution  calling  for  guarantees  of  col- 
lective bargaining  in  government  contracts,  loans, 
and  purchases. 

4.  A  statement  reaffirming  the  Americanism  of 
the  C.I.O.  and  its  opposition  to  "any  policies  em- 
anating  from  totalitarianism,  dictatorships,  and 
foreign  ideologies  such  as  Nazism,  Communism, 
or  Fascism." 

The  main  objects  of  the  Congress  of  Industrial 
Organizations,  as  outlined  in  its  constitution  were 
reaffirmed  at  the  1940  convention  as  follows: 

"First.  To  bring  about  the  effective  organiza- 
tion of  the  working  men  and  women  of  America 
regardless  of  race,  creed,  color,  or  nationality,  and 
to  unite  them  for  common  action  into  labor  unions 
for  their  mutual  aid  and  protection. 

"Second.  To  extend  the  benefits  of  collective 
bargaining  and  to  secure  for  the  workers  means 
to  establish  peaceful  relations  with  their  employ- 
ers, by  forming  labor  unions  capable  of  dealing 
with  modern  aggregates  of  industry  and  finance. 

"Third.  To  maintain  determined  adherence  to 
obligations  and  responsibilities  under  collective 
bargaining  and  wage  agreements. 

"Fourth.  To  secure  legislation  safeguarding  the 
economic  security  and  social  welfare  of  the  work- 
ers of  America,  to  protect  and  extend  our  demo- 
cratic institutions  and  civil  rights  and  liberties, 
and  thus  to  perpetuate  the  cherished  traditions  of 
our  democracy. 


The  1940  convention  of  the  CI.O.  also  adopted 
a  resolution  rededicatfag  the  C.I.O.  to  "its  primary 
purpose  of  organizing  workers  into  modern  in- 
dustrial unions  as  the  surest  guarantee  that  the 
power  of  labor  will  reach  its  full  estate." 

The  C.I.O.  movement  started  with  a  member- 
ship of  less  than  1,000,000.  It  was  able  to  report  a 
membership  of  approximately  4,000,000  to  its  third 
constitutional  convention  in  1940,  with  42  national 
and  international  unions  and  organizing  commit- 
tees affiliated.  In  addition,  the  CI.O.  has  affiliated 
to  it  225  state,  county,  and  city  Industrial  Union 
Councils  and  419  Local  Industrial  Unions.  Head- 
quarters are  at  1106  Connecticut  Avenue,  N.W., 
Washington,  D.C. 

The  following  is  the  list  of  national  and  inter- 
national unions  affiliated  to  the  C.I.O. : 

Aluminum  Workeri  of  America 

Architects,  Engineers,  Chemists  and  Technicians,  Fed- 
eration of 

Automobile  Workers  of  America,  United 

Cannery,  Agricultural,  Packing  and  Allied  Workers, 
United 

Clothing  Workers  of  America.  Amalgamated 

Communications  Association,  American 

Die  Casting  Workers.  National  Association  of 

Electrical,  Radio  and  Machine  Workers  of  America, 
United 

Federal  Workers  of  America,  United 
(  Fishermen  and  Allied  Workers  of  America,  Interna- 
tional Union  of 

Fur  and  Leather  Workers  Union,  International 

Furniture  Workers  of  America.  United 

Glass,  Ceramics,  and  Silica  Sand  Workers.  Federation  of 

Inlandboatmen's  Union  of  the  Pacific 

Iron.  Steel  and  Tin  Workers,  Amalgamated  Associa- 
tion of 

Longshoremen's  and  Warehousemen's  Union,  Interna- 
tional 

Marine  Engineers*  Beneficial  Association,  National 

Marine  Cooks'  and  Stewards'  Association,  National 

Marine  and  Shipbuilding  Workers  of  America,  Indus- 
trial Union  of 

Maritime  Union  of  America.   National 

Mine,  Mill  and  Smelter  Workers,  International  Un- 
ion of 

Mine  Workers  of  America,  United 

Newspaper  Guild,  American 

Office  and  Professional  Workers  of  America,  United 

Oil  Workers  International  Union 

Paper,  Norelty  and  Toy  Workers  International  Union, 
United 

Stone  and  Allied  Products  Workers  of  America,  United 

Retail,  Wholesale,  and  Department  Store  Employees  of 
America,  United 

Rubber  Workers  of  America.  United 

Shoe  Workers  of  America,  United 

State.  County  and  Municipal  Workers  of  America 

Textile  Workers  Union  of  America 

Transport  Workers  Union  of  America 

Woodworkers  of  America,  International 

Following  is  the  list  of  C.I.O.  organizing  com- 
mittees: 

Barbers  and  Beauty  Culturists  of  America,  Natl.  Or- 
ganizing Comm.  of 

*  a  Workers  Organising  Committee,  United 
—  Store  Workers  Organizing  Committee 

,  Workers  Organizing  Committee 

Farm  Equipment  Workers  Organizing  Committee 
Packinghouse  Workers  Organizing  Committee 
Steel  Workers  Organizing  Committee 
Utility  Workers  Organizing  Committee 

See  COMMUNISM  ;  LABOR  CONDITIONS. 

PHILIP  MURRAY. 

CONNECTICUT.  Area,  4965  square  miles, 
including  (1930)  water,  145  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion, Apr.  1,  1940  (census),  1.709,242;  1930, 1,606,- 
903.  Cities  (1940) :  Hartford,  the  capital,  166,267; 
New  Haven,  160,605;  Bridgeport,  147,121 ;  Water- 
bury,  99.314;  New  Britain  68,685.  The  rural  pop- 
ulation, increasing  nearly  thrice  as  much  as  the  ur- 
ban, attained  551,080  (1940). 

Agriculture.  Connecticut  harvested,  in  1940, 


CONNECTICUT 


160 


CONSTRUCTION  INDUSTRY 


about  450,300  acres  ol  the  principal  crops.  Tame 
hay  accounted  for  iomc  three-fourths  of  this  area, 
or  348,000  acres ;  these  yielded  484,000  tons ;  in  es- 
timated value,  $7,889,000.  Tobacco,  under  intensive 
cultivation  on  only  17,400  acres,  produced  22,996,- 
000  lb.,  in  value,  about  $7,135,000,  or  fairly  close 
to  that  of  hay.  Potatoes,  18,900  acres,  gave  3,402,- 
000  bu.  ($2.449,000) ;  com.  49.000  acres,  1,960,000 
bu,  ($1,509,000) ;  apples,  1,210,000  bu.  ($1,331,000). 
Farms:  21,163  in  1940  (17,195  in  1939). 

Manufacturing.  Yearly  production  of  manu- 
factured goods  in  Connecticut  totaled  $1,229,615,- 
773  for  1939;  $1,261,788.693  for  1937.  Other  totals 
for  1939  (each  with  that  for  1937  subjoined)  : 
2936  (2892)  manufacturing  establishments  em- 
ployed 233,525  (262,620)  persons  for  wages  of 
$276,274,243  ($312,269,732),  paid  for  materials, 
etc.,  and  contract  work  $537,399,081  ($581,001,- 
594) ,  and  added  to  value  of  material,  by  process  of 
manufacture,  $692,216,692  ($680,787,099). 

History.  Plans  for  over  $50,000,000  in  Federal 
works  to  check  the  ravages  of  floods  in  New  Eng- 
land, including  Connecticut,  were  still  in  the  Army 
engineers'  hands  for  revision  in  the  spring  of  1940. 
Additional  protection  for  Hartford  and  East  Hart- 
ford was  under  consideration.  The  continued  enter- 
prise of  improving  the  State's  highways  was  ad- 
vanced by  a  program  calling  for  the  expenditure, 
by  the  Highway  Department,  of  about  $10,000,000 
during  the  year.  Plans  called  for  developing  the 
southwestern  and  northeastern  ends  of  the  Wilbur 
Cross  Parkway  (extension  of  the  Merritt  Park- 
way) ;  its  middle  part  was  not  yet  to  be  construct- 
ed, but  improvements  instead  were  provided  for 
U.S.  5  between  Meriden  and  Hartford.  The  State 
undertook  the  preliminaries  to  constructing  a  new 
highway  bridge  over  the  Thames  River  at  New 
London.  The  last-completed  section  of  the  Merritt 
Parkway,  that  from  Nichols  through  Stratford 
and  over  the  Housatonic  River,  was  opened  on 
September  2.  The  noted  stone-arch  bridge  over  the 
Middlebury-Naugatuck  road  was  removed  in  No- 
vember as  an  accident-trap. 

Connecticut's  conviction  of  Newton  Cant  well,  of 
the  sect  of  Jehovah's  Witnesses,  for  soliciting 
funds  in  New  Haven  without  the  required  license, 
was  reversed  (May  20)  by  the  U.S.  Supreme 
Court,  on  the  ground  of  infringement  of  religious 
liberty.  The  State's  Supreme  Court  of  Errors  sus- 
tained (March  20)  Connecticut's  law  prohibiting 
measures  against  conception,  in  cases  against  the 
Waterbury  Maternal  Health  Center  and  against 
physicians,  rejecting  as  a  defense  the  need  of  such 
measures  for  a  patient's  health.  (See  BIRTH  CON- 
TROL.) Two  bankers  of  Waterbury  and  Bridge- 
port, directors  of  McKesson  and  Robbing  when 
that  company  was  wrecked  by  the  operations  of 
the  late  F.  Donald  Coster,  alias  Musica,  were 
tried  in  the  Federal  District  Court  in  New  York, 
with  other  defendants,  for  conspiracy  in  Musica's 
huge  illicit  operations;  the  two  were  acquitted; 
seven  other  defendants  formerly  connected  with 
the  big  Connecticut  company  pleaded  guilty  or 
were  convicted  (May  18). 

The  manufacturing  of  a  variety  of  goods  made 
in  the  State  was  stimulated  by  demand  on  account 
of  war  abroad  and  of  defensive  preparations  in 
the  United  States.  A  striking  example  was  that  of 
Pratt  and  Whitney  (part  of  the  United  Aircraft 
Corporation)  at  Hartford;  this  firm  built  in  1939- 
40,  partly  with  British  money,  great  additions  to 
its  works  and  multiplied  its  monthly  output  of  air- 
craft engines  tenfold. 


Elections.  In  the  general  election  (Novem- 
ber 7)  Roosevelt,  for  President,  carried  the  State 
getting  417,621  votes  to  361319  for  Willkie 
(Rep.)  ;  the  total  vote  of  both  major  parties'  Pres- 
idential candidates  exceeded  that  of  1936  by  about 
119,000,  or  over  one-sixth,  the  Republican  total  in- 
creasing by  about  83,000  and  the  Democratic  by 
about  36,000.  Francis  T.  Maloney  (Dem.)  was  re- 
elected  United  States  Senator,  defeating  Paul  L. 
Cornell  (Rep.).  Robert  A.  Hurley  (Dem.)  was 
elected  Governor,  defeating  Raymond  E.  Baldwin 
(Rep.),  who  sought  re-election.  Six  Democrats 
won  the  State's  seats  in  the  House  of  Representa 
tives,  four  of  them  sweeping  out  Republicans. 

Officers.  Connecticut's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  Raymond  E.  Baldwin 
(Rep.) ;  Lieutenant  Governor,  James  L.  McCon- 
aughy;  Secretary  of  State,  Sara  B.  Crawford; 
Treasurer,  Joseph  E.  Talbot;  Comptroller,  Fred 
R.  Zeller ;  Attorney  General,  Francis  A.  Pallotti ; 
Commissioner  of  Education,  Alonzo  G.  Grace. 

CONSCIENTIOUS  OBJECTORS.  See 
DRAFT,  MILITARY. 

CONSCRIPTION.  See  AUSTRALIA,  CANADA, 
ECUADOR,  MEXICO,  and  NEW  ZEALAND  under  His- 
tory. For  conscription  in  the  United  States,  see 
DRAFT,  MILITARY  and  the  topics  there  referred  to. 

CONSERVATION  WORK.  See  AGRICUL- 
TURAL ADJUSTMENT  ADMINISTRATION;  CIVILIAN 
CONSERVATION  CORPS;  EDUCATION,  OFFICE  OF; 
FORESTRY;  GENERAL  LAND  OFFICE;  LAND  UTILI- 
ZATION, OFFICE  OF;  NATIONAL  RESOURCES  PLAN- 
NING BOARD;  PLANNING;  SOIL  CONSERVATION 
SERVICE. 

CONSTRUCTION  INDUSTRY.  The  vast 
importance  of  the  construction  industry  in  the 
progress  and  welfare  of  the  United  States  is  not 
generally  recognized.  But  it  caused  a  total  expend- 
iture of  approximately  seven  billion  dollars  in 
1939,  including  residential  building  and  all  public 
and  private  engineering  construction.  With  a  natu- 
ral increase  and  the  emergency"  conditions  cre- 
ated by  the  foreign  war  and  the  call  for  defensive 
activities  at  home,  this  total  rose  to  eight  and  one- 
half  billion  dollars  in  1940.  Of  this  great  total, 
nearly  half  was  in  engineering  construction,  accord- 
ing to  a  review  by  Engineering  News-Record  which 
showed  $2,824,989,000  for  public  works  construc- 
tion and  $1,162,254,000  for  private  construction,  or 
a  grand  total  of  $3,987,243,000. 

ENGINEERING  CONSTRUCTION:  1940 


Type  of  Construction                  *doUan 

Public  buildings,  including  Federal  in- 
dustrial plants  (1300-million)  and 
defense  housing                                 1  196 

%  increase 
or  decrease 

4-102 

Highways  and  streets  678 

+    5 

+110 

Pnmm«rcial  builrlinm                                       400 

+    3 

Earthwork,  irrigation  and  drainage  ....       234 
Bridges  ....                    ....       120 
Sewers  and  sewage  treatment  plants           91 
Water  works  and  treatment  plants               70 
Unclassified;  airports,  air  bases,  ship- 
yards,  etc.  .        .  .                             603 

-  43 
-  57 

+  54 

Total  .             ..           .   .           3J987 

T~33 

These  two  first  totals  were  respectively  34  and 
31  per  cent  above  those  of  1939,  while  the  grand 
total  was  an  increase  of  33  per  cent.  Of  the  public 
works  construction,  $1,451,726,000  was  t  for  Fed- 
eral work.  In  the  accompanying  table  is  given  a 
summary  of  the  engineering  construction,  snowing 
for  each  class  the  total  expenditure  and  its  in- 


CONSUMER  EDUCATION 


161 


CO-OPERATIVE  MOVEMENT 


crease  or  decrease  as  compared  with  1939.  These 
figures  are  exclusive  of  innumerable  minor  engi- 
neering works  and  residential  and  miscellaneous 
construction,  which  go  to  make  up  the  construction 
total  of  8%-billion  dollars.  The  first  census  of  the 
construction  industry  was  taken  in  1940  by  the 
U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  to  record  the  activities 
in  1939  in  each  State  and  in  many  large  cities.  It 
summarized  the  reports  of  general  contractors  and 
some  25  classes  of  sub-contractors.  Day-labor  work 
was  not  included.  See  separate  articles  on  the 
branches  of  the  industry,  as  BRIDGES,  BUILDING, 
WATERWORKS,  AND  WATER  PURIFICATION;  also, 
BUSINESS  REVIEW. 

£.  £.  RUSSELL  TRATMAN. 

CONSUMER  EDUCATION,  Institute 
for.  In  1937  the  Institute  for  Consumer  Education 
was  established  at  Stephens  College,  Columbia, 
Mo.  It  is  a  project  of  the  Alfred  P.  Sloan  Foun- 
dation which  is  "devoted  to  the  increase  and  dif- 
fusion of  economic  knowledge."  In  accord  with 
this  purpose,  the  Institute  aims  to  aid  consumers  to 
solve  the  problems  which  affect  their  well-being. 

Director  of  the  Institute  is  Dr.  John  M.  Cassels, 
formerly  of  the  economics  staff  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. Its  Educational  Director  is  Dr.  James  E. 
Mendenhall,  from  the  research  staff  of  the  Lincoln 
School  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

At  present,  the  Institute  for  Consumer  Educa- 
tion has  two  mam  fields  of  work.  As  a  Division  of 
Stephens  College,  it  endeavors  to  give  young  wom- 
en the  skills,  knowledge,  and  attitudes  which  will 
make  better  managers  of  their  personal  resources, 
as  students  and  as  future  homemakers.  It  also  aims 
to  assist  these  young  people  to  gain  a  better  under- 
standing of  the  economic  system  in  order  that 
they  become  more  effective  consumer-citizens.  As 
a  national  agency,  the  Institute  works  to  serve  the 
growing  number  of  teachers  and  leaders  who  are 
interested  in  developing  improved  programs  in  this 
vital  area  of  education. 

The  Institute  carries  on  economic  research 
which  appears  in  the  form  of  scientific  mono- 
graphs and  popular  booklets  on  consumer  topics. 
It  conducts  surveys  of  what  high  schools  and  col- 
leges are  doing  in  the  field,  and  makes  the  results 
available  to  the  educational  public.  It  co-operates 
not  only  with  school  people  but  also  with  leaders 
of  adult  groups  which  are  including  consumption 
either  as  a  major  or  a  minor  field  of  study  and 
activity.  A  monthly  news  letter  (October  to  June) 
is  published  by  the  Institute. 

Annually,  the  Institute  holds  a  national  confer- 
ence. This  conference  has  been  attended  by  more 
than  600  teachers  and  others  concerned  with  rais- 
ing the  quality  and  effectiveness  of  consumer  edu- 
cation. 

CONSUMER  GOODS.  See  BUSINESS  RE- 
VIEW. 

CONSUMER  GROUPS.  See  CO-OPERATIVE 
MOVEMENT;  LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS;  and 
the  consumer  organizations  listed  under  SOCIETIES 
AND  ASSOCIATIONS. 

CONSUMER  PROTECTION.  See  NATION- 
AL DEFENSE  ADVISORY  COMMISSION. 

CONTAINERS.  See  FOOD  AND  DRUG  AD- 
MINISTRATION ;  GLASS. 

CONTRACT  BRIDGE.  The  contribution  of 
contract  bridge  to  the  science  of  domestic  discord 
was  lessened  somewhat  in  1940  as  a  result  of  a 
campaign  by  the  American  Contract  Bridge  League 
to  substitute  better  manners,  courtesy,  and  equa- 


nimity for  the  natural  primitive  instinct  of  the 
human  animal  as  exemplified  in  card  games.  This 
and  the  gradual  emergence  of  new  stars  were  the 
highlights  of  the  past  season. 

Following  in  condensed  form  are  the  results  of 
the  outstanding  contests  of  1940  : 

Eastern   championship—  Goldman   pairs,    M.   D.   Maier 
and  Charles  Loch 
Master's 


Elis. 

VandcrbUt  cup  matches—  Untold  S.  Vanderbilt,  Baron 
Waldemar  von  Zcdtwitz.  Edward  Hymes  Jr.,  Robert 
McPberran,  and  Charles  Lochridge. 

Summer  nationals,  Asbnry  Park—  Women's  pairs,  Mrs. 
John  Waidlich,  Rosemont,  Pa.,  and  Mrs.  Edith  W.  Atkin- 
son. Wayne,  Pa.;  men's  pairs,  M.  D.  Maier  and  Robert 
McPherran;  mixed  teams,  Mrs.  Marie  Black,  Baron  Wai- 
demar  von  Zedtwitz,  Mrs.  Olive  Peterson,  Philadelphia, 
and  Henry  Chanin,  Atlanta,  master's  pairs.  Morris  Elis 
and  Harry  J.  Fishbein;  master's  teams,  Alvin  L.  Roth, 
Washington;  Oscar  J.  Brotman,  Washington;  Sam  Katz, 
Newark,  and  Bertram  Lebhar,  New  Rochelle. 

Winter  nationals  —  Women's  team  of  four,  Mrs.  Ade- 
laide Neuwirth,  Mrs.  Lottie  Zetosch,  Mrs  Helen  Levy. 
Jersey  City,  and  Mrs.  Humphrey  Wagar,  Atlanta;  mixed 
pairs,  Mrs.  Ralph  C  Young,  Philadelphia,  and  Sidney 
Silodor,  Philadelphia;  open  team  of  four,  Morns  J.  Click, 
Cleveland,  Harry  Feiniberg,  Cleveland;  Louis  Newman, 
Washington,  and  Jeff  Click,  Miami,  open  pairs,  Mrs.  A. 
M.  Sobel  and  Charles  H.  Goren,  Philadelphia. 

CONTRACTS.  See  LAW  under  Private  Law. 

CONVICT  LABOR.  See  PRISONS,  PAROLE, 
AND  CRIME. 

CO-OPERATIVE  MOVEMENT.  Con- 
sumer co-operatives  haven't  gone  into  the  face-lift- 
ing business.  But  in  1940  "face-lifting"  got  into  the 
co-operatives.  From  Washington,  D.C.,  to  Sche- 
nectady,  N.Y.,  from  Cambridge,  Mass.,  to  the 
Messabi  iron  range  in  Minnesota  and  Berkeley, 
Calif.,  co-ops  moved  from  side  streets,  around  the 
corner  to  Main  Street  Smart,  "kitchen  clean"  fix- 
tures in  self-service  food  stores  placed  cheek-to- 
jowl  with  chains  and  super-markets  gave  evidence 
of  a  determination  on  the  part  of  independent,  lo- 
cally-owned consumer  stores  to  meet  and  better  the 
record  of  the  mammoth  chains.  In  every  instance 
the  physical  modernization  of  co-op  stores  brought 
in  new  members,  increased  business,  and  cut  oper- 
ating costs. 

The  score  of  co-op  shops  that  had  their  faces 
lifted  in  1940  will  be  followed  by  a  hundred  this 
coming  year  and  "modernization"  is  expected  to 
push  forward  rapidly  until  the  thousand  co-opera- 
tive grocery  stores  now  in  operation  become  the 
outstanding  shops  in  their  communities.  Central 
Co-op  Wholesale,  Superior,  Wis.,  serving  two  hun- 
dred stores  in  northern  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  and 
Michigan,  has  established  an  architecture  depart- 
ment to  plan  and  supervise  store  modernization. 
Midland  Cooperative  Wholesale,  Minneapolis,  and 
its  grocery  co-ops  in  southern  Minnesota  and  Wis- 
consin have  adopted  simple,  uniform  store  front 
and  layout  keyed  to  "Swedish  modern."  Consumer 
Distribution  Corporation,  founded  by  the  late  Ed- 
ward A.  Filene,  working  with  Eastern  Co-op 
Wholesale,  Brooklyn,  has  taken  the  leadership  in 
the  modernization  program  among  the  200  grocery 
co-ops  in  twelve  Eastern  States. 

Co-op  testing  kitchens  in  Brooklyn  and  Superi- 
or check  the  quality  of  merchandise  handled  by  the 
co-operatives  —  giving  for  the  first  time  consumer 
control  of  quality.  Uniform  CO-OP  labels  have 
been  introduced  in  all  co-ops  affiliated  with  Nation- 
al Cooperatives,  Inc.,  the  national  buying  federa- 
tion. And  in  the  last  two  years,  the  co-operatives 
have  pioneered  in  the  introduction  of  government 
ABC  grade  Labelling  of  food  products. 

Contrary  to  the  general  impression,  co-op  gro- 


MOVEMENT        162         CO-OPBRATIVB  MOVEMENT 


eery  stores  are  only  part— a  relatively  small  part— 
of  the  consumer  co-operative  movement  These 
consumer-owned  enterprises,  operated  democratic- 
ally according  to  Rochdale  principles  (named  aft- 
er the  original  consumer  co-operative  opened  in 
Rochdale,  England,  in  1844)  take  in  almost  every 
phase  of  economic  life.  Farm  supply  depots,  co-op 
gas  and  oil  associations,  co-operative  insurance 
companies,  electric  distribution  co-ops,  telephone 
associations,  housing,  health,  and  restaurant  co-op- 
eratives, student  co-op  dormitories,  eating  clubs, 
and  bookstores,  credit  unions,  and  burial  societies 
make  up  the  American  consumer  co-operative 
movement  as  we  know  it  today.  Because  operations 
are  so  all-inclusive,  many  of  its  members  ^look  on 
co-operation  as  a  way  of  life,  or  point  to  it  as  the 
nucleus  of  an  economic  system  that  follows  the 
"middle  way"  between  the  extremes  of  communism 
and  fascism.  Two  million  American  consumers 
were,  at  the  end  of  1940,  doing  a  total  business  es- 
timated at  $600,000,000  a  year.  In  addition,  there 
were  2,250,000  members  of  co-op  credit  unions 
(loaning  and  borrowing  associations  sometimes  re- 
ferred to  as  "baby  banks")  which  have  accumulat- 
ed assets  of  over  $200,000,000. 

Farm  supply  purchasing  is  the  largest  single  fac- 
tor in  consumer  co-operative  business.  During  the 
1939L-4Q  fiscal  year  these  co-ops  handled  $448,000,- 
000  worth  of  supplies  according  to  statistics  just 
released  by  the  Farm  Credit  Administration  This 
represented  an  increase  of  $23,000,000  over  the  pre- 
vious year. 

Co-operatives  have  broken  the  hold  of  the  "fer- 
tilizer ringf'  and  have  emerged  as  "trust-busters" 
in  a  field  vitally  important  to  the  American  farmer. 
By  building  fertilizer  factories,  the  co-ops  forced 
down  the  price  of  commercial  fertilizer  four  dol- 
lars a  ton,  saving  farmers  in  Ohio  alone  more  than 
a  million  dollars  last  year. 

Petroleum  products  distributed  by  2000  gas  and 
oil  co-ops  last  year  amounted  to  nearly  $100,000,- 
000.  In  less  than  20  years  co-operatives  have  moved 
from  retail  oil  distribution  all  the  way  back  to  re- 
fining and  drilling  and  operating  oil  wells.  In  1940 
three  oil  refineries  were  opened—in  Phillipsburg, 
Kans. ;  Mt.  Vernon,  Ind.,  and  Regina,  Saskatche- 
wan. Ninety-two  miles  of  pipe  line  were  built  by 
the  Consumers  Cooperative  Association  to  connect 
the  Kansas  co-op  refinery  with  nearby  wells.  The 
co-ops  thwarted  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  a  major 
oil  company  to  cut  off  their  source  of  crude  oil — 
and  as  a  protective  measure  to  provide  an  assured 
source  of  supply,  the  first  co-op  oil  wells  in  the 
world  were  drilled  and  started  production  late  in 
1940. 

Insurance  is  an  essentially  co-operative  under- 
taking and  many  mutual  companies  are  co-opera- 
tive in  several  respects  but  not  part  of  the  consum- 
er co-operative  movement.  For  that  reason  the  2000 
farmers'  mutual  fire  insurance  organizations  with 
three  million  members  and  eleven  billion  dollars 
worth  of  insurance  in  force  are  not  included  in  the 
statistics  stated  above.  There  are,  however,  a  num- 
ber of  insurance  co-operatives  handling  automobile, 
fire,  and  life  insurance.  Notable  in  this  field  is  the 
Farm  Bureau  Cooperative  Insurance  Services, 
which  started  with  assets  of  $10,000  in  1926  and 
last  year  had  a  $10,000,000  premium  income  pro- 
viding auto,  fire,  and  life  insurance  to  380,000  con- 
sumer members  in  eleven  States. 

Electric  power  co-operatives  received  their 
greatest  impetus  with  the  creation  of  the  Rural 
Electrification  Administration  in  1935.  Only  50 


electric  co-ops  were  in  existence  at  that  time.  By 
April.  1940,  a  total  of  548  such  co-ops  were  operat- 
ing 198,000  energized  miles  of  line  serving  483,000 
rural  families.  Ninety-two  per  cent  of  the  loans 
made  by  the  REA  were  handled  by  co-operatives 
which  have  carried  on  a  lion's  share  of  the  job  of 
bringing  electric  light  and  power  to  rural  America. 

Co-operative  burial  associations  received  wide- 
spread publicity  a  few  years  ago  when  the  then 
attorney  general  of  Minnesota  ruled  that  a  con- 
sumer co-operative  must  be  made  up  of  ultimate 
consumers.  Since  the  ultimate  consumer  of  a  burial 
co-operative  would  be  a  dead  person,  he  contended 
that  such  associations  were  illegal.  By  the  time  the 
ruling  was  reversed  several  additional  communities 
had  decided  to  set  up  burial  co-ops  to  help  cut  the 
cost  of  dying.  Forty  co-op  burial  societies  are  now 
serving  31,000  members  in  five  mid-western  States. 
A  U.S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  study  completed 
in  1940  showed  that  the  average  cost  of  a  funeral 
in  a  co-op  was  $166  as  compared  with  $363  for  the 
average  private-profit  mortuary. 

On  160  American  campuses  more  than  200  stu- 
dent co-ops  are  helping  over  100,000  students  make 
their  way  through  college  by  cutting  the  costs  of 
food  and  lodging,  books,  laundry,  cleaning,  and 
medical  service.  Federations  of  campus  co-ops  have 
been  set  up  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  in  the  Plains 
States,  and  in  the  mid-west.  A  National  Commit- 
tee on  Student  Cooperatives  acts  as  a  clearing 
house  for  information  on  the  organization  of  stu- 
dent co-ops. 

Other  co-operatives  include  housing,  health,  and 
restaurant  service,  which  reported  gains  during  the 
year.  New  housing  units  were  completed  in  Min- 
neapolis, St.  Paul,  Madison  (Wisconsin),  and  in 
Nova  Scotia,  while  at  the  close  of  the  year  the 
largest  housing  co-op  in  New  York  City—the  Amal- 
gamated Cooperative  Apartments  housing  630  fam- 
ilies in  the  Van  Cortlandt  Park  area — voted  the 
fourth  expansion  since  it  was  founded  in  1927.  A 
dozen  co-operative  health  associations  are  in  op- 
eration. Outstanding,  of  course,  is  the  Cooperative 
Hospital  in  Elk  City,  Okla.  Other  noteworthy 
health  services  have  their  headquarters  in  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  Greenbelt,  Md ,  New  York  City,  St. 
Louis,  Superior,  Wis.,  and  St.  Paul.  The  21-year- 
old  chain  of  co-op  cafeterias,  Consumers  Coopera- 
tive Services,  in  New  York  City,  still  leads  the 
field.  Its  eight  recently  modernized  eating  spots 
served  a  million  meals  last  year. 

There  is  a  growing  awareness  of  the  importance 
of  co-operation  between  co-operatives.  Most  of  the 
important  co-operatives  are  federated  into  a  na- 
tional educational  organization,  The  Cooperative 
League  of  the  USA,  which  on  Mar.  18,  1941,  cele- 
brates its  25th  year  of  active  education  Twenty  re- 
gional and  national  associations  of  co-operatives 
with  1,115,000  patron-members  arc  affiliated  with 
The  Cooperative  League.  Through  its  offices  in 
Chicago,  New  York,  and  Washington,  the  League 
is  responsible  for  the  national  education,  organiza- 
tion, publication,  publicity,  research,  and  contact 
work  of  the  movement. 

Paralleling  The  Cooperative  League  and  includ- 
ing most  of  its  members  is  National  Cooperatives, 
Inc.,  the  purchasing  federation  of  co-operatives. 
Organized  in  1933  and  maintaining  offices  with  the 
League  in  Chicago,  National  Cooperatives  co-ordi- 
nates the  purchasing  of  its  member  associations 
where  economies  can  be  made  by  large-scale  pur- 
chases. It  also  serves  as  a  clearing  house  for  tech- 
nical information,  holds  and  polices  the  CO-OP 


COPPER 

label  and  is  responsible  for  uniform  standards  of 
excellence  of  products  distributed  under  the  CO- 
OP label.  .  .  _, 

European  Co-operatives.  Co-operatives  in  Eu- 
rope have  been  seriously  affected  by  the  war.  Even 
before  hostilities  were  declared,  the  powerful  co- 
operative movements  in  Austria  and  Czecho-Slova- 
kia  were  destroyed  or  taken  over  by  the  Nazis. 
The  Polish  co-operatives  have  been  very  severely 
hit.  It  is  too  early  yet  to  have  complete  reports  on 
Denmark,  Norway,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  France. 
We  must  assume,  however,  that  the  fate  of  the 
co-operatives  there  will  be  similar  to  the  fate  of 
the  co-operatives  in  Germany  itself. 

Prior  to  the  Nazi  Regime,  the  German  co-opera- 
tive movement  was  looked  upon  as  one  of  the 
strongest  in  the  world.  Its  3,644,000  members  did 
a  retail  business  of  RM  1,095,000,000  in  1932,  But 
with  the  ascendancy  of  totalitarianism,  Nazi  of- 
ficials were  put  in  charge  of  co-operatives,  democ- 
racy was  ruled  out.  surplus  funds  were  diverted 
to  the  Nazi  war  chest  through  the  purchase  of 
government  bonds,  and  under  Nazi  administration 
co-operatives  were  dissolved  as  rapidly  as  was  fea- 
sible. .  .,«  • 

The  co-operatives  in  Sweden  are  still  a  dramatic 
example  of  co-operative  accomplishment.  They 
handle  20  per  cent  of  the  retail  business  of  the 
country;  they  have  broken  flour  milling,  rubber, 
margarine,  and  electric  lamp  bulb  trusts  and  have 
pioneered  in  efficient  retail  distribution.  Since  the 
outbreak  of  the  European  war,  the  Swedish  co- 
operatives have  served  as  a  yardstick  to  keep  prices 
from  rising  as  a  result  of  unjust  profiteering. 

The  British  co-operatives  have  been  growing 
rapidly  since  the  declaration  of  war  although  they 
are  severely  hampered  by  war-time  restrictions 
which  are  forced  on  all  business  and  by  the  loss 
of  many  of  their  workers  who  are  in  the  armed 
services.  About  8,500,000  British  consumers  are 
members  of  the  co-operatives.  Total  co-operative 
retail  business  in  1939  was  $1,500,000,000.  The  co- 
operatives had  become  the  largest  single  distribu- 
tive business  in  Britain. 

International  trade  between  co-operatives  has 
been  so  severely  hit  by  the  war  that  the  Interna- 
tional Cooperative  Trading  Agency  has  suspended 
operations  temporarily,  but  the  International  Co- 
operative Alliance,  the  educational  organization  with 
members  in  39  countries,  is  carrying  on. 

See  ALASKA  under  Agriculture ;  HORTICULTURE; 
INDIAN  AFFAIRS,  OFFICE  OF. 

Bibliography.  Ellis  Cowling,  Cooperatives  in  America, 
Coward  McCann;  James  P.  Warbasse,  Cooperative  De- 
mocracy, Harper  and  Brothers;  Carr-Saundcrs  and  Others, 
Consumers'  Cooperation  in  Great  Britain,  Harper  and  Bros. ; 
Horace  M.  Kaflen,  Decline  and  Rise  of  the  Consumer, 
Appleton-Century;  Bertram  B.  Fowler,  The  Lord  Helps 
Those,  Vanguard  Press:  Peoples'  Year  Book.  Cooperative 
Union.  Great  Britain;  Marquis  Childs,  Sweden,  the  Mid- 
dle Way,  Yale  University  Press. 

WALLACE  J.  CAMPBELL. 

COPPER.  The  full  impact  of  the  European 
war  and  the  national  defense  program  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  did  not  strike  the  mineral  industries  un- 
til about  the  fourth  quarter  of  1940.  By  that  time, 
however,  the  domestic  copper  mining  industry  was 
operating  almost  at  capacity  (considering  the  price 
of  the  metal),  and  arrangements  had  been  made  to 
import  a  large  tonnage  from  Latin  America. 

The  price  of  the  metal  was  fairly  stable 
throughout  the  year  and  particularly  in  the  fourth 
quarter  after  the  Defense  Commission  had  an- 
nounced its  intention  to  prevent  unwarranted  price 


163  COPPER 

rises  in  commodities.  Opening  the  year  at  134  per 
lb.,  the  price  declined  to  a  low  of  10.54  in  July  and 
rose  gradually  to  124  in  September,  where  it  re- 
mained until  the  year  end.  The  average  price  for 
the  year  was  11.2964,  f.o.b.,  refinery,  according  to 
Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  compared  with 
10.9654  for  1939. 

No  price  was  quoted  in  London  during  1940,  be- 
cause trading  was  suspended  on  the  London  Metal 
Exchange,  and  the  Ministry  of  Supply  fixed  the 
price  at  which  consumers  could  obtain  copper. 

The  Census  of  Manufacturers,  1939,  revealed 
some  interesting  facts  about  primary  smelting  and 
refining  of  copper  in  comparison  with  conditions 
in  1937.  The  number  of  establishments  was  the 
same  in  each  year,  23.  Moderate  decreases  were 
noted,  however,  in  employment,  wages,  and  pro- 
duction. Salaried  personnel  in  1939  numbered  1783, 
a  decrease  of  6.7  per  cent  compared  with  1937. 
Number  of  wage  earners  decreased  from  14,514 
in  1937  to  12,234  in  1939,  or  15.7  per  cent.  Wages 
were  correspondingly  down  from  $20,941,462  to 
$17,443,834.  Value  of  products  was  down  from 
$715,354,577  to  $633,994,537. 

In  December,  1940,  the  Metals  Reserve  Compa- 
ny, a  subsidiary  of  the  Reconstruction  Finance 
Corporation  (q  v.),  contracted  to  buy  for  the  Gov- 
ernment 100,000  tons  of  copper  from  Latin  Amer- 
ica during  1941.  The  price  for  72,000  tons  was  104 
per  lb ,  f  a.s.  New  York,  on  the  condition  that  if 
at  any  time  the  cost  of  freight  and  insurance  ex- 
ceed %4  per  lb.,  such  excess  will  be  borne  by  the 
Metals  Reserve  Company.  The  price  for  the  re- 
maining 28,000  tons  was  9%tf  per  lb.,  f  .a.s.  Chilean 
ports,  on  the  condition  that  for  such  portion  of 
this  copper  as  the  sellers  can  furnish  transporta- 
tion, the  Metals  Reserve  Company  will  allow  %4 
per  lb.  for  transportation,  war,  and  marine  insur- 
ance. 

According  to  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines  smelter 
and  refinery  output  of  copper  from  domestic  ores 
in  1940  were  at  the  highest  levels  since  1929,  sur- 
passing the  record  for  1937  by  10  to  15  per  cent 
United  States  imports  of  unf  abricated  copper  were 
larger  than  in  any  other  year  since  1929,  due  to 
war  disturbance.  Exports  were  a  little  higher  than 
in  1939,  and  the  largest  recorded  since  1929.  Japan 
was  the  principal  buyer. 

The  Copper  Institute  reported  the  following 
summary  of  statistics  for  1940. 

US.  DUTY-FREE  COPPER 

"""  7940  7939 

Production 

Crude  • (short  tons)  992,095  836,074 

Refined «       «  1,033,710  818,289 

Deliveries 

Domestic (short  tons)  1,001,886  814,407 

Export "       "  48,537  134,152 

T0UJ «       "  1,050,423  948|559 

Refined  Stocks 

End  of  period (short  tons)  142,772  159,485 

*  Mine  or  smelter  production  or  shipments  and  custom  intake, 
Including  scrap. 

Estimated  smelter  production  in  1940  from  do- 
mestic ores  was  1,814,000,000  lb.,  an  increase  of 
27  per  cent  over  the  output  of  1939.  The  output  of 
new,  refined  copper  from  domestic  and  foreign 
sources  in  1940  amounted  to  2,616,000,000  lb.,  an 
increase  of  30  per  cent  over  1939.  The  production 
of  secondary  copper  was  232,000,000  lb ,  about  the 
same  as  in  1939.  Total  primary  and  secondary  out- 
put was  2,848,000,000  lb.,  26  per  cent  larger  than 
in  the  preceding  year. 


COPTS  164 

In  1940,  according  to  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and 
Domestic  Commerce,  copper  imports  amounted  to 
729,994,264  lb.,  valued  at  $73,492,234 ;  exports,  855,- 
867,957  lb.,  valued  at  $110,118,658. 

H.  C.  PARMELEE. 

COPTS.  See  under  EGYPT  and  ITALIAN  EAST 
AFRICA. 

COPYRIGHT.  Registrations  for  the  fiscal 
year  1939-40,  according  to  the  report  of  the  U.S. 
Register  of  Copyrights,  numbered  176,997,  as  com- 
pared with  173,135  for  the  preceding  year.  Of 
these  110,715  were  classed  as  books,  but  included 
pamphlets,  leaflets,  and  contributions  in  periodi- 
cals. Those  printed  in  the  United  States  numbered 
107,252,  those  printed  abroad  in  a  foreign  language, 
2502,  while  the  remainder,  958,  were  English  books 
registered  for  ad  interim  copyright.  The  chief 
classes  of  the  remaining  registration  were:  Pe- 
riodicals (numbers),  80,356;  musical  compositions, 
46,152;  dramatic  or  dramatico-musical  composi- 
tions, /052 ;  works  of  art,  models,  or  designs,  4014  ; 
drawings  or  plastic  works  of  a  scientific  or  tech- 
nical character,  3931;  photographs,  4403;  prints 
and  pictorial  illustrations,  7136;  maps,  3242;  lec- 
tures, sermons,  addresses,  1277;  motion  pictures 
not  photoplays,  1533;  motion-picture  photoplays, 
1583 ;  reproductions  of  works  of  art,  647.  The  re- 
newals numbered  10,207  as  compared  with  10,177 
in  the  preceding  year.  The  fees  applied  during  the 
year  amounted  to  $320,082.  The  total  number  of 
separate  articles  deposited  during  the  fiscal  year 
ended  June  30,  1940,  was  272,041.  The  gross  re- 
ceipts of  the  Register's  office  for  the  fiscal  year 
were  $341,061,  the  total  expenditures  for  salaries, 
$274,285,  and  for  supplies,  $2340.  See  PATENT  OF- 
FICE, U.S. 

CORN.  The  corn  crop  of  the  United  States  in 
1940  was  estimated  by  the  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  at  2,449,200,000  bu.,  6  per  cent  smaller 
than  the  1939  crop  of  2,602,133,000  bu.  and  com- 
pared with  the  1929-38  (including  three  drought 
years)  average  of  2,299,342,000  bu.  The  total 
acreage  harvested  for  all  purposes  was  86,449,000 
acres  compared  with  88,430,000  acres  in  1939,  13 
per  cent  below  the  10-year  average  of  98,986,000 
acres,  and  was  the  smallest  acreage  since  1894. 
Yield  per  harvested  acre  averaged  28.3  bu.  versus 
29.4  bu.  in  1939,  the  highest  since  1920,  and  com- 
pared with  the  10-year  average  of  23.2  bu.  In- 
creased acreages  of  high-yielding  hybrids  and  more 
extensive  use  of  high-speed  power  machinery  kept 
the  yields  above  average  in  spite  of  severe  drought 
damage  in  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio.  Corn  har- 
vested for  grain  was  estimated  at  2,170,902,000 
bu.,  the  4,443,000  acres  harvested  for  silage  pro- 
duced 32,359,000  tons  of  silage,  and  the  remainder 
of  the  crop,  about  5,648,000  acres,  was  harvested 
for  forage  or  grazed  by  livestock.  The  states  lead- 
ing in  production  of  corn  for  grain  were:  Iowa 
437,580,000  bu.,  Illinois  318,296,000,  Indiana  136,- 
937,000.  Minnesota  135,136,000,  Ohio  112,912,000, 
and  Missouri  112,789,000  bu.  Wisconsin,  Minne- 
sota. New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Iowa  again 
led  m  order  of  silage  production.  The  season  av- 
erage price  per  bu.  (preliminary)  received  by 
farmers  averaged  62.4  cents  in  1940  and  the  value 
of  production  was  estimated  at  $1,528,440,000  ver- 
sus 56.7  cents  and  $1,476,300,000  in  1939.  See  Crop 
Production  Table  under  AGRICULTURE;  AGRICUL- 
TURAL ADJUSTMENT  ADMINISTRATION;  COMMOD- 
ITY CREDIT  CORPORATION  ;  ENTOMOLOGY,  ECONOM- 
IC; FARM  MACHINERY  AND  EQUIPMENT. 


COSTA  RICA 


CORONADO  CUARTO-CENTENNIAL. 

See  FAIRS,  EXPOSITIONS,  AND  CELEBRATIONS. 

CORONARY  DISEASE.  See  MEDICINE  AND 
SURGERY. 

CORPORATE      REORGANIZATIONS. 

See  BUSINESS  REVIEW. 

CORPORATIVE  STATE.  See  FRANCE,  IT- 
ALY, PORTUGAL,  RUMANIA,  and  SLOVAKIA  under 
Government  and  History;  FASCISM. 

CORRESPONDENTS,  Foreign.  See  NEWS- 
PAPERS  AND  MAGAZINES. 

CORRUPTION  IN  GOVERNMENT.  See 
the  States  under  History  as  LOUISIANA,  MAINE, 
MASSACHUSETTS,  MICHIGAN,  MISSOURI,  NORTH 
DAKOTA,  PENNSYLVANIA,  RHODE  ISLAND,  WIS- 
CONSIN. 

COSMETICS.  See  FASHION  EVENTS;  FOOD 
AND  DRUG  ADMINISTRATION. 

COSMIC  RAYS.  See  PHYSICS. 

COSTA  RICA.  A  Central  American  republic 
Capital,  San  Jose. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  23,000  square 
miles;  estimated  population,  639,197  on  Dec.  31, 
1939.  The  people  are  largely  of  Spanish  and  other 
European  descent,  except  for  some  18,000  Negroes 
in  the  Atlantic  banana  zone  and  about  3000  ab- 
original Indians.  Live  births  in  1938  numbered  26,- 
830;  deaths,  10,422;  net  immigration,  416.  Esti- 
mated populations  of  the  chief  cities  (1938) :  San 
Jos6,  70,568;  Cartago,  20,452;  Limon,  16,699;  Ala- 
juela.  11,877;  and  Puntarenas,  8514. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  illiteracy  rate 
is  one  of  the  lowest  in  Latin  America.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  1939  there  were  669  elementary  schools 
with  66,317  pupils,  2  secondary  schools  with  1228 
students,  a  normal  school  with  562  students,  and 
2  colleges,  at  Cartago  and  Alajuela.  A  law  estab- 
lishing the  University  of  Costa  Rica  in  the  capi- 
tal was  signed  Aug.  26,  1940.  The  existing  Schools 
of  Law,  Pharmacy,  Agriculture,  Pedagogy,  and 
Art  were  incorporated  in  the  new  institution,  and 
Schools  of  Engineering,  Sciences,  Liberal  Arts, 
Dentistry,  and  Medicine  were  to  be  added  as  re- 
sources permitted.  Roman  Catholicism  is  the  state 
religion. 

Production.  Coffee,  bananas,  and  cacao  com- 
prised 84.8  per  cent  of  the  1939  exports.  The  value 
of  the  1938-39  coffee  crop  was  $4,644,301.  Banana 
exports  in  1939  (calendar  year)  were  3,429,787 
stems;  cacao,  7,672,374  kilograms  (of  2.2  lb.). 
Other  1939  crops  were  estimated  as  follows :  Corn, 
59,300  bu. ;  beans,  19,000  bu. ;  rice,  7050  metric  tons ; 
sugar,  10,950  metric  tons ;  potatoes,  8100  bu.  Fruits 
and  vegetables  are  grown  for  local  consumption. 
Gold  and  salt  are  the  only  minerals  produced.  A 
few  articles  for  domestic  use  are  manufactured,  as 
cigars,  cigarettes,  furniture,  candles,  cheese,  etc. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1939  in  U.S.  cur- 
rency totaled  $16,884,992  ($12,620,721  in  1938) ; 
exports,  $9,086,498  ($10,145,614  in  1938).  The 
1939  imports  included  $3,873,475  worth  of  special 
imports  for  development  of  the  United  Fruit  com- 
pany's new  Pacific  Coast  banana  plantations.  Ex- 
ports of  coffee  in  1939  were  $4,644,301 ;  bananas, 
$1,911,084;  cacao,  $1,150,856.  The  United  States 
took  45.6  per  cent  of  the  1939  exports,  Germany 
25.1,  United  Kingdom  16.9.  Of  the  imports,  the 
United  States  supplied  58.8  per  cent,  Germany 
17.7,  Japan  5.1,  and  the  United  Kingdom  3.9.  See 
TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  Estimated  receipts  and  expenditures 
for  1940  balanced  at  32,835,000  colones.  Actual 
1939  receipts  were  42,717,000  colones;  expendi- 


COSTA  RICA 


165 


COTTON 


turcs,  40,288,000.  The  public  debt  on  Dec.  31. 1939, 
totaled  133,088,480  colones  (external,  100,169,428; 
internal,  32,919,052).  This  represented  a  reduction 
of  16,183,807  colones  since  Apr.  30,  1936.  Average 
exchange  rates  of  the  colon:  Controlled,  $0.1779 
in  1938  and  1939;  uncontrolled,  $0.1770  in  1938, 
$0.1764  in  1939. 

Transportation.  There  were  413  miles  of  rail- 
ways in  1940,  405  miles  of  improved  roads,  about 
1400  miles  of  unimproved  roads  and  trails,  and  a 
domestic  air  network  connecting  with  Pan  Ameri- 
can Airways.  Receipts  of  the  state-owned  Pacific 
Railway  connecting  San  Jose  with  the  Pacific  port 
of  Puntarenas  rose  from  4,629,578  colones  in  1937 
to  5,651,069  in  1939.  A  total  of  661  ships  of  1,587,- 
837  tons  entered  and  cleared  the  ports  in  1938. 

Government.  Executive  power  is  vested  in  a 
president  elected  for  4  years  and  legislative  power 
in  a  Congress  of  44  members,  half  of  whom  are 
elected  (for  4  years)  every  2  years.  President  at 
the  beginning  of  1940,  Leon  Cortes  Castro  (Re- 
publican National  party),  who  assumed  office  May 
8,  1936.  See  History  for  1940  elections. 

History.  The  arrangement  made  by  opposition 
parties  in  1939  to  run  a  coalition  candidate  against 
Dr.  Rafael  Angel  Calderon  Guardia,  nominee  of 
the  Republican  National  (government)  party,  fell 
through  and  Dr.  Calderon  Guardia  was  the  victor 
in  the  Presidential  election  of  Feb.  11,  1940.  He 
received  82,220  votes  as  compared  with  9676  for 
the  Communist  candidate,  Manuel  Mora,  and  6174 
for  Prof.  Vergilio  Salazar  Leiva,  nominee  of  the 
Guanacasteca  party,  a  regional,  anti-Communist 
movement,  the  stronghold  of  which  is  the  province 
of  Guanacaste.  Voting  was  secret  and  compulsory 
for  the  first  time  In  his  campaign,  the  President- 
elect pledged  himself  to  follow  Costa  Rica's  demo- 
cratic tradition  and  his  predecessor's  economic  pol- 
icy as  well  as  to  support  the  Pan  American  move- 
ment. Dr.  Calderon  Guardia  was  inaugurated 
May  8  following  a  pre-maugural  visit  to  Wash- 
ington on  March  25-29.  There  he  received  a  cor- 
dial welcome  in  both  official  and  unofficial  circles. 

Both  President  Cortes  Castro  and  his  successor 
devoted  their  major  efforts  during  1940  to  the 
development  of  a  defense  program  in  co-operation 
with  the  United  States  and  to  measures  necessi- 
tated by  the  adverse  economic  effect  of  the  Eu- 
ropean War.  It  was  announced  at  San  Jose  Janu- 
ary 16  that  U.S.  Navy  planes  and  warships  had 
been  authorized  to  enter  Costa  Rican  territorial 
waters  on  both  coasts  at  any  time  in  connection 
with  the  enforcement  of  the  Pan  American  se- 
curity zone.  Upon  President  Roosevelt's  return  to 
Washington  from  his  Caribbean  tour  on  March  3, 
it  was  unofficially  reported  that  the  Costa  Rican 
Government  had  consented  to  the  use  of  its  air 
fields  by  United  States  planes  if  necessary  for 
wartime  defense  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

On  March  26,  during  his  visit  to  Washington, 
Dr.  Calderon  Guardia  stated  in  a  press  interview 
that  his  country  was  ready  and  willing  to  take  all 
necessary  measures  for  joint  defense  of  the  Canal. 
In  August  United  States  army  officers  visited  San 
Jose  and  were  reported  to  have  reached  an  agree- 
ment on  the  details  of  joint  military  co-operation. 
Enlargement  of  Costa  Rica's  tiny  army  of  500 
men  and  its  training  by  a  United  States  militaiy 
mission  was  contemplated. 

The  United  States  Government  on  September  5 
proposed  a  plan  for  the  development  of  rubber 
plantations  in  Costa  Rica  with  United  States  fi- 
nancial and  technical  aid.  The  following  day  Presi- 


dent Calder6n  Guardia  announced  that  his  govern- 
ment had  offered  to  lease  Cocos  Island  in  the 
Pacific  to  the  United  States  for  the  establishment 
of  a  naval  and  air  base.  The  U.S.  Treasury  on 
September  24  advanced  a  $4,600,000  loan  to  Costa 
Rica  for  the  construction  of  the  section  of  the  Pan 
American  Highway  between  San  Jose  and  the 
border  of  Panama.  The  loan  was  guaranteed  by 
the  National  Bank  of  Costa  Rica  and  was  to  be  re- 
paid from  proceeds  of  the  gasoline  tax. 

In  January  the  Costa  Rican  Government  with- 
drew its  objections  to  canalization  of  the  San 
Juan  River,  linking  Lake  Nicaragua  with  the 
Caribbean  and  forming  the  eastern  sector  of  the 
Nicaraguan-Costa  Rican  frontier  (see  1939  YEAR 
BOOK,  p.  172).  A  treaty  authorizing  construction 
of  a  barge  canal  and  providing  for  free  navigation 
by  Costa  Rican  traffic  was  signed  with  Nicaragua 
on  Apr.  5,  1940. 

Costa  Rica's  co-operation  with  the  United  States 
was  aided  by  the  growing  anti-German  and  anti- 
Italian  sentiment  manifested  by  the  population  as 
a  result  of  European  developments  and  of  Nazi 
activities  in  Costa  Rica.  The  government  in  May 
began  to  eliminate  pro-Nazi  Germans  from  im- 
portant positions  and  to  curb  their  propaganda. 
On  July  10  popular  indignation  was  aroused  by 
the  revelation  that  the  German  Minister  to  the 
Central  American  republics  had  sent  notes  to  the 
Costa  Rican  and  other  neighboring  governments 
stating  that  it  would  be  "disadvantageous"  if  they 
supported  any  measures  at  the  forthcoming  Ha- 
vana Conference  affecting  their  neutrality.  Costa 
Rica  replied  in  substance  that  it  could  not  permit 
foreign  interference  to  influence  its  policy  of  co- 
operation with  other  Latin  American  countries  and 
alignment  with  the  United  States. 

The  decline  of  coffee  exports  to  Great  Britain 
as  a  result  of  the  European  War  made  the  coun- 
try more  than  ever  dependent  upon  trade  with  the 
United  States  and  placed  growers  of  coffee  and 
other  export  crops  in  a  difficult  position.  The  gov- 
ernment met  the  situation  in  part  by  advancing 
credit  on  liberal  terms  to  farmers.  In  mid-year  a 
National  Agricultural  Council  was  created  to  ad- 
just agricultural  production  to  the  country's  do- 
mestic needs  and  to  changing  export  markets.  On 
July  24  it  was  announced  that  the  coffee  crop 
would  be  marketed  in  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada with  government  financial  aid  in  the  future. 
A  Sugar  Board  to  assist  and  control  the  sugar 
industry  was  established  Aug.  29,  1940.  The  col- 
lapse of  Costa  Rica's  European  markets  was  off- 
set in  part  by  the  United  Fruit  Company  invest- 
ments, totaling  about  $3,000,000  annually,  in  new 
banana  plantations  on  the  Pacific  Coast  However, 
the  company  curtailed  its  shipping  services  to 
Puerto  Limon  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  with  adverse 
effects  upon  the  tourist  trade. 

See  NICARAGUA  under  History;  PAN  AMERI- 
CANISM ;  PAN  AMERICAN  UNION. 

COST  OP  LIVING.  Sec  LIVING  COSTS  AND 
STANDARDS. 

COTTON.  The  United  States  cotton  crop  for 
1940,  as  estimated  by  the  U.S.  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture on  Dec.  9,  1940,  amounted  to  12,686,000 
bales  of  500  lb.,  as  compared  with  11,817.000  bales 
in  1939,  11,943,000  bales  in  1938,  and  the  record 
crop  of  18,946,000  bales  in  1937.  The  lint  yield  av- 
eraged 252.4  lb.  per  acre  compared  with  237.9  lb. 
in  1939,  the  record  of  266.9  lb.  in  1937,  and  198.1 
lb.,  the  1929-38  average.  Four  per  cent  of  the  25,- 
073,000  acres  in  cultivation  July  1, 1940,  were  abar 


COTTON 


166 


COTTON 


doned  later,  leaving  24,078,000  acres  for  harvest, 
compared  with  23,805,000  acres  in  1939. 

The  world  carry-over  of  American  cotton  on 
Aug.  1,  1940,  as  estimated  by  the  New  York  Cot- 
ton Exchange  Service,  was  about  12,649,000  bales 
compared  with  14,137,000  at  the  end  of  the  previ- 
ous season  and  13,787,000  two  years  before.  The 
carry-over  of  American  cotton  in  the  United  States, 
estimated  at  10,469,182  running  bales,  together  with 
the  above  estimate  of  world  total,  indicated  the 
carry-over  of  American  cotton  in  foreign  coun- 
tries on  Aug.  1,  1940,  at  about  2,053,280  bales.  Of 
the  total  domestic  stocks  in  the  United  States  as 
of  Aug.  1,  1940,  slightly  more  than  8,700,000  bales 
were  under  Government  loan  or  owned  by  the  Gov- 
ernment, which  would  indicate  a  total  of  only 
1,900,000  bales  of  "free"  stocks,  including  nearly 
100,000  bales  of  foreign  cotton.  World  mill  con- 
sumption of  American  cotton  during  the  season 
ended  July  31,  1940,  was  estimated  at  12,889,000 
bales  compared  with  11,249,000  bales  in  1938-39, 
and  12,400,000,  the  1929-38  average. 

The  world  supply  (carry-over  plus  production) 
of  all  cotton  for  the  1940-41  season  was  estimated 
in  December  to  total  about  49,777,000  bales.  This 
season  was  the  fourth  consecutive  year  that  the 
total  world  supply  of  cotton  was  close  to  50  mil- 
lion bales,  for  prior  to  these  years  it  had  never 
reached  45  million.  World  production  also  had  been 
unusually  high  in  recent  years.  Nevertheless,  the 
carry-over  had  become  much  larger  relative  to  pro- 
duction and  in  the  last  three  years  made  up  41  to 
45  per  cent  of  the  total  supply.  World  carry-over 
of  all  cotton  on  August  1  was  about  20,322,000 
bales,  compared  with  21,569,000  bales  a  year  earlier 
and  the  10-year  average,  15,500,000  bales. 

The  world  supply  of  American  cotton  prospec- 
tive for  the  current  season,  1940-41,  was  indicated 
at  about  25,300,000  bales,  about  400,000  bales  less 
than  in  1939-40  and  slightly  below  the  record  sup- 
ply, 26,224,000  bales  of  1932-33.  The  1940-41  sea- 
son was  the  fourth  consecutive  year  that  the  world 
supply  of  American  cotton  had  approximated  25 
million  bales;  except  for  1931-33  and  1926  the 
supply  never  before  exceeded  21  million  bales.  In 
the  last  three  years  the  carry-over  constituted  50 
per  cent  or  more  of  the  supply,  with  50  to  78  per 
cent  of  the  carry-over  consisting  of  Government 
loan  stocks. 

Cotton  production  in  1940  in  the  countries  re- 
ported was  estimated  to  be,  for  the  United  States, 
12,686,000;  India,  4,405,000;  U.S.S.R.  (Russia), 
4,300,000;  China,  2,350,000 ;  Egypt,  1,922,000 ;  Bra- 
zil, 2,199,000 ;  Mexico,  275,000 ;  Italy,  44,000 ;  Cho- 
sen, 198,000;  Turkey,  360,000;  Uganda,  290,000; 
Iran,  230,000;  Greece,  80,000;  and  Bulgaria,  46,- 
000  bales.  The  total  world  production  in  1940-41 
was  tentatively  indicated  by  the  U.S.  Department 
of  Agriculture  late  in  1940  at  30,500,000  bales  com- 
pared with  28,900,000  in  1939-40. 

World  production  of  commercial  cotton  in  1939 
was  estimated  by  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census 
to  be  27,875,000  (478  Ib.)  bales,  of  which  the 
United  States  produced  11,481,000  (running)  bales ; 
India,  5,000,000;  U.S.S.R.  (Russia),  4,000,000; 
Egypt,  1,801,000 ;  China,  800,000 ;  Brazil,  1,982,000  ; 
Peru,  390,000 ;  Mexico,  243,000 ;  and  all  other  coun- 
tries, 2,1/8,000  bales.  In  193SMO,  Argentina  pro- 
duced 362,481  bales;  Uganda,  289,000  bales;  Bel- 
gian Congo.  161,000  bales;  and  Anglo-Egyptian 
Sudan,  245,600  bales. 

The  cotton  crop  of  the  United  States  for  1939, 
as  reported  by  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  the 


estimated  crop  for  1940  and  the  quantity  reported 
ginned  to  Dec.  13,  1940,  are  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying table, 

UNITED  STATES  COTTON  CROP  1939-40 


States 

United  States 

Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California. . . . 

Florida 

Georgia  .... 
Louisiana  . . . . 


Crop  in  1939 
500-ib.boUt 


781,602 

202J502 

1,421,694 

442,327 

9026 

919,349 

744,898 


New  Mexico 

North  Carolina  ... 

Oklahoma 

South  Carolina  ... 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

All  others 


95,320 

460,166 

517,373 

873,288 

445,489 

2,858,525 

10,285 

16,992 


1,020,000 
455000 

1,280,000 
380,000 
123000 
740,000 
805,000 
970,000 
515,000 

3,285,000 
25  000 
18,000 


17,823 
1,331,177 
495,116 
17,845 
979,847 
445S11 
1,149,204 
337104 
99,124 
717,078 

9271505 

433,920 

2,936,528 

19,937 

12984 


1  Running  bales. 

The  table  includes  for  1940,  under  the  ginning 
report,  3482  round  bales  counted  as  half  bales  and 
also  23,560  bales  of  American-Egyptian  cotton  and 
4520  bales  of  Sea  Island  cotton,  grown  largely  in 
Georgia  and  Florida.  The  1940  crop  of  Arizona 
was  estimated  to  include  37,000  bales  of  American- 
Egyptian  cotton  grown  on  68,600  acres. 

The  cotton  of  the  1940  crop  ginned  up  to  Dec. 
13, 1940,  averaged  slightly  higher  in  grade  and  con- 
siderably longer  in  staple  compared  to  that  ginned 
up  to  Dec.  13,  1939,  according  to  reports  based  on 
the  11,405,224  bales  of  American  upland  cotton 
ginned  to  that  date.  About  85.9  per  cent  of  the  cot- 
ton ginned  up  to  Dec.  13,  1940,  was  tenderable  on 
future  contracts  compared  to  92.6  in  1939. 

Oil  mills  in  the  United  States,  during  the  cotton 
year  ended  July  31,  1940,  crushed  4,150,755  tons  of 
cottonseed.  The  products  of  the  seed  included  1,072,- 
339  bales  of  linters,  1,054,778  tons  of  hulls,  1,882,- 
217  tons  of  cake  and  meal,  and  1,325,241,460  Ib. 
of  oil. 

The  consumption  of  all  cottons  in  the  United 
States  rose  in  1939-40  to  7,783,774  bales  from  6,858,- 
426  bales  in  1938-39,  and  that  used  by  American 
mills  was  consumed  largely,  more  than  85  per  cent, 
in  the  cotton  growing  States.  Cotton  consumption 
in  the  United  States  had  fluctuated  between  5  and 
8  million  bales  per  season  since  1913-14.  In  the 
1940-41  season  domestic  consumption  was  expected 
to  exceed  8,500,000  bales  in  response  to  the  general 
improvement  in  industrial  production,  increased  fac- 
tory employment,  larger  consumer  purchasing  pow- 
er, and  large  Government  purchases  of  cotton  tex- 
tiles for  national  defense  purposes. 

World  consumption  of  cotton  (exclusive  of  lin- 
ters in  the  United  States)  for  the  year  ended  July 
31, 1940,  as  indicated  by  estimates  based  on  reports 
of  the  New  York  Cotton  Exchange  Service  and 
the  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  were  equivalent  to 
about  28,345,000  bales,  compared  with  28,486,000 
in  1938-39  and  about  2,300,000  bales  above  the 
1929-38  average.  Of  the  total  consumption  in  1939- 
40,  about  15,456,000  bales  were  foreign  and  12,- 
889*000  American.  World  mill  consumption  in  the 
last  four  years,  of  28  million  to  31  million  bales, 
had  been  considerably  higher  than  ever  before.  The 
British  blockade,  if  continued,  together  with  other 
developments,  seemed  likely  to  reduce  materially 
world  consumption  in  1940-41  despite  a  record 


COUNTERFEITING 


167 


COURTS 


high  consumption  in  the  United  States.  Consump- 
tion of  American  cotton  in  countries  other  than 
the  United  States  rose  in  1939-40  to  5,234,000 
bales,  while  non-American  cotton  in  countries  other 
than  the  United  States  decreased  to  15,327,000 
bales.  The  near-record  consumption  in  the  United 
States  in  1939-40  largely  offset  the  low  consump- 
tion of  American  cotton  in  foreign  countries,  the 
world  total  being  about  average.  World  consump- 
tion of  American  cotton  during  the  1940-41  sea- 
son seemed  likely  to  drop  considerably  below  av- 
erage even  with  a  record  high  domestic  utilization. 
Prices  of  middling  %-inch  cotton  at  the  10  spot 
markets  averaged  9.90  cents  per  Ib.  during  the 
year  ended  July  31,  1940,  compared  with  8.70  hi 
193&-39,  8.66  in  1937-38,  12.70  in  1936-37,  and 
11.32  cents,  the  1928-37  average.  Prices  averaged 
in  January,  1940,  10.62  cents,  February  10.63, 
March  10.42,  April  10.45,  May  9.93,  June  10.29, 
July  10.19,  August  9.72,  September  9.28,  October 
9  17,  November  9.45,  and  closed  on  December  31  at 
an  average  of  9.87  in  the  southern  spot  markets, 
and  at  10.43  cents  in  New  York  and  at  8.72d.  at 
Liverpool.  Since  August,  1939,  spot  prices  in  do- 
mestic markets  have  been  based  on  middling  Sc- 
inch cotton  and  between  August,  1939,  and  Decem- 
ber, 1940,  the  monthly  average  ranged  from  0.17 
to  0.22  cents  above  %  inch.  Prices  received  by  pro- 
ducers at  local  farm  markets  on  Dec.  15, 1940,  were 
estimated  to  average  9.33  cents  per  Ib.  for  lint 
and  $24.08  per  ton  for  cottonseed  compared  with 

9  71  cents  and  $24.75,  respectively,  on  Dec.  15, 1939. 
The  value  of  production  of  cotton  lint  was  esti- 
mated (preliminary)  at  $595,720,000  in  1940  and 
of  cottonseed  $121,232,000  compared  with  $536,- 
923,000  and  $111,589,000  reported  in  1939. 

Since  the  1940  loan  was  announced  August  9, 
the  average  spot  price  of  1%o-inch  cotton  in  the 

10  designated  markets  exceeded  the  average  loan 
rate  of  9.3  cents  usually  by  amounts  ranging  up  to 
0.75   cent  per   Ib.   Nevertheless,   about  2,666,160 
bales  had  been  pledged  as  collateral  for  Govern- 
ment loans  through  December  30,  totaling  $128,- 
510,831. 

See  AGRICULTURAL  ADJUSTMENT  ADMINISTRA- 
TION; AGRICULTURAL  MARKETING  SERVICE;  COM- 
MODITY CREDIT  CORPORATION;  FERTILIZERS;  TEX- 
TILES. For  the  Cotton  Stamp  Plan,  see  SURPLUS 
MARKETING  ADMINISTRATION. 

COUNTERFEITING.  See  SECRET  SERVICE, 
U.S 

COUNTERVAILING  DUTIES.  See  CUS- 
TOMS, BUREAU  OF. 

COURT  GAMES.  Court  Tennis.  The  stren- 
uous game  of  court  tennis  continued  to  claim  the 
attention  of  fans  and  principals  throughout  1940. 
James  H.  Van  Alen  of  Roslyn  once  again  suc- 
ceeded to  the  national  amateur  court  tennis  cham- 
pionship, outplaying  Alstair  Bradley  Martin,  a 
sensational  newcomer  to  the  game,  in  the  final.  Og- 
den  Phipps,  the  winner  in  1939,  was  unable  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  competition  because  of  an  injury  to 
his  legs.  Teamed  with  his  elder  brother,  William 
Laurens  Van  Alen,  the  new  champion  also  plucked 
the  doubles  title.  Earlier  in  the  season,  Ogden 
Phipps  defeated  James  Van  Alen  to  carry  off  the 
Tuxedo  Gold  Racquet  in  court  tennis.  Pierre  Etche- 
baster  of  New  York,  world's  open  court  tennis 
champion,  was  not  called  upon  to  defend  his  title 
and  thus  automatically  it  remained  with  him.  The 
Payne  Whitney  Trophy  was  won  by  the  Philadel- 
phia team. 

Racquets.  Robert  Grant  3d  of  New  York,  un- 


defeated in  racquets  for  two  years,  injured  an 
ankle  in  the  semi-final  frame  of  the  open  invita- 
tion tournament  for  the  Clarence  C  Pell  Cup  and 
was  vanquished  several  weeks  later  in  the  final  by 
Kenneth  Chantler  of  Montreal.  The  injury  kept 
Grant  put  of  the  national  amateur  championship 
competition. 

A  strange  coincidence  occurred  in  the  final  cham- 
pionship when  Warren  Ingersoll  of  Philadelphia 
also  sustained  an  ankle  injury.  At  the  time,  he  was 
leading  Reginald  Fincke  Jr.  of  New  York  by  two 
games  to  none.  Following  a  postponement  of  many 
weeks  the  match  was  resumed  and  Ingersoll 
emerged  the  winner.  Grant  also  eschewed  the  na- 
tional doubles,  in  which  he  had  shared  the  title 
with  Clarence  C.  Pell  Jr.  The  new  champions  are 
J.  Richard  Leonard  and  Malcolm  Kirkbride  of 
Tuxedo.  Leonard  was  top  man  at  the  Tuxedo  gold 
racquet  tournament.  David  S.  Mil  ford  of  England 
retained  his  world's  open  championship. 

Squash  Racquets.  The  amateur  squash  racquets 
title  was  won  by  A.  Willing  Patterson  of  Phila- 
delphia, who  defeated  H.  Sherman  Howes  of  Bos- 
ton in  a  four-game  struggle.  The  retiring  cham- 
pion, Donald  Straghan,  did  not  participate  in  the 
match. 

For  the  fourth  year  in  succession,  the  Bostonians 
carried  away  the  national  team  championship.  Phil- 
adelphia captured  the  national  veterans'  title  when 
Roy  R.  Coffin  outdid  Ralph  A.  Powers  of  Con- 
necticut in  the  final.  Kin  Canavarro  of  Harvard 
grabbed  the  intercollegiate  laurels. 

Alfred  Ramsay  of  Cleveland  regained  the  na- 
tional professional  championship  by  vanquishing 
Eddie  Schaffer  of  Pittsburgh  in  the  final.  The  1939 
winner,  Lester  Cummings  of  New  York  did  not 
enter  the  contest. 

Miss  Cecile  Bowes  of  Cynwyd,  Pa.,  captured 
the  women's  United  States  squash  racquets  cham- 
pionship, outplaying  Miss  Barbara  Williams  of 
Rockaway  Hunt  in  the  final  test  at  the  Junior 
League  courts. 

Squash  Tennis.  In  the  field  of  squash  tennis, 
Tommy  lannicelli,  of  the  Short  Hills,  N  J.,  Club, 
continued  his  hold  on  the  world  open  professional 
championship.  He  defeated  Joseph  J.  Lordi,  New 
York  A.  C.  amateur,  in  the  final,  and  thereby  an- 
nexed the  title  for  the  sixth  straight  time.  For  the 
llth  successive  year,  Harry  F.  Wolf  of  the  New 
York  A.  C.  reigned  as  king  of  the  national  ama- 
teurs. 

Phil  Moore  of  the  Columbia  University  Club 
defeated  the  former  national  champion,  Rowland 
B.  Haines,  for  the  veterans'  title. 

COURTS.  General.  Current  reviews  contain  • 
"Circuit  Courts  and  the  Nisi  Prius  System,"  38 
Mich.,  L.  Rev.  289  (W.  W.  Blume)  ;  "Need  for 
Three  Judge  Trial  Court"  (apropos  of  1939  Michi- 
gan statute  providing  therefor),  24  Jnl.  Am.  Jvd 
Soc.  76;  Rule  Making:  "Recent  Developments,"  18 
N.  Car.  L.  Rev.  167 ;  "Powers  of  Equity  Court  in 
State  Tax  Litigation,"  ib  610  (M.  S.  Culp) ;  "Ju- 
dicial Review  of  Private  Tribunals'  Decisions,"  4 
Md.  L.  Rev.  179  (L  Snyder).  "Organiration  of 
Courts,"  (1940,  pp.  IX,  322),  R.  Pound  (reviewed, 
27  A.B^.  Jnl.  25). 

Lower  Federal.  "(Legislative)  History  of  the 
Federal  Judicial  System  "  60  Sup.  Ct.  Reporter, 
VII  (Judge  E.  A.  Evans) ;  "Administration  of.  28 
Georgetown  L.  Jnl , 383  (R.  T.  Murphy) ;  25  A.B.A. 
Jnl.  738  (W.  Shafroth) ;  875  (I.  W.  Jayne) ;  "Fol- 
lowing State  Decisions."  12  Rocky  Mt  L.  Rev.,  1 ; 
14  Titian*  L.  Rev.  1  (F.  Zengel) ;  Cities  Service 


COURTS 


168 


COURTS 


Oil  Co.  v.  Ditnlap,  308  U.S.,  208,  (Comment,  88 
U.  of  Pa.  L.  Rev.  481, 18  Tex.  L.  Rev.,  89):  "Moore 
v. R.  Co.t"2BFed. Supp. 804  (Mo.W.D.)  (Comment, 
88  U.  of  Pa.  L.  Rev.  220;  34  ///.  L.  Rev.  623 ;  26 
Fa.  L.  Rev.  375)  ;  "Must  lower  state  court  deci- 
sions be  followed?"  Field  v.  Trust  Co.,  108  Fed. 
(2d)  521  (Comment,  53  Harvard  L.  Rev.  880; 
88  U.  of  Pa.  L.  Rev.  487 ;  24  Minn.  L.  Rev.  692)  ; 
reversed  by  Supreme  Court,  December  9.  An  Act 
of  Congress  of  July  3,  extends  the  U.S.  Court  for 
Hawaii's  jurisdiction  to  eight  additional  islands, 
including  Midway  and  Wake,  whose  importance 
has  been  greatly  enhanced  as  way  stations  for  the 
China  Clipper. 

State.  Illinois,  "Rules  Under  New  Probate 
Act"  5  Jno.  Marshall  L.  Quar.,  171  ( J.  F.  O'Con- 
nell)  ;  Louisiana.  "Supreme  Court's  Work,  1938- 
39,"  2  La.  L.  Rev.  31;  Mississippi,  Same,  12 
Miss.  L.  Jnl.,  1 ;  Missouri,  Same  for  1938,  4  Mo. 
L.  Rev.,  345 ;  New  York,  "Surrogate's  Jurisdic- 
tion over  Subject  Matter  and  Res!'  re  Mills'  Es- 
tate, 11  N.Y.S.  (2d)  992,  New  York  reviewed, 
Cornell  L.  Quar.,  146 ;  Wisconsin,  Supreme  Court's 
Work,  1938-39;  1940  Wis.  L.  Rev.  5. 

Foreign. Sacra  Romana  Rota.  (See 20  George- 
town  L.  Jnl.  14.)  The  latest  juridical  year  of  this 
six  century  old  tribunal  was  inaugurated  at  Rome 
on  October  1,  in  the  presence  of  the  Pope  who  in 
reply  to  an  address  by  Monsignor  Grazioli,  Dean 
of  the  Consistorial  lawyers  (reciting  that  of  the 
69  cases  presented  to  the  court  in  1939,  65  were 
for  annulment,  which  was  granted  in  16)  called  it 
the  tribunal  of  the  Christian  family,  ready  to  safe- 
guard its  sanctuary,  but  equally  to  recognize  its 
non-existence  when  matrimony  had  not  been  val- 
idly  contracted.  Of  the  10  auditor es  constituting 
the  Rota  all  were  present  except  the  American 
member,  Rev.  J.  F.  Brennan,  who  had  been  de- 
layed. 

British  Courts  Martial.  To  secure  passage  of 
its  bill  to  set  up  one-man  courts  in  the  war  zone, 
the  Government  was  obliged  to  promise  judicial 
review  of  capital  sentences  and  of  those  for  seri- 
ous offences  not  capital. 

Judges.  Current  articles  are  •  "The  Judicial  Of- 
fice Today,"  25  A.B.A.  Jnl.  731  (R.  Pound) ; 
"Judicial  Selection  and  Tenure,"  15  Jnd.  L.  Jnl 
215  (M.  N.  Feightner)  ;  "Evils  of  Brief  Tenure," 
11  Rocky  Mt  Rev.  217  (F.  Swancara)  Prof.  Max 
Radin,  Boalt  Hall  of  Law,  Univ.  of  Calif.,  nomi- 
nated by  Governor  Olson  under  the  system  of  se- 
lection adopted  in  1934  for  Supreme  Court  judges, 
failed  of  confirmation  by  the  Judicial  Qualifica- 
tions Commission.  Of  its  three  members,  the  Pre- 
siding Appellate  Court  Judge  and  the  Attorney 
General  gave  as  their  reasons  for  voting  against 
the  nominee  that  he  "was  without  judicial  experi- 
ence and  lacking  in  judicial  temperament " 
t  On  November  5,  Missouri  adopted  a  constitu- 
tional amendment  for  a  non-partisan  judiciary,  em- 
bodying most  features  of  the  California  system 
(24  Jnl.  Am.  Jud.  Soc.  118 ;  27  ABA.  Jnl  9). 
Maryland  adopted  one  for  "People's  Courts" ;  but 
West  Virginia  rejected  one  for  a  "reform  judici- 
ary" to  displace  Justices  of  the  Peace  and  con- 
stables with  summary  courts. 

Norway.  During  Dec.  12.  1940,  the  members 
of  the  Norwegian  Supreme  Court  resigned  in  pro- 
test against  the  autocratic  and  illegal  action  of  the 
Quisling  (Nazi)  government  in  arresting  one  of 
their  number  and  assuming  the  power  to  dismiss 
judges  and  other  officials  of  the  judicial  branch. 

Mexico.  President  Camacho,  shortly  after  his 


inauguration,  appointed  new  magtstrodos  of  the 
Tribunal  Supremo  and  they  chose  as  Presidente, 
thereof,  Salvador  Urbina,  a  former  member. 

Discipline.  Hulon  Capshaw,  New  York  City 
Magistrate,  appointed  originally  by  Mayor  Walker 
in  1929  (upon  the  recommendation,  it  is  said,  of 
such  prominent  citizens  as  Bishop  Manning,  John 
W.  Davis,  and  Frank  L.  Polk)  was  removed  on 
January  2/,  by  order  of  the  appellate  Division,  for 
misleading  testimony  in  the  Mines  Case  (1938  YEAR 
BOOK,  397).  Three  of  the  five  justices  found  him 
guilty  of  "bias  and  unjudicial  conduct  which  must 
have  been  influenced  by  considerations  outside  the 
record."  Two  days  earlier,  Philippine  President 
Quezon  had  removed  a  Justice  of  the  Peace  in 
Rizal  Province,  adjoining  Manila,  for  his  "pro- 
pensity to  utilize  his  position  to  wreak  vengeance 
upon  his  enemies."  Judge  Yang  Chi,  President, 
Second  Special  District  Court,  in  the  French  Con- 
cession, Shanghai,  was  suspended  from  office  for 
five  years  by  the  Central  Chinese  Government  for 
implication  in  an  opium  deal  for  which  a  relative 
and  court  official  had  been  sentenced  to  life  im- 
prisonment. 

Juries.  The  District  of  Columbia  District  Court 
announced  a  reduction  of  the  550  persons  periodi- 
cally summoned  there  for  jury  duty.  "Peremptory 
Challenges  of  Jurors"  (those  allowed  as  of  right 
and  not  for  cause)  are  discussed  in  14  St.  John's 
L.  Rev.  142  (R.  A.  Klein)  ;  "Directing  Verdict," 
12  Miss.  L.  Jnl.  350  (S.  Sanders)  ;  "Impeaching 
Verdict  by  Juror's  Affidavit,"  12  Rocky  Mt.  L. 
Rev.,  222;  "Involuntary  Non-Suit,"  16  Tenn.  L. 
Rev.  366;  "Verdicts  by  Lot,"  Vogt  v  Curtis,  200 
Wash.  692  (Comment,  15  Wash  L  Rev.  124.) 

The  question  whether  women  jurors  impair  the 
constitutional  rights  of  litigants,  was  considered  in 
"People  ex  rel.  Denny  v.  Traeger,"  372  111  11 
(Comment,  18  Chicago-Kent  L.  Rev.  103)  ;  effect 
of  witness'  refusal  to  swear  secrecy,  in  Goodman 
v.  US.  108  Fed  (2d)  516  (Comment,  ib.  309). 
Justice  McGeehan  (who  first  heard  the  Russell 
case)  refused  a  certificate  of  incorporation  of  the 
"Grand  Jurors  Association  of  the  Bronx,  N.Y., 
Inc.,"  numbering  35,  some  no  longer  active,  lest  it 
"might  tend  to  stifle  freedom  of  thought  and  ac- 
tion" in  their  deliberations 

The  Bar.  The  "Bar  Integration  movement" 
(1939  YEAR  BOOK,  422)  now  includes  half  of  the 
States  and  an  act  therefor  has  been  drafted  for 
the  Tennessee  Bar  Ass'n.  to  be  presented  to  the 
legislature  (26  A.B.A  Jnl.  653  &  references)  ; 
"Integration  by  Supreme  Court  Rule,"  24  Mar- 
quette  L.  Rev.  901  (R.  D.  Jones)  ;  "Some  Prob- 
lems Facing  Integration,"  19  Or.  L.  Rev.  1  (R.  R 
Bullivant) ;  "Is  it  Needed?"  14  Ind.  L.  Jnl  529  (H. 
M,  Dowling)  ;  "More  Effective  Bar  Organiza- 
tion," 15  ib.  297  (C.  A.  Beardsley). 

Admission.  "Judicial  Control  of,"  8  G.W.L. 
Rev.  1085,  (A.  R.  Poore)  ;  Lineberger  v.  State, 
174  Tenn.  538  (Comment,  16  Tenn.  L.  Rev.  239; 
cf.  Ib.  422,  W.  R.  Blackard).  Another  side  of  the 
question  is  disclosed  by  the  refusal  of  Judge  Thom- 
as Brown,  of  the  New  Jersey  Circuit  Court,  to 
permit  a  New  York  lawyer  to  appear  in  a  case 
before  him  on  June  3,  unless  the  lawyer  was  "a 
believer  in  God  "  The  judge  did  "not  believe  that 
any  witness  nor  any  .  .  .  applicant  for  public  of- 
fice, has  the  right  to  take  oaths,  unless  he  can 
swear  to  God."  Such  a  test  would  have  barred  Dr. 
Einstein,  who,  on  October  1  following,  was  ad- 
mitted to  citizenship  in  the  same  State  by  Federal 
Judge  Forman,  who  described  the  applicant  as  one 


COURTS 


"who  thinks  in  terms  of  all  the  universe"  and 
whose  "presence  here  becomes  America's  gain." 
But  the  problem  of  a  satisfactory  character  test 
still  baffles  the  bar  examiners.  Before  a  committee 
of  the  New  York  Bar  Association,  at  its  63d  an- 
nual meeting,  Dean  Wilkinson  of  the  Fordham 
Law  School,  advocated  character  examination  be- 
fore beginning  legal  study  and  strict  sponsorship 
during  the  course  thereof.  See  "The  Sponsor  Sys- 
tem under  Law  School  Auspices,"  25  A.B.A.  Jnl. 
849;  "Character  Examination  in  Pa."  ib.  873  (R. 
T.  McCracken). 

Conduct  and  Discipline.  The  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury's  right  to  exclude  a  retired  army  officer 
from  practicing  before  that  department  was  up- 
held in  Morgenthau  v.  Barrett,  108  Fed.  (2d) 
481  (cert,  denied  309  U.S.  672;  reviewed  8  G.W.L. 
Rev.  974).  In  28  Georgetown  L.  Jnl.  226,  W.  J. 
Deem  discusses  the  bill  to  prevent  discrimination 
between  law  schools  in  selecting  government  at- 
torneys; Max  Radin,  "Contingent  Fees  in  Cali- 
fornia/' 28  Col.  L.  Rev.  587 ;  J.  P.  Curry,  "Grounds 
for  Disbarment  and  Suspension  in  Kentucky,"  28 
Ky  L.  Jnl.  336.  Conviction  of  illegally  selling  an 
opiate  is  such  a  ground.  In  re  McNeese,  (Mo.) 
142  S.W.  (2d)  33;  also  claiming  the  privilege 
against  self-incrimination  Matter  of  Ellis  282 
N  Y.  435  (Comment,  53  Harv.  L.  Rev.  871) ;  and 
"shadowing"  jurors,  '7n  re  Doe,"  95  Fed.  (2d) 
386  (Comment,  15  Notre  Dame  Lawyer,  84).  "De- 
moralization of  the  Legal  Profession  in  the  19th 
Century,"  16  Tenn.  L  Rev.  314  (W.  R.  Blackard)  ; 
Professor  Rodell's  "Woe  Unto  You  Lawyers"  (re- 
viewed, 25  Cornell  L.  Quar.  581,  H.  D  Laube)  ; 
Esther  L.  Brown's  "Lawyers  and  the  Promotion 
of  Justice"  (reviewed,  26  Va  L.  Rev.  1077,  Mur- 
ray Seasongood,  who  published  a  separate  edition, 
supplying  omitted  passages).  (For  legal  societies, 
see  SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS.) 

Procedure.  "In  Civil  Law  Jurisdictions,"  2  La.  L.  Rev. 
401  (R.  L.  Henry);  "Louisiana  Counterparts  of  Discov- 
ery," tb.  525  (F.  5.  Craig,  Jr.);  "Streamlined  Procedure," 
8  U.  of  Kan  Cy  L.  Rev.  205 :  "A  Septenmum  of  Eng- 
lish Civil  Procedure,  1932-39,''  25  Wash  U  L  Quar., 
525  (R.  W  Millar),  "Some  Modern  Procedural  Develop- 
ments," 46  W  Va  L  Quar.  134  (W  W.  Dawson),  "Pro- 
cedural Aspects  of  the  New  State  Independence'  ("Erie 
R  Co  v.  Tompktns,"  304  US  64),  8  G  W.L.  Rev  1230 
(C  E.  Clark) ;  "A  Possible  Solution  of  the  Pleading  Prob- 
lem/' S3  Harv  L.  Rfv.  169  (S.  P  Simpson);  (111,  Pro- 
bate), 5  Jno  Marshall  L.  Quar.  389  (S  Love)  (Tenn.), 
"A  Badly  Needed  Reform '*16  Tenn  L  Rev  350  (L.  E 
Burch);  cf.  \b  379  (W.  P.  Armstrong) ,  (Tex  ),  18  Tex. 
L  Rev  1  (P.  P  Brown);  \b  426  (C  T.  McCormick), 
"Appellate  Procedure"  (Cal  ),  13  Col  L.  Rev  401  (R. 
G.  Berry)  (Ohio),  15  Notre  Dame  Lawyer,  162  (S  L. 
Devinc);  (Wis.),  1940  W%s  L.  Rev.  579  (M.  M  Volz). 
A  statute  authorizing  an  official  "to  sue  and  be  sued," 
subjects  him  to  garnishment  proceedings.  Fed  Housing 
Admin,  v.  Burr,  309  U.S.  242. 

Proof.  "The  Rules  of  Evidence— An  Empirical  Study 
in  Psychology  and  Law,"  25  Cornell  L.  Quar.  556  (S  H. 
Bntt);  "Scientific  Gadgets  in  the  Law  of  Evidence,"  53 
Harv.  L.  Rev.  285:  'fThe  Uniform  Evidence  Acts,"  6 
O.  St.  U.  L.  Jnl  256*  (J.  E  Hallen);  (in  Pa.jt  14  Temple 
U.  L.  Quar.  267  (and  physicians),  6  U.  of  Pittsburgh  L. 
?•*:  5?.  (J'«R-  McCreight);  "Science  Can  Get  the  Con- 
fewion,"  8  Fordham  L.  Rev.  334  (W.  G.  Summers). 

Tentative  Draft  No.  1,  comprising  four  chapters 
(304  Rules)  of  the  proposed  "Code  of  Evidence," 
submitted  to  the  American  Law  Institute  as  its 
first  item  of  new  business  at  its  18th  annual  meet- 
ing, evoked  a  preliminary  discussion  of  plan  and 
form.  Dean  Wigmore,  the  chief  consultant,  fa- 
vored specific  rejection  or  adoption  of  each  con- 
crete rule  in  the  various  jurisdictions.  Judge  Clark 
urged  broad  grants  of  power  with  details  left  to 
the  trial  judge's  discretion.  The  latter,  which  was 
the  plan  of  the  twelve  draftsmen,  was  adopted; 


169  CRETE  (KRETE) 

but  only  115  rules  were  considered,  all  of  Rule  4, 
except  par.  1,  was  deleted  and  Rule  115  was 
changed  slightly.  The  others  will  not  be  passed 
upon  until  the  1941  meeting. 

Admissibility.  Blood  Tests,  in  paternity  cases, 
are  discussed  in  15  Notre  Dome  Lawyer,  153  (R. 
F.  Sullivan) ;  44  Dickinson  L.  Rev.  205  (A.  M. 
Ash)  ;  State  ex  rel.  Slovak  V.  Halod,  63,  App. 
16;  State  v.  Wright,  (Comment,  59,  O.  App.  191 ; 
25  la.  L.  Rev.  823 ;  (Comment,  14  U.  of  Cincinnati 
L  Rev.  443;  6  0.  St.  U.  L.  Jnl.  200).  Such  tests 
were  ordered,  for  the  first  time  in  the  District  of 
Columbia  District  Court,  in  Beach  v.  Beach  (3 
Fed.  Rules  Service,  35  A.  5)  and  for  husband, 
wife,  and  child. 

Fingerprints  taken  by  the  FBI  aggregated  12,- 
086,951  by  Jan.  31, 1940  After  June  29  were  added 
not  only  those  taken  in  course  but  those  of  all 
aliens  who  registered  under  the  act  of  that  date. 

Hearsay.  "The  Role  of,  in  a  Rational  Scheme," 
34  ///.  L.  Rev.  788  (G.  F.  James) ;  "and  the  Eng- 
lish Evidence  Act,"  ib.  974;  "Business  Records" 
(statutory),  6  U.  of  Pittsburgh  L.  Rev.  9  (J.  A. 
Metz).  Dying  Declarations  were  received  as  res 
gcstae  in  Mitchell  v.  N.Y.L.  Ins.  Co.,  136  O.  St. 
55,  a  civil  case  (Comment,  14  U.  of  Cincinnati  L. 
Rev.  449). 

Lie  Detector  (Polygraph)  is  used  as  an  aid  to 
law  enforcing  agencies  in  seven  States  and  fifteen 
cities,  and  is  reported  as  reducing  the  time  for  in- 
vestigations and  in  relieving  innocents  of  suspicion. 
Its  admissibihty  is  discussed  in  15  Notre  Dame 
Lawyer,  159  (E.  F.  Grogan.  Jr.). 

Res  Ipsa  Loquitur,  14  Canadian  Bar  Rev.  480 
(G.  W.  Paton),  is  declared  to  "raise  merely  an 
inference  of  fact"  whose  weight  the  jury  should 
determine.  Rule  applied  in  Brown  v.  St.  Louis  Co. 
Gas  Co.,  (Mo.)  131  S.W.  (2d)  354  (Comment, 
8  U.  of  Kan.  Cy.  L.  Rev.  51). 

Self-Incrimination.  "The  Privilege  Against," 
49  Yale  L.  Jnl.  1059 ;  Rule  applied  to  truckdrivers' 
time  cards,  People  v.  Creedon,  281  N.Y.  413 
(Comment,  88  U.  of  Pa.  L.  Rev.  747)  ;  Failure  to 
call  witness,  Milio  v.  Motor  Trucking  Co.,  257 
App.  Div.  640  (N.Y.)  (Comment,  25  Cornell  L. 
Quar.  442). 

Survivorship.  "Evidence  of,  in  Common  Dis- 
aster Cases,"  38  Mich.  L.  Rev.  801  (J.  J.  Adams). 

Wire  Tapping  for  evidence  is  discussed  in  53 
Harv.  L.  Rev.  863 ;  28  Cal.  L.  Rev.  101 ;  34  ///.  L. 
Rev.  758;  28  Georgetown  L.  Jnl.  550;  14  Temple 
U.  L.  Quar.  287;  9  Brooklyn  L.  Rev.  214;  15  St. 
John's  L.  Rev.  179;  3  U.  of  Detroit  L.  Jnl.  85. 

See  JUVENILE  DELINQUENCY;  LAW;  MEDICINE 
AND  SURGERY  ;  NATIONAL  LABOR  RELATIONS  BOARD  ; 
SUPREME  COURT  ;  WAGE  AND  HOUR  ADMINISTRA- 
TION ;  WORLD  COURT.  For  decisions  in  State  courts, 
see  States  under  History  as  COLORADO, 

C.  SUMNER  LOBINGIER. 

CRANBROOK  FOUNDATION.  See  BENE- 
FACTIONS. 

CREDIT  CONDITIONS,  CREDIT  CON- 
TROL. See  AGRICULTURE  ;  BANKS  AND  BANKING. 

CREDIT  UNIONS.  See  CO-OPERATIVE  MOVE- 
MENT. 

CRETE  (KRETE).  A  Greek  island  com- 
prising the  four  departments  of  Canea,  Erakleion, 
Lasithion,  and  Rethymnon,  Area,  3235  square 
miles;  population  (Jan.  1,  1939),  386,427.  Capital, 
Canea  (Khania),  26,604  inhabitants. 

Crete  was  drawn  into  the  European  conflagra- 
tion by  the  Italian  attack  upon  Greece  at  the  end 


CRICKET 


170  WBA, 


of  October,  1940.  British  military,  naval,  and  air 
forces  were  immediately  rushed  to  Suda  Bay 
on  the  northwestern  coast  of  the  island.  They 
strengthened  Crete's  fortifications  and  converted 
it  into  a  base  for  offensive  air  and  naval  opera- 
tions. The  towns  of  the  island  were  subjected  to 
repeated  Italian  bombings.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR; 
GREECE  under  History. 

CRICKET.  In  the  jolly  game  of  cricket,  there 
were  several  notable  matches  here  in  America,  not 
to  mention  less  publicized  contests  in  England  it- 
self. There  was  an  absence  of  teams  from  abroad, 
but  an  international  flavor  was  provided  by  a  match 
during  July  between  British  Americans  and  British 
West  Indians,  in  which  the  former  rode  to  victory. 

The  British  Purchasing  Commission  put  a  team 
in  the  field  against  a  picked  aggregation  repre- 
senting the  New  York  and  Metropolitan  District 
Cricket  Association,  the  New  York  eleven  carry- 
ing off  the  honors. 

After  playing  a  series  of  games  in  Canada,  the 
Philadelphia  General  Electric  C.  C.  took  part  in 
the  annual  championship  of  the  New  York  and 
Metropolitan  District  Cricket  Association  and  fin- 
ished first.  The  Brooklyn  C.  C.  was  second. 

CHIME.  See  ANTHROPOLOGY  under  The  Crimi- 
nal; FEDERAL  BUREAU  OF  INVESTIGATION;  JUVE- 
NILE DELINQUENCY;  LAW;  PRISONS,  PAROLE,  AND 
CRIME  CONTROL;  PSYCHOLOGY  under  Social  Psy- 
chology; and  the  States  where  leading  cases  have 
occurred,  as  NEW  YORK  under  History. 

CROATS.  See  YUGOSLAVIA. 

CROPS.  See  AGRICULTURE  and  the  topics  there 
referred  to,  especially  the  major  crops;  also  the 
countries  under  Production. 

CROSS-COUNTRY  RUNNING.  Don  Lash, 
who  in  private  life  is  an  Indiana  State  policeman, 
captured  the  national  A.A.U.  cross-country  cham- 
pionship for  the  seventh  successive  year  in  1940, 
and  thereby  added  another  record  to  his  long  list. 
On  one  occasion  he  outpaced  Greg  Rice,  his  two- 
mile  nemesis,  over  a  200-yard  course  and  on  an- 
other he  set  a  record  for  the  10,000  meter  distance 
of  30:25.8,  leaving  a  number  of  noted  runners 
behind  him  on  the  track. 

Luigi  Beccali,  the  1932  Olympic  1500-meter 
champion,  who  was  a  member  of  the  New  York 
A.  C  in  1940,  Gene  Venzke,  Joe  McCluskey,  and 
Walter  Mehl  were  some  of  the  stars  who  felt  his 
dust  in  their  faces.  The  New  York  A.  C.  carried 
off  the  team  championship. 

Leslie  MacMitchell  of  N.  Y.  U.  was  the  out- 
standing collegiate  performer  of  the  year.  He  first 
won  the  metropolitan  intercollegiate  title  and  then 
the  intercollegiate  A.A.A.A.  crown,  both  of  them 
in  record  time.  MacMitchell  to  date  has  never 
known  the  sour  taste  of  defeat  in  cross-country 
competitions. 

Rhode  Island  State  College  won  the  team  com- 
petition in  the  I.  C.  4-A,  with  Michigan  State  and 
Manhattan  following  in  that  order.  Nevertheless, 
hi  the  National  Collegiate  A.  A.  meet  at  East 
Lansing  a  week  later,  the  New  Englanders  could 
do  no  better  than  third,  yielding  to  Indiana  and 
Michigan  Normal.  Gilbert  Dodds  of  Ashland  Col- 
lege was  the  individual  victor,  MacMitchell  re- 
fraining from  that  competition. 

John  Ayer  of  Cornell  and  his  team  captured  the 
Heptagonal  honors,  Wayne  Tolliver  and  Indiana 
the  Western  Conference  championship. 

CUBA.  An  island  republic  of  the  West  Indies. 
Capital,  Havana  (Habana). 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  44,164  square 


miles;  estimated  population  on  Jan,  1, 1939,  4,227,- 
597  (about  60  per  cent  white,  40  per  cent  Negro). 
United  States  citizens  living  in  Cuba  on  Jan.  1, 

1940,  numbered  5121.  Estimated  populations  of  the 
chief  cities  in  1938  were :  Havana,  568,913 ;  Hoi- 
guin,  140,854;  Camaguey,  139,295;  Santiago  de 
Cuba,  107,125;  Santa  Clara,  99,509;  Cienfuegos, 
92,258;  Matanzas,  72,826;  Guantanamo,  68,372; 
Manzanillo,  65,965. 

Defense.  The  active  army  on  Nov.  1, 1940,  num- 
bered 14,262  officers  and  men ;  trained  reserves,  29,- 
389.  The  air  force  comprised  266  men  with  about 
16  planes.  The  navy  consisted  of  2  escort  vessels, 
5  gunboats,  an  armed  transport,  and  various  small 
coastguard  vessels,  staffed  with  2530  men  and  130 
officers. 

Education  and  Religion.  About  39  per  cent 
of  the  adult  population  was  illiterate  at  the  1931 
census.  Statistics  for  1938-39  showed  424,094  pu- 
pils in  8786  public  classrooms,  31,023  pupils  in  360 
private  schools,  3089  pupils  in  145  communities 
taught  by  travelling  teachers,  8972  pupils  in  138 
night  schools  for  workers,  21  high  schools,  8  nor- 
mal schools.  The  University  of  Havana  has  about 
6000  students.  Roman  Catholicism  is  the  dominant 
religion  but  there  is  no  state  church. 

Production.  Agriculture  is  the  main  occupa- 
tion and  sugar  and  tobacco  are  the  chief  crops. 
Raw  and  refined  sugar  accounted  for  71.7  per  cent 
of  the  value  of  all  exports  in  1939.  Sugar  produc- 
tion in  1939  amounted  to  2,720,127  long  tons  (of 
2240  Spanish  Ib.)  as  against  2,975,683  tons  in  1938. 
The  value  of  the  crop  was  91,885,890  Cuban  pesos 
(96,650,090  in  1938).  The  sugar  production  quota 
for  1940  fixed  in  the  decree  of  Jan.  13,  1940,  was 
set  at  2,753,903  Spanish  long  tons.  The  1940  to- 
bacco crop  was  55,426,000  Ib.,  the  largest  since 
1931.  Corn,  cacao,  rice,  fruits,  and  vegetables  are 
other  crops.  Livestock  in  1938  included  5,074,108 
cattle,  587,463  horses,  and  83,989  mules.  Mineral 
production  in  1939  was  valued  at  about  $10,025,000, 
the  chief  items  being :  Manganese  ore,  100,797  long 
tons,  $2,497,737 ;  sea  salt,  125,000  short  tons,  $2,224,- 
000 ;  copper  concentrates,  36,629  short  tons,  $1,306,- 
686.  Iron  ore,  chrome  ore,  barite,  petroleum, 
gypsum,  and  gold  are  mined  in  small  quantities. 
Tourists  entering  Cuba  in  1939  numbered  135,635 
(158,013  in  1938).  Manufacturing  is  expanding, 
the  chief  products  being  vegetable  oils,  meat  prod- 
ucts, clothing,  footwear,  furniture,  textiles,  etc. 
The  1939  unemployment  census  showed  384,614 
jobless  (338,447  men  and  46,167  women). 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1939  were  valued 
at  105,862,000  pesos  (106,007,000  in  1938)  and  ex- 
ports at  147,676,000  pesos  (142,678,000  in  1938). 
The  chief  1939  exports  were:  Raw  sugar,  84,216,- 
000  pesos;  refined  sugar,  21,633,000  pesos;  leaf 
tobacco,  11,058,000  pesos;  molasses,  8,893,000  pe- 
sos; minerals,  4,621,000  pesos.  The  United  States 
supplied  74.1  per  cent  of  the  1939  imports  (70.9 
per  cent  in  1938)  and  took  75.3  per  cent  of  the  ex- 
ports (76.0  in  1938).  See  TRADE,  FOREIGN,  for  1940 
trade  with  the  United  States. 

Finance.  Budgetary  revenues  collected  during 
1940  totaled  75,670,000  pesos  (71.229,000  in  1939) 
and  expenditures  were  79,238,000  pesos  (76,000,- 
000  in  1939).  By  a  decree  of  Dec.  31,  1940,  the 
1940  budget  was  extended  into  the  first  quarter  of 

1941.  The  public  debt  on  Jan.  31,  1940,  totaled 
$135,905,000,  excluding  the  floating  debt  variously 
estimated  at  50,000,000  to  80,000,000  pesos.  The 
funded  debt  on  Feb.  28,  1939,  was  $141,278,000. 
The  Cuban  peso,  equivalent  to  $1  (U.S.  currency) 


CUBA 


171 


CUBA 


at  par.  had  an  average  exchange  value  of  $0.98  in 

1938,  $0.93  in  1939. 

Transportation.  Cuba  in  1938  had  3130  miles 
of  common  carrier  railway  lines  and  5781  miles  of 
industrial  (chiefly  sugar  plantation)  lines.  The  23 
common  carrier  railways  reported  a  combined  defi- 
cit of  5,685,078  pesos  in  1937-48.  Highway  mileage 
in  1939  was  2214  (see  ROADS  AND  STREETS).  Air 
traffic  statistics  on  international  lines  serving  Cuba 
were,  for  1939:  Passengers,  43,082;  mail,  105,913; 
express,  75,785  Ib.  The  merchant  marine  consisted 
of  39  steamers  of  29,947  gross  tonnage  in  July, 
1939. 

Government.  Cuba  at  the  beginning  of  1940 
was  governed  under  the  Constitution  of  June  12, 
1935  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1935,  p.  189).  A  Constitu- 
ent Assembly  was  elected  Nov.  15,  1939,  to  draw 
up  a  new  Constitution ;  it  completed  its  work  June 
8,  1940  (see  below).  President  at  the  beginning  of 
1940,  Dr.  Federico  Laredo  Bru.  Formerly  Vice- 
President,  he  was  sworn  in  as  President  Dec.  24, 
1936,  following  the  impeachment  of  President 
Miguel  Mariano  G6mez.  The  dominant  political 
power  was  Col.  Fulgencio  Batista,  who  became 
Chief  of  Staff  of  the  army  as  a  result  of  the  so- 
called  "sergeants'  revolt"  of  1933. 

HISTORY 

Political  Developments.  The  promulgation  on 
Oct.  10,  1940,  of  a  new  Constitution  drawn  up  by 
a  freely  elected  Constituent  Assembly,  and  the 
election  to  the  Presidency  on  July  14  of  Col.  Ful- 
gencio Batista,  the  island's  "strong  man"  who  re- 
signed as  army  Chief  of  Staff  to  enter  the  cam- 
paign, brought  a  considerable  degree  of  order  out 
of  the  political  confusion  that  had  prevailed  since 
the  overthrow  of  the  Machado  regime  on  Aug.  12, 
1933. 

The  New  Constitution.  The  controversies  over 
the  date  of  the  general  election  and  the  powers 
of  the  Constituent  Assembly  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 

1939,  p.  176)  were  settled  by  a  compromise  agree- 
ment negotiated  Feb.  5,  1940,  by  President  Laredo 
Bru  between  the  parties  supporting  Colonel  Batista 
and  the  opposition  coalition.  It  was  decided  to  post- 
pone the  general  election  until  May  18,  to  elect  a 
complete  new  Congress,  but  to  permit  half  the 
existing  members  of  Congress  to  complete  their 
terms. 

This  accord  permitted  the  convening  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  on  February  9.  On  February  14 
the  opposition  leaders,  Dr.  Ram6n  Grau  San  Mar- 
tin, chief  of  the  Cuban  Revolutionary  party,  and 
Dr.  Joaquin  Martinez  S&enz,  head  of  the  ABC 
party,  were  elected  president  and  vice-president, 
respectively,  of  the  constitutional  convention.  On 
May  3  the  Constituent  Assembly  extended  its  de- 
liberations for  three  months  beyond  the  time  limit 
originally  fixed.  Agreement  on  the  basic  points  of 
the  new  Constitution  had  been  reached  on  Febru- 
ary 22,  but  it  was  not  until  June  8  that  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  approved  the  last  of  the  318 
articles  of  the  organic  law.  The  delegates  signed 
the  organic  law  on  July  1  at  a  ceremony  in  the 
town  of  Guaimaro,  Camaguey  Province,  where  the 
island's  first  Constitution  was  signed  on  Apr.  10, 
1869.  It  went  into  effect  on  October  10. 

The  Constitution  provided  for  a  President  elected 
for  four  years ;  a  Senate  of  54  members  (9  from 
each  province)  elected  for  six  years,  with  one- 
third  replaced  every  two  years;  and  a  House  of 
Representatives  containing  1  member  for  each  35,- 
000  inhabitants  (about  120),  one-half  the  members 


being  elected  every  two  years  for  four-year  terms. 
The  President  as  well  as  members  of  Congress  and 
provincial  and  municipal  officials  are  elected  by 
direct  popular  male  and  female  suffrage,  which 
was  made  compulsory.  Colonel  Batista  was  spe- 
cifically exempted  from  a  clause  barring  the  Pres- 
idential candidacy  of  anyone  connected  with  the 
armed  forces  within  one  year  of  an  election. 

In  many  respects  the  Constitution  resembled  pre- 
ceding Cuban  fundamental  laws.  An  important  in- 
novation was  the  establishment  of  a  semi-parlia- 
mentary form  of  government,  under  which  the 
President  appoints  a  Premier  who  retains  office 
only  so  long  as  he  receives  the  support  of  a  ma- 
jority of  the  House  of  Representatives.  Other  pro- 
visions provided  for  an  independent  judiciary ;  the 
fair  administration  of  justice;  and  restriction  of 
political  patronage  through  civil  service  rules  pre- 
venting purges  of  public  employees  on  political 
grounds. 

The  Constitution  contained  a  complete  code  of 
social  welfare  and  labor  laws,  establishing  a  44- 
hour  work  week,  a  month's  paid  vacation  for  each 
employee  annually,  and  a  system  of  old  age,  un- 
employment and  accident  insurance.  It  barred  all 
except  naturalized  Cubans  from  the  practice  of  the 
professions,  prohibited  immigration  of  common  la- 
borers, established  equal  wages  for  men  and  wom- 
en doing  the  same  work,  and  empowered  the  gov- 
ernment to  fix  minimum  wages,  settle  labor  disputes, 
and  intervene  in  all  questions  affecting  labor.  The 
amount  of  land  owned  by  individuals  and  corpora- 
tions was  restricted,  capital  punishment  was  abol- 
ished, and  the  mortgage  moratorium  in  effect  since 
1934  was  "liquidated"  by  a  transitory  provision 
cancelling  accrued  interest  and  allowing  debtors  to 
pay  off  their  mortgages  in  10  to  30  years  at  annual 
interest  rates  of  from  1  to  3%  per  cent. 

Certain  provisions  of  the  Constitution  aroused 
strong  protests  from  Cuban  business  circles.  They 
declared  the  additional  costs  imposed  by  the  social 
welfare  and  labor  code  would  force  many  busi- 
nesses to  close.  The  liquidation  of  the  mortgage 
moratorium  was  challenged  in  the  courts.  A  wave 
of  unauthorized  strikes  to  force  employers  to  ac- 
cept the  labor  provisions  of  the  Constitution  oc- 
curred during  the  last  weeks  of  the  year. 

The  Elections.  At  the  beginning  of  1940  Colo- 
nel Batista's  chances  of  victory  appeared  none  too 
bright.  He  was  supported  by  the  so-called  Social- 
ist-Democratic coalition  of  Liberals,  Nationalists, 
Communists,  National  Democrats,  and  National 
Realists.  But  they  had  been  defeated  by  the  oppo- 
sition parties  in  the  Constituent  Assembly  elections 
on  Nov.  15,  1939.  And  early  in  1939  the  opposi- 
tion bloc  united  behind  the  popular  ex-President, 
Grau  San  Martin,  as  Batista's  opponent. 

The  wily  army  leader  reversed  the  political  sit- 
uation and  insured  his  election  by  making  a  politi- 
cal deal  on  March  18  with  ex-President  Mario  G. 
Menocal,  chief  of  the  opposition  Democratic  Re- 
publican party.  In  return  for  Batista's  pledge  that 
Menocalistas  would  be  nominated  on  the  Socialist- 
Democratic  ticket  for  Vice-President,  mayor  of 
Havana,  three  of  the  six  provincial  governorships, 
and  12  seats  in  the  Senate,  Menocal  deserted  Grau 
San  Martin's  coalition  and  threw  in  his  lot  with 
the  Batista  bloc.  As  the  Democratic  Republicans 
held  the  balance  of  power  in  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly, this  gave  Batista's  supporters  control  of 
that  body  also.  On  May  22  they  elected  Dr.  Carlos 
Marquez  Sterling  and  Dr.  Simeon  Ferro,  both 
Batista  adherents,  to  succeed  Grau  San  Martin  and 


CUBA 


172 


CUBA 


Martinez  S&eaz  as  president  and  vice-president  of 
the  Constituent  Assembly. 

In  order  to  keep  his  own  party  and  other  sup- 
porters in  line  during  the  complicated  maneuver- 
ing for  nominations  and  positions  that  preceded 
the  election,  Dr.  Grau  San  Martin  temporarily 
withdrew  as  the  opposition  candidate  for  the  Pres- 
idency on  April  25,  but  re-entered  the  contest  five 
days  later.  During  the  campaign,  fought  largely  on 
personalities.  Dr.  Grau  San  Martin's  supporters 
charged  Batista  with  using  the  army  to  intimidate 
their  voters.  They  demanded  the  suspension  of  the 
elections  in  Camagiiey  and  Matanzas  Provinces  and 
in  parts  of  Havana  and  Pinar  del  Rio.  However 
the  Supreme  Electoral  Tribunal  suspended  voting 
only  in  three  or  four  small  areas.  Election  day 
disorders  were  relatively  minor,  with  about  six 
persons  killed  and  40  wounded.  Batista  defeated 
Grau  San  Martin  by  a  majority  of  more  than  200,- 
000  votes,  and  most  of  the  government  candidates 
won  by  a  similar  margin.  Besides  the  President  and 
Vice-President,  members  of  the  new  Congress  and 
municipal  and  provincial  officials  were  chosen  on 
July  14. 

The  Batista  Regime.  Despite  opposition  ef- 
forts to  interpose  legal  obstacles,  Batista  was  sworn 
in  as  President  on  October  10.  His  cabinet,  an- 
nounced October  8,  was  headed  by  Sen.  Carlos 
Saladrigas,  a  follower  of  ex-President  Menocal,  as 
Premier.  The  18  ministers  were  drawn  from  five 
of  the  seven  parties  forming  the  government  coali- 
tion, the  Communists  and  the  small  Popular  party 
alone  failing  to  gain  representation. 

The  newly  elected  Congress  was  scheduled  to 
convene  in  September,  but  the  opposition  bloc  filed 
petitions  with  the  Superior  Electoral  Tribunal  seek- 
ing  annulment  of  the  elections  in  various  provinces 
and  in  more  than  40  municipalities  Consequently  it 
was  November  21  before  both  houses  were  finally 
seated  and  organized.  On  that  date  the  government 
bloc  controlling  both  houses  elected  Sen.  Antonio 
Mendieta  Benin  (Nationalist)  as  President  of  the 
Senate  and  Dr.  Gustavo  Gutierrez  Sanchez  (Lib- 
eral) as  President  of  the  House. 

The  major  problems  facing  President  Batista 
and  the  new  Congress  were  the  adaptation  of  the 
country  to  the  semi-parliamentary  system  estab- 
lished by  the  new  Constitution ;  the  adverse  effects 
of  the  European  War  upon  Cuban  economy ,  the  re- 
appearance of  political  terrorism,  especially  among 
students  at  the  University  of  Havana ;  and  Cuba's 
relations  with  the  United  States  and  the  other 
American  republics  in  the  face  of  a  growing  threat 
from  the  European  dictatorships. 

The  spread  of  the  European  conflict  eliminated 
markets  that  normally  absorbed  25  to  30  per  cent 
of  Cuba's  exports.  Norwegian  and  Danish  ships 
handled  a  considerable  part  of  the  island's  over. 
seas  trade,  and  the  dislocation  of  their  merchant 
marine  operations  by  the  war  added  to  Cuba's  eco- 
nomic difficulties  By  July  the  price  of  sugar  had 
fallen  to  about  the  1934  level.  Together  with  simi- 
lar reductions  in  tobacco  prices,  this  dealt  a  severe 
blow  to  Cuban  purchasing  power  and  increased  un- 
rest 

On  September  14  the  outgoing  Congress  author- 
ized the  negotiation  from  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment of  a  loan  or  credit  not  exceeding  $50,000,- 
000  to  tide  the  country  over  the  economic  emer- 
gency. A  commission  was  sent  to  Washington  early 
in  October  to  negotiate  the  loan,  apparently  with- 
out first  consulting  the  State  Department.  It  met 
with  no  success  up  to  the  end  of  the  year  and  most 


of  the  members  of  the  mission  returned  to  Cuba. 
Meanwhile,  to  strengthen  Cuba's  credit,  Congress 
on  September  16  passed  legislation  authorizing  pay- 
ment of  the  defaulted  $20,000,000  public  works 
loan  of  1931.  The  unused  balance  of  $9,883,500 
from  the  $85,000,000  bond  issue  authorized  in  1938 
was  allocated  for  this  purpose,  together  with  a  new 
$9,000,000  4%-per  cent  loan. 

On  March  1  an  attempt  was  made  in  Havana  to 
assassinate  Dr.  Orestes  Ferrara,  former  Ambassa- 
dor to  the  United  States.  Prof.  Ramiro  Vald6s 
Daussa  of  Havana  University  was  murdered  by  a 
hostile  student  faction  on  August  15.  Three  stu- 
dents were  killed  and  nine  wounded  in  a  shooting 
fray  in  Havana  on  September  30.  The  political 
assassination  of  Prof.  Raul  Fernandez  Fiallo  short- 
ly afterward  led  the  university  council  to  close 
Havana  University  until  Jan.  7,  1941.  A  series  of 
student  strikes  in  high  schools  throughout  Cuba 
were  interpreted  as  other  indications  of  popular 
unrest 

President  Batista  also  aroused  opposition  among 
some  of  his  former  army  associates  by  carrying 
out  his  campaign  pledge  to  eliminate  military  in- 
fluence from  his  administration. 

Foreign  Relations.  Despite  the  anti-American 
agitation  carried  on  by  Communists,  Nazis,  and 
pro-Franco  elements,  the  economic  and  political 
repercussions  of  the  European  War  drove  Cuba 
into  closer  relations  with  the  United  States.  Dur- 
ing the  Presidential  campaign  both  Colonel  Batista 
(January  6)  and  Dr.  Grau  San  Martin  (May  7) 
advocated  close  co-operation  with  Washington  as 
necessary  to  Cuba's  prosperity  and  stability.  On 
May  23  Batista  stated  that  while  Cuba  hoped  to 
maintain  her  neutrality,  "the  United  States  can 
count  on  us  as  a  factor  in  its  plans  for  the  defense 
of  the  Caribbean  "  On  September  3  Dr.  Grau  San 
Martin  asserted  that  Cuba  would  side  with  the 
United  States  if  the  latter  became  involved  in  the 
war.  During  September  the  United  States  sent 
2900  marines  to  reinforce  the  garrison  of  the 
Guantanamp  Bay  naval  base 

Communist,  Nazi,  and  Falangist  propaganda,  di- 
rected mainly  against  the  United  States,  grew 
more  intense,  particularly  before  the  conference 
of  American  Foreign  Ministers  in  Havana  in  July. 
With  Batista  seeking  electoral  support  from  both 
Communists  and  pro-Fascists,  only  half-hearted 
efforts  were  made  to  curb  this  agitation.  More- 
over on  July  24  the  government  legalized  the  Cu- 
ban branch  of  the  Falange  Espanol,  or  Spanish 
Fascist  movement,  which  was  dissolved  for  "anti- 
Cuban  activities"  on  Apr.  25,  1939.  The  Falangists 
gained  ground  rapidly  among  anti-Communist  Span- 
iards in  Cuba  and  among  many  Cubans. 

There  was  a  strong  reaction  against  both  Com- 
munists and  Falangists  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  year.  A  small  pro-Nazi  party  was  banned  by 
the  Governor  of  Havana  Province.  Congress  took 
steps  to  control  the  Communist-dominated  Cuban 
Confederation  of  Labor.  Criticism  of  the  role  of 
the  Falange  Espaftol  in  Cuba 'reached  storm  pro- 
portions after  Genaro  Riestra,  newly-appointed 
Spanish  Consul  General,  arrived  in  Havana  No- 
vember 13.  The  anti-government  bloc  in  Congress 
vigorously  attacked  the  government  for  its  tolera- 
tion of  "fifth  columnists."  The  theft  of  documents 
from  the  office  of  Maj.  H.  D.  Boyden,  U.S.  naval 
attache"  at  Havana,  on  November  30  furthered  this 
agitation.  On  December  19  the  Senate  approved  a 
motion  urging  the  government  to  declare  persona 
non  grata  foreign  diplomats  and  consular  officials 


CURACAO 


173 


CUSTOMS 


who  used  their  immunity  to  spread  anti-democratic 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY;  PAN  AMERICAN- 
ISM; PAN  AMERICAN  UNION. 

CURACAO.  A  Netherlands  West  Indian  col- 
ony consisting  of  two  groups  of  islands  (1) 
Aruba,  Bonaire,  Curacao,  just  north  of  Venezuela 
(2)  Saba,  St.  Eustatius,  St.  Martin  (southern 
part  only),  just  west  of  the  Virgin  Islands.  Total 
area.  403  square  miles;  population  (Jan.  1,  1939), 
101,021.  Capital,  Willemstad  (on  Curacao),  30,- 
453  inhabitants. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  chief  products  are 
maize,  phosphate  of  lime,  and  cattle.  Oil  refining 
is  the  most  important  industry.  Trade  (1938): 
Imports,  391,130,326  guilders;  exports,  340,545,- 
295  guilders.  Air  services  of  the  Roval  Air  Traffic 
Company  of  the  Netherlands  make  connections 
with  Pan  American  Airways  to  the  United  States 
and  South  America. 

Government.  Budget  (1938)  :  Revenue,  10,- 
753,000  guilders;  expenditure,  9,839,000  guilders 
(guilder  averaged  $0.5501  for  1938).  The  colony 
is  administered  by  a  governor  who  is  aided  by  a 
council  of  4  members.  There  is  a  States  council 
consisting  of  15  members  (10  elected  by  the  voters 
and  5  nominated  by  the  governor)  Governor,  G. 
J.  J.  Wouters  (appointed  Apr.  7,  1936) 

History.  On  May  10,  1940,  the  Governor  of 
Curasao  proclaimed  martial  law  and  the  existence 
of  a  state  of  war  with  Germany  immediately  fol- 
lowing the  German  invasion  of  the  Netherlands. 
All  Germans  residing  on  the  islands  and  the  crews 
of  German  ships  in  the  harbors  (about  400  in  all) 
were  rounded  up  and  interned  on  Bonaire  Island. 
Efforts  of  the  German  crews  to  scuttle  or  burn 
their  ships  were  in  most  cases  prevented.  Six  ves- 
sels were  seized  in  the  port  of  Willemstad. 

On  May  11  British  and  French  troops  were 
landed  on  Curacao  and  Aruba  to  aid  the  Dutch 
authorities  in  preventing  "possible  German  at- 
tempts at  sabotage  in  the  important  oil  refineries 
of  these  islands  "  This  action  was  said  in  a  British 
Foreign  Office  announcement  to  have  been  earned 
out  at  the  request  of  the  Netherland  Government. 
It  was  emphasized  that  the  British  and  French 
governments  planned  to  withdraw  their  troops  as 
soon  as  the  Netherland  Government  decided  they 
were  no  longer  needed  and  that  consequently  no 
question  of  infringement  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
was  involved.  Over  one-third  of  all  Great  Britain's 
oil  imports  came  from  Venezuela  and  the  refin- 
eries of  Aruba  and  Curacao.  The  U.S.  State  De- 
partment indicated  on  May  11  that  it  did  not  con- 
sider the  Allied  landings  a  violation  of  the  Monroe 
Doctrine. 

See  NETHERLANDS,  THE,  under  History ;  EURO- 
PEAN WAR  ;  GREECE  under  History. 

CURLING.  The  ancient  Scottish  game  of  curl- 
ing, transplanted  in  American  soil,  flourished  with 
vigor  throughout  1940.  The  Gordon  International 
Medal,  much-coveted  prize,  returned  to  Canada  for 
the  first  time  in  two  years  when  the  combined  rinks 
of  the  Dominion  branch  of  the  Royal  Caledonia 
Curling  Club  took  the  first  honors  in  Montreal. 

Sixteen  rinks  from  Canada  and  16  from  the 
United  States  entered  the  competition  for  a  score 
of  215-177,  with  the  Canadians  in  the  ascendant. 
The  Canadians  were  paced  by  Len  Cushing  of 
Royal  Montreal.  He  also  headed  the  team  that 
wrested  the  Munson  Shield  from  Utica,  N.Y., 
where  it  had  been  reposing  since  1932. 

A  Canadian-United  States  invitation  bonspiel  for 


the  Douglas  Medal  was  held  at  the  St.  Andrew's 
Golf  Club,  Mount  Hope,  N.Y.,  and  in  the  final  of 
this  event  the  Schenectady  Curling  Club's  A  rink, 
led  by  T.  H.  Lydgate,  beat  the  St  Andrew's  B 
team,  15-12. 

Saranac  Lake  captured  the  Patterson  Medal, 
while  the  Utica  Curling  Club's  No.  2  rink  and  the 
Lake  Mahopac,  N.Y.,  club  shared  honors  in  the 
grand  national  bonspiel  at  Utica. 

CURRENCIES,  Value  of  Foreign.  See  IN- 
TERNATIONAL  BANKING  AND  FINANCE  under  For- 
eign Exchange ;  also  the  individual  countries  under 
Finance. 

CUSTOMS,  Bureau  of.  The  Customs  Serv- 
ice, at  the  end  of  the  calendar  year  1940,  finds  it- 
self an  organization  comprising  9016  personnel,  of 
which  8805  are  distributed  throughout  46  customs 
collection  districts  of  the  United  States  (including 
one  in  Alaska,  one  in  Hawaii,  and  one  in  Puerto 
Rico),  in  the  Virgin  Islands,  and  in  foreign  coun- 
tries. Control  of  the  Service  is  centralized  in  the 
Commissioner  of  Customs  at  Washington,  D.C., 
who,  with  the  assistance  of  the  personnel  of  the 
Washington  office,  numbering  211,  issues  instruc- 
tion and  co-ordinates  the  activities  of  the  wide- 
spread field.  Charged  primarily  with  the  collection 
and  protection  of  the  revenue  from  imports,  the 
Customs  Service  has  been  assigned  numerous  other 
responsibilities,  such  as  enforcement  of  laws  re- 
lating to  vessels  and  navigation,  regulation  of  traf- 
fic between  the  United  States  and  foreign  coun- 
tries, supervision  over  and  restriction  of  imports 
and  exports,  and  enforcement  of  laws  and  regula- 
tions of  certain  other  agencies  in  relation  to  arti- 
cles in  international  traffic. 

Customs  Collections.  After  two  successive 
years  of  declining  revenues,  customs  collections  in 
1940  turned  sharply  upward.  The  total  of  $350,- 
851,561  was  9.2  per  cent  larger  than  in  1939  and 
only  2.5  per  cent  less  than  in  1938  The  general 
increase  in  customs  collections  in  1940  is  attribu- 
table entirely  to  four  dutiable  schedules  of  the 
tariff  act :  sugar,  wool,  metals,  and  beverages.  The 
remaining  11  schedules  yielded  smaller  revenues 
than  during  1939.  Collections  on  sugar  and  its  prod- 
ucts were  50  per  cent  larger  than  in  1939 ;  on  wool 
66  per  cent  larger ;  on  metals  and  manufactures  of 
metal,  17  per  cent;  and  on  beverages,  12  per  cent. 

As  might  be  expected,  imports  from  Europe  fell 
off  considerably  as  a  result  of  the  war  but  the 
decline  was  not  apparent  in  the  earlier  months  of 
the  year  when  huge  stocks  of  European  merchan- 
dise were  being  accumulated.  Duties  collected  on 
imports  from  Belgium,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Yu- 
goslavia exceeded  the  amount  collected  in  1939 
though  exports  from  those  countries  to  the  United 
States  were  greatly  reduced  toward  the  end  of  the 
year.  Particularly  large  decreases  occurred  in  rev- 
enue on  merchandise  from  Germany,  Czecho-Slo- 
vakia,  and  Poland,  while  smaller  declines  were  re- 
corded in  duties  on  imports  from  Italy,  Greece, 
The  Netherlands,  Hungary,  Bulgaria,  and  Den- 
mark. 

Although  revenues  from  European  imports  de- 
clined, larger  revenues  were  derived  from  imports 
from  other  regions  By  far  the  largest  increase  in 
customs  revenue  during  1940  came  from  the  prod- 
ucts of  Cuba  and  was  due  to  the  suspension  of  the 
quota  and  the  consequent  increase  in  the  rates  of 
duty  on  Cuban  sugar.  Greatly  increased  revenue 
was  received  also  from  imports  from  the  Union 
of  South  Africa,  The  Netherlands  East  Indies, 
Uruguay,  and  Chile.  Heavy  receipts  of  wool  from 


CUSTOMS 


174 


CUSTOMS 


Uruguay  and  the  Union  of  South  Africa  accounted 
for  the  increased  revenues  on  imports  from  those 
regions  and  a  large  increase  in  direct  importations 
from  The  Netherlands  East  Indies  offset  decreased 
importations  from  the  mother  country. 

The  value  of  dutiable  imports  entered  for  con- 
sumption and  withdrawn  from  warehouse  for  con- 
sumption during  the  year  was  $919,709,163,  12  per 
cent  larger  than  during  the  preceding  year,  the 
rate  of  increase  being  slightly  greater  than  for 
customs  receipts.  The  value  of  imports  entered 
free  of  duty  showed  an  even  larger  percentage  of 
increase,  21.5  per  cent,  and  consequently  their  pro- 
portion of  the  total  value  of  imports  entered  for 
consumption  in  1940,  62  per  cent,  was  greater  than 
in  the  previous  year,  60  per  cent.  The  estimated 
duties  collected  for  the  fiscal  year  1940  totaled 
$340,005,668,  as  compared  with  $312,095,152  for 
1939.  The  largest  amounts,  by  countries,  were  col- 
lected as  follows :  on  imports  from  Cuba,  $60,589,- 
808 ;  United  Kingdom,  $44,020,551 ;  Argentina,  $21,- 
340,331 :  Canada,  $20,284,082 ;  France,  $19,124,320 ; 
Japan,  $17,896,589.  For  statistics  on  imports  (in- 
cluding duty-free  articles)  from  the  principal  coun- 
tries* see  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Volume  of  Business.  Despite  the  increase  of 
customs  receipts,  less  entries  were  filed  for  im- 
ported merchandise  in  1940  than  during  the  previ- 
ous year.  Only  warehouse  and  rewarehouse  entries 
were  more  numerous  in  1940.  The  total  number  of 
entries  of  all  kinds  filed  in  1940  was  2,681,500,  a 
decline  of  386,298  from  the  1939  total.  Warehouse 
and  rewarehouse  entries  in  1940  numbered  68,469, 
an  increase  of  4351  over  the  total  of  the  previous 
year.  While,  ordinarily,  customs  collections  will 
closely  parallel  fluctuations  in  the  volume  of  en- 
tries filed,  the  unusual  feature  that  imports  of 
sugar  and  wool  rose  out  of  proportion  to  the  mer- 
chandise in  other  tariff  schedules  made  possible 
an  increase  of  revenue  out  of  fewer  entries.  Sugar 
and  wool  were  entered  in  large  lots,  comparatively 
few  entries  being  required,  but  the  revenue  per 
entry  was  much  greater  than  for  most  other  goods. 

A  sharp  reduction  in  the  number  of  baggage 
entries  resulted  from  reduced  tourist  travel.  Mail 
entries  in  1940  showed  even  a  sharper  decline  due 
to  the  difficulty  of  communication  with  many  Eu- 
ropean countries.  Appraisement  entries  which  were 
numerous  in  1939  as  the  result  of  the  receipt  of  a 
large  quantity  of  personal  effects  of  European 
refugees  returned  to  their  normal  number. 

The  expansion  of  exports  brought  about  an  in- 
crease of  4378  drawback  notices  of  intent  over  the 
number  filed  in  1939.  The  number  of  drawback 
entries  was  only  slightly  smaller  than  in  1939, 
while,  as  the  result  of  the  expansion  of  exports, 
and  pursuant  to  notices  of  intent  filed  in  1940  and 
previously,  the  amount  of  drawback  paid  increased 
by  $2,699,315  to  $14,041,580.  About  98  per  cent  of 
the  drawback  allowed  consisted  of  drawback  on 
exported  merchandise  manufactured  from  imported 
materials,  the  most  important  of  which  were  sugar, 
flaxseed,  and  copper. 

Customs  officers  were  called  upon  during  the  fis- 
cal year  to  examine  baggage  and  other  belongings 
of  43,552^27  persons  arriving  in  the  United  States 
from  vessels,  vehicles,  and  aircraft,  and  on  foot. 
This  entailed  the  examination  of  11,508,907  auto- 
mobiles and  buses,  containing  32,256,533  passen- 
gers; 34,331  documented  vessels  carrying  733,338 
passengers ;  29,946  undocumented  vessels  with  116,- 
628  persons  on  board;  33,502  passenger  trains 
bringing  1,094,023  passengers;  8359  aircraft  with 


78,542  persons;  114.041  ferries  carrying  2,042,528 
passengers;  and  438,964  streetcars  and  other  ve- 
hicles which  brought  in  1,633,277  persons.  Pedes- 
trians crossing  the  border  into  the  United  States 
numbered  10,597,458.  Particularly  outstanding  was 
the  increase  by  almost  50  per  cent  over  last  year  of 
passengers  arriving  from  abroad  in  aircraft 

Import  Restrictions.  Import  and  tariff  quotas 
and  exchange  control  measures  can  be  more  re- 
strictive trade  barriers  than  a  highly  protective 
tariff.  They  may  be  used  to  control  trade  balances, 
to  apply  retaliatory  measures,  or  to  limit  the  ex- 
tent of  a  special  benefit  conferred  upon  foreign 
producers.  In  this  country  import  and  tariff  quotas 
have  been  established  pursuant  to  reciprocal  trade 
agreements  and  under  presidential  proclamations 
and  statutes  to  limit  the  total  quantity  of  certain 
commodities  which  may  be  imported  within  quota 
periods  and  to  fix  limited  quantities  of  certain 
other  commodities  which  may  be  imported  at  re- 
duced rates  of  duty,  or  free  of  duty.  Exchange 
control  methods,  adopted  in  profusion  by  Europe- 
an countries,  were  not  used  here.  To  the  quotas 
established  under  the  trade  agreements  with  Can- 
ada and  the  United  Kingdom,  the  Philippine  In- 
dependence Act,  and  the  Philippine  Cordage  Act, 
there  were  added  during  the  fiscal  year  a  quota  on 
crude  petroleum  and  certain  petroleum  products 
under  the  trade  agreement  with  Venezuela,  effec- 
tive Dec.  16, 1939,  a  quota  on  Cuban  filler  and  scrap 
tobacco,  effective  Jan.  1,  1940,  under  the  supple- 
mentary trade  agreement  with  Cuba;  a  quota  on 
black  and  silver  foxes  and  furs  under  the  supple- 
mentary trade  agreement  with  Canada,  effective 
Dec.  1,  1939;  quotas  on  certain  types  of  unmanu- 
factured cotton  and  cotton  waste,  effective  for  the 
12-month  period  after  Sept.  20,  1939,  under  a  proc- 
lamation by  the  President  on  Sept.  5,  1939 ;  and  a 
duty  free  quota  on  red  cedar  shingles  provided  by 
the  Act  of  July  1,  1939.  An  amendment  to  the 
Philippine  Independence  Act  established,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  quotas  previously  in  effect,  quotas  on 
imports  from  the  Philippine  Islands  of  cigars,  scrap 
and  filler  tobacco,  and  pearl  or  shell  buttons,  ef- 
fective Jan.  1,  1940. 

Other  means  for  restricting  imports  are  anti- 
dumping duties  and  countervailing  duties.  Dump- 
ing may  be  defined  as  the  sale  for  export  at  a  price 
below  that  prevailing  in  the  domestic  market  to 
the  prejudice  of  industry  in  the  importing  country. 
During  the  fiscal  year  five  findings  of  dumping 
were  issued  and  seven  findings  partially  revoked 
The  findings  issued  applied  to  wool -knitted  berets 
from  France  and  to  ribbon  fly  catchers  from  the 
United  Kingdom,  Japan,  Belgium,  and  Germany. 
The  findings  revoked  related  to  importations  of 
safety  matches  from  Finland,  Austria^  Latvia,  The 
Netherlands,  Norway,  Poland,  and  Estonia.  Only 
one  order  imposing  countervailing  duty  was  issued 
during  the  fiscal  year.  This  applied  to  certain  ched- 
dar  cheese  from  Canada. 

Enforcement  of  Customs  Laws.  Seizures  for 
violations  of  the  customs  laws  were  fewer  in  num- 
ber and  smaller  in  value  than  during  1939.  The 
aggregate  value  of  seized  articles,  including  boats, 
automobiles,  airplanes,  and  horses  was  $1.254,334 
against  $1,873,130  for  the  previous  year.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  goods  which  were  seized,  claims  aggre- 
gating $8,467,828  were  initiated  against  importers 
in  connection  with  various  irregularities  and  frauds 
which  either  did  not  necessitate  a  seizure  or  were 
discovered  after  the  goods  had  gone  into  consump- 
tion. Collections  from  fines,  penalties,  liquidated 


CYctlKQ 


17S 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


damages,  and  sales  of  seized  goods  aggregated 

$o/o,3o/« 

Neutrality  Activities.  The  Customs  Service, 
following  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  in  China  and 
later  in  Europe,  has  been  busy  with  measures  to 
prevent  shipments  of  merchandise  from  the  United 
States  in  violation  of  the  Neutrality  Act  and  reg- 
ulations. A  much  heavier  volume  and  value  of  ex- 
ports resulted  from  the  need  of  the  belligerent 
powers  for  various  materials.  The  number  of  ex- 
port declarations  in  1940  reached  a  total  of  4,280,- 
109  compared  with  3,816,673  in  1939,  and  the  value 
of  exports  totalled  $3,829.000,000  compared  with 
$2,920,000,000  in  the  previous  year.  Customs  ex- 
amination both  of  the  documents  and  of  the  actual 
shipments  was  required  in  order  to  prevent  the 
exportation  of  prohibited  commodities  and  to  in- 
sure against  involvement  of  the  neutral  status  of 
the  United  States  by  outgoing  vessels. 

Cost  of  Administration.  The  total  revenues 
collected  by  the  Customs  Service  during  the  year, 
including  collections  for  other  departments,  amount- 
ed to  $383,279,575,  an  increase  of  $32,883,631  from 
the  previous  year.  Expenses  of  administration  were 
increased  by  $343,400  in  1940  but,  as  a  result  of 
the  increased  collections,  the  cost  to  collect  $100 
was  only  $5.51  during  the  past  year  compared  with 
$5.93  in  1939. 

W.  R  JOHNSON. 

CYCLING.  Because  of  the  war,  world  cham- 
pionships in  bicycling  were  not  contested  in  1940. 
The  respective  titles  therefore  remained  in  the 
hands  of  the  1939  winners,  Arie  Van  Vliet  of  the 
Netherlands  retaining  the  professional  sprint  title 
and  Jan  Derkens,  another  Netherlander,  continu- 
ing as  the  amateur  sprint  king. 

Gustav  Killian,  German  "good-will"  cyclist  to 
the  United  States,  outpedaled  Tino  Reboli  of  New- 
ark for  the  national  professional  motor-pace  crown, 
and  Mickey  Francoise  of  Montclair,  N.J.,  displaced 
George  Shipman  as  the  national  professional  sprint 
king. 

In  the  national  amateur  spring  classic,  Buster 
Logan  of  Arlington,  N.J.,  took  first  honors.  Ed 
Carafagnini  of  Chicago  won  the  A.A.U.  senior 
title  and  Chuck  Edwards,  another  Chicagoan,  cap- 
tured the  junior  A.A.U.  title. 

For  the  first  time  in  many  years,  there  was  no 
six-day  bicycle  race  in  New  York. 

CYCLOTRONS.  See  PHYSICS 

CYPRUS.  A  British  crown  colony  in  the  east- 
ern Mediterranean  Area,  3572  square  miles  ;  pop- 
ulation (1938),  376,529.  Chief  towns:  Nicosia 
(the  capital),  23,677  inhabitants;  Limassol,  15,- 
349;  Larnaca,  11,872;  Famagusta  and  Varosha, 
9979;  Paphos,  4517;  Kyrenie,  2137.  Most  of  the 
inhabitants  profess  the  Christian  faith.  Moham- 
medans make  up  about  one-fifth  of  the  population. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  chief  products  are 
wheat,  barley,  olives,  cotton,  raisins,  carobs,  pota- 
toes, linseed,  wine,  olive  oil,  cupreous  pyrites,  as- 
bestos, gold,  chrome  iron  ore,  gypsum,  and  terra 
umbra.  Trade  (1938):  Imports,  £2,246,435;  ex- 
ports, £2,478,256.  Shipping  entered  and  cleared 
during  1938  aggregated  2,995,650  tons. 

GoynC™n£J?nt-  Bud?.et  "timates  (1939)  :  Reve- 
nue, £920,494;  expenditure,  £974,468.  Budget  for 


council  was  retained.  During  1933  an  advisory 
council  was  established  to  advise  the  government 
on  legislative  and  other  measures.  Governor  and 
Commander-in-Chief.  W.  D.  Battershill  (ap- 
pointed Feb.  21,  193&). 

History.  The  leaders  of  all  political  parties  in- 
formed Governor  Batterttull  that  they  would  sus- 
pend political  agitation  until  after  the  end  of  the 
war.  During  April,  1940,  it  was  announced  that 
nearly  12,000  men  had  volunteered  for  military 
service.  The  Cypriot  Transport  was  the  first  colo- 
nial contingent  to  serve  with  the  British  Expedi- 
tionary Force  in  France.  Reports  were  issued  stat- 
ing that  municipal  elections,  which  had  been 
suspended  since  1935,  would  be  resumed  in  1941. 
The  regulation  of  trade  was  covered  by  a  number 
of  orders  which  prohibited  the  import  and  export 
of  goods  except  under  licence.  On  June  14,  1940, 
at  Nicosia,  the  formation  of  the  Cyprus  Volunteer 
Force,  to  assist  the  regular  forces  in  the  defense 
of  the  island,  was  ordered.  The  emergency  meas- 
ures taken  on  Italy's  entry  into  the  war  included 
regulations  providing  for  the  control  of  wireless, 
the  use  of  cameras,  propaganda,  and  the  detention 
and  arrest  of  subversive  elements.  See  ARCHAEOL- 
OGY 

CYRENAICA,  Battle  of.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR 
under  British  Victories  in  Africa. 

CZECHOSLOVAKIA.  A  former  Central 
European  republic  (capital,  Prague),  partitioned 
among  Germany,  Poland,  and  Hungary  in  1938 
and  1939,  with  the  exception  of  part  of  Slovakia 
which  became  a  nominally  independent  republic 
under  German  protection,  with  its  capital  at  Brati- 
slava. The  manner  in  which  the  Czecho- Slovak 
republic  was  partitioned  was  described  in  detail  in 
the  1938  and  1939  YEAR  BOOKS  and  is  summarized 
in  the  accompanying  table. 

PARTITION  OF  CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


Territory 

To  Germany: 
Sudetenland      

Date  of  cession 
or  seiture 

Sept.  29,  1938 

Area,      Estimated 
sq  ml.    pop  1939 

11071      3653292 

Bohemia-Moravia  
To  Poland: 
Teschen  district  • 

Mar.  16,  1939 
Nov.    1,  1938 

19,058     6^04,875 
419        241,698 

Parts  of  Slovakia  and 
Ruthenia*  

Nov.    2,  1938 

4,566      1,027,450 

Remainder  of  Ruthenia. 
Additional   Slovak   di»- 
tricta      

Mar.  14,  1939 
Apr.    4,  1939 

4,283        552,124 
683          80.933 

Slovakia,  Republic  of  
T>>tal  

Mar.  14,1939* 

H.165      2.369.163 
54,245    14,729,535 

A'\uc    e          ec-     ' 
1938)  :  £822,300  As  a  result  of  the  political  dis- 

turbances of  1931  the  legislative  council  was  abol- 
ished (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1931)  and  the  governor 
was  granted  the  power  to  legislate.  The  executive 


•  Returned  in  part  to  Slovakia  by  Germany  on  Oct  21,  1939. 
* Carpatho-Ukraine.    'Date  of  Slovak  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence. 

The  Sudetenland  was  annexed  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  German  Reich.  Hungary  similarly  in- 
corporated in  its  national  territory  the  districts 
acquired  from  Czecho- Slovakia.  Bohemia  and  Mo- 
ravia were  established  as  a  German  protectorate, 
while  Slovakia  on  Mar.  18,  1939,  signed  a  treaty 
with  the  Reich  accepting  German  protection.  The 
Reich  Protectorate  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia  and 
the  Slovak  Republic  were  not  recognized  by  the 
governments  of  France,  Great  Britain,  the  United 
States,  and  other  powers. 

Cxecho-Slovak  Provisional  Government. 
Upon  the  outbreak  of  war  between  Germany  and 
the  Allies  in  September,  1939,  the  group  of  Czech 
and  Slovak  political  leaders  in  exile,  headed  by 
Dr.  Eduard  Benes,  established  headquarters  in 
London  and  on  September  8  Dr.  Benel  declared 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


176 


DAIRYING 


war  on  Germany  in  the  name  of  the  Czech  people. 
Under  an  agreement  made  with  the  French  Gov- 
ernment on  Oct  5,  1939,  a  Czecho-Slovak  army 
was  created  "under  the  authority  of  the  Provi- 
sional Czecho-Slovak  Government"  to  fight  with 
the  Allies.  On  Nov.  17, 1939,  a  Czecho-Slovak  Na- 
tional Committee  was  fotmed  in  Paris.  It  was 
recognized  as  the  legal  "government  in  exile"  of 
Czecho-Slovakia  by  the  French  Government  on 
the  same  day.  The  membership  comprised  five 
Czechs  and  three  Slovaks,  headed  by  Dr.  Benes. 
The  Committee  declared  "null  and  void"  the  agree- 
ment signed  in  Berlin  Mar.  15,  1939,  between 
Chancellor  Hitler  and  President  Hacha  of  Czecho- 
slovakia. 

In  February,  1940,  the  British  Government  and 
the  three  leading  political  parties  declared  that 
restoration  of  Czecho-Slovak  independence  was 
one  of  Britain's  war  aims.  The  French  Govern- 
ment was  reported  to  have  made  a  similar  pledge, 
and  the  objective  received  the  support  of  the  Pol- 
ish Government-in-Exile.  On  the  other  hand  the 
Hungarian  Foreign  Minister,  in  a  statement  be- 
fore Hungary's  parliament  on  Mar.  6,  1940,  an- 
nounced his  government's  opposition  to  restoration 
of  the  Czecho-Slovak  Republic. 

Recognition  by  Britain.  Upon  the  collapse  of 
France,  the  Czecho-Slovak  government  leaders 
and  many  of  the  Czecho-Slovak  troops  in  France 
escaped  to  England.  On  July  22  the  British  Gov- 
ernment formally  recognized  "the  Provisional 
Checho- Slovak  Government  established  by  the 
Czecho-Slovak  National  Committee."  Dr.  Benes, 
as  President  of  the  Provisional  Government,  im- 
mediately formed  a  cabinet  in  which  Mgr.  Jan 
Sramek  became  Premier  and  Jan  Masaryk,  son  of 
the  founder  of  Czecho-Slovakia,  Foreign  Minis- 
ter. On  December  10  President  Benes  announced 
the  establishment  in  London  of  a  State  Council  of 
40  members,  including  representatives  of  all 
Czecho-Slovak  political  parties,  to  serve  as  a  pro- 
visional parliament  until  the  end  of  the  war.  Ru- 
dolf Bechnyes  was  appointed  president  of  the 
Council. 

There  was  objection  among  some  Czecho-Slovak 
exiles  to  the  inclusion  in  the  government  and 
Council  of  representatives  of  the  Czecho-Slovak 
Agrarian  party,  which  forced  Czecho-Slovakia  to 
accept  Hitler's  demands  for  the  Sudetenland  dur- 
ing the  crisis  of  September,  1938  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 
1938.  p.  196).  One  minister  had  also  served  the 
Hacna  puppet  government  in  Prague  before  es- 
caping to  France.  Agitation  over  the  composition 
of  the  government  and  the  alleged  anti-democratic 
bias  of  army  officers  led  to  dissension  in  the 
Czecho-Slovak  military  camp  in  England  during 
the  autumn.  At  the  request  of  the  Czech  authori- 
ties, the  British  arrested  over  500  soldiers  and  in- 
terned a  former  Communist  deputy  in  the  Czecho- 
slovak parliament  The  bulk  of  the  mutinous  sol- 
diers were  enlisted  in  the  British  Pioneer  Corps. 

A  military  agreement  concluded  by  the  British 
and  Czecho-Slovak  governments  on  October  25 
gave  the  Czech  military  authorities  full  jurisdic- 
tion over  their  troops  on  British  soil  and  enabled 
them  to  restore  discipline.  The  Czecho-Slovak 
armed  forces  were  organized  under  their  own 
commanders  for  service  with  the  Allied  armies 
under  British  direction.  Air  units  were  attached 
to  the  Royal  Air  Force.  Britain  undertook  to 
finance  the  organization  and  maintenance  of  the 
Czecho-Slovak  forces.  The  Boies  Government 
was  authorized  to  conscript  Czecho-Slovak  citi- 


zens in  the  United  Kingdom  and  recruit  volun- 
teers abroad. 

On  the  second  anniversary  of  the  Munich  Ac- 
cord of  Sept.  29,  1938,  Prime  Minister  Churchill 
declared  that  the  restoration  of  Czecho-Slovak  lib- 
erties was  one  of  Britain's  principal  war  aims. 
In  a  radio  address  on  December  7  Foreign  Minis- 
ter Masaryk  upheld  the  British  blockade  of  the 
continent,  asserting  that  the  Czecho- Slovaks  pre- 
ferred the  serious  food  shortage  caused  by  "the 
combined  effect  of  German  oppression  and  the 
British  blockade"  to  the  destruction  of  their  souls. 

A  pledge  of  friendship  between  the  Czecho- 
slovak and  Polish  people  during  and  after  the 
war  was  exchanged  between  their  respective  Pro- 
visional Presidents  in  London  on  October  9.  On 
November  11  the  two  goyernments-in-exile  issued 
a  joint  statement  declaring  their  intention  after 
the  war  to  enter  as  independent,  sovereign  states 
into  a  closer  political  and  economic  association 
that  would  serve  as  the  basis  for  a  "new  order" 
in  Central  Europe. 

For  internal  developments  in  BOHEMIA  AND  MO- 
RAVIA and  SLOVAKIA,  see  those  articles. 

See  JEWS  ;  LABOR  CONDITIONS. 

DAHOMEY.  See  FRENCH  WEST  AFRICA. 

DAIRYING.  A  record  high  in  milk  production, 
strong  consumer  demand  for  both  fluid  milk  and 
manufactured  products,  abundant  feed  supplies, 
butterfat-feed  price  ratios  favorable  to  the  dairy 
producer,  a  narrow  margin  between  retail  prices  of 
manufactured  products  and  prices  paid  to  farmers, 
unusually  low  cold  storage  stocks  of  butter  and  a 
generally  favorable  outlook  for  1941  characterized 
the  dairy  situation  at  the  close  of  1940. 

Numbers  of  milk  cows,  which  have  steadily  in- 
creased since  1937,  reached  25,334,000  at  the  be- 
ginning of  1940,  with  a  further  increase  of  about 
%  million  head  indicated  for  the  year.  With  gen- 
erally favorable  pasture  conditions  throughout  the 
summer  and  fall,  and  supplies  of  feed  grains,  pro- 
tein concentrates  and  hay  above  1939  levels,  a  rela- 
tively high  level  of  milk  production  per  cow  per- 
sisted to  the  end  of  the  year.  Total  milk  production 
for  the  year  approached  111  billion  lb.,  about  2 
per  cent  larger  than  a  year  earlier.  Local  market 
prices  of  butterf at  in  mid-December  averaged  34.8 
cents  per  lb ,  the  highest  since  December,  1937.  At 
this  figure  the  butterfat-feed  grain  price  ratio  was 
similar  to  the  long  time  (1920-34)  average  and 
decidedly  more  favorable  to  the  dairy  producer 
than  that  of  preceding  months. 

Prices  paid  to  producers  for  butterfat  and  milk 
used  in  dairy  manufactures  averaged  about  one- 
third  lower  than  in  1924-29  but,  because  the  mar- 
gin between  retail  prices  and  prices  paid  to  farm- 
ers was  only  66  per  cent  as  large  as  in  1924-29, 
the  farmer  received  as  large  a  proportion  of  the 
consumers'  dollar  in  1940  as  during  the  era  of 
higher  prices.  In  June,  1940,  the  U.S.  Department 
of  Agriculture  approved  a  program  for  1940-41 
under  which  the  Dairy  Products  Marketing  As- 
sociation was  enabled  to  continue  butter  market 
stabilization  operations.  A  $7,000,000  loan  approved 
by  the  Commodity  Credit  Corporation  made  pos- 
sible the  buying  and  storing  of  butter,  up  to  25 
million  lb.  Comparatively  little  butter  was  pur- 
chased tinder  this  plan,  cold  storage  holdings  of 
the  Association  on  Jan.  1,  1941,  totaling  only  66,- 
000  lb.  Purchase  of  dairy  products  for  relief  pur- 
poses during  1940  was  far  below  that  of  earlier 
years,  when  relief  output  reached  5  per  cent  of 
the  total  trade  output.  Heavy  purchases  of  butter 


DAIRYING 


177 


DAMS 


were  made  tinder  the  Food  Stamp  Plan.  Near  the 
end  of  the  year  about  2,000,000  Ib.  were  being  dis- 
tributed monthly  in  this  manner  in  the  253  areas 
where  the  stamp  plan  was  operated. 

According  to  estimates  by  the  U.S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  production  of  the  principal  manu- 
factured products  near  the  end  of  1940  was  about 
12  per  cent  higher  than  a  year  earlier.  Butter, 
cheese,  and  evaporated  milk  production  was  up  11, 
13,  and  19  per  cent  respectively.  Sharp  reduction 
in  cheese  importation  and  large  exports  of  con- 
densed and  evaporated  milk  stimulated  the  produc- 
tion of  these  products  as  compared  with  butter. 
Total  production  of  manufactured  dairy  products 
for  1940  was  certain  to  exceed  the  1939  level  when 
a  fluid  milk  equivalent  of  51,230  million  Ib.,  or 
47  per  cent  of  the  total  milk  produced,  was  used 
for  this  purpose.  Also,  the  apparent  consumption 
of  manufactured  products  was  11  per  cent  higher 
than  a  year  earlier.  Consumption  of  domestic  cheese 
had  increased  enough  to  largely  offset  the  decline 
in  cheese  imports  which  made  up  8  per  cent  of  the 
total  consumption  in  1939. 

Total  cold  storage  holdings  of  butter  on  Jan.  1, 
1941,  were  41,590,000  Ib.  as  compared  with  55,462,- 
000  Ib.  a  year  earlier  and  the  1936-40  average  of 
65,707,000  Ib.  Of  this  total,  only  81,000  Ib.  were 
owned  by  government  agencies  against  14,875,000 
Ib  in  1940.  All  types  of  cheese  in  cold  storage  on 
this  date  totaled  128,413,000  Ib.,  about  19  per  cent 
larger  than  a  year  earlier.  Stocks  of  evaporated 
milk  were  also  relatively  high. 

World  Conditions.  Both  production  and  dis- 
tribution of  dairy  products  in  European  Countries 
during  1940  were  seriously  disturbed  by  war  con- 
ditions. Without  exception,  the  principal  dairy  pro- 
ducing countries,  which  normally  import  large 
quantities  of  feedstuffs,  were  experiencing  a  short- 
age of  feed  accompanied  by  a  sharp  decline  in  milk 
production.  Most  countries  were  rationing  butter 
while  surplus  milk  supplies  were  being  diverted  to 
cheese  and  condensed  milk  production  rather  than 
to  butter  Fresh  milk  consumption  was  being  con- 
trolled chiefly  by  price  although  some  countries 
were  rationing  their  supplies  Germany,  with  the 
important  exports  of  Denmark,  Holland,  Sweden, 
and  Switzerland  at  her  command,  was  in  a  better 
position  than  most  of  the  other  countries. 

The  United  Kingdom,  normally  the  most  impor- 
tant deficit  country  in  the  world  in  dairy  products, 
was  experiencing  a  milk  shortage  at  the  close  of 
the  year.  Domestic  production  was  far  below  nor- 
mal, due  mainly  to  feed  shortage,  Irish  production 
had  declined  because  of  drought  and  imports  from 
the  Continent  were  eliminated.  Butter  and  cheese 
were  being  supplied  in  fairly  adequate  amounts 
from  the  Empire  countries  where  production  gen- 
erally was  above  normal.  Australia  and  New  Zea- 
land were  under  contract  to  supply  stipulated  quan- 
tities of  these  products  during  the  1940-41  season. 
Canada  was  exporting  large  quantities  of  cheese 
to  the  mother  country  and  was  under  contract  to 
supply  not  less  than  112  million  Ib.  during  the 
year  beginning  Apr.  1,  1941.  Far-above-normal 
quantities  of  evaporated  milk  were  purchased  from 
the  United  States  during  the  year 

Of  great  interest  to  the  purebred  cattle  breeders 
of  this  country,  was  the  German  occupation,  in 
June,  1940,  of  the  Channel  Islands  of  Guernsey 
and  Jersey,  native  homes  of  Guernsey  and  Jersey 
Cattle.  Significant  numbers  of  breeding  animals 
have  been  imported  to  the  United  States  annually 
from  the  Islands.  The  destruction  of  these  "foun- 


tain-heads" would  be  an  irreparable  loss  to  the 
dairy  cattle  breeding  industry. 

Foreign  Trade.  The  import-export  balance  of 
edible  dairy  products  changed  sharply  in  1940  as 
compared  to  that  of  the  previous  year,  primarily 
due  to  a  marked  reduction  in  imports  of  European 
cheese  and  a  large  increase  in  the  export  of  evapo- 
rated milk. 

Exports  for  the  year  1940,  totaled  $16,919,882 
as  compared  with  $7,136,322  for  the  corresponding 
period  in  1939.  Total  imports  were  $7,838,397  in 
1940  and  $13,257,017  in  1939.  Imports  of  commer- 
cial casein,  mainly  from  Argentina,  exceeded  1 
million  dollars  in  1940,  an  increase  over  1939. 
Large  shipments  of  Italian-type  cheese  from  Ar- 
gentina reached  this  country  near  the  end  of  the 
year. 

Miscellany.  On  Jan.  1,  1940,  there  were  27,948 
dairy  herds  consisting  of  676,141  cows  on  test  in 
dairy  herd-improvement  associations.  In  1939  these 
cows  produced  7977  Ib.  of  milk  and  323  Ib.  of  but- 
terfat  on  the  average,  whereas  all  cows  milked  in 
the  United  States  averaged  only  4538  Ib.  of  milk 
and  179  Ib.  of  butterfat  per  year.  Cows  producing 
at  the  general  average  rate  consumed  $1.06  worth 
of  feed  per  hundred  Ib.  of  milk  produced  while 
those  that  averaged  7977  Ib.  consumed  only  79 
cents  worth  of  feed  per  hundred  Ib.  of  milk  pro- 
duced. 

E.  C.  ELTING. 

DAKAR.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR  ;  FRENCH  WEST 
AFRICA. 

DAMS.  Practically  all  types  of  dams  are  repre- 
sented in  the  numerous  hydraulic  development  proj- 
ects now  under  way  by  various  governmental  bod- 
ies and  private  corporations  for  domestic  water 
supply,  irrigation,  power,  and  flood  control  or  river 
regulation.  Failure  of  a  number  of  small  dams  in 
New  Jersey  during  sudden  storm  floods  in  Septem- 
ber, with  consequent  serious  loss  and  damage  to 
property,  again  indicates  the  necessity  of  competent 
State  regulation  and  supervision  of  even  small 
dams,  including  those  built  privately  for  recreation 
purposes. 

Concrete.  The  U.S.  Bureau  of  Reclamation 
(q.v.)  now  has  under  construction  four  of  the  five 
largest  concrete  dams  in  the  world:  the  Grand 
Coulee,  the  Shasta,  the  Friant,  and  the  Marshall 
Ford.  All  are  of  the  gravity  type,  although  the 
Shasta  Dam  is  curved.  In  height,  the  Boulder  Dam 
(arch  type,  completed  in  1936)  holds  the  record 
with  726  ft.,  but  in  volume  of  concrete  it  ranks 
third.  The  accompanying  table  compares  these  five 
great  dams: 

LARGEST  CONCRETE  DAMS 


Volume 

1 

7rfrW 

Length 

1000 

Namt 

ft. 

ft 

c*  yds. 

Rner 

Location 

Boulder  (1936) 
Shasta 

726 
S60 

1,282 
3,500 

3,252 
5,400 

Colorado 
Sacramento 

Ariz  -Nevada 
California 

Grand  Coulee. 
Friant 

553 
100 

4,300 
3,430 

10,200 
1,900 

Columbia 
San  Joaquin 

Washington 
California 

Marshall  Ford 

270 

2,623 

1,864 

Colorado 

Texas 

All  the  dams  built  by  the  Bureau  are  primarily 
for  irrigation,  but  many  of  them  serve  also  for 
other  purposes.  An  exception  is  the  Marshall  Ford 
dam,  which  is  primarily  for  flood  control.  The 
Grand  Coulee  dam  on  the  Columbia  River  (near- 
ing  completion  in  1941),  the  most  massive  masonry 
structure  ever  built,  has  the  crest  of  its  spillway  or 
overflow,  section  topped  by,  a  row  of  eleven  elec- 


DAMS 


178 


DEFENSE 


trically  operated  steel  drum  gates,  each  135  it  long 
and  28  ft  high.  These  gates  are  to  regulate  the 
flow  from  the  reservoir,  and  they  increase  the  nor- 
mal capacity  of  the  reservoir  by  the  extra  depth  of 
28  ft  The  Shasta  dam,  for  the  Central  Valley 
project  in  California,  had  the  concreting  begun  in 
July,  1940.  A  feature  of  its  construction  plant  is 
a  series  of  belt  conveyors  totaling  9.6  miles  in 
length,  to  transport  sand  and  gravel  for  the  con- 
crete. The  Friant  dam  is  for  the  same  project.  The 
Marshall  Ford  dam  is  one  of  a  series  of  five  dams 
for  flood  control  and  power  development  on  300 
miles  of  the  Colorado  River  above  its  mouth. 

Of  a  different  type  is  the  Pensacola  dam  on  the 
Grand  in  Oklahoma,  which  was  completed  in  1940 
by  the  Grand  River  Authority.  In  March,  Gov- 
ernor Phillips  ordered  out  the  State  troops  to  halt 
construction  forcibly  until  certain  desired  conces- 
sions were  made  as  to  rebuilding  roads  that  would 
be  submerged.  But  the  courts  decided  against  him 
and  he  had  to  back  down.  (See  OKLAHOMA.)  The 
dam  is  147  ft  high,  with  a  length  of  5595  ft  and 
is  composed  of  51  inclined  arches  or  semi-cylinders 
of  60  ft.  span  between  the  piers.  In  height,  it  is 
exceeded  by  the  270-f  t.  Bartlett  dam  on  the  Verde 
River  in  Arizona,  completed  in  1939. 

Of  still  another  type  is  the  hollow  slab-and- 
buttress  concrete  Possum  Kingdom  dam  now  being 
built  on  the  Brazos  River  in  Texas.  Its  piers  or 
buttresses,  40  ft.  apart,  are  sloped  at  the  upstream 
end  to  support  an  inclined  slab  of  concrete  which 
forms  the  face  of  the  dam.  For  the  spillway  or 
overflow  the  piers  are  sloped  also  at  the  down* 
stream  end  to  support  a  similar  but  steeper  slab. 
This  dam  is  190  ft.  high  and  2740  ft  long.  The 
Austin  dam,  on  the  lower  Colorado  River,  in  Tex- 
as, completed  for  the  third  time  in  1940,  was  the 
largest  concrete  dam  when  first  built  in  1893.  It 
failed  in  the  flood  of  1900,  was  repaired  and  re- 
built in  1915,  but  failed  again  the  same  year.  In 
1938,  it  was  taken  over  by  the  Lower  Colorado 
River  Authority,  which  has  rebuilt  and  enlarged  it 
for  flood  control  and  power  development. 

Earth.  The  world's  largest  dry-fill  earth  dam 
is  the  Hansen  dam  now  under  construction  on 
a  tributary  of  the  Los  Angeles  River,  for  flood 
protection.  It  is  120  ft.  high  and  9500  ft  long,  con- 
taining nearly  15-million  cu.  yds.  In  size  it  is  ex- 
ceeded only  by  four  earth  dams  of  the  hydraulic- 
fill  type,  in  which  earth  and  water  are  pumped  to 
form  the  dam:  Fort  Peck,  Kingsley,  Gatun,  and 
Sardis.  It  is  one  of  several  dams  being  built  by  the 
U.S.  Engineers  (q.v.)  for  flood-protection  and 
power  projects.  These  include  the  Denison  dam  on 
the  Red  River,  in  Texas,  to  be  completed  in  1944 ; 
the  John  Martin  dam  on  the  Arkansas  River  in 
Colorado  (1943),  and  the  Sardis  dam  on  the  Little 
Tallahatchie  River,  in  Mississippi,  which  was  put 
hi  service  on  Aug.  8,  1940. 

Three  earth  dams  were  completed  by  the  U.S. 
Bureau  of  Reclamation  in  1940 :  Grassy  Lake  dam, 
120  ft  high,  in  Wyoming;  Fresno  dam  in  Mon- 
tana, 71  ft.  high;  and  Crane  Prairie  dam,  40  ft. 
high,  on  the  Deschutes  River  in  Oregon.  Four  sim- 
ilar dams  under  construction  are  the  Green  Moun- 
tain dam  on  the  Colorado  and  Big  Thompson  proj- 
ect in  Colorado,  a  combined  earth  and  rock  fill  270 
ft.  high ;  the  Vallecito  dam,  150  ft.,  on  the  Pine 
River,  Colorado ;  the  Deer  Creek  dam,  240  ft.,  on 
the  Provo  River  in  Utah,  and  the  Wickiup  dam, 
100  ft.  high,  on  the  Deschutes  River  in  Oregon. 

Of  the  several  new  and  old  dams  included  in  the 
project  of  the  Tennessee  Valley  Authority  (q.v.), 


three  were  completed  in  1940 :  the  Guntersville  and 
Chickamauga  dams  on  the  Tennessee,  and  the  Hi- 
wassee  on  the  Hiwassee  River.  Two  were  begun : 
Fort  Loudon  on  the  Tennessee  River,  and  Chero- 
kee on  the  Holston  River.  Two  others  still  under 
construction  are  the  Kentucky  and  Watt's  Barr 
dams  on  the  Tennessee  River.  All  are  to  be  com- 
pleted by  1945.  Besides  power  development  and 
flood  control,  this  comprehensive  project  includes 
the  provision  of  a  9-ft  navigable  channel  in  the 
Tennessee  from  the  Ohio  River  to  Knoxville, 
Tenn.,  650  miles. 

Two  long  earth  dams  being  built  by  both  dry 
fill  and  hydraulic  fill  methods  in  South  Carolina 
will  form  reservoirs  on  the  Santee  and  Cooper 
rivers,  and  a  channel  connecting  the  two  reservoirs 
will  divert  the  water  of  the  former  into  the  latter 
river,  giving  a  drop  of  72  ft  for  power  develop- 
ment. Barge  navigation  is  also  provided  for.  Stud- 
ies for  a  dam  in  the  St  Lawrence  River,  near 
Massena,  N.Y.,  were  commenced  in  October,  1940, 
by  joint  authority  of  the  United  States  and  Cana- 
dian governments.  It  is  planned  to  develop  2,000,- 
000  h.p.  in  electrical  energy,  and  to  cost  some 
$235,000,000.  This  project  is  the  target  of  much 
controversy  as  to  its  merits  for  power  and  naviga- 
tion purposes. 

Foreign.  Of  foreign  dams,  the  Ka  Ik  font  em 
dam  in  South  Africa,  completed  in  1940,  ranks  sec- 
ond to  the  Vaalbank  dam,  which  is  165  ft.  high 
above  the  river  bed  or  230  ft.  above  the  lowest  part 
of  the  foundation  The  Kalkfontein  dam  is  of  the 
rock  fill  type,  with  a  maximum  height  of  113  ft. 
and  a  length  of  10,400  ft.  With  60  miles  of  dis- 
tribution canals  it  will  provide  irrigation  for  the 
Jacobsdal  district  While  earth  dams  require  an 
impermeable  core  wall  to  prevent  percolation  of 
water,  the  factor  of  earthquake  shocks  led  to  the 
design  of  a  flexible  core  wall  for  a  dam  for  the 
water  supply  of  Rangoon,  Burma.  By  means  of  a 
structure  of  interlocking  concrete  panels,  it  is  ex- 
pected that  the  dam  may  be  bent  considerably  out 
of  line  without  breaching  the  core  wall.  See  AQUE- 
DUCTS; FLOOD  CONTROL;  WATERWAYS. 

E.  E.  RUSSELL  TRATMAN. 

DANISH  LITERATURE.  See  SCANDINA- 
VIAN LITERATURE. 

DANZIG.  A  territory  including  the  Baltic 
port  of  Danzig  at  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula  River, 
which  was  detached  from  Germany  and  constituted 
a  Free  City  under  the  protection  of  the  League  of 
Nations  by  Article  102  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles, 
effective  Nov.  15,  1920.  It  was  reincorporated  as 
an  integral  part  of  the  Reich  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  German-Polish  war  on  Sept.  1,  1939.  Area  of 
the  Free  City,  754  square  miles ;  population  (1939), 
415,000  including  266,000  in  the  city  of  Danzig. 
Head  of  the  civil  administration  in  1940,  Albert 
Foerster,  Nazi  party  leader  in  the  district.  For  sta- 
tistics and  other  data  on  Danzig  previous  to  its  re- 
union with  Germany,  see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  189. 

DEAFNESS.  See  PSYCHOLOGY. 

DEATHS  AND  DEATH  RATES.  See  NE- 
CROLOGY; PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE;  VITAL  STA- 
TISTICS. 

DEBTS,  Public.  See  PUBLIC  FINANCE;  the 
foreign  countries  under  Finance;  REPARATIONS 
AND  WAR  DEBTS. 

DEFENSE,  National.  See  DEFENSIVE  PREPA- 
RATIONS OP  THE  UNITED  STATES  ;  MILITARY  PROG- 
RESS ;  NATIONAL  DEFENSE  ADVISORY  COMMISSION  ; 
NAVAL  PROGRESS;  and  all  major  countries  under 


DBPBNIS  BOARD 


179    DEFENSIVE  PREPARATIONS 


Defense.  For  the  part  taken  in  the  United  States 
defense  program  by  other  government  agencies, 
see  particularly  CIVILIAN  CONSERVATION  CORPS; 
CIVIL  SERVICE  COMMISSION;  COAST  GUARD;  EDU- 
CATION, U.S.  OFFICE  OF;  FEDERAL  BUREAU  OF  IN- 
VESTIGATION ;  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  ;  MINES,  BUREAU 
OF;  RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE  CORPORATION; 
WORK  PROJECTS  ADMINISTRATION. 

The  effect  of  the  U.S.  defense  program  in  the 
other  fields  of  activity  is  discussed  in  many  articles, 
notably  AERONAUTICS;  AUTOMOBILES;  BUSINESS 
REVIEW;  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL;  ELECTIONS, 
U.S.  NATIONAL;  FIRE  PROTECTION;  GEOLOGY;  IN- 
SURANCE ;  MACHINE  DEVELOPMENT  ;  MEDICINE  AND 
SURGERY;  POWER  PLANTS;  RAILWAYS.  See  also 
AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR;  CONGRESS  OF 
INDUSTRIAL  ORGANIZATIONS;  DIES  COMMITTEE; 
NEGROES;  NEW  YORK;  PUBLIC  FINANCE. 

DEFENSE  BOARD,  Canadian-American 
Joint.  Sec  CANADA  under  History. 

DEFENSE  COMMUNICATIONS 
BOARD  (DCB).  See  FEDERAL  COMMUNICA- 
TIONS COMMISSION;  RADIO. 

DEFENSE  HOMES  CORPORATION, 
DEFENSE  PLANT  CORPORATION,  DE- 
FENSE SUPPLIES  CORPORATION.  See 
RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE  CORPORATION. 

DEFENSE  LOANS.  See  BANKS  AND  BANK- 
ING; RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE  CORPORATION. 

DEFENSIVE  PREPARATIONS,  U.S. 
The  United  States  started  in  1940,  on  a  scale  un- 
exampled in  peace  and  rivaled  only  by  its  arma- 
ment in  1916-18,  to  increase  its  means  of  making 
war.  The  scope  of  the  preparations  covered,  as  far 
as  possible,  all  that  would  conceivably  belong  to 
the  subject  The  main  heads  of  the  program  were 
the  establishment  of  conscription  (see  DRAFT,  MIL- 
ITARY) ;  the  increase  of  the  personnel  of  the  reg- 
ular Army,  Navy,  and  Marine  Corps  by  voluntary 
enlistment,  the  large  addition  (under  the  two- 
ocean  plan)  to  the  naval  force  (see  NAVAL  PROG- 
RESS under  United  States)  ;  the  manifold  aug- 
mentation of  the  chief  types  of  airplanes  of  war ; 
the  creation  not  only  of  stores  of  fighting  mate- 
rial but  also  of  industrial  establishments  needful 
thereto ;  the  devising  of  taxes  and  plans  for  pub- 
lic debt  to  meet  a  cost  approximating  the  whole 
Federal  income  for  several  years;  the  accumula- 
tion of  stores  of  materials  that  could  not  be  pro- 
duced within  the  country;  and  the  knitting  of 
useful  foreign  relations,  particularly  with  the  other 
American  republics  and  the  chief  surviving  demo- 
cratic European  belligerent,  Great  Britain.  The 
plans  for  armament  required  at  least  two  years 
and  possibly  longer  for  their  accomplishment. 

The  most  generally  recognized  purpose  of  this 
capital  undertaking  was  to  discourage  and  if  nec- 
essary to  overcome  possible  attack  on  the  part 
of  one  or  more  of  the  several  conquest-seeking 
dictatorial  governments  that  were  at  the  moment 
making  headway  toward  mastery  over  the  Old 
World.  President  Roosevelt  led  in  initiating  the 
program.  Some  of  his  critics  charged  him  with 
designing  and  by  armament,  preparing  the  entry 
Of  the  United  States  into  th*  war  m  Eumne: 


whole,  accepted  his  stated  reasons  as  the  true 
ones.  The  President,  shortly  before  the  election, 
stated  his  policy  as  to  increasing  the  defenses  and 
asked  a  "vote  of  .confidence"  (see  ELECTION,  NA- 
TIONAL), thus  giving  that  character  to  the  vote 
for  him. 


Increases  in  armaments  had  been  authorized  by 
Congress  early  in  1940  before  the  appearance  of 
the  great  program;  they  had  seemed  huge  till 
dwarfed  by  the  new  plans*  At  the  outset  of  May, 
armament  under  the  earlier  plans  of  1940  and  the 
Act  of  1938  seemed  ample  for  more  naval  vessels, 
airplanes,  and  flying  fields ;  it  bulked  large  enough, 
to  the  judgment  of  the  moment;  Congress  had 
granted  substantially  what  the  President  had 
asked.  He  was  reported  as  satisfied,  or  wishful, 
that  it  should  adjourn.  The  sudden  conquest  of 
Holland,  Belgium,  and  France,  wholly  unexpected, 
changed  the  whole  foreign  scene  within  a  few 
weeks.  It  startled  the  American  people,  crushed 
their  sense  of  secure  aloofness,  and  dumfounded 
most  the  numerous  advocates  of  American  isola- 
tion from  "the  Old  World's  quarrels."  There  came 
into  the  common  thought  a  consequent  appre- 
hension that  the  United  States  might  be  marked 
for  the  next  prey— not,  perhaps,  for  invasion  of  its 
own  territory  yet  quite  possibly  for  enterprises 
against  Latin  America  or  territory  in  the  Pacific, 
constituting  indirect  attack. 

The  President's  Proposals.  The  President's 
requests  on  behalf  of  defense  fall  into  two  groups : 
Those  in  the  budgetary  message  of  January  4,  as 
augmented  by  supplementary  appropriation  up  to 
May,  and  the  series  that  started  with  his  special 
message  of  May  16 ;  on  requests  prior  to  that  date 
Congress  voted  about  $1,800,000,000  for  the  Army 
and  Navy;  on  requests  between  May  16  and  the 
pre-election  recess  Congress,  with  remarkable  ap- 
proach to  unanimity  voted  a  series  of  bills  appro- 
priating and  authorizing  contracts  for  defensive 
expenditure  to  the  combined  total  of  about  $16  bil- 
lion more. 

The  main  recommendations  met  therein  were: 
Message  of  May  16,  $1,182,000,000;  requests  of 
May  31,  $1,277,000,000,  chiefly  for  putting  the 
National  Guard  and  Reserve  into  active  service; 
requests  for  3000  airplanes  and  an  increase  of 
personnel  for  the  Navy,  $1,492,000,000;  Presi- 
dent's endorsement  of  the  two-ocean  Navy  bill, 
$4,000,000,000;  his  message  (mentioned  above) 
of  May  16  proposed  to  Congress,  without  in- 
dicating the  cost,  the  construction  of  50,000  war- 
planes,  and  Congress  made  heavy  grants  toward 
that  object  in  different  bills.  The  cost  of  the 
draft  and  of  maintaining  800,000  of  the  drafted 
men  in  military  training  for  a  year  and  of  pro- 
viding quarters  for  them  led  Congress  to  provide 
over  $1,000,000,000.  No  one  expected  that  the 
money  provided  for  augmenting  the  fleet  would 
all  be  spent  before  several  years  had  passed;  it 
would  apparently  take  considerably  more  than  a 
year  to  provide  the  Government  with  anything 
like  50,000  warplanes:  Consequently  the  commit- 
ments for  defense  would  spread  out  much  of  their 
weight  over  a  succession  of  years.  What  part  of 
it  would  appear  in  the  deficit  for  the  fiscal  year 
1941  remained  uncertain. 

Presented  piecemeal  to  Congress  and  the  people, 
the  plan  for  increased  defense  bore  something  of 
the  appearance  of  improvisation;  whether  it  con- 
cealed any  of  improvisation's  shortcomings  did 
not  at  the  outset  appear.  The  collaboration  of 
leaders  in  the  upper  organizations  of  Army  and 
Navy,  professionally  trained  in  the  problems  of 
armament,  made  the  risk  less  than  it  would  have 
been  in  hasty  commitments  in  other  fields. 

Directions  of  Defensive  Effort.  Most  con- 
spicuous of  the  features  of  the  preparations  for 
stronger  armament,  the  creation  of  a  host  of  air- 


DEFENSIVE  PREPARATIONS 


180 


DEFENSIVE  PREPARATIONS 


planes  more  powerful  than  any  others  in  exist- 
ence, met  the  condition  brought  into  view  by  cur- 
rent evidence  of  aviation's  prominent  service  in 
the  German  offensives.  Possibly  yet  more  impor- 
tant was  the  Government's  effort  to  augment  the 
Naval  fleet  to  a  power  adequate  to  keep  enemies 
from  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  coasts  simul- 
taneously. The  lately  demonstrated  success  of  the 
tank  as  a  means  of  overthrowing  armies  decided 
the  Government  to  increase  its  force  of  tanks  to 
many  times  the  actual  number.  Apart  from  these 
increases  in  material  and  the  accompanying  in- 
crease in  actual  weapons,  the  program  of  arma- 
ment looked  to  a  corresponding  increase  of  fight- 
ing manpower;  it  sought  to  put  over  1,000,000 
men  into  active  land  service  as  soon  as  might  be ; 
it  was  to  build  up  a  sufficient  reserve  to  provide 
4,000,000,  in  a  few  years,  if  needed  for  service  on 
a  full  wartime  footing. 

Ships,  planes,  tanks,  weapons,  and  properly 
trained  and  organized  men  to  use  them  were  to 
be  the  ultimate  products  of  the  defensive  effort. 
Equipment  had  to  be  manufactured  in  quantities  so 
great  as  to  occupy  a  substantial  part  of  the  Na- 
tion's industrial  capability  for  a  considerable  time. 
The  Government  had  to  call  upon  industry  to  pro- 
duce, without  ceasing  to  serve  normal  economic 
needs,  an  additional  output  forming  a  high  excess 
over  industry's  ordinary  yearly  total.  To  insure 
the  desired  production,  much  beyond  the  means  of 
the  existing  makers  of  armaments,  and  at  the  same 
time  avoid  checking  the  delivery  of  armament  or- 
dered by  Great  Britain,  the  Government  had  to 
promote  the  development  of  new  manufacturing 
establishments  Equally,  its  efforts  necessarily  in- 
cluded precautions  against  the  shortage  of  any  of 
the  indispensable  raw  materials,  in  some  cases  not 
indigenous;  thus,  tin,  hitherto  got  from  British 
smelters,  was  to  be  mined  in  Bolivia  and  smelted 
in  the  United  States.  Nor  did  the  defensive  pro- 
gram end  with  raw  materials  and  production. 
There  remained  the  procurement  and  improve- 
ment of  all  manner  of  sites  for  the  additional 
armaments,  from  cantonments  to  naval  bases.  In 
still  another  field  the  success  of  the  program  of 
defense  required  economic  and  military  material 
assistance  to  other  governments  able  to  help  in 
defense  as  the  United  States  planned  it — defense 
against  European  aggression  for  all  the  Americas 

Central  Organization.  Some  kind  of  central 
authority  had  to  watch  over  the  whole  work  of 
armament,  to  see  that  superable  obstacles  should 
not  cause  great  delays  nor  that  one  part  of  the 
undertaking  should  interfere  with  another.  In  the 
first  stages  of  the  program  at  least,  the  direction 
of  the  plans  as  an  entirety  remained  with  the 
President.  As  to  their  most  laborious  part,  that 
concerned  with  production,  a  National  Defense 
Advisory  Commission  (q.v.)  was  formed,  of  men 
of  high  rank  in  the  industrial  world,  to  help  in 
correcting  such  troubles  as  might  arise  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  required  material.  By  December 
some  at  least  of  the  leaders  in  the  Federal  effort 
to  put  order  and  speed  into  the  movement  of  de- 
fensive production  became  convinced  that  they 
needed  for  this  work  a  more  effective  instrument. 
The  heads  of  the  War  and  Navy  departments  sub- 
mitted (about  December  16)  to  the  President  a 
suggestion  that  he  appoint  a  board  of  three  with 
authority  to  manage  the  general  features  of  all 
production  for  the  defensive  preparations.  The 
President  accepted  the  idea  in  the  main,  but  modi- 
fied it  by  raising  the  proposed  board's  member- 


ship to  four,  so  as  to  include  a  voice  for  labor. 
President  Roosevelt  accordingly  created  (Decem- 
ber 20)  the  Office  for  Production  Management 
for  Defense  and  nominated  as  its  members  Wil- 
liam S.  Knudsen  (Director),  Sidney  Hillman  (As- 
sociate Director),  Secretary  of  War  Stimson,  and 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  Knox. 

Status  of  Producers  of  Armament.  Private 
enterprises  got  the  task  of  producing  a  great  part 
of  the  projected  warships  and  virtually  all  the 
bodies,  engines,  and  equipment  for  warplanes  and 
tanks.  The  Government's  own  navy  yards  had 
their  hands  full,  largely  with  the  construction  of 
35,000-ton  and  45,000-ton  battleships ;  its  military 
arsenals  were  also  working  to  their  limit  of  pro- 
duction. 

There  had  been  for  some  years  a  demand,  not 
widespread  but  energetic,  that  in  case  of  a  crisis 
in  the  country's  foreign  relations  the  Government 
should  take  over  the  industries  producing  arma- 
ment and  "take  the  profits  out  of  war."  Private 
enterprise  had  to  face  the  risk  that  this  demand 
might  in  a  moment  of  excitement  become  a  real- 
ity; they  had  to  face  in  particular  the  possibility 
that  a  piece  of  legislation  somewhat  akin  to  this 
demand,  the  so-called  plant-seizure  amendment 
(Section  9  of  the  Selective  Training  and  Service 
Act.  See  under  Conscription  of  Industry  of  the 
article  entitled  DRAFT,  MILITARY)  might  result 
in  the  Government's  supplanting  private  manage- 
ment of  great  companies  Apart  from  losing  the 
direction  of  their  investment,  would  companies  be 
allowed  to  make  a  profit  sufficient  for  their  tak- 
ing hazards  in  an  industry  of  uncertain  duration 
and,  in  many  cases,  one  more  or  less  unfamiliar? 
Since  concerted  production  involved  more  or  less 
restraint  of  trade  in  the  interest  of  heavier  pro- 
duction, and  since  arrangements  for  concerted 
action  as  to  such  things  as  quotas  of  material  were 
expected  of  them,  would  manufacturers  make 
themselves  liable  to  later  possible  prosecution 
under  the  law  against  monopoly?  Would  com- 
panies declared  by  the  NLRB  to  be  guilty  of  un- 
fair labor  practices  find  themselves,  perhaps  with 
a  half -per  formed  contract  on  their  hands,  ex- 
cluded from  performing  work  for  the  Govern- 
ment? There  was  the  further  uncertainty  how 
much  of  their  profits  manufacturers  would  have 
to  hand  back  to  the  Government  in  the  guise  of 
new  taxes  on  income.  Under  the  circumstances  the 
private  capital  lent  or  invested  toward  expanding 
or  altering  factories  and  their  material,  to  make 
armament,  fell  short  of  the  need.  The  Govern- 
ment's great  lending  agency,  the  RFC,  accordingly 
made  extensive  loans  for  carrying  out  the  needed 
improvements  within  the  desired  time  and  for  ac- 
quiring stocks  of  such  raw  materials  as  rubber. 
The  Government  also  undertook  to  build  some 
manufactories  for  private  operation. 

Some  of  the  manufacturers'  chief  difficulties 
were  promptly  settled.  The  War  Department  de- 
clared early  for  a  return  to  the  letting  of  con- 
tracts at  figures  based  on  the  cost  of  production 
and  a  percentage  of  profit  for  the  producer,  as  in 
1917-18.  The  prospects  as  to  the  payments  out  of 
these  profits  under  the  new  Federal  taxes  were 
clarified.  On  the  other  hand,  with  regard  to  the 
status  of  companies  held  by  the  NLRB  to  have 
failed  to  comply  with  the  Labor  Law,  Attorney- 
General  Jackson  held  (October  3)  that  the  De- 
fense Commission,  like  other  Federal  agencies, 
was  bound  by  the  NLRB's  decisions.  There  conse- 
quently existed  some  doubt  whether  contracts  with 


DEFENSIVE  PREPARATIONS    181    DEFENSIVE  PREPARATIONS 


producers  such  as  Ford,  General  Motors,  and  the 
Todd  shipyards,  on  the  NLRB's  blacklist  yet  es- 
sential to  the  program,  were  lawful. 

Early  Progress  in  Armament.  In  spite  of 
initial  delay  on  account  of  these  special  hindrances 
and  of  time  used  in  putting  factories  in  shape  for 
production,  the  U.S.  Treasury  reported  its  cash 
payments  on  account  of  defense,  for  the  three 
months  ending  with  September  30,  as  $594,975,- 
389.  These  were  not  represented  as  for  produced 
goods  alone;  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  pay- 
ments for  armament  were  likely  to  have  to  do 
with  orders  given  under  authorization  enacted  be- 
fore 1940.  Month  by  month  the  payments  were 
rising  by  some  $20,000,000  at  this  time.  The  De- 
fense Commission,  which  cleared  contracts,  re- 
ported that  it  had  put  through  a  total  of  $7,660,- 
000,000  of  these  in  approximately  the  same  period, 
while  the  Bureau  of  the  Budget  had  estimated  at 
$5,000,000,000  the  expenditures  to  be  made  on  ac- 
count of  defense  in  the  whole  fiscal  year  that 
started  with  July  1 ;  compared  with  these  totals 
the  actual  payments  for  the  quarter  that  began 
with  July  1  showed  that  the  flow  of  deliveries  of 
armament  on  contracts  under  the  provisions  of 
1940  had  barely  begun. 

Other  Defensive  Measures.  The  President, 
obtaining  from  Congress  the  authority  to  put  the 
National  Guard  into  service  even  though  the  emer- 
gency did  not  involve  the  Nation  in  actual  war, 
called  most  of  the  troops  of  this  body  into  serv- 
ice. The  authorizing  measure,  a  joint  resolution 
known  as  the  National  Guard  Resolution,  ap- 
proved by  the  President  on  August  22,  applied 
also  to  the  units  of  all  reserve  components  of  the 
Army ;  it  excepted  only  Guardsmen  under  the  age 
of  18  years  and,  upon  their  request,  older  mem- 
bers, of  rank  below  captain,  who  had  dependents 
to  support  by  their  earnings;  the  resolution  set 
the  duration  of  the  required  period  of  service  at 
twelve  consecutive  months  and  provided  that  the 
liability  to  a  call  for  such  service  should  extend 
until  June  30,  1942;  troops  that  were  called  could 
be  employed  only  in  the  Western  Hemisphere, 
American  "territories  and  possessions,"  and  the 
Philippine  Islands ;  not  all  need  be  put  in  service 
at  the  same  time;  safeguarding  clauses  sought  to 
assure  men  their  old  jobs  upon  discharge.  The 
mobilization  of  the  National  Guard  began  on  Sep- 
tember 16  upon  a  call  for  units  totaling  60,500 
men  in  26  States.  The  object  was  to  have  as  nearly 
as  possible  the  full  strength  of  the  organization 
(around  240,000  men)  in  service  by  the  end  of 
the  year.  The  reported  intention  of  the  Army  to 
have  1,000,000  on  duty  by  January  1  counted 
heavily  on  the  National  Guard  to  help  fill  this 
number  until  the  conscripts  under  the  Selective 
Service  Act  should  suffice,  with  the  mobile  part  of 
the  Regular  Army's  more  than  300,000  men,  to 
make  up  a  great  army  in  being.  The  lack  of 
enough  cantonments  and  equipment  imposed  the 
chief  restriction  to  full  immediate  mobilization  in 
the  autumn. 

For  the  scope  of  the  so-called  Two-Ocean  Navy 
Act,  looking  to  the  construction  of  from  80  to  90 
more  ships  of  war,  and  for  actual  progress  in 
naval  shipbuilding,  see  NAVAL  PROGRESS:  for  fur- 
ther details  as  to  the  land  forces,  see  MILITARY 
PROGRESS. 

The  individual  measures  of  foreign  policy  bear- 
ing particularly  on  the  military  program  of  the 
United  States  appear  in  UNITED  STATES  under 
Foreign  Affairs.  The  guiding  motives  in  these 


measures  were  the  strengthening,  by  means  con- 
ceived as  short  of  belligerency,  of  powers  (par- 
ticularly Great  Britain)  then  at  war  with  anti- 
democratic nations  and  the  promotion  of  closer  re- 
lations, as  to  mutual  defense,  with  other  govern- 
ments on  the  American  continents.  Both  from 
Great  Britain  and  from  some  of  the  American  re- 
publics the  United  States  obtained  rights  to  use 
specified  naval  and  aeronautical  bases. 

While  not  directly  presented  as  among  the  prep- 
aration for  possible  attack  from  abroad,  the  need 
to  restrain  the  dictator-run  countries'  partisans 
and  possible  secret  agents  played  an  unaccustomed 
part  in  the  operations  of  the  Federal  Government. 
Congress  passed  an  Alien  Registration  Act  (signed 
June  28)  :  It  required  aliens  residing  in  the  United 
States  to  present  themselves  and  be  registered  and 
have  their  fingerprints  recorded  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Justice  within  six  months;  those  failing 
to  do  so  became  liable  to  fine  and  imprisonment  up 
to  $1000  and  six  months;  the  bill  also  rendered 
attempt  to  cause  mutiny  or  insubordination  in  the 
armed  forces  a  crime  punishable  by  $10,000  fine 
and  ten  years'  imprisonment.  Provision  was  made 
for  about  500  agents  of  the  FBI  in  an  allied  act ; 
they  were  to  detect  spies  and  "sabotage"  (covert 
acts  to  cripple  essential  operations  by  damaging 
equipment  or  facilities).  Another  act  (signed  Oc- 
tober 18)  obliged  organizations  either  under  for- 
eign control  or  advocating  the  forcible  overthrow 
of  the  Government  to  register  with  the  Department 
of  Justice.  The  registration  of  some  3,500,000 
aliens,  a  laborious  task,  was  carried  on  in  the  post 
offices  during  the  latter  half  of  the  year.  For  ac- 
tivity against  sedition  see  also  DIES  COMMITTEE. 

Attitude  of  Organized  Labor.  The  program 
of  rapid  armament  set  out  for  its  goal  expecting, 
according  to  an  estimate  of  the  Secretary  of 
Labor,  to  have  to  hire  or  make  manufacturers  and 
contractors  hire  6,000,000  people;  but  the  pro- 
grain  carried  no  special  authority  to  check  strikes 
or  similar  suspensions  of  work  in  an  activity  both 
vast  and  reputedly  of  utmost  importance  to  the 
National  safety.  Only  a  few  minor  strikes  and 
interruptions  of  work  on  account  of  jurisdictional 
disputes  between  unions  arose  to  delay  progress 
prior  to  the  National  election.  But  as  in  1936,  soon 
after  election  day,  the  C.I.O.  started  a  strike  that 
on  November  15  halted  the  work  of  a  force  of 
5200  at  an  establishment  of  Vultee  Aircraft,  Inc., 
in  Los  Angeles.  The  firm  had  undertaken  to  fill 
Federal  orders  for  about  $82,000,000 ;  much  of  the 
total  covered  airplanes  of  the  type  needed  for 
training  pilots;  the  Government  would  require 
these  long  before  it  could  make  use  of  the  great 
stock  of  airplanes  that  it  was  ordering  for  need 
in  case  of  actual  war.  Deliveries  of  the  training 
airplanes  were  currently  due  at  the  rate  of  more 
than  200  a  week.  As  the  strike  went  on,  Philip 
Murray,  on  assuming  (November  22)  the  presi- 
dency of  the  C.I.O.,  warned  the  Government  not 
"to  force  shotgun  agreements  between  the  C.I.O. 
and  the  A.F.L."  and  intimated  a  purpose  to  pro- 
ceed first  with  establishing  the  C.I.O.  in  the  in- 
dustries for  defense  The  Dies  Committee  came 
out  about  the  same  time  with  an  announcement 
that  it  would  investigate  the  strike;  Attorney- 
General  Jackson  rejoined  (November  23)  that  the 
FBI  had  already  investigated  it,  had  found  the 
influence  of  Communists  in  it,  and  had  reported 
to  the  War  and  Navy  Departments ;  Jackson's  re- 
joinder cast  blame  on  the  committee's  "effort  to 
disparage  and  discredit  the  good  work  of  the 


DELAWARE 


182 


DENMARK 


FBI."  The  Defense  Commission  had  a  member, 
Sidney  Hillman,  in  special  charge  of  matters  af- 
fecting labor,  but  his  powers  did  not  extend  be- 
yond advice  and  conciliation  and  seemed  inade- 
quate for  quelling  anything  like  a  repetition  of  the 
series  of  strikes  engineered  by  the  C.I.O.  in  1937. 
The  Vultee  strike,  after  running  for  12  days, 
ended  in  higher  pay  for  a  great  part  of  the  em- 
ployees, at  a  cost  of  about  $1,262,000  a  year,  and 
an  agreement  to  compose  or  arbitrate  future  dif- 
ferences. 

Compare  the  topics  listed  under  DEFENSE,  NA- 
TIONAL. 

DELAWARE.  Area,  2434  square  miles,  in- 
cluding (with  area  added  by  the  revision  of  the 
New  Jersey  boundary)  469  square  miles  of  water. 
Population,  Apr.  1,  1940  (census),  266,505;  1930, 
238,380.  Cities  (1940) :  Wilmington,  112,504;  Do- 
ver (the  capital),  5517. 

Agriculture.  Delaware's  harvest  of  the  prin- 
cipal crops  comprised,  for  1940, 366,000  acres.  Corn, 
on  141,000  acres,  made  3,948,000  bu. ;  in  estimated 
value  to  the  farmers,  $2,685,000.  Wheat,  on  74,000 
acres,  grew  1,406,000  bu.  (value,  about  $1,097,- 
000) ;  tame  hay,  75,000  acres,  101,000  tons  ($1,162,- 
000)  ;  apples  yielded  1,909,000  bu.  for  market 
($1,718,000);  peaches,  437,000  bu.  ($306,000); 
sweet  potatoes,  on  5000  acres,  725,000  bu.  ($580,- 
000). 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40  Del- 
aware's inhabitants  of  school  age  were  estimated 
at  52,000.  The  year's  enrollments  of  all  pupils  in 
public  schools  numbered  44,798;  this  comprised  426 
in  kindergartens,  26,111  in  the  elementary  group, 
and  18,261  in  high  school.  The  year's  expenditure 
for  public-school  education  amounted  to  $4,184,- 
938,  current ;  and  to  $4,994,925,  total.  The  public 
schools'  1717  teachers  received  yearly  salaries  av- 
eraging $1589. 

History.  At  the  general  elections  (November  5) 
the  popular  vote  for  President  went  to  Roosevelt 
(Dem.)  by  74,599  to  61,440  for  Willkie  (Rep.), 
or  by  about  5  to  4.  For  United  States  Senator, 
James  M.  Tunnell  (Dem.)  defeated  John  G.  Town- 
send,  Jr.  (Rep.),  the  incumbent.  For  Governor, 
however,  the  vote  went  to  Walter  W.  Bacon 
(Rep.)  and  against  Josiah  Marvel,  Jr.  (Dem.). 

Officers.  Delaware's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  Richard  C.  McMullen 
(Dem.) ;  Lieutenant  Governor,  Edward  W.  Cooch ; 
Secretary  of  State,  Josiah  Marvel,  Jr. ;  Attorney 
General,  James  R.  Morf ord ;  Treasurer,  Fagan  H. 
Simonton ;  Auditor,  Benjamin  I.  Shaw ;  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction,  Dr.  H.  V.  Hollo- 
way. 

DEMOCRATIC  PARTY,  CONVEN- 
TION, AND  CAMPAIGN.  See  ELECTIONS, 
U.S.  NATIONAL. 

DEMOCRATS  FOR  WILLKIE.  See  ELEC- 
TIONS. U.S.  NATIONAL. 

DENMARK.  A  formerly  independent  kingdom 
of  northwestern  Europe,  occupied  by  German 
armed  forces  on  Apr.  9,  1940.  It  comprises  the 
peninsula  of  Jutland,  the  two  main  islands  of  Zea- 
land and  Funen,  and  about  200  smaller  adjacent 
islands  in  the  Baltic.  The  Faroe  Islands  (q.v.),  an 
integral  part  of  the  kingdom,  were  occupied  by 
British  troops  on  April  13  pending  the  outcome  of 
the  European  War.  Greenland  (q.v.),  a  Danish  de- 
pendency, remained  under  the  control  of  the  local 
Danish  administration  but  direct  contact  with  the 
Copenhagen  Government  was  severed  when  the 
German  occupation  of  Denmark, took  place.  The 


King  of  Denmark  is  also  King  of  Iceland  (q.v.). 
On  Apr.  9,  1940,  the  Icelandic  Parliament  voted 
temporarily  to  nullify  the  King's  executive  pow- 
ers and  to  assume  independent  control  of  Iceland's 
foreign  relations.  Capital  of  Denmark,  Copenhagen 
(Kobenhavn).  King,  Christian  X,  who  succeeded 
to  the  throne  May  14:  1912. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  excluding  the  out- 
lying possessions,  16,576  square  miles.  Estimated 
population  on  Jan.  1,  1940,  3,825,000.  American 
citizens  living  in  Denmark  on  that  date  numbered 
552.  Living  births  in  1939  numbered  67,914  (17.8 
per  1000);  deaths,  38,535  (10.1);  marriages  in 
1938  totaled  33,624  (8.9).  Populations  of  the  chief 
cities  at  the  1935  census  were :  Copenhagen,  843,- 
168;  Aarhus,  90,898;  Odense,  76,116;  Aalborg, 
48,132. 

Education  and  Religion.  There  is  no  illiteracy. 
The  4472  lower  schools  had  480,000  pupils  on  Jan. 
1,  1938;  secondary,  professional,  and  vocational 
schools,  74,100 ;  the  two  universities  at  Copenhagen 
and  Aarhus,  5700.  The  1921  census  showed  3,221,- 
843  Protestants,  22,137  Roman  Catholics,  5947  Jews. 
Production.  About  35  per  cent  of  the  working 
population  is  engaged  in  agriculture  and  dairying 
and  33  per  cent  in  industry.  Commerce  and  fishing 
are  other  principal  occupations.  The  July  15,  1939, 
livestock  census  showed  3,127,000  swine,  3,258,000 
cattle,  564,000  horses,  and  27,500,000  hens.  Produc- 
tion in  1939  (in  metric  tons)  was  •  Butter,  179,- 
000;  margarine,  84,100,  cheese,  35,700  (1938); 
meat,  393,300  (1938);  wheat,  414,700;  barley, 
2,226,500;  rye,  238,100;  oats,  994,300;  potatoes, 
113,000;  beet  sugar,  218,700;  milk,  51,554,000  hec- 
toliters. The  sea  fisheries  in  1939  yielded  88,000 
metric  tons  valued  at  43,000,000  crowns.  Brandy 
produced  in  1938  totaled  96,000  hectoliters ;  beer, 
2,332,900.  Ship  construction  totaled  140,000  gross 
tons  in  1939. 

Foreign  Trade.  Total  imports  in  1939  were 
valued  at  1,742,000,000  crowns  (1,640,900,000  in 
1938);  total  exports,  1,575,000,000  (1,550,600,000 
in  1938).  The  1939  imports  by  leading  countries 
of  origin  were  (1938  figures  in  parentheses)  : 
United  Kingdom,  574,000,000  crowns  (566,564,000) ; 
Germany,  470,000,000  (401,700,000) ;  United  States, 
127,000,000  (131,207,000);  Sweden,  126,000,000 
(106,000,000).  Exports  by  countries  were:  To  the 
United  Kingdom,  826,000,000  crowng  (860,800,000 
in  1938);  Germany,  368,000,000  (304,900,000); 
United  States,  21,000,000  (16,900,000).  Agricul- 
tural exports  in  1939  were  valued  at  about  1,100,- 
000,000  crowns  as  against  industrial  exports  of 
about  400,000,000  crowns.  See  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  Closed  accounts  for  the  fiscal  year 
ended  Mar.  31,  1940,  showed  receipts  of  640,800,- 
000  crowns  and  expenditures  of  631,500,000  crowns 
in  the  ordinary  budget  The  1940-41  ordinary  esti- 
mates placed  receipts  at  644,400,000  crowns,  ex- 
penditures at  693,100,000.  The  public  debt  was 
1,229,141,000  crowns  on  Mar.  31,  1939.  The  crown 
(krone)  averaged  $0.2183  in  1938  and  $0.2035  in 
1939.  In  April,  1940,  the  German  Government  fixed 
the  official  relative  value  of  the  Danish  crown  at 
two  crowns  to  one  reichsmark. 

Transportation.  Railway  statistics  for  1938-39 
fiscal  year  (ended  March  31) :  Miles  of  line,  3189 
(state-owned.  1625) ;  freight,  4,868,147  metric  tons ; 
passengers,  52,014,366;  operating  deficit,  4,500,000 
crowns.  Highways  extended  32,212  miles  (1939). 
The  Danish  Air  Transportation  Company  carried 
71,750  passengers  in  1939  (65,179  in  1938).  The 
Danish  merchant  fleet  on  Jan.  1,  1940,  comprised 


DENMARK 


736  Teasels  of  1,171,128  tons.  Earnings  of  the  mer- 
chant marine  in  1939  were  estimated  at  450,000,000 
crowns  (280,000,000  in  1938).  During  1939  23,744 
ships  of  7,600,000  net  registered  tons  entered  the 
port  of  Copenhagen. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  June  5, 1915, 
as  amended  Sept.  10,  1920,  vests  executive  power 
in  the  King  acting  through  a  cabinet  responsible  to 
the  Rigsdag  (Parliament).  Legislative  power  rests 
jointly  in  the  King  and  Rigsdag.  The  Folketing 
(lower  chamber  of  the  Rigsdag)  consists  of  149 
members  elected  for  four  years  by  proportional 
representation.  The  Landsting  (upper  chamber) 
comprises  76  members  serving  for  eight  years ;  19 
members  are  elected  by  the  Landsting  itself  and 
every  four  years  half  the  remainder  is  elected  in- 
directly by  voters  of  over  35  years.  Premier  in 
1940,  Thorvald  A.  M.  Stauning  (Social  Demo- 
crat), heading  a  coalition  government  of  the  Social 
Democratic  and  Radical  parties.  For  events  of 
1940,  see  History. 

HISTORY 

Although  the  Danish  Government  clung  to  the 
policy  of  strict  neutrality  adopted  upon  the  out- 
break of  the  European  War  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 
1939,  p.  194),  neither  this  nor  the  non-aggression 
pact  signed  with  Germany  on  May  31,  1939,  suf- 
ficed to  prevent  the  long-dreaded  invasion.  German 
armed  forces  on  Apr.  9,  1940,  occupied  the  king- 
dom "for  the  duration  of  this  war,"  meeting  virtu- 
ally no  resistance  from  the  small  Danish  army. 

Strains  on  Neutrality.  A  hint  that  Denmark 
did  not  feel  prepared  to  defend  itself  against  ag- 
gression was  given  by  Premier  Stauning  in  his 
New  Year's  Day  address  to  the  nation.  The  ad- 
verse repercussions  of  this  statement  led  the  Folke- 
ting on  January  19  to  resolve,  135  to  0,  with  the 
German  member  from  Schleswig  abstaining,  that 
"the  country's  neutrality  must  be  maintained  and 
...  all  disposable  means  if  necessary  shall  be 
used  to  keep  order,  preserve  and  protect  the  realm's 
peace  and  independence  .  .  ." 

Soon  afterwards  control  of  Danish  shipping  by 
the  British  blockade  and  the  systematic  sinkings  of 
Danish  ships  by  German  submarines  and  airplanes 
were  intensified.  On  February  25  the  Danish,  Nor- 
wegian, and  Swedish  Foreign  Ministers  conferred 
in  Copenhagen.  They  decided  to  support  one  an- 
other in  all  negotiations  with  the  belligerents  and 
formally  demanded  that  the  neutral  rights  of  the 
Scandinavian  States  be  respected.  Compensations 
would  be  demanded  for  losses  resulting  from  such 
violations,  it  was  agreed,  and  the  three  States 
would  resist  any  attempt  by  either  side  to  involve 
them  in  the  war. 

In  accordance  with  these  decisions,  the  three 
governments  on  February  29  sent  Germany,  Great 
Britain^  and  France  uniform  protests  against  in- 
discriminate warfare  on  neutral  shipping.  In  reply 
Germany  charged  that  acceptance  of  the  British 
contraband  control  system  was  not  in  conformity 
with  either  the  neutrality  or  the  sovereignty  of 
non-belligerent  States,  while  the  British  Ministry 
of  Economic  Warfare  insisted  that  it  was  the  duty 
of  neutrals  to  submit  to  this  "exercise  of  belliger- 
ent rights."  This  was  followed  on  March  12  by  an 
Anglo-Danish  trade  agreement  under  which  Den- 
mark t  agreed  not  to  re-export  to  Germany  many 
vital  imports  from  overseas  and  to  restrict  ship- 
ments of  Danish  products  to  the  Reich 

The  German  Invasion.  Without  the  slightest 
warning,  German  motorized  troops  crossed  the 


183  D2CNMASK 

virtually  undefended  Danish  frontier  on  the  early 
morning  of  April  9  and  drove  rapidly  northward, 
leaving  units  in  control  of  the  Danish  cities  and 
towns.  Other  troop  contingents  landed  at  Middel- 
f  art  on  the  island  of  Funen,  at  Korsor  and  Nyborg 
on  the  Great  Belt,  and  at  Gedser,  Danish  terminus 
of  the  Warnemuende  Ferry.  At  the  same  time 
Copenhagen  was  seized  by  about  1000  German 
troops,  secreted  in  the  holds  of  three  ships  dis- 
guised as  colliers,  which  had  been  guided  through 
mine  fields  guarding  the  port  by  an  unsuspecting 
Danish  pilot.  Hundreds  of  German  warplanes  thun- 
dering overhead  helped  to  overawe  the  Danish 
State  Council,  consisting  of  King  Christian,  Pre- 
mier Stauning,  Foreign  Minister  Peter  Munch,  and 
Defense  Minister  Alsing  Andersen,  which  met  in 
the  King's  residence.  The  Council  decided  to  ca- 
pitulate, with  a  formal  protest  at  the  German  in- 
vasion. 

According  to  Gen.  Leonhard  Kaupisch,  Com- 
mander of  the  German  forces,  the  invasion  was 
accomplished  with  such  speed,  secrecy,  and  thor- 
oughness that  the  Danes  were  taken  completely  by 
surprise.  Before  the  Danish  troops  received  the 
order  of  their  government  to  surrender,  some  minor 
clashes  took  place  in  South  Jutland  in  which  a 
score  of  Danes  were  killed  and  double  that  number 
wounded.  The  German  forces  lost  only  a  few  dead 
and  wounded.  Considerably  more  than  an  army 
corps  was  used  to  establish  German  control  of  the 
kingdom.  As  in  Norway,  the  Netherlands  and 
other  countries,  the  German  troops  were  aided  in 
the  conquest  by  both  German  agents  in  Denmark 
and  Nazi  sympathizers  among  the  Danes.  Fritz 
Clausen,  leader  of  the  small  Danish  Nazi  party, 
was  reported  to  have  appeared  in  a  Storm  Trooper 
uniform  to  direct  operations  on  the  Copenhagen 
waterfront  when  the  German  troops  landed. 

While  the  military  occupation  of  the  capital  was 
in  progress,  the  German  Minister  in  Copenhagen 
handed  the  Danish  Government  a  memorandum 
identical  with  that  submitted  to  the  Norwegian 
Government  on  the  same  day.  It  charged  that  Den- 
mark "had  failed  to  resist  earlier  transgressions  by 
England  and  France,"  that  it  could  not  resist  a  sur- 
prise Anglo-French  occupation  alleged  to  be  im- 
pending, and  that  German  troops  entered  Denmark 
not  in  a  hostile  spirit  but  merely  "to  safeguard  the 
Danes  against  the  intended  occupation  of  Danish 
strategic  points  by  English  and  French  forces " 
"Germany,"  the  statement  concluded,  "has  no  in- 
tention through  her  measures  now  or  in  the  future 
of  touching  upon  the  territorial  integrity  and  po- 
litical independence  of  the  kingdom  of  Denmark." 

The  Protectorate.  Under  the  German  protec- 
torate the  Danish  armed  forces  were  demobilized 
(April  17)  and  German  troops  occupied  their  bar- 
racks. General  Kaupisch  retained  control  of  all 
military  matters,  while  the  German  Minister  in 
Copenhagen,  Dr.  Cecil  von  Rente-Finck,  with  the 
aid  of  a  greatly  enlarged  staff,  assumed  super- 
vision of  Denmark's  economic  life  and  foreign  af- 
fairs. The  powers  of  the  Danish  King  and  Gov- 
ernment were  progressively  restricted. 

On  April  10  Premier  Stauning  told  an  extraor- 
dinary session  of  the  Rigsdag  that  his  government 
would  remain  in  office.  "The  King  and  his  present 
Ministers  have  so  resolved,"  he  was  quoted  as  say- 
ing, "with  confidence  in  Germany's  assurance  that 
Germany  does  not  intend  to  harm  Denmark's  ter- 
ritorial integrity  or  political  independence  by  the 
measures  that  have  been  effectuated  to  regulate  the 
mutual  relations  resulting  from  the  occupation." 


DENMARK 


184 


DENMARK 


The  Stauning  Cabinet  was  reorganized  on  the  same 
day.  The  Social  Democratic  and  Radical  Ministers 
all  retained  their  posts,  but  the  cabinet  was  ex- 
panded to  include  three  Conservatives  and  three 
Liberals  serving  as  Ministers  without  Portfolio. 
This  brought  all  four  of  the  major  political  parties 
into  the  government. 

Under  orders  from  Berlin,  censorship  of  the 
press  was  instituted  along  with  blackouts  and  other 
wartime  measures.  Air  raid  drills  were  held  in 
Copenhagen  and  bomb  shelters  constructed  through- 
out the  city.  The  Danish  airport  at  Aalborg  in  Jut- 
land, used  by  German  planes  in  connection  with 
the  Norwegian  campaign,  was  repeatedly  bombed 
by  British  airmen,  with  some  damage  to  the  adja- 
cent civilian  population. 

Relations  between  occupationary  officials  and 
forces  and  the  Danish  population  were  peaceful  at 
first.  However  the  growing  German  economic  exac- 
tions, activities  of  the  German  secret  police,  and 
the  increasing  pressure  upon  the  Danish  people 
and  government  to  accept  their  allotted  role  in  the 
German  "new  order"  in  Europe  caused  growing 
resentment  and  a  stiffening  of  resistance.  The 
growth  of  Danish  national  patriotism  was  evidenced 
by  the  enthusiasm  with  which  Constitution  Day 
was  celebrated  on  July  5  and  by  great  demonstra- 
tions of  national  unity  and  loyalty  to  King  Chris- 
tian on  the  occasion  of  his  70th  birthday  (Septem- 
ber 26). 

Minor  clashes  between  German  troops  and  young 
Danes  were  reported  with  increasing  regularity, 
along  with  cases  of  sabotage.  A  decree  of  June  14 
ordered  the  surrender  of  all  private  arms,  includ- 
ing hunting  rifles,  at  police  stations.  Encouraged 
from  Berlin,  the  Danish  National  Socialist  party 
waged  an  increasingly  aggressive  campaign  against 
the  kingdom's  democratic  government  and  institu- 
tions. On  July  2,  154  young  Nazis  were  arrested 
for  holding  a  street  demonstration  in  violation  of 
the  law  forbidding  political  gatherings.  The  Danish 
authorities  proved  unable  to  curb  Nazi  meetings, 
however,  and  on  October  27  the  Social  Democratic 
unions  of  Copenhagen  held  their  first  political 
mass  meeting  since  April  to  counter  Nazi  propa- 
ganda. Severe  rioting  between  uniformed  Danish 
Nazi  demonstrators  and  anti-Nazi  crowds  occurred 
in  the  capital  on  November  18  and  in  the  South 
Jutland  town  of  Hadersleben  on  December  9. 

In  an  effort  to  resist  growing  pressure  from  the 
German  occupationary  authorities  and  their  Dan- 
ish Nazi  allies,  the  five  principal  political  parties  on 
July  3  formally  agreed  to  "abandon  all  points  of 
disagreement  and  unite  to  make  secure  the  inde- 
pendence and  integrity  promised  our  country."  A 
new  coalition  cabinet  was  formed  July  8.  The  So- 
cial Democratic  Premier,  Thorwald  Stauning,  re- 
tained his  position  but  as  a  concession  to  Germany 
Eric  Scavenius,  Foreign  Minister  during  the  first 
World  War,  succeeded  Dr.  Munch  at  the  Foreign 
Office.  Scavenius  was  reported  to  have  endorsed 
the  Reich's  "new  order"  in  Europe.  At  the  year's 
end,  it  was  indicated  that  the  German  authorities, 
despite  protests  of  the  King,  were  demanding  the 
elimination  of  the  Social  Democrats  from  the  gov- 
ernment and  their  replacement  by  Danish  Nazi 
leaders. 

The  transformation  of  Denmark  into  an  eco- 
nomic and  political  vassal  of  the  Reich  also  led  the 
Danish  trade  unions  and  employers'  associations  to 
unite  in  defense  of  Danish  national  interests.  Work- 
ers and  employers  agreed  to  abandon  strikes  and 
lockouts,  settle  all  disagreements  by  negotiation  or 


arbitration,  and  use  their  funds,  accumulated  for 
the  purpose  of  fighting  one  another,  to  create  more 
work  and  stabilize  economic  conditions.  With  the 
consent  of  both  labor  and  capital,  laws  putting 
these  principles  into  practice  were  promulgated  by 
the  Danish  Government  In  October  a  Danish  Na- 
tional Council  was  formed  in  London  to  win  Brit- 
ish support  for  the  restoration  of  Danish  inde- 
pendence. 

Economic  Difficulties.  The  German  occupa- 
tion meanwhile  was  rapidly  undermining  the  bases 
of  Danish  prosperity.  Even  before  the  invasion,  the 
economic  strain  of  the  war  led  Denmark  to  seek 
a  $10,000,000  credit  from  the  U.S.  Import-Export 
Bank.  Washington  granted  the  credit,  but  with- 
drew it  upon  news  of  the  German  occupation.  The 
Germans  thereafter  systematically  expropriated 
Denmark's  economic  resources  to  meet  the  Reich's 
wartime  needs.  Food,  gasoline,  and  coal  were 
strictly  rationed.  Reserve  stocks  of  oil,  raw  mate- 
rials and  foodstuffs  were  shipped  to  the  Reich.  The 
economic  activities  of  the  Danes  were  closely  reg- 
ulated by  the  German  authorities. 

Private  driving  of  automobiles  was  ended  almost 
immediately  and  in  the  autumn  the  fuel  shortage 
led  the  authorities  to  limit  permits  granted  for  the 
operation  of  trucks  and  buses  equipped  with  wood- 
gas  and  peat-gas  generators.  Travel  and  train  serv- 
ice was  greatly  restricted.  The  use  of  alcohol  ex- 
cept light  beer  and  wine  was  prohibited,  as  was  the 
production  of  margarine,  lead,  rubber,  and  cocoa 
products  except  when  they  were  for  military  and 
related  purposes. 

Large  quantities  of  livestock,  butter,  bacon,  eggs, 
and  other  products  were  shipped  to  Germany.  They 
were  "paid  for"  at  first  with  German-issued  credit 
certificates  that  circulated  only  in  Denmark.  When 
the  Danish  farmers  refused  to  exchange  their  prod- 
ucts for  this  virtually  worthless  paper,  the  Danish 
National  Bank  was  forced  to  finance  the  purchase 
of  Danish  produce  with  Danish  currency  through 
a  so-called  German  clearing  account.  The  Ger- 
mans fixed  their  own  prices  for  both  the  Danish 
produce  sent  to  Germany  and  German  manufac- 
tures and  other  goods  received  by  Denmark  in  ex- 
change. In  addition  the  German  Government  paid 
into  this  clearing  account  the  wages  of  thousands 
of  Danish  workers  who  accepted  employment  in 
Germany  when  their  own  industries  were  forced 
to  shut  down  Despite  these  wage  payments  and  the 
fixing  of  import  and  export  prices  at  rates  highly 
favorable  to  Germany,  the  Danish  Minister  of 
Commerce  reported  in  August  that  in  four  months 
the  German  trade  debt  to  Denmark  had  risen  by 
800,000,000  crowns. 

Inability  to  import  fodder  forced  the  slaughter- 
ing for  export  to  Germany  of  half  of  Denmark's 
pigs,  one-fourth  of  its  cattle,  and  a  large  propor- 
tion of  its  poultry  by  the  end  of  September.  The 
potato  crop  of  Jutland  was  requisitioned  by  the 
Germans.  White  bread  was  added  to  the  list  of 
rationed  articles  August  31,  butter  in  November, 
and  soap  on  December  31.  The  fat  content  of  all 
cheese  and  cream  was  drastically  reduced  by  gov- 
ernment decree  on  November  21  to  maintain  ex- 
ports to  Germany  while  safeguarding  the  domestic 
consumption  of  milk  and  butter.  As  a  result  of  the 
slaughter  of  livestock  and  other  factors,  milk  out- 
put at  the  beginning  of  December,  1940,  was  esti- 
mated to  be  25  to  30  per  cent  lower  than  a  year 
before,  while  butter  production  was  30  to  35  per 
cent  lower.  Prices  of  all  necessities  had  steadily 
risen.  Fuel  prices  were  100  per  cent  higher  at  the 


DENTISTRY 


185 


DENTISTRY 


end  of  September,  1940,  than  a  year  earlier;  food. 
21  per  cent;  taxes,  37  per  cent. 

The  Danes  were  also  obliged  to  accept  Germany 
as  the  middleman  in  trade  agreements  made  subse- 
quent to  the  occupation  in  an  effort  to  find  new 
markets  to  replace  that  lost  in  Great  Britain.  A 
special  barter  agreement  was  concluded  with  Fin- 
land June  4.  Under  a  triangular  clearing  agree- 
ment concluded  in  August,  German  products  valued 
at  approximately  30,000,000  Swedish  crowns  were 
to  be  imported  into  Sweden  in  payment  for  Swed- 
ish exports  to  Denmark.  A  similar  arrangement 
for  the  first  half  of  1941  was  concluded  in  Decem- 
ber. A  Danish-Soviet  trade  and  payments  agree- 
ment was  made  September  17. 

The  earnings  of  the  Danish  merchant  marine, 
source  of  an  important  part  of  the  national  income, 
were  sharply  curtailed.  Danish  ships  in  Allied  ports 
were  requisitioned  and  chartered  by  the  British 
and  French  Governments  after  the  German  occu- 
pation. The  Allied  governments  gave  Danish  own- 
ers of  ships  in  neutral  ports  until  June  8  to  register 
their  ships  under  either  the  British  or  French  flags 
and  charter  them  to  the  Allies  for  the  duration  of 
the  war.  Thereafter  Danish  vessels  not  transferred 
to  an  Allied  flag  were  declared  "enemy  ships," 
subject  to  seizure  on  the  high  seas  as  prizes  of  war. 
Consequently  many  of  the  Danish  ships  remained 
idle  in  neutral  ports. 

Royal  Heir  Born.  The  line  of  succession  to 
the  Danish  throne  was  secured  on  Feb.  17,  1940, 
with  the  birth  of  a  son  to  Princess  Caroline  Ma- 
thilde,  wife  of  Prince  Knud,  second  son  of  King 
Christian.  Crown  Prince  Frederik  and  his  wife 
had  no  children. 

See  FAROE  ISLANDS,  GERMANY,  GREAT  BRITAIN, 
GREENLAND,  ICELAND  under  History;  EUROPEAN 
WAR  under  The  Norwegian  Campaign]  LABOR 
CONDITIONS  ;  LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS  ;  NAVAL  PROG- 
RESS. 

DENTISTRY.  The  Dental  Centenary  Cele- 
bration at  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  March  was  the  event 
of  the  year  1940.  It  commemorated  the  founding 
of  the  first  dental  school  in  North  America  at 
Baltimore,  the  meeting  of  the  first  dental  society  as 
a  recorded  organization,  and  the  appearance  of 
the  first  dental  journal,  all  one  hundred  years  ago. 
The  most  striking  features  of  the  occasion  were 
the  historical  exhibits,  the  historical  drama,  and 
the  academic  convocation.  The  general  and  scien- 
tific sessions,  although  carefully  conceived  and  well 
administered,  do  not  present  either  an  adequate  or 
an  undistorted  picture  of  either  the  science  or  art 
of  dentistry.  There  were  19  sessions,  each  limited 
to  a  particular  field  of  dentistry,  and  three  general 
meetings.  For  each  scientific  section  there  were 
three  formal  papers  and  brief  introductions  of 
each  essayist  by  either  the  chairman  or  vice-chair- 
man. The  selection  of  these  section  officers  and 
the  speakers  was  intended  to  be  representative  of 
the  outstanding  figures  in  each  group  from  North 
America.  On  the  other  hand  the  contents  of  the 
papers  are  not  always  indicative  of  the  most  sig- 
nificant contributions  of  the  authors  to  dentistry 
The  roster  of  the  participants  in  the  various  ac- 
tivities of  the  Centenary  includes  most  of  those 
currently  and  productively  active  in  dentistry  in 
the  United  States  and  many  from  outside.  The 
voluminous  proceedings  cover  all  phases  of  the 
Centenary's  activities  and  is  handsomely  illustrated 
(Proc.  Dental  Centenary  Celebration,  Baltimore' 
Waverly  Press,  1940.) 

Kellogg   Foundation   Institute.   April   3rd 


marked  the  dedication  and  formal  opening  of  the 
W.  K.  Kellogg  Foundation  Institute  for  Graduate 
and  Post-graduate  Dentistry  at  the  University  of 
Michigan.  In  the  minds  of  the  donors  this  Institute 
was  given  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  "graduate 
and  post-graduate  education  under  the  sponsorship 
and  direction  of  the  school  of  dentistry  of  the  uni- 
versity." It  was  accepted  by  the  university  with 
the  belief  that  "this  institution  represents  one  more 
step  toward  securing  better  health  for  the  people 
of  Michigan."  For  nearly  ten  years  this  Founda- 
tion has  been  experimenting  with  methods  to  im- 
prove the  quality  of  health  service  given  to  the 
inhabitants  of  five  counties  centrally  located  in  the 
State.  Amongst  others  it  has  encouraged  the  den- 
tists to  take  postgraduate  courses,  arranged  for 
and  supported  suitable  courses  in  and  outside  of 
the  State.  In  addition  it  has  contributed  to  the  per- 
sonal and  traveling  expenses  of  the  groups  organ- 
ized for  such  study.  The  success  of  these  experi- 
ments in  the  form  of  better  health  service  to  the 
communities  served  by  these  dentists  fixed  the  de- 
termination of  the  Foundation  to  establish  the  In- 
stitute under  the  direction  of  the  Dental  School  of 
the  University  of  Michigan,  no  doubt  because  of 
its  confidence  in  the  ability  of  the  dental  school 
faculty  with  the  help  and  backing  of  the  rest  of 
the  university  to  make  the  largest  possible  con- 
tribution toward  securing  better  health  for  the 
people  of  Michigan  within  the  limits  of  dentistry 
The  plan  obviously  aims  to  increase  both  the  quan- 
tity and  quality  of  dental  service  within  the  bor- 
ders of  the  State.  The  new  building  was  made  pos- 
sible through  financial  support  from,  not  only,  the 
Kellogg  Foundation,  but  also  Federal  and  State 
Agencies.  (Jour.  Amer.  Den.  Assoc.  27: 817) 

Harvard  Plan  for  Reorganization  of  Den- 
tal Education.  In  contrast  with  the  above  a  new 
departure  which  "will  combine  the  basic  knowledge 
and  skills  of  both  medicine  and  dentistry  and  is 
designed  to  train  new  types  of  scientific  workers 
for  the  attack  on  the  great  public  health  problem 
of  dental  disease"  was  announced  by  Harvard  Uni- 
versity at  about  the  time  of  the  beginning  of  the 
present  scholastic  year.  "Under  the  new  program, 
the  Harvard  Dental  School  will  be  renamed  the 
Harvard  School  of  Dental  Medicine.  Dental  Stu- 
dents will  register  in  both  the  new  School  of  Den- 
tal Medicine  and  in  the  Harvard  Medical  School, 
taking  three  and  one-half  years  of  the  same  medi- 
cal courses  as  other  students  in  the  Harvard  Medi- 
cal School,  and  in  addition  one  and  one-half  years 
of  specific  training.  Graduates  will  receive  both  the 
M.D.  and  D.M.D.  (Doctor  of  Dental  Medicine) 
degrees.  ...  It  is  planned  to  limit  admissions  to 
the  new  School  of  Dental  Medicine  to  a  small 
number  of  highly  qualified  men  who  will  be  pre- 
pared for  certain  particular  opportunities  in  the 
dental  field ;  in  teaching,  research,  special  types  of 
practice,  general  practice  and  public  health.  .  .  . 
The  new  program  will  go  into  operation  in  the  fall 
of  1941."  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  regular 
M.D.  degree  is  conferred  hy  most  schools  now 
only  after  an  overall  five  year  course,  four  years 
in  medical  school  proper  and  not  less  than  one 
additional  year  as  a  hospital  interne  under  medical 
school  supervision.  This  five  year  course  represents 
the  minimum  standard  for  the  M.D.  degree  in 
medicine  and  the  priviledge  of  applying  for  license 
to  practice  medicine  Dental  Schools  are  now  con- 
ferring either  the  D.D.S.  or  D.M.D.  degree  for 
four  years  in  dentistry,  two  years  of  which  are 
roughly  comparable  to  the  first  two  years  in  medi- 


DEPARTMENT  STORES 


186 


DIBS  COMMITTEE 


cine.  Under  favorable  circumstances,  permitting 
no  duplications  of  like  courses,  an  able  student  can 
now  earn  both  degrees  in  seven  years  (scholastic) 
and  no  less,  probably  more.  Yet  Harvard  proposes 
to  confer  both  degrees  for  only  five  years  of  study 
(again  scholastic  years).  It  is  this  phase  which  has 
raised  much  criticism  and  a  belief  that  the  plan  is 
"subversive  of  the  interests  of  dentistry  and  of 
public  health."  (Bui.  Harvard  Univ.  and  Anier. 
Den.  Jour.,  27:1488.) 

Council  on  Dental  Education  of  the  Ameri- 
can Dental  Association  elected  an  Executive  Sec- 
retary about  the  middle  of  the  year  and  under  the 
date  of  Oct.  19, 1940,  adopted  the  requirements  for 
approval  by  them  of  the  schools  training  dentists. 
These  requirements  have  been  published  and  dis- 
tributed to  the  schools  and  others  interested  in 
them.  Schools  are  given  from  Jan.  1,  1941.  to  the 
beginning  of  the  school  year  of  1942-43  (Septem- 
ber, 1942)  to  put  their  houses  in  order  as  soon 
after  that  date  inspections  by  the  Council  for  certi- 
fication will  begin. 

A  new  journal,  Dentistry,  a  Digest  of  Practice 
made  its  appearance  in  August.  As  suggested  by 
the  name  it  is  a  digest  or  abstract  of  current  litera- 
ture, about  pocket  size,  about  60  pages,  25  to  31 
abstracts  per  number  and  one  double  page  editorial. 
There  is  no  advertising  and  no  illustrations.  It  has 
rapidly  attained  popularity  (circulation  about  7500 
paid  subscriptions). 

No  revolutionary  discoveries  have  been  reported : 
Research  in  the  field  of  dental  caries  is  continued 
at  a  level  of  high  activity;  search  is  being  made 
for  substances  that  will  inhibit  the  process,  interest 
in  fluorides  is  maintained  on  the  basis  of  such  data 
as  that  supplied  by  the  communities  of  Galesburg 
and  Quincy  with  the  surrounding  territory.  Low 
caries  incidence  is  parallel  with  high  relative 
fluorine  content  of  the  city  waters.  The  dental  his- 
tory of  the  Dionne  quintuplets  supplies  a  lesson  in 
early  caries  prevention.  Dietary  deficiencies,  use 
of  sulfanilamide,  and  the  acrylic  resins  are  fea- 
tured in  many  papers. 

EDWARD  H.  HATTON. 

DEPARTMENT  STORES.  See  ARCHITEC- 
TURE. For  sales,  see  BUSINESS  REVIEW  ;  MARKET- 
ING. 

DEPORTATIONS.  See  IMMIGRATION,  EMI- 
GRATION, AND  NATURALIZATION.  For  Bridges  Case, 
see  COMMUNISM. 

DEPOSITS.  See  BANKS  AND  BANKING. 

DEPTH  CHARGES.  See  NAVAL  PROGRESS. 

DESIGN,  National  Academy  of.  See  ACAD- 
EMY OF  DESIGN. 

DIES  COMMITTEE.  The  U.S.  House  of 
Representatives'  committee  for  the  investigation  of 
un-American  activities,  or  Dies  Committee  (Mar- 
tin Dies,  of  Texas,  Chairman),  continued  through- 
out the  year  its  inquiries  into  the  operations  of 
communists  and  of  others  suspected  of  working 
for  the  policies  of  foreign  governments,  adversely 
to  the  interests  of  the  United  States.  Fear  lest  the 
dictatorially  governed  powers  should  commit  ag- 
gression against  the  United  States  or  other  repub- 
lics counting  on  its  protection  greatly  increased 
the  committee's  influence  and  brought  about  some 
of  the  objects  for  which  Dies  and  his  supporters 
among  the  committee  had  striven :  notably,  an  act 
of  Congress  approved  October  1$  required  organi- 
zations either  under  foreign  control  or  advocating 
the  overthrow  of  the  U.S.  Government  by  force  to 
register  with  the  Department  of  Justice. 


Immediately  after  the  approval  of  this  act  Dies 
announced  (October  19)  that  unless  the  Govern- 
ment took  adequate  means  to  end  the  political  ac- 
tivities of  representatives  of  foreign  governments 
in  the  United  States  he  would  publish  data  on  the 
subject;  and  a  month  later  (November  21)  the 
committee  issued  a  "White  Paper,"  containing 
numerous  communications  of  German  diplomatic 
and  consular  officials  and  heads  of  several  organi- 
zations administering  to  the  American  public  in- 
formation regarded  as  charged  with  propaganda. 
These  organizations  were  the  Transocean  News 
Service,  the  German  Library  of  Information,  and 
the  American  Fellowship  Forum.  The  published 
data  on  these  bodies  included  communications  mak- 
ing it  appear  that  in  some  cases  German  authorities 
had  given  directions  that  particular,  specified  mat- 
ter be  disseminated.  There  followed  (November 
27)  the  publication  of  a  "Red  Paper, '  collating 
records  of  Communist  interest  in  the  control  of 
water-transport  workers  and  in  a  general  strike  in 
case  of  war. 

Early  in  the  year  the  committee  was  the  subject 
of  a  never  fully  exposed  effort  to  discredit  it ;  and 
an  obscure  maneuver  was  conducted  against  its 
active  opponents  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 
F.  E.  Hook,  Michigan  Democrat,  offered  to  the 
House,  late  in  January,  letters  purporting  to  have 
been  written  by  William  Dudley  Pelley,  head  of 
an  organization  known  as  the  Silver  Legion  of 
America,  and  to  show  a  connection  between  Pelley 
and  Dies ;  the  tendency  of  Hook's  proceeding  was 
to  indicate  Dies  as  secretly  friendly  with  one  of 
the  groups  suspected  of  opposing  some  of  the  more 
liberal  features  of  the  Federal  Constitution.  The 
letters  appeared  soon  after  the  Department  of 
Justice  had  seized  in  New  York  City  a  number  of 
men  connected  with  an  association  of  the  semi- 
military  type,  known  as  the  Christian  Front,  sym- 
pathetic with  social  doctrines  attributed  to  the 
"radio  priest,"  Father  Coughlin  of  Detroit;  the 
arrested  men  were  later  tried  on  charges  of  con- 
spiracy, declared  by  testimony  to  have  accumulated 
weapons,  and  ammunition,  and  acquitted  (see  NEW 
YORK)  ;  meanwhile,  their  arrest  gave  opportunity 
for  intimations  that  the  Dies  committee  had  neg- 
lected to  investigate  Coughlin  and  the  Christian 
Front.  The  committee  was  seeking  funds  from 
Congress  about  the  time  when  the  Pelley  and 
Christian  Front  matters  loomed  up. 

The  letters  offered  to  the  House  by  Hook  at  this 
juncture  subjected  the  Dies  committee  to  risk  of 
termination  or  of  remodeling  on  lines  less  displeas- 
ing to  the  Democratic  liberals.  Soon  after  the  let- 
ters appeared,  Representative  Starnes  of  Alabama, 
acting  chairman  of  the  committee  (during  an  ill- 
ness of  Dies),  detailed  to  the  House  the  declara- 
tion (January  30)  of  one  David  Mayne  that  Mayne 
had,  upon  solicitation,  prepared  and  sold  (as  genu- 
ine) spurious  letters  purporting  to  have  been  writ- 
ten by  Pelley,  and  that  these  were  the  letters  that 
Hook  had  offered  to  the  House.  It  appeared  fur- 
ther that  Mayne  had  done  this,  not  for  profit,  but 
to  trap  persons  seeking  material  against  the  com- 
mittee. Mayne  was  reported  to  have  delivered  the 
letters  at  a  dinner  given  by  Gardner  Jackson,  de- 
scribed as  legislative  representative  for  Labor's 
Non-Partisan  League,  whose  guests  included  one 
member  of  the  committee  itself  and  several  other 
members  of  the  House.  Hook  thereafter  withdrew 
the  letters  from  the  record  and  apologized  to  the 
House  for  presenting  them.  Pelley,  long  sought  by 
the  committee,  made  a  brief  appearance  before  it 


DIBS  COMMITTEE 


DISASTER  LOAN  CORPORATION 


and  denied  authorship  of  the  letters  and  any  share 
in  their  fabrication. 

In  April  the  committee  undertook  to  question  90 
members  of  the  Communist  Party,  the  German- 
American  Bund,  and  certain  Fascist  groups.  There 
followed  difficulties  in  Federal  courts,  some  of 
which  opposed  the  committee's  efforts  to  imprison, 
for  contempt,  Communists  refusing  to  testify  as 
to  their  party's  membership,  or  ordered  the  return 
of  Communist  records  seized  by  the  committee.  It 
succeeded,  however,  in  drawing  testimony  from  di- 
vers witnesses  to  show  that  Communists  had  gained 
a  strong  position  in  some  fields  of  transport  and 
communication,  such  as  the  system  of  transit  in 
New  York  City  and  the  operation  of  the  radio 
aboard  ships.  A  former  Communist  worker  testi- 
fied that  the  party  had  groups  of  members  in  the 
industries  for  making  aircraft,  steel,  automobiles, 
and  other  main  products  and  among  farm  labor, 
students,  the  unemployed,  and  religious  organiza- 
tions on  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  lack  of  any  definite 
general  list  of  the  members  of  the  Communist  par- 
ty continued  to  hamper  the  committee,  for  those 
questioned  as  members  still  could  deny  their  con- 
nection. In  Pennsylvania,  however,  the  names  of 
26,000  persons  who  had  signed  a  petition  to  nomi- 
nate Communist  candidates  for  public  offices  a 
month  before  was  obtained. 

On  August  28  Dies  announced  that  it  would 
thereafter  be  the  policy  as  far  as  possible  to  hold 
the  inquiry  behind  closed  doors ;  the  nature  of  the 
time,  he  said,  made  it  dangerous  to  let  witnesses 
accuse  possibly  innocent  persons  of  Communist  or 
Nazi  leanings.  The  output  of  public  news  about  the 
committee's  hearings  diminished  thereafter.  By  this 
time  the  Federal  authorities  had  become  disposed, 
in  view  of  the  need  to  prevent  hindrance  of  the 
new  program  of  defense,  to  proceed  in  line  with 
some  of  the  committee's  mass  of  findings  and 
suggestions  with  relation  to  subversive  liberal 
groups. 

The  President  and  the  Committee.  On  No- 
vember 27,  the  day  of  the  appearance  of  the  "Red 
Paper,"  President  Roosevelt  sent  Chairman  Dies 
a  telegram  of  warning,  pointing  out  that  "continu- 
ing administrative  duties  in  relation  to  illegal  ac- 
tivities lie  in  the  executive  branch  of  the  Govern- 
ment and  not  in  the  legislative  branch" ;  mention- 
ing, as  likely  to  "handicap  or  completely  destroy 
administrative  plans  against  subversive  activities,^ 
"premature  disclosure  of  facts  or  of  suppositions," 
and  "hasty  seizure  of  evidence";  and  suggesting 
that  Dies  confer  with  the  Attorney  General  and 
arrange  to  avoid  creating  these  difficulties.  The 
message  apparently  carried  an  implication  that  the 
administration  had  abandoned  tolerance  of  subver- 
sive liberals  and  undertaken  to  use  the  Department 
of  Justice  against  any  of  their  illicit  activities 
harmful  to  the  task  of  defensive  preparation.  There 
followed  an  agreement  with  the  Attorney  General 
for  harmony  between  the  Committee  and  the  De- 
partment of  Justice.  Chairman  Dies  had  no  part  in 
the  conferences  for  this  agreement,  but  he  told  the 
press  that  he  welcomed  it.  Representative  Jerry 
Voorhis  of  California,  who  conferred  with  the  At- 
torney General  for  the  committee,  had  opposed 
Dies  to  the  extent  of  making  a  public  speech  (Jan- 
uary 18)  advocating  that  the  committee  investigate 
"organizations  like"  the  Christian  Front,  at  the 
moment  when  the  committee's  inactivity  in  that 
particular  direction  was  put  in  contrast  with  the 
Department  of  Justice's  bringing  out  the  Brooklyn 
conspiracy  charges.  The  agreement  tended  to  make 


Voorhis,  rather  than  Pies,  the  committee's  guide  in 
future  relations  with  the  Attorney  General. 

See  COMMUNISM:  DEFENSIVE  PREPARATIONS. 
U.S.;  FASCISM. 

DIPLOMATIC  CORPS*  See  AMBASSADORS 
AND  MINISTERS. 

DISASTER  LOAN  CORPORATION. 
Created  Feb.  11, 1937,  pursuant  to  an  Act  of  Con- 
gress to  provide  loans  made  necessary  by  floods 
or  other  catastrophes  in  the  year  1937,  its  author- 
ity was  subsequently  extended  to  include  catastro- 
phes in  the  years  1936-40.  Its  creation,  promp- 
ted by  the  disastrous  flooding  of  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  valleys  in  January,  1937,  was  a  logical 
step  toward  an  effective  catastrophe  relief  pro- 
gram. 

The  Corporation  functions  through  a  headquar- 
ters office  at  Washington  and  regional  offices  es- 
tablished in  catastrophe-visited  areas,  in  charge  of 
agents,  and  manned  by  experienced  personnel  Ap- 
plications for  loans  are  submitted  through  the  re- 
gional offices  where  they  are  considered  in  the 
first  instance  by  the  agent,  and  a  committee  com- 
prised of  local  citizens,  prominent  in  their  respec- 
tive fields  of  activities,  who  serve  without  com- 
pensation. Applications  thereafter  are  forwarded 
to  Washington  with  the  recommendation  of  the 
agent  and  local  committee  for  action  by  the  Man- 
aging Directors.  The  proceeds  of  a  loan  are  dis- 
bursed by  the  Federal  Reserve  banks. 

The  Disaster  Loan  Corporation  is  the  only  agen- 
cy of  its  kind  to  initiate  practical  community  re- 
habilitation at  the  scene  of  catastrophe.  It  is  or- 
ganized to  operate  speedily  and  efficiently.  At  the 
first  word  of  catastrophe,  experienced  men  are 
rushed  to  the  scene  to  make  an  accurate  survey 
and  report  of  damage  done  and  the  type  of  aid 
needed  to  assure  normal  community  economic  and 
social  relations  with  the  least  amount  of  disloca- 
tion during  the  rehabilitation  period.  The  speed 
with  which  it  dispatches  personnel  to  stricken  areas 
is  equaled  only  by  the  American  Red  Cross. 

The  Corporation  operates  only  where  local  lend- 
ing agencies  do  not  meet  credit  demands.  In  such 
instances,  it  fills  the  gap  until  normal  credit  rela- 
tions are  established — that  is,  until  existing  credit 
sources  are  able  and  willing  to  supply  the  credit 
demands  made  upon  them  by  catastrophe  victims. 
The  average  loan  is  for  a  comparatively  small 
amount,  more  often  than  not  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
placing ruined  furniture  or  rebuilding  a  damaged 
home.  Although  small  in  dollars  and  cents,  such 
loans  make  possible  the  restoration  of  morale  for 
families  who  might  otherwise  be  destitute. 

While  the  Corporation  was  able  to  aid  victims 
of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valley  areas  by  dis- 
bursing loans  for  small  amounts,  it  was  necessary, 
in  the  case  of  the  New  England  hurricane,  to 
make  available,  in  addition  to  the  usual  type  of 
DLC  loan,  over  13  million  dollars  to  the  Federal 
Surplus  Commodities  Corporation  to  enable  the 
salvage  of  millions  of  board  feet  of  lumber  for 
the  owners  of  thousands  of  woodlots  devastated 
by  a  hurricane  in  the  fall  of  1938  which  struck 
vast  forested  areas  in  six  New  England  States. 
The  Corporation  has  made  loans  in  connection 
with  floods  in  Arkansas,  California,  Idaho,  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Michigan,  Missouri, 
Mississippi,  Minnesota,  Montana,  Nebraska,  New 
Mexico,  Ohio,  Tennessee,  and  Texas ;  cyclones  in 
Minnesota  and  Illinois ;  hurricane  in  South  Caro- 
lina ;  tornado  in  Georgia  and  Louisiana ;  and  hur- 
ricane and  flood  in  Connecticut,  Massachusetts. 


DISASTERS 


188 


DOBRUJA 


New  Hampshire,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Rhode 
Island,  and  Vermont 

The  Corporation's  effectiveness  in  relieving  dis- 
tress resulting  from  catastrophes  is  evidenced  by 
the  fact  that  from  its  inception  in  February,  1937, 
through  Dec.  31,  1940,  it  made  loans  to  borrowers 
located  in  more  than  40  States.  During  that  period, 
it  approved  22,787  loans,  in  the  aggi  egate  amount 
of  $30,611,081,  and  disbursed  $27,110,511.  These 
figures  include :  (a)  One  loan  authorized  and  dis- 
bursed to  the  Federal  Surplus  Commodities  Cor- 
poration (q.v.)  in  the  amount  of  $13,902,650  for 
the  gigantic  task  of  clearing  and  marketing  mil- 
lions of  board  feet  of  lumber  cut  from  logs  felled 
by  the  New  England  hurricane  of  1938;  (b)  22,- 
786  loans  authorized  to  individuals,  partnerships, 
and  corporations  in  the  aggregate  amount  of  $16,- 
708,431  of  which  $13,207,861  has  been  disbursed. 
Over  4000  such  borrowers  have  repaid  their  loans 
in  full.  Total  repayment,  on  such  loans  amounted 
to  about  $6,000,000,  or  a  little  more  than  45  per 
cent  of  the  $13,000,000  disbursed. 

The  DLC  approved  the  sale  of  some  425  million 
board  feet  of  New  England  lumber  and  payments 
on  the  loan  to  Federal  Surplus  Commodities  Cor- 
poration were  scheduled  to  commence  in  1941. 
CHARLES  B.  HENDERSON  and  ALBERT  L.  STRONG. 

DISASTERS  AND  DISASTER  RELIEF. 

The  major  disasters  of  the  year  are  listed  under 
CHRONOLOGY.  See  also  ACCIDENTS  ;  AERONAUTICS  ; 
DISASTER  LOAN  CORPORATION;  EARTHQUAKES; 
FIRE  PROTECTION  ;  FLOODS  ;  SHIPPING  ;  RED  CROSS. 

DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST.  A  communion 
known  also  as  the  Churches  of  Christ  and  Chris- 
tian Churches.  It  sprang  from  a  movement  for 
Christian  unity,  which  arose  in  American  Presby- 
terian circles  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century, 
under  Barton  W.  Stone,  in  Kentucky,  and  Thomas 
and  Alexander  Campbell  in  Western  Pennsylvania. 
This  is  the  largest  religious  body  having  its  origin 
in  America.  It  was  fifth  among  Protestant  com- 
munions in  the  United  States  in  1940.  In  policy 
the  churches  are  congregational.  There  are  six 
major  agencies  of  the  communion:  The  United 
Christian  Missionary  Society;  Board  of  Higher 
Education ;  Association  for  the  Promotion  of  Chris- 
tian Unity;  Pension  Fund;  National  Benevolent 
Association ;  Board  of  Church  Extension ;  besides 
the  missionary  societies  of  the  several  states  and 
provinces  of  Canada.  These  agencies  are  corpora- 
tions and  are  affiliated  with  the  International  Con- 
vention of  Disciples  of  Christ  which  meets  annu- 
ally. The  Convention  in  1941  is  scheduled  to  meet 
in  St.  Louis,  Mo.  The  general  missionary  work 
both  home  and  foreign  of  the  churches  is  adminis- 
tered through  The  United  Christian  Missionary 
Society,  with  headquarters  at  222  Downey  Ave- 
nue, Indianapolis,  Ind.  Its  board  of  managers  of 
120  is  composed  of  60  men  and  60  women.  The 
foreign  missionary  work  in  1940  embraced  the 
Belgian  Congo  in  Africa,  China,  India,  Jamaica, 
Japan,  Mexico,  Philippine  Islands,  Puerto  Rico, 
Argentina,  Paraguay,  and  Batang,  on  the  border 
of  Tibet. 

Statistics  of  the  communion  show  that  during 
the  year  there  were  4782  baptisms  in  the  foreign 
fields.  The  417  mission  schools  had  a  total  enroll- 
ment of  14,849.  The  communion  maintained  9 
hospitals  and  18  dispensaries  which  gave  558,858 
treatments.  The  Church  Extension  Fund  amounted 
to  $2.679,485.82  with  outstanding  loans  to  385 
churches.  The  Pension  Fund  for  the  ministry 


showed  assets  of  $2,791,211.24.  107  young  people's 
conferences  were  held.  Work  in  America  was  con- 
ducted among  the  French,  Highlanders,  European 
immigrants,  Negroes,  Orientals,  Spanish-Ameri- 
cans, and  Mexicans.  The  National  Benevolent  As- 
sociation maintained  six  homes  for  children,  and 
an  equal  number  of  homes  for  the  aged.  In  1940, 
21  Colleges,  Universities,  Bible  Colleges  and  Foun- 
dations co-operated  with  the  Board  of  Higher 
Education.  The  total  church  membership  through- 
out the  world  in  1940  was  1,829,465,  a  gain  over 
1939  of  11,302;  and  in  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada 1,669,222,  a  gain  of  11,796.  The  Bible  School 
enrollment  for  the  world  was  1,192,790,  a  loss  over 
the  previous  year  of  863Z  and  for  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  1,133,375,  a  decrease  of  5660. 
Contributions,  missionary,  benevolence,  and  educa- 
tional, reported  for  the  fiscal  year  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  totaled  $3,703,690.07. 

Among  the  periodicals  published  by  the  com- 
munion are  World  Call,  Christian  Evangelist, 
Christian  Standard,  and  Front  Rank.  The  presi- 
dent of  the  International  Convention  for  the  year 
was  Dr.  Harry  B.  McCormick,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

DISEASES.  See  CHILDREN'S  BUREAU;  DEN- 
TISTRY;  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY;  PSYCHIATRY; 
PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE;  VETERINARY  MEDICINE; 
VITAL  STATISTICS. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA.  An  area,  now 
coterminous  with  the  city  of  Washington,  consti- 
tuting the  Federal  territory  authorized  by  the 
Constitution  for  the  seat  of  the  United  States 
Government  The  city  of  Washington,  formerly  a 
political  entity  in  the  District,  has  become  merged 
with  it  in  political  respects.  The  District  is  gov- 
erned in  accordance  with  acts  of  Congress.  Total 
area,  69V4  square  miles ;  land  area,  61  square  miles. 
Population,  April,  1940  (census),  663,091;  1930, 
486,869. 

The  growth  of  the  population  of  the  District  in 
the  period  1930-40  exceeded  that  of  any  other  of 
the  42  most  populous  cities  of  the  United  States, 
in  percentage  and,  except  for  the  increases  of 
New  York  and  Los  Angeles,  in  number  as  well. 
Since  the  city  lacked  private  industries  other  than 
those  directly  serving  its  dwellers,  its  growth  re- 
sulted essentially  from  increase  in  the  personnel  of 
the  Government. 

Measures  to  add  to  the  attractions  of  the  Na- 
tional capital  were  many.  Joseph  E  Widener  of 
Philadelphia  was  reported  (October  17)  to  have 
decided  to  give  his  collections  of  works  of  art  to 
the  National  Gallery  of  Art,  then  being  built  with 
money  given  by  the  late  Andrew  W.  Mellon, 
to  house  and  display  the  latter's  collection  of  paint- 
ings. The  estate  (about  $250,000)  of  the  late  Jus- 
tice Holmes  of  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court,  left  by 
his  will  to  the  Government,  was  applied  by  an  act 
of  Congress  to  the  creation  of  a  park  behind  the 
Supreme  Court  Building,  in  Holmes's  memory.  See 
PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  ADMINISTRATION 

An  unusual  popular  demonstration  occurred  on 
November  7,  on  the  return  of  President  Roosevelt 
after  his  election  for  a  third  term.  By  rough  esti- 
mate. 200,000  persons,  not  far  short  of  one-third 
of  tne  population,  turned  out  to  acclaim  him. 
Many  were  Federal  employees  let  out  for  the  oc- 
casion. 

DIVORCE.  See  LAW  under  Domestic  Rela- 
tions. 

DJEBEL  DRUSE.  See  SYRIA  AND  LEBANON. 

DOBRUJA.  See  BULGARIA  and  RUMANIA 
under  History. 


DODECANESE  ISLANDS 


189 


DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 


DODBCANESB  ISLANDS.  See  AEGEAN 
ISLANDS,  ITALIAN. 

DOQS.  Tightening  of  the  regulations  govern- 
ing the  Westminster  Kennel  Club's  annual  exhibi- 
tion at  Madison  Square  Garden  and  the  elevation 
of  American-bred  dogs  to  a  commanding  position 
in  international  exhibitions  were  two  important 
highlights  in  the  1940  history  of  dogdom. 

Drastic  changes  in  its  rules  were  made  to  limit 
(beginning  in  1941)  the  Westminster  show  to  en- 
tries (except  puppies)  which  have  previously  won 
first,  second,  or  third  prizes  at  other  recognized 
competitions,  and  the  entire  exhibition  was  short- 
ened from  three  to  two  days.  By  raising  the  stand- 
ards and  reducing  the  number  of  dogs,  the  club 
sought  to  solidify  the  Westminster's  position  as  the 
No.  1  canine  show  of  the  year. 

However,  the  1940  Westminster  exhibition  was 
conducted  along  the  usual  lines  of  recent  years. 
Herman  £.  Mellenthin's  coal-black  cocker  spaniel, 
Champion  My  Oivn  Brucie  was  adjudged  the  best 
of  all  breeds  at  the  show.  Thereafter  he  was  shown 
twice  more  during  the  year,  gaining  top  honors  at 
the  Detroit  Kennel  Club  exhibition  and  repeating 
his  triumph  at  the  Cocker  Spaniel  Breeders'  of 
New  England  specialty  show  in  Boston. 

The  14th  annual  exhibition  of  the  Morris  and 
Essex  Kennel  Club  was  held  as  usual  at  the  Giralda 
Farms,  Madison,  N  J.  Because  of  the  European 
War,  the  total  of  4087  entries  was  the  smallest 
since  1936.  Here,  as  at  Madison  Square  Garden,  an 
American-bred  dog  triumphed,  the  winner  being 
the  great  standard  poodle  Champion  Blakeen  Jung 
Frau,  bred  and  owned  by  the  Blakeen  Kennels  of 
Mr  and  Mrs.  Sherman  R.  Hoyt  of  Katonah,  N.Y. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  year  1940  was  one  of  the 
most  successful  in  the  history  of  dogdom  in  the 
United  States.  There  was  a  decided  increase  in  the 
number  of  exhibitions  and  the  general  public  at- 
tendance was  somewhat  above  the  average. 

DOMESTIC  RELATIONS.  See  LAW  under 
Private  Laiv. 

DOMESTIC  SERVICE.  See  LIVING  COSTS 
AND  STANDARDS. 

DOMINICA.  See  WINDWARD  ISLANDS 

DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC.  A  West  Indian 
island,  occupying  the  eastern  two-thirds  of  the 
island  of  Hispaniola  (Haiti).  The  name  of  the 
capital  was  changed  from  Santo  Domingo  to  Ciu- 
dad  Trujillo,  Jan.  9,  1936. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  19,332  square 
miles;  population,  estimated  on  Dec.  31,  1939,  at 
1,655,779.  About  40  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants  are 
white  (mainly  of  Spanish  descent),  40  per  cent 
mixed,  and  20  per  cent  Negro.  American  citizens, 
including  Puerto  Ricans,  in  the  republic  (1939) 
numbered  about  2550 ;  other  foreigners  in  1935— 
Haitians,  52,657;  British  subjects,  9272;  Span- 
iards, 1572.  Populations  of  the  chief  cities  (1935 
census)  :  Ciudad  Trujillo,  71,297;  Santiago  de  los 
Caballeros,  33,919;  San  Pedro  de  Macorfs,  18,889; 
Puerto  Plata,  11,777  Language,  Spanish. 

Defense.  As  of  Nov.  1,  1939,  there  were  3212 
men  in  the  active  army,  10,000  trained  army  re- 
serves, 31  men  in  the  air  force,  1  gunboat,  and  4 
armed  coastal  patrol  ships.  The  national  constabu- 
lary was  organized  as  an  auxiliary  arm  of  the 
army  in  1936.  National  defense  budget  in  1940, 
$2,070,000. 

Education  and  Religion.  About  80  per  cent 
of  all  adult  Dominicans  were  illiterate  at  the  1935 
census.  Statistics  for  1939  showed  947  primary 
schools,  with  slightly  more  than  103,000  pupils, 


6  secondary  schools  with  1550  students,  12  voca- 
tional schools  with  3300  students,  3  normal  schools 
with  2000  students,  and  the  University  of  Santo 
Domingo  (founded  1558),  with  350  students. 
About  97  per  cent  of  the  people  are  Roman  Cath- 
olics. 

Production.  Agriculture  supports  about  four- 
fifths  of  the  population.  Raw  sugar  accounted  for 
64  per  cent  of  the  value  of  all  exports  in  1939; 
total  production  for  1939-40  was  454,812  metric 
tons.  Exports  in  1939  in  order  of  value  were  (in 
kilos,  equal  to  22  Ib.) :  Raw  sugar,  407,370,000; 
cacao,  28,072,000;  coffee,  14,135,000;  yucca  starch, 
11,473,000;  leaf  tobacco,  8,714,000;  corn,  14,401,- 
000;  molasses,  95,461,000.  Banana  exports  were 
824,000  bunches;  live  cattle,  9791  head.  Potatoes, 
beans,  onions,  peanuts,  pineapples,  etc.,  are  grown 
mainly  for  home  consumption.  Sugar  refineries 
employ  about  92  per  cent  of  all  persons  engaged 
in  industry.  Forests  yield  mahogany,  espinillo,  lig- 
num-vitae,  cedar,  and  other  cabinet  and  dye-woods. 
Some  gold  is  mined  (shipments  in  1939,  $220,630). 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1939  totaled  $11,- 
592,000  ($11,342,495  in  1938) ;  exports,  $18,643,- 
302  ($14,347,033  in  1938).  Chief  exports  in  1939 
(provisional  figures)  :  Raw  sugar,  $11,804,000;  ca- 
cao, $2,014,000;  coffee,  $1,732,000;  yucca  starch, 
$624,000;  leaf  tobacco,  $422,000.  Distribution  of 
1939  exports  by  countries:  United  Kingdom, 

g, 750,524;  United  States,  $5,051,357;  France, 
,219,208;  French  Morocco,  $1,418,202;  Nether- 
lands, $873,577.  See  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  for  1940  placed 
revenues  at  $12,140,000  and  expenditures  at  $12,- 
135,000  ($11,595,000  and  $11,483,000  respectively 
in  1939).  In  1938  actual  receipts  were  $11,919,000 
and  expenditures  $11,379,000.  Foreign  debt  on  Dec. 
31,  1938,  $15,604,000;  internal  debt,  about  $1,285,- 
000.  The  Dominican  peso  is  equivalent  to  one  U.S. 
dollar. 

Transportation.  The  republic  in  1939  had  two 
railways  with  147  miles  of  line;  2535  miles  of 
highways;  regular  connections  with  Pan  Ameri- 
can Airways  Caribbean  circuit  at  San  Pedro  de 
Macoris ;  a  deep-water  port  at  Trujillo  City  and 
others  for  vessels  of  lighter  craft  at  Azua,  Bara- 
hona,  La  Romana,  Monte  Cristi,  Puerto  Plata, 
Sanchez,  and  San  Pedro  de  Macoris.  The  Carib- 
bean services  inaugurated  by  a  steamship  line 
owned  by  the  Dominican  Government  in  Novem- 
ber, 1938,  were  extended  during  1939. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  June  20, 
1929,  revised  as  of  June  9,  1934,  vests  executive 
power  in  a  President  elected  for  4  years  by  di- 
rect vote.  There  is  a  Congress  of  13  Senators  and 
35  Deputies,  elected  for  4  years  by  direct  suf- 
frage of  literate  males.  However  Gen.  Rafael 
Leonidas  Trujillo  Molina's  Dominican  party  is 
the  only  political  organization  permitted.  Trujillo 
was  President  of  the  republic  from  Aug.  16,  1930, 
to  Aug.  16.  1938,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
own  candidate,  Dr.  Jacinto  B.  Peynado.  As  offi- 
cially designated  Benefactor  of  the  nation,  Gen- 
eral Trujillo  enjoyed  a  legal  status  co-equal  with 
that  of  the  President.  As  War  Minister,  he  re- 
mained in  active  control  of  the  army.  For  devel- 
opments in  1940,  see  History. 

HISTORY 

New  President  Inducted.  President  Peynado 
died  on  Mar.  7,  1940,  after  a  leg  amputation  had 
failed  to  check  an  infection,  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  Vice-President  of  the  republic,  Dr.  Manuel  de 


DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 


190 


DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 


Jesus  Troncoso  de  la  Concha,  who  tinder  the 
Constitution  was  to  serve  out  President  Peynado's 
term  expiring  in  August,  1942.  General  Trujillo, 
unofficial  dictator  of  the  republic,  returned  hur- 
riedly to  the  capital  upon  President  Peynado's 
death,  after  a  two  weeks'  absence  part  of  which 
was  spent  as  a  guest  at  maneuvers  of  the  U.S. 
Navy  between  Puerto  Rico  and  the  U.S.  Virgin 
Islands. 

Trujillo's  presence  prevented  opposition  ele- 
ments from  taking  advantage  of  Dr.  Peynado's 
death  to  attempt  the  overthrow  of  the  dictator- 
ship. One  of  the  periodic  conspiracies  against  Tru- 
jillo was  reported  to  have  been  crushed  in  Janu- 
ary. Dominican  sources  asserted  that  Gen.  Ram6n 
Velazquez  Rivera,  former  Dominican  army  chief 
of  staff,  had  died  in  prison.  He  was  jailed  on  a 
conspiracy  charge  after  his  return  to  Ciudad  Tru- 
jillo in  1939  from  serving  as  Dominican  consul 
general  at  Bordeaux,  France.  According  to  this 
report,  two  of  Velazquez  Rivera's  brothers  and  a 
number  of  his  other  supporters  were  shot  to  death 
in  Ciudad  Trujillo  at  about  the  same  time  the 
former  chief  of  staff  died  of  slow  poison. 

Refugee  Settlement.  As  a  result  of  General 
Trujillo's  offer  to  the  Inter-Governmental  Commit- 
tee on  Political  Refugees  in  London  in  1939  to  re- 
ceive up  to  100,000  selected  European  refugees  as 
colonists,  a  program  of  refugee  settlement  was 
begun  during  1940  A  contract  for  the  immediate 
admission  and  settlement  of  500  families,  mainly 
Jews  from  Germany  and  Poland,  was  signed  at 
Ciudad  Trujillo  on  Jan.  30,  1940,  by  the  Domini- 
can Ministers  of  Agriculture  and  Interior  and 
officers  of  the  Dominican  Republic  Settlement  As- 
sociation, organized  and  incorporated  in  New 
York  by  American  Jews.  The  contract  guaranteed 
the  refugees  against  molestation,  discrimination 
or  persecution  and  made  them  eligible  to  obtain 
Dominican  citizenship  in  accordance  with  the  re- 
public's Constitution  and  laws.  The  Dominican 
Government  agreed  to  exempt  the  settlers  from 
immigration  taxes,  federal  and  municipal  land  and 
property  levies,  and  taxes  on  their  equipment  and 
personal  belongings.  The  contract  was  negotiated 
with  the  aid  of  the  U.S.  State  Department,  the 
Inter-Governmental  Committee  on  Refugees,  and 
the  Co-ordinating  Foundation  headed  by  former 
Premier  Paul  Van  Zeeland  of  Belgium.  Despite 
protests  of  Dominican  exiles  in  the  United  States 
and  elsewhere,  the  contract  was  unanimously  rati- 
fied by  the  Dominican  Senate  and  Chamber  of 
Deputies  on  February  21 

The  first  colonists,  37  Jews  from  Central  Eu- 
rope, arrived  at  Ciudad  Trujillo  May  8  and  pro- 
ceeded to  settle  on  a  26,000  acre  estate  at  Sosua, 
on  the  north  coast  east  of  Puerto  Plata,  that  had 
been  donated  for  the  purpose  by  General  Trujillo. 
They  and  subsequent  contingents  received  finan- 
cial aid  from  funds  left  after  liquidation  of  the 
American  Society  for  Jewish  Farm  Settlements  in 
Russia.  On  June  17  it  was  announced  that  General 
Trujillo  had  agreed  to  extend  the  contract  signed 
January  30  to  permit  the  settlement  of  additional 
refugees  from  France  and  England  at  Sosua. 
Four  hundred  refugees  had  settled  at  Sosua  by  the 
end  of  1940  and  another  400  were  said  to  be  en 
route  to  the  colony. 

Foreign  Relations.  General  Trujillo's  long 
efforts  to  terminate  the  American  receivership  of 
Dominican  customs  succeeded  in  1940.  The  United 
States-Dominican  financial  convention  of  Dec.  27, 
1924,  under  which  the  receivership  was  adminis- 


tered, was  superseded  by  a  new  convention  signed 
in  Washington  Sept.  24,  1940,  by  Secretary  Hull 
and  General  Trujillo,  serving  as  Ambassador  Ex- 
traordinary. The  actual  negotiations  were  conclud- 
ed in  Ciudad  Trujillo  on  September  7  by  Hugh  R. 
Wilson,  special  Ambassador  of  the  United  States, 
and  Dominican  representatives. 

The  new  convention  provided  for  the  resump- 
tion of  the  collection  of  customs  revenues  by  tne 
Dominican  Government  but  carefully  safeguarded 
the  interests  of  American  holders  of  outstanding 
Dominican  bonds.  All  revenues  of  the  Dominican 
Government  were  to  be  deposited  in  one  bank 
agreed  upon  by  both  governments.  The  two  gov- 
ernments likewise  agreed  to  appoint  a  representa- 
tive of  the  holders  of  the  Dominican  dollar  bond 
issues  of  1922  and  1926,  charged  with  receiving 
from  the  Dominican  Government  during  the  first 
10  days  of  each  month  the  interest  and  amortiza- 
tion payments  on  the  outstanding  bonds.  Not  until 
these  monthly  payments  were  made  to  the  bond- 
holders' representative  would  the  depositary  bank 
be  authorized  to  make  disbursements  on  behalf  of 
the  Dominican  Government.  Interest  and  amorti- 
zation payments  on  the  bonds  and  the  costs  of  the 
services  of  the  bondholders'  representatives  and  of 
the  depositary  bank  were  made  an  irrevocable  first 
lien  upon  all  the  revenues  of  the  Dominican  Re- 
public. 

In  the  event  that  Dominican  public  revenues 
exceeded  $12,500,000  in  any  given  year,  the  con- 
vention provided  that  specified  percentages  of  the 
excess  would  be  paid  into  the  sinking  fund  for 
the  additional  redemption  of  the  1922  and  1926 
bonds.  The  agreement  concluded  in  1934  between 
the  Dominican  Government  and  the  Foreign  Bond- 
holders Protective  Council  remained  in  effect.  It 
was  further  stipulated  that  existing  Dominican 
accounting  and  treasury  law  might  not  be  changed 
without  the  consent  of  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment and  that  controversies  arising  between  the 
two  governments  would  be  submitted  to  arbitra- 
tion if  a  settlement  could  not  be  reached  by  dip- 
lomatic negotiation. 

Simultaneously  with  the  signing  of  the  conven- 
tion, the  two  governments  exchanged  notes  pro- 
viding for  liquidation  at  the  rate  of  $125,000  an- 
nually of  the  claims  of  United  States  nationals 
against  the  Dominican  Government,  and  for  pay- 
ment of  benefits  to  two  retired  American  officials 
who  served  in  the  General  Receivership  of  Do- 
minican Customs.  The  receivership  was  estab- 
lished at  the  end  of  the  United  States  military  in- 
tervention of  1916-24. 

General  Trujillo  returned  to  the  United  States 
on  December  13  on  what  he  described  as  a  trade 
mission.  It  was  announced  December  21  that  the 
U.S.  Export-Import  Bank  had  advanced  the  Do- 
minican Republic  a  $3,000,000  loan,  bearing  4  per 
cent  interest  and  repayable  in  seven  years.  It  was 
to  be  used  in  part  to  finance  construction  of  a 
modern  tourist  hotel  in  Ciudad  Trujillo  and  in 
part  for  the  purchase  of  American  road-building 
and  other  machinery.  Officials  of  the  Trujillo  re- 
gime >  said  that  the  Dominican  Government  had 
pledged  close  collaboration  with  the  United  States 
in  military  and  naval  matters  involved  in  the 
policy  of  hemisphere  defense. 

Relations  between  the  Dominican  and  Venezue- 
lan governments  became  strained  during  1940  as  a 
result  of  vigorous  protests  made  by  the  Venezuelan 
Foreign  Minister  against  alleged  mistreatment  of 
Venezuelan  citizens  in  the  Dominican  Republic. 


DONATIONS 


191 


DRAFT 


Venezuela  was  not  represented  at  the  second  con- 
ference of  the  Inter-American  Union  of  the  Car- 
ibbean (q.v.)  held  in  Ciudad  TrujUlo  early  in  June. 

The  republic  was  hard  hit  economically  by  a 
severe  drought  during  the  early  months  of  1940 
and  by  the  restriction  of  European  markets  for 
sugar,  coffee,  and  other  products.  New  markets 
were  sought  in  the  United  States  and  commercial 
treaties  were  signed  with  Canada  and  Newfound- 
land in  March.  On  May  11  a  treaty  of  friendship 
was  signed  with  the  Republic  of  China.  Early  in 
1940  it  was  reported  that  a  Haitian-Dominican 
agreement  had  been  reached  for  the  control  of 
Haitian  seasonal  labor  in  the  Dominican  Republic. 
See  HAITI  under  History 

DONATIONS.  See  BENEFACTIONS. 

DRAFT,  Military.  Three  months  after  the 
sudden,  total  collapse  of  France  under  German 
attack,  the  United  States  took  the  unprecedented 
step  of  making  its  young  men  immediately  liable 
to  service  in  its  armed  forces  in  time  of  peace  as 
well  as  war.  The  pace  of  war  in  Europe  had  con- 
vinced the  Government  that  it  could  no  longer 
hope  for  safety  by  creating  defenses  after  war 
should  come;  it  adopted  the  plan  of  training  sol- 
diers and  producing  materials  in  advance  on  a 
scale  sufficient  either  to  discourage  or  at  worst 
to  repel  possible  adversaries.  The  draft  was  but 
one  element  in  a  new  defensive  program  (see  DE- 
FENSIVE PREPARATIONS,  US). 

Selective  Training  and  Service  Act.  This 
Act  providing  peacetime  conscription,  was  signed 
on  September  16,  1940,  and  went  into  immediate 
effect.  It  originated  in  bills  introduced  early  in 
July  by  Senator  Burke  of  Nebraska  and  Repre- 
sentative Wadsworth  of  New  York.  The  Presi- 
dent soon  afterward,  in  his  armament  message  of 
July  10,  approved  the  projected  legislation.  The 
Senate,  passing  Burke's  bill,  limited  the  draft  to 
men  from  21  to  31  years  old  and  added  a  rider 
empowering  the  Government  to  take  and  operate 
any  establishment  or  facility  useful  for  defense, 
if  owners  would  not  make  satisfactory  terms.  The 
House  passed  its  measure  with  a  provision  for 
drafting  men  from  21  to  45  and  a  proviso  (Fish 
amendment)  deferring  the  measure's  going  into 
effect  for  60  days,  to  see  if  voluntary  enlistments 
would  suffice  to  obviate  a  draft  Adjusted  by  con- 
ference and  adopted  in  one  form  by  both  houses, 
the  law  retained,  with  modification,  the  authoriza- 
tion for  taking  over  industrial  establishments, 
dropped  the  wait  of  60  days,  and  split  the  differ- 
ence as  to  the  upper  age-limit  for  conscripts. 

The  Act  required  men  of  21  years  or  over, 
through  the  36th  year  of  age  (i.e.  to  the  36th 
anniversary  of  birth),  whether  citizens  or  aliens, 
in  the  United  States  and  its  territories  to  register 
for  draft  at  such  day  or  days  and  places  as  the 
President  should  determine.  It  exempted  from 
registration  and  from  draft  the  officers  and  en- 
listed men  in  the  Army,  Navy,  Marine  Corps, 
Federalized  National  Guard,  and  certain  other 
services,  students  at  the  Military  and  Naval  acade- 
mies, foreign  diplomatic  and  (if  not  U.S.  citi- 
zens) consular  officials  and  some  groups  of  their 
aides,  and  a  few  other  groups.  Exemption  from 
draft  only,  but  not  from  registration,  was  granted 
to  those  who  had  served  3  consecutive  years  in 
the  Regular  Army,  or  performed  1  year's  Fed- 
eral service  in  the  National  Guard  plus  2  years 
in  the  Regular  Army,  or  served  6  years  in  the 
National  Guard;  also  the  Vice-President,  Gov- 
ernors of  States  and  Territories,  members  of  leg- 


islative bodies,  and  judges,  during  their  terms 
of  office;  public  office-holders  and  other  persons 
designated  by  the  President  as  necessary  in  their 
present  positions  were  temporarily  exempted ;  also 
ministers  and  students  for  the  ministry  were  not 
to  be  drafted.  Students  for  degrees  in  arts  or  sci- 
ence in  colleges  were  to  be  allowed  to  finish  the 
academic  year  before  they  could  be  summoned 
into  service.  Conscientious  objectors,  if  found 
truly  to  be  such,  were  to  be  placed,  after  registra- 
tion and  if  drafted,  in  noncombatant  service  or, 
if  their  consciences  forbade  this,  in  other  Federal 
work.  Evaders  of  the  draft  faced  trial  in  a  U.S. 
District  court  and  sentence  up  to  five  years'  prison 
and  $10,000  fine. 

The  quota  to  be  taken  in  a  draft  must  be  in 
the  same  proportion  to  the  number  of  men  regis- 
tered, in  all  the  States  and  territories;  but  the 
men  of  a  State  or  territory  who  were  serving 
voluntarily  in  the  armed  forces  were  accounted 
as  part  of  its  conscript  quota.  The  President  was 
empowered  to  make  rules  for  the  purposes  of  the 
Act  and  to  establish  a  Selective  Service  System, 
under  a  Director  of  Selective  Service.  Local 
boards  in  the  System  were  to  classify  registrants 
physically,  mentally,  and  socially  (as  in  regard 
to  dependents)  for  availability,  deferring  service 
for  the  less  suitable.  Boards  of  Appeal  were  to 
pass  on  questioned  rulings  of  local  boards. 

The  Act  limited  the  area  of  service  of  conscripts 
in  the  land  forces  to  the  Western  Hemisphere, 
American  possessions  elsewhere,  and  the  Philip- 
pines. Not  over  a  total  force  of  900,000  conscripts 
might  serve  at  a  time,  during  peace,  in  the  land 
forces.  When  and  how  many  to  draft  and  where 
to  station  them  was  otherwise  left  to  the  Presi- 
dent, save  that  he  could  summon  men  only  in  so 
far  as  Congress  should  appropriate  means  and 
adequate  quarters  and  as  safeguards  for  the  men's 
health  were  ready. 

Conscripts'  period  of  servicef  save  in  the  event 
of  war,  was  12  consecutive  months.  Afterward, 
as  reservists,  they  remained  available  for  war  and 
for  periods  of  further  training.  Conscripts'  pay 
in  active  service  was  to  equal  that  in  the  Regular 
Army,  which  in  turn  was  increased  to  a  basic 
$30  a  month  (with  increments  for  grades)  and 
thus  brought  to  the  Navy's  level.  Conscripts,  after 
discharge,  were  entitled  to  their  old  jobs,  wher- 
ever reasonably  possible. 

The  operation  of  the  draft  was  to  terminate  on 
May  15,  1945,  unless  prolonged  by  further  action 
of  Congress. 

Conscription  of  Industry.  Section  9  of  the 
Act,  also  to  expire  on  May  15,  1945,  gave  the 
President  the  power  to  seise  and  operate  indus- 
trial establishments  refusing  to  produce  what  the 
War  or  the  Navy  Department  might  order.  The 
opinion  of  the  Secretary  of  War  or  of  the  Navy, 
as  the  case  might  be,  was  to  determine  whether  an 
establishment  was  able  to  fill  an  order  and  wheth- 
er the  price  to  be  paid  and  the  nature,  quantity, 
and  quality  of  the  goods  were  fair  and  reasonable 
to  require.  The  President  was  allowed  to  take  pos- 
session of  a  non-complying  establishment  immedi- 
ately and  through  the  Department  of  War  or  of 
the  Navy ;  no  recourse  to  a  process  of  law  there- 
for was  specified,  and  no  limit  (save  May  15, 
1945)  was  put  on  the  period  for  which  the  Gov- 
ernment might  keep  the  establishment.  The  Gov- 
ernment was  authorized  to  require  that  its  orders 
be  filled  in  priority  to  those  of  other  customers. 
Failure  to  comply  with  orders  from  the  Govern- 


DRAFT 


192 


DRAMA 


ment  was  made  a  felony,  punishable  by  imprison- 
ment up  to  three  years  and  fine  up  to  $50,000. 
The  Government,  however,  was  to  pay  compensa- 
tion for  seized  products  and  material  and  rent  on 
a  seized  establishment;  but  the  amount  of  such 
compensation  and  rent,  the  way  of  determining  it, 
and  the  agency  liable  therefor  were  not  specified, 
save  that  amount  must  be  fair  and  reasonable. 
The  statutory  rights  of  seised  plants'  employees 
as  to  social  security  and  standards  of  labor  were 
not  to  be  impaired. 

The  Draft  in  Operation.  On  the  day  of  sign- 
ing the  Selective  Training  Act,  September  16,  the 
President  issued  a  proclamation;  it  set  the  day, 
October  16,  of  the  first  registration  under  the  Act ; 
it  notified  all  men  subject  to  the  draft,  throughout 
the  Union,  then  to  present  themselves  before 
boards  of  registration  in  their  respective  locali- 
ties; and  it  called  on  Governors  to  appoint  such 
boards  in  each  State.  Later  proclamations  ar- 
ranged for  registration  in  the  Territories.  A  Se- 
lective Service  Committee  of  officers  of  the  Army 
and  Navy,  headed  by  Lieut.  Col.  L.  B.  Hershey, 
drew  the  detailed  plans  for  registration  and  the 
subsequent  steps  of  the  draft.  Early  declaration 
was  made  (October  19)  of  the  number  of  con- 
scripts that  the  Army  planned  to  admit  up  to  July 
1,  1941;  the  total  was  789,000;  leading  States' 
quotas  were  114,796  for  New  York,  62,223  for 
Illinois,  61,522  for  Pennsylvania. 

The  Government  sought  to  proceed  with  speed : 
Thus  it  could  best  provide  defenders  against  a 
risk,  officially  regarded  as  substantial,  of  attack 
on  the  part  of  one  or  another  of  the  warlike  pow- 
ers under  absolute  government ;  thus  it  could  give 
the  world  an  impression  of  faculty  for  prompt 
action  in  the  realm  of  war;  and  not  least,  thus 
it  could  get  the  difficult  moment  of  putting  the 
people  under  a  novel  and,  to  many,  hard  or  even 
repugnant  liability  over  with,  forestalling  any  or- 
ganized obstruction.  Provisions  for  housing  ad- 
ditional armed  forces  (see  DEFENSIVE  PREPARA- 
TIONS) were  under  way,  yet  would  not  for  months 
to  come  suffice  the  needs  of  all  the  intended  con- 
scripts. A  plan  of  serial  mustering  dealt  with  this 
hitch. 

Under  the  detailed  draft  plan  the  steps  in  the 
drafting  of  men  followed  about  this  order:  Men 
generally  registered  on  October  16,  before  regis- 
tration boards,  commonly  in  each  election  district ; 
a  draft  lottery  at  Washington,  operated  by  the 
Selective  Service  System,  drew  (October  29), 
from  the  glass  bowl  used  in  the  conscription  of 
1917,  9000  numbers,  and  these  were  listed  in  the 
order  of  their  drawing;  the  6500  local  Selective 
Service  boards  (not  to  be  confused  with  registra- 
tion boards),  having  issued  to  the  registrants  num- 
bers running  regularly  from  1  up  to  the  sum  of 
each  board's  registered  men,  now  proceeded  in 
each  case  to  examine  men  holding  numbers  that 
had  been  drawn  at  Washington,  taking  the  men 
in  the  order  in  which  the  numbers  had  been  drawn 
and  classifying  each  man  as  to  physical,  mental, 
and  other  sufficiency  or  drawbacks,  inclusive  of 
the  obligation  to  support  dependents;  men  found 
fit  in  all  respects  were  turned  over  to  the  Govern- 
ment for  induction  into  service,  in  the  order  in 
which  their  numbers  had  been  drawn  and  in  totals 
sufficient  to  satisfy  each  local  board's  share  of  its 
State's  quota  of  all  the  men  to  be  called  into  serv- 
ice at  the  time. 

Registration  Day.  On  October  16,  by  estimate, 
about  16,500,000  men  presented  themselves  for 


registration.  Their  great  number,  the  nature  of  a 
proceeding  unexampled  save  in  time  of  actual  war, 
and  the  prevailing  sense  of  suspense  as  to  their 
future  made  the  occasion  memorable:  but  the  reg- 
istration passed  with  only  rare  opposition  In  New 
York  City  a  group  of  eight  students  at  the  Union 
Theological  Seminary  went  to  the  local  place  of 
registration  and  declined  to  be  registered,  declar- 
ing themselves  conscientious  objectors  not  only 
to  fighting  but  to  registry  as  part  of  the  prepara- 
tions thereto.  Two  Socialists  in  the  same  city  also 
refused  to  register.  Both  groups  were  arrested. 
The  divinity  students  pleaded  guilty  at  arraign- 
ment; they  were  sentenced  (Nov.  14)  to  prison 
for  a  year  and  a  day.  A  few  other  refusals  oc- 
curred elsewhere. 

The  local  boards,  boards  of  appeal,  and  other 
instruments  of  the  Selective  Service  organization 
had  over  them  a  Director,  Dr.  Clarence  A.  Dyk- 
stra,  president  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin 
and  former  city  manager  of  Cincinnati.  He  per- 
formed the  substantial  service,  not  only  of  putting 
a  new  and  yet  unassembled  organization  promptly 
at  work,  but  also  of  conducting  the  first  steps  of 
the  draft  in  such  fashion  as  to  attract  public  trust 
It  was  given  out  early  that  the  draft  boards  would 
in  general  grant  deferment  at  first,  and  provision- 
ally, to  men  who  stated  that  they  had  dependents 
on  their  earned  income. 

Conscripts'  Entry  into  Service.  The  first  of 
the  drafted  men  reported  for  duty,  on  the  days 
set  for  divers  corps  areas  in  the  week  of  Novem- 
ber 25,  before  their  respective  local  boards.  Thence 
they  were  dispatched  to  military  units  in  training 
camps;  they  had  previously  been  formally  en- 
rolled by  the  Army.  The  first  contingent  numbered 
only  about  18,700  conscripts ;  it  was  reduced  to  this 
figure  from  30,000,  the  Government  making  man- 
for-man  allowance  to  each  locality  for  its  draft- 
able  men  who  had  volunteered  for  military  serv- 
ice after  the  act  went  into  effect.  Save  as  affected 
by  this  allowance,  each  area  created  under  the 
Act  had  to  deliver  its  proportionate  quota  of  the 
first  contingent.  Some  local  draft  boards  had 
filled  their  whole  quotas  with  volunteers  and  did 
not  have  to  conscript  for  this  contingent,  but  this 
was  exceptional. 

The  estimated  land  forces  in  active  service  after 
the  incorporation  of  the  November  contingent  of 
conscripts  were  reckoned  about  510,000,  made  up  of 
some  380,000  soldiers  in  the  Regular  Army,  112,- 
000  in  the  National  Guard,  and  the  first  con- 
scripts. 

As  it  turned  out,  the  Army's  own  examination 
of  entrants  rejected  an  unexpectedly  high  propor- 
tion of  them :  Some  on  account  of  criminal  convic- 
tion, many  for  secondary  physical  defects,  such  as 
paucity  of  teeth.  More  men  had  to  be  forwarded  to 
make  up  the  resulting  deficiency. 

See  AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR;  CON- 
GRESS OF  INDUSTRIAL  ORGANIZATIONS;  EDUCA- 
TION; LABOR  CONDITIONS;  MEDICINE  AND  SUR- 
GERY ;  SOCIALISM  ;  UNITED  STATES  under  Legisla- 
tion. 

DRAMA.  With  virtually  all  those  European 
centers  where  the  theater  normally  flourishes  ei- 
ther directly  involved  in  war  or  existing  in  constant 
danger  thereof,  it  devolved  upon  America,  and 
New  York  in  particular,  to  act  as  chief  standard 
bearer  for  the  Drama  in  1940.  And  it  must  reluc- 
tantly be  admitted  that  she  failed  to  rise  to  that 
opportunity  with  any  real  distinction.  Rather  was 
her  dependence  upon  the  foreign  stage  for  a  large 


Courtesy,  Herman  SA«m/in 


Photograph  by  Vandamm 

Ethel  Barrymore  and  Richard  Waring  in 
"THE  CORN  IS  GREEN" 


Photograph  by  Vandamm 


Courtesy,  Dunghl  Deere  Wtman— Photograph  by  Luca^  &•  Monroe 

Kent  Smith,  Peggy  Wood,  and  Jane  (  owl  in 
"OLD  ACQVAINTANC  E" 


DRAMA 


193 


DRAMA 


share  of  her  theatrical  entertainment  clearly  indi- 
cated. 

The  year  was  more  than  a  week  old  when  its 
first  new  play  was  offered,  a  ridiculous  comedy  en- 
titled The  Male  Animal,  by  James  Thurber  (hu- 
morist and  caricaturist),  in  collaboration  with  El- 
liott Nugent,  who  also  was  the  featured  actor. 
This  was  counted  among  the  season's  successes. 
The  reverse  was  the  fate  of  the  next  presentation, 
a  nevertheless  creditable  attempt  to  dramatize 
Roark  Bradford's  John  Henry  tales  of  Negro  life 
and  superstition,  with  incidental  music  by  Jacques 
Wolfe  and  with  Paul  Robeson  to  sing  it.  But  a 
revival  of  Sean  O'Casey's  familiar  Irish  classic, 
Juno  and  the  Paycock,  with  Barry  Fitzgerald,  Sara 
Allgood,  and  Arthur  Shields  conspicuous  in  its 
cast,  scored  more  than  100  performances.  And 
nearly  as  many  were  recorded  by  Elmer  Rice's 
pleasant  comedy  of  youth,  Two  on  an  Island,  with 
Betty  Field,  John  Craven,  and  Luther  Adler  in  the 
chief  roles  But  an  importation  from  Britain  of 
Bernard  Shaw's  satirical  Geneva  subsisted  for  but 
a  scant  fortnight.  Public  curiosity  concerning  the 
unpredictable,  but  none  the  less  reprehensible,  an- 
tics of  the  once-admirable  John  Barrymore  in  My 
Dear  Children  kept  that  opus  current  for  more 
than  three  months. 

February  brought,  in  Two  for  the  Show,  a 
worthy  successor  to  the  previous  year's  clever  and 
artistic  revue,  One  for  the  Money.  And  this  was 
practically  that  month's  sole  achievement,  by  reason 
of  the  failure  of  Night  Music,  by  the  usually  more 
successful  Clifford  Odets  But  with  March  came  a 
moderate  hit  in  The  Fifth  Column,  a  revision  by 
Benjamin  Glazer  of  Ernest  Hemingway's  published 
play  dealing  with  the  War  in  Spain.  In  this  Fran- 
chot  Tone,  Katherine  Locke,  Lee  J.  Cobb,  Arnold 
Moss,  and  Lenpre  Ulric  figured  to  advantage.  Then 
followed  a  deliberately  and  shoddily,  if  mildly,  sa- 
lacious piece  by  Joseph  Carole,  Alan  Dinehart,  and 
others,  entitled  Separate  Rooms,  which  somehow 
managed  to  last  the  year  out  with  Mr.  Dinehart  in 
its  principal  role  Ferenc  Molnar's  Liliom,  first 
seen  in  New  York  nearly  20  years  earlier  and  re- 
vived once  in  the  meantime,  was  admirably  restaged 
m  a  new  adaptation,  again  by  Mr.  Glazer,  and  con- 
tinued through  the  spring  season.  Burgess  Mere- 
dith, Ingrid  Bergman,  Elia  Kazan,  Arnold  Korff, 
and  John  Emery  played  the  more  important  char- 
acters. And  a  still  more  pronounced  success  was 
that  of  the  English  thriller,  Ladies  in  Retirement, 
by  Reginald  Denham  and  Edward  Percy,  which 
introduced  the  highly  capable  British  actress,  Flora 
Robson,  to  the  American  speaking  stage.  Estelle 
Winwood,  Jessamine  Newcombe,  and  Isobel  Elsom 
were  the  other  ladies  involved.  One  more  of  that 
sex  brought  the  month  to  a  close,  Lady  in  Waiting, 
by  Margery  Sharp,  adapted  from  her  own  novel, 
The  Nutmeg  Tree,  with  Gladys  George  as  the 
stellar  attraction. 

The  spring  season  gained  substance  from  a  four- 
week  revival  by  Maurice  Evans  of  his  notable  pro- 
duction of  Shakespeare's  tragical  history  of  King 
Richard  II,  but  a  pleasant,  though  unimportant, 
comedy  on  a  moderately  propagandist  topic  by  Vin- 
cent Sheean,  An  International  Incident,  understood 
to  be  his  first  play,  failed  to  catch  the  popular 
fancy  despite  a  most  engaging  performance  of  the 
central  part  by  Ethel  Barrymore.  Though  achiev- 
ing a  far  longer  run,  Higher  and  Higher,  a  musical 
with  the  Rodgers  and  Hart  label,  was  nevertheless 
classed  among  the  disappointing  items,  as  likewise 
was  Albert  Bein's  fantasy,  Heavenly  Express, 


though  equipped  with  an  admirable  cast  that  in- 
cluded John  Garfield,  Russell  Collins,  Aline  Mac- 
Mahon,  Philip  Loeb,  Harry  Carey,  and  Art  Smith. 
Late  April,  however,  raised  the  standard  with  Rob- 
ert E.  Sherwood's  impressive  and  moving  paean  on 
the  spirit  of  Finland,  There  Shall  Be  No  Night,  as 
acted  by  Alfred  Lunt,  Lynn  Fontanne,  Richard 
Wnorf,  Sydney  Greenstreet,  Montgomery  Clift, 
Elizabeth  Fraser,  and  Maurice  Colbourne.  William 
Saroyan's  second  play  of  the  season,  Love's  Old 
Sweet  Song,  proved  to  be  another  example  of  his 
now  familiar  nonconformity  to  any  known  laws  of 
dramatic  construction  and  something  less  appealing 
than  either  of  its  predecessors,  notwithstanding  the 
agreeable  presence  of  Walter  Huston  and  Jessie 
Royce  Landis.  Then  Laurence  Olivier  and  Vivien 
Leigh  celebrated  the  culmination  of  their  own  per- 
sonal romance  with  a  generally  inexpert  presenta- 
tion of  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Edmond  O'Brien  and 
Dame  May  Whitty  appearing  with  them  as  Mer- 
cutio  and  the  Nurse.  Late  May  found  summer 
styles  coming  in  with  such  musical  items  as  Keep 
Off  the  Grass,  which  with  a  cast  headed  by  Jimmy 
Durante  and  Ray  Bolger  nevertheless  succumbed 
ere  fall,  and  an  Irving  Berhn-B.  G.  De  Sylva  prod- 
uct entitled  Louisiana  Purchase,  featuring  William 
Gaxton,  Victor  Moore,  Vera  Zorina,  and  Irene 
Bordoni,  that  was  still  flourishing  at  the  expiration 
of  the  year.  The  Players  Club  selected  for  its  tra- 
ditional week's  revival  of  a  classic  to  close  the 
season  Cpngreye's  Love  for  Love,  offered  as  usual 
with  an  imposing  cast  of  members  and  lady  guest 
participants. 

Throughout  the  country,  and  particularly  in  the 
East,  the  summer  theaters  reported  approximately 
the  same  scale  and  range  of  activity  as  in  other 
recent  years. 

In  New  York  the  second  half  of  the  year  proved 
even  less  distinguished  than  the  first.  Laggard  in 
starting,  the  new  season  found  little  in  the  way  of 
novelty  to  attract  except  a  series  of  musical  or 
spectacular  features  designed  in  most  instances  as 
vehicles  for  the  return  of  popular  entertainers  who 
had  been  out  of  the  local  picture  for  varying  peri- 
ods. These  included  Hold  on  to  Your  Hats,  which 
brought  Al  Jolson  back  to  the  speaking  and  sing- 
ing stage  after  an  absence  of  a  decade ;  Boys  and 
Girls  Together,  performing  a  similar  service  for 
Ed  Wynn,  though  after  a  shorter  lapse ;  //  Hap- 
pens on  Ice,  wherein  Joe  Cook  was  amusingly,  if 
illogically,  pitchforked  into  the  midst  of  a  delecta- 
ble and  widely  varied  display  of  expert  ice  skating ; 
and  Cabin  in  the  Sky,  a  picturesque  Negro  fantasy 
that  restored  Ethel  Waters  to  the  ranks  of  the 
singing  artists  after  her  two  seasons  as  a  dramatic 
actress  in  Mamba's  Daughters.  To  these  was  pres- 
ently added  a  new  B.  G.  De  Sylva-Cole  Porter 
opus,  Panama  Hattie,  in  which,  after  practically 
no  absence  at  all,  Ethel  Merman  effected  her  ap- 
pearance as  a  lone  star.  All  five  of  these  were  still 
among  the  popular  successes  at  the  year's  end 

The  first  serious  item  was  an  altogether  satisfy- 
ing revival  by  Grace  George  of  Kind  Lady,  the 
tense  melodrama  fashioned  by  Edward  Chodoroy 
from  a  story  by  Hugh  Walpole.  Stiano  Braggiotti 
headed  Miss  George's  supporting  company.  But 
then  began  a  series  of  inconsequential  offerings  of 
which  the  great  majority  speedily  fell  by  the  way- 
side, in  one  or  two  instances  without  risking  a 
second  performance.  Among  them  were  no  fewer 
than  four  so-called  satires  on  the  life  and  popula- 
tion of  Hollywood,  California,  but  the  trend  that 
apparently  threatened  was  promptly  snuffed  out 


DRAMA 


194 


DRAMA 


one  mid-September  offering,  Elmer 
Harris'  Johnny  Belinda,  that  received  but  a  chilly 
welcome,  was  enabled  by  the  clever  portrayal  of  a 
deaf-mute  by  its  leading  player,  Helen  Craig,  to 
endure  throughout  the  remainder  of  the  year.  Yet 
an  impressive  and  beautiful  work,  Maxwell  Ander- 
son's conjectural  drama  of  the  youthful  Jesus  as 
based  upon  the  account  in  the  Gospel  according  to 
St.  Luke,  which  he  entitled  Journey  to  Jerusalem, 
was  quickly  withdrawn  despite  exceptionally  cred- 
itable portrayals  by  young  Sidney  Lumet,  Arlene 
Francis,  Horace  Braham,  Arnold  Moss,  and  others. 
A  second  revival  in  the  melodrama  class,  Blind 
Alley  by  James  Warwick,  with  Roy  Hargraye  in 
his  original  role  of  several  seasons  back,  achieved 
a  substantial  run.  And  another  surprise  was  the  hit 
scored  by  a  resuscitation  of  the  old  Brandon  Thom- 
as farce,  Charley's  Aunt,  with,  it  was  claimed,  little 
or  no  modernization.  Jose  Ferrer  played  the  lead- 
ing part.  One  other  item  that  managed  to  survive 
critical  disapproval  on  the  ground  that  it  was  not 
nearly  up  to  its  authors1  standard  of  hilarity  was 
George  S.  Kaufman  and  Moss  Hart's  George 
Washington  Slept  Here,  a  farcical  commentary  on 
the  craze  for  old  dwellings,  with  Ernest  Truex, 
Jean  Dixon,  Dudley  Digges,  and  a  fairly  notable 
cast  amusingly  involved. 

A  momentary  improvement  flared  up  in  Novem- 
ber with  an  altogether  delightful,  if  not  epoch- 
marking,  presentation  of  Shakespeare's  Twelfth 
Night  with  Helen  Hayes  as  the  Viola,  Maurice 
Evans  as  Malvolio,  June  Walker  as  Maria,  Donald 
Burr  as  Feste,  and  Mark  Smith  and  Wallace  Acton 
as  Sir  Toby  Belch  and  Sir  Andrew  Aguecheek 
respectively,  all  under  the  direction  of  Margaret 
Webster ;  followed  by  the  importation  from  Lon- 
don of  Emlyn  Williams'  largely  autobiographical 
play,  The  Corn  Is  Green,  in  which  Ethel  Barry- 
more  gave  a  completely  admirable  portrayal  of  one 
of  the  central  characters  and  Richard  Waring  of 
the  other,  representing  the  author  himself.  Then 
came  another  lapse  from  grace  which  engulfed  a 
quasi-biographical  item  entitled  Romantic  Mr.  Dick- 
ens, that  can  at  least  be  credited  with  effecting  the 
New  York  debut  of  a  new  recruit  to  the  stage 
from  the  family  Barrymore,  Diana,  daughter  of 
John,  who  disclosed  an  apparent  inheritance  of  tal- 
ent ;  the  latest  work  of  the  Hungarian  Ferenc  Mol- 
nar,  understood  to  have  been  written  since  he  be- 
came a  refugee  in  America,  Delicate  Story,  which 
proved  just  a  little  too  ephemeral  to  last,  even  with 
Edna  Best,  Jay  Fassett,  and  John  Craven  contrib- 
uting truly  ingratiating  performances;  and  plays 
by  Irwin  Shaw,  Edward  Chodorov  (collaborating 
with  H.  S.  Kraft),  and  Paul  Vincent  Carroll,  of 
Eire.  But  late  December  witnessed,  and  the  year 
ended  in,  a  burst  of  comparative  glory  superinduced 
by  a  number  of  pleasant  dramas  that  had  evidently 
been  reserved  for  the  Christmas  holidays.  These 
included  John  van  Druten's  Old  Acquaintance,  an 
uncommonly  entertaining  and  heart-warming  com- 
edy of  the  miraculously  enduring  friendship  of  two 
lady  novelists,  wholly  unlike  in  character  and  tem- 
perament, and  of  the  loss  of  the  youthful  suitor  of 
one  to  the  daughter  of  the  other.  Jane  Cowl  and 
Peggy  Wood  figured  with  distinction  as  the  pro- 
tagonists, with  Kent  Smith  and  Adele  Longmire  as 
the  younger  couple.  Another  was  My  Sister  Eileen, 
an  adaptation  for  stage  purposes  of  the  stories  by 
Ruth  McKenney  that  appeared  originally  in  The 
New  Yorker,  later  in  book  form,  recounting  the 
humorou*  and  bewildering  experiences  that  befall 
two  girls  from  Ohio  seeking  tneir  fortunes  in  New 


York.  Aa  staged  by  George  S.  Kaufman  with 
Shirley  Booth  and  Jo  Ann  Sayers  as  the  sisters, 
this  proved  the  most  amusing  of  the  novelties. 
Meet  the  People,  a  lively,  clever,  and  highly  varied 
musical  revue  originated  and  performed  by  a  group 
of  talented  juveniles  who,  a  year  previously,  had 
wearied  of  waiting  around  for  an  opportunity  to 
display  their  ability  in  Hollywood,  formed  them- 
selves into  a  Theater  Alliance,  and  staged  their 
own  program  of  skits,  sketches,  and  specialties, 
finally  reached  New  York,  to  a  well-deserved  wel- 
come. Minor  features  of  the  dying  year  were  Pal 
Joey,  a  Rodgers  and  Hart  musical  based  on  John 
O'fiara's  moderately  funny  series  of  vernacular 
letters,  also  in  The  rfew  Yorker,  purporting  to  be 
written  by  a  guttersnipe  night  club  performer  to  a 
long-suffering  friend,  the  chief  character  being 
taken  with  almost  painful  verity  by  Gene  Kelly, 
with  Vivienne  Segal  also  concerned ;  and  The  Fly- 
ing Gerardos,  a  less-than-expert  comedy  by  Ken- 
yon  Nicholson  and  Charles  Robinson  portraying 
the  domestic  and  love  life  of  a  family  of  trapeze 
artists,  with  Florence  Reed  as  a  kind  of  matriarch. 
But  the  very  last  production  of  the  year  was  also 
one  of  the  most  noteworthy,  Elmer  Rice's  Flight 
to  the  West,  a  serious,  thoughtful,  moving,  and 
passionately  sincere  drama  of  world  conditions  of 
today,  with  its  scene  laid  in  a  transatlantic  clipper 
New  York-bound. 

Great  Britain.  In  and  near  London,  it  is  true, 
during  the  early  half  of  the  year  and  until  the 
Nazi  bombing  raids  rendered  it  both  unsafe  and 
impracticable,  activity  persisted  doggedly  in  the 
theater  in  spite  of  war  conditions  or,  rather,  in 
large  measure  because  of  them.  For  much  atten- 
tion was  devoted  to  providing  light,  extremely  light, 
stage  entertainment  for  Tommies  on  furlough. 
Eventually  Bernard  Shaw  protested  that,  by  intel- 
ligence and  education,  the  British  soldiery  rated  a 
higher  grade  of  dramatic  fare,  a  theory  which, 
tested,  proved  to  be  not  without  foundation.  For 
although  the  bills  continued  to  be  preponderantly 
of  the  frivolous  type,  an  increased  number  of  more 
substantial  works  not  only  were  offered  but  met 
with  success,  and  one  of  the  most  pronounced  hits 
of  the  season  was  Shakespeare's  King  Lear  as  pro- 
duced by  John  Gielgud  at  the  Old  Vic  with  himself 
in  the  title  role  and  a  supporting  company  that  in- 
cluded Fay  Compton,  Cathleen  Nesbitt,  Jessica 
Tandy,  Lewis  Casson,  Stephen  Haggard,  and  Jack 
Hawkins.  And  prior  to  this,  plays  like  The  Impor- 
tance of  Being  Earnest  and  The  Corn  Is  Green, 
which  had  been  running  intermittently  since  pre- 
war days,  could  always  command  crowded  houses. 
Even  so  desperately  serious  a  work  as  Eugene 
O'Neiirs  Desire  Under  the  Elms,  never  before  pub- 
licly shown  in  London,  met  with  popular  favor  al- 
though criticized  as  already  old-fashioned.  But 
Denis  Johnston's  brilliant  yet  incredible  Golden 
Cuckoo  was  accorded  the  reverse  fortune. 

Among  the  lighter  favorites  were  a  musical  by 
the  versatile  Stanley  Lupino,  Funny  Side  Up;  a 
new  Charles  B.  Cocnran  revue,  hardly  up  to  stand- 
gird  but  well  above  current  quality ;  and  a  pleasant 
little  comedy  entitled  Jeannie,  by  Aimee  Stuart, 
which  started  at  one  of  the  experimental  houses 
otf  the  beaten  track  but  was  shortly  transferred  to 
a  regular  West  End  theater.  This  served  also  to 
introduce  to  prominence  a  young  Irish  actress, 
Barbara  Mullen,  who  thus  finally  arrived  in  Lon- 
don after  an  American  debut  There  was  also  a 
new  farce,  Nap  Hand,  by  Vernon  Sylvaine.  Then 
followed,  as  the  character  of  the  plays  improved, 


DRAMA 


195  EARTHQUAKES 


Emlyn  Williams'  The  Liaht  of  Heart,  hailed  u 
easily  the  finest  new  work  since  the  outbreak  oi 
the  war  and  a  pronounced  success  with  Godfrey 
Tearle  in  its  leading  role ;  Cousin  Muriel,  by  Clem* 
ence  Dane,  which  boasted  a  notable  cast  including 
Edith  Evans,  Peggy  Ashcrof  t,  Frederick  Leister, 
and  the  rising  young  Alec  Guinness ;  a  passionate 
political  and  figurative  Communist  item  by  Sean 
O'Casey  called  The  Star  Turns  Red;  a  dramatiza- 
tion of  Daphne  du  Maurier's  Rebecca  with  Owen 
Nares  and  Celia  Johnson  as  the  protagonists  J  and 
House  in  the  Square,  one  of  those  three-generation 
sequences,  written  by  a  young  Welsh  actress,  Diana 
Morgan,  and  presented  with  Lilian  Braithwaite  and 
Margaret  Rawlings  outstanding  in  the  company. 
At  one  or  two  periods  during  the  season  there  were 
more  plays  current  in  troubled  London  than  there 
were  in  New  York. 

The  annual  Shakespeare  Birthday  Festival  was 
held  as  usual  in  the  Memorial  Theatre  at  Strat- 
ford, opening  with  a  not-too-competent  presenta- 
tion of  Measure  for  Measure,  soon  supplanted  by 
a  non-Shakespearean  revival  of  Goldsmith's  She 
Stoops  to  Conquer,  but  most  of  the  customary 
summer  festivals  were  cancelled.  One  interesting 
occurrence  of  late  spring  was  the  reprieve  granted 
to  the  famous  old  Lyceum  Theatre,  which  had 
been  marked  for  razing.  And  although  from  this 
time  on  activity  in  the  London  playhouses  was  de- 
cidedly irregular,  increasing  and  waning  as  war- 
time conditions  determined,  still  a  surprising  num- 
ber of  new  works  were  cautiously  brought  out 
They  included  the  first  regular  showing  of  Ber- 
nard Shaw's  In  Good  King  Charles's  Golden  Days, 
seen  at  Malvern  the  previous  summer;  another 
Vernon  Sylvaine  farce,  W omen  Aren't  Angels ;  a 
revival  of  Shaw's  The  Dewl's  Disciple  with  the 
screen  actor,  Robert  Donat,  as  Dick  Dudgeon; 
Avery  Hopwood's  High  Temperature;  Robert 
Ardrey's  Thunder  Rock,  which  received  a  heartier 
welcome  than  New  York  had  accorded  it;  Clare 
Boothe's  Margin  for  Error,  which,  reversely,  was 
found  disappointing;  Cottage  to  Let,  by  Geoffrey 
Kerr,  the  first  play  to  concern  itself  with  the  pres- 
ent war ;  and  Once  a  Crook,  a  made-to-order  item 
for  Gordon  Marker.  Outside  of  London  the  specu- 
lative drama  of  the  time  of  Jesus,  Family  Portrait, 
reached  a  British  production  with  Fay  Compton 
and  Ursula  Jeans  as  the  two  principal  Marys.  Even 
after  the  bombing  raids  afflicted,  but  failed  to  dis- 
may, the  metropolis,  matinee  schedules  were  re- 
tained, and  Shakespeare's  infrequently  performed 
All's  Well  That  Ends  Well  was  seen  for  a  few 
times  but  was  shortly  withdrawn  in  favor  of  King 
Henry  IV,  Part  L  And  even  so  late  as  November, 
after  a  momentary  improvement  in  general  condi- 
tions, a  new  Far j eon  revue  was  brought  to  light  in 
Diversion  with  no  less  a  stage  personage  than 
Edith  Evans  figuring  for  the  first  time  in  an  offer- 
ing of  that  type. 

Ireland.  In  Ireland,  which,  in  so  far  as  the 
drama  is  concerned,  means  Dublin,  the  war  served 
as  a  positive  impetus  to  the  playwrights.  For  where- 
as under  normal  conditions  the  companies  of  the 
two  chief  theaters,  the  Abbey  and  the  Gate,  spend 
a  goodly  portion  of  their  time  in  touring  the  nearer 
European  capitals,  the  existing  situation  rendered 
this  impossible,  and  inasmuch  as  local  playgoers 
had  evinced  signs  of  rebellion  against  seeing  the 
same  old  familiar  repertoire  pieces  over  and  over, 
the  only  solution  of  the  problem  was  new  plays. 
Among  the  more  successful  new  works  that  re- 
sulted were  W.  D.  Hepenstall's  farce,  Today  and 


Yesterday,  and  The  Rugged  Path,  by  George  Shiels. 

France.  Paris,  of  course,  obviously  had  little 
cause  or  opportunity  to  be  drama-minded  after  the 
invasion  of  France,  although  early  in  the  year  a 
new  work  by  Henry  Bernstein  entitled  Efoire 
evoked  a  wide  diversity  of  critical  opinion. 

Germany.  Berlin,  prior  to  the  retaliatory  raids 
by  the  British  bombers,  found  one  of  its  chief 
sources  of  diversion  in  playgoing.  The  theaters, 
however,  whether  by  edict  or  expediency,  confined 
themselves  mainly  to  the  established  classics — the 
dramas  of  Schiller,  Goethe,  Ibsen,  and  Shakespeare 
pre-eminently— with  an  occasional  political  piece 
for  variety.  In  this  last  category  was  the  first  per- 
formance in  German  of  Mussolini's  Cavour. 

For  published  plays,  see  LITERATURE,  ENGLISH 
AND  AMERICAN.  For  foreign  plays,  see  FRENCH 
LITERATURE,  SPANISH  LITERATURE,  etc.  See  PU- 
LITZER PRIZES;  RADIO  PROGRAMS. 

RALPH  W.  CAREY. 

DRESS.  See  FASHION  EVENTS  ;  GARMENT  IN- 
DUSTRY. 

DRUGS.  See  FOOD  AND  DRUG  ADMINISTRATION  ; 
NARCOTIC  DRUGS  CONTROL;  PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERV- 
ICE; also,  medical  topics. 

DUGOUTS.  See  GEOLOGY. 

DUKE  ENDOWMENT.  See  BENEFACTIONS. 

DUMBARTON  LIBRARY  AND  COL- 
LECTION. See  ART  under  Museums. 

DUMPING.  See  CUSTOMS,  BUREAU  OF. 

DUNKERS  (DUNKARDS).  See  BRETHREN. 
GERMAN  BAPTIST. 

DUNKIRK.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR  under  The 
Battle  of  Flanders. 

DUTCH  EAST  INDIES.  See  NETHERLANDS 
INDIES. 

DUTCH  ELM  DISEASE.  See  ENTOMOLOGY. 

DUTCH  GUIANA.  See  SURINAM. 

DUTCH  WEST  INDIES.  See  CURACAO; 
SURINAM. 

DUTIES.  See  CUSTOMS,  BUREAU  OF;  TARIFF 
COMMISSION,  U.S. 

EARTHQUAKES.  Estimates  as  to  the  actual 
number  of  earthquakes  which  are  felt  in  some  part 
of  the  world  each  year  differ  widely,  partly  because 
seismological  observatories  are  not  regularly  dis- 
tributed over  the  earth's  surface.  Sieberg  has  esti- 
mated that  9000  earthquakes  take  place  each  year 
and  his  estimate  is  considered  reliable  by  many 
seismologists.  Fortunately,  most  of  these  earth- 
quakes are  either  feeble  and  harmless  or  else  occur 
under  the  sea  or  in  thinly  populated  regions.  Ac- 
cording to  Peterschmidt,  during  the  four  months 
of  March  to  June,  1939,  there  were  504  earth- 
quakes felt  by  people  or  registered  by  seismo- 
graphs. Of  these  probably  about  one-fourth  were 
of  sufficient  strength  to  have  the  epicenter  deter- 
mined accurately  either  by  isoseismal  lines  or  from 
instrumental  recordings.  If  Peterschmidt's  compi- 
lation is  representative  it  means  that  in  an  average 
year  there  are  somewhat  less  than  400  earthquakes 
strong  enough  to  have  determinable  epicenters.  It 
is  also  difficult  to  determine  the  mean  annual  loss 
of  life  caused  by  earthquakes.  Some  years  ago 
Davison  estimated  that  in  an  average  year  14,000 
people  are  killed  by  earthquakes;  a  couple  years 
later  he  revised  his  estimate  and  reckoned  the  aver- 
age number  of  lives  lost  each  year  in  the  earth- 
quakes of  the  whole  world  to  be  about  28,000. 
Heavy  quakes  often  occur  in  remote  regions  and 
are  known  to  have  happened  only  from  records 
made  by  seismographs  over  the  globe;  even  from 


EARTHQUAKES 


196 


EARTHQUAKES 


some  populated  regions  direct  news  is  sometimes 
weeks  or  months  in  reaching  the  rest  of  the  world. 
In  the  United  States  alone  more  than  200  earth- 
quakes are  usually  reported  annually. 

Aside  from  the  Rumanian  earthquake,  1940  was 
characterized  seismologically  by  the  rather  numer- 
ous aftershocks  which  followed  the  great  earth- 
quake of  December,  1939,  in  Turkey.  There  were 
also  a  few  other  damaging  earthquakes. 

On  January  17  eight  violent  tremors  were  felt 
in  the  original  area  devastated  by  the  December, 
1939,  earthquake  in  Turkey  and  others  were  also 
felt  at  Istanbul,  Smyrna,  Castamonia,  and  Izmid. 
On  the  preceding  day  an  earthquake  occurred  at 
the  village  of  Balcikoy  near  Nigde  in  southern 
Anatolia;  there  the  death  toll  was  small  because 
most  people  were  out  of  doors.  On  the  night  of 
January  17  two  more  shocks  were  felt  at  Nigde, 
causing  400  houses  to  collapse  and  killing  50  peo- 
ple. Between  3  ajn.  of  February  21  and  noon  of 
February  24  six  villages  were  destroyed  completely 
and  300  people  were  killed  in  Central  Anatolia 
about  150  miles  southeast  of  Ankara.  On  April  13 
there  were  further  aftershocks  of  the  great  earth- 
quake of  December,  1939;  on  this  day  much  dam- 
age was  caused  to  15  villages.  On  July  30  violent 
earthquakes  took  place  on  the  central  plateau  of 
Anatolia.  Twelve  villages  were  destroyed  near 
Yozgad  and  this  shock  was  also  felt  at  Ankara, 
Erzinjan,  Tokat,  Kayseri,  Amasya,  Sinop,  and 
Istanbul ;  on  this  day  300  people  were  killed  and 
several  hundreds  were  injured.  The  epicenter  was 
near  Yozgad,  not  far  from  that  of  the  great  quake 
of  December,  1939.  It  may  be  doubted  that  these 
strong  shocks  of  July  30  were  aftershocks  of  the 
December,  1939,  quake;  however,  they  do  show 
that  the  region  was  generally  unstable  even  after 
the  lapse  of  seven  months.  Such  a  terrific  quake  as 
that  of  December,  1939,  would  naturally  give  rise 
to  instability  which  would  persist  for  a  consider- 
able time  and  cause  shocks  not  quite  so  intense  as 
the  original  one. 

On  October  22  a  strong  earthquake  with  epi- 
center near  Barlag  shook  a  considerable  area  in 
Rumania ;  in  Bucharest  it  cracked  buildings,  caused 
much  excitement  among  the  inhabitants  (though 
no  fatalities  were  reported),  and  otherwise  dam- 
aged property.  This  shock  turned  out  to  be  a  fore- 
shock  of  a  greater  quake  less  than  three  weeks 
later.  On  November  10,  a  terrific  earthquake  came 
in  the  early  morning.  Many  public  buildings  were 
severely  damaged;  among  them  were  the  new  11- 
story  Carlton  flats,  the  building  of  the  Foreign 
Ministry,  the  Royal  Palace,  the  Headquarters  of 
the  Rumanian  Army,  and  the  Post  Office.  In  all, 
about  200  public  buildings  were  destroyed  and  400 
damaged  besides  1000  badly  damaged  homes.  This 
earthquake  occurred  at  the  time  of  a  heavy  rain, 
and  as  in  nearly  all  earthquakes  in  populated  areas 
fires  broke  out,  while  in  this  case  basements  were 
flooded  which  added  to  the  confusion.  After  the 
quake  and  while  a  heavy  rain  was  in  progress, 
physicians,  men  of  science,  engineers,  architects, 
private  citizens,  members  of  the  Iron  Guard,  and 
German  Troops  searched  wreckage  for  trapped 
people ;  many  were  rescued.  The  number  reported 
killed  in  Bucharest  was  less  than  200.  Outside 
Bucharest  other  areas  in  Rumania  were  affected. 
At  Ploesti  the  earthquake  severely  damaged  the 
city  hall,  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  building,  a 
hotel,  and  the  Standard  Oil  Company's  offices  as 
well  as  private  houses.  The  refineries  of  the  Stand- 
ard Oil  Company  had  to  be  closed  for  about  two 


weeks  to  repair  damage  which  was  caused  princi- 
pally to  pipe  lines ;  the  Astra  Romana  Oil  Com- 
pany plant  was  also  severely  damaged.  Fires  also 
broke  out  at  Ploesti  and  sulphur  fumes  came  out 
of  ground  fissures.  At  Focsani,  an  oil  town,  many 
houses  were  destroyed  in  the  center  of  the  town 
and  hundreds  of  people  made  homeless.  At  Giurgiu 
on  the  Danube  over  half  of  the  houses  were  de- 
stroyed. The  prison  for  political  prisoners  at  Dos- 
trana  near  Campina  collapsed  and  about  100  were 
killed.  At  Galati,  the  grain  and  oil  port,  the  cathe- 
dral and  St.  Helen's  church  were  destroyed.  Be- 
sides the  specific  damage  mentioned  in  the  forego- 
ing places  there  was  severe  damage  at  Buzen, 
Ramnicue,  Sarat,  Pangui,  Jassy,  and  in  the  Pro- 
hava  oilfields  district. 

Outside  of  Rumania  at  Ruschuk  in  Bulgaria 
there  was  some  damage  but  no  fatalities.  The  shock 
was  felt  at  Sofia  but  Ruschuk  was  the  only  place 
in  Bulgaria  reporting  actual  damage.  It  was  felt  at 
Istanbul,  Turkey,  but  no  damage  was  reported 
there.  In  Russian-occupied  Poland  buildings  were 
destroyed  both  at  Komarno  and  Lwow ,  this  may 
have  been  due  to  a  separate  earthquake  nearly  si- 
multaneous with  the  one  centered  in  Rumania.  An 
earthquake,  possibly  the  Rumanian  one,  was  also 
felt  at  Moscow  on  November  10. 

The  Rumanian  earthquake  of  November  10 
reached  a  maximum  intensity  of  10  on  the  modified 
Mercalli  scale.  It  was  the  greatest  earthquake  in 
Rumania  since  1802  but  was  not  as  great  as  the 
Turkish  earthquake  of  December,  1939,  or  the 
Chilean  earthquake  of  January,  1939.  The  Turk- 
ish earthquake  of  December,  1939,  reached  inten- 
sity 12  on  the  modified  Mercalli  scale,  the  most  se- 
vere intensity  any  earthquake  attains  according  to 
this  scale. 

On  May  18-19  there  were  fifty  people  killed  and 
many  injured  at  Mexicali,  Mexico,  near  the  border 
of  the  United  States  Fifteen  separate  quakes  were 
felt  at  this  time  and  houses  and  government  build- 
ings were  damaged.  From  the  viewpoint  of  prop- 
erty damage  and  lives  lost  this  was  the  most  note- 
worthy earthquake  in  North  America  since  those 
at  Helena,  Montana,  ;n  1935. 

There  follow  a  few  minor  earthquakes  which 
caused  some  damage.  An  earthquake  of  intensity 
eight  on  the  modified  Mercalli  scale  was  felt  at 
Palermo,  Sicily,  on  January  12.  It  was  the  most 
severe  one  in  many  years ;  it  temporarily  cut  off 
the  electrical  supply  The  great  Messina  quake  of 
December,  1908,  affected  this  area  Strong  earth- 
quakes were  experienced  on  February  1  and  2  in 
the  town  of  Katerine  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Olympus 
on  the  shores  of  the  gulf  of  Salonika  in  Greece ; 
about  120  houses,  including  schools  and  other  pub- 
lic buildings  collapsed.  On  the  night  of  April  17  a 
severe  quake  was  felt  at  Patras  at  the  entrance  to 
the  gulf  of  Corinth  and  to  the  north  of  the  island 
of  Morea;  considerable  damage  resulted.  On  July 
15  an  earthquake  of  considerable  severity  and  at- 
tended by  floods  caused  havoc  in  the  Chumbi  Val- 
ley in  southern  Tibet.  Villages  from  Yatung  south- 
ward were  affected  and  a  stretch  of  six  miles  of 
the  telegraph  line  from  Yatung  to  India  was  de- 
stroyed:  all  bridges  over  the  Amachu  River  were 
demolished  and  200  people  were  killed.  The  epicen- 
ter was  near  latitude  28°  N.,  longitude  89°  E.  An 
earthquake  occurred  in  the  western  part  of  the 
Japanese  island  of  Hokkaido  on  August  2 ;  more 
than  a  thousand  fishing  boats  were  damaged  by  a 
huge  tidal  wave  which  followed  this  earthquake. 
The  epicenter  was  between  the  island  of  Hokkai- 


EASTERN  ORTHODOX  CHURCHES  197 


ECUADOR 


do  and  the  mainland  of  Asia.  See  SEISMOLOGY  ;  al- 
so, FOUNDATIONS. 

RICHMOND  T.  ZOCH. 

EASTERN  ORTHODOX  CHURCHES. 

See  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS. 

ECLIPSES.  See  ASTRONOMY. 

ECOLOGY.  See  ZOOLOGY  ;  BOTANY. 

ECONOMICS.  See  BUSINESS  REVIEW;  CO- 
OPERATIVE MOVEMENT;  FINANCIAL  REVIEW;  LA- 
BOR CONDITIONS  ;  LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS  ; 
PLANNING,  etc.  For  books  on  the  subject  see  LIT- 
ERATURE, ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN  under  Econom- 
ics. For  economic  conditions  see  countries  under 
History. 

ECUADOR.  A  South  American  republic.  Capi- 
tal, Quito. 

Area  and  Population.  Ecuador's  boundary  with 
Peru  remains  unsettled.  The  area  claimed  by  Ecua- 
dor is  officially  estimated  at  276,007  square  miles, 
including  the  Galapagos  Islands  (2868  square 
miles).  Estimated  population  in  1940,  2,921,688 
(about  10  per  cent  whites,  39  per  cent  Indians,  41 
per  cent  mixed,  and  10  per  cent  Negroes  and  Ori- 
entals). Estimated  populations  of  the  chief  cities: 
Quito,  215,921 ;  Guayaquil,  180,000 ;  Cuenca,  48,- 
300;  Ambato,  25,200  United  States  citizens  re- 
siding in  Ecuador  on  Jan.  1,  1940,  numbered  504; 
Germans,  about  2000 

Defense.  As  of  Nov.  1,  1939,  there  were  5450 
men  in  the  regular  army,  450  in  the  air  corps,  40,- 
000  trained  reservists,  and  a  few  small  naval  ves- 
sels At  the  beginning  of  1940,  an  Italian  mission 
was  instructing  the  army,  a  United  States  mission 
the  navy,  and  the  military  aviation  school  had  an 
Italian  instructor  (see  History).  Defense  budget 
for  1940  amounted  to  26,740,000  sucres  (24  per 
cent  of  total). 

Education  and  Religion.  The  Indian  and 
mixed  races  are  largely  illiterate.  School  attend- 
ance for  1938  was  •  Primary,  221,031 ;  secondary, 
8323 ;  universities,  1475.  Education  budget  for  1940, 
18,604,000  sucres  (17  per  cent  of  total).  Quito  has 
a  German  college  (Colegio  Aleman),  and  an 
American  school,  the  latter  opened  in  October, 
1940.  Roman  Catholicism  is  the  dominant  faith 
but  there  is  no  state  religion. 

Production.  While  agriculture  supports  about 
90  per  cent  of  the  population,  minerals  produced 
by  foreign-owned  companies  account  for  nearly 
one-third  of  the  value  of  all  exports.  Cacao  ex- 
ports in  1939  (about  13,277,808  kilos  of  2.2  Ib.) 
represented  22  5  per  cent  of  the  value  of  all  ex- 
ports. The  1939  coffee  crop  was  12,321,330  kilos. 
Bananas,  cereals,  fruits,  vegetables,  sugar,  and  cot- 
ton also  are  grown.  The  forests  yield  tagua  nuts, 
rubber,  balsa  wood,  and  kapok.  Mineral  production 
in  1939  was :  Petroleum,  2,313,000  bhl. ;  gold  (Cen- 
tral Bank  purchases  only),  1,152,148  grams;  silver, 
3  6  metric  tons.  Straw  hats  and  small  quantities  of 
textiles,  paper,  leather,  banana  flakes,  and  flour  are 
the  chief  manufactures 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1939  were  valued  at 
147,860,226  sucres  (148,314,911  in  1938)  ;  exports, 
164,840,543  (169,095,627  in  1938).  The  value  of  the 
chief  1939  exports  was-  Cacao,  37,031,000  sucres; 
cyanide  precipitates  (chiefly  gold,  with  some  silver, 
lead,  and  copper) .  26,404,000  sucres ;  petroleum  and 
its  products,  25,005.000  sucres ;  gold  bar  and  coin, 
14,893,000  sucres.  Of  the  1939  imports,  the  United 
States  supplied  49  1  per  cent  (37.5  in  1938)  ;  Ger- 
many, 6.8  (17.5) ;  France,  6.6  (8.0).  Of  the  ex- 
ports, 48.7  per  cent  went  to  the  United  States  (34.6 


in  1938)  ;  18.1  to  Germany  (24.1)  ;  5.5  to  the  Unit- 
ed Kingdom  (7.7). 

Finance.  Ordinary  revenues  and  expenditures 
for  1941  were  estimated  at  117,200,000  sucres  (113,- 
050,000  for  1940)  and  extraordinary  revenues  and 
expenditures  at  8,702,000  sucres  (8,025,000  for 
1940).  Actual  ordinary  revenues  in  1939  were  117,- 
187,000  sucres  and  expenditures,  including  the  defi- 
cit of  nearly  8,800,000  sucres  in  the  1938  budget, 
were  121,925,000  sucres.  Foreign  debt  on  June  30, 
1939,  $26,470,000;  internal  debt  on  Dec.  31,  1938, 
25,624,525  sucres.  Average  exchange  rates  of  the 
sucre  in  1939  were:  Free  bank  rate,  $0.06671 
($0.07027  in  1938)  ;  Central  Bank  rate,  $0.06743 
($0.07077). 

Transportation.  Ecuador  in  1940  had  about  775 
miles  of  railway  line,  3852  miles  of  highways,  and 
two  air  systems  (Pan  American-Grace  and  the 
German-controlled  Sedta  lines)  linking  the  princi- 
pal cities.  On  June  11,  1940,  the  Sedta  system  ex- 
tended its  line  between  Quito  and  Guayaquil  to 
Loja  in  the  southwest  (see  History).  During  1938 
473  vessels  entered  Guayaquil,  the  leading  seaport. 

Government.  The  political  situation  in  Ecuador 
became  increasingly  confused  after  the  military 
coup  d'etat  of  1925.  After  1929  continual  friction 
between  President  and  Congress  led  to  frequent 
revolutionary  outbreaks  and  a  succession  of  pro- 
visional governments,  ruling  largely  by  decree.  The 
Constitution  of  Mar.  26,  1929,  was  annulled  on 
Sept.  27,  1935,  and  the  1906  Constitution  provision- 
ally restored  by  executive  decree.  A  Constituent 
Assembly  adopted  a  new  Constitution  Dec  1,  1938, 
but  the  Congress  elected  on  Jan.  15,  1939,  promptly 
annulled  it  and  the  government  restored  the  1906 
Constitution.  On  Nov.  14,  1939,  Provisional  Presi- 
dent Aurelio  Mosquera  Narvaez  died  in  office  and 
Dr.  Carlos  Arroyo  del  Rio,  President  of  the  Sen- 
ate, became  Acting  President.  He  resigned  Dec. 
11,  1939,  to  become  a  Presidential  candidate  in  the 
election  set  for  Jan.  10-11,  1940,  being  replaced  by 
Dr.  Andres  F.  Cordova.  See  below  for  1940  de- 
velopments. 

HISTORY 

Internal  Politics.  Ecuadorean  politics  contin- 
ued their  stormy  course  during  1940,  while  eco- 
nomic conditions  became  steadily  worse  as  a  result 
of  the  European  War.  At  the  same  time  the  con- 
flict between  the  United  States  on  the  one  hand 
and  Germany  and  Italy  on  the  other  for  strategic 
positions  and  dominant  political  influence  in  Ecua- 
dor grew  in  intensity. 

The  election  arranged  in  1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 

1939,  p.  210)  was  held  as  scheduled  on  Jan.  10-11, 

1940.  The  Liberal-Radical  candidate,  Dr.  Arroyo 
del  Rio,  received  32,000  votes  as  against  20,000  re- 
ceived by  former  President  Jos6  Maria  Velasco 
Ibarra,  candidate  of  independents,  Socialists,  and 
others,  and  14,000  counted  for  Jacinto  Jijon  Ca- 
amano,  the  nominee  of  the  Conservative  party.  Dr. 
C6rdova  continued  to  serve  as  Acting  President 
until  Congress  certified  Dr.  Arroyo  del  Rio's  elec- 
tion on  August  17  and  he  was  inaugurated  as  con- 
stitutional President  on  September  1. 

In  the  meantime  there  was  a  series  of  unsuc- 
cessful revolts  and  anti-government  conspiracies. 
During  the  night  of  January  11-12,  followers  of 
Velasco  Ibarra  in  Guayaquil  declared  the  election 
a  farce  and,  led  by  a  number  of  army  aviators, 
staged  an  uprising  that  was  quickly  suppressed. 
The  army  remained  loyal  and  an  attempt  to  launch 
a  general  strike  failed  when  the  strikers  were  giv- 


ECUADOR 


198 


ECUADOR 


en  24  hours  to  return  to  work  or  forfeit  the  pro* 
tection  of  all  labor  laws.  The  Council  of  State 
granted  Acting  President  OSrdova  emergency  pow- 
ers for  90  days  to  deal  with  political  disturbances. 
Velasco  Ibarra  was  released  from  jail  upon  his  ac- 
ceptance of  a  government  offer  of  exile,  and  went 
to  Medellfn,  Colombia. 

On  January  27  another  abortive  revolt  broke  out 
at  Esmeraldas,  apparently  directed  against  pro- 
vincial officials  accused  of  pilfering  municipal 
funds.  Amnesty  for  all  those  involved  in  the  Janu- 
ary 12  uprising,  except  Velasco  Ibarra  and  a  few 
other  ringleaders,  was  proclaimed  on  March  21.  A 
few  days  later  (March  28)  conspirators  attempted 
to  seize  the  artillery  barracks  in  Quito  and  over- 
throw the  government  This  attempt,  likewise  at- 
tributed to  Velasco  Ibarra,  was  easily  suppressed, 
and  the  emergency  powers  granted  the  government 
in  January  were  extended.  A  month  later  the  police 
raided  the  Quito  residence  of  another  former  Pro- 
visional President,  Gen.  Alberto  Enriquez.  who 
headed  a  dictatorship  in  1937-38.  Seventeen  Enri- 
quez followers  were  arrested  on  charges  of  plotting 
a  revolt.  General  Enriquez  was  subsequently  ex- 
onerated of  complicity. 

Economic  Trends.  On  January  1  Acting  Presi- 
dent C6rdova  repealed  the  exchange  control  sys- 
tem under  which  an  attempt  had  been  made  to  re- 
strict imports  in  accordance  with  declining  exports. 
The  result  was  that  imports  continued  at  a  high 
level,  while  exports  steadily  dwindled  due  to  the 
loss  of  further  export  markets  in  Europe.  The 
growing  shortage  of  foreign  exchange  to  pay  for 
excess  imports  caused  a  drain  on  the  gold  reserves 
of  the  Central  Bank  and  the  rapid  depreciation  of 
the  sucre.  Due  to  lack  of  exchange,  the  Central 
Bank  on  April  26  abandoned  the  stabilized  rate  of 
15  sucres  to  the  dollar,  which  it  had  quoted  since 
May  29,  1939,  and  in  subsequent  weeks  the  sucre 
depreciated  to  22  5  to  the  dollar. 

Forced  to  reverse  its  policy,  the  government  re- 
established exchange  control  on  June  4,  placing  all 
operations  in  the  hands  of  the  Central  Bank.  The 
customs  tariff  on  a  large  number  of  imports  was 
increased  June  6.  On  June  13  quantitative  restric- 
tions were  imposed  on  imports  of  numerous  arti- 
cles during  the  next  six  months  The  decree  of 
June  4  also  revalued  the  gold  holdings  of  the  Cen- 
tral Bank  at  16.69  sucres  per  troy  oz.,  and  the 
profits  accruing  from  revaluation  were  set  aside 
in  a  special  fund  for  the  stabilization  of  the  sucre. 
Industrial  production  had  been  declining  as  a  result 
of  the  adverse  economic  situation,  while  the  cost 
of  living  had  risen  due  to  depreciation  of  the  sucre. 
The  government  attempted  to  check  this  trend  by 
stabilizing  the  sucre  and  by  a  decree  of  June  15 
forbidding  factories  to  increase  the  selling  prices 
of  their  products  without  special  authorization  by 
the  Minister  of  Industries.  Efforts  were  also  made 
to  balance  the  budget  by  reducing  expenditures. 
These  steps  caused  the  sucre  exchange  rate  to  im- 
prove to  about  15  sucres  per  dollar  by  Decem- 
ber 31. 

Economic  conditions  remained  difficult,  however, 
and  a  severe  shortage  of  wheat  and  rice  developed. 
To  meet  this  situation  Congress  on  September  24 
authorized  the  President  to  negotiate  a  $1,150,000 
public  works  loan  from  the  Export-Import  Bank 
in  Washington  Revision  of  the  restrictive  meas- 
ures adopted  against  foreign  corporations  during 
the  Enriquez  dictatorship  (see  YEAR  BOOKS,  1937 
and  1938)  was  undertaken  to  «ncourage  foreign 
capital.  To  promote  national  production,  an  emer- 


gency decree  was  issued  exempting  agricultural 
and  industrial  machinery  and  certain  raw  materials 
from  the  50  per  cent  import  surtax.  A  decree  of 
November  14,  issued  with  the  approval  of  the 
Council  of  State,  authorized  the  President  to  issue 
emergency  decrees  of  an  economic  character  as 
circumstances  warranted. 

Relations  with  United  States.  Ecuador  re- 
ceived aid  from  the  United  States  in  meeting  its 
economic  problems.  On  June  4  the  Export-Import 
Bank  at  Washington  announced  the  extension  of  a 
$1,150,000  credit  to  Ecuador  for  highway  construc- 
tion, purchase  of  railway  equipment  in  the  United 
States,  and  research  on  the  republic's  disease-rid- 
den cacao  industry.  The  State  Department  at 
Washington  announced  June  15  that  it  had  agreed 
to  temporary  modification  of  the  reciprocal  trade 
agreement  of  Aug.  6,  1938,  with  Ecuador  to  permit 
the  Quito  government  to  impose  quota  restrictions 
on  imports. 

Washington  also  sought  the  co-operation  of  Qui- 
to in  curtailing  German  activities  in  Ecuador  and 
in  preparing  to  defend  the  southern  and  western 
approaches  to  the  Panama  Canal.  It  was  disclosed 
in  Washington  May  26  that  an  army  officer  and 
a  naval  officer  had  been  sent  to  Ecuador  at  the 
request  of  that  government  to  confer  on  "gener- 
al Western  Hemisphere  defense."  Reports  from 
Guayaquil  stated  that  these  officers  submitted  pro- 
posals for  American  help  in  unifying  and  reinforc- 
ing Ecuadorean  land,  sea,  and  air  forces,  particu- 
larly at  the  virtually  defenseless  but  strategically 
important  Galapagos  Islands. 

At  the  end  of  May  it  was  reported  that  Wash- 
ington was  negotiating  with  Ecuador  for  the  elimi- 
nation of  the  German-operated  Sedta  Airline,  which 
placed  German  planes  and  pilots,  who  were  reserv- 
ists in  the  Reich  air  force,  within  striking  distance 
of  the  Panama  Canal.  The  Quito  authorities  re- 
fused a  request  of  the  Sedta  company  for  permis- 
sion to  establish  an  air  service  to  the  virtually  un- 
inhabited Galapagos  Islands  but  demurred  at  clos- 
ing the  Sedta  lines  in  Ecuador,  operated  at  a  large 
annual  deficit  covered  by  the  German  Government 
On  November  16  Pan  American-Grace  Airways 
started  competition  with  the  Sedta  lines  with  a 
weekly  service  between  Quito  and  the  provincial 
cities  of  Esmeraldas,  Manta,  Salinas,  and  Guaya- 
quil. 

At  the  request  of  the  Quito  Government,  the 
U.S.  aircraft  tender  Sandpiper,  with  two  naval 
planes,  mapped  the  Ecuadorean  coast  from  the  air 
during  June  and  July.  In  August,  the  U.S.  gun- 
boat Erie  and  destroyer  Tatnall,  commanded  by 
Rear  Admiral  H.  K.  Hewit,  visited  the  Galapagos 
Islands  with  a  group^  of  Ecuadorean  army,  naval, 
and  air  officers,  appointed  by  the  Minister  of  De- 
fense, to  study  the  feasibility  of  a  hemisphere  de- 
fense base  there.  The  contract  of  the  Italian  mili- 
tary mission  was  rescinded  on  December  4  and  on 
December  12  an  agreement  was  signed  in  Wash- 
ington whereby  the  United  States  undertook  to 
send  a  naval  mission  and  a  military  aviation  mis- 
sion to  advise  the  Ecuadorean  navy  and  air  force. 
On  December  24  the  Minister  of  Defense  instruct- 
ed the  military  and  naval  forces  to  devote  two 
hours  weekly  to  instruction  in  English.  Two  de- 
crees promulgated  December  28  established  univer- 
sal military  instruction  for  all  citizens  between  18 
and  50  and  pre-military  instruction  in  all  schools, 
colleges,  and  universities. 

Boundary  Controversy  Revived.  These  de- 
fense preparations  were  inspired  partly  by  the  de- 


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sire  to  co-operate  in  the  inter-American  hemisphere 
defense  program  and  partly  by  the  revival  of  the 
long-standing  boundary  dispute  with  Peru,  which 
had  repeatedly  threatened  to  involve  the  two  coun- 
tries in  war.  In  December  the  Ecuadorean  press 
placed  great  emphasis  upon  reports  of  alleged  Pe- 
ruvian encroachments  upon  the  disputed  area.  This 
revival  of  tension  handicapped  the  efforts  of  a 
joint  Ecuadorean-Peruvian  commission  to  agree 
upon  a  temporary  boundary  line  pending  a  final 
settlement  of  the  controversy. 

The  Propaganda  Battle.  The  strengthening 
of  United  States  influence  in  Ecuador  was  accom- 
panied by  a  violent  propaganda  battle  between  the 
pro-democratic  and  anti-democratic  forces  in  the 
republic.  The  influential  German  colony,  led  by 
Nazi  agents,  led  the  attack  upon  the  United  States. 
Washington  was  accused  of  scheming  to  establish 
control  over  Ecuador  on  behalf  of  "Yankee  im- 
perialism." This  charge  was  echoed  by  the  Con- 
servative party  in  Ecuador  and  by  some  officials 
and  army  officers.  The  majority  of  Ecuadoreans, 
however,  appeared  sympathetic  to  the  United  States 
and  to  the  Allied  cause  in  the  European  War. 

Charges  of  widespread  Nazi  infiltration  and 
propagandist  activity,  made  before  a  secret  session 
of  Congress  in  September,  was  followed  by  a  Sen- 
atorial investigation.  On  September  25  the  govern- 
ment asked  Congress  for  wide  powers  to  expel 
suspected  propagandists  and  on  December  22  a 
Guayaquil  newspaper  reported  that  the  government 
had  expelled  the  head  of  the  German  school  in 
Quito.  To  counter  the  activities  of  several  pro- 
Nazi  publications,  a  pro-democratic  propaganda  or- 
gan, La  Defensa,  was  established  by  Sen.  Filemon 
Borja,  leader  of  the  anti-Nazi  campaign  in  Con- 
gress. 

Liberal  circles  in  Ecuador  severely  criticized  a 
Spanish  educational  mission  of  seven  pro-Fascist 
professors,  which  arrived  in  Ecuador  in  September. 
The  Franco  Government  of  Spam  had  offered  to 
send  the  mission  at  its  own  expense  and  this  offer 
was  accepted  by  the  C6rdova  administration  Anti- 
Fascists  demanded  that  the  Arroyo  del  Rio  Gov- 
ernment cancel  the  mission's  contract. 

See  FASCISM;  PAN  AMERICANISM. 

EDUCATION.  The  war  is  exercising  a  pro- 
found influence  on  education  in  every  part  of  the 
world.  Negatively,  education  is  being  curtailed  in 
belligerent  and  occupied  countries.  Where  they  are 
exposed  to  attack,  children  are  being  taken  away 
from  their  homes  to  places  of  safety.  While  meas- 
ures are  being  adopted  wherever  possible  to  pro- 
vide the  young  refugees  with  education,  there  is 
inevitable  disturbance  in  their  schooling.  An  even 
more  marked  effect  is  appearing  in  occupied  coun- 
tries. In  Poland,  for  example,  the  native  popula- 
tion is  allowed  to  attend  only  elementary  schools 
and  trade  schools.  The  Polish  secondary  schools 
and  universities  have  been  closed.  The  German 
population  transferred  to  Poland  is  being  provided 
with  secondary  education.  The  German  Minister  of 
Agriculture  in  an  address  reported  in  The  New 
York  Times  declared  it  to  be  the  policy  of  the 
Third  Reich  to  limit  all  conquered  peoples  to  mea- 
ger education,  to  consign  them  even  to  illiteracy, 
while  only  Germans  are  to  have  higher  education. 

On  the  positive  side  the  war  is  resulting  in  the 
employment  of  education  in  many  countries  as  a 
means  of  propaganda  for  the  acceptance  of  ex- 
treme forms  of  nationalism  and  as  a  means  of 
preparation  for  participation  in  military  and  in- 
dustrial activities.  As  far  back  a*  1934  Marshal 


Pttain  in  a  public  tddretf  deplored  the  failure  of 
education  to  cultivate  in  young  people  in  France 
what  he  called  "patriotism."  He  charged  that  "our 
educational  system  pursues  as  its  sole  aim  the  de- 
velopment of  the  individual  considered  as  an  end  in 
himself.  The  members  of  the  teaching  profession 
devote  themselves  quite  openly  to  the  end  of  de- 
stroying the  State  and  society."  He  recommended 
the  reconstruction  of  the  whole  educational  system 
and  the  adoption  of  an  educational  policy  "binding 
the  school  and  the  army  closely  together."  "The 
army,"  he  said,  "the  crown  of  national  education, 
would,  with  its  lofty  lessons  of  equality,  solidarity, 
discipline,  and  self-denial,  sow  the  seeds  of  the 
welfare  of  society  and  the  superior  interest  of  the 
State."  The  trend  of  education  in  unoccupied 
France  is  easy  to  prophesy  in  view  of  the  Mar- 
shal's strong  convictions.  In  such  countries  as  Nor- 
way and  Greece  children  are  being  drawn  into  pa- 
triotic services,  even  into  services  of  direct  assist- 
ance to  the  armed  forces.  In  Germany  itself  the 
old  Gymnasium,  with  its  devotion  to  the  classical 
curriculum,  is  being  overshadowed  by  the  new  sec- 
ondary school  which  Hitler  favors,  the  Deutsche- 
oberrealschule.  This  new  secondary  school  teaches 
the  students  nationalism,  race  biology,  and  science 
as  substitutes  for  the  traditional  courses  in  the 
languages. 

In  the  United  States  the  schools  and  colleges  are 
rapidly  being  drawn  into  co-operation  with  the  de- 
fense program.  It  is  true  that  the  new  trend  has 
not  yet  changed  to  any  great  extent  the  convention- 
al program  of  instruction  in  the  elementary  schools 
or  in  the  majority  of  the  secondary  schools,  but 
there  is  much  vigorous  discussion  going  on  which 
will  quite  certainly  affect  the  work  of  all  educa- 
tional institutions  both  with  respect  to  the  contents 
of  the  curriculum  and  with  respect  to  the  methods 
of  teaching. 

An  important  document  issued  by  the  American 
Youth  Commission  of  the  American  Council  on 
Education  under  the  title  What  the  High  Schools 
Ought  To  Teach  presents  a  program  for  the  reor- 
ganization of  American  secondary  schools.  This 
program  is  sponsored  by  ten  leading  students  of 
education  and  administrators  of  public  schools.  It 
opens  with  a  historical  account  of  the  steady  move- 
ment of  American  secondary  education  away  from 
the  pattern  of  European  education  of  the  same  lev- 
el. This  movement  began  with  the  pronouncement 
made  by  Benjamin  Franklin  in  1749  and  has  gained 
in  momentum  as  the  pupil  registration  in  secondary 
schools  has  increased  since  1880  to  the  point  where 
now  it  includes  two-thirds  of  the  adolescent  popu- 
lation of  the  country.  This  movement  has  led  to 
emphasis  on  the  natural  and  social  sciences  and  on 
the  various  technical  subjects. 

The  report  lays  stress  on  the  importance  of  con- 
tinuing in  the  secondary  school  the  training  in 
reading  which  begins  in  the  elementary  school.  The 
reason  for  continuing  this  training  is  that  it  equips 
the  advanced  pupil  for  independent  acquisition  of 
the  great  body  of  intellectual  material  to  which  the 
school  can  introduce  him  but  for  which  institution- 
al education  must  always  be  too  limited  in  time  to 
provide  anything  like  complete  coverage. 

The  second  contention  of  the  report  is  that  edu- 
cation must  in  all  cases  provide  for  the  cultivation 
of  manual  skills.  Education  has  in  the  past  been 
negligent  in  cultivating  manual  skills  with  the  un- 
fortunate social  consequence  that  a  wide  breach 
has  developed  between  labor  and  intellectual  activ- 
ities. The  healing  of  this  breach  is  regarded  as  of 


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EDUCATION 


major  importance  if  pupils  are  to  be  properly  pre- 
pared for  the  life  of  a  modern  community. 

The  third  point  made  is  that  the  school  curricu- 
lum needs  to  be  enriched  by  the  inclusion  of  far 
more  social  instruction  than  has  been  included  in 
times  past.  It  is  pointed  out  that  the  deficiency  in 
social  studies  is  due  to  the  historical  fact  that  in 
earlier  times  the  home  was  able  to  give  young  peo- 
ple all  the  education  which  was  necessary  for  an 
understanding  of  the  simple  forms  of  community 
organization  that  constituted  the  social  environ- 
ment. The  growing  complexity  of  modern  political 
and  economic  life  has  changed  the  situation  and 
has  created  the  obligation  for  a  treatment  in 
schools  of  all  phases  of  social  organization. 

After  emphasizing  these  areas  in  which  the  cur- 
riculum needs  expansion,  the  report  enters  into  a 
vigorous  criticism  of  the  courses  that  deal  with 
traditional  subjects.  Perhaps  the  spirit  of  the  crit- 
icisms made  can  best  be  illustrated  by  quoting  a 
part  of  the  section  of  the  report  which  deals  with 
the  instructional  program  of  the  ninth  grade  of 
the  typical  high  school : 

Pupils  in  this  grade  come  from  the  general  curriculum 
of  the  elementary  school  or  from  the  liberal  curriculum  of 
the  junior  high  school  whf-re  exploratory  courses  have 
opened  up  many  avenues  of  interest  The  ninth  grade  puts 
an  end  to  all  general  studies  It  is  essentially  a  period  in 
which  every  course  is  designed  as  preparation  for  what  is 
to  come  later.  The  courses  of  the  ninth  grade  are  seriously 
lacking  in  direct  appeal  to  pupil  interests  The  curriculum 
of  this  grade  includes  required  courses  in  English  compo- 
sition and  algebra,  and  two  or  more  courses  from  the 
following:  foreign  language,  science,  history.  English  com- 
position and  algebra  are  commonly  regarded  as  very  diffi- 
cult and  are  sure  to  discourage  pupils  who  are  not  "aca- 
demically-minded "  Of  the  three  other  courses,  foreign 
language  is  commonly  insisted  on,  and  history  is  often 
ancient  history 

It  would  be  difficult  to  devise  a  more  uninviting  year's 
study  for  adolescents.  The  number  of  young  people  who 
are  turned  away  from  the  pursuit  of  learning  by  this  pro- 
gram is  so  large  that  it  seems  legitimate  to  conclude  that 
there  must  be  something  radically  wrong  with  a  curricu- 
lum that  runs  directly  counter  to  compulsory  school  at- 
tendance laws  and  to  the  purposes  which  a  public  school 
ought  to  serve  in  an  age  when  young  people  are  forced 
into  schools  by  economic  and  industrial  conditions 

Suppose  that  it  is  assumed  for  a  moment  that  adolescents 
are,  in  a  large  number  of  cases,  going  to  attend  secondary 
schools  for  only  two  years  or  less,  what  can  be  offered 
them  in  order  to  stimulate  them  to  the  maximum7  If  this 
question  is  to  be  answered  in  the  spirit  of  a  genuine  in- 
terest in  young  people!  rather  than  in  the  snirit  of  devo- 
tion to  tradition,  certainly  one  should  select  for  the  ninth 
grade  the  most  captivating  studies  that  can  be  found  and 
those  which  will  most  surely  set  the  learners  on  the  way 
to  adulthood  equipped  to  meet  its  problems  No 'one  who 
has  talked  with  young  people  and  learned  what  they  are 
thinking  about  can  possibly  believe  that  English  composi- 
tion, as  commonly  taught,  and  algebra  would  be  chosen  by 
many  of  them  if  they  had  any  voice  in  the  selection 

The  document  from  which  the  foregoing  quota- 
tion is  taken  naturally  aroused  the  antipathy  of  the 
teachers  of  the  languages.  They  perhaps  more 
than  any  other  group  of  educators  have  vested  in- 
terests in  the  curriculum  as  now  organized  It  is 
not  surprising  that  opposition  to  the  report  pub- 
lished by  the  American  Youth  Commission  should 
come  from  organized  language  teachers  The  fol- 
lowing quotation  from  School  and  Society  of  Dec. 
14,  1940,  shows  the  attitude  of  these  specialists. 

Inasmuch  as  a  pamphlet — "What  the  High  Schools 
Ought  to  Teach" — sponsored  by  the  AYC  and  prepared  by 
a  committee  of  five  professors  of  education,  three  city 
superintendents  of  public  schools,  one  high-school  princi- 
pal, and  the  director  of  an  industrial  institute,  contains 
radical  criticisms  of  the  "conventional  subjects,"  English, 
mathematics,  foreign  languages,  natural  sciences,  and  his- 
tory, it  seems  highly  important  to  teachers  of  foreign  lan- 
guages that  a  committee  making  such  a  report  should  not 
be  dominated  by  professors  of  education  and  educational 
administrators,  but  should  comprise  "representatives  of  the 
general  public,  of  parents,  of  business  and  professional 


life,  of  the  intellectual  leadership  of  this  country  and 
...  of  the  so-called  traditional  subjects'  of  English, 
mathematics,  foreign  languages,  history,  and  natural  sci- 
ences, .  .  .  'exact  and  exacting'  studies  which  contribute 
to  an  understanding  of  the  world  in  which  we  live  and  at 
the  same  time  help  to  provide  knowledge  and  skill  vital 
to  any  program  of  national  defense." 

A  second  important  development  in  the  field  of 
secondary  education  is  outlined  in  a  pamphlet  pub- 
lished by  a  committee  of  the  National  Association 
of  Secondary  School  Principals.  This  pamphlet  is 
entitled  The  Occupational  Follow-up  and  Adjust- 
ment Service  Plan.  The  pamphlet  recommends 
that  secondary  schools  continue  to  interest  them- 
selves in  their  pupils  after  they  have  left  school  ei- 
ther through  graduation  or  through  withdrawal  be- 
fore graduation.  In  the  past  secondary  schools 
have  in  general  not  regarded  themselves  as  in  any 
way  responsible  for  individual  pupils  after  they 
leave  school.  The  efforts  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment, through  the  Civilian  Conservation  Corps 
(q.v.)  and  the  National  Youth  Administration 
(q.v.),  to  take  care  of  young  people  between  the 
ages  of  eighteen  and  twenty-five  who  are  out  of 
school  and  unable  to  secure  employment  have 
proved  beyond  question  the  necessity  of  attention 
by  public  agencies  to  some  form  of  post-school  as- 
sistance and  guidance  of  young  people.  The  sec- 
ondary schools  are  gradually  coming  to  a  recogni- 
tion of  the  fact  that  it  would  be  of  advantage  to 
themselves  to  find  out  how  well  their  products  suc- 
ceed in  the  practical  life  into  which  they  enter  aft- 
er school  days.  There  will  need  to  be  much  more 
attention  to  out-of-school  youth  than  has  ever  been 
given  in  the  past.  The  program  of  personnel  study 
and  guidance  presented  in  the  pamphlet  mentioned 
is  quite  in  harmony  with  the  growing  practice  in 
all  defense  agencies  to  regard  training  and  adjust- 
ment as  important  for  older  workers  as  well  as  for 
youth. 

B  The  defense  program  has  resulted  in  the  adop- 
tion of  an  adult-education  program  of  large  pro- 
portions. When  the  President  of  the  United  States 
organized  the  National  Defense  Advisory  Com- 
mission (q.v  ),  he  assigned  to  one  of  the  members 
of  the  Commission,  a  labor  leader,  the  specific  duty 
of  dealing  with  personnel  and  training.  It  is  the  du- 
ty of  this  member  of  the  Commission  to  see  that 
industry  is  supplied  with  the  workers  that  are  re- 
quired to  carry  on  its  operations  Where  there  is 
a  deficiency  of  workers  in  any  paiticular  line,  a 
program  of  training  is  to  he  conducted  The  De- 
fense Commission  turned  naturally  to  the  educa- 
tional system  of  the  nation  for  help  in  its  training 
program  The  U.S  Office  of  Education  (q.v.), 
through  its  vocational  division,  responded  to  the 
call  and  enlisted  the  co-operation  of  technical 
schools  and  engineering  schools  The  first  steps  in 
the  program  for  the  training  of  workers  were  tak- 
en during  the  summer  of  1940,  when  vocational 
schools,  in  accordance  with  their  usual  practice, 
were  closed.  These  schools  were  kept  open,  the  ex- 
penses being  met  with  Federal  funds  drawn  from 
the  appropriations  made  by  the  Congress  for  de- 
fense. The  summer  sessions  of  the  technical  schools 
were  conducted  for  the  double  purpose  of  prepar- 
ing skilled  workers  and  reducing  the  country's  re- 
lief rolls.  The  trainees  were  drawn  in  the  first  in- 
stance from  the  relief  workers  enrolled  on  WPA 
projects.  They  were  drawn  in  the  second  place 
from  the  registrants  in  the  Federal  Employment 
Agency.  Some  of  the  courses  were  intended  to 
hnng  to  a  high  level  of  skill  the  technical  abilities 
of  men  who  had  once  worked  in  mechanical  trades 


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201 


EDUCATION 


but  who,  through  a  period  of  unemployment,  bad 
lost  some  of  these  skills.  The  courses  for  such 
workers  were  called  "refresher  courses."  Other 
courses  were  designed  for  men,  young  or  old,  who 
had  never  worked  in  mechanical  trades  but  could 
be  made  competent  by  a  short  course  in  some  par- 
ticular line,  such  as  the  manipulation  of  a  drill 
press. 

It  was  pointed  out  by  critics  of  the  summer 
courses  thus  organized  that  very  little  was  being 
done  for  the  young  people  for  whom  the  technical 
schools  were  organized  by  local  communities.  A 
partial  answer  was  given  to  this  criticism  by  the 
statement  that  one  of  the  most  urgent  needs  of  the 
country  was  to  get  older  workers  into  employ- 
ment. Furthermore,  it  was  promised  that  in  the  au- 
tumn the  Defense  Commission  would  stimulate  an 
expansion  of  instruction  of  secondary-school  grade 
which  would  reach  adolescent  youth. 

The  promise  has  been  fulfilled  in  the  regular  ses- 
sions of  the  schools.  These  have  been  supplement- 
ed by  instructors  and  materials  supplied  through 
the  Office  of  Education  and  by  a  program  of  co- 
operation between  schools  and  the  National  Youth 
Administration  The  Congress  made  an  appropria- 
tion of  $50,000,000,  $7,500,000  of  which  is  being 
spent  by  the  Office  of  Education  to  provide  courses 
in  schools  for  the  youth  employed  on  National 
Youth  Administration  projects;  the  remaining 
$42,500,000  is  being  spent  by  the  National  Youth 
Administration  in  organizing  supplementary  cen- 
ters for  the  training  of  mechanics. 

While  these  adjustments  were  being  made  in  the 
secondary  schools,  a  movement  was  being  inaugu- 
rated in  the  engineering  colleges  These  schools 
were  greatly  stimulated  by  a  statement  of  the  Pres- 
ident in  which  he  pointed  out  that  national  defense 
requires  training  of  various  forms  other  than  di- 
rect military  drill.  He  referred  to  medical  training 
and  training  of  engineers.  The  engineering  schools 
have  found,  and  in  recent  months  industrial  estab- 
lishments have  found,  that  it  is  not  possible  to  turn 
out  fully  trained  engineers  fast  enough  to  meet  the 
demand  Resort  has  been  had  to  various  means 
within  the  industries  and  within  the  training  insti- 
tutions of  utilizing  to  the  full  the  services  of  such 
trained  engineers  as  are  available.  The  device  most 
commonly  adopted  is  to  associate  with  an  engineer 
of  the  highest  type  a  number  of  workers  who  can 
be  prepared  through  a  short  course  to  work  under 
direct  supervision  on  some  highly  specialized  as- 
pect of  an  engineering  job. 

It  has  been  said  by  some  who  object  to  this 
method  of  speeding  up  induction  into  mechanical 
activities  that  the  individual  is  being  sacrificed  to 
the  emergency,  that  everyone  has  the  right  to  as 
much  training  as  may  be  necessary  to  carry  him  to 
the  upper  levels  of  his  trade  or  profession  To  such 
objectors  it  has  been  replied  that  in  practical  oper- 
ation industry  is  providing  a  corrective  to  any  lim- 
itations in  the  present  educational  program.  Indus- 
try is  so  urgently  in  need  of  workers  who  are  com- 
petent to  operate  independently  in  the  more  highly 
skilled  activities  that  it  is  compelled  to  open  up 
lines  of  promotion  from  the  lower  ranks  to  those 
who  show  promise.  Perhaps  the  most  important 
outcome  of  the  whole  speeded  up  program  of  edu- 
cation will  be  a  general  realization  of  the  necessity 
of  keeping  open  the  avenues  of  individual  improve- 
ment throughout  the  whole  of  one's  career. 

The  conscription  of  the  young  men  of  the  nation 
promises  to  be  highly  significant  for  education.  Be- 
fore the  conscription  act  was  passed  the  President 


made  the  recommendation  that  every  young  per- 
son, male  or  female,  be  called  on  as  a  part  of  his  or 
her  preparation  for  adult  life  to  serve  for  a  year 
or  more  contributing  to  public  welfare.  An  order 
later  issued  with  respect  to  the  application  of  the 
conscription  act  showed  that  the  President's  idea  is 
still  alive.  Conscientious  objectors  to  military  serv- 
ice have  been  told  that  their  scruples  will  not  ex- 
empt them  from  public  service.  There  are  so  many 
needful  activities  in  national  defense  other  than  the 
carrying  of  guns  that  conscientious  objectors  can 
be  fully  employed  in  operations  to  which  no  objec- 
tion can  be  made.  All  will  therefore  be  conscripted 
whatever  their  beliefs. 

The  President  has  taken  another  step  in  the  di- 
rection of  co-ordmating  the  efforts  of  the  govern- 
ment in  the  preparation  of  the  people  of  the  coun- 
try for  all  emergencies.  He  has  assigned  to  the  ad- 
ministrator of  the  Federal  Security  Agency,  who 
in  1939  was  appointed  to  co-ordinate  the  welfare 
activities  of  the  nation,  the  duty  of  engaging  in  a 
vigorous  program  for  the  promotion  of  public  rec- 
reation and  health.  Since  the  administrator  has  in 
his  agency  the  United  States  Office  of  Education 
and  the  Public  Health  Service  as  well  as  the  Na- 
tional Youth  Administration  and  the  Civilian  Con- 
servation Corps,  it  is  clear  that  this  new  assign- 
ment is  designed  to  speed  up  and  improve  the 
educational,  health,  and  total  welfare  program  of 
the  nation. 

A  significant  step  toward  closer  co-ordination  of 
education  and  government  was  initiated  by  the  ed- 
ucational institutions  of  the  country.  It  is  a  fact 
vividly  in  the  minds  of  older  educators  that,  when 
the  United  States  entered  the  first  World  War, 
there  was  chaos  in  education,  especially  in  the  col- 
leges. No  one  knew  how  the  colleges  and  schools 
could  be  of  service.  Experiments  in  utilizing  the 
colleges  as  military  camps  were  tried  with  results 
that  proved  to  be  seriously  unsatisfactory.  With 
the  resolution  that  the  mistakes  of  the  earlier  pe- 
riod should  not  be  repeated,  educators  organized 
as  soon  as  the  President  declared  that  there  is  an 
emergency  and  asked  the  government  to  set  up  a 
liaison  committee  which  would  define  what  schools 
and  colleges  could  and  should  do.  The  first  com- 
mittee that  was  appointed  to  meet  the  request  of 
the  educators  proved  to  be  less  representative  of 
all  branches  of  the  education  profession  than 
seemed  to  many  to  be  desirable.  A  second  effort, 
which  aimed  to  secure  satisfactory  representation, 
was  made  by  bringing  together  delegates  from  fif- 
ty-nine educational  organizations.  These  delegates, 
after  deliberation,  assigned  to  the  president  of  the 
American  Council  on  Education  and  the  executive 
secretary  of  the  National  Education  Association, 
acting  as  co-chairmen  of  a  general  education  com- 
mittee, the  appointment  of  a  representative  com- 
mittee. Such  a  committee,  consisting  of  nineteen 
persons,  was  appointed.  This  committee  is  study- 
ing all  aspects  of  the  situation  and  preparing  re- 
ports which  will  aim  to  guide  the  operations  of 
educational  institutions  if  the  emergency  deepens. 
Fortunately,  the  Army  has  of  its  own  initiative 
reached  certain  decisions  which  make  the  outlook 
much  less  confused  than  it  was  in  the  period  of  the 
first  World  War.  The  Army  does  not  intend  to 
organize  training  classes  in  the  colleges  as  it  did  in 
1917  in  the  S.A.T.C.  There  are  now  enough  trained 
officers  in  the  Army  to  take  care  of  the  first  needs. 

One  phase  of  the  international  relations  of  the 
United  States  which  has  been  much  discussed  in 
educational  circles  is  the  relation  of  this  country 


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202 


EDUCATION 


to  the  Latin-American  nations.  The  State  Depart- 
ment organized  early  in  1940  a  conference  on  cul- 
tural relations  to  which  representatives  of  the 
countries  of  South  and  Central  America  were 
invited.  The  outcome  of  this  conference  was  the 
appointment  of  several  standing  committees  which 
are  active  in  promoting  cultural  relations  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere.  Among  these  are  commit- 
tees on  education,  music,  and  art  It  has  been 
recommended  in  many  quarters  that  schools  and 
colleges  contribute  to  a  more  sympathetic  under- 
standing in  this  country  of  Latin- American  civili- 
zation by  giving  courses  on  the  history  and  culture 
of  countries  south  of  the  Rio  Grande. 

One  topic  on  which  teachers  of  all  levels  are 
especially  sensitive  is  their  freedom  to  carry  on 
investigations  and  to  teach  what  they  believe  to 
be  the  truth  without  restraints  of  any  kind.  Teach- 
ers hold  that  the  tradition  of  academic  freedom 
was  at  one  time  fully  accepted  by  civilized  coun- 
tries and  must  now  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
precious  heritages  of  democratic  countries  since  it 
seems  to  have  been  abandoned  in  many  parts  of 
Europe. 

The  members  of  the  faculty  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity were  greatly  agitated  when  the  president 
of  that  institution  called  them  together  and  said  to 
them,  ''Before  and  above  academic  freedom  of  any 
kind  or  sort  comes  .  .  .  university  freedom,  which 
is  the  right  and  obligation  of  the  university  itself 
to  pursue  its  high  ideals  unhampered  and  unem- 
barrassed by  conduct  on  the  part  of  any  of  its 
members  which  tends  to  damage  its  reputation. 
.  .  .  Those  whose  convictions  are  such  as  to  bring 
their  conduct  in  open  conflict  with  the  university's 
freedom  to  go  its  way  toward  its  lofty  aim  should, 
in  ordinary  self-respect,  withdraw  of  their  own 
accord  from  university  membership."  Several  mem- 
bers of  the  faculty,  after  listening  to  this  pro- 
nouncement, wrote  to  the  president  asking  for  am- 
plification of  his  meaning.  The  president  answered 
the  letter  of  inquiry,  pointing  out  that  he  had  al- 
ways defended  the  academic  freedom  of  members 
of  the  Columbia  faculty  and  making  the  follow- 
ing explicit  statements. 

The  phrase  academic  freedom,  as  defined  two  hundred 
years  ago  when  it  first  came  into  use,  has  always  had  a 
very  definite  meaning.  Its  application  is  restricted  to  the 
work  of  professors  and  scholars.  Student  freedom  is, 
therefore,  a  separate  thing  from  academic  freedom.  Like 
academic  freedom,  however,  student  freedom  carries  with 
it  a  responsibility  to  safeguard  the  good  name  of  the  uni- 
versity. 

The  conduct  outside  the  university  of  a  member  of  any 
faculty  is  for  the  individual  himself  to  control.  He  should, 
naturally,  do  all  in  hit  power  to  avoid  doing  anything  to 
injure  his  university's  reputation. 

The  off-campus  conduct  of  the  sincere  isolationist  or 
honest  critic  of  the  national  policy  of  defense  is  protected 
by  our  ordinary  American  doctrine  of  civil  liberty  and 
ought,  therefore,  to  be  free  from  persecution. 

The  references  to  the  private  lives  of  members 
of  the  faculty  and  to  the  rights  of  students  are  of 
special  interest  in  view  of  other  happenings  in  the 
academic  life  of  New  York  City.  Earlier  in  the 
year  the  trustees  of  the  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York  had  stirred  up  a  violent  controversy  by  ap- 
pointing to  a  professorship  the  eminent  English 
philosopher  and  logician.  Bertrand  Russell.  The 
views  and  practices  relating^ to  matrimony  of  this 
scholar,  whose  competence  in  his  field  is  univer- 
sally recognized  as  of  the  highest  order,  are  of  an 
unconventional  character.  The  public  discussion  of 
Professor  Russell's  private  affairs  led  to  action 
brought  in  a  New  York  court  by  a  taxpayer  of  the 
city.  In  an  extraordinary  ruling  the  judge  declared 


Professor  Russell  unsuitable  for  the  post  to  which 
he  had  been  appointed.  This  ruling  brought  a  storm 
of  protest  from  leaders  in  universities  in  all  parts 
of  the  country.  Professor  Russell  was  later  ap- 
pointed to  a  highly  satisfactory  position  by  an  art 
foundation  in  Philadelphia. 

The  College  of  the  City  of  New  York  had  an- 
other upheaval  when  the  trustees  invited  the  presi- 
dent of  Reed  College  to  accept  the  presidency  of 
the  New  York  institution.  Exception  was  taken  by 
some  citizens  to  the  record  of  this  appointee  in 
dealing  with  labor  disputes,  and  he  refused  to  ac- 
cept the  invitation  of  the  trustees.  In  Brooklyn 
College  as  well  as  in  the  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York  trouble  arose.  The  president  of  Brook- 
lyn College  testified  at  a  public  hearing  that  or- 
ganized efforts  were  made  by  certain  communist 
students  to  gain  control,  through  illegitimate  means, 
of  the  student  organizations  of  the  College.  When 
he  nullified  the  efforts  of  the  communists,  a  sys- 
tematic but  unsuccessful  effort  was  made  to  dis- 
organize the  institution.  The  members  of  the  de- 
feated group  took  the  position  that  their  academic 
freedom  had  been  curtailed. 

On  the  whole,  it  can  be  concluded  that  these  in- 
cidents and  the  public  discussion  of  their  meaning 
for  the  intellectual  life  of  the  nation  have  rein- 
forced rather  than  injured  the  cause  of  freedom. 
The  very  fact  that  discussion  is  unrestricted  is  evi- 
dence that  in  this  country  there  is  an  abiding  con- 
viction that  restraints  of  a  legal  or  political  char- 
acter should  never  be  imposed  on  the  thinking  of 
the  people.  The  concept  of  freedom  in  the  United 
States  is  far  more  comprehensive  in  its  scope  and 
application  than  is  the  concept  of  academic  free- 
dom. So  long  as  the  broader  interpretation  of 
freedom  persists  there  is  little  danger  of  any  seri- 
ous infraction  of  the  rights  of  scholars  to  investi- 
gate and  teach. 

A  further  gratifying  indication  of  the  enlight- 
ened view  which  the  American  public  takes  of  its 
educational  system  was  given  in  the  report  of  a 
survey  made  by  the  American  Institute  of  Public 
Opinion  under  the  stimulation  of  a  committee  of 
the  American  Youth  Commission  of  the  American 
Council  on  Education.  Adopting  its  standard  prac- 
tice of  polling  public  opinion,  the  Institute  asked 
questions  such  as  these:  "Many  people  say  there 
is  too  much  importance  placed  on  education  these 
days.  Do  you  agree  or  disagree?"  "Do  you  think 
young  people  today  are  getting  a  better  education 
in  school  than  their  parents  got?"  "If  a  family  is 
so  poor  that  they  have  to  keep  their  children  out 
of  high  school,  do  you  think  that  they  should  be 
given  aid  by  the  government  so  that  the  children 
can  attend  high  school?"  The  people  who  were 
asked  these  and  other  questions  were  asked  wheth- 
er costs  of  education  are  too  high  and  whether  the 
high  school  is  too  much  concerned  with  preparing 
pupils  for  college. 

The  outcome  of  this  poll  makes  it  perfectly  clear 
that  the  typical  citizen  of  this  country  is  enthusi- 
astic about  education  and  convinced  that  schools 
deserve  support  on  a  scale  even  larger  than  is  now 
provided.  Anyone  who  has  noticed  the  attacks 
which  have  been  made  on  school  support  in  recent 
times  will  be  encouraged  to  believe  that,  when  the 
economic  stress  which  has  gripped  the  nation  in 
recent  years  is  relieved,  there  will  be  an  expan- 
sion of  the  educational  system. 

With  reference  to  the  relation  of  the  high-school 
curriculum  to  college  preparation,  evidence  has 
been  accumulated  by  the  Progressive  Education 


EDUCATION 


203 


EDUCATION 


Association  which  lends  support  to  tbe  conclusion 
reached  in  a  number  of  recent  investigations  that 
it  is  far  more  important  that  a  high-school  pupil 
acquire  good  habits  of  study  than  that  he  become 
acquainted  with  any  particular  subject  Some  years 
ago  the  Progressive  Education  Association  secured 
the  approval  of  some  two  hundred  colleges  to  a 
plan  under  which  they  would  admit  students  rec- 
ommended by  thirty  selected  secondary  schools 
without  regard  to  the  satisfaction  of  any  specific 
entrance  requirements.  The  plan  has  now  been  in 
operation  long  enough  so  that  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  students  admitted  under  liberal  conditions 
have  completed  their  college  careers.  On  the  whole, 
the  students  admitted  under  the  plan  described  have 
taken  ranks  in  college  above  the  average.  It  is,  of 
course,  to  be  recognized  that  the  students  to  whom 
this  statement  applies  are  selected  individuals.  Not 
only  so,  but  the  schools  in  which  they  received  their 
secondary  education  are  superior  institutions.  The 
experiment  does  not  supply  final  proof  that  en- 
trance requirements  are  indefensible,  but  it  presents 
an  argument  for  liberalism  that  has  not  been  by 
any  means  universally  accepted  in  the  past. 

Perhaps  the  most  urgent  need  for  a  revision  of 
the  practices  of  schools  appears  in  the  cases  of 
highly  gifted  pupils.  The  pace  set  in  schools  is 
determined  in  large  measure  by  the  average,  or 
mediocre,  pupil ;  it  does  not  in  most  cases  provide 
adequate  incentives  for  study  for  the  brightest 
members  of  the  pupil  body. 

Teachers  College  of  Columbia  University  re- 
cently organized  a  conference  at  which  were  pre- 
sented the  views  of  leading  educators  and  laymen 
on  the  desirability  of  special  adjustments  in  schools 
for  children  of  the  higher  levels  of  ability,  espe- 
cially those  who  on  the  basis  of  scientific  tests  are 
to  be  classified  as  belonging  to  the  genius  group. 
One  interesting  and  illuminating  feature  of  this 
conference  was  the  presentation  of  their  experi- 
ences by  a  number  of  adults  who  in  the  period  of 
their  schooling  had  shown  high  intelligence  quo- 
tients. The  testimony  of  these  especially  bright  peo- 
ple showed  that  their  education  had  by  no  means 
fitted  them  for  success  in  life.  Not  merely  were 
they  unequipped  to  take  full  advantage  of  their 
native  endowments,  but  they  were  often  actually 
handicapped  by  the  perverted  channels  along  which 
the  schools  had  directed  their  intellectual  efforts  It 
is  clear  that  the  schools  must  plan  education  of  a 
type  different  from  that  now  provided  if  young 
people  of  the  highest  ability  are  to  be  well  prepared 
for  life. 

Something  of  a  sensation  was  created  in  the  uni- 
versity world  by  a  statement  made  in  his  annual 
report  by  Pres.  Frederick  P.  Keppel,  of  the  Car- 
negie Corporation  of  New  York.  This  corporation 
has  playeo^so  important  a  part  in  establishing  pen- 
sions and  insurance  for  university  professors  and 
in  subsidizing  research  projects  of  many  different 
types  that  conclusions  relating  to  the  financing  of 
university  enterprises  that  issue  from  the  experi- 
ence of  the  Corporation  are  of  general  interest  to 
all  members  of  the  academic  profession.  Mr.  Kep- 
pel is  sure  to  be  listened  to  when  he  makes  such  a 
statement  as  the  following. 

With  rare  exceptions  a  foundation  can  reach  it«  objective 
only  by  working  through  another  institution,  and  there 
are  today  in  the  UnJtef  States  far  more  universities,  col- 
leges, and  other  operating  institutions,  and  far  more  vol- 
untary orwmitations  for  worthy  purposes  than  the  nation 
can  possibly  afford.  In  the  years  to  come  many  of  these 
are  bound  to  disappear,  and  one  of  the  moat  difficult  duties 
that  face  the  foundation  U  that  of  so  directing  its  grants 


that  its  influence  will  be  directed  toward  the  turrirml  of 
the  fittest. 

See  BENEFACTIONS;  CARNEGIE  ENDOWMENTS; 
CIVILIAN  CONSERVATION  CORPS  ;  EDUCATION,  U.S. 
OFFICE  OF  ;  GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD  ;  LIBRARY 
PROGRESS;-  NATIONAL  DEFENSE  ADVISORY  COM- 
MISSION; NATIONAL  YOUTH  ADMINISTRATION; 
PSYCHOLOGY  under  Educational  Psychology  and 
Child  Psychology  Statistical  information  is  to  be 
found  in  the  articles  on  SCHOOLS  and  UNIVERSI- 
TIES AND  COLLEGES,  and  in  the  sections  on  Educa- 
tion for  the  various  States  and  countries.  For  ad- 
vances in  dental  education,  see  DENTISTRY;  for 
legal  education,  see  LAW 

CHARLES  H.  JUDD. 

EDUCATION,  U.S.  Office  of.  Continuing 
to  carry  out  the  mandate  given  it  by  Congress  in 
1867  to  collect  and  disseminate  educational  facts 
and  statistics  and  otherwise  "to  promote  the  cause 
of  education,"  the  U.S.  Office  of  Education  during 
1940  rendered  service  to  and  for  American  educa- 
tion in  many  ways. 

Administration — Studied  the  organization  of 
State  departments  and  boards  of  education,  their 
functions  in  organizing  and  administering  the  edu- 
cational program,  and  practices  in  city  school  ad- 
ministration. 

School  Finance — Published  digests  of  plans  for 
financing  public  education  in  Florida,  Minnesota, 
Rhode  Island,  Texas,  Washington,  and  West  Vir- 
ginia. Surveyed  State  financing  of  public  education. 

School  Law-—Dif ested  and  analyzed  State  laws 
governing  distribution  of  power  and  control  over 
education  in^  State  offices  and  agencies,  State  and 
national  legislation,  court  decisions  affecting  edu- 
cation. 

School  Building— Began  study  of  school  build- 
ing work  and  trends  in  school  building  construction 
throughout  the  United  States. 

Elementary  Education — Prepared  and  issued  a 
publication  entitled,  "Elementary  Education,  What 
Is  It?",  based  upon  conference  discussions  with 
elementary  school  supervisors.  In  progress  is  a 
study,  "The  Release  of  Public  School  Pupils  Dur- 
ing School  Hours  for  Religious  Instruction." 

Secondary  Education— Prepared  report  on  State 
supervision  of  secondary  education  and  bulletin, 
"Statistics  of  Public  High  Schools,  1937-38."  Co- 
operated with  Committee  on  Implementation  of 
Studies  in  Secondary  Education,  and  the  National 
Committee  on  Co-ordination  and  Co-operative  Study 
of  Secondary  School  Standards. 

Higher  Education— Co-operated  with  Depart- 
ment of  State  Cultural  Relations  Division  in  se- 
lecting students  and  teachers  for  exchange  between 
the  Latin  American  republics  and  the  United 
States.  Entered  upon  second  year  of  the  Survey  of 
Higher  Education  of  Negroes.  Studied  and  pub- 
lished series  of  articles  on  Federal  Government 
Schools.  Revised  publication,  "Federal  Laws  Re- 
lating to  Land-Grant  Colleges  and  Universities"— 
laws  which  are  administered  by  the  Federal  Secur- 
ity Agency  through  the  U.S.  Office  of  Education, 
Studied  problems  relating  to  administration  of 
higher  education  in  finances,  accrediting  of  post 
secondary  schools.  Published  bulletin  on  accredit- 
ing practices  in  30  selected  States.  Studied  admin- 
istration of  State  teachers  colleges  and  other  in- 
stitutions engaged  in  training  teachers  for  the 
schools.  Stimulated  programs  of  study  to  prepare 
leaders  for  work  in  education.  Co-operated  with 
Association  of  American  Universities  in  improving 


EDUCATION 


204 


EDUCATION 


standards  in  graduate  schools,  and  in  its  prepara- 
tion for  a  study  of  selection  of  students  by  gradu- 
ate schools.  Studied  organization  and  activities  of 
college  placement  services  to  learn  of  placement 
successes,  and  how  contacts  of  services  with  em- 
ployers reacted  to  accomplish  a  better  adaptation 
of  college  curricula  to  employment  needs.  Ascer- 
tained the  extent  to  which  schools  of  engineering 
could  be  of  assistance  in  training  men  needed  by 
government  and  industry  in  the  national  defense 
program.  (See  National  Defense  under  this  arti- 
cle.) 

Parent  Education — Studied  parent  education 
services  of  State  Departments  of  education,  and 
parent  education  activities  in  parent-teacher  pro- 
grams. 

Public  Forums — Sponsored  Federal  Forum  Proj  - 
ect  which  aided  in  organization  of  public  forums  in 
21  States — total  number  seeking  adult  civic  educa- 
tion at  these  forums,  one  half  million  persons. 
Principal  emphasis  in  discussions — problems  of 
national  defense. 

Rural  Education — Studied  supervision  of  adult 
education  and  out-of-school-youth.  Issued  publica- 
tions on  rural  high  school  curriculum,  community 
centered  schools,  correspondence  study,  one-room 
schools.  Promoted  activities  of  the  Future  Farm- 
ers of  America  now  enrolling  227,500  boys  study- 
ing vocational  agriculture  in  6500  public  high 
schools  of  47  States,  Hawaii,  and  Puerto  Rico. 

Exceptional  Children — Studied  State  supervision 
of  education  of  exceptional  children  and  compiled 
statistical  data  on  special  schools  and  classes  for 
exceptional  children.  Endeavored  to  bring  into 
closer  relationship  State  departments  of  education 
and  State  training  schools. 

Negro  Education — Prepared  publication  on  the 
relation  of  occupational  status  of  Negro  high 
school  graduates  and  non -graduates  to  certain 
school  experiences.  Listed  references  on  life  and 
education  of  Negroes.  Completed  study  of  Negro 
education  supervision  by  State  departments  of  edu- 
cation. Began  study  of  higher  education  of  Negroes. 

Territorial  Education — Studied  and  issued  pub- 
lication on  education  in  the  Panama  Canal  Zone — 
one  of  a  series  of  U.S.  Office  of  Education  bulle- 
tins on  education  in  our  territories  and  insular  pos- 
sessions. 

Visual  Education — Inventoried  college  courses 
available  to  teachers  of  visual  education.  Studied 
sources  of  visual  materials  and  equipment  suitable 
for  school  work.  Prepared  educational  exhibits  for 
major  national  educational  conventions  Terminat- 
ed services  of  all  Film  Service  staff  members  on 
June  30,  1940.  Congress  did  not  appropriate  funds 
to  continue  the  Film  Service  staff  beyond  this  date. 

Radio  Education — Provided  service  through  the 
Educational  Radio  Script  Exchange  to  more  than 
1200  producing  groups.  Expanded  the  Exchange  to 
include  educational  transcriptions.  Distributed  upon 
request  35,000  copies  of  radio  scripts,  11,000  radio 
manuals,  handbooks,  and  courses.  Serviced  12,000 
educational  and  civic  organizations  and  radio  sta- 
tions through  this  Exchange.  Allocated  funds  to 
schools  and  colleges  for  radio  education  demon- 
strations or  studies.  Continued  co-operation  in 
broadcasting  "The  World  Is  Yours,"  educational 
radio  program  Received  three  major  radio  awards 
for  educational  radio  service.  Represented  Ameri- 
can education's  interests  in  urging  Federal  Com- 
munications Commission  to  retain  educational  band 
on  ultra-high  frequency  channel  for  use  by  educa- 
tional institutions.  Secured  continued  reservation 


of  band  which  uses  frequency  modulation  method 
of  transmission. 

Library  Service— Provided  38,000  educational 
books  and  1200  theses  through  U.S.  Office  of  Edu- 
cation library  for  reference  and  reading  use.  In- 
creased collection  of  theses  received  from  colleges 
and  universities  to  nearly  4000.  Made  statistical 
surveys  of  public  libraries,  college  and  university 
libraries,  and  studied  State  agencies  providing  li- 
brary service.  Began  survey  of  library  facilities  at 
various  public  housing  projects.  Prepared  pamph- 
let, "Know  Your  School  Library." 

Statistical  Service — Compiled  statistics  covering 
more  than  266,000  schools.  Worked  toward  simpler 
and  more  uniform  school  records  and  reports. 
Formulated  census  questions  for  1940  on  educa- 
tion. 

Comparative  Education — Evaluated  educational 
credentials  of  1160  students,  highest  number  in  15 
years,  including  those  of  many  refugee  students 
and  professional  workers  from  many  countries  es- 
tablishing themselves  in  the  United  States.  Evalu- 
ated credentials  submitted  by  190  colleges  and  uni- 
versities in  39  States,  the  District  of  Columbia, 
Canada,  and  Philippine  Islands.  Studied  education- 
al offerings  in  Cuba.  Translated  educational  rec- 
ords from  36  different  languages. 

Conservation  Education — Prepared  bulletins  on 
conservation  education,  including  elementary  school 
conservation  curriculum  and  list  of  colleges  and 
universities  offering  courses  for  teachers  in  con- 
servation education. 

Publications  Service — Prepared  and  issued  80 
new  publications  reporting  research  findings  on 
educational  problems 

Trade  and  Industrial  Education — Continued  em- 
phasis upon  making  more  adequate  provision  for 
trade  training  in  non-urban  areas  being  met  by  es- 
tablishment of  county,  sectional,  or  State  trade 
schools.  Continued  study  of  trade-school  graduate 
placement.  Encouraged  joint  educational  projects 
between  State  and  local  boards  for  vocational  edu- 
cation, WPA,  NYA,  and  the  CCC.  Focused  atten- 
tion upon  opportunities  for  training  in  diversified 
occupations  courses. 

Home  Economics  Education — Encouraged  out- 
pf -class  experience  for  prospective  home  econom- 
ics teachers  in  college  training  classes.  Emphasized 
education  for  home  and  family  living,  and  the  need 
for  more  research  in  home  economics  education. 

Distributive  Education — Urged  State  employ- 
ment of  itinerant  instructors  to  conduct  distributive 
education  courses  in  small  cities  and  rural  areas. 
Directed  training  program  toward  small  store  em- 
ployees. 

Agricultural  Education — Aided  in  increasing 
number  of  high  school  courses  in  vocational  agri- 
culture from  7665  in  1939  to  8300  in  1940.  Stimu- 
lated development  of  long-term  programs  of  re- 
search in  States.  Endeavored  to  find  openings  in 
farming  for  out-of -school  farm  youth. 

Public  Service  Training — Extended  opportuni- 
ties for  training  of  public  service  workers  through 
courses  organized  for  prison  officers,  waterworks 
employees,  tax  assessors,  sewage  disposal  workers, 
highway  construction  men,  park  maintenance  work- 
ers, and  many  other  public-service  employee 
groups. 

Occupational  Information— Collected  and  dis- 
seminated to  professional  workers  in  guidance  and 
to  laymen  information  on  occupations  and  guid- 
ance. Helped  to  develop  State  programs  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, Missouri,  Vermont,  and  in  Puerto  Rico. 


EGO  PRODUCTION 


205 


EGYPT 


Encouraged  co-operation  between  vocational  and 
general  services  in  State  department  activities  in 
this  field. 

Vocational  Rehabilitation — Continued  rehabilita- 
tion service  for  persons  who,  becoming  disabled  by 
accident  or  disease,  needed  physical  restoration  or 
retraining  in  order  to  return  to  productive  employ- 
ment, and  to  physically  handicapped  young  persons 
of  employable  age,  who  upon  leaving  high  school 
or  college  would  enter  the  occupational  world  un- 
der the  handicap  of  a  physical  disability.  Devel- 
oped a  uniform  system  of  reporting  on  service. 
Surveyed  rehabilitation  work  in  California  and 
Michigan.  Assisted  in  organizing  State  programs 
in  Kansas  and  Delaware.  Surveyed  many  indus- 
tries in  program  looking  toward  placement  of  more 
blind  workers  in  jobs.  Directed  establishment  of 
nearly  1000  vending  stands  with  blind  persons  in 
charge  in  Federal  and  private  buildings,  located  in 
43  States,  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  Hawaii. 

CCC  Camp  Education — Provided  specific  train- 
ing programs  for  individual  enrollees  based  on 
their  interests,  needs,  and  abilities.  Prepared  more 
than  40,000  enrollees  sufficiently  well  to  warrant 
their  discharge  from  camp  to  accept  employment. 
Gave  academic  instruction  to  more  than  100,000 
enrollees  each  month.  Developed  special  education- 
al programs  for  enrollees  who  had  not  completed 
elementary  grades,  using  six  workbooks  in  lan- 
guage usage  and  six  in  elementary  arithmetic. 
Urged  co-operation  of  schools  and  colleges  adja- 
cent to  camps  which  offered  instruction  to  nearly 
8000  enrollees.  Provided  teaching  staff  of  1500  edu- 
cational advisers  to  direct  educational  programs 
available  to  more  than  6,000,000  enrollees.  Granted 
eighth  grade  certificates  to  5000;  high  school  di- 
plomas to  1000  Sponsored  conferences  to  promote 
education  for  26,000  war  veterans  in  136  camps  for 
veterans. 

National  Defense — Urged  schools  and  colleges 
throughout  the  United  States  to  make  their  best 
possible  contributions  to  aid  in  the  national  defense 
program  Presented  to  Federal  Government  agen- 
cies and  officials  information  showing;  American 
education's  facilities  for  defense  training  service. 
Began  administration  to  State  Boards  for  Voca- 
tional Education  and  educational  institutions  of 
Federal  funds  for  defense  training  authorized  by 
Congress  and  the  President  as  follows :  $41,000,000 
for  pre-employment  refresher  and  supplementary 
courses  for  defense  jobs  in  industry;  $10,000,000 
to  train  rural  and  non-rural  youth;  $7,500,000  to 
train  NYA  workers  in  vocational  schools ;  $9,000,- 
000  for  short  courses  in  engineering  colleges  and 
universities  to  meet  shortage  of  engineers ;  $8,000,- 
000  for  defense  training  equipment  needed  in  voca- 
tional school  shops.  WPA,  NYA,  and  U  S  Em- 
ployment Service  co-operated  in  supplying  quali- 
fied persons  to  receive  defense  training  in  voca- 
tional schools  and  to  help  place  those  trained  in 
essential  defense  occupations.  Vocational  schools 
trained  350  000  workers  for  defense  jobs  July  1  to 
Dec  31,  1940.  Adapted  entire  program  of  research 
and  other  services  of  the  U.S.  Office  of  Education 
to  meet  defense  needs  of  government,  industry,  and 
education. 

J.  W.  STUDEBAKER 


EGYPT.  A  kingdom  of  northeastern '  Africa. 
Capital,  Cairo.  Ruler  in  194Q,  Farouk  I,  who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  Apr.  28,  1936. 

Area  and  Population.  Excluding  the  Anglo- 


Egyptian  Sudan  (q.v.) ,  Egypt  has  an  area  of  about 
386,000  square  miles  of  which  only  about  13,600 
square  miles  along  the  Nile  are  occupied.  The  es- 
timated population  on  June  30,  1939,  was  16,522,- 
000,  including  about  65,000  Italians  and  100,000 
Greeks.  Populations  of  the  chief  cities  at  the  1937 
census  were:  Cairo,  1,307,422;  Alexandria,  682,- 
101;  Port  Said,  126,907;  Tanta,  94,421;  Mansura, 
68,637;  Asyiit,  59,925;  Damanhur,  61,791. 

Religion  and  Education.  Of  the  1927  popula- 
tion, 91  per  cent  were  Moslems,  8.34  per  cent  Chris- 
tians (mostly  Copts),  and  0  45  per  cent  Jews.  Ara- 
bic is  the  official  language.  About  88  per  cent  of 
the  adult  inhabitants  were  illiterate  in  1927.  The 
school  attendance  in  1937  was  1,308,252. 

Production.  Agriculture  supports  more  than  60 
per  cent  of  the  population  directly.  The  yields  of 
the  chief  crops  in  1939-40  were  (in  metric  tons)  : 
Wheat,  1,333,800;  barley,  238,200,  corn,  1,522,300; 
rough  rice,  887,800;  sugar  cane,  159,800;  ground- 
nuts, 16,600;  cotton,  390,500  Livestock  statistics 
for  1937  showed  983,000  cattle,  956,000  buffaloes, 
1,919,000  sheep,  1,311,000  goats,  155,000  camels,  and 
1,142,000  asses.  Mineral  production  for  1939  was 
(metric  tons)  :  Phosphates,  547,000 ,  petroleum, 
666,000 ;  manganese  ore,  35,000.  The  fishing  indus- 
try in  1938  employed  52,970  persons  with  10,022 
boats. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  1939  imports  were  valued  at 
££34,091,000  (££36,934,000  in  1938)  and  exports 
at  ££34,081,000  (££29,342,000  in  1938).  Imports 
were  chiefly  from  the  United  Kingdom  (£E9,371,- 
000),  the  United  States  (££2,683,000),  Germany 
(££2,625,000),  and  Italy  (££2,059,000).  Exports 
were  destined  chiefly  for  the  United  Kingdom 
(££11,322,000),  France  (££3,499,000),  Japan 
(££2,427,000),  Germany  (££2,214,000).  Chief  im- 
ports were  cotton  textiles,  fertilizer,  coal,  coke, 
briquets,  and  machinery.  See  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ending  Apr.  30, 
1941,  the  budget  estimates  placed  receipts  at  ££44,- 
960,000  and  expenditures  at  ££46,960,000  For  1939- 
40  the  estimates  called  for  receipts  of  ££40,595,000 
and  expenditures  of  ££42,125,000  The  consolidated 
public  debt  on  May  1,  1939,  was  ££87,762,740.  The 
Egyptian  pound  exchanged  at  the  average  rate  of 
$4  5463  in  1939  and  $5.0130  in  1938 

Transportation.  In  April,  1938,  there  were 
2763  miles  of  government-owned  railway  lines  (ex- 
cluding sidings)  and  976  miles  of  private  lines.  Up 
to  Jan.  1,  1940,  the  government  spent  a  total  of 
££612,901  on  railway  construction  under  the  terms 
of  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Railway  Treaty  of  1936. 
Of  this  sum,  ££556,301  was  used  in  strengthening 
the  existing  railway  line  between  Alexandria  and 
Mersa  Matruh,  and  ££36,873  on  lines  in  the  Suez 
Canal  district.  In  the  fiscal  year  ended  Apr.  30, 
1940,  receipts  of  the  Egyptian  State  Railways  to- 
taled ££5,468,332.  Highways  in  1940  extended  6838 
miles;  automobiles  numbered  33,787.  Cairo  is  an 
important  aviation  center  with  airlines  radiating 
to  South  Africa,  Europe,  and  Asia.  A  new  civil 
airport  in  Alexandria  was  under  construction  in 
1940.  See  SUEZ  CANAL. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  Apr.  19, 
1923,  abrogated  on  Oct.  22,  1930,  was  restored  on 
Dec.  12,  1935.  It  provided  for  a  Parliament  of  two 
houses — a  Senate  with  147  members,  two-fifths 
nominated  by  the  Crown  and  three-fifths  elected 
by  universal  male  suffrage,  half  for  five  and  half 
for  10  years,  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies  with  264 
members  elected  for  five  years.  The  elections  of 
Mar.  31  and  Apr.  2, 1938,  for  the  Chamber  of  Dep- 


EGYPT 


206 


EGYPT 


uties  showed  the  following  results :  Liberal  Consti- 
tutional party,  93 ;  Saadist,  89 ;  Ittehad  £sh  Sfaaabi, 
19;  Wafd,  13;  Watani,  3;  Independents,  47.  Pre- 
mier at  the  beginning  of  1940,  AH  Maher  Pasha, 
heading  a  coalition  of  Saadists  and  Independents. 
For  1940  developments,  see  History. 

HISTORY 

Egypt  and  the  War.  The  danger  that  Egypt 
would  become  a  major  battlefield  of  the  European 
War  deepened  throughout  1940  until  the  British 
defeat  of  the  Italians  at  Sidi  Barrani  in  December. 
The  precautionary  measures  taken  under  the  terms 
of  the  Anglo-Egyptian  military  alliance  in  1939 
(see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  217)  were  intensified  in 
May,  1940,  when  Italy's  entrance  into  the  conflict 
seemed  near.  The  Egyptian  Government,  in  con- 
sultation with  the  British,  authorized  the  evacua- 
tion of  civilians  from  towns  near  the  Libyan  bor- 
der. Air  raid  precautions  were  tested.  A  general 
blackout  was  instituted  May  26.  Scores  of  Axis 
spies  and  suspects  were  rounded  up.  Meanwhile 
Allied  forces  in  Egypt  were  reinforced  and  the 
Egyptian  army  was  ordered  to  emergency  stations. 
On  June  8,  6000  children  and  aged  persons  were 
evacuated  from  Alexandria  in  anticipation  of  Ital- 
ian air  raids. 

Two  days  after  Italy  declared  war  on  Britain, 
the  Egyptian  Government  severed  diplomatic  rela- 
tions with  Italy  (June  12),  suspended  all  economic 
and  financial  relations  with  Italy  and  Italian  na- 
tionals, and  rounded  up  or  sent  home  a  few  of  the 
many  Italians  remaining  in  Egypt.  The  Egyptian 
Government,  however,  took  no  action  beyond  the 
technical  requirements  of  the  Anglo-Egyptian 
treaty  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1936,  for  terms).  There 
was  no  declaration  of  war.  Egyptian  troops  were 
ordered  not  to  attack  the  Italians  and  some  fron- 
tier detachments  were  withdrawn  a  few  miles  from 
the  border.  According  to  a  statement  of  Premier 
Ali  Maher  Pasha  to  Parliament  on  June  20,  this 
was  done  "in  order  not  to  involve  the  country  in  a 
state  of  war  before  the  government  and  Parlia- 
ment had  an  opportunity  to  decide  what  was  in  the 
best  interests  of  the  country."  It  was  June  19  be- 
fore the  Italian  Minister  and  his  staff  of  121  per- 
sons were  persuaded  to  leave  Cairo.  Thousands  of 
Italian  residents  were  left  unmolested. 

The  Italian  invasion  of  Egypt  from  Libya  in 
September  and  the  bombing  of  Alexandria,  Cairo, 
and  other  Egyptian  cities  produced  no  basic  change 
in  the  Egyptian  policy  toward  the  war.  However 
the  state  of  siege  was  extended  to  all  parts  of  the 
country,  the  government  widened  its  emergency 
powers,  and  strikes  and  lockouts  in  defense  indus- 
tries were  prohibited.  The  British  forces  in  Egypt 
were  granted  the  full  use  of  Egyptian  ports,  air- 
fields and  defense  bases,  and  the  other  military  fa- 
cilities specified  in  the  military  treaty,  but  the 
Egyptian  Government  continued  to  maintain  that 
its  position  was  that  of  a  neutral. 

Internal  Politics.  This  anomalous  situation 
was  due  partly  to  the  general  desire  to  avoid  in- 
volvement in  the  war  and  partly  to  the  internal 
political  situation.  After  the  collapse  of  France 
most  Egyptians  considered  Britain's  prospects  as 
none  too  bright.  They  apparently  felt  that  a  vic- 
torious Axis  would  treat  Egypt  less  harshly  if  it 
remained  neutral  than  if  it  joined  in  the  conflict. 
This  belief  was  encouraged  by  Mussolini's  state- 
ment that  Italy  would  not  drag  Egypt  and  other 
Mediterranean  countries  into  the  conflict  unless 
they  adopted  a  hostile  attitude. 


At  the  same  time  the  revolutionary  Wafd  party, 
which  was  much  more  powerful  than  its  small  rep- 
resentation in  the  Lower  Chamber  indicated,  and 
many  other  Egyptian  nationalists  including  the 
King  desired  the  complete  elimination  of  British 
influence.  Enmity  between  the  Wafd  and  the  other 
parties  that  were  more  favorable  to  co-operation 
with  Britain  also  influenced  government  policy. 
The  attitude  of  the  Wafd  was  indicated  in  a  mem. 
orandum  submitted  to  the  British  Ambassador  on 
Apr.  2,  1940.  The  party  expressed  willingness  to 
support  the  Allied  cause  provided  British  soldiers 
left  Egypt  immediately  after  the  war,  provided 
Britain  promised  to  negotiate  an  immediate  settle- 
ment of  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  question  after 
the  war,  and  provided  Egypt  was  allowed  to  "de- 
fend her  rights"  at  the  peace  conference.  The 
Wafd  also  demanded  that  Britain  make  restitution 
for  the  loss  of  Egypt's  cotton  market  through  the 
British  blockade  and  that  Egypt  be  permitted  to 
decide  whether  martial  law  should  continue. 

Premier  Ali  Maher  Pasha  had  worked  in  close 
collaboration  with  the  British  before  Italy  entered 
the  war,  but  thereafter  his  obvious  anxiety  to  avoid 
involvement  led  the  British  to  complain  that  the 
internal  precautions  of  the  Egyptian  Government 
and  its  co-operation  with  the  British  military 
forces  was  not  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the 
Anglo-Egyptian  treaty.  With  the  support  of  the 
Saadist  and  some  other  Egyptian  leaders,  the  Brit- 
ish Ambassador  intimated  to  the  King  that  a 
stronger  government  was  necessary  to  carry  out 
defense  and  internal  security  measures. 

On  June  23  the  King  accepted  the  resignation  of 
Ali  Maher  Pasha's  government  and  on  June  29  a 
new  ministry  was  formed  under  Hassan  Sabry 
Pasha,  representing  a  coalition  of  all  political  par- 
ties except  the  Wafd.  The  new  Premier's  state- 
ment of  foreign  policy  pledged  loyal  execution  of 
the  treaty,  maintenance  of  Egyptian  independence, 
and  avoidance  of  war.  This  snowed  no  outward 
change  from  Ali  Maher  Pasha's  policy,  but  the 
British  Foreign  Secretary  in  mid- July  said  Brit- 
ish relations  with  the  new  government  were  "com- 
pletely satisfactory." 

Hassan  Sabry  Pasha's  Government  found  itself 
under  attack  from  two  sides.  Led  by  Ahmed  Maher 
Pasha,  chief  of  the  Saadist  party  and  president  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  an  influential  minority 
group  demanded  that  the  government  declare  war 
on  Italy  and  actively  enter  the  conflict  The  Waf  d- 
ists,  on  the  other  hand,  attacked  the  government 
for  co-operating  with  the  British  and  for  its  fail- 
ure to  extract  concessions  from  them.  On  August 
21  the  Premier  reportedly  told  a  secret  session  of 
the  Chamber  that  Egypt  would  fight  if  Italian 
troops  crossed  the  frontier.  But  this  promise  was 
not  fulfilled  when  the  Italian  invasion  began  in 
mid-September.  This  led  to  the  resignation  of  four 
Saadist  Ministers  from  the  cabinet  on  September 
21.  The  government  on  September  23  declared  full 
martial  law  and  commenced  a  round-up  of  all  Ital- 
ians, but  even  the  bombing  of  Cairo  on  October  21 
did  not  budge  the  government  from  its  "neutral" 
policy.  (Between  June  12  and  December  2,  155 
Egyptian  civilians  were  killed  and  425  injured  by 
Italian  air  raids.) 

While  reading  the  King's  speech  from  the  throne 
to  the  opening  session  of  Parliament  on  November 
14,  Premier  Sabry  Pasha  collapsed  and  died.  He 
was  replaced  the  next  day  by  another  non-party 
Premier,  Hussein  Sirry  Pasha,  who  retained  a 
number  of  Sabry  Pashars  Ministers.  The  new  gov- 


EGYPT 


207 


ELECTION 


ernment  continued  to  follow  the  middle-of-the- 
road  policy  of  the  preceding  ministries,  and  this 
course  was  approved  by  the  Chamber  on  December 
26,  122  to  68.  Meanwhile  the  British  victory  at  Si- 
di  Barrani  had  removed  the  threat  of  an  Italian 
conquest  of  Egypt  and  materially  strengthened  the 
position  of  Britain  and  its  supporters  in  Egypt. 

Other  Developments.  Egypt  suffered  severely 
from  the  economic  effects  of  the  war  after  Italy's 
entrance.  Its  foreign  trade  slumped  drastically. 
Prices  of  manufactured  and  imported  goods 
soared.  There  was  little  prospect  of  disposing  of 
Egypt's  cotton  and  other  export  crops,  and  more 
than  100,000  persons  were  thrown  out  of  work. 
This  situation  was  capitalized  by  the  Wafd  in  pur- 
suing its  anti-British  policy.  Some  alleviation  of 
the  economic  depression  occurred  when  the  British 
Government  in  August  undertook  to  purchase  the 
entire  1940  cotton  crop.  Later  the  rising  expendi- 
tures of  the  expanding  British  forces  in  Egypt 
(estimated  at  ££20,000,000  annually)  offset  to  a 
large  degree  the  effects  of  curtailed  foreign  mar- 
kets. 

Egyptian  nationalism  was  reflected  in  economic 
as  well  as  political  measures.  On  Mar.  28, 1940,  the 
Senate  authorized  the  government  to  guarantee 
present  and  future  deposits  of  the  Banque  Misr, 
to  strengthen  its  position  and  ensure  its  success. 


The  bank  was  an  Egyptian-owned  institution,  re- 
sponsible for  the  development  of  some  19  national 
industrial  companies.  The  government  also  es- 
poused a  ££10,000,000  project  for  erection  of  a 
powerful  hydro-electric  plant  utilizing  the  overflow 
of  the  Assuan  Dam.  The  power  was  to  be  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  artificial  fertilizers  and  the  in- 
dustrialization of  southern  Egypt. 

Conventions  for  the  abolition  of  the  Public  Debt 
Commission  were  concluded  with  Great  Britain  on 
July  17  and  with  France  on  August  3.  The  com- 
mission, consisting  of  representatives  of  Britain, 
France,  and  Italy,  had  partially  controlled  Egyp- 
tian finances  since  1876  Its  funds  were  turned  over 
to  the  Egyptian  Government,  which  accepted  re- 
sponsibility for  all  its  liabilities.  A  law  of  August 
12  prolonged  until  1980  the  charter  and  note-issu- 
ing privilege  of  the  National  Bank  of  Egypt  The 
law  provided  that  the  chairman  and  a  majority  of 
the  board  of  directors  must  be  Egyptians. 

See  ARCHAEOLOGY  ;  EUROPEAN  WAR  under  Cam- 
paigns in  Africa ;  INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY. 

EIB.  See  EXPORT-IMPORT  BANK. 

EIRE.  See  IRELAND. 

ELECTION,  U.S.  National.  Franklin  D. 
Roosevelt  was  re-elected  President  of  the  United 
States,  on  the  Democratic  ticket,  November  5,  for 
a  third  consecutive  term,  unprecedented  in  the  Fed- 


PRESIDENTIAL  VOTE  BY  STATES 
Copyright,  1940,  by  The  Associated  Press. 


Stales 

Alabama 
Arizona 
Arkansas 
California 
Colorado 
Connecticut 
Delaware 
Florida 
Georgia  ... 
Idaho         .                     .... 
Illinois                                              .     . 
Indiana                                    

Roosevelt. 
Democratic 

250,726 
95,267 
158,622 
1,877,618 
265,364 
417,621 
74,599 
360,407 
265,194 
127,835 
2,149.934 
874,063 

Willkte, 
Republican 

42,184 
54,030 
42,121 
1,351,419 
278,855 
361,819 
61,390 
126,412 
46,362 
106,555 
2,047,240 
899,466 

Thomas, 
Socialist 

100 

305 
16,506 
1,905 

129 

497 
10,914 
2,075 

Babson, 
Prohibition 

700 
742 
793 
9,400 
1,599 

207 
983 

9,190 
6,437 

Browner. 
Communist 

509 

13,586 
376 
1,091 

269 

Aiken, 
Soc.  Labor 

971 
706 

Iowa            .                     
Kansas                            
Kentucky                                     .   .   . 
Louisiana 
Maine 
Maryland                                          .   .  . 
Massachusetts 
Michigan 
Minnesota                 .           .... 
Mississippi 
Missouri 
Montana     . 
Nebraska                        
Nevada   .                  

578,800 
364725 
557,222 
319,751 
156,478 
385,546 
1,076,522 
1,032,991 
644,196 
168,267 
958,476 
145,698 
263,677 
31,945 

632,370 
489.160 
410,384 
52,446 
163,951 
269,544 
939,700 
1,039,917 
596,274 
7,364 
871,009 
99,579 
352,201 
21,229 

2,347 
1,014 

3,967 
4,091 
7,593 
5,454 
193 
2,226 
1,443 

2,284 
4056 
1,443 

1,370 
i;79S 

1,809 
'664 

1.524 

411 
1,216 

3,806 
2,834 
2,711 

489 

452 

635 
1,492 
795 
2,553 

209 

New  Hampshire 
New  Jersey 
New  Mexico     
New  York                 
North  Carolina          

125,292 
1,016,404 
103,699 
3,251,918 
609015 

110,127 
944,876 
79,615 
3,027,478 
213,633 

2,823 
144 
18,950 

851 
100 
3,250 

8,814 

446 

North  Dakota 

124,036 

154,590 

1,279 

325 

545 

Ohio.  .               ...;  ;  ;" 

1.733,139 

1,586,773 

Oklahoma 

474,313 

348,872 

3,027 

Oregon              ... 
Pennsylvania 
Rhode  Island         ..       
South  Carolina                        
South  Dakota  .... 
Tennessee  
Texas  '."...'. 

258,415 
2,171,035 
181,122 
95,470 
131,362 
351.601 
840,151 

219,555 
1,889,848 
138,214 
4,360 
177,065 
169,153 
199,152 

398 
10,967 

463 
728 

154 

74 
2 

1,606 
925 

191 
4,519 
239 

212 

2,487 
1,518 

Utah      
Vermont.  .  .            

154,277 
64  269 

93,151 
78,371 

198 

•   • 

191 
404 

Virginia  '     "   ' 

23S',961 

109,363 

282 

882 

71 

48 

West  Virginia            
Wisconsin  "  '" 
Wyoming    

TVitaU 

462,145 
496,146 
704,821 
59,287 

322,123 
372,662 
679,206 
52,633 

4,586 

15,07i 
148 

1,686 

2,148 
172 

2,626 
2,394 

667 
1,882 

27,245,422 

22,333,801 

116,796 

58,674 

49,028 

14,861 

ELECTION 


era!  Republic.  He  defeated  Wendell  L.  Willkie, 
Republican  candidate,  in  the  popular  vote,  by  a  plu- 
rality of  4,911,621,  carrying  38  States.  Roosevelt 
won  449  electoral  votes ;  Willkie,  82.  The  total  of 
the  popular  vote  for  all  the  Presidential  candi- 
dates, including  a  scattering  vote  of  413,  was  49,- 
818,995;  highest  previous,  45,647,117  in  1936. 

The  table  on  page  207  shows  the  totals  of  the 
popular  vote  for  President  in  each  State  and  the 
totals  for  the  United  States  (reprinted  by  permis- 
sion of  the  Associated  Press). 

Here  are  the  comparative  figures  for  1940,  1936, 
and  1932: 


Party 

1940 

1936 

1932 

Democratic 
Republican 
Socialist 

27,245,422 
22,333,801 
116,796 

27,751,597 
16,679,583 
188,014 

22,821,857 
15,761,841 
884,781 

Prohibition 

58,674 

37,661 

81,869 

Communist 

49,028 

80,159 

102,991 

Socialist  Labor. 

14,861 

12,508 

33,276 

Other  votes    

413 

897,595 

129,907 

Total  vote  .... 

49,818,995 

45,647,117 

39,816,522 

The  conditions  environing  the  election  itself,  and 
the  campaign  before  it,  bore  in  some  respects  more 
resemblance  to  those  of  1916  than  to  those  of  1936; 
for  war  abroad  lent  activity  to  many  important 
sorts  of  manufacturing,  while  it  spread  the  appre- 
hension of  peril  to  the  country  The  Administra- 
tion's policies  continued  to  please,  broadly  speak- 
ing, those  who  lived  by  employment  or  by  public 
support  alone  and  to  antagonize  many  who  had  a 
stake  in  productive  business,  property,  or  funds. 
Among  the  latter  group,  rather  than  the  former, 
were  a  great  part  of  the  more  substantial  farmers, 
whose  land  formed  an  important  aggregate  invest- 
ment. Conditions  differed  from  those  of  1916  as  to 
the  foreign  situation,  in  that  very  few  of  the  popu- 
lation wanted  the  country  to  enter  the  war  in  Eu- 
rope. Also,  they  differed  in  that  the  Government 
had  reached  the  statutory  limit  of  $45,000,000,000 
upon  its  debt  and  was  engaged  m  a  vast  increase  of 
armament  bound  to  send  debt  yet  farther  above  the 
ceiling  of  all  older  figures.  Issues  uppermost  in  the 
minds  of  anti- Administration  folk  were  the  policy 
of  making  distinction  between  earners  and  owners, 
the  treatment  of  agriculture,  the  continued  vast  in- 
crease of  the  public  debt,  and  the  question  of  the 
proper  cost  of  a  prudent  addition  to  the  Nation's 
means  of  defending  itself  against  attack  from 
without.  Since  earners  cast  more  votes  than  own- 
ers and  poor  farmers  than  rich  ones,  since  the  size 
of  the  debt  meant  little  to  the  many  who  looked  to 
the  few  to  bear  it,  and  since  the  effort  to  limit 
military  preparation  must  incur  reproach  as  unpa- 
triotic, the  appeal  of  the  issues,  politically  viewed, 
favored  the  Administration.  The  Republican  cause 
carried  the  handicap  of  not  daring  to  handle  them 
as  freely  as  the  other  side.  t 

Pre- Convention  Activity.  Several  aspirants 
to  the  Presidency,  in  each  of  the  major  parties, 
spent  the  months  prior  to  the  nominating  conven- 
tions in  efforts  to  win  popular  followings  On  the 
Democratic  side,  two  leading  members  of  the  Ad- 
ministration prepared  to  seek  the  nomination — 
Vice-President  Garner  of  Texas  and  Postmaster- 
General  Farley  of  New  York— while  a  third  Dem- 
ocrat, also  connected  with  the  Administration 
though  less  closely,  former  High  Commissioner 
McNutt  of  the  Philippines,  took  the  same  course. 
Among  Republicans,  exclusion  from  Federal  of- 
fice for  nearly  eight  years  had  »o  far  cut  down  the 


208  ELECTION 

number  of  experienced  statesmen  that  candidacies 
were  limited  mainly  to  leading  men  among  the 
small  group  of  Republican  Senators  and  to  persons 
until  then  outsiders  in  the  shaping  of  Federal  af- 
fairs ;  Ex-President  Hoover,  though  presented  as 
a  candidate  and  equipped  with  abundant  experi- 
ence, had  no  chance  to  overcome  the  antagonism 
due  to  the  misfortunes  that  the  country  and  the 
party  had  suffered  in  his  administration.  The  most 
formidable  seekers  of  the  Republican  nomination 
were  two  Senators — Vandenberg  of  Michigan  and 
Taft  of  Ohio— and  two  newcomers  in  National 
politics—Wendell  L.  Willkie  and  Thomas  E.  Dew- 
cy.  Dewey  had  won  notice  for  remarkable  success 
in  prosecuting  big  criminals  as  District  Attorney 
of  New  York  County.  Willkie  had  caught  the  eye 
of  the  New  Deal's  opponents  by  bringing  the  Ad- 
ministration to  buy  out  at  a  substantial  price  the 
imperiled  properties  of  the  Commonwealth  and 
Southern  Corporation  in  the  area  where  the  TVA 
sought  a  monopoly  of  the  distribution  of  electrical 
current 

Among  the  Democratic  aspirants  none  developed 
sufficient  strength  to  disturb  the  strong  undercur- 
rent toward  the  renomination  of  the  President. 
Vice-President  Garner,  seemingly  formidable  be- 
cause of  his  prospect  of  controlling  the  vote  of 
Texas  in  the  nominating  convention,  and  as  one  in 
good  repute  with  the  friends  of  social  and  econom- 
ic tradition,  could  get  only  the  halfway  assurance 
of  the  Texan  delegation's  initial  support  in  the 
convention.  Farley,  who  had  performed  wonders 
as  Roosevelt's  political  manager,  could  do  little  on 
his  own  account,  even  in  his  own  State  of  New 
York.  These  two  and  McNutt  as  well,  could  get 
no  man's  attention,  while  the  President  pointedly 
avoided,  for  month  after  month,  saying  that  he 
would  not  take  a  third  term 

This  silence  of  Mr  Roosevelt  on  his  political 
plans  came  to  dominate  the  whole  field  of  Demo- 
cratic preliminary  maneuver.  Till  he  should  take 
himself  out,  few  cared  or  dared  to  back  another. 
And  so  long  as  he  forbore  from  counting  himself 
in,  he  could  not  be  seriously  attacked  for  planning 
to  overthrow  the  potent  tradition  of  two  terms  and 
no  more ;  he  was  not  asking  for  Theodore  Roose- 
velt's "third  cup  of  coffee." 

Among  the  seekers  of  the  Republican  nomina- 
tion Dewey  made  the  pace  until  May ;  speaking  in 
a  great  number  of  States,  he  won  hearers  by  his 
ability  to  present  a  plausible  case  against  Demo- 
cratic rule.  In  some  States  he  won  indorsements  in 
the  Republican  Presidential  primaries,  to  the  dis- 
advantage of  other  aspirants  who  sought  to  clothe 
themselves  with  more  than  a  "favorite  son's"  sin- 
gle-State claim  to  consideration.  He  was  less  suc- 
cessful in  winning  the  confidence  of  old-time  par- 
tisan leaders  powerful  in  their  own  areas.  Willkie, 
meanwhile,  had  gradually  built  up  a  reputation  as 
an  energetic  and  forceful  campaigner.  He  had  done 
particularly  well  in  New  England  and  in  the  Mid- 
dle West.  Yet  on  the  eve  of  the  convention  he 
seemed  less  formidable  than  Dewey,  who  claimed 
400  of  the  convention's  votes  as  pledged  to  him. 

Republican  Convention.  The  delegates  of  the 
Republican  party  held  its  National  convention  at 
Philadelphia  in  the  week  of  June  24.  It  gave  the 
party's  nomination  as  candidate  for  President  to 
Wendell  L.  Willkie  He  won  on  the  sixth  ballot; 
the  three  leading  names  before  the  convention  were 
Thomas  E.  Dewey,  Robert  A.  Taft,  and  Willkie. 
Willkie's  vote,  originally  105,  mounted  with  each 
succeeding  ballot  Dewey's  vote  dwindled  steadily 


ELECTION 


209 


ELECTION 


from  360  on  the  first  ballot  Taf t's  vote,  129  on  the 
first  ballot,  mounted  with  Willkie's  through  the 
fifth  ballot,  but  less  rapidly.  Sen.  Charles  L.  Mc- 
Nary  of  Oregon,  popular  with  farmers  as  an  early 
sponsor  of  agrarian  legislation,  was  nominated  for 
Vice- President. 

Republican  Platform.  The  Republican  plat- 
form, as  adopted  by  the  convention,  declared  that 
the  Administration,  by  the  President's  own  admis- 
sion, had  "left  the  Nation  unprepared  to  resist  for- 
eign attack" ;  it  promised  "to  support  all  necessary 
and  proper  defensive  measures  proposed  by  the  Ad- 
ministration" ;  it  approved  material  aid  to  foreign 
nations  fighting  for  liberty ;  it  promised  to  put  the 
Federal  grants  for  support  to  the  poor  under  the 
administration  of  the  respective  States ;  it  favored 
raising  old-age  benefits,  as  far  as  the  revenues  for 
the  purpose  would  permit;  collective  bargaining 
(for  labor)  was  approved,  but  the  revision  of  the 
National  Labor  Relations  Act  was  proposed  "in 
fairness  to  employers  and  all  groups  of  employ- 
ees" ;  agriculture  was  promised  an  expansion  of 
industrial  and  business  activity  to  increase  the  pur- 
chases of  farm  products,  but  in  the  interim  it  was 
to  get  continued  aid  for  soil -conservation,  involv- 
ing continued  Federal  cash  "benefits,"  without  hav- 
ing to  submit  to  Federal  control  of  production  ;  the 
reciprocal  trade  agreements  were  condemned  as 
put  through  too  hastily,  without  the  approval  of 
Congress,  and  the  party  promised  to  explore  the 
possibilities  of  "genuine  reciprocity";  Congress 
was  to  reclaim  from  the  President  its  Constitu- 
tional power  over  money,  repeal  the  Thomas  "In- 
flation" Amendment  and  the  authorization  to  pur- 
chase foreign  silver,  and  "take  all  possible  steps" 
to  put  gold  back  in  circulation;  the  principle  of 
"truth  in  securities"  was  approved,  but  in  order  to 
put  dollars  and  men  back  to  work  the  Securities 
Act  was  to  be  revised;  taxes  sufficient  to  meet 
civil  expenditure,  interest  on  debt,  and  part  of  the 
expenditure  on  defense  were  promised ;  a  Consti- 
tutional amendment  against  a  President's  serving 
more  than  two  terms  was  advocated 

Democratic  Convention.  The  Democratic 
National  Convention  was  held  in  the  Chicago  Sta- 
dium in  the  week  of  July  15.  On  the  opening  day 
President  Roosevelt's  persistent  silence  as  to  his  in- 
tentions had  not  yet  been  broken ;  no  one  asserted 
any  authoritative  knowledge  of  what  he  would 
do,  but  among  the  delegates,  as  indicated  in  the 
press,  the  conviction  prevailed  that  he  would  be 
nominated  and  would  accept  Some  of  his  most  in- 
fluential supporters  were  reported  from  the  outset 
as  pressing  otherwise-minded  delegates  to  join  a 
movement  to  "draft"  Roosevelt,  as  the  only  one  to 
be  trusted  to  handle  National  defense  at  a  moment 
fraught  with  menace.  Some  among  the  delegates 
did  indeed  oppose  breaking  historic  tradition  that 
forbade  a  third  term  for  a  President  and,  in  par- 
ticular, repudiating  the  anti-third-term  declaration 
of  the  party's  platform  of  1896;  these  men,  too, 
had  to  be  "drafted."  On  the  16th  Senator  Barkley, 
at  the  end  of  his  speech  as  permanent  chairman, 
made,  as  spokesman  for  the  President,  the  latter's 
long-withheld  declaration :  The  President  had  no 
desire  or  purpose  to  become  again  a  candidate  for 
the  office;  he  wished  the  delegates  to  feel  "free  to 
vote  for  any  candidate."  As  the  word  "any"  in- 
cluded himself,  the  declaration  was  hailed  as  im- 
plying that  he  would  run  if  named.  Objectors  were 
deprived  of  the  argument  that  even  the  President 
hesitated  to  overthrow  the  third-term  tradition. 

Franklin  D.  Roosevelt  was  chosen  Democratic 


candidate  for  President  on  July  18  on  the  first  bal- 
lot. The  Convention  gave  him  an  overwhelming 
vote  amid  a  tumult  of  shouting  and  marching.  The 
minority  put  three  other  names  in  nomination,  by 
way  of  protest  against  a  third  term  rather  than 
with  any  hope  of  success.  Glass,  aged  Senator  from 
Virginia,  nominated  Farley ;  the  two  others  nomi- 
nated were  Garner  of  Texas  and  Senator  Tydings 
of  Maryland.  The  President  delayed  an  expected 
address  to  the  Convention  by  radio  until  after  its 
choice  of  Secretary  of  Agriculture  Henry  A.  Wal- 
lace, the  President's  reported  preference,  as  candi- 
date for  Vice-President,  on  the  19th. 

Democratic  Platform.  The  Democratic  plat- 
form, as  adopted  by  the  Convention  on  July  17, 
was  largely  a  rejoinder  to  the  Republican  plat- 
form issued  in  June.  It  paralleled  the  Republican 
pledge  against  foreign  wars,  approval  of  aid  to 
foreign  nations  defending  their  liberty,  purpose  to 
defend  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  and  recognition  of 
the  need  to  improve  armaments  It  praised  the 
President's  foresight  in  haying  brought  defenses 
to  "the  peak  of  their  peace-time  effectiveness,"  (as 
against  admitted  unpreparedness,  m  the  Republican 
version).  Farmers  received  assurance  of  continued 
parity  as  well  as  soil-conservation  payments  (Re- 
publicans promised  only  the  latter),  of  more  mon- 
ey for  tenants'  purchase  of  farms,  for  refinancing 
farm  mortgages,  for  continued  commodity  loans, 
for  free  lunches  in  schools,  and  for  cheap  sales  of 
milk  so  as  to  market  more  of  farmers'  goods. 
Without  praising  the  much  criticized  NLRB  by 
name  the  platform  promised  to  "continue  to  en- 
force fair  labor  standards"  and  maintain  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Labor  Act.  The  Republicans'  nomina- 
tion of  "a  utility  executive"  for  the  Presidency 
was  declared  to  raise  the  issue  whether  "the  Na- 
tion's water  power"  should  be  for  the  selfish  in- 
terests of  the  few.  Falling  water's  power,  said  the 
platform,  was  "a  gift  from  God,"  consequently  be- 
longing "to  all  the  people" ;  a  public  monopoly  of 
water-power  and  electricity  therefrom  was  ap- 
proved— "the  people  have  the  right,  through  their 
Government,  to  develop  their  own  power  sites  and 
bring  low -cost  electricity  to  their  homes,  farms, 
and  factories."  The  Republican  proposal  to  vest  in 
the  States  the  control  of  Federally  financed  work- 
relief  was  called  "a  thinly  disguised  plan  to  put  the 
unemployed  back  on  the  dole  "  The  platform  prom- 
ised "to  destroy  the  treasonable  activities  of  dis- 
guised anti-democratic  and  un-American  agencies" 
but  did  not  specify  the  sorts  of  agencies  so  to  be 
regarded 

Presidential  Campaign.  The  true  campaign 
started  only  with  Willkie's  speech  of  acceptance 
on  August  17.  In  the  meantime,  Farley,  an  avowed 
anti-third-termer,  resigned  as  Postmaster-General 
and  also  as  chairman  of  the  Democratic  National 
Committee;  there  followed  a  rebuilding  of  the 
Democratic  National  organization.  Edward  J. 
Flynn,  leader  of  the  Democratic  organization  in  the 
Bronx  Borough  of  New  York  City,  became  Far- 
ley's successor  in  the  National  Democratic  organi- 
zation— a  step  carrying  recognition  that  help  from 
the  party's  other  leaders  in  big  cities  would  suit 
the  National  ticket  Flynn  ignored  protests  and  is- 
sued the  Democratic  campaign  book,  carrying  100 
pages  of  advertising,  some  at  least  of  which  had 
been  obtained  from  interests  that  might  find  it  dif- 
ficult to  refuse  a  solicitation.  This  advertising  was 
said  to  have  been  arranged  before  the  passage  of 
the  year's  amendments  to  the  Hatch  Act  and  there- 
fore not  to  infringe  the  new  restrictions  on  politi- 


ELECTION 


cal  activity.  In  regard  to  another  newly  outlawed 
way  of  raising  campaign  funds,  the  levy  on  hold- 
ers of  public  employment.  Flvnn  sent  out  to  State 
campaign  managers  in  October  a  letter  advising 
that  "even  where  the  .  .  .  Government  or  State  em- 
ployees cannot  .  .  .  make  contributions  .  .  .  their 
friends  and  relatives  are  in  no  way  prohibited 
from  such  activities.1'  One  of  the  features  of  the 
Democratic  campaign  organization  was  the  ener- 
getic co-operation  of  some  of  the  most  prominent 
leaders  of  municipal  organizations  within  the  par- 
ty—the Tammany  group  in  New  York  City,  Hague 
in  Jersey  City,  and  the  Kelly-Nash  group  in  Chi- 
cago. 

At  Elwood,  Ind.,  the  home  of  his  youth,  Willkie 
(August  17)  made  the  speech  of  acceptance,  his 
first  full-length  utterance  as  his  party's  candidate, 
— a  quiet  but  earnest  presentation  of  his  ideas  on 
the  Nation's  needs  in  contrast  with  the  ideas  of  the 
New  Deal.  He  called  himself  a  liberal,  a  believer 
in  the  regulation  of  enterprise  and  declared  for 
curbing  monopolies,  for  labor's  right  of  collective 
bargaining,  for  minimum  limits  to  wages  and  a 
maximum  to  working  hours,  supported  the  Federal 
regulation  of  interstate  utilities  and  markets  for 
securities,  and  approved  social  security  and  aid 
to  underpaid  farmers.  He  taxed  the  New  Deal, 
not  with  achieving  these  things,  but  with  overex- 
penditure,  attacks  on  those  whom  it  disliked,  and 
a  program  of  helping  the  needy  by  taking  from 
others  rather  than  by  building  up  a  further  ma- 
terial progress.  He  warned  that,  as  in  the  case  of 
France,  a  scheme  of  national  life  built  on  not  more, 
but  less,  production  and  taking  from  one  for  an- 
other's need  must  lead  "to  the  end  of  the  road."  It 
was  a  winning  rather  than  a  convincing  speech, 
for  it  did  not  demonstrate  how  policies  could  be 
changed  to  overcome  the  normal  excess  of  the 
country's  huge  productivity.  It  left  the  way  open 
to  Secretary  I  dies'  jibe  in  a  speech  of  rejoinder  a 
few  days  later :  "He  agreed  with  Mr.  Roosevelt's 
entire  program  of  social  reform  and  that  it  was 
leading  to  disaster." 

Obliged  to  make  himself  better  known  through- 
out the  country,  Willkie  covered  many  thousands 
of  miles  on  speaking  tours.  He  began  with  a  trip 
through  the  West  in  the  latter  part  of  September, 
which  took  in  18  States  on  a  route  of  38,000  miles ; 
14  of  the  States  were  west  of  the  Mississippi  Riv- 
er; four  of  the  seven  main  speeches  of  the  trip 
were  delivered  on  the  Pacific  coast,  in  a  fruitless 
effort  to  wean  that  area  from  the  Democratic  par- 
ty. In  October  Willkie  devoted  his  attention  chiefly 
to  the  northeastern  and  east-central  States,  though 
he  went  as  far  west  as  Minnesota ;  he  spoke  in  all 
the  chief  cities  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  Much  of 
the  time  he  was  in  bitterly  hostile  territory;  this 
was  most  evident  in  Detroit^  where  his  party  was 
repeatedly  pelted  with  a  variety  of  missiles  in  the 
streets.  He  showed  himself  not  only  tireless  but 
fertile  in  indictment,  as  when  he  cited  past  unkept 
promises  as  warning  to  mistrust  the  Administra- 
tion's pledge  not  to  send  Americans  into  a  foreign 
war.  The  very  variety  of  his  attacks  was  in  a  way 
their  weakness ;  they  lacked  the  force  of  concen- 
tration on  the  more  vital  matters ;  thus,  at  Spring- 
field, 111.  (October  18),  he  charged  the  New  Deal 
with  leading  to  State  socialism,  yet  he  failed  to 
drive  this  charge  home  by  sufficient  reiteration  and 
to  present  any  detailed  condemnation  of  that  sys- 
tem. 

President  Roosevelt  withheld  his  own  main  par- 
ticipation in  the  campaign  until  ft  fortnight  before 


210  ELECTION 

the  election.  He  had  previously  made  several  "tours 
of  inspection";  thus  (October  10)  he  started  on  a 
tour,  ostensibly  to  inspect  defensive  preparations  in 
Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  and  actually  affording  oc- 
casion for  a  public  address  at  Dayton  (October  12) 
displaying  him  as  the  author  and  adept  of  the  Na- 
tion's new  recourse  to  giant  defensive  measures. 
Starting  a  real  tour  at  Philadelphia  on  October 
23,  he  made  six  campaigning  speeches,  the  other 
five  at  New  York  (28th),  Boston  (30th),  Brook- 
lyn (November  1),  Cleveland,  and  his  hometown  of 
Hyde  Park.  In  these  he  bitterly  attacked  what  he 
termed  the  falsifications  in  the  Republican  charges 
against  his  administration;  reviewed  its  achieve- 
ments and  in  particular,  its  course  in  upbuilding 
armament ;  and,  in  the  character  of  a  trusted  lead- 
er in  a  difficult  time,  asked  for  a  "vote  of  confi- 
dence." 

Minor  Parties  and  Movements.  The  minor 
parties  played  no  more  than  their  usual  part  in  the 
campaign.  An  effort  of  John  L.  Lewis,  creator  of 
the  C.I.O.,  to  swing  its  votes  from  Roosevelt  to 
Willkie  had  no  perceptible  effect.  A  group  styling 
itself  the  "Democrats  for  Willkie"  had  men  of 
distinction  among  its  leaders  but  lacked  any  impor- 
tant organized  following.  The  solid  South,  despite 
evidences  of  anti-Roosevelt  sentiment  in  a  number 
of  States,  gave  no  sign  of  serious  switching  toward 
Republicanism.  The  Socialist  party  nominated  Nor- 
man Thomas  again  (the  fourth  time)  for  Presi- 
dent, on  a  platform  carrying  his  isolationist  views 
and  a  demand  for  immediate  public  industry.  (See 
SOCIALISM.)  The  Communists  nominated  Earl  R. 
Browder.  Roger  W.  Babson  was  nominated  by  the 
Prohibition  party.  The  Socialist  Labor  party  nom- 
inated John  W.  Aiken  and  called  for  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Nation's  resources  to  the  interest  of  the 
whole  people  and  the  abolition  of  capitalism. 

The  Vote.  While  about  10  per  cent  more  of 
the  popular  vote  went  to  Roosevelt  than  to  Willkie, 
the  victor  scored  a  personal  rather  than  a  partisan 
victory,  as  appeared  from  several  States'  electing 
Republicans  to  important  office  while  giving  him 
substantial  pluralities.  The  preference  for  Roose- 
velt among  the  wage-earners  appeared  in  the  fact 
that  every  city  of  400,000  people  or  more,  except 
Cincinnati,  voted  heavily  in  his  favor  and  that  sev- 
eral such  cities  overcame,  singlehanded,  the  Willkie 
vote  in  the  remainder  of  their  respective  States. 
Eight  of  the  ten  States  for  Willkie  had  far  less 
than  the  average  proportion  of  urban  population ; 
Indiana  had  somewhat  less,  and  Michigan,  the 
tenth,  alone  had  considerably  more.  Except  for  the 
solid  South,  the  vote  of  1940  displayed  much  more 
plainly  than  that  of  1936  the  gain  of  urban  over 
rural  ways  of  thinking. 

The  popular  vote  as  a  whole  (49,818,995,  as 
against  45,647,117  cast  in  1936)  exceeded  that  of 
1936  by  well  above  4,000,000.  The  vote  for  Roose- 
velt, however,  fell  short  of  that  in  1936  by  about 
510,000,  while  that  for  Willkie  exceeded  the  Re- 
publican Presidential  vote  of  1936  by  more  than 
5,600,000. 

Elections  to  Congress.  The  terms  of  60  Sena- 
tors—44  Democrats,  15  Republicans,  and  1  Inde- 
pendent— held  over.  In  the  autumn's  elections  36 
Senators  were  elected :  of  these,  22  were  Demo- 
crats, 13  were  Republicans,  arid  1  was  a  Progres- 
sive. Thus  the  membership  of  the  Senate  of  the 
77th  Congress  became  66  Democrats,  28  Republi- 
cans, 1  Progressive,  and  1  Independent.  Prior  to 
the  election  the  Senate  of  the  76th  Congress  held 
69  Democrats,  24  Republicans,  and  1  each  of  the 


ELECTRICAL  ILLUMINATION        211 


ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES 


Farmer-Labor)  Progressive,  and  Independentdesig- 
nationi.  The  number  of  anti-Administration  Dem- 
ocrats, a  floating  quantity,  defied  estimate  as  usual. 
In  the  newly  elected  House  of  Representatives  the 
election  raised  the  Democrats'  number  to  270  from 
260  in  the  old  House,  lowered  the  Republican 
strength  to  160,  from  the  former  167,  and  gave  the 
remaining  seats  to  3  Progressives,  1  American  La- 
borite,  and  1  Independent. 

See  NEW  JERSEY;  NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAGA- 
ZINES ;  SOCIALISM  ;  UNITED  STATES  under  Admin- 
istration and  Investigations.  For  results  by  States, 
see  the  States. 

ELECTRICAL  ILLUMINATION.  The 
year  1940  was  more  significant  for  the  further  de- 
velopment and  application  of  existing  items  than 
for  new  discoveries.  Fluorescent  lighting  continues 
to  be  the  outstanding  illumination  development 
(See  1938, 1939  YEAR  BOOKS)  During  the  year  the 
range  in  sizes  of  these  lamps  was  extended,  down- 
ward to  a  6-watt  lamp  9  inches  long  and  upward 
to  a  100 -watt  60-inch  size  having  an  output  of 
4400  lumens.  Notable  is  the  improvement  in  fix- 
tures to  accommodate  and  enable  effective  use  of 
fluorescent  lamps.  A  new  "soft  white"  color  has 
been  developed,  especially  for  use  where  meats  or 
other  foods  are  displayed  or  served,  or  where  a 
color  of  light  complimentary  to  a  person's  appear- 
ance is  required. 

Germicidal  lamps  found  many  new  applications. 
In  addition  to  the  3-,  5-,  and  15- watt  sizes  men- 
tioned in  the  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  a  30-watt  lamp  now 
is  available  which  is  identical  to  the  36-inch  stand- 
ard fluorescent  lamp  except  for  the  omission  of  the 
luminescent  phosphor  and  the  use  of  a  special  glass 
which  allows  the  bacteria-killing  ultra-violet  radia- 
tion to  pass  through.  A  New  York  hotel  used  eight 
of  these  latter  lamps  in  each  of  40  portable  units 
to  be  used  for  the  sterilization  of  guest  bathrooms 
between  occupancies.  Other  applications  of  the  ger- 
micidal  lamps  include  large  walk-in  refrigerators 
for  meats,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  mattresses 
to  reduce  the  number  of  bacteria  in  the  cotton  fill- 
ing. 

"Black  light"  is  another  form  of  ultra-violet  ra- 
diation that  is  finding  increased  application.  Dur- 
ing 1940  many  advances  were  made  in  both  tech- 
niques and  materials  for  the  utilization  of  such 
radiation  to  activate  fluorescent  chemicals  for  util- 
itarian and  decorative  purposes.  Carpets  having 
patterns  of  fluorescent  dyes  show  promise  of  ef- 
fective use  in  theaters,  the  materials  activated  by 
"black  lights"  appropriately  concealed.  Murals 
painted  with  fluorescent  paints  are  planned  for  sev- 
eral theaters.  Demonstrations  have  indicated  that 
the  hazards  of  "blackouts"  incidental  to  modern 
warfare  may  be  greatly  reduced  in  industrial  plants 
and  other  places  through  the  use  of  "black  lights" 
in  connection  with  fluorescent  paints  or  other  ma- 
terials on  objects  and  along  passageways,  stair- 
ways, etc. 

Industrial  heating  has  found  a  new  tool  for  eco- 
nomically expediting  various  drying,  baking,  evap- 
orating, and  material-treating  processes.  It  is  a 
new  incandescent-filament  lamp,  previously  intro- 
duced, designed  to  produce  less  than  5  per  cent  of 
visible  light,  most  of  the  remainder  of  its  energy 

*??£«?**  *F  f 2*  °f  infra'rcd  radiation  of 
the  type  that  makes  the  sun  so  effective  a  drying 

£??£    hC  Ian£,°f  ^ftfc  diet  of  these  lamps 
has  been  extended  to  include  2SO-,  500-.  and  1000- 
watt  sizes* 
Many  of  the  benefits  of  the  new  aealed-beam 


automobile  headlamps  used  on  most  1940  ears  were 
made  available  to  the  users  of  older  cars  through 
the  commercial  development  of  replacement  and 
auxiliary  sealed-beam  units. 

The  trend  continues  toward  better  street  and 
highway  lighting  in  the  interest  of  safety.  Notable 
highway  installations  of  1940  include  a  complete 
system  of  10,000-lumen  sodium  luminaires  along 
the  entire  35-mile  length  of  New  York  Cit/s  new 
Belt  Parkway;  similar  units  on  the  lH-»ile  float- 
ing pontoon  highway  bridge  across  Lake  Washing- 
ton near  Seattle,  Wash.,  and  similar  luminaires  for 
all  tunnel  approaches  and  important  interchange 
points  along  the  160-mile  high-speed  "superhigh- 
way" between  Pittsburgh  and  Harrisburg,  Pa. 
Throughout  the  total  of  nearly  7  miles  of  tunnels 
on  that  highway  more  than  1000  mercury-vapor 
lamps  provide  a  longitudinal  visibility  of  more 
than  1000  ft.  through  the  medium  of  their  charac- 
teristic blue-green  light. 

Forbes  Field,  Pittsburgh,  became  the  latest  and 
assertedly  the  most  brilliantly  lighted  baseball  park, 
utilizing  864  floodlights  to  produce  some  210,000,- 
000  candle-power.  A  new  lightmeter  utilizes  a 
built-in  filter  to  give  the  instrument  a  sensitivity 
closely  matching  that  of  the  human  eye,  thereby 
obviating  the  use  of  correction  factors  when  meas- 
uring the  illumination  produced  by  fluorescent 
lamps,  mercury  lamps,  or  other  illumination  sources 
of  the  electric-discharge  type. 

The  sale  of  incandescent  lamps  in  1940  crossed 
the  billion  mark  for  the  first  time,  with  estimated 
sales  of  590,000,000  large  lamps  and  510,000,000 
miniature  lamps.  In  June  the  prices  of  nearly  100 
popular  types  and  sizes  of  Mazda  lamps  were  re- 
duced, the  twentieth  such  major  reduction  in  19 
years. 

G.  Ross  HENNINGER. 

ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES.  Production 
in  the  electrical  manufacturing  industry  as  tenta- 
tively reported  for  1940  amounted  to  $2,683,000,000 
as  compared  with  $2,143,000,000  for  1939,  and 
$1,600,000.000  for  1938.  The  year  was  slightly  be- 
low the  1929  peak,  but  1941  seems  destined  to 
establish  new  records.  First-quarter  losses  were 
about  offset  by  second-quarter  gains  in  total  orders 
booked  by  leading  manufacturers,  but  third-quar- 
ter bookings  set  new  industry  records,  even  above 
the  boom  year  of  1929,  and  the  strong  upward 
trend  continued  through  to  the  year-end.  The  over- 
all index  of  sales  of  electrical  goods  for  the  year 
increased  by  about  25  per  cent  over  1939,  twice  the 
rate  for  general  business  for  the  same  period.  Con- 
sidering production  for  1925  as  an  index  of  100, 
the  Federal  Reserve  Board's  indexes  for  general 
production  in  the  United  States  were  reported  as 
follows:  134  for  1940,  119  for  1939,  97  for  1938, 
124  for  1937,  113  for  1936,  121  for  1929.  (These 
figures  represent  the  FRB's  1940  revision  for  the 
entire  series,  and  hence  will  differ  somewhat  from 
figures  quoted  in  previous  years.)  On  the  same 
basis  (1925  =  100),  other  electrical  industry  esti- 
mated indexes  for  1940  as  compared  with  finals  for 
1939  are  respectively  as  follows:  manufacturing, 
total  production,  154  and  123;  employment,  104 
and  84  (U.S.  population,  115  and  114) ;  small  ap- 
pliances, 148  and  128;  electric  refrigerators,  1331 
and  1100;  industrial  apparatus,  177  and  127;  power 
transmission  and  distribution  equipment,  123  and 
104;  insulated  wire  and  cable,  82  and  71;  miscel- 
laneous supplies,  142  and  116. 

By  the  dose  of  1940  the  aluminum  industry  had 


ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES 


212 


ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES 


become  the  first  to  develop  a  major  and  concen- 
trated demand  for  electric  power  incidental  to  the 
expanding  National  Defense  program.  Indications 
are  that  by  mid-1942  at  least  a  million  h.p.  in  elec- 
tric generating  capacity  will  be  required  for  the 
production  of  this  vital  metal.  Expansion  of  plant 
facilities  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  is  expected  to 
utilize  100,000  kilowatts  of  power  from  the  Bonne- 
ville-Grand  Coulee  power  pool.  In  addition  to  an 
allocation  of  approximately  100,000  kw  of  TVA 
power  to  aluminum  production,  the  Aluminum 
Company  itself  has  filed  with  the  Federal  Power 
Commission  a  declaration  of  intent  to  construct 
a  300,000-h.p.  hydroelectric  project  on  the  Little 
Tennessee  River  near  Montana,  Tenn. 

In  spite  of  adverse  recommendations  from  tech- 
nical experts,  the  Defense  Commission  late  in  the 
year  agreed  to  approve  a  contract  for  the  produc- 
tion of  ammonium  nitrate  at  Muscle  Shoals,  in- 
volving TVA  construction  of  a  synthetic  ammonia 
plant  of  150  tons  daily  capacity  and  modernization 
of  the  old  World  War  works,  etc.,  at  a  cost  to  the 
Army  of  some  $10,000,000. 

Industrial  Developments.  Welding.  The 
steady  trend  of  increasing  use  of  electric  arc-weld- 
ing in  industry  was  accelerated  during  the  latter 
part  of  1940  incidental  to  industry's  efforts  to  meet 
Defense  requirements  Perhaps  the  most  significant 
trend  was  a  striking  increase  in  alternating-current 
arc-welders,  especially  in  shops  where  heavy  work 
is  being  done  and  where  welds  can  be  made  on 
planes  horizontal  or  nearly  so.  New  arc-welding 
equipment  developed  during  the  year  includes — 
built-in  power-factor  correction  devices  to  reduce 
the  burden  on  electric  supply  lines ;  a  new  resistor- 
type  d  c.  arc-welder  for  mine  service ;  new  d.c. 
equipment  designed  to  provide  any  welding  current 
from  25  to  250  amperes.  The  so-called  energy- 
storage  method  of  resistance  welding  utilizing  elec- 
tronic rectifier  tubes  and  control  apparatus  was 
applied  extensively  by  aircraft  and  other  manufac- 
turers utilizing  spot-welding  for  aluminum  and 
other  thin  metal  sheets.  Multiple-operated  d.c. 
welding  systems  consisting  of  constant-potential 
motor-generator  sets  serving  groups  of  individual- 
ly controlled  welding  circuits  found  application  in 
many  phases  of  shipbuilding  operations. 

Air  Cleaning.  That  clean  air  is  as  beneficial  to 
machines  as  it  is  to  human  beings  is  indicated  by 
the  rapid  spread  of  the  relatively  new  "precipitron" 
type  of  electrostatic  air-cleaning  equipment  which 
has  demonstrated  its  ability  to  remove  from  the 
air  such  finely  divided  particles  as  those  which 
comprise  the  smoke  from  a  cigarette.  Steel  mills 
have  become  one  of  the  largest  users  of  such  ap- 
paratus, having  made  installations  totaling  approx- 
imately 1%  billion  cu.  ft.  per  minute  in  air-handling 
capacity  in  steel  plants  to  clean  the  cooling  air  for 
big  mill  motors  and  other  electrical  machinery,  for 
ventilating  mill  office  buildings,  etc.  By  keeping 
industrial  dirt  out  of  the  motors,  etc.,  frequent  and 
expensive  cleanings  and  repairs  have  been  sharply 
reduced.  The  ability  of  this  equipment  to  remove 
pollen  and  bacteria  from  the  air  is  bringing  about 
increased  hospital  applications.  The  sugar  industry 
is  using  the  apparatus  to  reduce  undesirable  bac- 
teria and  fungus  growths  by  cleaning  the  warm 
air  used  in  granulating  and  drying  machines 

X-Ray.  A  new  X-ray  development  has  enabled 
high-speed  (millionth-of-a-second)  pictures  to  be 
taken  of  such  things  as  a  bullet  while  passing 
through  a  block  of  wood ;  the  bones  in  the  kicker's 
foot  and  the  insides  of  a  football  while  being 


kicked ;  etc.  It  is  expected  that  this  new  device  will 
perform  valuable  industrial  service  by  enabling  the 
"insides11  of  certain  apparatus  to  be  studied  for 
stresses  and  strains  while  in  full  operation.  It  may 
be  the  forerunner  of  X-ray  motion  pictures.  A  new 
million-volt  industrial  X-ray  equipment  is  capable 
of  making  a  photograph  through  4  inches  of  cast 
steel  in  2  minutes.  Notable  for  its  compactness,  this 
unit  is  only  3  ft.  in  diameter  and  about  5  ft.  high 
and  weighs  1500  Ib.  In  contrast  with  this  is  the 
laboratory-type  1.4-milhon-volt  X-ray  apparatus 
installed  recently  at  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Standards 
that  comprises  a  10-section  12-inch  glass  envelope 
about  20  ft  high  and  a  generator  consisting  of  a 
cascaded  series  of  10  full-wave  rectifiers  arranged 
in  a  column  30  ft.  high.  The  equipment  will  be  used 
for  research  and  standardization  work  in  X-rays 
and  X-ray  technique.  Medical  X-ray  equipments 
were  improved,  and  greatly  simplified  in  their  op- 
eration by  the  introduction  of  precalibrated  con- 
trols to  replace  time-consuming  manual  and  mental 
operations  heretofore  required  Offsetting  the  loss 
of  European  supply,  U.S.  manufacturers  brought 
out  a  new  X-ray  diffraction  tube  and  related  equip- 
ment 

Electric  Drive.  The  continuing  application  of 
electric  drive  and  control  equipment  in  the  paper 
industry  is  typified  by  one  1940  mill  improvement 
whereby  the  operating  speed  of  a  210-inch  Kraft 
machine  was  increased  from  its  original  designed 
speed  of  1250  ft  per  min.  to  1540  ft  per  min.,  a 
new  record  for  such  a  machine.  The  year  also  has 
witnessed  a  trend  toward  individual  electric  sec- 
tional drive  for  auxiliary  processing — coating, 
combining,  calendering,  forming,  etc. — machines  in 
the  pulp  and  paper  industry.  These  drives  require 
a  minimum  of  floor  space  and  reduce  maintenance 
expense  and  accident  hazard  through  the  elimina- 
tion of  open  lineshafting,  open  belts  and  gearing, 
etc.  Flexibility  of  new  electric  control  and  drive 
equipment  is  exemplified  in  a  supercalendering  ma- 
chine designed  to  run  at  50  ft.  per  min  for  thread- 
ing and  at  from  1500  to  2000  ft  per  min  for  pro- 
duction 

In  the  petroleum  industry,  oil  sands  discovered 
at  ever-deeper  levels  require  heavier  mechanical 
equipment  and  correspondingly  larger  capacities  in 
driving  motors  and  in  electric  supply  equipment. 
During  the  year  the  capacity  of  motors  used  for 
drawing  drill  bits  from  deep  wells  has  doubled — 
jumping  from  400  to  800  h  p.,  with  1000-h.p.  mo- 
tors under  consideration — in  the  interest  of  im- 
proving drilling  efficiency  by  reducing  the  time  re- 
quired for  the  withdrawal  and  replacement  of  drill 
bits  in  holes  ranging  up  to  2  miles  or  more  in 
depth.  For  wells  intermittently  pumped — whether 
because  of  low  capacity  or  proration  schedules — 
there  is  a  definite  trend  toward  automatic  pumping 
by  time-switch  control,  the  flexibility  of  which  en- 
ables pre-selection  of  any  desired  sequence  of  oper- 
ating cycles.  Electric  drive  and  precision  control 
equipment  is  finding  ever-widening  use  in  refiner- 
ies. Cathodic  protection  of  pipe  lines  against  elec- 
trolytic damage  from  earth  currents  has  become 
extensive,  and  small  weatherproof  rectifier  units 
have  been  developed  to  furnish  from  local  alter- 
nating-current supply  lines  the  direct  currents  at 
low  voltage  required  to  energize  the  pipe  lines  to 
neutralize  the  effects  of  earth  currents. 

In  textile  mills  a  deviation  from  all-electric 
drive  for  cloth-finishing  ranges  consists  of  a  steam 
turbine-generator  unit  directly  coupled  mechani- 
cally to  the  lead  unit  of  the  range,  with  follower 


ELECTRICAL  MACHINERY 


213      ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER 


units  coupled  electrically  by  squirrel-cage  induc- 
tion motors  fed  from  the  generator.  This  arrange- 
ment has  been  found  to  provide  fully  synchronized 
operation  of  all  related  units  throughout  accelera- 
tion, running,  and  deceleration  periods.  A  strobo- 
scopic  device  synchronized  to  a  cloth-printing  ma- 
chine enables  the  printed  design  to  be  inspected  as 
if  stationary  while  actually  the  cloth  is  moving 
200  ft.  or  more  per  minute. 

Steel  Industry.  In  the  steel  industry  the  decade 
of  electrification  and  modernization  reported  in 
previous  YEAR  BOOKS  is  now  standing  the  industry 
in  good  stead,  faced  as  it  is  with  peak  production 
requirements  under  the  National  Defense  program. 
A  new  record  in  total  production  was  set  in  1940. 
The  heavy  demands  for  high-quality  alloy  and  car- 
bon steels  for  aviation,  automotive,  machine-tool, 
armor,  and  ordnance  needs  has  resulted  in  the  in- 
stallation of  many  new  electric  arc  furnaces,  sev- 
eral of  very  large  capacity  One  electrical  manu- 
facturer alone  has  furnished  some  150,000  kv-a  in 
transformer  capacity  for  20  such  installations 
ranging  from  800  to  15,000  kv-a.  Continuing  the 
upward  trend  of  operating  speed  in  cold-strip  roll- 
ing mills  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK),  1940  saw  a  2500- 
ft.-per-min.  mill  put  into  operation  (2000  ft  per 
min.  was  tops  in  1939)  and  a  3800-f  t  -per-min  mill 
ordered  The  five  rolling  stands  of  this  mill  are 
scheduled  to  be  driven  respectively  by  800-,  2000-, 
2500-,  2500-,  and  3000-h  p  motors— a  total  of  10,- 
800  h.p  Devices  for  detecting  pinholes  and  flaws, 
and  other  devices  for  automatically  measuring  and 
indicating  thickness,  width,  and  tension  in  this  fast- 
moving  strip,  found  increased  application  during 
1940. 

Aviation.  Aircraft  instruments  or  controls  de- 
veloped or  improved  during  the  year  include  de- 
vices to  facilitate  the  accurate  synchronization  of 
the  several  engines  of  a  multi-engine  ship  to  reduce 
vibration  and  equalize  tractive  efforts ;  devices  to 
indicate  the  number  of  rounds  of  ammunition  re- 
maining in  the  magazines  of  aircraft  machine 
guns ;  devices  for  feathering  the  propeller  when  it 
becomes  necessary  to  stop  an  engine  in  flight ;  de- 
vices for  producing  and  utilizing  special  radio  sig- 
nals to  guide  planes  down  out  of  "thick"  weather 
onto  airport  runways ;  motor-operated  gun  turrets 
on  military  craft ;  etc.  A  new  60-inch  high-intensi- 
ty carbon-arc  mobile  antiaircraft  military  search- 
light constitutes  a  complete  unit  with  its  a^sociat- 
ed  portable  power  plant  and  remote  electrical  con- 
trol station.  Special  high-speed  electric  motors  of 
exceptionally  small  sizes  have  been  built  for  use 
by  airplane  manufacturers  in  testing  model  air- 
craft. One  such  unit  is  a  water-cooled  motor  only 
10  inches  in  diameter  and  30  inches  long,  but  capa- 
ble of  delivering  200  h.p.  at  5000  r.p.m. ;  another 
only  28  inches  in  diameter  and  35  inches  long  de- 
livers 1000  h.p  at  2100  r  p.m 

One  large  electrical  manufacturer  announced 
during  the  year  the  complete  re-styling  of  a  wide 
line  of  motors  for  industrial  applications.  The  sig- 
nificant move  was  reported  to  involve  new  design 
methods,  new  materials  which  make  for  compact- 
ness, and  new  manufacturing  methods  including 
standard  usage  of  cast-iron  frames  and  endbells 
which  give  protective  enclosure.  See  HEATING  and 
VENTILATION. 

G.  Ross  HENNINGER 

ELECTRICAL  MACHINERY.  See  ELEC- 
TRICAL INDUSTRIES;  ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER; 
MACHINE  DEVELOPMENT;  POWER  PLANTS,  etc. 


ELECTRICAL  TRANSPORTATION.  See 

RAILWAYS. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER.  Na- 
tional Defense  activities  were  reflected  in  an  in- 
creased demand  for  electric  energy  throughout  die 
United  States  in  1940.  Industrial  power  require- 
ments were  up  by  16  per  cent,  commercial  by  7  per 
cent,  and  residential  by  10  per  cent  as  compared 
with  1939.  Available  capacities  on  electric  utility 
systems  enabled  these  sudden  increases  to  be  met 
without  difficulty,  and  the  industry's  prompt  ad- 
vancement of  schedules  for  increasing  capacity 
assure  ample  supply  of  electric  power  for  even  the 
record  demands  that  appear  to  be  immediately 
ahead. 

Power  Production.  Production  of  electric  en- 
ergy in  the  United  States  increased  by  nearly  12 
per  cent  during  1940  as  compared  with  1939.  In- 
creases were  general  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
Statistical  data  are  given  in  Table  1. 

TABLE  1    ELECTRIC  POWER  GENERATION-1940 
(Billions  of  Kilowatt-hours) 

Available 

Prom  Prom  Prom  Gross  Uses  &•  Consum- 

Year  Fuel  Hydro  Canada  Total  Losses  ers'  Use 

1940  973  473  10  1456       271  1185 

1939  86  3  44  0  12  1315        25  8  105  8 

1938  718  448  1.1  1177       241  917 

1932  491  333  04  828        191  637 

1929  627  332  10  969       216  751 

Financial.  A  new  record  for  gross  revenue 
from  the  sale  of  electric  energy  was  established 
in  1940-^$2,413,234,000.  Although  the  usage  of 
electric  energy  increased  by  some  12  per  cent  in 
1940,  corresponding  gross  revenue  increase  amount- 
ed to  only  a  little  more  than  5  per  cent,  reflecting 
increased  sales  of  large  blocks  of  low-rate  indus- 
trial power  and  the  effects  of  still  further  rate  re- 
ductions. Taxes  against  private  utilities  for  the 
year  amounted  to  some  $405,000,000 — up  nearly 
double  any  other  yearly  increase,  and  more  than  I/ 
per  cent  above  the  1939  tax  bill — representing  18 
cents  out  of  every  dollar  of  gross  revenue  During 
the  year  the  average  urban  residential  consumer 
increased  his  usage  from  890  kilowatt-hour  to  950 
kw-hr  for  the  year  while  his  rate  went  down 
from  405^  to  3.81^  per  kw-hr  as  compared  with 
1939.  In  ten  years  the  residential  usage  of  electric 
energy  has  increased  from  an  average  of  540  kw- 
hr  and  the  average  rate  has  decreased  from  60tf. 
Selected  statistical  data  concerning  customers, 
sales,  and  revenues  are  given  in  Table  2 

TABLE  2    ELECTRIC  POWER  SALES— 1940 


Commercial 
Rural  Industrial 

52,000  49,000 

686,000          4,555,000 
23%  151% 


Urban 
RestJtnhal 

New  customers  885,000 

Total  customers  24,850,000 

Per  cent  of  gross  total  82  6% 

Power  use  In  per  cent  of 

gross  power  sales  191%  17%  792% 

Gross  revenue  from  1940 

power  sales  $885,900,000  $49,674,000  $1,477,660,000 

Per  cent  of  gross  reve- 
nue. .  36.8%  2.1%  611% 

The  volume  of  electric  utility  financing  during 
the  year  amounted  to  about  $989,460,000,  repre- 
senting some  $92,000,000  in  new  capital  and  the  re- 
mainder refundings  Capital  expenditures  for  ex- 
tensions and  improvements  to  electric  power  sys- 
tems as  reported  for  1940  are  as  follows  •  for  fuel 
power  plants,  $200,430,000 ;  for  hydroelectric  pow- 


ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER      214      ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER 


$9,270,000;  for  transmission  facilities, 
55;900,OtiO;  for  substation  facilities.  $57,760,000 ; 
_or  distribution  facilities,  $237,700,000 ;  for  miscel- 
laneous items,  $35,520,000;  total,  $596,580,000. 

Generation.  New  capacity  in  electric  generat- 
ing plants  as  reported  for  1940  amounted  to  1,851,- 
900  kilowatts ;  a  50  per  cent  greater  increase  than 
for  1939,  but  less  than  half  the  3,900,000  kw  in 
new  capacity  scheduled  for  1941  to  meet  National 
Defense  and  normal  needs.  Statistical  data  are 
given  in  Table  3. 


crease  is  nearly  40  per  cent  greater  than  for  1939. 
but  less  than  already  is  scheduled  for  1941.  All  of 
which  reflects  the  preparations  of  the  electric  light 
and  power  industry  to  meet  Defense  requirements 
for  electric  energy. 

Developments  in  equipment  include  improve- 
ments to  trailer-mounted  mobile  substation  units 
for  emergency  service;  extension  of  the  "wound- 
core"  method  of  manufacturing  distribution  trans- 
formers upward  to  500-kilovolt-ampere  sizes ;  im- 
provements to  and  more  extended  use  in  industrial 


TABLE  3:  ADDITIONS  TO  ELECTRIC  GENERATING  CAPACITY— 1940 


Fuel  Plants 

Fuel  Plants 

Hydroelectric  Plants 

Public 

Prhate 

Total 

Public              Private 

Total 

Totals 

Year 

No. 

Kilowatts 

No. 

Kilowatts 

No 

Kilowatts 

No.  Kilowatts  No.   Kilowatts 

No. 

Kilowatt, 

No 

KiloTvatts 

1940 
1939 

39 
21 

243.400 
119,750 

57 
48 

1,210,500 
794,930 

96 
69 

1,453,900 
914,680 

8    263,200         9    134,800 
4     86,450       12    283,700 

17 
16 

398,000 
370,150 

113 
85 

1,851,900 
1,284,830 

1938 

1,350,200 

1,350,300 

345,600 

1,695,600 

1934 

52,800 

41,900 

94,700 

1929 

2,081,300 

249.200 

2.329,500 

The  geographic  distribution  of  electric  generat- 
ing capacity  in  public  utility  plants  as  of  the  close 
of  1940  was  about  as  shown  in  Table  4. 

TABLE  4:  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PUBLIC  UTILITY  POWER 
PLANTS— 1940 


Aggregate 

Area                              < 

Number 
yf  Plants 

(KiKwaUs) 

6  New  England  States 
3  MkidleAtlantic  States       
5  East  North-Central  States 

332 
397 
660 

3,061,000 
9,678,000 
9,320.000 

7  West  North-Central  States 

819 

3,264,000 

8  South  Atlantic  States      

410 

5,076,000 

4  East  South-Central  States    
4  West  South-Central  States     

1% 
428 

2,149,000 
2103,000 

8  Mountain  States      

367 

2,186,000 

3  Pacific  Coast  States  

301 

4,163,000 

Totals  

41,000,000 

Because  of  relative  economics,  and  in  spite  of  ex- 
tensive and  costly  government  development  of  hy- 
droelectric projects,  the  growth  in  both  generating 
capacity  and  power  production  continues  to  be 
preponderantly  in  fuel  plants.  Improved  equipment 
and  better  load  factor  brought  the  fuel  rate  down 
to  1.36  Ib.  of  coal  per  kw-hr,  2%  per  cent  less  than 
for  1939  and  20  per  cent  less  than  in  1929.  Fuel- 
gas,  oil,  coal — consumed  in  the  generation  of  elec- 
tric power  in  1940  amounted  to  the  equivalent  of 
more  than  65  million  tons  of  coal.  (See  POWER 
PLANTS.) 

Transmission  and  Distribution.  More  than 
7000  miles  of  transmission  lines  (11, 000  volts  or 
above)  were  reported  as  constructed  during  1940, 
heaviest  in  the  5  East  North-Central,  9  South  At- 
antic,  and  3  Pacific  States,  which  among  them  ac- 
counted for  some  3800  miles.  Tentatively  scheduled 
for  1941  are  6000  more  miles.  The  average  United 
States  total  for  1937-39  was  slightly  more  than 
5000  miles  per  year.  As  the  year  closed,  the  sixth 
major  transmission  line  was  under  construction 
incidental  to  the  Hoover  (Boulder)  Dam  project 
—this  the  second  220,000-volt  line  of  the  Southern 
California  Edison  Company,  Ltd.  Other  lines  now 
in  service  are  three  287,000-volt  lines  of  the  Los 
Angeles  Bureau  of  Power  &  Light  and  a  138,000- 
volt  line  of  the  Navada-California  Electric  Cor- 
poration. 

New  substation  capacity  reported  totalled  3,800,- 
000  kw.  nearlv  a  third  of  which  was  concentrated 
in  the  d  East  North-Central  States.  The  year's  in* 


plants  of  metal-clad  "load-center  units"  consisting 
of  transformer  and  all  related  switching  and  con- 
trol equipment ;  extensions  in  application  of  oilless 
and  "oil-poor"  designs  of  circuit  breakers;  im- 
provements in  metering  and  automatic  control 
equipment.  Among  air-blast  circuit  breakers  pro- 
duced were  a  23,000-volt  indoor  unit  and  a  138,- 
000-volt  outdoor  unit,  each  designed  to  have  an 
interrupting  capacity  of  1,500,000  kv-a. 

Rural  Electrification.  As  of  midyear,  the  Ru- 
ral Electrification  Administration  reported  that 
some  630  systems  had  been  completed  and  placed 
in  operation,  serving  568,000  customers  over  233,000 
miles  of  lines.  This  represents  a  total  expenditure 
of  public  funds  amounting  to  about  $221,000,000, 
including  the  1940  allotment  of  about  $99,000,000. 
REA  now  reports  32  generating  plants  aggregating 
about  26,000  kw  in  capacity  which  generated  about 
35,000,000  of  the  440,000,000  kw-hr  distributed  over 
REA  lines  in  1940 

Government.  The  outcome  of  the  national  elec- 
tions in  November,  1940,  was  expected  to  rein- 
force the  determination  of  the  Securities  and  Ex- 
change Commission  to  apply  literally  the  full 
provisions  of  Section  11  of  the  Public  Utility 
Holding  Company  Act— the  "utility  death-sen- 
tence." Although  officially  spoken  of  in  terms  of 
"integration"  of  utility  systems,  the  Act  apparently 
actually  aims  at  disintegration  of  holding-company 
systems  into  small  segregated  and  purely  local  op- 
erating units,  any  one  of  which  the  parent  company 
may  elect  to  retain  subject  to  approval  of  SEC. 
Early  in  the  year  SEC  ordered  several  of  the 
largest  utility  systems  to  submit  answers  to  a 
group  of  questions  and  allegations,  but  avoided 
giving  any  orders  that  could  be  used  as  bases  for 
court  tests  of  the  Act  as  currently  interpreted  by 
SEC.  Various  preliminary  hearings  were  held  and 
SEC  made  various  "suggestions,"  but  no  conclu- 
sive action  had  been  taken  at  the  year's  end. 

A  startling  and  far-reaching  decision  of  the  U.S. 
Supreme  Court  in  the  15-year-old  case  of  the  Ap- 
palachian Power  Company  vs  the  Federal  Power 
Commission  swept  aside  all  precedents,  as  well  as 
the  protests  of  more  than  40  States,  in  ruling  that 
the  Federal  Government  has  full  jurisdiction  over 
all  streams  and  their  tributaries  regardless  of  ac- 
tual navigability.  Against  the  States'  contentions 
that  Federal  control  is  limited  to  "navigable  water- 
ways/'  the  Court  decided,  6  to  2,  that  the  Federal 


ELECTRIC  TRANSMISSION 


215 


ENGINEERS 


authority  "is  as  broad  as  the  needs  of  commerce." 
See  ALABAMA  ;  CALIFORNIA  under  San  Francis- 
co; CO-OPERATIVE  MOVEMENT;  MUNICIPAL  OWN- 
ERSHIP; NEBRASKA;  POWER  PLANTS;  TENNESSEE 
VALLEY  AUTHORITY;  UNITED  STATES  under  Ad- 
ministration. 

G.  Ross  HENNINGER. 

ELECTRIC  TRANSMISSION  AND  DIS- 
TRIBUTION. See  ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER. 

ELECTRON  MICROSCOPE.  See  CHEM- 
ISTRY; PHYSICS. 

EMBRYOLOGY.  See  ZOOLOGY. 

EMERGENCY  PEACE  MOBILIZA- 
TION. See  COMMUNISM. 

EMIGRATION.  See  IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRA- 
TION, AND  NATURALIZATION 

EMIGRE  LITERATURE,  see  GERMAN 

LITERATURE;  RUSSIAN  LITERATURE 
EMPLOYMENT.  See  LABOR  CONDITIONS. 
EMPLOYMENT  SECURITY,  Bureau  of 
(formerly  the  U.S   EMPLOYMENT  SERVICE).  See 
SOCIAL  SECURITY  BOARD;  also,  NATIONAL  YOUTH 


ISLAND.  See  under  CAN- 
TON  ISLAND. 

ENDOCRINOLOGY.  See  BIOLOGICAL  CHEM- 
ISTRY. 

ENGINEERING.  See  BRIDGES;  BUILDING; 
DAMS;  ELECTRICAL  MACHINERY;  FOUNDATIONS; 
GARBAGE  AND  REFUSE  DISPOSAL;  TUNNELS;  WA- 
TERWAYS, etc.  See  also  EDUCATION. 

ENGINEERS,  Corps  of.  The  Corps  of  En- 
gineers, U.S.  Army,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Secretary  of  War  and  supervision  of  the  Chief  of 
Engineers  is  charged  so  far  as  concerns  its  civil 
functions,  with  investigation  and  construction  of 
works  for  improvement  of  rivers,  harbors,  and 
other  waterways  for  navigation  and  flood  control. 
Many  of  the  projects  involve  features  designed  for 
power  development,  irrigation,  pollution  abatement, 
or  water  conservation.  During  1940  approximately 
1000  river  and  harbor  projects  were  in  force  and 
active  work  was  prosecuted  on  385.  Active  work 
was  also  under  way  on  159  of  some  380  general 
flood  control  projects,  in  addition  to  authorized 
flood  protection  work  for  the  alluvial  valley  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  and  for  the  Sacramento  River 
and  tributaries  An  Act  of  Congress  approved  June 
24,  1940,  appropriated  $67,365,310  for  the  prosecu- 
tion of  river  and  harbor  works,  $70,000,000  for 
general  flood  control  projects,  $30,800,000  for  Mis- 
sissippi River  flood  control  work,  and  $1,242,000 
for  Sacramento  River  flood  control  work.  This  Act 
also  appropriated  $2,000,000  for  continuing  the  con- 
struction of  the  hydroelectric  power  plant  at  Fort 
Peck  Dam,  Montana,  and  $3,400,000  for  similar 
work  at  Bonneville  Dam,  Oregon.  Also,  in  the 
First  Supplemental  Civil  Functions  Appropriation 
Act  of  Oct.  9,  1940,  the  further  sums  of  $8,127,000 
for  river  and  harbor  works  and  $4,000,000  for  pow- 
er plant  purposes  at  Bonneville  Dam  were  made 
available. 

During  1940  major  river  and  harbor  projects  un- 
der way  included  :  Rock  removal  and  dredging  in 
New  York  and  New  Jersey  Channels  to  secure 
increased  depth  of  at  least  35  feet  in  this  intensive- 
ly used  waterway  which  extends  through  Lower 

f™^0^  ?iay>  ?antan  B*y,  Arthur  Kill,  and 
Kill  Van  Kull  to  deep  water  m  Upper  New  York 
Bay;  deepening  of  the  Delaware  River  Channel 
from  Philadelphia  to  the  sea  to  40  feet;  improve- 
apeake and  Delaware  Canal  in 


ment  of  the 


Delaware  and  Maryland  by  dredging,  construction 
of  mooring  facilities,  bank  protection,  and  a  new 
high  level  highway  bridge  at  St  Georges ;  deep- 
ening of  the  Great  Lakes-Hudson  River  waterway 
to  14  feet  and  alteration  of  bridges  to  provide  20- 
foot  headroom;  widening  and  deepening  of  Cape 
Cod  Canal ;  deepening  of  the  Atlantic  Intracoastal 
Waterway  from  Winyah  Bay,  S.C.,  to  St.  Johns 
River,  Florida,  to  provide  a  12-foot  channel ;  and 
dredging  of  the  Gulf  Intracoastal  Waterway  south- 
west of  Freeport,  Tex.,  a  channel  of  not  less  than 
9-foot  depth  now  being  available  generally  from 
Freeport,  Tex.,  to  Carrabelle,  Fla. 

The  Tuscaloosa  Lock  and  Dam  on  the  Warrioi 
River,  Alabama,  was  completed,  replacing  old  locks 
and  dams  Nos.  10,  11,  and  12,  which  were  removed. 
On  the  Upper  Mississippi  River  to  Minneapolis  the 
last  of  the  authorized  26  locks  and  dams-^No.  24 
at  Clarksville,  Mo.— was  opened  to  navigation.  En- 
largement of  the  harbors  at  Fairport  and  Ashta- 
bula,  O.,  was  effected  and  work  was  advanced  at 
Sturgeon  Bay  and  Lake  Michigan  Ship  Canal,  Wis- 
consin, Keewanee  Waterway,  Michigan,  Erie  Har- 
bor, Pennsylvania,  and  Buffalo  Harbor,  New  York. 
Fort  Peck  Dam,  Montana,  and  Bonneville  Dam, 
Oregon,  have  been  completed  except  for  installa- 
tion or  extension  of  power  plant  facilities  now  un- 
der way.  An  18- foot  channel  with  protecting  en- 
trance jetties  was  completed  at  Yaquina  Bay  and 
Harbor,  Oregon.  Dredging  was  continued  to  pro- 
vide project  depths  of  35  and  26  feet  in  Area  M, 
San  Diego  Harbor,  California,  and  in  San  Joaquin 
River  to  provide  the  30-foot  widened  channel  to 
Stockton.  One  of  four  concrete  arch  debris  dams 
was  finished  in  the  Sacramento  River  Basin  and 
another  is  well  advanced.  For  the  27-foot  channel 
project,  Vancouver  to  Bonneville,  on  the  Colum- 
bia River,  32  dikes  were  completed  and  dredging 
was  carried  out. 

Flood  control  activities  included  completion  of 
the  Arkport  Dam,  New  York,  the  Crooked  Creek 
and  Tionesta  Dams  in  Pennsylvania,  and  local  pro- 
tection projects  at  37  localities  in  various  river 
basins  throughout  the  United  States.  The  latter 
projects  ranged  in  scope  from  the  extensive  leyee 
and  flood  wall  systems  constructed  for  protection 
of  the  Cities  of  Ceredo  and  Kenova  and  the  busi- 
ness section  of  Huntington,  W.Va.,  in  the  Ohio 
River  Basin  to  the  small  levee  systems  which  pro- 
tect numerous  agricultural  areas  from  floods  in  the 
Columbia  River  Basin.  Construction  was  also  con- 
tinued or  started  during  the  year  on  reservoirs  and 
local  protection  projects  at  important  industrial 
areas  in  the  Merrimack  and  Connecticut  River 
Basins;  on  reservoirs  and  related  works  for  the 
protection  of  numerous  manufacturing  centers  in 
the  Southern  New  York  area  of  the  Susquehanna 
Basin ;  on  levees  and  flood  walls  for  protection  of 
several  industrial  cities  along  the  Susquehanna  Riv- 
er in  Pennsylvania;  on  several  units  of  the  com- 
prehensive plan  for  flood  control  in  the  Ohio  Riv- 
er Basin,  including  the  Mahoning,  Loyalhanna,  and 
Youghiogheny  Reservoirs,  channel  improvement 
work  for  protection  of  Johnstown,  Pa.,  local  pro- 
tection for  several  important  cities  and  towns  along 
the  main  stem  and  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  River  ; 
on  reservoirs  in  the  basins  of  the  Red,  Arkansas, 
and  White  Rivers ;  on  reservoirs,  channel  improve- 
ments and  related  works  for  the  protection  of  the 
metropolitan  area  of  Los  Angeles  and  Orange 
Counties,  California;  and  on  reservoirs  and  bank 
protection  works  in  the  Willamette  River  Basin  in 
Oregon.  In  the  alluvial  valley  of  the  Mississippi 


ENGINES 


216 


ENTOMOLOGY 


River  work  was  continued  on  levee  construction, 
floodways,  reservoirs,  and  local  protection  works, 
including  construction  of  Sardis  Dam  in  the  Yazoo 
Basin  and  Wappapello  Dam  on  St  Francis  River. 
In  the  Sacramento  Valley  the  authorized  program 
was  advanced  to  90  per  cent  of  completion. 

JULIAN  L.  SCHLEY. 

ENGINES.  See  AUTOMOBILES;  ELECTRICAL 
INDUSTRIES. 

ENGLAND.  See  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

ENGLAND,  Church  of.  The  War  continued 
in  1940  to  affect  in  varying  degrees  every  branch 
of  the  life  and  work  of  the  Church  of  England. 
The  year  brought  not  only  tribulation  and  loss  but 
also  vast  new  opportunities. 

The  material  loss  included  the  destruction  of 
Coventry  Cathedral ;  damage  to  Westminster  Ab- 
bey, St  Paul's  Cathedral,  Canterbury  Cathedral, 
Liverpool  Cathedral,  St.  Martin-in-the-Fields,  St. 
Margaret's,  Westminster,  St.  James's,  Piccadilly, 
St  Mary-le-Bow  and  other  City  churches,  and  to 
Lambeth  Palace ;  and  the  destruction  or  injury  of 
over  1000  churches,  schools,  halls,  and  vicarages 
in  the  country  as  a  whole.  The  Archbishops  of 
Canterbury  and  York  appointed  a  special  Commis- 
sion in  connection  with  the  question  of  the  repair, 
restoration,  or  rebuilding  of  churches  or  other 
Church  property  damaged  by  enemy  action,  and 
particularly  to  consider  the  provisions  of  the  Gov- 
ernment Insurance  Bill  and  in  due  course  the 
question  of  any  general  fund  for  the  assistance  of 
dioceses  and  parishes.  The  official  statistics  for 
1939,  published  in  December,  1940,  in  The  Official 
Year  Book  of  the  Church  of  England  1941, 
showed  that  many  Church  activities  had  been 
gravely  but  not  disastrously  affected  by  evacua- 
tion, mobilization,  the  black-out,  taxation,  etc ,  in 
the  first  four  months  of  the  War ;  and  by  the  un- 
certainties of  the  preceding  period 

The  archbishops,  bishops,  and  clergy  were  tire- 
less in  exhortation  and  leadership,  and  Church  or- 
ganizations of  all  kinds  co-operated  in  the  vast 
migrations  of  women  and  children  from  the  dan- 
ger areas.  The  wonderful  response  of  the  younger 
clergy  at  the  outbreak  of  the  War  to  the  need  for 
Chaplains  to  the  Forces  had  its  sequel  in  the  he- 
roic work  of  those  Chaplains  in  the  evacuation  of 
the  B.E.F.  from  France.  Some  deliberately  chose 
to  become  prisoners  of  war  rather  than  leave  the 
wounded  and  a  number  received  rewards  for  gal- 
lantry. 

Building  work  was  continued  in  the  course  of 
the  year  on  the  new  Cathedrals  of  Liverpool, 
Guildford,  and  Blackburn,  and  on  the  extension  of 
Portsmouth  Cathedral.  H.M.  the  King  opened,  on 
June  10,  the  new  Church  House,  Westminster, 
probably  the  world's  most  important  architectural 
building  completed  in  1940,  which  is  to  be  the 
central  business  headquarters  of  the  Church  of 
England  and  a  center  also  for  the  whole  of  the 
Anglican  Communion. 

During  the  year  more  and  more  thought  was 
given  by  leaders  of  opinion  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land to  postwar  planning  and  reconstruction ;  and 
of  the  definite  trends  which  quickly  became  dis- 
cernible in  such  thinking  perhaps  none  was  so  defi- 
nite as  the  increasing  realization  of  the  important 
part  which  religious  education  must  play  in  the 
educational  system  of  the  country  after  the  War. 
Under  the  chairmanship  of  the  Archbishop  of 
York  the  important  conference  of  the  National 
Society  and  the  Central  and  Diocesan  Boards  of 


Finance,  which  first  met  in  1939,  continued  to  press 
upon  the  dioceses  the  need  for  improved  adminis- 
tration throughout  the  whole  field  of  education. 
In  particular  it  urged  the  need  for  diocesan  sur- 
veys of  Church  schools  and  for  Diocesan  Direc- 
tors of  Religious  Education.  There  was  steadily 
increasing  co-operation  between  the  Church  of 
England  and  the  Free  Churches  in  many  spheres 
such  as  work  for  Refugees  and  especially  in  the 
sphere  of  education 

In  the  wider  world  of  the  Anglican  Communion 
special  mention  must  be  made  of  the  decision  of 
the  Nippon  Seikokwai  (Japan  Holy  Catholic 
Church)  to  assume  complete  independence  of 
Western  aid;  of  the  continuing  difficulties  of  the 
dioceses  in  China  due  to  the  war ;  of  the  very  spe- 
cial difficulties  of  the  Diocese  of  Gibraltar  and 
the  Anglican  chaplaincies  in  the  jurisdiction  of 
Northern  and  Central  Europe;  of  the  affiliation 
of  the  Church  of  England  to  the  World  Council 
of  Churches  (in  process  of  formation),  which  is 
to  carry  on  officially  the  work  of  the  Oecumenical 
Movement  on  behalf  of  the  Churches ;  of  the  seri- 
ous decline  in  the  incomes  of  important  British 
missionary  societies ,  and  of  the  generous  decision 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States  to  include  in  its  Budget  a  gift  of  $300,000 
in  aid  of  the  missionary  work  of  the  Church  of 
England. 

The  year  1940  was  the  hundredth  year  of  the 
existence  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Commissioners' 
Common  Fund,  which  has  added  in  one  way  or  an- 
other upwards  of  £2,000,000  a  year  to  the  perma- 
nent value  of  benefices.  In  view  of  the  war  the 
Commissioners  felt  bound  to  defer  further  prog- 
ress with  permanent  augmentation  and  are  making 
income-grants  to  the  clergy  for  the  calendar  year. 
The  new  schemes  include  not  only  a  scheme  of  re- 
lief of  pension-charges  so  far  as  they  reduce  the 
incomes  of  benefices  below  £350  but  also  a  scheme 
of  help  of  incumbents  who  owing  to  the  war  have 
lost  benefice-income  or  suffered  exceptional  hard- 
ship of  some  other  kind 

Among  the  appointments  of  the  year  were  the 
following:  The  Right  Rev.  C.  W.  West- Watson 
to  be  Primate  and  Archbishop  of  the  Province  of 
New  Zealand ;  The  Right  Rev.  G.  V.  Smith  to  be 
Bishop  of  Leicester;  The  Yen  R  Brook  to  be 
Bishop  of  St.  Edmundsbury  and  Ipswich;  The 
Rev.  H.  C.  Montgomery  Campbell  to  be  Bishop 
Suffragan  of  Willesden,  The  Rev  M.  H.  Ed- 
wards, O.B.E,  to  be  Chaplam-in-Chief,  Royal 
Air  Force;  The  Right  Rev.  H.  Hensley  Henson 
to  be  Canon  of  Westminster  Abbey ;  Canon  J.  L. 
White  to  be  Provost  of  the  Cathedral  Church  of 
St.  James,  Bury  St  Edmunds. 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  See  LITERA- 
TURE, ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN. 

ENGRAVING.  See  SCULPTURF. 

ENTOMOLOGY,  Economic.  The  Bureau 
of  Entomology  and  Plant  Quarantine  is  concerned 
with  investigations  on  insects  and  their  economic 
relations ;  the  development  and  application  of  meth- 
ods for  their  eradication  or  control;  the  carrying 
out,  in  co-operation  with  the  States,  of  necessary 
work  to  prevent  the  spread  and  to  control  or  eradi- 
cate insect  pests  and  plant  diseases  that  have  gained 
more  or  less  limited  foothold  in  the  United  States ; 
and  the  utilization  of  those  species  that  are  bene- 
ficial. These  activities  include  investigations  on  and 
direction  of  control  campaigns  against  the  species 
injurious  to  agriculture  and  forestry;  investiga- 
tions on  the  species  affecting  the  health  of  man  and 


ENTOMOLOGY 


217 


ENTOMOLOGY 


animals,  or  infesting  human  habitations  or  injuri- 
ous to  industries ;  the  culture  and  use  of  honeybees 
and  beekeeping  practices ;  investigations  on  the  nat- 
ural enemies  of  insects  and  plant  pests  and  the  pos- 
sibility of  using  these  as  aids  for  control ;  the  tax- 
onomy, anatomy,  physiology,  and  responses  of  in- 
sects ;  chemical  and  other  problems  relating  to  the 
composition,  action,  and  application  of  insecticides ; 
and  the  development  of  methods  of  manufacturing 
insecticides  and  materials  used  with  them. 

To  aid  in  carrying  out  these  assignments  and  to 
protect  agriculture  from  plant  pests  and  diseases, 
the  Bureau  is  responsible  for  the  strict  enforce- 
ment of  acts  and  restrictive  orders  promulgated 
thereunder. 

During  the  year  a  building  was  completed  in 
Hot>oken,  N.J.,  which  is  to  be  used  for  the  inspect- 
ing of  plant  materials  which  may  be  imported  un- 
der permit  for  propagation.  The  fourth  floor  of 
this  new  building  has  been  specially  designed  and 
equipped  to  serve  as  a  receiving  station  in  connec- 
tion with  the  introduction  from  foreign  countries 
of  natural  enemies  of  insect  pests. 

Apple  and  Pear  Insects.  A  new  laboratory 
was  established  at  Charlottesville,  Va.,  to  under- 
take the  study  of  Comstock's  mealybug,  which  has 
been  reported  with  increasing  frequency  since  1934 
from  numerous  orchards  from  South  Carolina  to 
Ohio  and  Connecticut  Three  large-scale  orchard 
tests  of  tree  scrapings  and  banding  to  control  cod- 
ling moth  were  carried  on  at  Yakima,  Wash  Simi- 
lar tests  conducted  during  five  seasons  have  shown 
that  the  parts  of  the  orchard  so  treated  produced 
more  good  fruit  than  the  untreated  blocks  even 
when  one  less  spray  was  applied.  In  the  Hudson 
River  Valley  two  sprays  of  phenothiazine  follow- 
ing a  light  arsenical  program  successfully  reduced 
a  heavy  infestation  of  the  apple  maggot. 

Peach  Insects.  During  the  three  years  ending 
at  the  close  of  the  1939  season,  12  experimental  re- 
leases of  the  most  effective  parasite  of  the  oriental 
fruit  moth  were  made  to  test  the  value  of  mass 
liberation  of  parasites  early  in  the  season  in  areas 
where  the  parasite  is  established,  and  all  but  one 
of  these  experiments  has  been  followed  by  a  low- 
ering of  ripe-fruit  infestation  in  the  year  of  re- 
lease. In  field  cage  experiments  at  Fort  Valley  di- 
chloroethyl  ether  continued  effective  against  larvae 
of  the  plum  curculio  in  the  soil. 

Peach  Mosaic.  During  the  past  year  in  the 
peach  mosaic  eradication  campaign  96,173  proper- 
ties were  visited  on  which  3,851,000  trees  were  in- 
spected, disclosing  the  presence  of  64,194  mosaic- 
affected  trees  of  which  18,396  had  been  removed 
at  the  end  of  the  year  1939.  An  additional  155,600 
trees,  largely  in  abandoned  orchards,  were  removed 
as  a  sanitary  measure. 

Phony  Peach  Disease.  Co-operative  activities 
for  the  control  of  phony  peach  during  the  past 
year  resulted  in  the  inspection  of  92,000  properties 
on  which  were  13,051,000  trees  of  which  58,285 
were  found  to  be  affected  by  this  disease.  Of  the 
infected  trees  27,533  had  been  removed  by  the  end 
of  the  year  and  an  additional  9,518,000  escaped  and 
abandoned  trees  were  removed  as  a  sanitary  and 
precautionary  measure. 

Grape  Insects.  A  study  by  the  Sandusky,  Ohio, 
laboratory  on  the  practical  use  of  cultivation  for 
controlling  the  grape  berry  moth  in  the  vineyard 
indicates  that  about  86  per  cent  of  the  cocoons  are 
found  in  a  soil  strip  18  inches  wide  directly  under 
the  vines.  This  emphasizes  the  importance  of  giv- 
ing special  attention  to  the  area  under  the  trellises, 


which  is  the  most  difficult  to  reach.  Only  about  18 
per  cent  of  the  moths  are  prevented  from  emerg- 
ing by  ordinary  spring  cultivation.  Forty-five  per 
cent  of  the  moths  were  prevented  from  emerging 
by  fall  plowing,  but  the  method  as  used  in  the  ex- 
periment has  certain  serious  disadvantages  from  a 
horticultural  standpoint.  An  all-season  treatment 
that  included  four  applications  of  phenothiazine 
gave  a  high  degree  of  control  of  the  grape  berry 
moth  under  conditions  of  moderate  infestation.  A 
tank-mix  nicotine-bentonite  program,  which  in- 
cluded four  applications  during  the  season,  gave 
an  outstanding  degree  of  control,  but  it  left  such 
a  heavy  deposit  of  visible  residue  as  to  render  the 
fruit  unmarketable,  except  possibly  for  wine  or 
juice. 

Japanese  Beetle.  The  area  of  general  infesta- 
tion of  the  Japanese  beetle  is  approximately  16,- 
300  square  miles,  an  increase  of  1183  square  miles 
over  that  of  last  year.  Trapping  showed  a  carry- 
over of  infestation  in  78  cities  and  towns  in  non- 
regulated  territory  and  48  first-record  infestations, 
the  latter  in  Indiana,  Maryland,  Michigan,  New 
York,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  West 
Virginia.  Lead  arsenate  was  applied  for  the  con- 
trol of  Japanese  beetle  to  a  total  of  nearly  900 
acres  in  Georgia,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Mis- 
souri, New  York,  North  Carolina,  Ohio,  and  Vir- 
ginia. During  the  summer  of  1939  co-operative 
work  was  undertaken  with  the  New  Jersey  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  and  the  University  of 
Maryland  for  a  colonization  of  Type  A  milky  dis- 
ease, a  very  effective  disease  in  controlling  grubs 
of  Japanese  beetle  In  a  natural  inoculation  of 
this  disease  in  northeastern  Maryland  the  popula- 
tion of  white  grubs  was  reduced  from  38  to  6 
per  square  foot.  Two-thirds  of  the  grubs  found 
were  affected  with  the  disease.  The  most  signifi- 
cant development  on  the  work  on  fumigation  of 
balled  and  potted  nursery  stock  and  farm  products 
for  the  control  of  the  larvae,  eggs,  and  adults  was 
the  importance  of  the  conditions  under  which  the 
material  is  held  during  the  post- fumigation  pe- 
riod. Distribution  of  the  two  most  important  Japa- 
nese beetle  parasites  was  continued 

Pear  Psylla  in  the  Northwest.  A  program 
for  the  suppression  of  an  incipient  infestation  of 
the  pear  psylla  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  was  un- 
dertaken in  co-operation  with  State  agencies  in 
Washington  and  Idaho.  This  insect  was  found 
for  the  first  time  in  the  Northwest  in  1939.  It  has 
been  known  as  a  serious  pest  in  the  Northeastern 
States  for  more  than  100  years 

Pine  Bark  Beetles.  Field  work  on  the  hazard- 
inventory  survey  of  the  commercial  ponderosa 
pine  area  in  northeastern  California  was  almost 
completed.  This  survey  was  based  on  the  results 
of  research  in  Oregon  and  California  on  the  sus- 
ceptibility of  ponderosa  pine  to  attack  by  insects, 
particularly  bark  beetles  Forest  stands  or  areas 
have  been  given  hazard  ratings  based  on  the  his- 
tory of  their  recent  losses  from  insects  and  on  the 
present  condition  of  the  individual  trees.  The  most 
susceptible  trees  on  the  high-hazard  areas  may  be 
marked  for  cutting.  This  will  enable  the  owners 
to  concentrate  their  logging  operations  in  the 
areas  where  there  is  most  danger  of  serious  losses 
from  bark  beetles  in  the  near  future.  The  Forest 
Service  and  several  large  private  operators  in  Cal- 
ifornia and  Oregon  are  making  immediate  use  of 
the  information  supplied  by  the  Bureau  and  are 
modifying  their  management  plans  to  permit  rapid 
and  frequent  coverage  of  their  lands  in  an  effort 


ENTOMOLOGY 


218 


ENTOMOLOGY 


to  take  out  sosceptible  trees  before  these  are  at- 
tacked by  insects  and  rendered  worthless. 

Ambrosia  Beetles.  Ambrosia  beetles  and  the 
associated  stains  caused  by  fungi  constitute  one  of 
the  most  serious  problems  of  the  lumber  industry 
in  the  Southern  States.  Dichlorodiphenyl  oxide 
gave  consistent  protection  against  damage  by  these 
insects  and  is  now  being  tested  on  a  commercial 
scale  in  the  Gulf  States.  A  simpler  method  of  pre- 
venting attacks  by  ambrosia  beetles  is  to  end-rack 
lumber  for  from  12  to  15  days. 

European  Spruce  Sawfly.  An  insect  disease 
this  year  checked  the  inroads  of  the  European 
spruce  sawfly,  an  insect  immigrant  from  northern 
and  central  Europe  that  has  been  defoliating  spruce 
forests  in  New  England  for  the  last  five  years. 
An  infection  has  almost  wiped  out  the  needle-eat- 
ing worms  in  southern  Vermont  and  southern  New 
Hampshire. 

Gypsy  Moth.  Eight  thousand  one  hundred  and 
twenty-two  attracting  cages  in  which  were  placed 
charges  of  an  extract  obtained  from  the  tips  of 
the  abdomens  of  female  moths  in  order  to  attract 
males  and  locate  infestations  were  put  out  in  73 
towns.  Of  these,  148  in  25  towns  attracted  male 
moths  and  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  98  infesta- 
tions totaling  approximately  9000  egg  clusters. 
During  the  summer  of  1939  defoliation  of  various 
degrees  of  intensity  covered  492,640  acres,  a  sub- 
stantial increase  over  the  acreage  recorded  in  1938. 
Defoliation  in  the  area  between  the  Connecticut 
River  and  the  barrier  zone  was  slightly  less  than 
in  the  previous  year,  and  no  defoliation  was  re- 
corded in  the  barrier  zone  or  in  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  or  Pennsylvania. 

Dutch  Elm  Disease.  During  the  fiscal  year 
1940  there  was  a  49-per  cent  reduction  in  the  num- 
ber of  trees  found  to  be  infected  by  this  disease. 
There  were  16  confirmations  of  the  finding  of  this 
disease  outside  of  the  major  disease  area.  Since 
the  discovery  of  this  disease  in  the  United  States 
in  1930,  57,400  elms  have  been  found  to  be  in- 
fected The  entire  zone  in  which  field  operations 
are  being  carried  on  is  now  11,610  square  miles, 
an  increase  of  only  790  square  miles  over  last  year. 
During  the  year  9864  infected  trees  were  removed 
and  206,540  additional  trees  were  removed  in  the 
sanitation  program  and  56,428  trees  in  the  selec- 
tive operations.  The  grand  total  of  all  trees  re- 
moved last  year  was  over  773,000.  This  brings  the 
grand  total  of  elms  that  have  been  removed  since 
1933  to  5,576,680. 

White  Pine  Blister  Rust.  The  combined 
work  of  the  Bureau  and  its  co-operating  agencies 
during  the  calendar  year  1939  resulted  in  the  erad- 
ication of  82,312,000  currant  and  gooseberry  plants 
on  white  pine  control  areas  covering  1,863,000 
acres.  There  was  no  large  extension  of  limits  of 
the  known  infected  area  in  this  country.  These 
bushes  are  the  necessary  alternate  hosts  for  the 
very  serious  disease  of  pine  known  as  white  pine 
blister  rust.  The  breeding  of  plants  that  are  im- 
mune or  resistant  to  attack  by  insects  and  insect- 
borne  disease  is  occupying  increasing  attention  of 
entomologists,  plant  breeders,  and  plant  patholo- 
gist s. 

Insect-Resistant  Corn.  Extensive  tests  in  sev- 
eral localities  of  inbred  and  hybrid  field  and  sweet 
corn  for  resistance  to  the  corn  ear  worm  showed 
wide  differences  in  the  degree  of  infestation  and 
give  promise  that  reduction  of  injury  by  this  in- 
sect may  be  accomplished  through  the  eventual 
commercial  use  of  resistant  strains  of  corn.  Sinn* 


lar  breeding  work  lor  resistance  of  com  to  attack 
by  the  European  corn  borer  indicates  similar  pos- 
sibilities. 

Insect-Resistant  Wheat.  Continuation  of  the 
work  in  breeding  wheat  resistant  to  the  attack  of 
Hessian  fly  has  resulted  in  the  production  of  a 
variety  that  in  California  gives  absolute  immunity 
to  Hessian  fly  infestation,  whereas  check  varieties 
were  70-per  cent  infested.  Similar,  though  not  as 
conclusive,  results  were  obtained  on  experimental 
breeding  of  hard  red  winter  wheats  in  Kansas. 

Alfalfa  Resistant  to  Pea  Aphid.  Plant-breed- 
ing work  with  alfalfa  resulted  in  the  production 
of  strains  that  show  marked  resistance  to  the  pea 
aphid.  Maximum  plant  infestation  of  resistant  va- 
rieties never  exceeded  22  per  cent,  whereas  sus- 
ceptible varieties  were  100-per  cent  infested. 

White-fringed  Beetle.  This  insect  has  been 
apparently  eradicated  in  several  limited  areas  and 
materially  reduced  in  all  infested  areas,  thus  les- 
sening the  danger  of  natural  spread.  Effective  ap- 
plication of  insecticidal  dusts  in  nonresidential 
areas  was  accomplished  by  the  use  of  Federal- 
owned  airplanes.  The  total  known  area  now  in- 
fested by  this  insect  comprises  approximately  70,- 
000  acres,  located  in  Alabama,  Florida,  Mississippi, 
and  Louisiana. 

Mormon  Cricket.  Sodium  fluosilicate  bait  was 
used  in  all  infested  States  and  gave  satisfactory 
control  even  in  areas  of  heavy  infestation.  This 
material  has  been  specially  valuable  in  districts 
where  both  grasshoppers  and  crickets  are  present 
It  is  estimated  that  the  control  operations  pro- 
tected more  than  1,000,000  acres  of  crop  lands. 
Damage  occurred  on  only  about  7000  acres  of 
crops. 

Grasshoppers.  Operations  for  the  control  of 
grasshoppers  in  24  Western  States  were  continued 
in  co-operation  with  the  several  States  and  inter- 
ested Federal  agencies.  The  activities  of  the  cam- 
paign for  the  1939  crop  season  were  especially 
effective  on  idle  range  land  adjacent  to  crop  land 
and  resulted  in  a  crop  saving  estimated  at  over 
$128,000,000,  or  $52  worth  of  crops  for  each  Fed- 
eral dollar  spent  on  control.  The  outstanding  ac- 
complishment of  the  season's  campaign  was  the 
effective  control  of  infestations  of  the  long-winged 
migratory  grasshopper  through  the  use  of  light 
airplanes  for  survey  purposes  and  of  heavy  planes 
for  the  spreading  of  bait.  The  aerial  equipment 
was  brought  into  use  in  areas  inaccessible  by 
means  of  ground  spreaders,  where  infestations 
were  such  as  to  constitute  a  menace  to  crop  areas. 

Chinch  Bug.  Fall  surveys  in  1939  indicated 
extensive  infested  areas  in  southern  Iowa,  the 
northern  third  of  Missouri,  southeastern  Nebraska, 
the  eastern  third  of  Kansas,  several  counties  in 
northeastern  Oklahoma,  and  localized  areas  in  In- 
diana and  Illinois.  Nearly  2%  million  gallons  of 
creosote  were  furnished  by  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment to  167  counties  in  these  States.  The  use  of 
this  material  resulted  in  very  large  savings  of 
valuable  corn  crops. 

Black  Stem  Rust  The  co-operative  control 
campaign  to  eradicate  barberry  bushes,  which  act 
as  an  alternate  host  for  black  stem  rust  of  small 
grains,  resulted  in  the  removal  of  over  31,300,000 
barberry  bushes  on  over  2700  properties.  This 
brings  the  grand  total  of  barberry  bushes  removed 
to  259.000,000  on  over  34,000  properties. 

Soil  Fumigation  for  Wireworms.  Early  ex- 
periments with  dichloroethyl  ether  gave  consider- 
able promise.  The  margin  of  safety  between  effec- 


ENTOMOLOGY 


219 


ESTONIA 


tivc  dosage  and  plant  injury,  however,  is  narrow. 
Naphthalene  as  a  soil  fuxmgant  is  found  to  be 
effective  only  under  certain  soil  type  and  tempera- 
ture conditions. 

Sweet  Potato  Weevil.  Co-operating  Federal- 
State  control  and  eradication  activities  against  the 
sweet  potato  weevil  were  continued  during  the 
year  in  Alabama,  Georgia,  Mississippi,  and  Texas. 
Four  counties  were  released  from  quarantine,  all 
infestations  having  been  eliminated. 

Pink  Bollworm,  During  1939,  400,000  acres  in 
southern  Texas  were  cleaned  for  the  control  of 
this  pest.  In  the  lower  Rio  Grande  Valley  there 
was  an  increase  in  infestation  on  both  the  Texas 
and  Mexican  sides  of  the  river.  There  was  a 
spread  from  that  region  to  additional  southern  and 
southwestern  Texas  counties,  and  light  infesta- 
tions developed  m  several  additional  west-central 
counties  of  Texas  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Angelo 
and  Colorado.  During  the  past  season  all  known 
wild-cotton  colonies  in  southern  Florida  were 
cleaned  twice  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  area 
was  cleaned  three  times.  Over  1,000,000  cotton 
plants,  seedlings,  and  sprouts  were  destroyed  on 
approximately  39,000  acres. 

Foreign  Parasite  Introduction.  Owing  to 
war  conditions  in  Europe,  the  Bureau's  field  sta- 
tion for  the  collection  of  foreign  parasites  to  be 
shipped  to  this  country  located  at  St.  Cloud, 
France,  was  discontinued  in  October,  1939.  Two 
members  of  the  staff  of  this  station  were  assigned 
to  work  in  South  America  with  headquarters  at 
Montevideo,  Uruguay. 

Insecticides.  During  the  year  a  new  method 
for  dispersing  insecticides  was  devised.  This  con- 
sisted of  spraying  the  liquid  insecticides  or  solu- 
tions of  insecticides  on  a  hot  surface  so  that  the 
material  is  dispersed  as  smoke.  Although  in  the 
experimental  stage,  this  method  may  prove  to  be 
an  efficient  way  of  controlling  insects  in  closed 
spaces.  See  BOTANY. 

LEE  A.  STRONG. 

ENTOMOLOGY  AND  PLANT  QUAR- 
ANTINE, Bureau  of.  See  ENTOMOLOGY,  ECO- 
NOMIC. 

EPILEPSY.  See  PSYCHIATRY. 

EPISCOPALIANS.  See  PROTESTANT  EPIS- 
COPAL CHURCH  ;  ENGLAND,  CHURCH  OF. 

ERITREA.  See  ITALIAN  EAST  AFRICA. 

EROSION  CONTROL.  See  LAND  UTILIZA- 
TION, OFFICE  OF;  SOIL  CONSERVATION  SERVICE; 
TENNESSEE  VALLEY  AUTHORITY;  CIVILIAN  CON- 
SERVATION CORPS. 

ESPIONAGE.  See  BELGIUM,  CANADA,  ICE- 
LAND, INDIA,  IRELAND,  MEXICO,  NORWAY,  PANA- 
MA CANAL  ZONE,  PORTUGAL,  SWEDEN,  and  SWITZ- 
ERLAND, under  History ;  DIES  COMMITTEE;  FEDER- 
AL BUREAU  OF  INVESTIGATION;  FIFTH  COLUMN. 

ESTONIA.  A  former  Baltic  State,  which  pro- 
claimed  its  independence  from  Soviet  Russia  Feb. 
24,  1918,  and  was  reannexed  to  the  U.S.S.R.  as  a 
constituent  republic  Aug.  6,  1940.  Capital,  Tallinn 

Area  and  Population.  Estonia  has  an  area  of 
18,359  square  miles,  including  internal  lakes,  and 
a  population  estimated  on  Jan.  1, 1940,  at  1,122,000. 

7?f/rSrti°nfn  Jan*  *'  1939»  was  estimated  at 
1,134,000.  The  decrease  was  attributed  to  the  re- 
moval of  Baltic  Germans  to  German  Poland  and 
the  exodus  of  Estonians  who  foresaw  their  coun- 
try's absorption  by  Soviet  Russia.  Living  births  in 
1939 numbered  18,450  (16.3 per  1000)  • -deaths  16 - 
940  (15.0  per  1000).  Estimated  pSuUSs  of  the 


chief  cities  on  Jan.  1, 1939.  were:  Tallinn,  144,978; 
Tartu,  60,281 ;  Narva,  23,834;  Parnu,  21,886. 

Religion  and  Education.  About  five-sixths  of 
the  people  are  Lutherans  and  the  rest  chiefly  Greek 
Orthodox  and  Roman  Catholics.  Adult  illiteracy 
was  slightly  less  than  4  per  cent  in  1940. 

Production.  Agriculture  and  dairying  support 
nearly  70  per  cent  of  the  population.  Yields  of  the 
chief  crops  in  1939  were  (in  metric  tons)  :  Wheat, 
85,300;  barley,  90,000;  rye,  227,700;  oats,  149,400; 
potatoes,  874,300 ;  flax,  6100.  The  leading  industri- 
al products  are  cotton  fabrics  and  yarn,  woodpulp 
(112,000  metric  tons  in  1939),  cellulose,  paper, 
timber,  shale  oil.  On  Apr.  1,  1940,  there  were  56,- 
456  wage  earners  in  manufacturing  establishments. 

Foreign  Trade.  Total  imports  in  1939  were 
101,351,000  crowns  (107,198,000  in  1938)  and  ex- 
ports of  Estonian  products  were  118,217,000 
crowns  (103,928,000  in  1938).  For  trade  distribu- 
tion see  1939  YEAR  BOOK  ;  consult  also  the  article 
on  TRADE,  FOREIGN  in  this  volume. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ending  Mar.  31, 
1941,  the  budget  was  estimated  to  balance  at  114,- 
988,740  krooni  (crowns),  as  against  revenues  of 
105,878,187  and  expenditures  of  105,816,637  krooni 
in  the  fiscal  year  1939-40.  The  public  debt  on 
Jan.  1,  1940,  totaled  127,605,613  crowns.  The  Es- 
tonian crown  exchanged  at  an  average  rate  of 
$0.2711  in  1939  and  $0.2712  in  1938. 

Transportation.  In  1939  Estonia  had  about 
1328  miles  of  railways ;  gross  earnings  totaled  17,- 
762,000  crowns.  Highways  extended  13,416  miles. 
Airlines  connected  Tallinn  with  Helsinki,  Lenin- 
grad, Stockholm,  Berlin,  Warsaw,  and  other  cities 
The  gross  tonnage  of  the  merchant  marine  on 
Jan.  1,  1940,  was  195,745. 

Government.  The  Constitution  effective  Jan.  1, 
1938,  vested  extensive  powers  in  a  President  elected 
for  six  years.  It  provided  for  a  bicameral  Na- 
tional Assembly  consisting  of  a  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties of  80  members  elected  by  universal  suffrage 
and  a  National  Council  of  40  members,  chosen  for 
the  most  part  by  public  organizations  and  local 
governmental  bodies.  The  President  appointed  a 
Premier,  whose  cabinet  was  responsible  to  the  Na- 
tional Assembly.  President  at  the  beginning  of 
1940,  Konstantin  Pats,  elected  Apr.  24,  1938;  Pre- 
mier, Jiiri  Uiuots,  appointed  Oct.  12,  1939. 

HISTORY 

Soviet-Estonian  Tension.  As  was  generally 
foreseen,  the  mutual  assistance  pact  that  Estonia 
was  forced  to  conclude  with  the  Soviet  Union  on 
Sept.  29,  1939,  under  threat  of  a  Soviet  invasion 
(see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  231),  proved  the  first 
step  toward  the  subjugation  and  sovietization  of 
the  little  Baltic  republic.  The  surface  cordiality 
that  marked  relations  between  the  Estonian  Gov- 
ernment and  people,  the  newly  installed  Soviet 
garrisons,  and  the  Moscow  Government  showed 
signs  of  wearing  thin  early  in  1940.  There  were 
reports  of  widespread  popular  dissatisfaction  with 
Estonia's  status  as  a  virtual  Soviet  protectorate 
Civil  and  military  officials  of  Estonia,  Latvia,  and 
Lithuania  were  said  to  have  laid  plans  for  closer 
co-operation  in  defense  and  other  matters. 

The  Baltic  Entente  Conference,  held  in  Riga, 
Latvia,  on  March  16,  reiterated  the  "absolute  neu- 
trality* of  Estonia,  Latvia,  and  Lithuania  in  the 
struggles  of  the  great  European  powers  Later 
that  month  the  Russians  enlarged  their  demands 
in  Baltic  Port  (Paldiski).  Although  only  a  lease 
on  part  of  the  port  was  called  for  in  the  mutual 


ESTONIA 


220 


ETHIOPIA 


assistance  pact,  they  forced  the  Estonian  Govern- 
ment to  evacuate  all  civilians  from  the  port  city. 
On  May  15,  in  response  to  Estonian  representa- 
tions, the  Kremlin  agreed  to  remove  all  Russian 
garrison  troops  on  the  mainland,  except  those  at 
Baltic  Port,  to  the  bases  leased  on  the  islands  of 
Oesel  and  Dagoe. 

Russian  Ultimatum.  During  the  spread  of  the 
European  War  into  the  Low  Countries,  the  Soviet 
Government  adopted  a  more  belligerent  tone  to- 
ward Estonia  and  the  other  Baltic  republics.  On 
May  30  it  established  a  forbidden  zone  along  the 
Soviet-Estonian  frontier.  On  June  17,  the  day  aft- 
er a  Soviet  ultimatum  to  Lithuania  (q.v  ),  Estonia 
and  Latvia  received  identical  demands  for  the 
right  of  "free  passage"  of  more  Russian  troops 
into  their  territories  and  the  immediate  formation 
of  "governments  that  would  insure  honest  imple- 
mentation" of  the  mutual  assistance  pacts  with  the 
Soviet  Government.  The  Estonian,  Latvian,  and 
Lithuanian  governments  and  peoples  were  charged 
with  unfriendliness  toward  the  Soviet  Union  and 
with  planning  military  collaboration  against  it. 
On  the  same  day  large  Soviet  forces  entered  Es- 
tonian territory. 

Unable  to  resist,  the  Estonian  Government  ac- 
cepted the  Soviet  demands  After  agreeing  to  per- 
mit the  stationing  of  Russian  troops  in  the  prin- 
cipal cities  and  towns,  the  Uluots  Government 
resigned  on  June  21  in  favor  of  a  new  govern- 
ment, headed  by  Dr  Johannis  Vares,  which  was 
formed  under  the  supervision  of  a  representative 
of  the  Soviet  foreign  Office  The  new  Cabinet 
consisted  of  pro- Soviet  Socialists  and  professional 
men,  none  of  whom  had  held  government  posts 
before.  Gen  Juhan  Laidoner,  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army  and  hero  of  the  war  of  independence 
in  1917-19,  was  replaced  by  Major  General  Roth- 
berg,  the  new  War  Minister  The  change  in  gov- 
ernment was  accompanied  by  an  attempted  revolt 
of  armed  Estonian  Communist  industrial  workers, 
which  was  repressed  by  Estonian  troops  with  a 
few  casualties. 

Parliamentary  Elections.  The  Vares  Gov- 
ernment, under  the  direction  of  Moscow,  quickly 
effected  the  transformation  of  Estonia  from  a 
nominally  independent  republic  to  an  integral  part 
of  the  Soviet  Union  Parliament  was  dissolved, 
the  Baltic  Entente  annulled,  and  anti- Soviet  ele- 
ments removed  from  governmental,  military,  and 
other  positions.  Communists  working  for  outright 
union  with  Russia  quickly  obtained  a  commanding 
influence.  On  July  5  parliamentary  elections  were 
called  for  July  14-15.  Only  the  candidates  of  the 
so-called  Working  Peoples'  Bloc,  controlled  by  the 
Communists  and  directed  by  Soviet  Foreign  Office 
agents,  were  permitted  on  the  ballot  The  Work- 
ing Peoples'  Bloc  was  composed  almost  entirely 
of  the  small  class  of  Estonian  industrial  workers. 
The  peasants,  the  bourgeoisie,  and  the  intelligent- 
sia, comprising  the  great  bulk  of  the  population, 
had  little  or  no  representation.  Moreover  mass  ar- 
rests of  the  leaders  of  these  anti-Communist  ele- 
ments took  place  on  the  eve  of  the  parliamentary 
elections,  and  strong  pressure  was  employed  to 
secure  the  largest  possible  vote  for  the  official 
candidates.  The  government  ^  announced  that  81.6 
per  cent  of  the  voters  participated  in  the  election 
and  that  92  9  per  cent  voted  for  the  candidates  of 
the  Working  Peoples'  Bloc. 

Annexation  by  U.S.S.R.  Immediately  after 
the  elections,  a  Moscow-directed  campaign  for 
union  with  the  U.S.S.R.  was  conducted  by  the 


controlled  radio  and  press.  On  July  21  the  newly 
elected  National  Assembly  met,  proclaimed  Esto- 
nia a  soviet  republic,  and  voted  to  ask  for  incor- 
poration in  the  Union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Repub- 
lics. This  petition,  presented  by  Estonian  delegates 
to  the  Supreme  Soviet  in  Moscow,  was  accepted 
on  August  6  when  Estonia  was  incorporated  as 
the  16th  constituent  republic  of  the  Soviet  Union. 
The  final  step  in  the  process  of  governmental  re- 
organization was  the  action  of  the  National  As- 
sembly on  August  24-25  in  voting  unanimously  to 
adopt  a  soviet  constitution.  The  secretary  of  the 
Estonian  Communist  party  became  president  of 
the  Council  of  People's  Commissars. 

Most  of  the  Estonian  diplomatic  and  consular 
representatives  abroad  denounced  the  annexation 
as  an  open  violation  of  the  Constitution  and  a 
cynical  betrayal  of  every  principal  of  representa- 
tive government  and  national  self-determination. 
The  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  a  few  other 
foreign  governments  supported  their  stand  by  re- 
fusing to  recognize  the  legality  of  Moscow's  ac- 
tion and  blocking  Estonian  assets  within  their 
respective  jurisdictions.  But  in  Germany,  Italy, 
and  the  other  countries  dominated  by  the  Axis, 
the  representatives  of  the  Baltic  States  were 
obliged  to  turn  over  their  legations  and  consulates 
to  Soviet  officials 

Sovietization  and  the  Terror.  Meanwhile  the 
complete  introduction  of  the  soviet  economic,  po- 
litical, and  social  system  was  carried  out  in  Es- 
tonia with  increasing  resort  to  terroristic  tactics. 
Land,  banks,  industries,  stocks  of  raw  materials 
and  goods,  waterways,  transportation  facilities, 
etc.,  were  nationalized.  Properties  of  the  larger 
landowners  were  redistributed  among  landless  ru- 
ral workers  and  those  with  small  plots,  pending 
eventual  collectivization  of  agriculture.  The  Es- 
tonian army  was  co-ordinated  with  the  Red  Army 
and  all  officers  suspected  of  anti-Soviet  sympathies 
were  ousted.  The  Soviet  system  of  education  was 
introduced.  The  theological  faculty  of  Dorpat  Uni- 
versity and  the  Academy  of  Science  were  abol- 
ished. General  Laidoner,  President  Pats,  and  other 
prominent  members  of  the  former  regime  were 
arrested.  Properties  of  Estonians  abroad  who  re- 
fused to  return  to  Estonia  were  confiscated  and 
their  citizenship  revoked. 

Other  characteristics  of  the  Russian  soviet  state 
made  their  appearance — poor  discipline  among 
workers,  economic  disorganization,  decreasing  pro- 
duction, and  growing  scarcity  of  goods  accom- 
panied by  charges  of  sabotage  and  "wrecking." 
The  Soviet  authorities  dealt  with  these  develop- 
ments by  the  harsh  methods  customary  in  Russia. 
Following  mass  arrests  of  hundreds  of  persons, 
a  people's  tribunal  was  created  on  August  6  to 
wage  a  drive  against  "traitors."  The  decree  pro- 
vided the  death  penalty  for  "traitors,"  confiscation 
of  their  properties,  and  up  to  10  years'  imprison- 
ment for  members  of  their  families. 

See  LATVIA,  LITHUANIA,  and  UNION  OF  SOVIET 
SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS  under  History,  LEAGUE  OF 
NATIONS;  NAVAL  PROGRESS;  REPARATIONS  AND 
WAR  DEBTS. 

ETCHINGS.  See  PRINTS. 

ETHIOPIA.  A  former  native  empire  in  East 
Africa,  formally  annexed  by  Italy  on  May  9, 1936, 
following  its  conquest  by  force  of  arms  (see  1935 
and  1936  YEAR  BOOKS  under  ETHIOPIA).  Area, 
about  347,500  square  miles;  population,  roughly 
estimated  at  over  4,000,000.  By  the  decree  law  of 
June  1,  1936,  Ethiopia  was  incorporated  with  Eri- 


RUSSIAN  ADVANCE  AGAINST  THE  MANNERHEIM  LINE 
Sledges,  with  men  in  white  camouflage,  were  drawn  by  huge  tanks  to  front  line  positions 


Acme 


FINLAND'S  GREATEST  VICTORY 

In  the  Second  Battle  of  Suomussalmi  the  Russian  44th  Division  was  completely  crushed  Here  are  some  of  the  tanks  and  cars 

left  behind  in  the  rout 


EUROPE 


221 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


trca  and  Italian  Somaliland  to  form  the  colony  of 
ITALIAN  EAST  AFRICA  (q.v.).  See  EUROPEAN  WAR 
under  Campaigns  in  Africa. 

EUROPE.  A  continent  with  an  area  of  about 
2,094,500  square  miles  and  a  population  estimated 
at  400,100,000  (excluding  the  U.S.S.R.)  on  Dec. 
31,  1938.  See  separate  article  on  each  European 
country;  also  BALKAN  ENTENTE,  COMMUNISM, 
EUROPEAN  WAR,  FASCISM,  NAVAL  PROGRESS,  ETC. 

EUROPEAN  SPRUCE  SAWFLY.  See 
ENTOMOLOGY,  ECONOMIC. 

EUROPEAN  WAR.  The  military  campaigns 
of  1939  including  the  German  conquest  of  Poland 
and  the  start  of  Russian-Finnish  hostilities  are 
described  in  the  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  pp.  233-250. 
From  the  fall  of  1939  to  the  spring  of  1940  there 
was  little  activity  in  the  Allied-German  war  save 
in  the  air  and  on  the  sea.  During  the  winter  months 
of  January,  February,  and  March,  the  major  land 
operations  took  place  in  Finland.  Because  of  the 
close  relation  existing  between  these  two  conflicts, 
the  events  in  Finland  provide  the  major  military 
background  for  the  decisive  campaigns  of  the 
spring  and  summer  in  the  main  European  theater 
of  war. 

THE  FINNISH  CAMPAIGN  :  JANUARY  TO 
MARCH,  1940 

The  Russian  attack  on  Finland  began  on  Nov. 
30,  1939,  with  a  curious  disregard  for  weather  and 
terrain  conditions.  Apparently  the  Kremlin  over- 
estimated the  support  to  be  secured  from  so-called 
Finnish  Communists  and  underestimated  Finland's 
capacity  for  resistance.  Theoretically  Russia's  huge 
army  of  26  regular  infantry  divisions  and  14  reg- 
ular cavalry  divisions,  plus  a  first  line  reserve  of 
21  infantry  divisions  and  IS  cavalry  divisions,  plus 
a  force  of  42  territorial  reserve  divisions,  making 
up  a  total  available  force  of  2,011,000  men,  should 
have  had  little  difficulty  in  overcoming  Finland's 
army  of  3  infantry  divisions,  1  cavalry  brigade, 
and  1  tank  company.  Employing  a  force  estimated 
at  20  divisions  on  a  front  from  Petsamo  to  the 
Karelian  Isthmus,  the  Russian  high  command  (Gen. 
Boris  Shaposhnikov,  chief  of  staff)  attempted  an 
invasion  of  Finland  from  five  major  directions.  A 
holding  attack  by  second  class  troops  was  made 
on  the  Karelian  front.  North  of  Lake  Ladoga  four 
Russian  divisions  advanced  toward  Sortavala  and 
Suojaervi,  a  movement  which  was  designed  to  flank 
the  Mannerheim  line  on  the  Karelian  front.  Three 
divisions  based  on  Kem  advanced  in  the  direction 
of  Lieska.  A  similar  force  based  on  Repola  made 
an  advance  toward  Nurmes-Suomussalmi.  Farther 
northward  an  advance  was  directed  toward  Salla 
and  Kemijaervi  by  a  force  of  troops  based  on  Kan- 
dalaksha. In  the  far  north  Russian  divisions  based 
on  Murmansk  made  an  attack  on  Petsamo,  Fin- 
land's only  arctic  port.  These  widely  separated 
military  movements  were  dependent  for  supplies 
on  the  single-track  Leningrad-Murmansk  railway. 

At  the  outset  of  hostilities  General  Baron  Man- 
nerheim, commander-in-chief  of  the  Finnish  army, 
and  his  Chief  of  Staff,  Gen.  Lennart  Oesch,  were 
able  to  expand  the  peace-time  army  of  3  infantry 
divisions  into  3  army  corps  of  2  divisions  each  by 
adding  trained  reserves.  In  addition  to  this  small 
mobile  army  capable  of  offensive  operations,  Fin- 
land possessed  a  partially  trained  reserve  of  some 
200,000  men  capable  of  serving  in  secondary  posi- 
tions and  guarding  communications.  This  allowed 
the  six  "regular"  Finnish  divisions  to  be  employed 
as  a  mass  of  maneuver  against  the  Russian  invad- 


ing columns.  Finnish  divisional  commanders  Oster- 
mann,  Wallenius,  Ohquist,  Talvela,  and  Heiskanen 
distinguished  themselves  in  the  fighting  of  Decem- 
ber and  January. 

Finniih  Victories  in  North.  Russian  advances 
in  December  on  the  four  fronts  north  of  Lake 
Ladoga  succeeded  in  making  initial  progress  in 
spite  of  the  weather  and  difficulties  of  the  terrain. 
It  was  only  after  considerable  progress  was  made 
in  each  sector  that  the  Russians  met  with  repulse 
and  disaster.  Finnish  ski  troops  encircled  the  flanks 
of  Russian  columns  which  were  strung  out  along 
the  narrow  forest  roads,  cut  their  communications, 
prevented  food  and  supplies  from  reaching  the 
Russian  troops,  pinned  them  to  the  ground  and  let 
the  sub-zero  weather  add  to  the  destructive  fire  of 
their  rifles  and  sub-machine  guns.  By  January  all 
the  Russian  advance  columns  were  in  retreat  and 
disorder.  In  some  cases  they  were  pushed  beyond 
the  Russian  frontier. 

In  January,  1940,  the  reinforced  Russian  armies 
under  the  command  of  Gen.  Gregory  Stern  made 
their  major  efforts  north  of  Lake  Ladoga  on  the 
central  and  north-central  front.  Diversion  attacks 
were  continued  on  the  Karelian  front  but  without 
apparent  weight.  The  principal  attacks  were  de- 
livered without  variation  from  the  December  pat- 
tern against  Sortavala  and  Suomussalmi  in  the 
central  sector  and  against  Salla  in  the  north-central 
sector.  These  attacks  met  with  the  same  fate  as  the 
December  attacks.  Once  again  the  mobile  Finnish 
troops  were  able  to  isolate  Russian  divisions  and 
decimate  them.  The  Russian  163d  division  was  de- 
stroyed in  this  area  in  December.  In  January  the 
44th  Russian  division  was  trapped  and  destroyed 
Portions  of  the  54th  division  and  the  164th  divi- 
sion were  cut  to  pieces  in  the  fighting  on  the  Suo- 
mussalmi-Raate  front.  The  strategic  aim  of  these 
movements  was  to  cut  across  the  "waist"  of  Fin- 
land to  menace  her  rail  communications  with  Swe- 
den. In  the  fighting  north  of  Lake  Ladoga  in 
January  the  34th  Moscow  Tank  Brigade  was  sur- 
rounded and  destroyed. 

Mannerheim  Line  Pierced.  As  a  result  of  the 
failures  of  January,  Gen.  Kyril  A.  Meretskov, 
commander  of  the  Leningrad  Military  District, 
was  replaced  by  Gen.  Simeon  Budenny,  famed  Cos- 
sack leader.  Marshal  S.  Timoshenko  took  charge 
of  all  Russian  operations  against  Finland.  The 
whole  strategy  of  the  Finnish  war  underwent  an 
immediate  change  The  main  efforts  from  February 
on  were  concentrated  on  the  Karelian  front  Troops 
estimated  at  300,000  were  massed  for  an  assault 
on  the  Mannerheim  line  Russian  bombers  operat- 
ing from  nearby  airfields  made  repeated  attacks 
on  Finnish  railways  and  industrial  districts.  Heavy 
and  railway  artillery,  tanks,  armored  sledges,  flame- 
throwing  equipment,  and  men  were  thrown  into 
the  attack.  Minor  diversions  north  of  Lake  Ladoga 
were  attempted,  but  the  18th  Russian  division  suf- 
fered heavily  in  the  open  warfare  against  elusive 
Finnish  troops. 

With  the  massing  of  Russian  forces  on  the  Ka- 
relian front  the  warfare  took  on  the  character  of 
the  Verdun  battle  of  1916.  From  February  1  to  10 
almost  constant  artillery  fire  fell  upon  the  Finnish 
fortifications  in  the  Summa  sector  of  the  line.  The 
famed  Mannerheim  line  in  this  area  consisted  of 
concrete  pill-boxes  mounting  cannon  and  machine 
guns,  protected  from  tank  attack  by  boulders  and 
natural  obstacles.  At  the  height  of  the  attack  300,- 
000  artillery  shells  a  day  were  fired  at  the  Finnish 
positions.  Russian  infantry  in  armored  sledges 


EUBOPBAN  WAB 


222 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


Allied  vyith  Germany 
Russia  and  annexed  or*as 


towed  by  tanks  advanced  against  the  fortifications 
covered  by  artillery  and  machine  gun  barrages. 
Engineers  and  demolition  squads  blasted  away  tank 
traps  and  wire.  The  type  of  attrition  warfare  which 
developed  cost  the  Russians  heavily  in  casualties, 
but  it  placed  the  Finnish  high  command  at  great 
disadvantage.  The  defending  army  lost  the  supe- 
riority in  maneuver  which  had  gamed  the  impres- 
sive victories  of  December  and  January. 

The  six  regular  divisions  which  were  the  back- 
bone of  Finnish  resistance  were  swallowed  up  in 
the  battle  of  materiel.  It  was  found  impossible  to 
relieve  the  exhausted  Finnish  troops  on  the  Man- 
nerheim  front,  for  reserve  troops  and  foreign  vol- 
unteers proved  unequal  to  the  strain  of  constant 
artillery  attack.  On  February  13  the  Finnish  Gov- 
ernment appealed  for  outside  aid  on  a  large  scale 
and  called  up  men  of  43  years  of  age. 

Heavy  fighting  on  February  14-16  on  the  Sum- 
ma  front  led  to  the  capture  of  that  city  on  the 
16th.  The  assault  was  led  by  crack  Soviet  troops, 
the  100th,  the  103d,  and  49th  divisions.  By  Febru- 
ary 23  the  Russian  advance  had  reached  to  within 
seven  miles  of  Viipuri  (Viborg),  the  key  city  to 
the  western  flank  of  the  Mannenieim  line.  Koivisto 
Island  in  Viipuri  Bay  was  attacked  on  February 
24.  Russian  raiding  parties  advancing  over  the  ice 
of  Viipuri  Bay  during  the  last  week  of  February 


threatened  to  outflank  Viipuri.  In  the  face  of  heavy 
resistance  advanced  elements  of  the  Russian  army 
entered  the  outskirts  of  Viipuri  on  March  11.  Fight- 
ing ceased  on  all  fronts  at  11  a.m.  on  March  12 
with  the  conclusion  of  Russian-Finnish  peace  ne- 
gotiations. See  FINLAND  under  History,  for  peace 
terms. 

When  the  war  ended  Finland's  small  army, 
though  having  suffered  heavy  losses,  was  still  in- 
tact. Her  main  industries  and  railway  communica- 
tions were  still  functioning  in  ^  spite  of  Russian 
bombing  attacks.  Continued  resistance  was  possi- 
ble, but  after  the  full  pressure  of  the  Russian  drive 
on  the  Karelian  front  had  pierced  her  strongest 
fortified  position,  all  hopes  for  a  Finnish  victory 
disappeared.  That  Baron  Mannerheim  was  willing 
to  accept  the  harsh  terms  offered  on  March  12  was 
vindication  of  the  Russian  strategy  of  concentrat- 
ing on  the  Karelian  front  The  power  and  drive 
displayed  by  the  Russian  army  in  this  campaign 
surprised  the  outside  world  and  dismayed  the  Finns. 
Though  the  conquest  of  Finland  did  not  enhance 
Ac  prestige  of  the  Red  Army,  it  did  reveal  the  fact 
that  Russian  military  equipment  was  of  modern 
design  and  good  quality.  Several  Russian  innova- 
tions such  as  the  multiple  incendiary  bomb  ("Mo- 
IqtoVs  breadbasket")  and  parachute  troops  were 
imitated  by  the  German  army. 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


223 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


Rur/fa  and   annexed  or 
occupied   areas 


Courtesy  of  New  York  Times 


The  fall  of  the  Mannerheim  line  revealed  seri- 
ous engineering  defects  in  its  construction.  The 
heavy  concrete  pill-boxes  of  this  line  were  not  an- 
chored sufficiently  with  concrete  aprons.  As  a  re- 
sult prolonged  shelling  by  Russian  artillery  under- 
mined the  forward  face  of  the  emplacements 
causing  them  to  sag.  This  threw  the  guns  of  the 
emplacement  out  of  alignment  and  restricted  their 
field  of  fire.  Although  similar  defects  were  not 
necessarily  involved  in  the  construction  of  the  Mag- 
inot  and  Siegfried  lines,  the  fall  of  the  Manner- 
heim line  gave  grounds  for  doubting  the  impreg- 
nability of  formal  fortifications.  It  may  have 
influenced  the  German  high  command  in  its  deci- 
sion to  attack  the  French  and  Belgian  fortified 
positions  in  the  west. 

Foreign  Aid  to  Finland.  Since  Russia  was  an 
ally  of  Germany  the  conclusion  of  the  Finnish  war 
was  regarded  in  France  and  Britain  as  a  blow  to 
their  cause.  As  long  as  Russia  was  involved  in  the 
war  with  Finland  the  amount  of  material  aid  she 
could  render  to  Germany  was  negligible.  The  fail- 
ure of  the  Allied  governments  to  send  substantial 
aid  to  Finland  was  widely  criticized.  According  to 
French  and  British  statements  the  aid  sent  included 
285  planes,  590  guns,  100  anti-tank  rifles,  5000  ma- 
chine guns,  200,000  hand  grenades,  60,000,000 
rounds  of  small  arms  ammunition,  and  a  great 


many  other  items  of  needed  military  equipment 
That  the  Allied  governments  considered  sending 
military  forces  to  aid  Finland  was  revealed  by 
Premier  Daladicr  of  France  who  said  that  a  force 
of  50,000  French  troops  was  concentrated  in  em- 
barkation points  as  early  as  February  26.  Sweden's 
refusal  to  permit  the  transit  of  these  troops  across 
her  territory  made  this  move  impossible.  No  doubt 
the  government  of  Sweden  feared  that  Germany 
would  look  upon  the  movement  of  so  large  a  body 
of  Allied  troops  through  Swedish  territory  as  en- 
dangering her  supply  of  iron  ore  from  the  famous 
Kiruna  mines.  That  Germany  would  take  military 
steps  to  prevent  this  was  regarded  as  a  certainty 
in  Sweden.  Thus,  the  fear  of  extending  the  gen- 
eral European  war  to  the  Baltic  countries  pre- 
vented large-scale  aid  from  reaching  Finland  even 
though  some  8000-10,000  foreign  volunteers,  most- 
ly Swedish,  attempted  to  aid  the  Finns  See 
FRANCE,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  and  SWEDEN  under  His- 
tory. 

The  severity  of  the  Russo-Finnish  peace  terms, 
following  the  heroic  resistance  of  die  small  Finn- 
ish nation,  swept  aside  whatever  doubts  remained 
about  the  reality  of  the  Russian  victory.  That  they 
left  Finland  a  virtual  prisoner  in  the  Baltic  and 
robbed  her  of  the  strongest  defense  zones  she  pos- 
sessed could  not  be  concealed 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


224 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


Estimated  Casualties.  Official  Russian  reports 
set  their  casualties  in  the  Finnish  war  as  48,745 
killed  and  158.000  wounded.  General  Mannerheim 
set  the  Finnish  losses  at  15,000  killed  and  30,000 
wounded,  Neutral  sources  in  Scandinavia  set  the 
Russian  casualties  as  200,000  killed  and  250,000 
wounded,  the  Finnish  casualties  at  30,000  killed 
and  35,000  wounded.  No  reliable  figures  are  avail- 
able at  the  time  of  writing. 

THE  NORWEGIAN  CAMPAIGN  :  APRIL  9-JuNE  10 

The  feeling  of  frustration  in  the  Allied  countries 
at  the  failure  of  their  governments  to  utilize  the 
Finnish  war  as  a  means  of  attacking  the  flank  of 
Germany  was  widespread.  Efforts  were  immedi- 
ately made  to  tighten  the  blockade  by  stopping  the 
flow  of  'Swedish  iron  ore  which  had  been  shipped 
from  Narvik  throughout  the  winter  in  the  relative 
security  of  Norwegian  territorial  waters.  Charges 
and  counter  charges  of  violation  of  Norwegian 
neutrality  followed.  On  April  7  a  British  sub- 
marine sank  the  German  transport  Rio  de  Janeiro 
which  was  loaded  with  fully  equipped  German 
troops.  The  same  day  the  British  Admiralty  an- 
nounced that  minelaying  operations  had  taken  place 
in  Norwegian  territorial  waters.  This  gave  the 
Germans  an  excuse  for  the  invasion  of  Denmark 
and  Norway  on  April  9. 

The  Surprise  Attack.  Using  the  pretext  that 
Denmark  and  Norway  were  about  to  be  used  as 
Allied  bases  against  Germany,  Nazi  troops  poured 
into  Denmark  in  the  early  morning  hours  of  April  9 
and  received  the  surrender  of  that  state  (see  DEN- 
MARK under  History).  Elaborate  plans  were  laid 
for  the  betrayal  of  Norway  from  within.  Fifth 
column  elements  led  by  Maj.  Vidkun  Quisling  and 
Col.  Konrad  Sundlo  prepared  to  deliver  vital  ports 
to  the  enemy.  Faked  telegrams  and  orders  con- 
fused the  garrisons  and  shore  batteries  defending 
Norwegian  ports  and  minefields.  "Wooden  horse" 
transports  filled  with  German  troops  were  waiting 
in  the  harbors  of  Trondheim  and  Narvik.  First  in- 
dications of  the  treacherous  assault  came  at  4:30 
a.m.  on  April  9  when  two  German  destroyers  ap- 
peared in  a  snow  storm  at  Narvik,  sank  two  Nor- 
wegian gunboats  and  a  number  of  British  steamers. 
Proceeding  to  the  inner  harbor  they  landed  troops 
which  took  over  the  city.  Similar  landings 
surprised  the  Norwegian  garrisons  at  Bergen, 
Trondheim,  and  Stavanger.  By  mid  day  the  prin- 
cipal ports  of  Norway  had  passed  into  German 
hands. 

If  adequately  defended  the  fjord  of  Oslo  should 
have  been  almost  impregnable  to  attack.  Elaborate 
minefields  and  well -placed  batteries  defended  the 
approaches  to  the  capital.  But  the  defending  troops 
were  confused  by  the  receipt  of  what  seemed  like 
official  telegrams  and  orders  not  to  resist  the  Ger- 
mans. German  war  vessels  and  transports  passed 
through  minefields  whose  contacts  had  been  dis- 
connected and  under  the  muzzles  of  guns  which 
could  have  blasted  them  out  of  the  water.  Norwe- 
gian naval  cadets  were  taken  aboard  German  ves- 
sels as  hostages.  Only  a  single  minesweeper  which 
had  not  received  faked  orders  resisted.  It  torpe- 
doed the  German  cruiser  Emden.  A  few  batteries 
at  Horten  opened  fire  on  the  cruiser  Bluecher  and 
sank  it  But  aside  from  these  events  the  great  land- 
ing passed  off  successfully  while  the  German  air 
force  cowed  the  capital  with  massed  flights  of 
bombers.  By  4  p.m.  Oslo  had  been  occupied.  The 
entrance  was  made  by  1500  Nazi  troops  led  by 
bands  and  by  the  Oslo  police  force.  Its  fall  was 


brought  about  by  acts  of  treachery  and  cynicism 
unequalled  in  modern  war. 

The  fall  of  the  capital  disorganized  Norwegian 
plans  for  resistance,  because  Oslo  was  the  head- 
quarters of  the  army  organization.  Most  of  the 
limited  anti-aircraft  guns  were  in  the  capital  and 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Germans.  The  peace- 
time army  consisted  of  only  15,000  men  (main  re- 
serves approximately  80,000  men)  and  was  organ- 
ized on  a  militia  basis  in  nine  brigades.  There  were 
no  mechanized  units ;  the  army  possessed  very  little 
modern  artillery,  and  less  than  150  planes.  The 
small  Norwegian  navy  of  4  gunboats,  8  destroyers, 
and  9  submarines  was  lost  when  the  big  ports  were 
captured.  The  coast  defense  forces  at  Kristiansand 
resisted  the  German  landing  and  sank  the  cruiser 
Karlsruhe  by  gunfire.  It  was  under  these  discour- 
aging circumstances  and  with  this  limited  force 
that  the  Norwegian  Government  retired  from  Oslo 
to  Hamar  and  Elverum  to  prepare  further  resist- 
ance. 

The  Naval-Air  Struggle.  At  the  close  of 
April  9  not  more  than  20,000  Germans  had  been 
landed  in  Norway.  With  Allied  promises  of  aid  to 
Norway,  the  success  of  the  German  campaign  de- 
pended upon  the  speed  with  which  she  could  rein- 
force her  small  garrisons  in  the  captured  ports 
Unless  Germany  could  throw  more  men  into  the 
ports  and  maintain  lines  of  supply,  they  would  ul- 
timately be  destroyed  by  Allied  and  Norwegian 
forces.  The  principal  Allied  objective  became  to 
prevent  such  reinforcements  from  reaching  the 
Germans  in  Norway. 

Hopes  were  widespread  that  the  British  navy, 
which  had  failed  to  prevent  die  daring  German 
landings,  would  now  be  able  to  attack  the  sea  com- 
munications between  Germany  and  Norway.  Win- 
ston Churchill  made  promises  in  Parliament  on 
April  12  that  every  German  ship  in  the  Skagerrak 
and  Kattegat  would  be  sunk.  But  naval  operations 
in  areas  controlled  by  land-based  German  air  squad- 
rons proved  to  be  extremely  difficult.  The  task  of 
sinking  German  transports  in  the  Skagerrak  had 
to  be  entrusted  to  British  submarines.  Perhaps  the 
German  success  in  striking  the  British  battlecruiser 
Rodney  with  a  1000  Ib.  bomb  in  the  first  days  of 
the  campaign  caused  British  heavy  units  to  shun 
the  coastal  area. 

In  any  event  the  British  fleet  failed  to  bring  any 
heavy  German  units  to  battle  save  for  an  indecisive 
clash  between  the  Renown  and  the  Scharnhorst  off 
Narvik.  Farther  north  outside  the  immediate  zone 
of  German  air  supremacy  British  naval  units  acted 
with  more  resolution.  A  small  British  destroyer 
flotilla  (five  ships  led  by  Captain  Warburton-Lee) 
rushed  into  Narvik  fjord  on  April  12  to  attack  the 
German  destroyer  forces  and  though  sinking  some 
German  craft  was  forced  to  retire  with  the  loss  of 
two  vessels.  This  reverse  was  avenged  on  April  14 
when  the  battleship  Warspite  and  nine  destroyers 
entered  Narvik  fjord  and  sank  the  whole  flotilla 
of  seven  German  destroyers.  Elsewhere  there  were 
no  major  German  naval  losses  though  many  trans- 
ports were  reported  sunk. 

Since  Trondheim,  the  principal  port  in  central 
Norway,  was  spacious  enough  to  permit  operations 
of  large  naval  units,  proposals  were  put  forward 
in  Britain  that  the  port  be  rushed  by  heavy  units 
of  the  fleet.  Admiral  Sir  Roger  Keyes  of  Zeebrugge 
fame  offered  to  take  command  of  this  necessarily 
hazardous  mission.  It  was  decided,  however,  that 
Allied  landing  parties  operating  from  north  and 
south  of  Trondheim  could  force  the  German  gar- 


International 

NAZI  TROOPS  LAND  IN  NORWAY 
In  an  unnamed  i>ort  men,  trucks,  and  supplies  are  unloaded  to  effect  the  more  complete  occupation  of  the  country 


Wide  World 

NAMSOS  STRUGGLES  BACK  TO  LIFE 

A  few  new  buildings  emphasize  the  completeness  of  the  destruction  of  this  Norwegian  port ,  attacked  by  German  bomkr*  after 
the  landing  of  British  troops  A  ruined  church  m  upper  tenter 


Acme 


BRITISH  NAVAL  ATTACKS  ON  NARVIK 
German  transport  ships  grounded  and  sunk  m  the  attack  on  April  10th 


International 

KING  HAAKON  (CENTER)  AND  (  RQWN  PRINCE  OLAV  (LEFT)  IN  PLIGHT  PROM  GERMAN  AIRMEN 
DURING  RAID  ON  A  SMALL  TOWN  IN  WHICH  THEY  HAD  TAKEN  REFUGE 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


225 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


risen  out  with  less  difficulty.  This  decision  led  to 
the  organization  of  an  Allied  expeditionary  force 
which  reached  Norway  on  April  15. 

Allied  Land  Force  Defeated.  Before  the  Nor- 
wegian campaign  was  many  hours  old,  it  became 
apparent  that  the  German  high  command  was  mak- 
ing energetic  use  of  its  air  force  to  reinforce  the 
troops  in  Norway.  This  was  particularly  true  of 
the  small  force  at  Narvik  which  was  a  full  1000 
miles  removed  from  German  bases  by  sea.  When 
the  Allied  expeditionary  force  under  Gen.  Carton 
de  Wiart  reached  Norway  on  April  15,  it  was 
forced  to  disembark  in  the  small  secondary  ports 
of  Laerdal,  Namsos,  Aandalsnes,  Aalesund,  Molde, 
and  Bodoe.  These  ports  lacked  dock  and  harbor 
facilities  for  handling  heavy  equipment  The  land- 
ing took  place  without  great  loss  but  the  Allied 
force  soon  came  under  heavy  attack  from  German 
air  squadrons.  It  was  found  that  the  Allied  expedi- 
tionary force  consisted  in  part  of  raw  territorial 
units  and  French  colonial  troops.  There  was  a 
tragic  shortage  of  anti-aircraft  equipment.  The 
Royal  Air  Force  operated  under  the  handicap  of 
having  to  fly  from  British  bases  or  carriers  while 
the  Germans  enjoyed  the  use  of  Norwegian  air 
fields. 

One  Allied  column  operating  with  Norwegian 
support  made  an  advance  southward  from  Namsos 
toward  the  railway  line  connecting  Trondheim 
with  Oslo.  Another  column  moved  west  and  north- 
ward from  Aandalsnes  and  Molde  toward  Dombaas 
and  Stoeren.  Had  either  of  these  movements  been 
made  with  sufficient  speed  and  strength  the  whole 
German  campaign  in  Norway  might  have  been 
frustrated.  But  the  Allied  expeditionary  force 
turned  out  to  be  only  some  12,000  men.  The  troops 
moving  from  Namsos  ran  into  a  savage  German 
counter  attack  at  Steinkjer  and  retreated  under 
heavy  air  bombardment.  Bombing  raids  by  Ger- 
man planes  turned  Namsos  into  a  veritable  sham- 
bles. 

For  a  time  it  seemed  that  the  Allied  advance  to- 
ward Dombaas  would  be  successful,  but  Gen.  Nik- 
olaus  von  Falkenhorst  moved  mechanized  columns 
with  such  unexpected  speed  up  the  Osterdaal  and 
Gudbrandsdaal  that  a  juncture  with  the  German 
forces  at  Trondheim  was  made  on  April  30.  This 
surprising  development  nullified  the  strategy  and 
purpose  of  the  Allied  expeditionary  force,  and 
amid  quarrels  with  the  Norwegian  army  command 
the  whole  force  was  evacuated  from  the  Trond- 
heim area  by  May  3.  The  bulk  of  the  Norwegian 
forces  surrendered.  The  Norwegian  King  and  mem- 
bers of  the  government  announced  their  determina- 
tion to  continue  the  struggle,  and  did  so,  first  in 
the  Narvik  district  and  later  from  England.  See 
NORWAY  under  History. 

Narvik  Abandoned.  Allied  landing  parties  and 
a  small  Norwegian  force  maintained  slow  pressure 
on  the  isolated  German  garrison  at  Narvik  and 
finally  captured  the  city  on  May  30.  This  minor 
triumph  was  almost  overlooked  in  the  confusion  of 
the  battle  of  Flanders.  In  the  face  of  the  defeat  of 
France  and  the  threat  of  a  German  invasion  of 
Britain,  the  Narvik  force  was  evacuated  on  June 
10.  As  if  to  set  the  seal  of  defeat  on  a  totally  un- 
happy venture,  the  British  navy  suffered  the  loss 
of  the  aircraft  carrier  Glorious,  two  destroyers 
and  two  transports  in  this  operation.  The  German 
victory  in  Norway  vastly  increased  the  blockade 
difficulties  of  the  British  by  extending  the  German 
control  of  the  coast  of  Europe  to  North  Cape. 
Though  German  losses  in  transport  tonnage  were 


heavy,  these  were  more  than  made  up  by  the 
amount  of  shipping  captured  in  Danish  and  Nor- 
wegian  ports. 

Official  German  reports  gave  the  total  casualties 
in  the  Norwegian  campaign  at  5296  killed  and 
wounded.  There  are  no  reliable  figures  available 
for  British,  French,  Polish,  and  Norwegian  losses. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  FLANDERS  :  MAY  10-JUNE  5 

The  sequence  of  events  in  May  and  June  shows 
that  the  Norwegian  campaign  of  April  was  part 
of  the  German  grand  strategy  of  1940.  The  occu- 
pation of  the  whole  coast  of  Norway  gave  the 
Germans  tremendous  advantages  in  the  naval  war 
against  Britain.  It  added  one  more  block  to  the 
Nazi-dominated  area  in  central  Europe.  In  view 
of  the  impending  German  assault  in  the  west  in 
May,  the  Norwegian  campaign  may  have  been  in- 
tended as  a  gigantic  diversion  to  draw  off  Allied 
strength  northward.  The  diversion  effect,  however, 
was  slight  since  the  Allies  did  not  send  large  forces 
to  Norway.  The  pretext  for  the  invasion  of  the 
Low  Countries  was  the  same  as  that  used  in  Den- 
mark and  Norway.  Holland  and  Belgium  were 
charged  with  being  parties  to  Allied  plots  to  use 
their  territories  as  a  base  of  operations  against 
Germany. 

There  had  been  only  local  action  on  the  western 
front  since  the  commencement  of  hostilities  in 
September,  1939.  Under  the  cautious  strategy  of 
Gamelin  the  French  had  made  short  advances  in 
the  German  territory  between  the  Maginot  line  and 
the  German  Westwall  in  the  fall  of  1939.  These 
gains  had  been  gradually  reduced  by  equally  cau- 
tious German  advances  in  the  winter  and  spring 
of  1940. 

Allied-German  Strategy  and  Forces.  The  es- 
sential strategy  of  Generalissimo  Marie  Gustave 
Gamelin  was  to  trick  the  Germans  into  a  costly 
attack  on  the  "impregnable"  Maginot  line.  If  nec- 
essary the  Allies  were  prepared  to  wait  until  the 
blockade  forced  Germany  to  attack  them  in  the 
west. 

The  Allied  defensive  plan  of  war  was  built  up 
around  the  famed  Maginot  line  protecting  France 
from  Switzerland  to  the  Belgian  frontier.  From 
that  point  northward  the  Allied  flank  was  covered 
by  Belgian  fortifications  extending  from  Mont- 
m£dy  to  Maastricht  and  by  the  strong  Albert  Canal 
line  to  Antwerp.  There  were  strong  fortifications 
along  the  Meuse  at  Liege  and  Namur,  and  a  rear 
defensive  line  along  the  Dyle  river.  Some  of  these 
works,  especially  the  modern  forts  at  Liege,  were 
held  to  be  equal  to  any  in  Europe.  The  defensive 
positions  of  the  Netherlands  included  a  forward 
ijssel  line,  the  Grebbe-Peel  line,  and  the  Fortress 
of  Holland  line. 

These  defensive  positions  depended  for  their  full 
efficiency  on  a  system  of  inundations  and  on  the 
destruction  of  the  main  bridges  over  Dutch  rivers. 
After  King  Leopold  of  Belgium  had  renounced 
the  French  alliance  in  1936,  the  French  contem- 
plated extending  the  Maginot  line  northward  to 
the  sea,  but  by  the  spring  of  1940  it  consisted 
merely  of  a  few  strong  points  supported  by  a  chain 
of  concrete  pill-boxes.  At  no  place  north  of  Mont- 
m6dy  did  the  Maginot  extension  approach  the  scale 
or  strength  of  the  Maginot  line  proper.  The  com- 
bined strength  of  all  these  positions,  however,  was 
regarded  as  so  great  that  a  German  attack  was 
regarded  as  unlikely  by  many  military  critics.  The 
Allied  defensive  scheme  of  war  had  received  its 
most  convincing  explanation  just  prior  to  the  out- 


BUROPBAN  WAR  236 

break  of  war  in  1939  In  Capt  R  H.  Liddcll  Hart'a 
book  77w  Defence  of  Bntai*. 

When  the  German  assault  came  on  May  10  the 
western  front  was  defended  by  115  divisions  of  the 
Metropolitan  army  of  France  (General  Gamelin, 
generalissimo),  by  10  divisions  of  the  British  Ex- 
peditionary Force  (General  Viscount  Gort,  com- 
mander-in-chief),  by  16  Belgian  divisions  (King 
Leopold  in  command),  and  by  14  Dutch  divisions 
(Gen.  Henri  Winkelman,  coramander-in -chief). 
Against  these  forces  the  German  high  command 
(Gen.  Wilhelm  Keitel,  chief  of  staff  of  the  Ger- 
man armed  forces,  and  Gen.  Walther  von  Brau- 
chitsch,  commander-in-chief  of  the  field  armies) 
could  concentrate  a  force  of  from  150-200  divi- 
sions, giving  them  a  slight  initial  advantage  in  num- 
bers but  not  the  three-to-one  superiority  in  mass 
held  to  be  essential  for  success  in  an  attack.  The 
lack  of  co-ordination  between  the  Allied-Dutch- 
Belgian  forces  could  be  counted  on  to  increase  the 
German  advantages  in  numbers.  By  their  assump- 
tion of  the  initiative  and  ability  to  concentrate 
mechanized  strength  and  air  power  at  the  decisive 
point,  the  Germans  gained  fatal  advantages  over 
the  Allies  whose  separate  air  forces  and  mechan- 
ized units  were  necessarily  employed  piecemeal 
and  without  maximum  effect. 

The  battle  of  Flanders  was  but  a  part  of  the 
German  plan  of  war.  It  contemplated  the  destruc- 
tion in  detail  of  the  Dutch  and  Belgian  armies,  a 
break  through  to  the  coast  endangering  northern 
Allied  units,  and  a  final  decisive  battle  against 
France  from  a  position  outflanking  the  Maginpt 
line.  The  German  plan  was  original  and  daring  in 
conception.  It  went  counter  to  the  main  German 
strategic  concepts  which  since  1896  reflected  the 
views  of  Count  Alfred  von  Schlieffen. 

The  German  movement  in  the  west  was  heralded 
by  widespread  German  bombing  attacks  on  Allied, 
Dutch,  and  Belgian  air  bases.  This  attack  delivered 
in  the  early  morning  hours  of  May  10  caught  the 
Allied  air  force  napping.  Since  aerial  warfare  had 
been  confined  to  reconnaissance  flights  and  indi- 
vidual dog-fights,  they  were  unprepared  for  this 
sudden  attack  on  their  bases.  Many  planes  were  de- 
stroyed on  the  ground,  French,  Dutch,  and  Belgian 
cities  far  behind  the  lines  which  had  enjoyed  com- 
plete immunity  from  attack  felt  the  power  of  Ger- 
man bombers.  The  "phony"  war  in  the  west  sud- 
denly became  real.  As  if  acting  upon  the  Schlieffen 
plan,  German  troops  invaded  Holland  and  Belgium 
before  daybreak.  General  Gamelin  was  so  certain 
of  the  course  of  the  German  attack  that  his  order 
of  the  day  included  the  phrase  "the  attack  which 
we  have  been  expecting  since  September  has  at 
last  arrived." 

Conquest  of  the  Netherlands.  The  German 
attack  on  Holland  was  entrusted  to  seven  divisions 
of  the  18th  army  (General  von  Keuchler)  which 
advanced  in  three  columns.  One  crossed  the  Dutch 
f  rontier  in  the  north  and  moved  directly  toward 
Utrecht.  Another  column  crossed  the  Gennep 
bridge,  broke  through  the  Ijssel  line  and  advanced 
toward  Hertogenbosch  which  it  captured  after  two 
days.  A  third  column  crossed  the  frontier  at  Roer- 
mond  and  advanced  in  the  direction  of  Breda.  Al- 
though the  Dutch  army  opposing  the  advance  of 
these  columns  consisted  of  twice  the  number  of 
divisions,  they  were  unable  to  hinder  the  advance 
due  to  the  failure  to  destroy  important  bridges  and 
to  the  helplessness  of  the  Dutch  forces  under  Ger- 
man air  attack.  Most  important  of  all  was  the  stun- 
ning "vertical  envelopment"  of  the  Dutch  rear  car- 


BVROPEAN  WAR 


ried  out  by  German  parachute  troops  and  fifth 
column  elements. 

Before  the  Dutch  had  begun  to  fight  parts  of 
their  capital  and  many  of  their  important  commu- 
nications centers  were  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 
Parachute  troops  had  been  employed  by  the  Rus- 
sians in  Finland  but  with  such  scant  success  that 
no  army  in  the  world  save  the  Germans  took  them 
seriously  before  May  10.  Early  in  the  morning 
German  parachute  troops  were  landed  at  the  Waal- 
haven  airport  in  Rotterdam  and  took  possession  of 
that  vital  point.  German  seaplanes  landed  troops 
in  the  Maas  River.  Innocent  looking  barges  lying 
in  the  harbor  discharged  fully  equipped  German 
troops.  Street  fighting  spread  through  the  city. 
Similar  landings  took  place  at  The  Hague,  at  Delft, 
and  at  Dordrecht 

These  troops  and  Dutch  Nazi  sympathizers  made 
it  possible  for  the  Germans  to  capture  the  vital 
bridges  at  Gennep,  Roermond,  Moerdijk,  and  Dor- 
drecht intact.  The  Dutch  were  prepared  to  wage 
war  in  the  conventional  1914-18  pattern,  but  they 
were  utterly  unprepared  for  the  confusion  which 
followed  these  developments.  General  Winkelman, 
who  anticipated  a  long  struggle  against  the  Ger- 
mans, found  himself  trying  to  direct  operations 
from  his  headquarters  in  The  Hague  whilst  street 
fighting  was  raging  around  him  on  the  first  day  of 
the  assault. 

Dutch  appeals  for  help  made  on  the  morning  of 
May  10  brought  a  French  motorized  division  as 
far  north  as  Breda  by  May  11.  This  remarkably 
speedy  transport  performance  came  to  naught,  how- 
ever, when  the  French  units  became  involved  in 
the  general  confusion  and  retreated  without  mate- 
rially affecting  the  course  of  the  battle.  The  Ger- 
man armored  column  which  took  Hertogenbosch 
on  May  12  advanced  over  the  Moerdijk  bridge  and 
joined  with  the  German  parachute  troops  at  Dor- 
drecht on  May  13.  Contact  was  also  made  with  the 
German  troops  at  Rotterdam  where  severe  fighting 
raged  around  the  airport.  Efforts  of  the  German 
parachute  troops  to  capture  the  Royal  family  caused 
them  to  seek  refuge  in  Britain.  By  the  night  of 
May  13  confusion  reigned  supreme  in  Holland. 
The  Dutch  field  army  had  been  cut  in  two  by  the 
rapid  penetration  of  German  mechanized  columns. 
Allied  reinforcements  began  to  retreat  as  soon  as 
they  arrived  It  was  in  these  circumstances  that 
the  German  high  command  made  use  of  the  Ger- 
man air  force  to  crack  Dutch  morale  and  force  a 
speedy  termination  of  hostilities. 

At  noon  on  May  14  the  German  Luftwaffe  car- 
ried out  a  systematic  bombing  of  the  business  dis- 
trict of  Rotterdam  which  lasted  for  an  hour  and  a 
half.  Fifty-four  planes  operating  from  a  field  close 
to  the  Dutch  border  flew  over  the  city  in  relays 
dropping  their  bombs  in  formation  and  quickly  re- 
turning with  another  load.  The  Dutch  anti-aircraft 
defense  system  was  undergoing  reorganization  when 
the  war  broke  out ;  the  Dutch  air  force  had  been 
virtually  grounded  by  the  loss  of  its  airports,  and 
the  German  bombers  were  able  to  carry  out  the 
attack  without  interference.  The  raid  devastated 
seven  solid  blocks  of  apartment  houses  and  depart- 
ment stores,  and  set  fire  to  the  water  front.  Thou- 
sands of  civilians  (Dutch  estimates  say  20,000  to 
30,000)  were  killed  and  wounded.  There  were  no 
adequate  air-raid  shelters  in  large  Dutch  cities; 
and  under  the  German  threat  to  carry  out  similar 
raids  on  Amsterdam,  Utrecht,  and  The  Hague, 
General  Winkelman  was  forced  to  suspend  hostili- 
ties at  4  pjn.  on  May  14.  The  armistice  was  opera- 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


227 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


tive  in  all  Dutch  provinces  except  Zeetand  where  a 
•mall  British  landing  party  was  trying  to  evacuate. 
The  Royal  Dutch  Navy  was  ordered  to  continue  a 
defense  of  Dutch  colonial  possessions.  See  NETHER- 
LANDS, THE,  under  History. 

So  rapid  had  been  the  collapse  of  Dutch  resist- 
ance that  when  the  armistice  came  the  Dutch  army, 
though  completely  outmaneuvered,  was  still  intact. 
Its  losses,  which  were  at  first  widely  set  at  40  per 
cent  of  their  effectives,  turned  out  to  be  less  than 
23,000  men.  When  the  Dutch  experience  was  added 
to  that  of  Poland  and  Norway,  it  showed  how 
completely  inadequate  were  the  conventional  con- 
cepts of  defense  against  total  war. 

German  Diversion  against  Belgium.  While 
the  18th  German  army  was  completing  the  destruc- 
tion of  Holland,  the  6th  (General  Reichenau)  and 
4th  German  armies  (General  yon  Kluge)  made  an 
attack  on  Belgium  accompanied  by  extensive  air 
raids  on  Belgian  airports.  The  6th  army  moved 
across  the  Maastricht  district  of  Holland  and  ad- 
vanced directly  against  the  Albert  Canal  position. 
Air  infantry  enabled  them  to  capture  two  bridges 
intact  and  make  a  crossing  of  the  water  line.  The 
4th  army  astonished  the  world  by  capturing  power- 
ful Fort  Eben  Emael  on  May  12  and  the  city  of 
Liege  on  May  13.  Fort  Eben  Emael  was  the  key 
to  the  Meuse  defenses  and  its  early  fall  dismayed 
the  Allied  world.  The  capture  of  this  great  strong 
point,  at  first  attributed  to  a  "secret  weapon,"  was 
in  reality  brought  about  by  a  remarkably  co-ordi- 
nated attack  by  pioneer  (engineer)  battalions  and 
air  troops  landed  by  parachute  or  glider  in  the 
courtyard  of  the  fort.  The  German  troops  engaged 
were  said  to  have  carried  out  practises  on  a  model 
of  the  fort  constructed  in  Poland  during  the  win- 
ter. Immediately  after  the  fall  of  the  city  of  Liege, 
the  6th  army  pressed  forward  along  the  Meuse  in 
the  direction  of  Namur  and  Thionville.  Thus  far 
the  German  movements  in  the  north  looked  essen- 
tially like  the  Schlieffen  plan. 

As  if  in  automatic  response  to  the  heavy  attacks 
of  the  4th  and  6th  German  armies  in  Belgium,  Al- 
lied reinforcements  sped  northward  with  trucks 
and  tanks  on  May  11.  These  forces  consisted  of 
the  7th  French  army  (General  Billotte),  the  1st 
French  army  (General  Blanchard),  and  the  Brit- 
ish Expeditionary  Force  (General  Gort).  Together 
with  the  French  Cavalry  Corps  (General  Pnoux), 
the  "relief"  force  comprised  30  divisions  of  the 
best  trained  and  equipped  troops  in  France.  The 
movement  northward  was  carried  out  with  such 
speed  that  by  May  14  all  these  divisions  were  north 
of  the  Belgian  frontier.  When,  therefore,  the  main 
German  blow  fell  at  Sedan  on  May  14  breaking 
the  Maginot  extension,  these  30  divisions  were 
north  of  the  break-through  point 

Elsewhere  in  the  war  the  Allied  relief  forces  had 
been  too  weak  and  too  late.  In  this  case  ironically 
they  were  too  fast  They  no  sooner  reached  Bel- 
gian soil  than  the  whole  strategic  purpose  of  their 
arrival  was  nullified  by  the  German  break-through 
at  Sedan.  After  May  15  it  was  no  longer  a  ques- 
tion of  the  defense  of  Belgium.  Their  main  objec- 
tive became  to  escape  the  gigantic  trap  into  which 
they  had  fallen.  This  was  the  crowning  blow  of 
the  war. 

JHfS-11!11?.  9«rman  Attack  at  Sedan.  While 
the  Allied  relief  forces  moved  northward  into  Bel- 
gium, the  main  strategic  aims  of  the  German  at- 
tack became  clear.  An  attack  was  made  on  May 
14  by  10  German  armored  divisions  of  the  2nd  and 
12th  German  armies  (Generals  Strauss  and  List) 


at  Sedan  with  the  9th  German  army  (General 
Weichs)  in  reserve.  Thus  a  total  mass  of  70  Ger- 
man divisions  fell  upon  the  weak  French  9th  army 
(General  Corap).  The  attack  was  prepared  by 
1000  dive  bombers  which  rained  destruction  on  the 
pill-boxes  of  the  Maginot  extension.  Combat  teams 
made  up  of  pioneers  and  shock  infantry  filtered 
between  French  strong  points,  blasted  pill-boxes 
and  mopped  up  small  units.  French  military  leader- 
ship and  training  was  not  equal  to  these  well-co- 
ordinated movements.  The  9th  French  army  was 
virtually  destroyed  as  a  fighting  force  in  two  days 
of  battle. 

Once  the  Maginot  extension  was  broken,  10  Ger- 
man armored  divisions  rolled  forward  to  Mlzi&res, 
then  to  St.  Quentin,  Peronne,  Amiens,  and  finally 
to  Abbeville,  which  was  reached  on  May  21.  The 
30  Allied  divisions  in  the  north  were  now  com- 
pletely cut  off  from  the  main  French  forces  in  the 
south.  Behind  the  steel  front  of  the  armored  divi- 
sions moved  the  2nd,  12th,  and  9th  German  armies, 
in  Mr.  Churchill's  phrase  "the  dull  brute  mass  of 
German  infantry."  What  at  first  appeared  to  be  a 
raid  of  armored  units  in  great  depth  (as  in  Poland) 
turned  out  to  be  the  amazingly  rapid  advance  of 
three  whole  German  armies  which  averaged  more 
than  25  miles  a  day.  The  German  armored  units 
which  reached  Abbeville  on  May  21,  turned  north- 
ward and  captured  Boulogne  on  May  26  Its  ad- 
vance was  checked  for  a  few  days  at  Calais  by  the 
heroic  resistance  of  British  territorial  units,  but 
by  June  1  the  German  column  was  threatening 
Dunkirk  from  the  south.  What  amazed  military 
critics  was  the  ability  of  the  German  army  to 
maintain  supplies  for  these  advance  forces.  The 
exploit  showed  the  closest  kind  of  co-ordination 
between  all  arms  in  the  German  army.  In  audacity 
and  execution  it  stood  unrivaled  in  military  history. 

Allied  Generals  Replaced.  Seven  days  of  war- 
fare in  the  west  was  sufficient  to  reveal  the  short- 
comings of  the  Gamelin  concept  of  war.  Prime 
Minister  Reynaud  had  never  sympathized  with  his 
views  and  had  been  on  the  point  of  replacing  him 
early  in  May.  Four  days  after  the  break-through 
at  Sedan  he  called  the  aged  Marshal  P6tain  from 
Madrid  to  assume  the  post  of  Vice-Premier.  On 
May  19  General  Gamelin  was  replaced  by  Gen 
Maxime  Weygand  who  had  arrived  from  Syria 
by  plane.  The  German  blow  on  May  10  toppled  the 
government  of  Mr.  Chamberlain,  and  Mr.  Churchill 
became  Prime  Minister  on  May  11.  On  May  26 
Gen.  Sir  Edmund  Ironside,  chief  of  the  Imperial 
General  Staff,  was  replaced  by  Gen  Sir  John  Greer 
Dill.  Thus  there  were  changes  in  command  in  both 
France  and  Britain  during  the  crisis  of  May. 

General  Weygand,  whose  attitude  on  arrival  in 
Paris  was  one  of  confidence,  made  several  trips 
over  the  Somme  battlefield  by  plane  and  attended 
a  number  of  conferences  with  French,  British,  and 
Belgian  leaders.  He  was  appalled  by  the  confusion 
created  by  the  German  break-through  to  the  coast, 
but  attempted  to  organize  a  counter  attack  to  cut 
the  Somme  gap.  Meantime  the  Allied  and  Belgian 
armies  in  the  north  retreated  steadily  under  pres- 
sure of  the  4th  and  6th  German  armies.  They  re- 
tired from  the  Dyle  line  to  the  Dendre  River  on 
May  17.  The  retirement  continued  until  May  27 
when  the  Allied  line  in  Flanders  formed  a  rough 
triangle  from  Dunkirk  to  Valenciennes  to  Bruges. 

Weygand's  efforts  to  organize  a  single  co-ordi- 
nated counter  attack  failed  when  General  Billotte 
was  killed  in  a  motor  accident  and  misunderstand- 
ings between  Generals  Ironside,  Blanchard,  and 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


228 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


<  -o 

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GERMANY  OCCUPIES  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES-I 

Upper  Left  A  finished  bridge  strung  over  a  row  of  small  Assault  boats  Abandoned  Belgian  barbed-wire  entanglements  may  be 
seen  on  the  opposite  shore  Upper  Right  German  soldiers  scale  a  partly  destroyed  Dutch  bridge  with  ladders  Below  A  German 
gun  on  the  Dutch  coast  ready  to  repel  British  attack  All  photos  from  International 


International 


Wide  World 

GERMANY  OCCUPIES  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES— II 

Abov*  The  Nazi  war  flag  is  raised  by  German  soldiers  over  the  City  Hall  in  Brussels.  Below  Belgians  in  panic-stricken  flight 

as  bombs  rain  upon  their  city 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


229 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


their  staffs  caused  delays.  On  account  of  this  fail- 
ure the  Allied  counter  attacks  against  the  Somme 
gap  were  made  in  uncoordinated  fashion.  Succes- 
sive attempts  at  Maubeuge  and  Valenciennes  on 
May  21,  at  Arras  on  May  22,  at  Cambrai  on  May 
23,  and  at  Amiens  on  May  24  failed.  At  no  one 
point  were  the  Allied  forces  in  sufficient  strength 
to  make  substantial  progress  against  the  German 
concentrations.  Thus,  though  every  armchair  strat- 
egist in  the  world  knew  that  a  decisive  Allied 
counter  attack  on  the  Somme  was  called  for,  it 
could  not  be  organized  under  the  existing  chaotic 
conditions. 

The  Evacuation  from  Dunkirk.  The  British 
Admiralty  began  to  concentrate  small  craft  soon 
after  May  14  from  their  pool  of  small  vessels. 
Plans  for  the  evacuation  of  the  British  Expedition- 
ary Force  must  have  been  made  long  in  advance, 
because  withdrawals  of  troops  began  at  Dunkirk 
as  early  as  May  20.  These  facts  were  not  known 
to  the  outside  world  at  the  time,  but  may  have  in- 
fluenced the  Belgian  King  in  his  decision  to  sur- 
render. On  May  28,  with  the  failure  of  the  Allied 
counter  offensive  apparent,  and  with  little  prospect 
of  evacuating  the  Belgian  army,  King  Leopold  ac- 
cepted terms  amounting  to  unconditional  surrender 
(see  BELGIUM  under  History).  This  exposed  the 
northern  flank  of  the  B.E  F.  and  speeded  up  the 
decision  to  evacuate  all  of  the  Flanders  force. 

Resistance  was  continued  on  the  Lys-Cassel  front 
until  June  1,  while  troops  and  equipment  poured 
into  Dunkirk  Though  units  of  the  1st  and  7th 
French  armies  and  of  the  B.E.F.  were  captured 
(German  estimates  at  85,000)  in  rearguard  actions, 
335,000  men  were  successfully  withdrawn  from 
Dunkirk  by  June  5.  The  French  Navy  employed 
over  200  vessels  of  all  types  in  this  strange  opera- 
tion, and  the  British  Navy  used  220  war  vessels  and 
650  other  small  craft.  Fortunately  for  the  French 
and  British  a  slight  haze  hindered  German  aviators 
and  the  weather  remained  calm.  Due  perhaps  to  the 
concentration  of  German  aircraft  in  the  Somme 
area  to  guard  against  possible  French  counter  at- 
tack, and  to  the  German  plans  for  an  attack  on  the 
Somme  front  which  were  laid  for  June  6,  the  Ger- 
man Luftwaffe  could  not  successfully  dispute  the 
local  mastery  of  the  air  over  Dunkirk  which  was 
maintained  during  the  evacuation  by  the  R.A.F. 

Though  the  evacuation  of  Dunkirk  under  Ger- 
man artillery  fire  and  air  attack  will  rank  among 
the  great  feats  of  military  history,  the  successful 
removal  of  335,000  men  from  the  Flanders  trap 
could  not  conceal  the  fact  that  by  June  5  the  Allied 
cause  had  suffered  a  disaster  of  first  magnitude. 
The  evacuating  armies  had  been  forced  to  aban- 
don all  their  military  equipment  except  rifles  and 
light  machine  guns.  The  amount  of  military  equip- 
ment which  fell  into  German  hands  cannot  be  esti- 
mated, but  it  comprised  the  very  best  tanks,  trucks, 
artillery,  and  ammunition  of  30  first  line  divisions. 
By  June  5  the  Germans  had  also  taken  over  all  the 
military  equipment  of  the  Dutch  and  Belgian  ar- 
mies. The  British  and  French  troops  rescued  from 
Dunkirk  could  not  be  equipped  for  many  months 
even  if  their  morale  was  equal  to  an  early  resump- 
tion of  combat  duty. 

Thus,  in  25  days  the  German  operations  in  the 
west  had  cut  down  the  total  Allied  forces  by  14 
Dutch,  16  Belgian,  and  30  French  and  British  divi- 
sions. The  military  destruction  of  these  60  divi- 
sions enabled  the  German  high  command  to  throw 
150-200  divisions  (minus  casualties)  against  ap- 
proximately 95  French  and  one  British  division  in 


the  battle  of  France.  The  numerical  advantage 
gained  by  the  Flanders  battle  was  far  greater  than 
the  mere  number  of  divisions  indicates,  because 
French  morale  had  suffered  tremendous  blows,  and 
in  view  of  Italy's  impending  belligerency  French 
divisions  had  to  be  maintained  on  the  Italian  fron- 
tier. Twenty-seven  of  the  available  French  divi- 
sions were  detailed  for  the  defense  of  the  Maginot 
line  and  were  not  available  for  the  defense  of  the 
"Weygand  line"  hastily  prepared  along  the  Somme- 
Aisne  front.  By  June  5  the  final  defeat  of  the 
French  armies  was  assured  even  if  20  days  of  fight- 
ing were  to  follow  before  the  surrender  took  place. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  FRANCE  :  JUNE  6  TO  JUNE  25 

The  Weygand  Line.  While  the  battle  of  Flan- 
ders was  drawing  to  its  dismal  conclusion,  Gener- 
al Weygand  made  frantic  efforts  to  prepare  the 
Somme- A isne- Maginot  line  for  the  blow  he  knew 
was  coming.  With  the  assistance  of  one  British 
division  he  was  forced  to  defend  a  long  river  line 
reaching  from  Montmedy  to  the  sea.  In  some  cases 
divisions  were  expected  to  cover  a  front  of  20 
miles  or  more.  He  wisely  adopted  the  system  of 
elastic  defense  in  depth.  Since  French  anti-tank 
guns  were  found  to  be  ineffective  against  German 
tank  armor,  75mm.  field  guns  were  employed  in 
mutually  supporting  positions.  Tanks  which  pene- 
trated the  front  positions  would  find  themselves 
facing  increasing  resistance  as  they  advanced.  The 
defensive  line  thus  created  was  called  the  "Wey- 
gand line."  Actually  it  was  merely  a  series  of  hast- 
ily dug  entrenched  positions  without  wire  or  tank 
obstacles.  The  terrain  along  the  Somme  and  the 
Aisne,  however,  favored  the  defense,  and  there 
were  hopes  that  energetic  and  intelligent  use  of 
the  scanty  French  reserves  would  enable  Weygand 
to  slow  up  if  not  check  the  coming  German  stroke. 
Preparations  were  made  in  Britain  to  ship  the 
1st  Canadian  division  (General  McNaughton)  to 
France,  but  it  arrived  too  late  to  be  of  service. 

The  German  Attack.  The  German  plan  of  at. 
tack  called  for  the  employment  of  all  three  Ger- 
man army  groups  in  the  west.  In  the  battle  of 
Flanders  only  the  army  groups  of  Bok  and  Rund- 
stedt  had  been  engaged.  The  southern  army  group 
of  General  von  Leeb  had  merely  acted  as  a  holding 
force.  In  the  operations  of  June  6  the  northern  ar- 
my group  (Bok)  was  to  attack  on  the  lower 
Somme  and  threaten  Paris  from  the  west  The 
central  army  group  (Rundstedt)  was  to  break 
through  the  Aisne  front  and  outflank  both  Paris 
and  the  Maginot  line.  The  southern  army  group 
(Leeb)  was  to  break  through  the  Maginot  line  and 
cut  off  the  retreating  French  armies  from  the 
south.  There  was  to  be  no  breathing  spell  between 
the  Flanders  battle  and  the  attack  against  France. 
The  fact  that  the  new  offensive  was  staged  the  day 
after  Dunkirk  fell  speaks  well  6f  the  organization 
behind  the  German  lines.  In  1918  Ludendorff  had 
been  forced  to  pause  for  weeks  between  his  great 
offensives. 

On  June  6  after  severe  fighting  the  army  group 
of  General  Bok  penetrated  the  French  defensive 
line  on  the  Somme  between  Abbeville  and  Amiens 
and  drove  rapidly  to  the  Bresle  river  and  the  sea 
at  Eu.  This  move  cut  off  some  20,000  French  and 
British  soldiers  who  were  pinned  to  the  coast  at 
St  Valery  and  captured.  On  June  7  the  German 
forces  crossed  the  Bresle  river  and  mechanized 
divisions  moved  rapidly  toward  Forges-les-Eaux 
which  was  captured  on  June  9.  From  this  point 
they  drove  in  a  southeasterly  direction  toward 


RUR09BAN  WAR 


230 


EUBOPBAN  WAR 


forma*  Library  of  Information 

THE  BATTLE  OF  FRANCE 
Showing  the  positions  of  German  and  French  lines  at  the  time  of  the  cessation  of  hostilities 


Gisors  and  Beauvais.  Rouen  fell  on  June  10,  the 
day  on  which  Italy  entered  the  war.  The  following 
day  with  the  Germans  some  30  miles  from  Paris, 
the  government  moved  to  Tours,  and  General 
Weygand  contemplated  a  stand  behind  the  Loire 
river.  On  June  13  Paris  was  declared  an  open  city 
and  on  June  14  the  advanced  troops  of  General 
Keuchler's  18th  army  entered  Paris  unopposed. 

Simultaneously. with  this  rapid  movement  on  the 
Somme  front,  the  central  German  army  group  un- 
der General  Rtrodstedt  made  a  heavy  attack  on 
the  French  positions  along  the  Aisne.  After  four 
days  of  bitter  fighting  the  French  front  along 
the  famous  Chemin-des-Dames  ridge  was  broken. 
Through  this  gap  the  armored  divisions  of  Gener- 
als Guderian  and  Kleist  raced  southward  with  the 
distant  objectives  of  Troyes  and  St.-Dizier. 

Fall  of  Paris.  The  rapid  and  deep  penetration 
of  these  columns  caused  a  general  retirement  of 
the  whole  French  front  On  June  13  the  German 
forces  had  crossed  the  Marne  river  and  threatened 
the  capital  from  the  east.  With  the  fall  of  Paris  on 
the  following  day,  the  armored  columns  of  Guderi- 
an and  Kleist  were  freed  to  move  southward  in  the 
direction  of  the  Swiss  frontier.  Since  Weygand 
had  determined  upon  a  stand  behind  the  Loire, 
French  troops  were  withdrawn  from  the  Maginot 
line  for  this  purpose.  Millions  of  refugees  clogged 
the  roads  making  troop  movements  difficult  Vir- 
tually unopposed  the  columns  of  Guderian  and 
Kleist  raced  southward  and  reached  the  Swiss 
frontier  near  Besancon  on  June  17.  In  audacity  of 
conception  and  execution  this  bold  raid  was  only 
exceeded  by  the  break-through  to  Abbeville  in 


May.  This  movement  cut  off  the  Maginot  line  and 
isolated  its  garrison. 

Maginot  Line  Shattered.  On  the  day  that 
Paris  fell  and  the  French  troops  were  recoiling 
from  the  blows  of  the  northern  and  central  army 
groups,  the  German  southern  army  group  of  Gen- 
eral von  Leeb  went  into  action  against  the  Maginot 
line.  Withdrawals  of  garrison  troops  had  cut  down 
its  crews  and  the  fortresses  were  able  to  offer  only 
token  resistance.  On  June  14  the  army  of  General 
Witzleben  broke  through  the  Maginot  line  near 
Saarbruecken  and  captured  Verdun  on  June  15. 
The  fall  of  this  mighty  fortress  and  symbol  of 
French  resistance  in  1916  profoundly  discouraged 
the  French  nation.  Farther  south  the  forces  of 
General  Dollman  broke  through  the  Maginot  line 
near  Cplmar  and  advanced  through  the  Vosges 
mountains  to  make  contact  with  the  armored  col- 
umns of  Guderian  and  Kleist  These  desperate  re- 
verses convinced  Marshal  P£tain  that  further  re- 
sistance was  useless.  On  June  17  he  appealed  to  the 
enemy  for  "honorable  terms." 

Military  operations  went  on  during  the  negotia- 
tions for  an  armistice  with  French  armies  offering 
ineffective  resistance.  The  approximate  positions  of 
the  German  troops  on  June  18  ran  from  Cher- 
bourg-Rennes-Orleans-Nevers-Pontalier.  When 
the  Franco-German  armistice  was  signed  at  Com- 
pi&gne  in  the  same  car  used  in  1918  on  June  22,  the 
German  armies  had  advanced  as  far  as  Brest- 
Lorsent-La  Roche-Vichy-Lyon-Bellegarde.  Con- 
tact with  the  advancing  Italian  forces  was  ap- 
proaching. The  Franco-German  armistice  became 
operative  only  after  the  conclusion  of  Franco-Ital- 


WAR 


231 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


ian  armistice  terms.  These  were  readied  on  June 
24  and  fighting  ceased  in  France  at  1  £5  A*im  Ger- 
man summer  time,  June  25.  The  German  line  of  occu- 
pation then  ran  from  Rochef ort-Poitiers-Qiaef eau- 
rox-L5moges-Clermont-Ferrand-St  $tienne-Belle- 
garde.  The  German  army  did  not  stop  its  advance, 
however,  until  it  reached  the  Spanish  frontier  on 
June  27.  This  gave  it  control  of  the  coast  line  of 
Europe  from  North  Cape  to  the  Pyrenees, 

Italian  operations  on  the  French  frontier  prior 
to  the  armistice  had  met  with  little  success.  Limit- 
ed advances  had  been  made  in  certain  areas  but  no 
major  clash  of  forces  took  place. 

German  Casualties.  German  official  reports 
gave  the  casualties  in  operations  from  May  10  to 
June  25  as  27,074  officers  and  men  killed,  18,384 
missing,  and  111,034  wounded.  Total  prisoners  cap- 
tured during  the  same  period  were  given  as  1,900,- 

000  men.  Captures  of  materiel  included  all  the 
equipment  of  55  French  divisions  and  the  guns  and 
equipment  of  the  Maginot  forts.  Figures  are  not 
available  for  French  casualties  in  the  period  May 
10  to  June  25. 

Terms  of  Franco-German  Armistice.  The 
first  10  articles  dealt  with  military  matters.  Article 

1  called  for  the  cessation  of  hostilities  and  the  sur- 
render of  all  weapons  in  the  hands  of  resisting 
troops.  Article  2  provided  for  the  German  occupa- 
tion of  all  French  territory  north  of  a  line  from 
the  Spanish  frontier  at  St.  Jean-Pied-de-Port  to 
Mont-de-Marsan  to  Angouleme  to  Loches  to  Vier- 
zon  to  Bourses  to  Moulin  to  Paray  to  Chalon  to 
Dole  to  the  Swiss  frontier  Article  3  defined  Ger- 
man rights  within  the  occupied  zone.  Article  4 
called  for  the  demobilization  of  all  French  forces 
except  those  required  to  maintain  order.  Article  5 
demanded  the  surrender  in  good  condition  of  all 
military  equipment  in  the  unoccupied  zone.  Article 
6  provided  that  military  equipment  not  required  for 
the  preservation  of  order  should  be  stored  in  Ger- 
man hands  and  forbade  the  manufacture  of  mili- 
tary equipment  in  unoccupied  France.  Article  7 
called  for  the  surrender  in  an  undamaged  condition 
of  land  and  coastal  fortifications  in  the  occupied 
zone.  Article  8  provided  for  the  demobilization  in 
specified  ports  of  the  French  navy  under  German 
and  Italian  control  excepting  certain  units  for  the 
protection  of  the  French  colonial  empire.  The  Ger- 
man Government  solemnly  declared  its  intention 
not  to  employ  French  naval  units  thus  surrendered 
for  war  purposes  except  units  necessary  for  guard- 
ing the  coasts  and  sweeping  mines.  The  German 
Government  further  expressly  declared  that  no 
further  demands  respecting  the  French  fleet  would 
be  made  at  the  conclusion  of  a  peace.  Article  9 
demanded  that  the  location  of  all  French  mines  be 
given  and  required  French  aid  in  sweeping  them 
up.  Article  10  required  a  pledge  of  the  French 
Government  to  forbid  any  armed  forces  from  un- 
dertaking resistance  to  Germany  in  any  manner. 
French  citizens  and  members  of  the  armed  forces 
were  to  be  prevented  from  leaving  France  to  fight 
against  Germany  and  Italy. 

Articles  11  to  21  dealt  with  matters  of  transport, 
shipping,  radio,  air  service,  prisoners  of  war,  and 
the  cost  of  occupation  by  German  troops.  These 
articles  placed  French  shipping  under  German  con- 
trol, placed  a  German  censorship  on  all  radio  com- 
munications, demanded  the  repair  and  maintenance 
of  harbors,  industrial  facilities,  and  railways  in 
the  occupied  zone  by  the  French  Government.  The 
French  Government  was  called  upon  to  facilitate 
the  transit  of  freight  from  Germany  to  Italy 


through  the  unoccupied  zone.  There  was  to  be  no 
transfer  of  economic  valuables  from  the  unoccu- 
pied zone  abroad  or  from  the  occupied  zone  to  the 
unoccupied  zone.  The  French  Government  was  to 
pay  the  costs  of  German  occupation.  All  German 
prisoners  of  war  in  French  hands  were  to  be 
released.  French  prisoners  in  German  hands  were 
to  be  held  until  the  conclusion  of  a  formal  peace. 
Articles  21-24  provided  French  responsibilities  for 
the  observation  of  terms,  set  up  an  Armistice  Com- 
mission to  deal  with  questions  arising,  and  provided 
for  penalties  in  case  of  French  failure  to  fulfill 
obligations. 

Franco-Italian  Armistice  Terms.  The  first 
six  articles  of  the  armistice  dealt  with  military  and 
naval  terms.  Article  1  called  for  the  cessation  of 
all  hostilities.  Article  2  provided  that  the  Italian 
forces  would  maintain  the  line  occupied  at  the  mo- 
ment hostilities  ceased.  Article  3  set  up  a  demili- 
tarized zone  to  be  drawn  50  kilometers  in  advance 
of  the  Italian  lines  in  Metropolitan  France.  The 
Tunisian-Libyan  frontier  was  to  be  demilitarized. 
In  Algeria  and  in  French  African  territories  south 
of  Algeria  bordering  on  Libva  a  demilitarized  zone 
200  kilometers  wide  was  to  be  maintained  until  the 
conclusion  of  peace.  Italy  was  to  receive  full  rights 
to  use  the  port  of  Djibouti  in  French  Somaliland 
and  the  French  section  of  the  Djibouti- Addis  Aba- 
ba railway.  The  coast  of  French  Somaliland  was 
to  be  demilitarized.  All  demilitarized  zones  were 
to  be  evacuated  by  French  troops  within  10  days. 
For  the  duration  of  the  Italian  war  against  Britain 
the  fortified  areas  and  naval  bases  of  Toulon, 
Bizerta,  Ajaccio,  and  Oran  were  to  be  demilita- 
rized. The  remaining  articles  of  the  Franco-Italian 
armistice  conformed  to  articles  4-24  of  the  Franco- 
German  armistice. 

EFFECTS  OF  THE  FALL  OF  FRANCE 
The  most  important  immediate  effect  of  the  fall 
of  France  was  that  it  brought  Italy  into  the  war 
The  Italian  half  of  the  Axis  did  not  join  in  the 
military  effort  of  the  "new  order  in  Europe"  until 
the  defeat  of  France  had  been  assured  by  German 
action.  Her  belligerency  was,  therefore,  only  im- 
portant in  terms  of  the  war  against  Britain.  From 
a  purely  military  standpoint  the  resources  she 
threw  into  the  balance  were  considerable.  The 
Italian  army  (Marshal  Pietro  Badoglio,  chief  of 
staff)  consisted  of  54  infantry  divisions,  3  mech- 
anized divisions,  2  motorized  divisions,  3  celere 
(speed)  divisions,  and  5  divisions  of  Alpine  troops. 
The  Italian  divisions  were  smaller  in  size  than 
most  European  divisions  which  made  for  easy  han- 
dling. Many  units  of  the  armed  forces  had  seen 
active  service  in  Ethiopia  and  Spain.  The  Italian 
air  force  was  estimated  at  3000  first  line  planes. 
Her  navy  made  a  welcome  addition  to  Axis  sea 
power  in  the  war  against  Britain.  The  fleet  was 
made  up  of  6  battleships,  7  heavy  cruisers,  15  light 
cruisers,  62  fast  destroyers,  90  modern  submarines, 
and  many  fast  torpedo-carrying1  motor  boats. 

The  addition  of  Italian  sea  power  to  the  Axis 
and  the  occupation  of  the  whole  coast  of  Europe 
from  Norway  to  the  Pyrenees  by  the  Germans 
multiplied  British  naval  problems.  In  view  of  the 
greatly  extended  tasks  of  the  British  fleet,  the 
ultimate  disposition  of  the  French  fleet  became  a 
matter  of  vital  concern.  If  Germany,  contrary  to 
her  armistice  promises,  employed  the  surrendered 
French  vessels  against  Britain,  Axis  sea  power 
would  clearly  threaten  the  British  naval  position. 
Certain  French  naval  forces  had  taken  refuge  in 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


232 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


ITALIAN 


EAST     AFRICA 


BRITISH 
LAND 


MOROCCO  ^J     ALGERIA 


ANGLO-EGYPTIAN 
SUDAN  J 


FRENCH     WEST     AFRICA 


TERRITORIAL  TERMS  OF  FRANCO-GERMAN  AND  FRANCO-ITALIAN  ARMISTICES 

Showing  the  area  in  France  occupied  by  (krman  troopt  (1);  the  demilitarised  lone  along  .the  Italian  frontier,  emending  SO  kilometeri 
beyond  the  Italian*1  most  advanced  line  (2)  j  French  naval  bases  at  ^ 
Oran  in  Algiers  that  were  demffltarUe* 

obtained  full  rights  to  use  the  port  of  _, — 

Libyan  border,  where  France  wm§  obliged  to  demilitarize  strong  frontier  fo 
meters  wide  along  the  remainder  of  the  Libyan-French  African  frontier! 


British  ports.  These  were  quietly  taken  over  by 
the  British  on  July  1.  Other  units  were  interned 
by  vote  of  the  crews  at  Alexandria.  A  considerable 
force  of  heavy  ships  had  fled  to  Oran  in  Alge- 
ria. These  vessels  included  the  battleship  Bretagne 
(22,189  tons),  the  battle  cruisers  Dunkerque  (26,- 
000  tons).  Provence  (26,000  tons),  and  the  Stras- 
bourg (26,500  tons),  the  airplane  tender  Comman- 
dant Teste,  light  cruisers  and  destroyers.  The  un- 
finished battleship  Richelieu  (30,000  tons)  took 
refuge  in  Dakar,  Senegal. 

Battle  of  Oran.  These  heavy  naval  units  had  to 
be  prevented  from  falling  into  Axis  hands.  Ac- 


cordingly on  July  3,  the  British  fleet  based  on 
Gibraltar  (Vice  Admiral  Sir  James  F.  Someryille) 
consisting  of  3  battleships,  1  aircraft  carrier,  3 
cruisers,  and  destroyers  served  a  six-hour  ultima- 
tum on  the  French  commander,  Vice  Admiral 
Marcel  Gensoul.  The  ultimatum  demanded  (a)  that 
the  French  fleet  at  Oran  join  the  British  or  be  in- 
terned in  British  ports,  (b)  that  the  French  vessels 
be  interned  in  American  ports,  (c)  or  that  the  ves- 
sels be  scuttled  by  their  crews.  Failing  the  accept- 
ance of  any  of  these  alternatives,  the  vessels  would 
be  destroyed  by  British  action. 
Admiral  Gensoul  allowed  the  time  allotted  to 


Black  Stor 


A  CITY  "SOMEWHERE  IN  FRANCE" 
Advance  German  forces  enter  the  town  after  bombs  and  shells  have  beaten  down  the  French  resistance 


International 


A  HISTORIC  SCENE  IN  REVERSE 

In  the  same  railway  car  in  which,  twenty-two  years  earlier,  German  delegates  listened  to  the  terms  of  the  Armistice,  French 
d?1SffaLes  now  near  the  terms  of  French  surrender  acceptable  to  the  Nazi  Fuehrer.  Gen  Wilhelm  Keitel  (standing),  German  Chief 
of  Staff,  is  reading  the  German  terms.  Starting  with  the  German  Foreign  Minister,  Joachim  von  Ribbentrop  (with  back  to 
camera),  those  seated  around  the  table  are  (left  to  right)  Adm.  Erich  Raeder,  head  of  German  Navy;  Marshal  Hermann 
peering,  Adolf  Hitler;  Gen  Walther  von  Brauchitsch  (facing  camera),  Commander-m- Chief  of  German  Army;  Rudolf  Hess 
(also  facing  camera),  deputy  leader  of  Nazi  Party.  Seated  on  the  right  are  the  French  delegates,  with  Gen.  Charles  Huntziger 
in  center  (in  light  uniform)  and  General  Bergeret  (nearest  the  camera) 


THE  EVACUATION  AT  DUNKIRK 

Above  British  and  French  troops,  trapped  and  surrounded  by  Nazi  forces,  \vait  on  the  shore  for  rescue  boats  from  England 
Below  Shallow  shores  prevented  the  close  approach  of  any  but  small  boats,  not  always  availablt  Here  nun  are  seen  wading 
to  their  chins  to  reach  a  Clyde  River  steamer  Both  photos  from  Wtde  World 


VICTORIOUS  GERMANS  PARADE  THROUGH  THE  ARC  DE  TRIOMPHE  IN  PARISj 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


233 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


expire  without  cither  replying  to  the  British  de- 
mands or  preparing  his  vessels  for  action.  When 
the  dead-line  arrived  and  no  response  had  been 
made  to  British  demands,  flights  of  bombers  from 
the  carrier  Ark  Royal  sowed  magnetic  mines 
across  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  and  the  guns  of 
the  British  fleet  opened  fire  at  long  range  on  the 
French  ships  at  anchor.  In  a  three-hour  action  the 
Bretagne,  Provence,  and  Commandant  Teste  were 
sunk  and  the  Dunkerque  was  driven  ashore  badly 
damaged.  The  Strasbourg  with  a  few  light  cruisers 
and  destroyers  escaped  under  a  smoke  screen  to 
the  safety  of  Toulon.  On  the  night  of  July  8  the 
French  battleship  Richelieu  was  severely  damaged 
in  the  harbor  at  Dakar  by  a  British  motor  launch 
which  exploded  several  depth  charges  under  its 
stern. 

These  sad  actions  between  former  allies  ac- 
counted for  all  the  heavy  units  of  the  French  fleet 
except  the  Strasbourg  and  the  unfinished  battle- 
ship Jean  Bart,  which  had  been  towed  to  Casa- 
blanca. French  naval  units  in  the  West  Indies  (the 
aircraft  carrier  Beam,  the  cruiser  Emile  Bertin, 
the  training  ship  Jeanne  d'Arc,  2  light  cruisers,  and 
4  destroyers)  were  watched  by  British  patrols  but 
made  no  effort  to  leave  their  bases.  The  immediate 
danger  that  French  sea  power  would  be  employed 
against  Britain  was  removed,  although  the  "mas- 
sacre" at  Oran  in  which  1000  French  sailors  lost 
their  lives  increased  French  ill  feeling  against 
Britain. 

Attack  on  Dakar.  Many  Frenchmen  who  did 
not  support  the  pro- Axis  policy  of  the  Vichy  Gov- 
ernment and  escaped  to  Britain,  joined  the  Free 
French  forces  of  Gen.  Charles  de  Gaulle,  who  had 
opposed  the  surrender.  He  now  attempted  to  utilize 
the  French  colonies  in  the  war  against  Germany 
and  Italy.  On  September  23,  supported  by  2  British 
battleships,  4  cruisers,  and  6  destroyers.  General  de 
Gaulle  attempted  to  take  Dakar,  the  cnief  French 
base  in  Senegal.  Gov.  Gen.  Pierre  Boisson  resisted 
and  successive  attempts  to  land  troops  of  the  Free 
French  army  at  Dakar  and  Rufisque  failed.  French 
air  squadrons  based  in  Morocco  raided  Gibraltar 
in  retaliation  on  September  24. 

For  a  time  the  fate  and  loyalty  of  the  French 
troops  in  Morocco,  Algeria,  Tunisia,  and  Syria 
(qq.v.)  remained  in  doubt  as  the  Vichy  Govern- 
ment attempted  to  maintain  the  torturous  policy  of 
defending  the  colonies  and  joining  the  new  order 
in  Europe.  In  view  of  the  publicly  announced  par- 
tition aims  of  the  Axis  calling  for  the  division  of 
Africa  into  Italian  and  German  spheres,  this  policy 
became  increasingly  unrealistic.  French  Equatorial 
Africa  (q.v.)  went  over  to  General  de  Gaulle,  and 
his  forces  occupied  Duala,  capital  of  the  Camer- 
oons  (q.v.)  on  October  10,  and  Libreville  in  Gabon 
on  November  11.  The  future  status  of  African 
colonies  became  uncertain.  Late  in  December  rival 
forces  were  gathering  themselves  for  a  decisive 
struggle  for  the  control  of  French  Africa.  See 
FRANCE  under  History. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  BRITAIN 
The  fall  of  France  found  Britain  in  an  extreme- 
ly vulnerable  position.  Her  expeditionary  force  of 
10  divisions  had  been  destroyed  as  a  military  force 
through  loss  of  all  their  heavy  equipment  It  would 
require  many  months  before  these  troops  could  be 
fitted  to  meet  the  enemy  in  combat.  Although  Ger- 
man military  writers  had  concerned  themselves 
with  the  possibility  of  an  invasion  of  Britain,  no 
responsible  British  official  held  this  to  be  possible 


before  the  collapse  of  France.  With  the  entire 
coast  of  Europe  in  German  hands  and  with  Ger- 
man shipping  losses  more  than  made  good  through 
capture  of  shipping  in  Norway,  Holland,  Belgium, 
and  France,  the  invasion  of  Britain  loomed  as  in- 
evitable in  July.  Herr  Hitler  promised  the  German 
people  that  he  would  destroy  the  British  and  con- 
quer the  islands. 

In  the  face  of  this  threat  Britain  turned  itself 
into  a  fortress  between  the  fall  of  France  and 
September.  Beaches,  roads,  bridges,  airfields,  har- 
bors, and  public  utilities  were  guarded.  American 
shipments  of  surplus  World  War  equipment  (900,- 
000  Enfield  rifles,  83,000  machine  guns,  2200  75mm. 
field  guns,  and  other  items)  enabled  the  rapid  re- 
arming of  British  troops.  A  vast  army  of  citizen 
soldiers  was  formed  into  a  Home  Guard.  Aircraft 
production  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Lord  Bea- 
yerbrook  and  reached  new  levels.  Under  the  inspir- 
ing leadership  of  Prime  Minister  Churchill,  Brit- 
ish morale  rose.  By  September  the  defenses  of  the 
islands  were  so  far  advanced  that  responsible  min- 
isters welcomed  a  German  invasion  attempt. 

From  the  standpoint  of  land  operations  the  fall 
of  France  left  Germany  and  Italy  in  an  unassail- 
able position  on  the  continent  of  Europe  Not  since 
the  days  of  Napoleon  had  such  crushing  military 
power  been  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  a  few 
men.  With  military  and  national  morale  high  in 
Germany  after  the  defeats  of  Poland,  Norway, 
Holland,  Belgium,  and  France,  there  seemed  no 
possibility  of  early  internal  collapse.  The  military 
conquests  and  subsequent  diplomatic  victories  re- 
duced the  effects  of  the  British  blockade  on  Ger- 
many. Requisitions  enforced  with  an  iron  hand  on 
the  conquered  territories  augmented  German  re- 
serves of  food  and  raw  materials.  Germany  and 
Italy  could  dispose  of  200-250  divisions  of  well- 
equipped  troops  and  enjoyed  a  three  to  one  advan- 
tage over  Britain  in  airpower.  Only  in  the  realm 
of  sea  power  were  they  at  a  disadvantage. 

From  June  25  to  late  in  August  the  German  ar- 
my in  France  was  busy  in  preparing  advance  bases 
for  the  war  against  Britain.  The  German  Luft- 
waffe moved  up  to  occupy  airfields  which  formerly 
housed  the  French  air  force  and  R.A.F.  Guns  from 
the  Maginot  line  and  French  naval  arsenals  were 
mounted  along  the  French  coast.  By  September  1 
these  preliminary  steps  had  been  taken  and  the 
stage  was  set  for  the  battle  against  Britain. 

As  if  timed  with  an  eye  for  maximum  effect  in 
encouraging  Britain,  the  President  of  the  United 
States  on  September  3  announced  the  trade  of  50 
over-age  American  destroyers  to  Britain  in  return 
for  use  of  British  Atlantic  bases.  These  ships  were 
of  World  War  vintage  but  had  been  completely 
reconditioned.  They  lacked  modern  anti-aircraft 
armament  but  were  capable  of  undertaking  convoy 
duties.  Their  acquisition  relieved  other  more  mod- 
ern British  destroyers  for  service  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

The  Air  War.  From  September,  1939,  to  May 
10,  1940,  with  the  exception  of  the  German  bomb- 
ing attacks  on  Warsaw,  the  air  fleets  of  the  bel- 
ligerents concentrated  on  purely  military  targets. 
Until  the  outbreak  of  the  German  offensive  in  the 
west,  the  rival  air  forces  had  contented  themselves 
with  reconnaissance  flights  over  enemy  territory. 
But  on  May  14  the  German  Luftwaffe  made  a 
savage  attack  on  the  civilian  areas  of  Rotterdam. 
On  June  4  Paris  was  raided  with  a  force  of  200 
bombers.  These  steps  presaged  the  coming  of  un- 
limited air  war. 


EUfcOPEAH  WAE 


234 


WA* 


.Before  the  German  army  could  successfully 
cross  the  20-mile  reach  of  the  Strait  of  Dover  the 
country  would  have  to  he  softened  by  air  attack.  In 
all  operations  of  the  war  the  German  air  force  had 
played  an  extremely  important  role.  With  large 
numbers  of  planes  available  and  command  concen- 
trated in  one  person,  the  Luftwaffe  was  always  able 
to  outnumber  the  enemy  in  Poland,  Norway,  Hoi* 
land,  Belgium,  and  France.  Its  employment  in  Ger- 
man hands  had  been  energetic  and  resourceful  As 
if  to  emphasize  the  importance  attached  to  the  role 
of  the  Luftwaffe  in  the  defeat  of  France,  Hitler 
raised  Gen.  Erhard  Milch,  and  Air  Fleet  Com- 
manders Sperrle,  Kesselring,  and  Jeschonnek  to 
the  rank  of  Marshal.  Field  Marshal  Goering,  the 
creator  of  the  Luftwaffe,  was  made  "Marshal  of 
the  Reich"  and  decorated  with  the  "Grand  Cross 


of  the  Iron  Cross."  Though  the  exact  number  pf 
planes  in  the  Luftwaffe  was  unknown,  it  was 
thought  that  the  five  fighting  fleets  contained  5000 
first  line  fighters  and  5000  bombers. 

In  addition  to  its  superior  numbers,  clear  cut 
doctrines  of  war,  and  energetic  leaders,  the  Luft- 
waffe possessed  other  notable  advantages  over  the 
&A.F.  Its  planes  were  of  a  standard  type.  There 
were  only  three  makes  of  bombers :  the  Junkers, 
the  Heinkel,  and  the  Dornier.  The  Messerschmitt 
pursuit  ship  was  made  in  two  types.  The  ships  were 
fast,  well-made,  and  contrary  to  common  reports 
were  fully  equipped  with  instruments.  Messer- 
schmitt fighters  carried  one  cannon  in  addition  to 
multiple  machine  guns.  The  R.A.F.  was  forced  to 
service  many  types  of  planes  ranging  from  the 
heavy  Wellington  bomber,  the  Hampden  bomber, 


THE  STRATEGIC    BATTLEGROUND  OF  THE  WAR 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


235 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


the  Blenheim  light  bomber,  the  American  built 
Lockheed-Hudson  bombers,  Spitfire,  Hurricane, 
Curtiss  P-40,  and  Defiant  pursuit  ships.  With  the 
release  of  additional  American  models,  they  also 
had  to  service  Boeing  (B-17C's),  four-engine 
bombers  (flying  fortresses),  and  four-engine  Con- 
solidated (B-24)  bombers. 

The  R.A.F.  also  was  forced  by  the  course  of  de- 
velopments in  the  air  war  to  abandon  much  of  its 
pre-war  doctrine.  British  bombers  were  provided 
with  power-driven  rear  gun  turrets  on  the  as- 
sumption that  they  would  be  able  to  defend  them- 
selves against  fighter  aircraft  in  daylight  opera- 
tions. The  cannon-equipped  Messerschmitt  fighters 
broke  down  this  assumption,  and  after  some  very 
costly  operations  by  large  units  of  British  bombers 
in  May,  daylight  bombing  was  abandoned  in  favor 
of  night  bombing.  The  British  pursuit  ships  were 
equipped  with  multiple  Browning  machine  guns, 
but  their  armament,  heavy  as  it  seemed,  had  to  be 
increased  after  the  air  war  began  in  earnest. 

The  R.A.F.  was  divided  for  operation  purposes 
into  two  commands,  the  fighter  command  for  de- 
fensive operations  and  the  bomber  command  for 
offensive  tasks.  In  addition  to  the  two  commands 
of  the  R.A.F.,  there  was  also  a  Fleet  Air  Arm 
and  an  air  force  attached  to  the  Coastal  Command. 
Operations  in  Norway  and  Flanders  showed  that 
co-ordination  between  British  land,  sea,  and  air 
forces  left  something  to  be  desired.  The  strength 
of  the  R.A.F.  at  the  beginning  of  the  battle  of 
Britain  was  estimated  at  2500  fighters  and  3000 
bombers. 

R.A.F.  Raids  on  Reich.  The  air  war  be- 
tween Germany  and  Britain  developed  gradually. 
Throughout  May,  June,  July,  and  August,  raids 
were  carried  out  nightly  on  a  systematic  basis 
against  military  targets  in  Germany  by  the  R.A.F. 
In  turn  the  German  Luftwaffe  began  by  attacking 
Channel  shipping  and  ports.  While  the  Luftwaffe 
was  establishing  its  new  bases  in  France,  the 
R.A  F.  operating  from  its  own  British  bases  was 
able  to  carry  out  impressive  raids  deep  into  Ger- 
man territory.  Steel  plants  were  attacked  at  Essen 
and  Duisberg,  power  plants  bombed  at  Dortmund 
and  Bottrop,  plane  factories  at  Friedrichshaven, 
Augsburg,  Munich,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Rostock, 
Dessau,  Wismar,  and  Kassel  were  raided.  Railway 
yards,  canals,  oil  depots,  barge  concentrations,  and 
invasion  bases  on  the  Channel  were  repeatedly  vis- 
ited. 

These  raids  made  it  clear  that  it  was  impossible 
to  stop  night  bombing  attacks  with  existing  equip- 
ment. To  the  accompaniment  of  growing  German 
irritation,  the  raids  were  extended  to  Leipzig  in 
July  and  to  Berlin  in  late  August.  The  curtain  of 
German  censorship  prevented  any  clear  picture  be- 
ing formed  of  the  damage  caused  by  these  raids. 
In  his  Sportspalost  speech  of  September  4  Herr 
Hitler  described  them  as  irritating  nuisances,  hav- 
ing nothing  to  do  with  the  real  business  of  war. 
If  they  were  not  stopped  he  threatened  London 
with  100-fold  reprisals.  As  if  in  direct  reply  to 
these  threats  the  R.A.F.  carried  out  its  heaviest 
attack  on  Berlin  on  the  night  of  September  6.  The 
rcplv  of  the  Luftwaffe  was  immediate.  On  Sep- 
tember 7  the  large  scale  German  raids  on  London 
began. 

Conveniently  located  air  fields  in  Northern 
France  enabled  German  fighter  planes  to  protect 
bombers  in  their  raids  on  Britain.  During  the  pre- 
liminary daylight  raids  on  shipping  and  harbor 
installations  during  July  and  August  the  excellent 


quality  of  JLAJF.  planet  and  pilots  was  demon, 
strated.  Figures  on  plane  losses  released  by  the 
belligerents  are  almost  meaningless,  but  competent 
American  observers  reported  that  German  plane 
losses  in  this  period  were  never  less  than  thnee  to 
one  British  plane. 

Bombing  of  London.  London  suburbs  had  been 
visited  by  small  units  of  enemy  planes  but  no  mass 
attacks  on  the  center  of  the  city  took  place  until 
September  7.  Throughout  that  day  masses  of  Ger- 
man bombers  protected  by  fighter  aircraft  broke 
through  the  British  fighter  squadrons  and  balloon 
barrage  and  dropped  tons  of  bombs  on  the  city. 
Fires  swept  buildings,  docks,  warehouses,  depart- 
ment stores,  and  apartment  houses.  Gas  mains  were 
broken  in  some  sections,  and  subways  were  out 
of  commission  for  several  days  in  certain  areas. 
Buildings  of  historical  importance  such  as  Buck- 
ingham Palace  and  St.  Paul's  cathedral  were  dam- 
aged as  the  raids  continued  day  after  day. 

Because  of  the  unexpected  intensity  and  duration 
of  the  first  day's  attack  the  casualty  list  was  heavy. 
Between  600  and  1000  persons  were  killed.  Delayed 
action  and  incendiary  bombs  increased  the  terror 
and  hazards  of  the  raid.  London's  civilian  Air 
Raid  Precaution  system  worked  well  and  volunteer 
firemen  fought  valiantly  to  check  the  spread  of 
fires,  but  the  system  of  under-ground  shelters  was 
soon  demonstrated  to  be  inadequate  to  the  pro- 
longed bombardment  Subway  shelters  and  bomb- 
proof dugouts  were  not  designed  to  sleep  London's 
vast  population.  Soon  from  25,000  to  30,000  civil- 
ians were  homeless  and  had  to  be  given  temporary 
shelter.  Despite  the  vigorous  anti-aircraft  fire  and 
the  efforts  of  British  fighter  planes  the  raids  con- 
tinued day  after  day.  Herr  Hitler's  promise  that 
London  would  receive  100  bombs  for  every  one 
dropped  on  Berlin  seemed  more  than  fulfilled. 

PLANE  LOSSES  AUGUST  TO  DECEMBER  1940- 


Month 
August  8-31  

German 
Planes 

...    1.097 

'British 
Plants 

295 
318 

•8 

39 

British 
Pilots 

150 
160 

if 

14 

September  

.  .  .    1,088 

October  

.  .  .       239 

November  

288* 

December  

.   ..         9« 

•  Reports  of  the  British  Air  Ministry.  »  Including  Italian  planes. 

•  Lost  over  Britain  only. 

CIVILIAN  AIR  RAID  CASUALTIES  IN  BRITAIN* 


Month  in  1940 
September  

KilUd 
6,954 

Wound* 
10,615 

October  

....    6,134 

8695 

November  

4588 

6,202 

December  

..       3646 

5;044 

•Reports  of  the  British  Air  Ministry. 

PLANES  DESTROYED  IN  THE  AIR,  1940- 

Gorman  lot  str. 
Over  Britain  by  fighter  aircraft    ..................      2,993 

Over  Britain  by  anti-aircraft  fire  .................       444 

The  Franco-Belgian  campaign  ...  954 


. 

The  Norwegian  campaign                  ....  56 

The  Franco-Belgian  campaign  ..............  375 

Over  Britain  ...........................  «JJ 

By  Italian  action                         .  ..     ,,               .  75 
Bombers  lost  over  German  territory  _  .  _  374 

•Reports  of  the  British  Air  Ministry. 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


236 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


LOSMM  and  C*nu/t/0s.  Mass  raids  of 
bombers  by  daylight,  however,  proved  to  be  too 
costly.  The  incomplete  official  British  list  of  Ger- 
man and  British  planes  lost,  as  shown  on  page 
235,  makes  it  clear  that  the  Luftwaffe  paid  heavily 
for  the  damage  inflicted. 

German  Tactics  Changed.  Gradually  the 
Luftwaffe  abandoned  the  program  of  day  bombing 
except  by  fast  fighter  planes  equipped  with  bomb 
racks.  The  heavy  bombers  fimited  their  visits  in 
masses  to  nights.  The  leading  bombers  lighted  the 
target  by  incendiary  bombs  and  the  main  body  of 
bombers  carried  on  with  high  explosives.  German 
plane  losses  fell  off  immediately,  but  the  effective- 
ness of  the  attack  necessarily  carried  on  from  a 
great  altitude  was  also  diminished.  Prime  Minister 
Churchill  estimated  that  the  German  air  force  was 
able  to  average  400  bombers  a  day  (or  night)  over 
London  from  September  7  to  October  7.  They 
dropped  an  estimated  5,000,000  Ib.  of  bombs  which 
killed  6954  civilians  and  wounded  10,000  others. 
Counter  raids  of  the  R.A.F.  on  Berlin  during  the 
same  period  killed  72  persons. 

Nightly  raids  continued  on  London  until  No- 
vember 15  with  only  a  few  night's  respite  due  to 
unfavorable  flying  conditions  at  the  German  air 
fields  in  France.  These  raids  and  those  of  the 
R.A.F.  on  German  targets  proved  conclusively  that 
bombers  operating  at  night  could  not  be  repelled 
with  the  existing  military  equipment. 

The  nightly  German  raids  on  London  did  not 
break  the  morale  of  Londoners.  After  two  months 
of  bombing  the  vast  city  was  still  carrying  on,  al- 
though its  port  facilities  had  been  seriously  dam- 
aged. The  very  size  of  London  made  the  damage 
seem  less.  Prime  Minister  Churchill  asserted  that 
it  would  require  10  years  to  destroy  London  at  the 
rate  of  destruction  in  September. 

On  November  15,  after  concentrating  its  main 
attack  on  London  for  two  months,  the  Luftwaffe 
suddenly  changed  its  program  of  attack  on  Britain. 
Beginning  with  Coventry,  it  concentrated  the  main 
force  of  its  bombers  on  one  midland  industrial  city 
after  another.  An  eight-hour  attack  was  carried 
out  on  Coventry  on  November  15  by  at  least  400 
bombers.  Whole  city  blocks  were  destroyed  in  the 
systematic  rolling  attack  and  242  civilians  were 
killed.  Immense  property  damage  was  caused,  but 
the  military  damage  was  minimized  in  British  re- 
ports. 

During  the  next  week  the  Luf  twaffe  concentrated 
its  attack  on  Manchester,  Birmingham,  Bristol, 
Southampton,  Portsmouth,  and  Liverpool.  Though 
the  extent  of  damage  was  hidden  by  the  British 
censors,  it  was  officially  admitted  that  the  expan- 
sion of  British  war  industry  was  retarded  by  the 
raids.  On  December  17  Lord  Beaverbrook  an- 
nounced that  British  plane  production  had  steadily 
increased  throughout  the  period  of  heaviest  bomb- 
ing. The  average  British  civilian  casualty  list  for 
each  German  raid  in  November  and  December 
amounted  to  200  killed  and  wounded.  Only  a  few 
hundred  British  military  casualties  resulted  from 
the  bombing  raids  from  September  to  the  end  of 
the  year.  Though  London  enjoyed  a  respite  from 
attack  while  the  midland  cities  were  suffering,  the 
German  bombers  came  back  to  the  capital  city  fre- 
quently enough  to  prevent  the  dispersion  of  anti- 
aircraft batteries  to  other  areas. 

As  the  German  bombing  attacks  continued  in 
November,  the  President  of  the  United  States  an- 
nounced that  half  of  the  American  production  of 
war  planes  would  be  diverted  to  Britain.  In  De- 


cember all  the  production  of  Curtiss  P-40  fighters 
(seven  a  day)  went  directly  to  Britain.  On  No- 
vember 20  an  exchange  of  20  new  Consolidated 
(B-24)  four-engine  bombers  and  26  Boeing  (B- 
17C's)  four-engine  bombers  (flying  fortresses)  for 
British  aircraft  engines  was  announced.  These 
bombers  were  to  be  equipped  with  the  Sperry 
bombsight  held  to  be  slightly  inferior  to  the  stand- 
ard American  (Norden)  bombsight.  American  of- 
ficers were  to  observe  the  performance  of  this 
equipment  under  war  conditions.  A  trend  toward 
standardization  of  British  and  American  war  planes 
became  apparent  when  Air  Marshal  Sir  Hugh 
Dowding  (former  chief  of  the  Fighter  Command, 
R.A.F.)  was  appointed  on  November  17  to  head  a 
mission  of  standardization  to  the  United  States. 

A  shakeup  in  the  command  of  the  R.A.F.  re- 
sulted from  the  German  raids  of  September  and 
October.  Air  Marshal  Sir  Charles  Portal  replaced 
Sir  Cyril  Newall  as  commander-in-chief  on  Octo- 
ber 4.  Air  Marshal  Sir  William  Sholto  Douglas 
replaced  Sir  Hugh  Dowding  as  chief  of  the  Fight- 
er Command  on  November  17.  At  the  same  time  a 
new  command,  the  Army  Co-operation  Force,  was 
created  under  Air  Marshal  Sir  Arthur  Sheridan 
Barratt. 

British  raids  against  German  and  Italian  indus- 
trial areas  and  against  the  invasion  bases  were  car- 
ried out  whenever  weather  conditions  permitted 
Though  the  bomb  load  of  British  planes  was  re- 
duced by  the  distance  traveled  before  reaching 
their  objectives,  the  methodical  character  of  their 
attacks  was  counted  upon  to  increase  the  damage 
wrought  Certain  industrial  targets  in  the  Ruhr 
were  bombed  more  than  200  times.  Hamburg  came 
in  for  repeated  heavy  attacks  Berlin  was  raided 
for  the  37th  time  on  December  21,  but  William  L. 
Shirer,  representative  of  the  Columbia  Broadcast- 
ing Company,  reporting  in  the  United  States  on 
December  23  after  two  years  in  the  German  capi- 
tal, stated  that  damage  throughout  Berlin  was 
scattered  but  relatively  unimportant.  Civilian  mo- 
rale was  not  shaken  in  Berlin,  but  the  evacuation 
of  children  from  Hamburg  and  Berlin  began  as 
early  as  November. 

Britiih  Land  Defenses.  Spectacular  and  dam- 
aging as  the  air  raids  were,  it  was  apparent  that 
neither  Germany  nor  Britain  could  be  defeated  by 
the  air  arm  alone.  With  the  continent  of  Europe 
from  the  arctic  capes  of  Norway  to  the  Pyrenees 
in  the^ possession  of  an  all-victorious  German  army, 
Britain  could  not  hope  to  intervene  on  the  conti- 
nent in  a  military  way  before  1942  Her  first  con- 
cern was  to  prepare  for  a  possible  German  inva- 
sion. 

Feverish  defense  efforts  followed  the  evacuation 
of  Dunkirk  and  the  fall  of  France.  The  divisions 
withdrawn  from  Flanders  were  rapidly  re-armed 
and  reconstituted.  On  July  19  the  command  of  the 
Home  Forces  was  given  to  Gen.  Sir  Alan  Brooke 
who  had  distinguished  himself  in  the  fighting  in 
Flanders.  A  defense  zone  20  miles  deep  was  con- 
structed along  the  coasts  of  Britain  with  pill  boxes, 
artillery  emplacements,  land  mines,  tank  traps,  and 
barbed  wire  entanglements.  Roads,  bridges,  beach- 
es, and  other  strategic  points  were  prepared  for 
defense.  Air  ports  and  open  fields  were  protected 
against  surprise  landings  of  enemy  aircraft.  A  vast 
Home  Guard  force  of  volunteers  which  rose  to 
over  a  million  men  by  mid-summer  was  available 
for  the  defense  of  local  areas.  These  civilian  sol- 
diers were  trained  in  the  rough-and-ready  tech- 
nique of  killing  by  British  non-professional  sol- 


M  ide  World 

DIRECT  HIT  UPON  A  GERMAN  BOMBER 
Iragments  of  the  doomed  plane  are  shown  flying  through  the  air  in  this  picture  taken  from  the  attacking  RAF  fighter 


Wide  World 


GRAVEYARD  OF  GERMAN  BOMBERS 
One  of  the  dumps  in  Southeast  England  where,  after  all  useful  parts  had  been  salvaged,  the  wrecked  machines  were  stored 


International 

A  BRITISH  CONVOY  UNDER  A  NAZI  AERIAL  ATTACK 
The  bomb  at  the  left  has  exploded  harmlessly,  another  at  the  right  has  narrowly  missal  the  British  destroyer 


Wide  World 


TROOPS  FROM  DUNKIRK  REACH  A  BRITISH  PORT 
Rescue  ships  ready  to  discharge  part  of  the  350,000  men  bottled  in  P  landers  by  the  collapse  of  France 


EUROPEAN  WAR  237 

diers  such  as  Capt  Thomas  H.  Wintringham  and 
others. 

By  the  end  of  September  the  British  army  rose 
to  over  1,500,000  men.  As  mechanized  equipment 
became  available,  these  troops  were  trained  in  the 
German  style  of  blitzkrieg  warfare.  In  November 
large  scale  maneuvers  were  held  with  mechanized, 
motorized,  and  infantry  divisions  participating  with 
aircraft  units  operating  under  war  conditions.  With 
the  morale  of  its  armed  forces  at  a  high  peak,  Brit- 
ain waited  for  the  German  invasion. 

As  summer  passed  to  fall  and  winter  without 
evidences  of  a  German  invasion  effort,  Britain  con- 
tinued her  bombing  raids  against  possible  invasion 
bases  in  the  Low  Countries  and  occupied  France. 
German  diplomatic  efforts  in  the  fall  and  winter, 
which  brought  new  members  into  the  Axis  (Japan, 
Hungary,  Rumania,  and  Slovakia),  seemed  to  indi- 
cate an  effort  to  line  up  the  continent  of  Europe 
against  Britain  and  prevent  American  aid  through 
threats  of  Japanese  involvement  in  a  war  against 
the  United  States.  Many  critics  felt  that  if  Ger- 
man diplomatic  efforts  were  successful  in  consoli- 
dating the  new  order  in  Europe,  Britain  might  be 
convinced  of  the  futility  of  attempting  to  conquer 
Germany.  The  Axis  diplomatic  offensive  was  ac- 
companied by  a  vigorous  attack  on  British  shipping 
and  port  facilities  by  submarines  and  aircraft.  Brit- 
ish  shipping  losses  soon  mounted  to  new  highs  for 
the  war. 

Merchant  Shipping  Losses.  The  occupation 
of  Norwegian,  Dutch,  Belgian,  and  French  ports 
by  the  Germans  added  immensely  to  the  work  of 
the  British  navy.  As  long  as  German  submarines 
had  to  operate  from  German  bases,  they  could  be 
checked,  but  when  the  Germans  began  to  use  Bou- 
logne, Cherbourg,  Brest,  Lorient,  and  St  Nazaire 
as  bases  for  U-boat  raids  against  Atlantic  convoys, 
it  became  difficult  to  protect  British  shipping.  Ger- 
man long  range  bombers  operating  from  the  pen- 
insula of  Brittany  were  able  to  spot  for  German 
submarines. 

During  the  First  World  War  Britain  not  only 
had  the  aid  of  American,  French,  and  Italian  pa- 
trol craft  in  combatting  the  submarine,  but  was 
also  able  to  use  Irish  bases.  The  Irish  Government 
declined  to  permit  the  use  of  her  ports  and  British 
patrol  craft  had  to  use  British  west  coast  bases. 
When  Italy  joined  the  Axis  90  modern  submarines 
were  made  available  for  the  war  against  British 

TOTAL  SHIPPING  LOSSES.  SEPT.  3,  1939, 
TO  JAN.  3,  19JO« 

Number  oj  vessels  Gross  tonnage 

British 128  465,811 

French  11  48,038 

German 22  125,095 

Neutral 92  274,449 

BRITISH  AND  NEUTRAL  SHIPPING  LOSSES,  1940- 


Month 

Number  of  vessels 

Gross  tonnage 

January  
February  .  .  .  .  , 
March..  

81 
73 
.     .     .    53 

231,000 
242500 
150500 

April  
May  

22 
44 

56,000 
165,000 

I«f«  

91 

397000 

July  .  .  . 

....    97 

356,500 

August  

82 

354000 

September  , 
'October  
November 
^December        .   .     .   . 

80 
86 
93 
71 

3561000 
310000 
364,000 
213128 

EUROPEAN  WAR 


shipping.  From  June  to  November,  British  and 
Allied  snipping  losses  averaged  60,000  tons  a  week. 
The  shipping  Tosses  when  added  to  the  destruction 
caused  by  bombing  raids  gave  cause  for  concern 
whether  Britain  would  be  able  to  carry  on  the  war 
without  ships  from  the  United  States.  During  the 
last  week  in  November  the  rate  of  sinking  rose  to 
87,000  tons.  For  the  week  ending  December  8  losses 
stood  at  101,000  tons.  They  fell  to  40,000  tons  for 
the  week  ending  December  15,  and  they  remained 
at  approximately  that  figure  for  the  remainder  of 
the  month. 

Taking  advantage  of  the  long  winter  nights  Ger- 
man surface  raiders  broke  into  the  Atlantic  and 
made  attacks  on  British  convoys  in  November  and 
December.  The  British  armed  merchantman  Jervis 
Bay  sacrificed  itself  on  November  5  to  protect  its 
convoy  from  the  attack  of  what  was  thought  to 
be  the  German  pocket  battleship  Lutzow.  On  De- 
cember 5  the  armed  merchantman  Carnarvon  Cas- 
tle fought  an  indecisive  engagement  with  a  Ger- 
man surface  raider  in  the  South  Atlantic.  The 
combined  air,  surface,  and  submarine  attack  on 
British  shipping  was  regarded  as  more  dangerous 
than  the  bombing  attacks  since  it  menaced  Britain's 
Atlantic  life  line. 

CAMPAIGNS  IN  AFRICA 

The  Franco-Italian  armistice  allowed  Italy  to 
concentrate  her  major  forces  against  the  British 
colonies  in  Africa  and  against  the  outposts  of  her 
imperial  life  line,  Gibraltar  and  Suez.  British  plans 
for  war  in  the  Mediterranean  area  were  made  up- 
on the  assumption  that  the  French  army  in  Syria 
could  be  counted  on  to  safeguard  Allied  interests 
in  the  Middle  East.  The  British  Middle  Eastern 
Command  (Gen.  Sir  Archibald  Wavell)  maintained 
a  force  of  150,000  troops  in  Palestine  and  Egypt 


•  These  figures  are  based  upon  the  best  available  information 
tout  must  be  regarded  at  approximation!.        «••«"  "» 


Courtesy  if  New  York  Times 

ITALO-BRITISH  FRONTS  IN  AFRICA 

Showing  PVench  SomalUand  (1),  uaed  to  the  Italians  after 
France's  collapse  as  a  base  for  their  conquest  of  British  SomalUani 
""  * "" '      positions  in  Kenya  and  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  ad- 
East  Africa,  and  the  main  positions  in  the  northern 
'    along  the  Egyptian-Libyan  border 


EUROPEAN  WAS 


238 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


Reinforcements  were  received  in  the  course  of  the 
war  from  Australia  and  New  Zealand  British 
coHitiHitHcatioiis  depended  upon  the  Gibraltar  fleet 
(Vice  Admiral  Sir  James  Somerville)  and  the 
Eastern  Mediterranean  fleet  based  on  Alexandria 
(Admiral  Sir  Andrew  Cunningham).  The  com- 
bined capital  ships  in  both  British  fleets  equalled 
Italy's  total  of  capital  ships,  but  the  more  lightly 
armored  Italian  ships  of  the  line  were  held  by  ex- 
perts to  be  inferior  in  fighting  power  and  resist- 
ance to  the  slower  but  more  heavily  armored  Brit- 
ish ships.  Italian  air  superiority  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean was  roughly  two  to  one  in  numbers,  but 
she  possessed  no  aircraft  carriers*  British  superior- 
ity in  this  weapon  soon  became  apparent 

The  colonies  of  Libya  and  Italian  East  Africa 
provided  bases  for  Italian  operations  against  Egypt, 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  Kenya,  and  British  So- 
malilatiuL  out  tneir  comtip/pM  cations  depended  upon 
the  ability  of  the  Italian  fleet  to  control  the  sea 
route  to  Italy.  Marshal  Rodolfo  Graziani  com- 
manded the  army  in  Libya  estimated  at  250,000 
white  andnative  troops.  The  Duke  of  Apsta  (Prince 
Amadeo  of  Savoy,  Viceroy  of  Ethiopia)  com- 
manded the  East  African  Italian  forces  consisting 
of  one  white  division  (The  Savoy  Grenadiers — 
21.391  men)  and  50,000  native  troops. 

Sudan-Kenya  Fronts.  Indecisive  fighting  broke 
out  on  the  frontiers  of  Kenya  (q.v.)  and  the 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  (q.v.)  in  July.  Kassala  and 
Gallabat  in  the  Sudan  were  captured  by  the  Ital- 
ians on  July  5,  but  changed  hands  many  times  in 
the  months  following.  An  Italian  advance  from 
Ethiopia  and  Italian  Somaliland  into  Kenya  pene- 
trated as  far  as  Moyale  in  July,  but  British  re- 
inforcements from  South  Africa  later  drove  the 
invaders  out.  Neither  side  had  sufficient  forces  to 
gain  a  decision  in  these  areas  where  distances  were 
great  and  strategic  points  limited.  The  Italian  East 
African  forces  were  obviously  being  concentrated 
for  the  invasion  of  British  Somaliland. 

Italians  Occupy  British  Somaliland.  In  Au- 
gust the  Duke  of  Aosta  at  the  head  of  70,000  white 
and  native  troops  invaded  British  Somaliland  from 
three  sides.  British  pre-war  plans  for  the  security 
of  British  Somaliland  had  been  based  on  the  joint 
resources  of  French  and  British  Somaliland.  The 
fall  of  France  rendered  British  Somaliland  un- 
tenable. Defense  forces  in  this  isolated  colony  con- 
sisted of  the  Somaliland  Camel  Corps  (Lieut.  CoL 
Arthur  R.  Gutter)  of  560  men  plus  500  native 
police.  On  August  5  the  Italian  forces  advanced 
in  three  columns  against  Berbera.  In  the  face  of 
overwhelming  numbers  the  British  had  no  choice 
but  to  evacuate  the  colony.  All  British  troops  were 
withdrawn  to  Aden  on  August  19  and  the  Italian 
occupation  became  complete.  See  SOMALILAND, 
BRITISH. 

Offensive  Against  Egypt.  The  Italian  advance 
against  Egypt  came  on  September  12  when  the 
army  of  Marshal  Graziani  moved  from  the  Libyan 
bases  of  Bardia  and  Fort  Capuzzo  along  the  coast- 
al road  to  Solum.  Mechanized  units  protected  by 
planes  swept  forward  55  miles  in  five  days  cap- 
turing Solum  and  Sidi  BarranL  The  main  British 
forces  retired  to  Matruh,  which  enjoyed  rail  com- 
munications with  Alexandria*  After  the  quick  rush 
to  Sidi  Barrani  the  Italian  force  spent  nearly  three 
months  improving  the  base  facilities  and  water  sup- 
ply at  that  town.  The  invading  force,  whose  ulti- 
mate objective  was  Alexandria,  operated  under  the 
disadvantage  of  having  to  advance  along  the  coast 
within  range  of  British  naval  gnu.  The  Italian 


Courtesy  of  Ntw  York  Tinus 

THE  EGYPTIAN  BATTLEFIELD 

The  Italian!  advanced  beyond  Sidi  Barrani  in  September  and 
were  driven  out  of  Egypt  by  the  British  counteroffensive  in  De- 
cember. The  key  positions  and  the  dates  of  their  capture  by  the 
British  are  shown  on  the  map 

delay  at  Sidi  Barrani  allowed  Marshal  Graziani vs 
engineers  to  begin  the  construction  of  a  second 
road  to  Libya  thirty  miles  inland  beyond  the  range 
of  British  naval  guns. 

From  September,  1939,  to  December,  1940,  the 
main  British  forces  in  Egypt  engaged  in  no  im- 
portant military  operations.  General  Wavell  was 
therefore  able  to  give  his  troops  long  months  of 
training  in  desert  warfare.  Reinforcements  of  Aus- 
tralian and  New  Zealand  troops  brought  General 
Wavell's  forces  to  about  200,000  troops  by  Decem- 
ber. Increased  output  of  fighting  planes  enabled 
Britain  to  send  a  number  of  first-class  fighting 
and  bombing  squadrons  to  the  Middle  East.  After 
Admiral  Cunningham's  fleet  had  struck  the  Italian 
navy  a  crippling  blow  at  Taranto  on  November  11- 
12,  and  when  unexpected  Greek  successes  turned 
the  Albanian  campaign  into  an  Italian  defeat,  Gen- 
eral Wavell's  forces  were  prepared  to  take  advan- 
tage of  the  isolation  of  Marshal  Graziani's  forces. 

NAVAL  ACTIONS  IN  THE  MEDITERRANEAN 
Since  the  victory  of  the  British  army  of  the  Nile 
in  December  depended  to  a  great  extent  on  the 
question  of  the  control  of  the  sea,  it  is  necessary 
to  provide  an  account  of  the  struggle  between  the 
British  and  Italian  fleets.  The  Italian  navy  was 
composed  largely  of  lightly  armored  fast  modern 
warships.  Her  naval  history  in  modern  times  had 
not  included  a  battle  against  enemy  ships  of  the 
line.  Her  most  successful  naval  operations  in  the 
First  World  War  consisted  of  surprise  attacks  by 
light  torpedo-carrying  motor  boats.  Of  her  six  bat- 
tleships, two  were  new  ships  of  the  Littorio  class 
(35,000  tons)  and  four  were  older  ships  of  the 
Cavow  class  (26,000  tons)  which  had  recently 
been  modernized.  Her  submarine  fleet  (90  modern 
vessels)  was  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world.  Ad- 
miral Domenico  Cavagnari  was  chief  of  staff  of 
the  navy. 

Despite  her  central  position  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  possibilities  of  throwing  all  her  forces 
against  the  widely  separated  British  fleets,  the  Ital- 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


ian  battle  fleet  did  not  seek  out  a  decisive  engage- 
ment. British  naval  units  steamed  thousand*  of 
miles  in  an  effort  to  draw  out  the  enemy,  but  no 
fleet  action  ensued.  A  short  engagement  between 
light  forces  took  place  off  the  coast  of  Crete  on 
July  19  when  the  Australian  cruiser  Sydney  tank 
the  fast  Italian  cruiser  Bartoloineo  Coll  font.  On 
October  13  the  British  cruisers  Ajax  and  York 
sank  the  Italian  destroyer  leader  ArtigUere.  Dam- 
age was  inflicted  on  two  other  Italian  destroyers 
in  this  engagement.  The  British  destroyer  Kimber- 
ley  sank  the  Italian  destroyer  Francesco  Nullo. 
Bombing  attacks  and  counter  raids  on  bases  and 
oil  depots  characterized  this  indecisive  stage  of  the 
naval  war. 

In  November  the  British  fleet  undertook  a  vig- 
orous offensive  program  in  the  Mediterranean. 
With  the  Italian  army  bogged  down  in  Albania, 
the  Eastern  Mediterranean  fleet  made  a  raid  in 
force  against  Italian  communications  in  the  Straits 
of  Otranto.  On  November  11  three  Italian  supply 
ships  were  sunk  and  a  destroyer  badly  damaged. 
Since  the  main  Italian  fleet  at  Taranto  made  no 
effort  to  repel  this  invasion  of  Italian  waters,  the 
British  fleet  appeared  off  the  naval  base  of  Taran- 
to on  the  night  of  November  11-12,  and  subjected 
the  Italian  fleet  to  a  heavy  attack.  Admiral  Cun- 
ningham's confidence  in  the  British  fleet  was  so 
great  that  he  carried  newspaper  observers  with 
him. 

The  harbor  installations  at  Taranto  lent  them- 
selves to  the  British  plan  of  attack  The  harbor  is 
practically  land-locked  and  the  fire  of  British  heavy 
ships  would  have  made  the  escape  of  Italian  ships 
difficult  if  not  impossible  Thus  pinned  down  to  the 
crowded  harbor,  the  Italian  ships  were  excellent 
targets  for  the  attack  of  flights  of  torpedo  planes 
from  the  aircraft  carriers  Eagle  and  Illustrious. 
Throughout  the  night  repeated  attacks  were  car- 
ried out  against  the  anchored  ships  in  the  harbor. 
One  Italian  battleship  of  the  Littorio  class  was  hit 
and  severely  damaged.  Two  Italian  battleships  of 
the  Cavour  class  were  beached  in  order  to  prevent 
sinking.  Other  light  war  craft  were  hit  and  dam- 
aged and  the  bridge  over  the  inner  harbor  was 
wrecked.  At  dawn  the  British  fleet  maintained  its 
position  off  Taranto  but  the  battered  Italian  fleet 
made  no  effort  to  leave  its  harbor.  British  bombing 
attacks  on  the  following  day  added  to  the  destruc- 
tion. Italian  communiques  issued  the  following  day 
admitted  severe  damage  to  one  battleship,  but  aft- 
erward the  British  Admiralty  published  aerial  pho- 
tographs showing  damage  to  three  capital  ships. 
Mussolini  admitted  in  his  speech  of  November  18 
that  three  battleships  had  been  severely  damaged 
in  the  Taranto  raid. 

This  brilliant  fleet  action  demonstrated  the  effec- 
tiveness of  carrier-based  aircraft  and  reduced  the 
Italian  capital  ships  to  three.  Since  no  security 
against  British  attack  could  be  found  at  Taranto, 
the  Italian  fleet  was  forced  to  seek  shelter  on  the 
western  coast  of  Italy.  This  left  Marshal  Graziani's 
army  in  Libya  cut  off  from  its  Italian  bases  and 
endangered  the  supply  routes  of  the  army  in  Al- 
bania. 

The  movement  of  the  Italian  fleet  to  western 
bases  was  detected  by  the  British  Gibraltar  fleet. 
An.mdecisive  engagement  took  place  west  of  Sar- 
dinia on  November  27  when  an  Italian  force  con- 
sisting of  capital  ships  and  cruisers  fled  to  the  pro- 
tection of  coastal  batteries.  Both  sides  claimed  hits 
on  enemy  heavy  units.  The  British  admitted  slight 
damage  to  the  cruiser  Berwick,  and  the  Italians 


admitted  heavy  damage  to  the  cruiser  Fiume  and 
the  destroyer  Lonciere.  These  actions  seemed  to 
confine  the  Italian  fleet  to  a  strictly  defensive  role. 
As  if  to  emphasize  the  naval  failures,  Admiral 
Cavagnari  was  replaced  on  December  8  by  Adm. 
Arturo  Riccardi.  On  December  14  the  Italian  fleet, 
then  anchored  at  Naples,  was  subjected  to  a  heavy 
bombing  attack  by  British  plants  which  claimed  hits 
on  five  ships.  Italian  communique's  admitted  severe 
damage  to  one  cruiser  and  59  naval  casualties. 

Control  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean  passed  into 
British  hands  as  a  consequence  of  these  'engage- 
ments. The  British  fleet  was  able  to  support  Gen- 
eral WaveU's  push  into  Libya  by  action  against 
Italian  roads  and  bases.  On  December  18  British 
naval  units  swept  into  the  Adriatic  Sea  and  bom- 
barded Valona  and  Durazzo  without  encountering 
enemy  naval  resistance. 


BRITISH  VICTORIES  IN  AFRICA  :  DECEMBER 
Taking  advantage  of  Italian  defeats  in  Albania 
and  the  isolation  of  Marshal  Graziani's  army 
through  naval  action,  General  Wavell  struck  the 
Italian  advance  forces  at  Sidi  Barrani  and  Maktila 
on  December  7.  The  brilliant  action  which  followed 
made  full  use  of  British  naval,  land,  and  air  power. 
A  striking  force  of  British  and  Imperial  troops 
numbering  about  40,000  had  been  admirably  trained 
in  desert  fighting.  They  were  well  equipped  with 
tanks,  tractors,  and  armored  cars.  The  R.A.F. 
under  Air  Marshal  Sir  Arthur  Longmore  had  re- 
ceived reinforcements  of  new  Spitfire  and  Hurri- 
cane fighters.  They  led  the  attack  on  Italian  air- 
fields and  bases  in  blitzkrieg  style  and  paralyzed  the 
Italian  air  force.  Gen.  Sir  Henry  Maitland  Wilson 
commanded  the  British  striking  force.  A  daring 
plan  for  encircling  the  Italian  advance  forces  was 
drawn  up  by  General  Wavell.  It  called  for  a  care- 
fully co-ordinated  surprise  move  by  all  arms  be- 
ginning at  dawn  on  December  7. 

Operating  from  their  base  at  Matruh,  British 
troops  faked  a  frontal  attack  on  Maktila  and  Sidi 
Barrani,  while  tanks  and  armored  cars  moved 
through  the  desert  to  cut  the  Libyan  communica- 
tions of  Sidi  Barrani  and  attack  it  from  three 
sides.  Surprise  was  complete.  Italian  units  were 
over-run  by  tanks  and  armored  cars  while  at  break- 
fast. Where  Italian  resistance  was  heavy  so  were 
Italian  losses;  British  advance  forces  were  soon 
embarrassed  by  the  number  of  prisoners  taken.  A 
British  armored  column  reached  the  sea  at  Bagbag 
on  December  7  and  isolated  the  garrison  at  Sidi 
Barrani.  Nearly  30,000  white  and  native  troops, 
the  greater  part  of  three  divisions,  fell  prisoner. 
The  Italian  troops,  retreating  along  the  coastal 
road  into  the  Solum  bottle-neck,  were  pounded  by 
naval  guns  and  bombs.  Vast  quantities  of  equip- 
ment were  abandoned.  Within  10  days  Egypt  had 
been  evacuated  and  on  December  16  the  British 
forces  captured  Solum  and  Fort  Caputco.  So  great 
was  the  confusion  of  the  Italian  forces  that  planes 
were  captured  on  the  ground  at  Fort  Capuzzo. 
The  operations  from  December  7  to  16  which 
drove  the  invader  out  of  Egypt  were  known  as  the 
battle  of  Marmarica. 

With  the  capture  of  Fort  Capuzzo  and  the  ad- 
vance on  Bardia  the  battle  of  Cyrenaica  began. 
British  mechanized  units  led  by  Gen.  Michael  O. 
Creagh  swept  ahead  to  cut  off  Bardia  and  its  gar- 
rison. Some  20,000-40,000  Italian  troops  were  soon 
isolated  from  their  main  forces.  Favored  by  the 
presence  of  stone  houses  and  caves,  the  encircled 
Italian  troops  in  Bardia  found  some  shelter  from 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


240 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


British  naval  shells  and  bombs.  British  naval  units 
boldly  entered  Bardia  harbor  and  sank  supply 
ships.  As  British  reinforcements  came  up  and  the 
steel  circle  of  artillery  and  infantry  drew  closer 
on  the  city  little  hope  was  held  out  by  Italian  offi- 
cial circles  for  the  garrison  at  Bardia  although 
orders  were  issued  to  Gen.  Francesco  Mario  Berti 
for  a  last-stand  defense.  British  preparations  were 
made  for  a  further  advance  into  Libya  as  the  main 
Italian  forces  retreated  toward  Tobruk  some  70 
miles  from  Bardia. 

Within  three  weeks  Marshal  Graziani's  army 
had  lost  in  killed,  wounded,  and  captives  nearly 
one-third  of  its  forces.  Immense  quantities  of  war 
material  fell  into  British  hands.  Tanks,  trucks, 
guns,  and  ammunition  captured  from  the  Italians 
promised  to  supply  the  Greek  army  with  much- 
needed  equipment.  With  very  light  losses  General 
Wavell's  army  had  captured  more  Italians  than 
there  were  Britishers  in  the  striking  force.  The 
British  victories  of  December  showed  that  the 
lessons  of  Norway  and  Flanders  were  at  last  being 
applied  by  the  British.  They  demonstrated  that  the 
Italian  army  in  Africa  was  weaker  than  widely 
believed.  Italian  morale  was  distinctly  lower  than 
British,  though  the  troops  at  Bardia  fought  stub- 
bornly. Marshal  Graziani  in  an  unusually  frank 
telegram  to  Mussolini  on  December  22  attributed 
the  Italian  disaster  at  Sidi  Barrani  to  shortages  of 
modern  tanks  and  planes.  With  little  prospect  of 
receiving  reinforcements  in  these  weapons  from 
Italy,  the  fate  of  Graziani's  main  forces  in  Libya 
seemed  clear.  Libyan  tribesmen  and  Ethiopian  war- 
riors made  ready  to  exploit  the  Italian  disasters  in 
north  Africa.  By  the  end  of  the  year  Britain's  life 
line  seemed  securely  anchored  in  the  Middle  East. 

THE  ITALO-GREEK  WAR 

After  the  collapse  of  France,  Axis  diplomacy 
was  active  in  the  Balkans.  On  September  27  Japan 
joined  the  German-Italian  military  alliance.  Nazi 
diplomatic  pressure  on  Rumania  (q.y.)  followed 
the  partition  of  that  country  by  Russia,  Hungary, 
and  Bulgaria.  On  October  8  German  troops  were 
"invited"  to  occupy  certain  areas  in  Rumania  and 
"instruct"  the  Rumanian  army.  Prime  Minister 
Antonescu  brought  Rumania  into  the  Axis  after  a 
bloody  coup  d'etat  bv  the  pro-Nazi  Iron  Guard. 
Hungary  and  Slovakia  followed  Rumania  into  the 
Axis  camp.  These  steps  indicated  diplomatic  prep- 
arations for  a  possible  Axis  stroke  in  the  middle 
east.  The  peaceful  penetration  of  the  Balkans 
seemed  in  line  with  Germany's  policy  of  keeping 
the  Balkans  at  peace  in  order  to  exploit  its  eco- 
nomic resources  to  the  full.  The  peace  which  had 
survived  many  Balkan  crises  was  broken  on  Oc- 
tober 28  by  the  Italian  invasion  of  Greece. 

Italian  Ultimatum.  Italian-Greek  relations  had 
been  strained  since  Aug.  14,  1940,  when  what  was 
unmistakably  an  Italian  submarine  deliberately  sank 
the  Greek  minelayer  Helle  in  a  Greek  harbor. 
There  were  frequent  threats  in  Italian  newspapers 
against  the  use  of  Greek  bases  by  the  British.  Tak- 
ing advantage  of  a  "frontier  incident"  alleged  to 
have  occurred  on  October  26,  the  Italian  govern- 
ment issued  a  three-hour  ultimatum  to  Greece  at 
3  a.m.  on  October  28. 

The  ultimatum  was  similar  in  form  and  content 
to  the  German  demands  on  Holland,  Belgium,  Nor- 
way, and  Denmark.  It  accused  the  Greek  govern- 
ment of  allowing  British  use  of  Greek  bases  and 
demanded  the  surrender  of  strategic  areas  as  to- 
kens of  future  good  behavior.  Before  the  govern- 


ment of  Premier  John  Metaxas  had  time  to  reply, 
Italian  troops  moved  into  Greek  territory  at  5 :30 
a.m.  on  the  morning  of  October  28.  Although  Fas- 
cist circles  had  hoped  for  an  easy  victory  and  the 
rise  of  a  fifth  column  within  pro- Axis  circles  in 
Greece,  a  united  nation  and  a  surprisingly  strong 
army  rallied  behind  Metaxas.  See  GREECE  under 
History. 

The  Opposing  Forces.  On  paper  the  odds 
against  the  Greeks  seemed  as  desperate  as  those 
against  the  Finns  just  a  year  before.  The  Greek 
army  was  composed  of  13  infantry  divisions  but 
only  10  of  these  were  fully  equipped.  Gen.  Alex- 
ander Papagos  had  a  reserve  of  600,000  troops 
which  had  been  given  18  months  of  military  train- 
ing. The  army  possessed  no  modern  mechanized 
equipment  and  very  little  heavy  artillery.  Her 
mountain  batteries,  however,  were  well  adapted  to 
the  terrain.  Greek  troops  had  been  well  trained  in 
mountain  warfare  and  were  physically  tough  and 
hardy.  The  air  force  of  some  200  obsolete  planes 
was  based  on  two  main  army  fields  and  seven  aux- 
iliary fields.  If  German  methods  had  been  followed 
this  air  force  and  its  landing  fields  would  have 
been  destroyed  on  the  first  day  of  attack. 

The  Greek  navy  consisted  of  1  old  cruiser,  10 
destroyers,  13  torpedo  boats,  and  6  submarines.  It 
could  not  be  expected  to  defend  Greek  waters 
against  the  large  and  modern  Italian  navy.  Other 
factors  seemed  to  be  against  the  Greeks.  The 
strongest  part  of  the  Metaxas  line  faced  Bulgaria 
and  not  Albania.  Her  mutual  assistance  pacts  (see 
BALKAN  ENTENTE)  did  not  protect  her  against  an 
invasion  by  Italy.  The  Greek-Turkish  pact  called 
for  Turkish  aid  only  if  Bulgaria  invaded  Greece. 
The  Greek- Yugoslav  pact  was  operative  only  if 
Turkey  was  also  assisting  Greece.  The  only  aid 
available  was  what  hard-pressed  Britain  could  offer. 

The  Italian  army  in  Albania  which  undertook 
the  invasion  of  Greece  on  October  28  consisted  of 
10  divisions  commanded  by  Gen.  Sebastian  Vis- 
conti  Prasca.  The  force  was  strong  in  mechanized 
equipment,  but  the  Fiat  light  tanks  were  of  the 
type  found  wanting  in  the  Spanish  Civil  War. 
Labor  battalions  and  engineers  brought  General 
Prasca's  force  to  about  200,000  men.  These  forces 
received  supplies  from  Italy  from  three  main  Al- 
banian ports :  Porto  Edda,  Valona,  and  Durazzo. 
From  the  coast  four  main  supply  routes  followed 
the  rivers  or  the  coastal  plain  to  the  Greek-Alba- 
nian frontier.  Advanced  Italian  bases  were  at  Porto 
Edda,  Argyrokastron  and  Koritsa. 

Italian  Invasion  Plan.  The  Italian  invasion 
was  prepared  by  Italian  air  attacks  on  Greek  cities 
and  ports,  but  they  lacked  German  thoroughness. 
The  raids  did  not  destroy  the  Greek  air  force  nor 
render  her  airports  useless.  British  R.A.F.  planes 
soon  appeared  on  the  Greek  front.  Italy  failed  to 
gain  mastery  of  the  air  at  the  outset  and  much  of 
her  later  failure  can  be  traced  to  this  cause. 

The  actual  invasion  of  Greece  was  carried  out 
by  five  Italian  columns.  One  force  advanced  from 
Porto  Edda  toward  Philiates;  another  advanced 
from  the  same  base  toward  loannina  (Janina).  A 
strong  column  based  on  Argyrokastron  advanced 
toward  Konitza.  Two  columns  in  the  north  men- 
aced Kastoria  and  Fiorina.  These  operations  threat- 
ened if  successful,  to  cut  the  main  railway  com- 
munications between  Athens  and  Salonika.  The 
northern  advance  aimed  at  the  vital  port  of  Salo- 
nika. For  three  days  the  Italian  advance  continued, 
but  Greek  tactics  soon  brought  the  offensive  to 
a  halt 


Wide  World 


ANGLO-GREEK  WAR  COUNCIL 


Left  to  nghi  Major  Gen  Gambler-Parry,  Gen  John  Metaxas,  Greek  Premier,  King  George  II,  British  Air  Vice  Marshal,  J  H 
D'Albiac,  and  Gen  Alexander  Papagos,  Greek  Commander-m- Chief 


International 


A  TORPEDO  MISSES  ITS  QUARRY 


^r,n-«rCwV?;ne8!  ?t  ***  ^fc  ^^  u  8ecn  **  ***  «Ploslon  of  a  torpedo  from  an  unknown  source,  intended  for  the  Greek 
cruiser  Helle  at  the  right,  which  smashed  a  breakwater  at  Tenos  Island  on  August  15  A  second  torpedo  sank  the  cruiser 


Wide  World 

ITALIAN  AVIATORS  MISS  THE  ARK  ROYAL 

Although  reportedly  sunk  by  German  aviators  early  in  the  War,  this  British  aircraft  tamer  again  escaped  an  atnal  attack 

from  its  foes  in  the  Mediterranean 


Wide  World 


FRENCH  WARSHIP  ABLAZE  AND  SINKING  IN  THE  BATTLE  OF  ORAN  BAY 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


241 


EUROPEAN  WAR 


Invaders  Turned  Back.  Skillfully  utilizing  the 
mountain  heights,  Greek  mountain  troops  with 
mule  pack  artillery  allowed  the  Italian  mechanized 
columns  to  advance  up  the  valleys.  When  the  col- 
umns were  strung-out  and  vulnerable,  Greek  troops 
imitated  the  successful  Finnish  tactics  of  pinning 
them  to  the  ground  by  artillery  fire  and  closing 
with  bombs  and  bayonets  There  was  no  opportu- 
nity for  the  Italian  mechanized  equipment  to  oper- 
ate effectively.  The  time  chosen  for  the  campaign 
and  the  terrain  were  utterly  unsuited  to  mechan- 
ized warfare.  The  weather  soon  brought  additional 
difficulties  to  the  Italian  high  command.  Heavy 
rains  turned  to  snow.  Italian  engineer  units  were 
not  equal  to  the  task  of  maintaining  communica- 
tions, and  the  Italian  air  force,  operating  at  great 
altitudes,  was  unable  to  disrupt  Greek  communica- 
tions. General  Papagos  took  advantage  of  the  fail- 
ure of  the  first  Italian  advance  to  launch  a  series 
of  counter  attacks  which  soon  drove  the  invaders 
out  of  Greek  territory. 

The  Greek  Offensive.  On  November  9  the 
early  Italian  failures  in  the  attack  on  Greece  re- 
sulted in  the  replacement  of  General  Prasca  by 
Gen.  Ubaldo  Soddu.  The  former  Fascist  War  Min- 
ister found  the  army  in  Albania  bogged  down  on 
all  fronts  and  suffering  from  failing  morale.  Ko- 
ritsa,  the  main  Italian  base  in  northern  Albania, 
fell  into  Greek  hands  on  November  22  with  many 
prisoners  and  considerable  military  equipment  With 
the  fall  of  Koritsa  the  Italian  northern  front 
crumbled  rapidly.  Pogradec  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Ochnda  was  captured  after  heavy  fighting  on  No- 
vember 28.  From  this  point  the  Greek  advance 
along  the  Shkumbi  and  Devol  rivers  threatened 
the  inland  base  of  Elbasan. 

Simultaneously  with  these  operations  in  the  north, 
the  Greek  high  command  launched  a  three-pronged 
attack  against  Porto  Edda,  Agyrocastron,  and 
Tepeleni.  Porto  Edda  fell  on  December  6,  and 
Argyrokastron  was  taken  after  heavy  fighting  on 
December  9  An  advance  along  the  coastal  road 
brought  Khimara  into  Greek  hands  on  December 
23.  The  Greek  offensive  up  the  Drina  and  Viosa 
rivers  met  with  determined  resistance,  but  Tepe- 
leni, the  objective  of  the  drive,  was  under  Greek 
attack  on  December  27.  Slow  Greek  advances  con- 
tinued until  the  year  ended  with  more  than  one- 
fifth  of  Albanian  territory  in  Greek  hands, 

Italy's  Critical  Position.  The  astonishing  mili- 
tary reverses  in  Albania  which  came  simultane- 
ously with  naval  losses  and  with  Marshal  Graziam's 
defeat  in  Egypt  had  a  profound  effect  on  Italian 
morale.  A  drastic  shakeup  in  Italian  military  and 
naval  circles  followed.  On  December  5  Marshal 
Pietro  Badoglio,  chief  of  staff  and  famed  for  his 
conquest  of  Ethiopia,  who  had  opposed  the  Alba- 
nian venture,  was  bruskly  replaced  by  Gen.  Ugo 
Cavallero.  Gen.  Caesare  de  Vecchi,  Governor-Gen- 
eral of  the  Dodecanese  Islands,  was  replaced  by 
Gen.  Ettore  Bastico  Adm.  Domenico  Cavagnari 
was  replaced  by  Adm.  Arturo  Riccardi.  Ettore 
Mutti,  the  hard-bitten  head  of  the  desperate  squad- 
ron of  the  Italian  air  force,  and  Achille  Staracc, 
chief  of  the  Fascist  militia,  were  sent  to  Albania 
to  build  up  army  morale.  Fascist  newspapers  spoke 
frankly  about  Italy's  great  dangers.  Prime  Minis- 
ter Churchill  appealed  to  the  Italian  people  to 
overthrow  their  leader  and  make  peace  with  the 
British  empire. 

Italian  failures  in  Albania  and  north  Africa  pro- 
foundly affected  the  future  of  the  war  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, Crete  was.  occupied  by  the  British  and 


provided  bases  from  which  British  bombers  could 
attack  southern  Italy.  British  naval  control  of  the 
eastern  Mediterranean  became  almost  absolute.  Un- 
less Axis  naval  or  military  action  could  reverse 
the  situation,  the  Italian  armies  in  Ethiopia  and 
Libya  seemed  destined  for  slow  strangulation  by 
British  blockade  if  not  destroyed  by  military  action. 
As  the  year  ended  German  military  aid  seemed 
necessary  to  save  Italy  from  further  reverses  even 
if  this  aid  involved  other  Balkan  countries  in  the 
war.  See  ITALY  under  History. 

SUMMARY  FOR  1940 

The  military  events  of  1940  saw  the  end  of  the 
stalemate  in  the  West  Nazi  Germany  over-ran 
Norway,  Holland,  Belgium,  Denmark,  Luxemburg, 
and  France  by  a  series  of  military  operations  dis- 

NAVAL  LOSSES  ADMITTED  BY  THE  BRITISH,  1940 


Name 


Type 


Glorious,  aircraft  carrier 

Curlew,  anti-aircraft  cruiser  . .     . 

Calypso,  anti-aircraft  cruiser 

^ffinilham,  cruiser 

Scotstoun,  armed  merchantman 

Andania,  armed  merchantman . 

Vandyck,  armed  merchantman 

Dunvegan  Castle,  armed  merchantman 

Cartnthta,  armed  merchantman 

Transylvania,  armed  merchantman    . 

Laurentic,  armed  merchantman 

Highland  Patriot,  armed  merchantman 

Jems  Bay.  armed  merchantman 

Grenvtlle,  destroyer  . 

Exmoutk.  destroyer. 

Daring,  destroyer 

Hunter,  destroyer    . 

Hardy,  destroyer. 

Glowworm,  destroyer 

Ghurka,  destroyer. 

Afndi,  destroyer 

Whttley,  destroyer 

Acasta,  destroyer 

Ardent,  destroyer 

Whirlwind,  destroyer 

Brazen,  destroyer 


Wren,  destroyer 
Hostile,  destroyer 


Iwnhoe,  destroyer 

Esk,  destroyer    .... 

Wesscx,  destroyer 

Venetia,  destroyer 

Acher on.  destroyer 
FroMf,  destroyer  (Canadian).      .   . 
12  destroyers  (not  listed  by  names) 
Seahorse,  submarine 

Undine,  submarine 

Starfish,  submarine 
Thistle,  submarine 
Salmon,  submarine 
Oswald,  submarine.  .  .. 

Seal,  submarine 

Oxlty,  submarine     . 

Tarpon,  submarine  .         .     . 

Sterlet,  submarine 

Orpheus,  submarine 

Odin,  submarine    . 

Triad,  submarine  .   . 

8  submarines  (not  listed  by  names) 


Gross  tonnage 

22,500 

4290 

..    4180 

6,000 

.  .    17,046 

13,950 

11,000 

15,000 

20,227 

.     16,923 

,      19,000 

14,000 

.       14,164 

.      1,485 

..     1,475 

.     1,380 

1340 

1,340 

1505 

. .     1,870 

....     1485 

1,340 

.   .     1,485 
1,485 

,  ..  1,340 
1,340 
1,485 
1,340 

.     .          1,485 

..     1,485 

. .     . .      1,100 

1340 

..     1,350 
.   ,.     1.350 


540 

640 

1,575 

640 

1,575 

2,500 

1354 

640 

640 

1,475 

1,475 

640 


NAVAL  LOSSES  ADMITTED  BY  GERMANY,  1940 


Name 


Type 


Bluechtr,  heavy  cruiser 
Emdcn,  light  cruiser 
Karlsmkf,  light  cruiser 
10  destroyers  (not  listed  by  names) 
8  submarines  (not  listed  by  names) 


Gross  tonnage 

10,000 
5,400 
6,000 

ffl 


NAVAL  LOSSES  ADMITTED  BY  ITALY,  1940 


Name  Type 

Bartokmt*  CoUetni,  heavy  cruiser 
^r/iVi^dertroyer  leader. 
Francesco  Nuttc,  destroyer       ,     . 


Grots  tonnage 

10,000 

1,620 

.     1,300 


EVANGELICAL  CHURCH 


242 


EXPLORATION 


tinguished  for  their  total  planning,  ruthless  execu- 
tion, and  astonishing  co-ordination  of  all  air,  land, 
and  sea  forces.  Britain  lost  four  allies  by  military 
action  during  the  year  and  faced  the  year  1941 
with  only  the  active  military  assistance  of  the 
Greeks.  The  Axis  powers  gained  four  new  allies 
(Japan,  Rumania,  Hungary,  and  Slovakia)  and 
dominated  the  continent  of  Europe  from  a  military 
standpoint.  German  economic  conditions,  menaced 
by  the  British  blockade  in  the  first  year  of  the  war, 
were  relieved  by  the  conquests  of  1940.  The  mines 
and  factories  of  Europe  were  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Axis  armed  forces.  The  conquered  areas  of  Eu- 
rope might  go  hungry,  but  the  Reich  could  not  be 
starved  into  submission. 

German  air  and  submarine  attacks  on  Britain 
had  curtailed  British  supplies,  but  the  fleet  was 
still  intact  and  the  R.A.F.  continued  to  grow.  The 
ultimate  survival  of  Britain  seemed  to  depend  on 
the  maintenance  of  her  great  chain  of  naval  bases 
and  on  keeping  the  Atlantic  channels  open  to  trade. 
President  Roosevelt  took  occasion  on  December  29 
to  condemn  the  Axis  aggressors  in  unmeasured 
terms  and  promised  all-out  aid  to  Britain  and  other 
victims  of  aggression.  Herr  Hitler's  message  of 
the  day  to  his  troops  on  New  Year's  Eve  spoke  of 
the  final  defeat  of  the  democratic  powers  in  1941. 
With  most  of  the  world  at  war  and  with  those 
nations  still  at  peace  frantically  arming,  it  appeared 
that  the  war  would  spread  to  new  theaters  in  1941. 
No  mere  account  of  the  military  operations  of  the 
war  can  include  an  estimate  of  the  social  and  po- 
litical impact  of  the  events  described  above  on  the 
world  order.  The  war  was  more  than  a  military 
contest  in  1940 ;  it  was  one  stage  of  a  world  revolu- 
tion. For  the  political,  economic,  and  social  reper- 
cussions of  the  conflict,  see  the  separate  articles  on 
all  of  the  belligerent  and  non-belligerent  countries 
and  territories  of  the  world,  especially  the  sections 
under  History. 

See  AERONAUTICS,  MILITARY  PROGRESS;  NAVAL 
PROGRESS;  REFUGEES.  For  developments  in  treat- 
ment of  the  wounded,  see  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY. 
For  the  effect  of  the  war  on  other  activities,  see 
ART;  BUSINESS  REVIEW  under  World  Business 
Trends;  EDUCATION;  INSURANCE;  INTERNATION- 
AL BANKING  AND  FINANCE;  LABOR  CONDITIONS; 
LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS  ;  NEWSPAPERS  AND 
MAGAZINES  ;  PHOTOGRAPHY  ;  articles  on  literature 
etc.  See  also  WAR  RELIEF. 

Bibliography.  Among  the  useful  books  on  the  war  are: 
I  Saw  It  Happen  in  Norway,  by  Carl  T.  Hambro  (New 
York,  1940);  Chronology  of  Failure:  The  Last  Days  of 
the  French  Republic,  by  Hamilton  Fish  Armstrong  (New 
York,  1940);  The  frar:  First  Year,  by  Edgar  Mclnnis 
(New  York,  1940);  /  Saw  France  Fall:  mil  She  Rise 
Agatnf,  by  Ren6  de  Chambrun  (New  York,  1940). 

H.  A.  DEWEERD. 

EVANGELICAL  AND  REFORMED 
CHURCH,  The.  A  denomination  formed  by  the 
merger  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  on  June  26,  1934,  of 
the  Evangelical  Synod  of  North  America  and  the 
Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States.  The  for- 
mer was  founded  in  1840,  by  representatives  of  the 
Evangelical  Churches  of  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land. The  latter  traced  its  origin  chiefly  to  the  Ger- 
man, Swiss,  and  French  Protestants,  who  settled 
in  America  early  in  the  18th  century.  Both  church- 
es, in  doctrine  and  polity,  were  akin  to  the  Re- 
formed bodies. 

The  highest  indicatory  of  tftt  Evangelical  and 
Reformed  Church  is  the  General  Synod,  which 
meets  biennially.  A  new  Constitution  was  declared 


in  effect  at  the  meeting  of  the  General  Synod,  held 
at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  in  1940.  The  officers  of  the 
Evangelical  and  Reformed  Church  are :  President, 
Rev.  Dr.  L.  W.  Goebel,  77  W.  Washington  St., 
Chicago,  111.;  First  Vice-President,  Rev.  Dr. 
George  W.  Richards ;  Second  Vice-President,  Hon. 
D.  J.  Snyder;  Secretary,  Rev.  Dr.  William  E. 
Lampe,  1505  Race  St.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  Treas- 
urer, Mr.  F.  A.  Keck. 

In  its  combined  statistics  for  the  year  1930,  the 
Evangelical  and  Reformed  Church  reports  a  mem- 
bership of  658,571  in  2861  congregations.  Total 
expenditures  for  congregational  purposes  amount- 
ed to  $8,146,129,  and  total  benevolences  to  $1,378,- 
019.  The  Sunday  School  enrollment  is  522,153. 

The  denomination  supports  missionary  work  in 
six  fields:  Japan,  China,  India,  Iraq,  Honduras, 
and  Africa.  In  the  home  field  it  supports  more 
than  300  home  mission  churches  and  six  special 
projects,  among  foreign-language  groups,  under- 
privileged, Japanese  in  California,  and  the  Indians 
in  Wisconsin.  It  has  13  educational  institutions. 
The  various  sections  of  the  Church  support  9 
hospitals,  10  orphanages,  13  old  folks1  homes,  and 
2  homes  for  epileptics. 

The  official  publications  of  the  denomination 
are:  The  Messenger  of  the  Evangelical  and  Re- 
formed Church,  a  weekly,  and  the  Year  Book  and 
Almanac.  The  German  constituency  is  served  by 
Der  Friedensbote  and  the  Kirchenseitung,  both 
weeklies.  The  Outlook  of  Missions  is  a  monthly 
magazine  devoted  to  the  home  and  foreign  mission 
work  of  the  Church. 

EVANGELICAL  CHURCH.  A  religious 
body  organized  along  Methodist  lines  by  Jacob 
Albright  (1759-1808)  in  Pennsylvania.  Headquar- 
ters, 1900  Superior  Avenue,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  and 
Harrisburg,  Pa.  See  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS 

EVER-NORMAL  GRANARY.  See  AGRI- 
CULTURAL ADJUSTMENT  ADMINISTRATION. 

EXCESS  PROFITS  TAX.  See  TAXATION. 

EXCHANGE  CONTROL.  See  CUSTOMS, 
BUREAU  OF;  INTERNATIONAL  BANKING  AND  FI- 
NANCE; ARGENTINA,  BOLIVIA,  BRAZIL,  CANADA, 
CHILE,  COLOMBIA,  IRELAND,  MEXICO,  NEW  ZEA- 
LAND, PERU,  URUGUAY,  VENEZUELA,  and  other 
countries  under  History. 

EXPEDITIONS.  See  EXPLORATION;  POLAR 
RESEARCH.  For  expeditionary  forces,  see  EUROPE- 
AN WAR. 

EXPENDITURES.  See  PUBLIC  FINANCE; 
articles  on  all  foreign  countries  under  Finance.  For 
family  expenditures,  see  LIVING  COSTS 

EXPERIMENT  AND  EXTENSION 
WORK.  See  AGRICULTURE. 

EXPLORATION.  For  the  account  of  explo- 
ration of  the  polar  regions  in  1940,  see  POLAR  RE- 
SftAitCH.  Anthropological  and  archaeological  ex- 
plorations are  treated  in  the  articles  on  ETHNOLOGY 
and  ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Australasia.  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Douglas  L.  Oliver  of 
Harvard's  Peabody  Museum,  after  spending  near- 
ly two  years  on  the  volcanic  island  of  Bougainville 
in  the  Solomon  Islands,  returned  to  the  United 
States  with  important  geographic  and  other  scien- 
tific data  concerning  that  part  of  the  world.  The 
couple  lived  in  a  jungle  inhabited  by  the  Siwai 
tribe,  an  ancient  aboriginal  people  who  practiced 
head-hunting  until  their  island  was  acquired  by 
the  British  under  mandate  in  1920.  Making  their 
headquarters  30  miles  in  the  interior,  and  there- 
f  of  e  at  a  point  totally  unaffected  by  white  civilisa* 
tion,  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Peabody  mastered  the  language 


EXPLORATION 


243 


EXPORT-IMPORT  BANK 


of  the  inhabitants  and  acquired  valuable  informa- 
tion concerning  them  and  their  surroundings. 

North  America.  The  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History  and  the  National  Geographic  So- 
ciety each  sent  expeditions  to  collect  fossils  and 
make  archaeological  excavations  in  the  Big  Bad- 
lands of  South  Dakota.  The  former  was  headed 
by  Dr.  Walter  Granger,  curator  of  paleontology 
of  the  museum.  The  latter— which  was  organized 
in  conjunction  with  the  South  Dakota  School  of 
Mines— was  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Joseph  P. 
Connolly  and  James  D.  Bump.  The  two  parties 
unearthed  many  fossil  specimens  including  very 
rare  birds  and  the  three-toed  horse  and  tapir. 

Bradford  Washburn,  who  has  headed  exploring 
parties  in  Alaska  over  a  period  of  some  years,  re- 
turned to  that  area  in  1940  and  succeeded  in  scaling 
the  summit  of  Mount  Bertha  in  the  Fair  weather 
Range.  He  was  accompanied  by  his  wife,  Barbara 
Washburn,  also  a  noted  mountain  climber ;  May- 
nard  Miller  of  Tacoma,  Wash. ;  Michl  Feuersing- 
er,  Sugar  Bowl,  Calif. ;  and  Thomas  Winship  of 
Boston.  Theodore  A.  McGraw  of  Grosse  Pointe. 
Mich.,  explored  the  Wrangell  Mountains  of  Alas- 
ka, in  search  of  specimens  of  mammals  for  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History. 

In  north  Labrador,  the  disappearance  of  two 
American  explorers  nine  years  ago  was  believed 
solved  with  the  discovery  by  Labrador  Indians  of 
a  human  skeleton  some  170  miles  from  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company's  outpost  at  Davis  Inlet.  It  was 
found  approximately  20  miles  from  the  site  where 
another  unidentified  skeleton  was  discovered  eight 
years  ago.  The  two  explorers — Herman  J.  Koehler, 
60,  of  Orange,  N.J.,  and  Fred  R.  Connell,  Jr.,  of 
Glen  Ridge,  N  J  —sailed  from  Montreal  July  14, 
1931,  and  eventually  paddled  a  canoe  up  the  Kok- 
soak  River  from  Fort  Chimo  on  Ungava  Bay  to 
explore  and  chart  new  territory  which  until  that 
time  had  been  seen  only  by  Indians. 

Central  America.  In  southern  Honduras,  in  a 
jungle  region  known  as  the  Mosquitia  territory,  a 
party  of  American  scientists  announced  the  dis- 
covery of  the  long-rumored  "Lost  City  of  the 
Monkey  God"  in  an  almost  inaccessible  area  be- 
tween the  Paulaya  and  the  Plantano  Rivers.  The 
expedition,  headed  by  Theodore  A.  Morde  and 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Museum  of  the  American 
Indian,  Heye  Foundation,  spent  four  months  in  the 
territory,  living  under  native  conditions,  and  trav- 
eling mostly  by  pit  pans  (40-ft.  wooden  canoes) 
with  the  help  of  Suma  guides. 

Evidences  were  found  of  a  once-thriving  but 
now  extinct  civilization,  that  of  the  Chorotegans, 
which  flourished  at  about  the  time  of  the  Mayan 
culture.  Many  examples  of  Chorotegan  art  and 
industry  were  found  including  sculptured  religious 
idols,  stone  household  utensils,  a  six-tone  flute,  and 
primitive  razor  blades. 

South  America.  Discovery  of  two  lost  cities  of 
the  Incas  adjoining  the  ruins  of  Machu  Picchu  in 
Southern  Peru  was  announced  by  Paul  Fejos, 
Hungarian  scientist  and  head  of  an  expedition 
sponsored  by  the  Swedish  industrialist,  Axel  Wen- 
ner-Gren.  Situated  at  an  altitude  of  12,000  ft.  and 
known  as  fortress  towns,  the  two  cities  were  called 
Phuyu  Pata  Marka  (City  Above  the  Clouds)  and 

11*82!  f^n(InaCCeSsibI5  Citv>'  and  comprised 
21,000  and  3600  square  yards  respectively.  Largely 
an  appropriation  of  natural  cave  conditions  to  hu- 
man use,  the  cities  included  great  granite  towers, 
signal  stations,  temples,  houses,  terraces,  baths, 
water  courses,  roads,  and  stairways. 


The  expedition  started  westward  up  the  Rio 
Madre  de  Dios  from  Puerto  Maldonada,  in  eastern 
Peru,  on  May  18  with  67  men,  including  21  sol- 
diers. Its  paraphernalia  consisted  of  six  outboard 
motorboats,  a  Diesel  motor  barge,  three  months' 
food  provisions  and  a  Peruvian  naval  hydroplane. 

A  group  of  British  mountain  climbers  led  by 
A.  £.  Gunther  of  the  Alpine  Cub  made  the  first 
ascent  of  Pico  Bonpland  and  the  Columna  South 
Peak  in  Venezuela.  Pico  Bonpland,  jutting  16,300 
ft.  into  the  sky,  was  the  last  of  the  big  unsealed 
peaks  of  the  Andes. 

EXPLOSIVES.  See  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRI- 
AL; MINES,  BUREAU  OF. 

EXPORT  CONTROL,  Administrator  of. 
See  NATIONAL  DEFENSE  ADVISORY  COMMISSION. 

EXPORT-IMPORT  BANK  OP  WASH- 
INGTON (EIB).  The  Export-Import  Bank  of 
Washington,  an  agency  of  the  United  States,  was 
established  on  Feb.  12,  1934,  for  the  sole  purpose 
of  financing  and  facilitating  trade  relations  be- 
tween the  United  States,  its  territories,  insular 
possessions,  and  foreign  countries.  By  an  act  of 
Congress  approved  Sept.  26,  1940,  the  Export-Im- 
port Bank  continues  as  an  agency  of  the  United 
States  until  Jan.  22,  1947,  or  such  earlier  date  as 
may  be  fixed  by  the  President  by  Executive  order. 
By  this  act  it  was  also  granted  specific  authority 
to  make  loans  which  will  assist  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  resources,  in  the  stabilization  of  the 
economies,  and  in  the  orderly  marketing  of  the 
products  of  the  countries  of  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere. 

The  Bank  has  lending  authority  of  $700,000,000. 
Its  present  capital  consists  of  $1,000,000  of  com- 
mon stock  and  $74,000,000  of  preferred  stock.  All 
common  stock  except  11  shares  standing  in  the 
respective  names  of  the  trustees  is  held  jointly  by 
the  Secretaries  of  State  and  Commerce  in  their 
official  capacities.  All  of  the  preferred  stock  has 
been  purchased  by  the  Reconstruction  Finance 
Corporation.  Its  governing  body  is  a  board  of 
eleven  trustees  representing  the  Departments  of 
State,  Treasury,  Commerce  and  Agriculture,  and 
the  Reconstruction  Finance  Corporation. 

The  Bank's  activities  increased  substantially 
during  the  calender  year  1940.  Commitments  au- 
thorized totaled  $371,173,006  against  $74,831,827 
in  1939.  South  and  Central  American  authoriza- 
tions amounted  to  $206,245,721  as  compared  with 
$46,102,287  in  1939.  Actual  disbursements  in  1940 
amounted  to  $95,298,476,  and  loans  outstanding  as 
of  Dec.  31,  1940,  totaled  $131,031,867.  During  the 
calendar  year  ended  Dec.  31,  1940,  net  earnings 
amounted  to  $3,501,592. 

During  the  year  1940  the  continuation  of  the 
European  war  caused  serious  economic  problems 
for  many  countries  largely  dependent  upon  export 
markets  for  means  with  which  to  purchase  essen- 
tial goods  from  abroad.  To  alleviate  this  situation, 
caused  by  the  loss  of  markets  and  increased  de- 
mand for  dollar  exchange,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
maintain  long  established  markets  for  United 
States  exporters,  the  Export-Import  Bank  ap- 
proved substantial  credits  to  many  central  banks 
of  South  and  Central  America.  In  order  further 
to  assist  such  economies,  loans  were  approved  to 
finance  the  purchase  of  United  States  commodities 
and  machinery  required  for  the  construction  of 
public  works  projects  and  vitally  needed  high- 
ways. During  the  past  year  the  Export-Import 
Bank  extended  substantial  credit  to  various  Euro- 
pean countries  and  to  China  in  order  to  maintain 


EXPORTS  244 


FAIRS,  EXPOSITIONS 


our  foreign  commerce  and  to  insure  the  adequate 
supplies  of  strategic  products  needed  in  our  de- 
fense program. 

WARREN  LEE  PIERSON. 

EXPORTS.  See  TRADE,  FOREIGN,  and  articles 
there  referred  to. 

EXPORT  SUBSIDIES.  See  SURPLUS  MAR- 
KETING ADMINISTRATION. 

EXPOSITIONS.  See  FAIRS,  EXPOSITIONS, 
AND  CELEBRATIONS. 

EXPROPRIATIONS.  See  BELGIUM,  BOHE- 
MIA AND  MORAVIA,  BOLIVIA,  BRAZIL,  ESTONIA, 
FINLAND,  JAPAN,  LATVIA,  LITHUANIA,  MEXICO, 
NETHERLANDS,  NORWAY,  RUMANIA,  and  SLOVA- 
KIA, under  History. 

EXTRATERRITORIALITY.  See  INTER- 
NATIONAL LAW. 

FAA.  See  FEDERAL  ALCOHOL  ADMINISTRATION. 

FAIRS,  EXPOSITIONS,  AND  CELE- 
BRATIONS. The  New  York  World's  Fair  was 
opened  to  the  public  for  a  second  season,  May  11 
to  Oct.  27,  1940.  The  "Forty  Fair,"  as  it  was 
called,  differed  from  its  predecessor  of  1939  (see 
the  1939  YEAR  BOOK)  chiefly  in  the  effort  made 
to  add  to  its  popular  appeal.  Admission  was  low- 
ered from  75  to  50  cents.  The  amusement  area 
was  redesigned  as  the  "Great  White  Way"  with 
an  intensified  new  lighting  system  and  many  totally 
new  exhibits.  The  elaborate  ceremonies  of  the 
previous  year  were  greatly  reduced,  and  the  Fair 
was  advertised  as  "just  a  super- County  Fair"  with 
Elmer,  a  supposedly  typical  American,  as  official 
greeter. 

In  the  exhibit  area  the  most  noticeable  change 
was  the  decrease  of  foreign  exhibitors  from  58  to 
43  as  a  result  of  war  conditions  abroad.  Conspicu- 
ously absent  was  the  building  of  the  Soviet  Union, 
which  had  been  torn  down  and  was  replaced  by 
the  "American  Common."  The  Netherlands,  Tur- 
key, Argentina,  and  Chile  were  others  who  failed 
to  reopen  their  exhibits.  The  outstanding  new  at- 
traction was  "American  Jubilee,"  an  elaborate  pa- 
triotic spectacle. 

"American  Jubilee"  occasioned  the  only  repeti- 
tion of  the  numerous  labor  troubles  which  had 
marred  the  Fair's  1939  season.  A  threatened  ac- 
tors' strike  was  averted,  however,  before  the  open- 
ing date.  The  only  other  serious  incident  in  1940 
was  the  explosion  of  a  bomb  taken  from  the  Brit- 
ish pavilion  on  July  4  and  placed  at  the  edge  of  the 
grounds.  Two  detectives  were  killed  and  others 
injured  in  trying  to  dismantle  the  bomb 

The  New  York  Fair  ended  its  two-year  exist- 
ence with  all  records  broken  for  both  cost  and 
attendance.  The  cost  was  estimated  at  $155,000,- 
000.  Attendance  reached  a  grand  total  of  57,263,- 
334,  of  which  45,008,385  were  paid  admissions. 
The  paid  attendance  was  19,191,120  for  1940  as 
compared  with  25,817,265  for  1939.  The  daily  at- 
tendance record  was  broken  on  the  final  day  with 
537,952  tickets  sold,  the  previous  high  having  been 
492,446  on  Sept.  3,  1939. 

The  Fair  entered  its  second  season  with  out- 
standing bonds  amounting  to  $24,042,206.  It  was 
announced  on  October  31  that  the  more  than  3000 
bondholders  would  receive  39.2  cents  on  the  dollar. 
Gross  revenues  were  estimated  at  $11,260,000  for 
1940  as  compared  with  $20,177,059  for  the  1939 
season.  Revenue  prior  to  opening  was  $10,302,495. 
Of  the  money-making  attractions,  "Aquacade" 
proved  most  profitable,  reportedly  grossing  $4,500,- 
000  from  more  than  8,000,000  customers  in  the 


2  seasons.  "American  Jubilee0  sold  2,000,000  tick- 
ets and  "Railroads  on  Parade"  more  than  1,000,- 
000  in  1940. 

When  the  Fair  closed,  demolition  was  begun  at 
once  on  some  385  structures  to  make  way  for  the 
new  Flushing  Meadow  Park.  According  to  plan, 
the  New  York  City  building,  the  New  York  State 
amphitheater,  and  Constitution  Mall  were  pre- 
served intact.  In  addition,  the  Park  received  offers 
of  a  number  of  other  buildings,  and  it  was  an- 
nounced that  the  Japanese  Pavilion,  the  Turkish 
Fountain,  the  Polish  Tower  and  Statue,  the  House 
of  Jewels,  and  the  Masterpieces  of  Art  building 
would  be  preserved.  The  Park  will  have  elaborate 
facilities  for  sports  and  recreation,  and  is  sched- 
uled for  completion  in  1942.  See  ART. 

Continuing  to  parallel  the  case  history  of  the 
New  York  Fair,  the  San  Francisco  Golden  Gate 
Exposition  reopened  for  a  second  season  (May 
25-September  29)  with  lowered  prices  and  greater 
emphasis  on  entertainment  value.  The  exhibits 
were  more  diversified,  a  greater  amount  of  space 
was  devoted  to  small  shows,  and  the  Gayway  was 
almost  entirely  new.  Color  and  lighting,  which  pro- 
vided a  striking  feature  of  the  1939  Exposition, 
were  revised  to  produce  even  more  beautiful  ef- 
fects. A  circular  pool  with  a  high  fountain  was 
sunk  in  the  Court  of  Flowers.  International  Hall 
was  remodelled  to  accommodate  Billy  Rose's 
"Aquacade,"  which  proved  to  be,  with  "Water 
Follies"  and  "Cavalcade  of  a  Nation,"  among  the 
most  popular  entertainments.  New  or  enlarged 
exhibits  were  sponsored  by  the  Ford  Motor  Com- 
pany, General  Motors,  and  General  Electric. 

Attendance  in  1940  was  6,545,796,  bringing  the 
two-year  total  to  17,041,999.  The  record  gate  of 
211,020  was  recorded,  as  in  New  York,  on  the 
final  day,  the  previous  high  having  been  187,750 
on  Oct.  8,  1940.  It  was  estimated  that  creditors 
at  the  close  of  the  1940  season  would  receive  about 
85  per  cent,  as  contrasted  with  the  15  per  cent  paid 
to  creditors  who  withdrew  when  the  Exposition 
went  into  bankruptcy  in  1939.  Conversion  of 
Treasure  Island  into  a  municipal  airport  was  im- 
mediately undertaken. 

Although  two  "world's  fairs"  closed  in  1940, 
plans  and  actual  construction  were  under  way  for 
another,  the  World's  Fair  scheduled  to  be  held  in 
Rome  in  1942.  On  June  3  the  Italian  government 
announced  that  the  exposition  had  been  indefinitely 
postponed,  but  in  September  it  was  announced  that 
work  would  shortly  be  resumed.  Political  observers 
sought  in  these  announcements  an  indication  of 
official  optimism  or  pessimism  with  regard  to  the 
war. 

In  the  United  States,  the  year  1940  marked  the 
400th  anniversary  of  the  first  extensive  explora- 
tion of  the  Southwest  by  members  of  the  white 
race,  the  Spanish  Conquistadores.  The  event  was 
celebrated  as  the  "Coronado  Cuarto-Centennial" 
in  three  States—New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  Texas. 
The  program,  which  was  supported  by  a  Congres- 
sional fund,  centered  around  a  series  of  pageants 
and  folk  festivals  presented  throughout  the  three 
States  during  the  summer  and  fall.  The  central 
pageant,  the  Coronado  Cavalcade,  depicted  the 
story  of  Don  Francisco  Vasquez  de  Coronado's 
two-year  expedition  from  Campostella,  Mexico, 
to  the  Rio  Grande,  the  Grand  Canyon,  and  north 
into  Kansas.  The  Casa  de  Coronado,  a  museum 
memorializing  the  meeting  at  this  point  of  Span- 
ish, Mexican,  and  Anglo-Saxon  cultures,  was  ded- 
icated near  the  camp  site  of  Coronado's  army  at 


Wide  World 

THE  ROYAL  AIR  FORCE  ATTACKS  TARANTO 

On  the  night  of  November  1 1-12  British  planes  bombed  the  Italian  fleet  m  the  inner  harbor  of  Taranto  This  aerial  photograph 
released  by  the  British  censor,  shows  that  three  battleships  were  seriously  damaged  and  other  light  craft  injured 


Wide  World 


ITALIAN  PRISONERS  CAPTURED  AT  SIDI  BARRANI 
More  than  10,000  troops  were  taken  at  the  fall  of  the  desert  city,  shown  in  the  background,  on  December  11 


GEN  SIR  ARCHIBALD  WAVELL  ARRIVES  IN  GREECE 

British  Commander-m-Chief  in  Middle  East  (center)  lands  at  Suda  Bay,  Crete,  to  inspect  newly  established  naval  and  air  base 


Acme 


ITALIAN  ENGINEERS  REPAIR  A  BRIDGE  DURING  THE  ADVANCE  INTO  GREECE 


PAIRS,  EXPOSITIONS 


245    PARM    CREDIT    ADMINISTRATION 


Bernalillo,  N.M.  Various  localities  contributed 
their  own  stories  in  pageant  form — that  of  Kit 
Carson  at  Taos  and  of  General  de  Vargas  at 
Santa  Fe,  for  example.  Folk  festivals  under  the 
general  direction  of  Sarah  Gertrude  Knott  were 
held  in  many  quaint  villages. 

The  American  Negro  Exposition,  acclaimed  as 
the  first  real  Negro  world's  fair  in  history,  opened 
in  the  Chicago  Coliseum  on  July  4.  Supported  by 
appropriations  of  $75,000  each  from  Congress  and 
the  Illinois  Legislature,  the  Exposition  continued 
until  September  2.  Its  120  exhibits  set  forth  the 
race's  achievements  in  religion,  music,  sports, 
theater,  art,  science,  and  industry  during  the  75 
years  since  the  Emancipation  Proclamation  was 
signed  by  Abraham  Lincoln.  James  W.  Washing- 
ton was  the  originator  and  president  of  the  Ex- 
position. 

In  Portugal  the  entire  nation  observed  a  six- 
months'  celebration  of  the  800th  anniversary  of 
the  founding  of  the  Portuguese  State  and  the 
300th  anniversary  of  the  restoration  of  independ- 
ence. All  the  former  Portuguese  dependencies  par- 
ticipated. An  "Exposition  of  the  Portuguese 
World"  was  constructed  near  Lisbon  at  Belem, 
the  marine  suburb  where  Vasco  da  Gama  set  sail 
on  his  voyage  to  India.  The  central  Pavilion  of 
Exploration  and  Conquests  was  flanked  by  two 
buildings  commemorating  the  medieval  struggle 
toward  nationhood  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
period  of  the  restoration  of  independence.  Modern 
Portugal  was  represented  by  typical  village  scenes. 
The  stirring  events  of  Portuguese  history  were  re- 
called in  pageant,  dance,  and  patriotic  gatherings 
at  the  sites  where  they  occurred 

The  observance  was  divided  into  three  cycles. 
The  spring  cycle,  devoted  to  the  medieval  period, 
was  inaugurated  with  church  services  at  which 
the  Papal  Bull  recognizing  the  Portuguese  King- 
dom in  1140  was  recited.  Simultaneous  sessions 
were  held  afterwards  in  every  town  hall  and  in 
the  National  Assembly.  The  flag  of  the  first  king 
was  flown  from  many  castles,  bullfights  were  con- 
ducted, an  exhibition  of  primitive  art,  and  a  naval 
review  were  held.  The  summer  cycle  commemo- 
rated the  imperial  epoch  and  featured  a  pageant 
of  the  life  of  21  imperial  provinces  presented  in 
procession  through  the  streets  of  the  capital.  The 
Bragantine  epoch,  beginning  with  the  restoration 
of  independence  in  1640,  when  Portugal  was  freed 
from  Spain,  was  celebrated  in  the  autumn  with 
historical  pilgrimages  and  restoration  of  a  17th 
century  quarter  of  Lisbon. 

The  centenary  of  the  landing  of  the  first  white 
settlers  in  New  Zealand  was  observed  on  January 
22  when  Lord  Galway,  Governor-General  of  New 
Zealand,  dedicated  the  Hall  of  Memories,  built  on 
the  spot  where  the  settlers  landed  (now  the  fore- 
shore at  Wellington).  On  February  6  there  tran- 
spired a  spectacular  re-enactment  of  the  landing 
of  Captain  Hobson  at  the  Bay  of  Islands  and  the 
signing  of  the  treaty  of  Waitangi,  an  agreement 
concluded  Feb.  6,  1840,  between  the  pioneer  Brit- 
ish settlers  and  the  representatives  of  the  Maori 
race. 

Other  national  anniversaries  of  the  year  were 
the  400th  anniversary  of  the  founding  of  Santiago, 
Chile,  and  the  50th  anniversary  of  the  foundation 
of  Rhodesia.  In  Rhodesia,  on  September  12,  the 
ceremony  of  the  hoisting  of  the  British  flag  was 
repeated  for  the  fiftieth  time.  The  centenary  of 
the  introduction  of  the  adhesive  gwtage  stamp  was 
extensively  celebrated  in  Great  Britain,  where  the 


event  took  place,  and  among  philatelists  all  over 
the  world. 

See  FREEMASONRY;  NEW  ZEALAND  under  His- 
tory; PATENT  OFFICE;  RHODESIA,  SOUTHERN  un- 
der History ;  STAMP  COLLECTING  ;  SUPREME  COURT. 
For  college  anniversary  campaigns  see  BENEFAC- 
TIONS. For  festivals,  see  Music 

FAIR  TRADE  MEASURES.  See  FEDERAL 
TRADE  COMMISSION;  MARKETING.  Compare  MO- 
NOPOLIES. ^ 

FALANGE  ESPANOLA.  See  COLOMBIA, 
CUBA,  MEXICO,  and  SPAIN  under  History;  FAS- 
CISM. 

FALK  FOUNDATION.  See  BENEFACTIONS. 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS.  A  British  crown 
colony  in  the  South  Atlantic  Area,  4618  square 
miles;  population  (Jan.  1,  1939),  2378.  Capital, 
Stanley.  Sheep  farming  is  the  chief  occupation  of 
the  people.  Trade  (1938) :  Total  imports,  £113,- 
522;  total  exports.  £200,706.  Finance  (1938): 
Total  revenue,  £70,553 ;  total  expenditure,  £70,673. 
The  administration  is  under  a  governor,  aided  by 
an  executive  council  and  a  legislative  council.  Gov- 
ernor and  Commander-in-Chief ,  Sir  Herbert  Hen- 
niker-Heaton  (appointed  Jan.  3,  1935). 

Dependencies.  These  include :  South  Georgia 
(1450  sq.  mi.;  pop.,  750  in  the  summer  and  250 
in  the  winter),  South  Shetlands,  South  Orkneys, 
South  Sandwich  Islands,  Graham  Land,  and  vari- 
ous areas  of  land  in  the  antarctic  continent.  Whal- 
ing is  the  chief  occupation  Reindeer  have  been 
introduced  and  are  thriving.  Trade  (1938)  :  Total 
imports,  £272,908;  total  exports  (including  re- 
exports of  £211,361),  £462,912.  Finance  (1938): 
Revenue  and  expenditure  balanced  at  £11,547.  The 
administrative  authority  is  vested  in  the  governor 
and  the  executive  and  legislative  councils  of  the 
Falkland  Islands. 

History.  The  British  Government  announced 
on  Mar.  6,  1940,  that  it  would  purchase  the  entire 
wool  clip  until  one  year  after  the  war.  A  deficit 
of  £8000  was  shown  in  the  1940  budget  estimates ; 
about  £21,000,  equivalent  to  30  per  cent  of  the 
prewar  revenue,  was  set  aside  for  defense  pur- 
poses ;  new  taxation  to  provide  additional  revenue 
of  £14,000  was  imposed.  The  Falkland  Islands 
Defense  Force,  composed  of  local  volunteers,  was 
organized. 

FAMILY  ALLOWANCES.  See  LABOR  CON- 
DITIONS under  Employment  and  Unemployment; 
LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS. 

FAMILY  PLANNING.  See  BIRTH  CONTROL, 

FAMILY  STUDIES.  See  CHILDREN'S  BU- 
REAU; LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS. 

FANTASOUND.  See  MOTION  PICTURES  ;  PHO- 
TOGRAPHY. 

FARM  CREDIT  ADMINISTRATION 
(PC A).  Operating  through  12  district  offices,  the 
Farm  Credit  Administration  provides  a  complete 
and  co-ordinated  credit  service  for  farmers  and 
their  co-operative  business  associations.  Each  dis- 
trict office  is  composed  of  four  units— a  Federal 
land  bank,  a  Federal  intermediate  credit  bank,  a 
production  credit  corporation,  and  a  bank  for  co- 
operatives. 

The  12  Federal  land  banks  make  amortized  long- 
term  first  mortgage  loans  to  farmers  through  3600 
local  national  farm  loan  associations.  Loans  out- 
standing on  Jan.  1,  1941,  aggregated  $1,851,218,000 
plus  $648,296,000  of  Land  Bank  Commissioner 
loans  made  by  the  land  banks  as  agents.  The  total 
capital  of  the  Federal  land  banks  was  $177,940,300 
on  Dec.  31, 1940.  About  62  per  cent  of  this  amount 


FARM  MACHINERY 


246 


FARM  MACHINERY 


was  owned  by  national  farm  loan  associations  and 
individual  farmers  borrowing  directly  from  the 
banks.  The  remainder  was  provided  and  is  owned 
by  the  United  States  Government. 

The  525  production  credit  associations,  organ- 
ized, capitalized,  and  supervised  by  the  12  produc- 
tion credit  corporations,  made  farm  production 
loans  totaling  $349,700,000  in  1940  compared  with 
$320,900,000  for  the  previous  year.  Capital  stock 
owned  by  farmer  members  of  production  credit  as- 
sociations increased  from  $15,312,915  to  $16,481,- 
630  from  Sept  30,  1939,  to  Sept  30,  1940.  On  the 
latter  date  18.1  per  cent  of  the  total  par  value  of 
stock  outstanding  was  owned  by  farmer  members 
and  the  remainder  by  the  production  credit  corpo- 
rations. 

The  12  banks  for  co-operatives  and  a  Central 
Bank  for  Co-operatives  make  facility,  operating 
capital,  and  commodity  loans  to  farmers'  co-opera- 
tives. Loans  made  during  the  twelve  months  ended 
Sept  30,  1940,  aggregated  $93,269,000. 

The  12  Federal  intermediate  credit  banks  oper- 
ate as  banks  of  discount  They  are  authorized  to 
make  loans  to,  and  discount  paper  for  production 
credit  associations,  banks  for  co-operatives,  state 
and  national  banks,  agricultural  credit  corporations, 
and  livestock  loan  companies.  Loans  and  discounts 
made  during  1940  aggregated  $512,258,000.  The 
capital  of  the  12  banks— amounting  to  $60,000,000 
on  Dec.  31,  1940,— is  owned  by  the  United  States 
Government. 

Loan  funds  of  the  permanent  institutions  oper- 
ating under  the  supervision  of  the  Farm  Credit 
Administration  are  obtained  primarily  from  the  sale 
of  tax-exempt  bonds  and  debentures  to  the  invest- 
ing public.  These  are  not  guaranteed  by  the  United 
States  Government.  Farm  loan  bonds  of  the  Feder- 
al land  banks  outstanding  on  Dec.  31,  1940,  totaled 
$1,755,151,540;  Federal  intermediate  credit  bank 
debentures  aggregated  $200.475,000.  Land  Bank 
Commissioner  loans  are  financed  largely  from  the 
sale  of  Government-guaranteed  bonds  of  the  Fed- 
eral Farm  Mortgage  Corporation. 

The  emergency  crop  and  feed  loan  offices,  also 
operating  under  the  supervision  of  the  Farm  Credit 
Administration,  loaned  farmers  $19,470,625  in  1940. 
These  loans  are  made  from  appropriated  funds. 
The  Farm  Credit  Administration  is  also  respon- 
sible for  the  supervision  of  the  3782  active  Federal 
credit  unions. 

Besides  its  activities  which  are  primarily  con- 
cerned with  financing  farmers  and  farmers  busi- 
ness co-operatives,  the  Farm  Credit  Administration 
carries  on  research.  Headquarters  of  the  12  dis- 
tricts are  located  in  Springfield,  Massachusetts; 
Baltimore,  Maryland;  Columbia,  South  Carolina; 
Louisville,  Kentucky ;  New  Orleans,  Louisiana ;  St 
Louis,  Missouri;  St.  Paul,  Minnesota;  Omaha, 
Nebraska;  Wichita,  Kansas;  Houston,  Texas; 
Berkeley,  California;  and  Spokane,  Washington. 
See  UNITED  STATES  tinder  Administration. 

E.  B.  REID. 

FARM  MACHINERY  AND  EQUIP- 
MENT. The  sale  of  farm  machinery  and  equip- 
ment in  1940,  largely  due  to  an  increase  in  farm 
cash  income  over  1939  and  the  growing  use  of 
lightweight  tractors  and  small  harvesters,  was 
quite  satisfactory.  Preliminary  estimates  by  the 
Standard  Statistics  Co.  placed  the  sale  for  the  year 
at  $500,000,000,  one  of  the  best  since  1929.  During 
the  latter  part  of  the  year  the  inauguration  of  the 
defense  program  materially  changed  the  outlook 


of  die  farm  equipment  industry  as  manufacturers 
in  this  field  were  likely  to  become,  in  part  at  least, 
producers  of  armament  material  and  to  be  subject 
to  the  diversion  of  raw  material  through  the  prior- 
ity claims  of  defense  requirements. 

Activities  in  the  development,  improvement,  and 
use  of  farm  machinery  and  equipment  were  con- 
tinued by  the  industry,  the  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  and  the  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tions. Work  by  the  Department  in  which  the  sta- 
tions co-operated  in  many  instances  related  to  farm 
structures,  farm  mechanical  equipment,  and  rural 
electrification.  The  work  on  farm  structures  was 
directed  largely  toward  farm-house  design  and 
remodeling,  erection  and  arrangement  of  farm 
buildings  including  livestock  shelters,  construction 
of  silos  for  grass  silage,  and  the  insulation  and  ven- 
tilation of  farm  storages.  The  Department  re- 
ported the  development  of  an  anemometer  for 
measuring  low-velocity  air  movements  in  storage 
and  transportation  studies.  In  co-operation  with 
the  agricultural  colleges  the  Department  continued 
to  provide  farmers  with  plans  for  buildings  and 
equipment  suited  to  their  purposes  and  localities. 

Studies  of  farm  mechanical  equipment  resulted 
in  the  improvement  of  a  self -aligning  disk- jointer 
and  a  trash-covering  attachment  to  wheel  plows, 
giving  better  coverage  of  corn  stalks  and  trash  re- 
spectively. Wheelbarrow  sprayers  designed  for 
borer  control  in  sweet  corn  are  already  manufac- 
tured commercially.  Grasshopper  poison-bait  dis- 
tributors built  according  to  plans  furnished  by  the 
Department  proved  satisfactory.  Studies  of  ferti- 
lizer machines  and  the  placement  of  fertilizers  in 
relation  to  the  seed  continued  to  show  their  effect 
on  methods  of  applying  fertilizers  and  on  the  de- 
sign of  fertilizer  distributors.  Disk  furrow  open- 
ers on  sugar-beet  planters  proved  preferable  to 
shoe  openers.  The  single-row,  chain-feed,  single- 
seed  sugar-beet  planter  developed  by  the  Depart- 
ment in  1937  has  since  been  constructed  on  a  multi- 
ple-row plan.  Trials  of  an  experimental  snapping 
device  for  mechanical  corn-pickers  showed  a 
marked  reduction  in  losses  of  shelled  corn,  and  a 
newly  devised  field  harvester  and  chopper  gave 
greater  speed  in  ensiling  grasses.  Progress  was  re- 
ported also  in  studies  of  cotton  picking,  ginning 
and  baling  and  flax  pulling,  retting  and  scutching 
equipment,  as  well  as  in  the  development  of  nu- 
merous devices  and  betterments  such  as  egg  cool- 
ers for  maintaining  quality  during  hot  weather, 
poultry  house  equipment,  and  in  the  mechanical 
drying  of  hay. 

The  new  and  improved  machines  and  devices 
placed  on  the  market  by  the  farm  implement  in- 
dustry included  tractors  with  wide-base  rubber 
tires,  tractor  mowers,  combined  harvesters  and 
threshers,  silage  crop  harvesters  and  choppers,  ma- 
chine sprayers  and  dusters,  soil  conditioning  im- 
plements, multiple  row  sugar-beet  toppers  and 
beet-field  weeders,  manure  spreaders,  and  numer- 
ous devices  and  attachments  for  the  better  han- 
dling and  operation  of  farm  machines  and  imple- 
ments. The  use  of  the  Diesel  engine  in  farm 
tractors  continued  on  the  increase.  Trade  journals 
pointed  out  that  while  the  production  of  all  trac- 
tors in  1909  was  estimated  at  2000  the  number 
manufactured  in  1939  was  215,283,  surpassed  only 
in  1937.  From  the  same  source  it  was  learned  that 
in  the  number  of  tractors  per  1000  farms,  Cali- 
fornia was  in  the  lead  with  1282,  followed  by 
Illinois  with  814,  and  Iowa  with  714.  In  the  small- 
est acreage  of  planted  crops  per  tractor,  Arizona 


FARMS  AND  FARMING 


347 


FASCISM 


ranked  first  with  102  acres,  California  secood  with 
105  acres  and  Indiana  third  with  120  acres. 

During  the  last  four  years  domestic  business 
was  said  to  have  accounted  for  88  per  cent  of  all 
farm  equipment  sales,  leaving  only  12  per  cent  for 
export.  In  1939  sales  of  combined  harvesters  and 
threshers,  as  reported,  were  nearly  20  per  cent  and 
sales  of  tractors  about  23  per  cent  of  all  sales. 
Canada  ranked  first  as  a  foreign  buyer  and  Ar- 
gentina second. 

J.  I.  SCHULTE. 

FARMS  AND  FARMING.  See  AGRICULTURE 
and  the  topics  there  referred  to. 

FARM  SECURITY  ADMINISTRA- 
TION. The  Farm  Security  Administration  was 
created  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  on  Sept 
1,  1937,  as  successor  to  the  Resettlement  Adminis- 
tration. Its  purpose  is  to  help  farm  families  on,  or 
near  relief  to  become  permanently  self-supporting. 
Since  1935,  when  this  type  of  assistance  was  first 
given  under  the  authority  of  the  Resettlement  Ad- 
ministration, financial  aid  has  been  extended  to 
more  than  1,406,356  farm  families.  The  work  is 
divided  into  three  phases. 

Rehabilitation  Program.  Farmers  unable  to 
obtain  adequate  credit  from  any  other  source  may 
receive  small  loans  from  the  Farm  Security  Ad- 
ministration which  will  enable  them  to  continue 
farming.  These  loans,  based  on  sound  farm  and 
home  plans,  averaged  $325  each  during  the  past 
fiscal  year.  They  usually  are  just  large  enough  to 
enable  the  farmer  to  buy  seed,  tools,  livestock, 
fertilizer,  and  the  other  equipment  he  needs  to 
making  a  living  The  loans  drew  5  per  cent  interest. 
At  the  close  of  the  year,  the  number  of  active  re- 
habilitation loan  cases  totaled  430,991. 

A  survey  made  at  the  end  of  the  1939  crop  year 
showed  that  standard  rehabilitation  borrowers  had 
increased  their  net  income  by  an  average  of  $163, 
or  43  per  cent,  since  coming  on  the  program.  Be- 
tween 1935  and  the  end  of  the  1940  fiscal  year, 
127,713  debt-burdened  farmers  had  been  able  to 
work  out  amicable  adjustments  with  their  credi- 
tors through  the  help  of  voluntary  committees  of 
local  citizens  appointed  by  the  Farm  Security  Ad- 
ministration. Debts  were  scaled  down  about  22.9 
per  cent. 

Community  service  loans  often  are  made  to 
groups  of  farmers  in  the  same  neighborhood  to 
enable  them  to  buy  equipment  or  services  no  one 
of  them  could  afford  alone.  As  of  June  30,  1940, 
16,000  of  these  services,  aiding  270,000  families, 
had  been  established. 

As  of  June  30,  1940,  county  or  district  plans  for 
group  medical  care  for  more  than  80,000  needy 
farm  families  were  in  operation  in  31  states. 

In  areas  stricken  by  drought,  flood,  or  hurricane, 
the  Farm  Security  Administration  makes  subsist- 
ence grants  to  destitute  farm  families.  These  aver- 
age about  $21  per  month  per  family.  During  the 
past  year  the  total  cash  grant  disbursement  to  in- 
dividual families  amounted  to  about  $20,000,000. 

Tenant  Purchase  Program.  The  tenant  pur- 
chase program,  authorized  by  the  Bankhead-Jones 
Farm  Tenant  Act  in  1937,  enables  a  limited  num- 
ber of  farm  tenants  and  laborers  to  obtain  loans 
l0^>J?Lta^nis,of  t,heir  own>  Congress  appropriated 
$40,000,000  for  this  purpose  for  the  1940  fiscal 
year,  and  6172  loans  were  approved  in  approxi- 
mately 1300  counties.  These  loans  included  money 
for  building  3007  new  dwellings,  costing  an  aver- 
age of  $1373.  In  addition,  repairi  were  made  on 


3068  tenant-purchase  farm  dwellings;  and  barns 
and  outbuildings  were  constructed  or  repaired  on 
more  than  7600  farms*  Repayment  of  tenant-pur- 
chase loans  extends  over,  a  period  of  40  years  at  3 
per  cent  interest.  An  appropriation  of  $50,000,000 
was  made  for  this  program  during  the  fiscal  year. 
It  was  expected  to  provide  for  more  than  9000 
loans. 

Homestead  Projects,  The  Farm  Security  Ad- 
ministration administers  164  homestead  projects 
which  were  turned  over  to  it  by  the  Resettlement 
Administration  and  other  predecessor  agencies. 
They  are  scattered  throughout  the  country  and 
vary  in  type ;  some  having  small  individual  farms, 
others  having  co-operative  enterprises,  and  a  few 
having  industrial  plants  to  supplement  farm  in- 
come. These  projects  provide  homes  for  more 
than  15,000  families. 

Migrant  Camps.  The  FSA  has  established  40 
permanent  and  16  mobile  camps  to  provide  sani- 
tary living  conditions  for  a  small  part  of  the  army 
of  migratory  agricultural  workers.  At  the  end  of 
the  fiscal  year,  the  Administration  had  either  com- 
pleted or  under  construction  11,476  shelters  and 
tent  platforms,  and  1729  labor  homes  When  the 
present  program  is  completed,  the  camp  facilities 
will  serve  13,205  families  at  one  time.  See  ARCHI- 
TECTURE. For  subsistence  payments,  see  RELIEF. 

C.  B.  BALDWIN. 

FAROE  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  21  islands 
(the  chief  being  Bordo,  Kalso,  Ostero,  Sando, 
Stromo,  Sudero,  Vaagd,  and  Videro)  north  of 
Scotland,  forming  a  county  of  Denmark.  Total 
area,  540  square  miles ;  population,  25,744.  Capital, 
Thorshavn  (on  Stromo),  3200  inhabitants.  The 
chief  exports  consist  of  fish,  whale  oil,  woolen 
goods,  lambskins,  and  feathers.  A  Danish  gover- 
nor heads  the  administration.  The  local  parliament 
(Lagting)  of  25  members  elects  a  member  to  the 
Danish  Landsting  (upper  house),  and  the  people 
elect,  by  vote,  a  member  to  the  Danish  Folketing 
(lower  house). 

History.  On  Apr.  12,  1940,  officials  of  the 
British  Government  called  on  the  Danish  governor 
and  the  president  of  the  Lagting  and  told  them 
that  Great  Britain  would  land  troops  and  apply 
censorship  to  the  radio  station.  The  next  day  Brit- 
ish troops  were  landed  to  prevent  the  islands  from 
falling  tinder  the  control  of  Germany.  Assurances 
were  given  that  the  troops  would  be  withdrawn  at 
the  end  of  the  war,  but  the  Lagting  adopted  a 
resolution  of  protest  See  DENMARK  tinder  His- 
tory. 

FASCISM.  Spurred  on  by  the  great  German 
military  victories  in  April,  May,  and  June,  fascism 
continued  its  triumphal  march  in  Europe  and  many 
other  parts  of  the  world  during  1940.  Denmark, 
Norway,  the  Netherlands,  and  Belgium  were  con- 
quered and  their  small  native  Nazi  minority  groups, 
supported  by  the  German  occupationary  officials, 
were  given  the  task  of  eradicating  democratic  in- 
stitutions and  converting  the  pro-democratic  mass- 
es, by  combined  force  and  persuasion,  to  Nazi 
principles  and  Hitler's  "new  order"  in  Europe. 

Luxemburg  and  Alsace-Lorraine  were  brought 
under  direct  Nazi  rule  through  annexation  to  Ger- 
many. The  democratic  French  Republic  collapsed 
in  defeat  and  was  replaced  by  a  Fascist  State  under 
Marshal  Peiain.  King  Carol's  quasi-Fascist  regime 
in  Rumania  was  replaced  by  an  outright  Fascist 
and  totalitarian  system  controlled  from  Berlin.  Ja- 
pan formally  adopted  the  Fascist  political  system 


FASCISM 


248 


FASCISM 


and  Hungary,  Slovakia,  Rumania,  and  Japan  were 
brought  into  the  Rome-Berlin  military  alliance. 
Increasing  internal  and  external  pressure — politi- 
cal, military,  and  economic — was  brought  upon 
Bulgaria  and  Yugoslavia  to  accept  full-fledged  fas- 
cism and  throw  in  their  lot  with  Nazi  Germany. 
Similar  pressures  were  brought  upon  Sweden  and 
Switzerland  to  abolish  democratic  liberties  and  con- 
form to  Berlin's  economic  and  political  program. 

Finland  held  to  its  democracy,  but  like  Rumania 
was  forced  by  the  threat  of  further  Russian  ag- 
gression into  closer  political  and  military  relations 
with  Hitler's  Germany.  The  Fascist-type  dictator- 
ship established  by  Premier  Metaxas  in  Greece  was 
strengthened  by  its  successful  resistance  to  Italian 
aggression.  But  on  the  other  hand  the  Fascist  re- 
gime in  Italy  was  badly  discredited  by  the  reverses 
to  its  arms  in  Greece,  North  Africa,  and  the  Medi- 
terranean. Likewise  the  sturdy,  effective  resistance 
offered  by  democratic  Britain  to  the  Nazi-Fascist 
march  of  aggression  strengthened  the  morale  and 
prestige  of  the  world's  remaining  democracies.  The 
rearmament  of  the  United  States  and  its  extension 
of  more  aid  to  Britain  and  China  had  a  similar 
effect. 

Nazism  as  an  Instrument  of  Warfare.  Chan- 
cellor Hitler's  successful  use  of  propaganda  and 
of  pro-Nazi  native  movements  in  winning  his  sen- 
sational military  victories  over  Norway,  the  Neth- 
erlands, Belgium,  and  France  directed  world-wide 
attention  to  this  new  technique  of  warfare.  An 
analysis  of  the  Nazi  methods,  prepared  by  Col. 
William  J.  Donovan  and  Edgar  Mowrer,  was  pub- 
lished by  Secretary  of  the  Navy  Knpx  at  Wash- 
ington in  August  as  part  of  the  national  defense 
program.  According  to  this  statement,  Nazi  Ger- 
many was  spending  $200,000,000  annually  on  or- 
ganizational and  propaganda  activities  in  foreign 
countries  in  pursuit  of  its  objective  of  world  domi- 
nation. 

To  pave  the  way  for  subsequent  military  con- 
quest, the  statement  asserted,  Nazi  efforts  were 
concentrated  first  of  all  upon  the  organization 
under  Nazi  leadership  of  persons  of  German  birth 
or  descent  living  in  foreign  countries.  This  work 
was  carried  on  by  the  Organization  Abroad,  an 
agency  of  the  German  Nazi  party  with  headquar- 
ters at  Stuttgart.  It  was  headed  by  Ernest  Wilhelm 
Bohle,  "State  secretary"  in  the  German  Foreign 
Office,  who  was  aided  by  some  800  assistants.  This 
organization  was  said  to  have  nearly  4,000,000  mem- 
bers, organized  in  more  than  600  local  groups  or 
"supporting  points"  in  some  45  countries.  Each 
local  group  was  organized  along  the  same  lines, 
with  its  Hitler  Youth,  Storm  Troop,  Labor  Front, 
Hitler  Sport,  and  other  subsidiary  organizations. 
All  were  directed  from  Stuttgart  in  methods  of 
convincing  non-Germans  of  the  necessity  of  Ger- 
man victory  and  in  preparations  for  supporting  the 
Reich  by  violent  action  when  the  military  stage 
was  reached. 

The  Donovan-Mowrer  statement  went  on  to 
describe  seven  other  agencies,  in  addition  to  the 
Organization  Abroad,  that  were  working  for  Hit- 
ler outside  of  the  Reich.  These  were  listed  as  the 
German  political  police  or  Gestapo,  Dr.  Joseph 
Goebbels'  Propaganda  Ministry,  the  German  Labor 
Front,  the  intelligence  services  of  the  German 
army,  navy,  and  air  force,  and  finally  the  embassies, 
legations,  and  consulates  of  the  German  Foreign 
Office  all  over  the  world.  It  was  pointed  out  that 
the  German  Government  normally  had  four  or  five 
times  as  many  "accredited"  diplomatic  and  con- 


sular representatives  in  each  post  as  any  other  gov- 
ernment 

The  press  attache's  of  the  German  diplomatic  and 
consular  posts  were  said  to  play  a  particularly  im- 
portant role  in  supplying  propaganda  and  other 
material  to  some  1700  German-language  news- 
papers outside  Germany,  checking  on  the  effective- 
ness of  German  radio  programs,  winning  over  the 
native  press  to  a  pro-Nazi  policy,  and  combating 
anti-Hitler  newspapers  and  periodicals.  Free  news, 
picture,  and  publicity  services,  replete  with  Nazi 
propaganda,  were  provided  the  world  over  to  non- 
German  publications  willing  to  use  them.  Native 
pro-Fascist  organizations  in  the  United  States  and 
elsewhere  were  plentifully  supplied  with  propa- 
ganda leaflets,  pamphlets,  and  films  prepared  in  the 
languages  of  the  respective  countries.  A  "fifth 
column"  of  native  traitors  and  other  subversive 
elements  was  organized  to  co-operate  with  the  Ger- 
man Nazi  organizations  in  each  foreign  country. 
See  FIFTH  COLUMN. 

"In  the  United  States,"  the  Donovan-Mowrer 
statement  continued,  "an  organization  of  Nazis  is 
being  trained  in  arms.  As  matters  now  stand,  it  is 
conceivable  that  the  United  States  possesses  the 
finest  Nazi-schooled  fifth  column  in  the  world,  one 
which,  in  case  of  war  with  Germany,  could  be  our 
undoing." 

Revolutionary  Propaganda.  In  their  efforts  to 
create  dissension  and  confusion  in  the  democratic 
countries,  the  Fascist  regimes  in  Germany,  Italy, 
and  Japan  made  increasing  use  of  Communist  revo- 
lutionary slogans  and  appeals.  The  New  York 
Times  correspondent  in  Berlin  on  February  13  re- 
ported that  the  Nazis  were  expanding  their  "prop- 
agandistic  campaign  against  plutocracies,  capital- 
ism, and  the  rule  of  gold."  He  quoted  excerpts 
from  a  long  appeal  to  the  workers  of  the  world 
by  Dr.  Robert  Ley,  head  of  the  German  Labor 
Front.  Ley  called  upon  the  "workers  of  all  lands, 
including  English  and  French  workers"  to  unite 
against  "your  common  enemy  .  .  .  English-Jew- 
ish-democratic high  finance." 

This  appeal  was  taken  up  by  the  Italian  and 
Japanese  press  and  by  pro-Fascist  organs  in  demo- 
cratic countries.  Communist  propaganda  in  the  de- 
mocracies took  the  same  line.  In  some  countries 
there  was  open  collaboration  between  Fascists  and 
Communists  in  their  efforts  to  undermine  democ- 
racy. The  bitter  hostility  that  characterized  Com- 
munist-Fascist relations  previous  to  the  Hitler- 
Stalin  accord  of  Aug.  24,  1939,  was  notably  absent 
throughout  1940  except  in  some  Balkan  countries 
where  immediate  Russian  and  German  interests 
clashed  (see  COMMUNISM).  French  Communists 
and  Fascists  joined  forces  in  paving  the  way  for 
France's  collapse  through  defeatist  and  anti-war 
propaganda  and  through  physical  sabotage  of 
French  military  preparations.  But  once  the  conquest 
of  France  had  been  achieved,  the  Communists  re- 
ceived short  shrift  from  both  the  German  authori- 
ties in  occupied  France  and  from  Marshal  Pe*tain's 
Fascist  regime  in  unoccupied  France. 

In  Great  Britain,  Sir  Oswald  Mosley's  Fascist 
Union  made  common  cause  with  the  British  Com- 
munist party  in  demanding  acceptance  of  Hitler's 
peace  terms.  The  Churchill  Government  jailed 
Mosley  and  most  of  his  adherents  in  May  and  June, 
when  they  actively  assisted  German  preparations 
for  an  invasion  of  the  British  Isles. 

Fascism  in  United  States.  Like  the  Commu- 
nists, the  various  Fascist  organizations  and  move- 
ments in  the  United  States  during  1940  concen- 


FASCISM 


249 


FASCISM 


trated  upon  efforts  to  keep  the  country  neutral  in 
the  European  War,  to  prevent  further  American 
aid  to  Britain  and  her  Allies,  and  to  obstruct  the 
Federal  Government's  rearmament  and  defense  pro- 
grams. As  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  the  Fascist 
groups  were  spurred  into  increased  activity  and 
boldness  by  the  German  military  victories  in  Eu- 
rope during  April,  May,  and  June.  However  the 
effectiveness  of  their  propagandist  and  other  ac- 
tivities waned  during  the  latter  part  of  the  year 
as  a  result  of  the  failure  of  the  Axis  offensives  in 
Britain,  Greece,  and  Egypt,  and  the  mobilization 
of  pro-democratic  sentiment  in  America. 

Dies  Committee  Revelations.  Revelations  by 
the  Dies  Committee  (q.v.)  and  other  agencies  and 
individuals  shed  more  light  on  the  activities  of  the 
German  Nazi,  Italian  Fascist,  and  native  Fascist 
movements  in  the  United  States  during  the  year. 
The  Dies  Committee's  full  report  to  Congress, 
published  Jan.  3,  1940,  asserted  that  the  Hitler- 
Stalin  pact  had  weakened  the  dominant  appeal  of 
Nazi-Fascist  groups,  organized  to  fight  commu- 
nism Evidence  concerning  the  German- American 
Bund's  activities  gathered  by  the  committee  was 
recapitulated  at  length  The  report  declared  the 
evidence  "establishes  conclusively"  that  the  Bund 
received  its  inspiration,  program,  and  direction 
from  the  Nazi  Government 

As  to  the  native  "Nazi-Fascist"  movements,  the 
committee  reported  that  all  had^two  primary  aims 
— a  radical  change  in  the  American  form  of  gov- 
ernment and  the  collection  of  dues  from  misguided 
citizens.  Leaders  of  these  groups  were  accused  of 
"a  form  of  racketeering."  It  was  charged  that 
"when  money  ceases  to  flow  into  the  coffers  of  one 
organization,  they  abandon  it  and  start  another 
one.  These  groups  .  .  .  make  their  appeal  to  the 
basest  forms  of  religious  and  racial  hatred." 

On  November  16  Chairman  Dies  announced  that 
evidence  accumulated  by  his  committee  "confirms 
that  Germany,  Italy,  Japan,  and  Russia  are  work- 
ing very  closely  in  the  United  States,  are  exchang- 
ing information  and  actively  co-operating  in  many 
ways."  He  said  their  immediate  objectives  were  "to 
prevent  this  country  from  quickly  preparing  its 
defense  and  .  .  to  prevent  our  extending  aid  to 
Britain."  The  committee  had  proof,  he  said,  that 
agents  of  the  four  powers  were  "entrenched  in 
industries  vital  to  national  defense."  He  said  there 
was  little  doubt  that  explosions  in  plants  engaged 
in  defense  contracts  were  due  to  sabotage. 

Evidence  linking  German  diplomatic,  consular 
and  other  agents  in  the  United  States  with  Nazi 
propaganda  and  espionage  activities  and  with  pene- 
tration of  the  economic  structures  of  the  United 
States  and  some  Latin  American  countries  was 
published  by  the  Dies  Committee  in  the  form  of  a 
"White  Paper"  on  November  21.  The  White  Paper 
stated  that  Dr.  Ferdinand  A.  Kertess  of  the  Chemi- 
cal Marketing  Co.  of  New  York,  a  German-born 
American  citizen,  had  jurisdiction  over  trade  ar- 
rangements between  Germany  and  the  United  States 
and  Germany  and  South  America ;  that  Manfred 
Zapp,  head  of  the  Transocean  News  Service  in 
New  York,  was  the  agent  for  German  propaganda 
in  the  United  States  and  helped  direct  German 
propaganda  efforts  in  South  America;  that  Dr. 
Zapp  had  sought  to  promote  ill  feeling  between  the 
United  States  and  Japan  in  order  to  keep  America 
neutral  in  the  European  War ;  and  that  the  Ameri- 
can Fellowship  Forum,  the  German  Library  of 
Information  and  the  German  Railroads  Informa- 
tion Office  (all  with  offices  in  New  York)  were 


instruments  of  German  propaganda.  Correspond- 
ence between  these  agencies  and  the  German  Em- 
bassy in  Washington  supporting  these  charges  were 
among  the  hundreds  of  exhibits  included  in  the 
"White  Paper." 

Meanwhile  Dies  Committee  agents  on  November 
18  raided  offices  of  "Italian  and  German  organiza- 
tions" in  Chicago,  New  York,  and  other  cities  and 
seized  their  files,  documents,  and  ledgers.  On  the 
West  Coast  they  took  into  custody  Heinrich  Peter 
Fassbender,  of  Duesseldorf ,  Germany,  who  said  he 
had  been  employed  by  the  German  secret  police 
since  1935.  After  questioning  officials  of  10  Ger- 
man and  Italian  organizations  in  Chicago,  Chair- 
man Dies  announced  on  November  19  that  he  had 
obtained  sufficient  evidence  of  fifth  column  activi- 
ties in  Chicago  to  warrant  indictments  and  prose- 
cutions. Primarily  as  a  result  of  the  Dies  Com- 
mittee investigations,  Congress  during  1940  passed 
legislation  designed  to  curb  the  activities  of  Fas- 
cist, Nazi,  and  Communist  groups  under  foreign 
control  (see  COMMUNISM). 

Activities  of  the  Bund.  The  Dies  Committee's 
revelations  concerning  the  German-American  Bund 
were  supplemented  by  inquiries  into  its  activities 
by  other  Federal  and  local  agencies.  On  July  4  the 
three  chief  leaders  of  the  Bund  were  arrested  in 
advance  of  an  Independence  Day  celebration  at 
Camp  Nordland,  N.J.,  recreation  center  of  the 
Bund's  New  Jersey  unit.  They  were  G.  Wilhelm 
Kunze,  acting  leader  since  the  imprisonment  of 
Fritz  Kuhn  in  1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  258) ; 
August  Klapprott,  Eastern  leader  of  the  Bund  and 
manager  of  Camp  Nordland,  and  Mathias  Kohler, 
State  treasurer  of  the  Bund  They  were  charged 
with  violating  the  State  law  prohibiting  the  wear- 
ing of  uniforms  and  the  display  of  emblems  of  a 
foreign  nation  and  the  circulation  of  literature  in- 
citing race  or  religious  hatred.  On  October  10  a 
Sussex  County  grand  jury  voted  indictments  against 
the  three  men  and  five  other  Bund  members. 

Further  attention  was  attracted  to  Bund  activi- 
ties in  New  Jersey  on  August  18  when  700  of  its 
members  joined  with  several  hundred  members  of 
the  Ku  Klux  Klan  in  an  "Americanism"  rally  at 
Camp  Nordland.  On  December  19  agents  of  the 
Federal  Bureau  of  Investigation  raided  the  Chicago 
office  of  the  Bund  and  seized  membership  lists.  An 
investigator  of  the  State's  Attorney's  office  re- 
ported that  these  records  indicated  that  from  1500 
to  2000  Bund  members  were  in  the  U.S.  military, 
naval,  and  air  forces.  On  December  20  Attorney 
General  Jackson  at  Washington  ordered  an  inves- 
tigation to  determine  whether  the  Bund  member- 
ship list  had  been  bolstered  by  newly  naturalized 
citizens.  It  was  suspected  that  Nazi  agents  and 
sympathizers  had  secured  citizenship  papers  to 
shield  their  true  reason  for  being  in  the  United 
States  and  to  gain  privileges  denied  to  foreigners. 

The  Westrick  Case.  German  efforts  to  win 
American  business  leaders  over  to  the  idea  of  col- 
laboration with  Hitler's  Reich  received  publicity 
in  connection  with  the  activities  of  Dr.  Gerhard 
Alois  Westrick,  who  arrived  in  New  York  in 
March,  1940,  to  become  Trade  Counselor  of  the 
German  Embassy  at  Washington.  Setting  up  a 
New  York  office,  with  Baroness  Irmgard  von 
Wagenhehn  as  receptionist,  he  established  contacts 
with  many  prominent  business  and  professional 
men  with  the  ostensible  aim  of  promoting  German- 
American  business. 

An  investigation  of  his  activities  by  the  New 
York  Herald  Tribune  and  other  newspapers  re- 


FASCISM 


256 


FASHION  EVENTS 


vealed  that  he  had  given  false  information  to  ob- 
tain an  automobile  driver's  license,  registration 
certificate,  and  license  plates.  It  was  then  discov- 
ered that  the  automobile  had  been  purchased  for 
Dr.  Westrick  with  funds  of  the  Texas  Corporation 
at  the  order  of  Capt.  Torkild  Richer,  chairman  of 
the  board  of  directors.  Although  Captain  Richer 
insisted  that  his  relations  with  Dr.  Westrick  had 
"no  political  significance/1  his  resignation  as  presi- 
dent of  the  Texas  Corporation's  board  was  ac- 
cepted on  August  13.  At  the  same  time  Dr.  West- 
rick and  his  family  secretly  left  New  York  and 
on  August  19  sailed  from  Los  Angeles  on  a  Japa- 
nese ship. 

Italian  Fascists  in  America.  Goffredo  Panta- 
leoni,  who  resigned  as  head  of  the  Italian  Tourist 
Information  Office  in  New  York  in  protest  against 
Mussolini's  co-operation  with  Hitler,  asserted  in 
a  statement  issued  June  8, 1940,  that  Fascist  agents, 
controlling  some  2000  Italian  Fascist  party  work- 
ers in  kthe  United  States,  were  working  to  force  or 
persuade  five  million  Americans  of  Italian  origin 
to  do  the  work  of  the  Rome-Berlin  Axis. 

On  June  13  Police  Commissioner  Valentine  of 
New  York  City  made  public  the  results  of  a  lengthy 
investigation  into  the  activities  of  Italian  Fascists 
in  New  York  and  elsewhere.  The  statement  as- 
serted that  documentary  evidence  had  been  gath- 
ered demonstrating  that  officials  of  the  Italian 
Consulate  General  in  New  York,  under  cover  of 
diplomatic  immunity,  were  directing  the  organiza- 
tion of  Fascist  groups  and  actively  disseminating 
Fascist  propaganda. 

The  noted  anti-Fascist  historian,  Prof.  Gaetano 
Salvemini,  in  a  study  of  Italian  Fascist  activities 
in  the  United  States  issued  by  the  American  Coun- 
cil on  Public  Affairs  on  October  12,  asserted  that 
only  5  per  cent  of  the  Italian-American  residents 
of  the  United  States  were  outright  Fascists  but 
that  they  had  influenced  about  35  per  cent  of  the 
Italian-Americans.  The  mentality  of  the  35  per 
cent,  he  said,  "has  not  yet  clearly  become  Fascist 
and  anti-democratic  but  ...  might  crystallize  at 
the  first  emergency."  He  estimated  that  10  per 
cent  of  Italian-Americans  were  definitely  anti- 
Fascist,  while  the  other  50  per  cent  were  in  no  way 
concerned  with  politics.  He  charged  that  the  staffs 
of  the  Italian  embassy  and  consulates  were  busily 
engaged  in  Fascist  propaganda  on  the  radio,  in 
newspapers,  and  in  schools,  churches,  and  clubs. 

The  Christian  Front.  Of  the  numerous  Amer- 
ican pro-Fascist  movements,  all  of  relatively  minor 
importance,  the  Christian  Front  received  the  great- 
est attention  during  1940  as  a  result  of  the  trial  of 
14  of  its  members  in  a  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  Federal 
Court  on  charges  of  conspiring  to  overthrow  the 
government  and  to  Steal  government  property  (see 
NEW  YORK  under  New  York  City). 

Latin  America.  The  German  military  successes 
in  May  and  June  and  the  .collapse  of  one  demo- 
cratic government  after  another  in  Europe  were  a 
marked  incentive  to  Fascist  movements  in  Latin 
America.  Anticipating  the  efrfjy  defeat  of  Britain, 
the  pro-Fascist  groups  in  som^Latin  American  re- 
publics shed  their  veil  of  sedrecy  and  boldly  made 
preparations  for  bringing  South  America  under 
Axis  domination.  Early  In  June  the  Uruguayan 
Government  uncovered  a  plot  by  the  Uruguayan 
branch  of  the  German  Nazi  party  to  seize  control 
of  the  republic  with  the  aid  Of  Nazi  units  in  Ar- 
gentina and  Brazil  and  convert  it  into  an  agricul- 
tural colony  of  the  Reich.  Despite  the  material  and 
moral  support  given  Uruguay  by  Brazil  and  the 


United  States,  the  fear  of  future  German  reprisals 
led  the  government  to  release  12  Germans  arrested 
for  subversive  activity,  while  Congress  voted  down 
a  motion  to  make  the  findings  of  the  inquiry  into 
the  plot  available  to  the  other  American  govern- 
ments. 

According  to  John  W.  White,  Buenos  Aires  cor- 
respondent of  the  New  York  Times,  the  investi- 
gation revealed  that  "efficient  Nazi  organizations 
in  several  South  American  countries  are  plotting 
to  help  local  'outs'  to  overthrow  existing  govern- 
ments and  set  up  regimes  favorably  disposed  to- 
ward totalitarian  ideology."  Efforts  of  this  kind 
were  apparent  in  Argentina,  Brazil,  Chile,  Ecuador, 
and  Mexico,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  every  other 
Latin  American  country.  At  the  same  time  Nazi- 
Fascist  organizations  throughout  Latin  America 
intensified  their  efforts  to  undermine  existing  pro* 
democratic  institutions  and  governments  by  propa- 
ganda, spying,  terrorism,  the  boycott,  and  other 
forms  of  economic  and  financial  pressure. 

The  frank  revelation  of  Axis  ambitions  aroused 
the  governments  and  pro-democratic  elements 
throughout  Latin  America  to  their  danger  and 
spurred  them  to  more  active  counter-measures. 
Such  measures  were  taken  at  the  Havana  Confer- 
ence and  other  Pan  American  meetings  (see  PAN 
AMERICANISM),  by  various  governments,  and  by 
newly  organized  private  associations  for  the  de- 
fense of  democracy  (see  the  individual  countries 
under  History). 

During  the  last  months  of  the  year  the  attention 
of  the  Spanish  American  countries  was  concentrat- 
ed upon  the  activities  of  the  Spanish  Falangist 
(Falange  Espanola)  movement.  In  November  pro- 
democratic  newspapers,  such  as  Critica  in  Buenos 
Aires,  charged  that  Hitler  was  using  the  Falange 
branches  throughout  Latin  America  as  a  more  ef- 
fective instrument  of  peaceful  penetration  than  the 
Nazi  organizations.  Falangist  activities  similar  to 
those  engaged  in  by  the  German  Nazis  and  Italian 
Fascists  aroused  violent  controversy  in  Argentina, 
Cuba,  Mexico,  and  Uruguay. 

See  COMMUNISM;  DIES  COMMITTEE;  FIFTH 
COLUMN;  NORTH  CAROLINA;  and  ARGENTINA, 
AUSTRALIA,  BOHEMIA  AND  MORAVIA,  BOLIVIA, 
BRAZIL,  BULGARIA,  CANADA,  CHILE,  COLOMBIA, 
COSTA  RICA,  CUBA,  DENMARK,  ECUADOR,  FIN- 
LAND, FRANCE,  GERMANY,  GREAT  BRITAIN, 
GREECE,  HUNGARY,  ITALY,  JAPAN,  MEXICO,  NETH- 
ERLANDS, NORWAY,  PANAMA,  PARAGUAY,  PORTU- 
GAL, RUMANIA,  SLOVAKIA,  SOUTH  AFRICA,  SPAIN, 
SWEDEN,  SWITZERLAND,  URUGUAY  and  YUGOSLA- 
VIA, under  History.  See  also  FRENCH  LITERA- 
TURE, GERMAN  LITERATURE,  ITALIAN  LITERATURE, 
SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE,  etc. 

FASHION  EVENTS.  The  year  marked  the 
;  of  a  new  era  in  American  Fashions.  On 


June  14  Paris,  the  source  of  creative  fashion,  was 
cut  off.  For  the  first  time  the  American  manufac- 
turer and  designer  was  forced  to  stand  alone. 
Whether  they  will  march  forward  or  will  sink 
into  banal  mediocrity  is  in  question.  The  opportu- 
nity is  now  here. 

In  fairness,  we  must  state  that  there  were  fav- 
orable forces  working  for  the  creative  genius  of 
Parii  which  do  not  exist  in  America  today.  For 
centuries  that  city  has  had  raw  materials,  low 
wages,  and  a  wealthy  audience  constantly  coming 
and  going.  There  existed  a  close  co-operation  be- 
tween artist,  designer,  and  social  leader.  Skilled 
help  was  available,  and  textile  manufacturers  and 
creative  craftsmen  were  not  only  willing  but  eager 


FASHION  EVENTS 


to  back  up  designers  even  to  the  point  of  weaving 
materials  in  experimental  quantities  and  placing 
them  on  consignment.  Even  the  government  was 
helpful  in  financing  needy  and  worthy  firms  and 
in  punishing  style  pirates  with  imprisonment.  Such 
conditions  are  ideal  for  creative  effort  and  are  the 
result  of  centuries  of  development 

America,  however,  has  not  got  a  couture  trade, 
though  it  has  a  flourishing  ready-to-wear  industry 
which,  with  its  subsidiary  businesses,  represents  a 
larger  volume  in  dollars  than  does  the  automobile 
industry.  Fashion  in  America  is  mechanized ;  in 
France  it  was  a  handicraft  and  it  is  hands  and 
minds  that  create,  not  machines.  In  America  the 
wages  paid  to  workers  are  approximately  eight 
times  that  paid  to  the  needle  trades  in  Pans.  Em- 
ployment practices  are  governed  by  labor  laws 
which  regiment  production  and  thereby  put  a  pre- 
mium on  initiative.  Manufacturer  and  designer  are 
not  adequately  protected,  nor  are  government 
loans  available  on  mental  and  artistic  collateral. 
Textile  mills  are  set  up  for  large  scale  production 
and  cannot,  therefore,  afford  to  carry  out  experi- 
mental ideas — though  some  progressive  firms  are 
establishing  this  needed  service ;  the  Botany  Mills 
and  those  of  S.  Stroock  are  co-operating  with  de- 
signers in  an  altruistic  effort  to  further  creative 
effort  through  newly  organized  experimental  de- 
partments And  in  addition  to  these,  there  is  evolv- 
ing in  New  York  a  colony  where  the  designer, 
artist,  sculptor,  actor,  and  social  leader  are  min- 
gling and  creative  genius  is  being  stimulated  It  is 
doubtful,  however,  that  New  York  can  ever  be- 
come the  artist's  home  as  was  Paris.  Living  costs 
are  too  high. 

Despite  these  handicaps  a  resume*  of  suppliers 
reveals  that  American  manufacturers  are  produc- 
ing goods  on  a  par  with,  or  better,  than  were  made 
in  Europe  in  cottons,  woolens,  silks,  rayons,  and 
leather,  with  the  exception  of  hand-loomed  and 
hand-blocked  fabrics.  Labor  charges  and  living 
costs  will  never  permit  these  luxury  materials  to 
be  produced  in  America  on  the  low-cost  European 
basis. 

Meanwhile  the  hope  for  America's  fashion  fu- 
ture rests  primarily  in  the  hands  of  a  few  design- 
ers and  couturiers — Hattje  Carnegie,  Valentma, 
Nettie  Rosenstein,  Sally  Victor,  Germaine  Montiel, 
Louise  Barnes  Gallagher,  Clarepotter,  Anthony 
Blotta,  John  Fredericks,  Lilli  Dache,  Florence 
Riechman — in  the  East.  In  the  West,  with  such 
creative  designers  as  Alice  Evans,  Joyce,  and  Adri- 
an. In  addition,  certain  retail  outlets,  cut  off  from 
Paris  resources,  are  building  with  increased  en- 
thusiasm their  special  order  departments.  Among 
them  are  Bergdorf  Goodman  and  Saks  Fifth  Ave- 
nue in  New  York,  Neiman  Marcus  in  the  South, 
and  I.  Magnin  in  California.  To  them  the  manu- 
facturers will  look  for  inspiration  and  their  scouts 
will  continue  to  frequent  and  to  report  from  the 
places  where  smartly  dressed  women  congregate—- 
the Colony,  Ritz,  Belmont,  Meadowbrook. 

New  retail  buying  trends  are  developing.  To 
Seventh  Avenue  in  New  York  City  (known  in  the 
trade  as  "the  market")  retail  stores  send  their 
merchandise  managers  and  buyers  several  times  a 
year.  However,  fashion  manufacturers  are  spread- 
ing through  the  Middle  West  and  are  becoming 
increasingly  successful  on  the  West  Coast.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  75  leading  stores  are  now  buy- 
ing 10  per  cent  of  their  merchandise  in  Chicago 
while  buyers  in  aties  of  15,000  and  less,  finding 
the  trip  to  New  York  too  expensive,  are  ooncen- 


2S1  FASHION  EVENTS 

trating  their  buying  in  five  cities,  namely  Chicago, 
St.  Louis,  Dallas,  San  Francisco,  and  Los  Angeles. 
Many  leading  stores  throughout  the  country  con- 
tinue to  be  guided  by  the  mailed  reports  of  Tob£, 
a  fashion  advisor,  who  covers  the  New  York  mar- 
ket and  whose  keen  analyses  and  predictions  have 
proven  their  worth  since  the  establishment  of  her 
business  some  15  years  ago. 

Fashion  Press.  Three  periodicals  that  have 
been  important  in  the  promotion  of  Paris  fashions 
—Vogue,  edited  by  Edna  Woolman  Chase;  Har- 
per's  Bazaar,  edited  by  Carmel  Snow,  and  Wom- 
en's Wear,  edited  by  Winifred  Ovitte— have  in- 
creased their  efforts  to  promote  American  fashions 
and  have  done  so  in  a  sensible,  eclectic,  non-flag- 
waving  manner.  Formerly  the  editors  of  these 
magazines  attended  the  showings  of  the  designers' 
collections  in  Paris  and  selected  from  the  several 
thousand  styles  shown  some  50  or  60  to  be  fea- 
tured on  their  pages.  This  was  a  source  of  inspira- 
tion and  authority  to  retailers,  manufacturers,  and 
the  consumer.  Now  their  attention  is  limited  by  the 
war  to  the  American  fashion  picture  which  they 
are  reporting  with  honesty  and  imagination. 

Fashion  information  is  also  disseminated  to  an 
important  degree  by  women's  magazines  of  large 
circulation — Good  Housekeeping,  McCall's,  Wom- 
an's Home  Companion,  Ladies  Home  Journal.  An 
outstanding  success  in  this  highly  competitive  field 
has  recently  been  achieved  by  Mademoiselle,  edited 
by  Mrs.  Betsy  Black  well,  which  features  youthful 
medium  priced  merchandise. 

Important  to  the  fashion  trade  are  the  daily  ar- 
ticles written  for  the  women's  pages  of  news- 
papers by  syndicate  editors  living  in  New  York  or 
in  leading  cities. 

Fashion  Organizations.  The  Fashion  Group, 
a  non-cemmercial  organization  of  professional 
women,  organized  in  New  York  now  has  eight 
regional  groups  located  in  principal  cities  through- 
out the  United  States  and  a  total  membership  of 
980.  Julia  Coburn  is  its  president.  Luncheon  meet- 
ings are  held  monthly  at  which  various  phases  of 
fashion  are  discussed  by  prominent  speakers.  The 
purpose  of  the  Fashion  Group  is  to  "advance  the 
principles  of  applied  art  in  industry  and  to  foster 
good  taste  in  fashion ;  to  encourage  the  co-opera- 
tion of  those  engaged  in  conceiving,  designing,  and 
executing  fashions ;  and,  through  proper  education 
and  the  dissemination  of  useful  information,  to 
inspire  a  keener  interest  in  fashions  to  the  end 
that  those  engaged  in  the  field  of  fashion  may 
better  serve  themselves  and  the  public  at  large." 

Fashion  Developments.  Fashion  progressed 
on  an  even  keel  throughout  the  year.  It  was  no- 
table for  a  spirit  of  frankness  and  youthfulness, 
with  a  lack  of  absurdities  and  conceits.  This  was 
probably  due  to  the  sobering  influence  of  the  war 
abroad.  The  last  Paris  collections  arrived  at  mid- 
season  via  clipper,  and  from  that  time  on  all  in- 
spiration from  abroad  was  ended. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  New  York  saw  a 
magnificent  exhibition  of  Persian  art  owned  by 
American  collectors  and,  just  as  similar  exhibi- 
tions in  Paris  had  their  effect  upon  fashion,  so  this 
exhibit  ushered  into  the  higher  style  group,  Per- 
sian colors  and  designs  in  costumes  and  in  jewelry. 

In  the  spring  new  colors  came  to  the  fore, 
Cocoa  brown,  Elephant  gray,  with  a  brighter-than- 
Navy  Blue,  and  a  Soldier  Blue  in  the  lead.  Skirts 
were  shorter,  the  natural  waistline  was  accentu- 
ated and  simple  costumes  were  dramatized  by 
over-size  pockets,  buttons,  bags.  Off-the-face  hats 


FBI 


252 


FBI 


were  popular  for  daytime  wear  and  for  evening 
the  shawl  entered  importantly. 

During  the  summer  and  early  spring  travellers, 
who  formerly  visited  the  Riviera,  cruised  to  South 
America  and  as  the  year  progressed  there  was  a 
rising  interest  in  South  American  costumes 
adapted  from  the  clothes  of  the  natives,  and  colors 
such  as  yellow  reds,  yellow,  brilliant  pinks,  purple, 
beige  were  worn  in  brilliant  combinations.  Later 
a  growing  spirit  of  patriotism  found  everyone 
wearing  jewelry  and  accessories  emblazoned  with 
national  emblems,  flags,  shields,  crests,  and  the 
wording  of  national  anthems.  This  led  to  tri- 
color costumes,  red,  white,  and  blue.  To  mate  with 
these  fashions  cosmetics  rose  to  clear,  brilliant 
reds  and  bore  such  names  as  Cockade  Red,  Flag 
Red,  Military  Red,  and  Navy  Red. 

College  fashions  showed  an  increased  inclination 
toward  mannish  trends.  Preferred  fabrics  were 
wools,  tweeds,  and  corduroy.  Skirts  became  a  bit 
longer.  Sweaters  and  skirts  held  their  own  with  a 
longer  fitted  jacket  for  the  formal  suit.  Jumpers, 
pinafores,  jerkins,  "beanie"  and  stocking  caps 
topped  every  costume.  Obvious  innovations  for 
evening  wear  were  the  reefer  and  the  Polo  coat 
with  enormous  golden  buttons.  Evening  dresses 
were  notable  for  extreme  modesty.  Fur  coats  of 
sheared  beaver,  mink,  and  the  brown  and  beige  furs 
became  leaders  in  both  the  skirt  length  and  the 
thirty-two  inch  length  Bulky  short  jackets  held 
the  popularity  they  have  enjoyed  for  several  sea- 
sons. The  outstanding  fashion  event  was  a  chemi- 
cal achievement — the  introduction  of  Nylon  ho- 
siery. At  the  end  of  1940,  demand  exceeded  supply 
and  the  sale  of  Nylon  represented  only  about  10 
per  cent  of  hosiery  sales.  See  GARMENT  INDUSTRY  ; 
SHOE  INDUSTRY. 

Without  a  doubt,  1940  will  go  down  as  an  im- 
portant year  in  American  fashion  history.  The 
course  ahead  is  replete  with  natural  and  economic 
obstacles.  Wisdom,  ingenuity,  and  co-operation  can 
surmount  them  in  time.  The  unhysterical,  thought- 
ful, but  honestly  patriotic  attitude  of  fashion  lead- 
ers of  the  manufacturing  press  and  retail  fields, 
united  with  our  natural  inventiveness,  is  a  hopeful 
guerdon  of  a  bright  future  with  wider,  finer  op- 
portunity than  there  has  ever  been  before. 

CATHARINE  OGLESBY. 

FBI.  See  FEDERAL  BUREAU  OF  INVESTIGATION. 

FCA.  See  FARM  CREDIT  ADMINISTRATION. 

FCC.  See  FEDERAL  COMMUNICATIONS  COMMIS- 
SION. 

FEDERAL  ALCOHOL  ADMINISTRA- 
TION (FAA).  Formerly  an  agency  of  the  U.S. 
Department  of  the  Treasury,  abolished  June  30, 
1940,  when  its  functions  were  transferred  to  the 
Alcohol  Tax  Unit  of  the  Bureau  of  International 
Revenue.  See  ALCOHOLIC  LIQUORS. 

FEDERAL  BUREAU  OF  INVESTIGA- 
TION (FBI).  Although  confronted  with  a 
greater  volume  of  work  and  more  responsibilities 
than  in  any  other  period  of  its  history,  from  the 
standpoint  of  accomplishments,  the  Federal  Bu- 
reau of  Investigation  during  the  fiscal  year  1940 
achieved  its  greatest  success. 

A  changing  world  required  emphasis  on  matters 
Delating  to  the  internal  security  of  the  United 
States.  Shortly  before  the  fiscal  year  opened,  the 
President  of  the  United  States  directed  the  Fed- 
eral Bureau  of  Investigation  to  take  charge  of 
investigative  work  relating  to  espionage,  counter- 
espionage, sabotage,  and  related  matters.  With  the 


outbreak  of  war  in  Europe  this  type  of  work  in- 
creased materially.  A  total  of  16,885  national  de- 
fense matters  were  handled  during  the  year  which 
required  investigative  activity  as  compared  with 
1651  in  1939. 

On  Sept.  6,  1939,  the  Chief  Executive,  realizing 
that  investigations  of  national  defense  matters 
must  be  conducted  in  a  comprehensive  and  effec- 
tive manner  on  a  national  scale,  requested  all  law 
enforcement  agencies  to  co-operate  with  the  FBI 
in  this  vital  work.  Through  a  series  of  more  than 
500  conferences  with  FBI  officials,  attended  by 
representatives  of  some  8000  state,  county,  and 
municipal  law  enforcement  agencies,  the  entire  law 
enforcement  profession  was  mobilized  to  combat 
subversive  activities  and  meet  any  emergency 
which  might  arise.  To  further  amplify  the  co- 
operative procedures  of  the  FBI  with  law  enforce- 
ment agencies,  regular  quarterly  conferences  with 
the  various  local  law  enforcement  representatives 
were  arranged  by  the  Bureau  In  addition  arrange- 
ments were  perfected  whereby  the  Special  Agents 
in  Charge  of  the  53  field  divisions  of  the  FBI  can 
forward  to  the  heads  of  local  law  enforcement  or- 
ganizations general  intelligence  matters  for  appro- 
priate attention. 

As  an  integral  part  of  its  national  defense  work, 
the  FBI  inaugurated  in  September,  1939,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  request  of  the  War  and  Navy 
Departments,  a  program  to  survey  the  protective 
facilities  of  manufacturing  establishments  having 
large  contracts  to  provide  the  Government  with 
defense  materials.  A  priority  list  of  over  1500  fac- 
tories for  survey  was  furnished  the  FBI  by  the 
armed  services.  Over  1200  of  these  were  surveyed 
during  1940.  The  sole  purpose  of  the  surveys  is  to 
submit  recommendations  to  bolster  the  physical 

Protective  facilities  of  the  manufacturing  plants 
or  the  prevention  of  sabotage  and  espionage  ac- 
tivities. Supplementing  these  surveys  the  FBI  has 
prepared  and  issued  a  manual  of  suggestions  for 
the  protection  of  industrial  facilities  which  is  dis- 
tributed to  executive  officials  of  industrial  plants 
producing  national  defense  materials 

To  prevent  hysteria  and  improperly  supervised 
activity  in  the  field  relating  to  internal  security, 
the  FBI  cautioned  well-meaning  citizens  and  pa- 
triotic groups  against  investigative  activity  on 
their  part,  and  requested  that  they  turn  over  all  in- 
formation relating  to  national  defense  to  the  near- 
est office  of  the  FBI.  The  citizens'  part  in  the 
FBI's  defense  program  is  one  of  observation. 

The  increase  in  work  as  a  result  of  the  emer- 
gency conditions  necessitated  the  addition  of  Agents 
to  the  investigative  force  and  the  establishment  of 
new  field  offices  at  Albanyr  New  York;  Balti- 
more, Maryland ;  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan ;  Hous- 
ton. Texas;  New  Haven,  Connecticut;  Phoenix, 
Arizona ;  San  Diego,  California ;  Savannah,  Geor- 
gia ;  Honolulu,  Hawaii ;  Juneau,  Alaska ;  and  San 
Juan,  Puerto  Rico. 

Newly  appointed  Special  Agents,  who  are  re- 
quired to  be  between  the  ages  of  23  and  35,  grad- 
uates of  accredited  law  schools  or  graduates  of 
recognized  accounting  schools  with  three  years' 
experience  in  commercial  accounting  or  auditing, 
must  successfully  complete  an  intensive  training 
course  prior  to  their  entry  into  the  field  to  do  in- 
vestigative work. 

During  the  past  year,  2393  Federal  fugitives 
from  justice  were  located  and  apprehended  By  the 
FBI.  In  addition,  7809  fugitives  were  located  for 
State,  county,  and  municipal  law  enforcement  agen- 


FBI 


253       FEDERAL  COMMUNICATIONS 


cies  through  the  Fingerprint  Division  of  the  FBI, 
making  a  total  of  10,198  fugitives  from  justice  lo- 
cated during  1940. 

Convictions  secured  in  Federal  Courts  in  cases 
investigated  by  Special  Agents  of  the  FBI  num- 
bered 5605,  as  compared  with  5162  convictions  se- 
cured in  the  fiscal  year  1939 ;  158  convictions  were 
also  secured  during  the  year  in  cases  under  the 
national  defense  classification.  Convictions  were 
secured  in  more  than  96  per  cent  of  the  cases  in- 
vestigated by  the  FBI  and  prosecuted  in  Court. 
During  the  year,  sentences  imposed  in  cases  in- 
vestigated totaled  10  life,  17,833  years,  4  months, 
and  28  days,  while  during  the  fiscal  year  1939  sen- 
tences imposed  totaled  12  life,  16,948  years,  6 
months,  and  5  days. 

The  total  savings,  fines  imposed,  and  recoveries 
effected  in  the  miscellaneous  types  of  cases  investi- 
gated by  the  FBI  during  the  year  amounted  to 
$58,390,180.64  The  regular  appropriation  of  the 
FBI  for  the  period  totaled  $7,300,000.  For  every 
dollar  spent  in  connection  with  the  regular  opera- 
tions of  the  Bureau  for  the  year,  $8  were  saved 
or  returned  to  the  Government  or  individual  citi- 
zens in  stolen  property  recovered,  fines  imposed 
and  savings  effected 

Since  the  passage  of  the  Federal  Kidnaping  Act 
on  June  22,  1932,  191  cases  of  kidnaping  and  con- 
spiracy to  kidnap  have  been  investigated  by  the 
FBI,  and  all  but  two  have  been  solved.  These  two 
cases  are  currently  under  investigation  and  in  one 
case  alone  more  than  22,000  suspects  have  been 
checked  and  eliminated.  In  the  189  solved  cases, 
there  were  376  convictions  in  Federal  and  State 
Courts  with  the  imposition  of  sentences  totaling 
12  death,  42  life,  4363  years,  7  months,  and  13 
days.  Eight  kidnapers  committed  suicide,  8  were 
killed  resisting  arrest,  7  died  by  murder  at  the 
hands  of  their  gang  members,  and  2  were  lynched. 
During  the  past  fiscal  year,  only  14  kidnaping 
cases  occurred,  all  of  which  were  solved. 

The  Federal  Bank  Robbery  Statute  was  origi- 
nally approved  by  the  President  on  May  18,  1934. 
As  a  result  of  investigative  activities  of  Special 
Agents  of  the  FBI  into  this  type  of  crime  in  co- 
operation with  State  and  local  police  agencies, 
bank  robbery  has  declined  approximately  80  per 
cent  since  its  peak  year  of  1932  During  the  past 
year,  a  total  of  178  convictions  were  secured,  with 
the  imposition  of  two  life  sentences  and  other  sen- 
tences totaling  2189  years  and  28  days,  with  fines 
totaling  $52,601. 

Investigations  of  violations  of  the  White  Slave 
Traffic  Act  during  1940  resulted  in  476  Federal 
convictions  with  sentences  totaling  1242  years,  8 
months,  and  28  days 

On  Dec.  1,  1940,  there  was  a  total  of  14,701,647 
sets  of  fingerprint  records  on  file  in  the  Identifica- 
tion Division  of  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Investiga- 
tion. Sets  received  during  the  year  totaled  2,572,- 
812,  and  identifications  were  effected  in  60.4  per 
cent  of  the  criminal  fingerprints  received. 

In  the  crime  laboratory,  a  total  of  7097  exami- 
nations were  made  by  FBI  scientists  in  1940,  as 
compared  with  5559  such  examinations  during  the 
fiscal  year  1939.  Of  the  7097  examinations  made 
in  the  laboratory,  assistance  was  rendered  to  other 
Federal  agencies  in  369  instances  and  to  State, 
county,  and  municipal  law  enforcement  agencies 
in  2065  instances.  These  scientific  examinations  in- 
volved 39,500  different  specimens  of  evidence. 

Throughout  the  year  concentrated  research  work 
was  earned  on  in  the  laboratory  to  devise  ways 


and  means  to  meet  the  many  problems  that  have 
arisen  in  connection  with  the  widespread  activities 
of  the  FBI  in  coping  with  sabotage,  espionage, 
counterespionage,  and  other  matters  related  to  na- 
tional defense.  See  FASCISM;  FIRE  PROTECTION. 

J.  EDGAR  HOOVER. 

FEDERAL  COMMUNICATIONS  COM- 

MISSION.  The  past  year,  besides  commemorat- 
ing the  20th  anniversary  of  broadcasting  is  record- 
ed by  the  Federal  Communications  Commission  as 
making  notable  contributions  to  the  development 
of  radio  in  general. 

Particularly  outstanding  was  inauguration  of  a 
new  type  of  broadcast  popularly  known  as  "FM." 
Regular  use  of  frequency  modulation  will  offer 
public  demonstration  of  its  claimed  clarity  and 
staticless  qualities.  Also,  by  using  a  different  part 
of  the  radio  spectrum  (the  high  frequencies),  FM 
promises  to  relieve  the  situation  in  the  long  con- 
gested standard  broadcast  band.  The  new  service 
requires  new  equipment,  sets,  and  servicing  and 
should  likewise  have  a  stimulating  effect  on  pro- 
gramming. By  early  February,  1941,  the  Commis- 
sion had  authorized  32  FM  stations  to  go  on  a  full 
commercial  basis. 

Television  development  received  considerable  im- 
petus during  the  year.  The  Commission  enabled 
about  half  a  hundred  stations  in  many  sections  of 
the  country  to  experiment  with  various  types  of 
transmission  with  a  view  to  reaching  early  accord 
on  uniform  standards  which  will  enable  television 
to  move  forward  on  a  full  commercial  basis.  In- 
terested persons  had  budgeted  a  total  of  $8,000,000 
for  this  experimental  work.  The  Commission's 
purpose  was  aided  by  exhaustive  study  of  the  situ- 
ation by  a  National  Television  Systems  Commit- 
tee, representing  the  best  minds  in  the  industry, 
which  was  initiated  by  the  joint  efforts  of  the 
Radio  Manufacturers  Association  and  the  Com- 
mission. The  rapid  evolution  of  television  was  at- 
tested during  the  year  by  developments  in  color 
reproduction,  large-screen  projection,  and  practical 
service  demonstrations. 

In  the  field  of  standard  broadcasting,  the  coming 
year  should  see  a  marked  improvement  in  service 
by  reason  of  the  North  American  Regional  Broad- 
casting Agreement,  which  becomes  effective  Mar. 
29,  1941.  This  compact  between  Canada,  Cuba,  the 
Dominican  Republic,  Haiti,  Mexico,  and  the  Unit- 
ed States  will  tend  to  eliminate  or  minimize  many 
interference  problems  in  North  America. 

At  the  close  of  the  last  fiscal  year,  846  standard 
broadcast  stations  were  operating  or  under  con- 
struction. Seventy-six  new  stations  were  author- 
ized during  the  year  and  10  deleted.  For  the  1939 
calendar  year,  705  standard  broadcast  stations  (in- 
cluding networks),  reported  time  sales  approach- 
ing $130,000,000,  and  expenses  of  slightly  more 
than  $100,000,000.  These  stations  employed  24,605 
persons  with  a  payroll  of  $51,620,000. 

Broadcast  service  to  South  America  was  im- 
proved by  reason  of  the  Commission  requiring  a 
minimum  power  of  50  kilowatts  for  international 
program  service.  A  dozen  international  broadcast 
stations  were  in  operation  during  1940. 

Increased  use  of  radio  for  miscellaneous  services 
was  noted.  Police  licenses  increased  to  6300,  the 
aviation  service  to  over  2000,  and  more  than  1000 
stations  were  employed  for  forest  conservation 
purposes.  During  the  year  the  Commission  clarified 
its  rules  with  respect  to  the  452  special  emergency 
stations,  which  are  particularly  useful  in  establish- 


FEDERAL  COMMUNICATIONS       254        FEDERAL  CROP  INSURANCE 


ing  radio  communication  in  time  of  flood,  earth* 
qtttke,  hurricane,  and  other  disaster  when  wire 
facilities  are  disrupted.  The  Commission  rendered 
its  final  report  on  a  special  study  of  radio  require- 
ments to  further  insure  safety  to  shipping  on  the 
Great  Lakes  and  inland  waters  of  the  United 
States,  and  gathered  information  with  respect  to 
communications  needs  on  the  Mississippi  River 
System. 

A  two-year  investigation  of  chain  broadcasting 
resulted  in  a  special  committee  of  the  Commission, 
in  June,  recommending  regulation  of  network  prac- 
tices to  eliminate  certain  features  while  retaining 
the  advantages  of  this  type  of  service.  This  1300- 
page  report,  together  with  briefs  subsequently  sub- 
mitted by  interested  parties,  was  the  subject, of 
oral  argument  early  in  December  in  connection 
with  consideration  of  the  subject  by  the  full  Com- 
mission. 

Commission  regulation  of  interstate  and  foreign 
communication  facilities  brought  added  duties  dur- 
ing the  year  as  a  result  of  national  defense  precau- 
tions. It  was  necessary  for  the  Commission  to  aug- 
ment its  field  force  and  monitoring  facilities  for 
more  effective  surveillance.  In  June  it  imposed  a 
ban  on  amateur  communication  with  foreign  coun- 
tries, supplementing  this  with  an  absolute  prohi- 
bition on  the  use  of  portable  long-distance  trans- 
mitters. At  the  same  time  it  warned  ship  radio 
operators  to  refrain  from  unnecessary  conversation 
on  the  air.  Subsequently,  it  ordered  about  100,000 
radio  operators— commercial  as  well  as  amateur — 
to  furnish  proof  of  citizenship.  The  private  wire 
and  cable  companies  co-operated  in  compiling  simi- 
lar identification  data  with  respect  to  employees 
engaged  in  handling  international  messages. 

The  year's  record  reveals  56,300  amateur  stations 
in  operation,  as  well  as  nearly  200  standard  broad- 
cast stations  offering  part-time  programs  in  30 
foreign  languages.  Some  40,000  commercial  opera- 
tor licenses  were  issued  during  the  year.  As  a  con- 
venience to  those  operators  drafted  or  otherwise 
called  to  military  service,  certain  renewal  routine 
was  waived  temporarily.  Due  to  war  conditions, 
many  disruptions  of  foreign  cable  and  radiotele- 
phone and  radiotelegraph  circuits  were  reported 

The  role  of  all  branches  of  communications  in 
the  preparedness  program  is  to  be  co-ordinated  by 
a  Defense  Communications  Board,  created  by  Exec- 
utive Order  in  September.  This  Board  comprises 
officials  of  the  State,  Treasury,  War,  and  Navy 
departments  and  the  Commission,  with  the  various 
industries  and  other  governmental  departments  con- 
cerned represented  on  advisory  committees.  It  is  a 
planning  agency  without  operating  or  procurement 
functions.  The  Chairman  of  the  Commission  is 
also  Board  Chairman. 

As  a  remedy  for  many  ills  in  the  highly  competi- 
tive telegraph  industry,  the  Commission  early  last 
year  recommended  merger  of  the  domestic  tele- 
graph companies.  It  further  urged  consolidation 
of  American  international  communication  carriers 
serving  the  United  States  in  the  interests  of  de- 
fense and  other  national  needs. 

The  Commission  reported  aggregate  savings  of 
$10,000,000  to  telephone  users  by  reason  of  tariff 
revisions  during  the  year,  affecting  all  sections  of 
the  country.  Common  carriers  filed  a  total  of  23,- 
330  tariff  schedules  affecting  telephone  and  tele- 
graph. In  October  the  Commission  approved  a  re- 
vised uniform  system  of  accounts  for  telegraph  and 
cable  carriers,  to  become  operative  in  1942.  The 
new  system  conforms  to  Government  accounting 


principles  and  will  supplant  one  in  use  since  1914. 

The  present  members  of  the  Commission  are 
James  Lawrence  Fly,  Chairman ;  Paul  A.  Walker, 
Norman  S.  Case,  T.  A.  M.  Craven,  George  Henry 
Payne,  and  Frederick  I.  Thompson. 

See  RADIO;  TELEVISION;  UNITED  STATES  under 
Administration. 

FEDERAL  COUNCIL  OF  THE 
CHURCHES  OF  CHRIST  IN  AMERICA. 
An  organization  established  in  1908  by  28  Prot- 
estant denominations  to  act  for  them  in  matters  of 
common  interest  At  the  end  of  1940  it  included 
most  of  the  major  Protestant  denominations  of  the 
United  States. 

The  total  number  of  communicant  members  in- 
cluded in  the  Council's  constituency  in  1940  was 
slightly  in  excess  of  22,000,000,  counting  only  those 
13  years  of  age  and  over. 

Of  the  Council's  eight  departments,  the  follow- 
ing made  a  significant  contribution  during  1940. 
The  department  of  social  service  conducted  a  series 
of  conferences  on  preparation  for  marriage  and 
family  life ;  the  department  of  evangelism  directed 
the  National  Christian  Mission  in  eleven  major 
centers  of  population  in  the  interest  of  a  spiritual 
awakening.  The  department  of  international  justice 
and  good  will  held  an  interdenominational  confer- 
ence, February  27-29,  in  Philadelphia  on  the  rela- 
tion of  the  churches  to  the  international  crisis ;  it 
also  carried  on  relief  appeals  in  the  churches  for 
war  sufferers  in  China  and  for  German  refugees. 
The  radio  department  sponsored  10  religious  pro- 
grams on  the  air  each  week.  The  department  of 
relations  with  churches  abroad  gave  further  leader- 
ship in  the  development  of  plans  for  a  World 
Council  of  Churches.  The  department  of  research 
and  education  issued  reports  on  "The  Status  of 
Women  in  Protestant  Churches,"  "The  Churches 
and  the  Social  Security  Act,"  "The  Church  and 
Cooperatives,"  "Civil  Liberties  in  Industrial  Dis- 
putes," "The  War,  the  United  States,  and  the 
Christian  Churches,"  and  "Sharecroppers  and  Mi- 
grant Workers."  A  commission  for  the  study  of 
Christian  unity  continued  a  plan  for  the  unifica- 
tion of  American  interdenominational  agencies  and 
completed  a  study  of  unity  in  foreign  missionary 
work.  The  department  of  race  relations  inaugurat- 
ed a  plan  for  improving  the  service  of  Negro  rural 
churches  in  the  South.  The  commission  on  army 
and  navy  chaplains  enlarged  its  work  to  include  a 
supervision  of  religious  ministrations  for  the  men 
called  to  training  camps  under  the  Selective  Serv- 
ice Act  The  Federal  Council  Bulletin,  a  monthly, 
continued  to  be  issued  as  the  official  organ. 

Officers  during  1940  were:  President,  the  Rev. 
George  A.  Buttrick;  vice-president,  Dr.  John  R. 
Mott;  treasurer,  Frank  H.  Mann;  and  general  sec- 
retary, the  Rev.  Samuel  McCrea  Cavert.  National 
offices  are  at  297  Fourth  Avenue,  New  York  City. 
An  office  is  also  maintained  in  the  Woodward 
Building,  Washington,  D.C. 

FEDERAL  CROP  INSURANCE  COR- 
PORATION  (FCIC).  The  Federal  Crop  In- 
surance Corporation,  established  as  an  agency  of 
and  within  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
under  the  Federal  Crop  Insurance  Act,  which  was 
Title  V  of  the  Agricultural  Adjustment  Act  of 
1938,  as  approved  Feb.  16,  1938,  was  authorized  to 
insure  growing  wheat  against  all  unavoidable  haz- 
ards commencing  with  the  crop  planted  for  har- 
vest in  1939.  Almost  166,000  wheat  growers  in  31 
States  paid  premiums  for  "all-risk"  insurance  on 
their  1939  crop;  indemnities  had  been  paid  to  55,- 


CROP 


256       FBDESAfc  HOMB  LOAN  SANK 


912  of  these  growers  amounting  to  10,163,127  bu. 
of  wheat  In  1940,  379,420  wheat  growers  insured 
their  crop  paying  13,846,115  bu.  of  wheat  or  the 
cash  equivalent  for  this  protection.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  about  112,000  claims  for  indemnities  had 
been  paid  with  about  22,500,000  bu.  of  wheat  or 
the  cash  equivalent.  Acreage  abandonment*  which, 
in  two  of  the  largest  wheat  producing  States  in  the 
nation,  reached  approximately  40  per  cent,  ac- 
counted for  a  big  part  of  these  indemnities.  The 
fact  such  large  acreages  were  abandoned  in  all- 
wheat  country  is  evidence  that  a  crop  insurance 
program  is  vital  to  the  wheat  growing  industry  if 
its  farmers  are  to  have  economic  stability. 

Recognition  of  this  is  found  in  the  number  of 
contracts  written  on  the  crop  seeded  in  1940  for 
harvest  in  1941.  On  Nov.  30,  1940,  about  380,000 
contracts  had  been  written  on  the  1941  crop,  for 
which  growers  paid  12,721,511  bu.  in  premiums. 
These  include  winter  wheat  almost  entirely.  When 
all  spring  wheat  contracts  were  tabulated  after 
the  final  day  of  acceptance,  Feb.  28,  1941,  close 
to  half  a  million  contiacts  were  written. 

Crop  insurance  premiums  and  indemnities  are 
computed  entirely  in  terms  of  wheat,  not  dollars. 
For  the  sake  of  convenience,  wheat  growers  may 
pay  their  premium  with  a  warehouse  receipt  or 
cash  equivalent  representing  the  number  of  bu.  as 
computed  for  the  premium  payment  for  the  farm. 
Or  the  grower  may  charge  the  amount  of  the  pre- 
mium against  future  payments  to  be  earned  under 
the  agricultural  conservation  program.  Premiums 
paid  in  by  growers  are  maintained  by  the  Corpo- 
ration in  the  form  of  actual  wheat  in  storage.  In- 
demnities are  paid  in  wheat  in  the  form  of  a  ware- 
house receipt  or  in  the  cash  equivalent  thereof. 
The  insured  may  indicate  in  his  claim  for  indem- 
nity whether  he  wishes  the  indemnity  to  be  paid 
in  wheat  or  in  cash,  but  the  Corporation  reserves 
the  right  to  make  payment  in  a  form  other  than 
that  indicated  by  the  insured. 

Growers  may  insure  50  or  75  per  cent  of  the 
past  average  yield  for  their  farms.  Premium  rates 
and  msurable  yields  are  based  on  the  actual  or  ap- 
praised loss  and  yield  data  for  each  individual 
farm  over  an  established  base  period,  adjusted  to 
the  average  loss  and  yield  data  for  the  county  in 
which  the  farm  is  located.  Each  year  the  yield 
and  rate  data  of  the  second  preceding  year  is 
worked  into  the  rate  structure  so  that  yields  and 
rates  reflect  actual  productivity  of  the  individual 
farms.  Thus  individual  premiums  and  yields  vary 
from  year  to  year  depending  on  production. 

The  crop  insurance  program  is  administered 
within  States  and  counties  by  farmer  committees, 
which  permits  direct  contact  with  the  wheat  pro- 
ducer. Because  the  program  contributes  materially 
to  the  general  welfare  of  the  nation,  the  costs  of 
administration,  including  costs  of  wheat-reserve 
storage  and  of  research  with  a  view  to  applying 
"all-risk  insurance  to  other  crops,  are  paid  from 
an  annual  Federal  appropriation.  For  the  crop 
year  1939  these  costs  amounted  to  $4,800,000.  The 
S&PSSftlSS  *  an  authorized  capital  stock  of 
$100,000,000  of  which  $40,000,000  has  been  appro- 
priated by  the  U.S.  Government  to  operate  as  a  re- 
volving fund  to  meet  losses  in  years  of  sub-normal 
wheat  production  when  indemnities  paid  out  may 
exceed  premiums  collected.  It  is  expected  that  the 
amount  drawn  from  its  revolving  fund  during 
poor  crop  years  will  be  recovered  by  the  Corpo- 
ration during  years  of  good  crops, 

LRROY 


FEDERAL  FARM  MORTGAGE  COR- 
PORATION. See  FARM  CREDIT  ADMINISTRA- 

"  FEDERAL  HOMS  LOAN  BANK  BOARD 
(FHLBB).  The  Federal  Home  Loan  Bank  Board 
administers  the  following  three  agencies :  (1)  The 
Federal  Home  Loan  Bank  System.  (2)  The  Fed- 
eral Savings  and  Loan  Insurance  Corporation,  (3) 
The  Home  Owners'  Loan  Corporation. 

The  Federal  Home  Loan  Bank  System, 
created  in  1932,  is  composed  of  12  regional  Banks 
constituting  a  central  reserve  credit  system  for 
their  member  institutions.  While  the  major  por- 
tion of  the  membership  in  the  System  consists  of 
institutions  of  the  savings  and  loan  type,  a  number 
of  insurance  companies  and  mutual  savings  banks 
are  also  members. 

The  Banks  have  obtained  their  funds,  which  may 
be  advanced  to  member  institutions  on  a  long  and 
short-term  basis,  from  investments  in  their  stock 
by  their  members  and  the  U.S.  Government,  by  de- 
posits of  member  institutions,  and  through  the  sale 
of  consolidated  debentures.  During  the  calendar 
year  1940,  members  increased  their  paid-in  capital 
stock  holdings  in  the  Federal  Home  Loan  Banks 
by  $3,562,700  to  a  total  of  $44,540,650,  which,  with 
$124,741,000  subscribed  and  paid-in  by  the  U.S. 
Government  prior  to  1938,  resulted  in  a  total  paid- 
in  capital  stock  of  $169,281,650  on  Dec.  31,  1940. 
There  were  $90,500,000  of  consolidated  Federal 
Home  Loan  Bank  debentures  outstanding  on  Dec. 
31,  1940,  a  5-  and  a  17-month  issue  having  been 
marketed  in  November,  1940,  in  amounts  of  $15,- 
000,000  and  $52,000,000  respectively,  and  $25,000,- 
000  retired  at  maturity  on  Dec.  1,  1940.  Members' 
deposits  declined  $2,695,293  during  the  year  to  a 
total  of  $26,921,392. 

Advances  outstanding  increased  $20,178,974  dur- 
ing 1940  to  an  all-time  high  of  $201,491,964  as  of 
Dec.  31,  1940.  Total  advances  made  since  the  be- 
ginning of  operations  aggregated  $716,134,626.  The 
Federal  Home  Loan  Bank  Board  is  authorized  by 
law  to  charter  Federal  Savings  and  Loan  Associa- 
tions, of  which  the  Banks1  membership  reflects  a 
net  increase  of  39  during  die  year.  As  of  Dec.  31, 
1940,  there  were  1437  Federal  associations  and 
2427  State-chartered  institutions  for  a  total  mem- 
bership of  3864  institutions,  having  estimated  as- 
sets in  excess  of  five  billion  dollars. 

The  Federal  Savings  and  Loan  Insurance 
Corporation,  established  in  1934  as  an  instrumen- 
tality of  the  United  States,  was,  on  Dec.  31,  1940, 
insuring  the  safety  of  investment  to  a  maximum  of 
$5000  for  each  of  2,772,400  investors  in  1438  Fed- 
eral savings  and  loan  associations  with  assets  of 
$1,872,691,000,  and  in  838  State-chartered  institu- 
tions with  assets  of  $1,059,090,000.  Each  insured 
institution  is  required  to  pay  an  annual  premium  of 
one-eighth  of  1  per  cent  of  the  total  amount  of 
all  accounts  of  its  insured  members^  plus  its  credi- 
tor obligations.  On  December  31  Corporation  as- 
sets, consisting  primarily  of  cash  ancj  obligations 
of,  or  guaranteed  by,  the  United  States,  totaled 
$128,014,722.54;  surplus  and  reserves  of  $26,449,- 
196.18  had  been  added  to  the  paid-in  capital  of 
$100,000,000  provided  for  by  the  Congress. 

The  Corporation  has  authority  to  prevent  the 
default  of  an  insured  institution  and  to  restore  an 
insured  institution  in  default  to  normal  operation 
by  means  of  a  loan  or  contribution  to,  or  purchase 
of  assets  of,  the  association  in  difficulty.  Since  the 
beginning  of  the  insurance  program,  the  Corpora- 
tion has  found  it  expedient  to  assist  14  associations, 


FEDERAL  HOUSING 


256     FEDERAL  PRISON  INDUSTRIES 


and  in  addition  three  associations  have  been  placed 
in  liquidation. 

The  Home  Ownerf'  Loan  Corporation 
(HOLC),  is  a  Government  agency,  created  by 
Congress  in  1933  to  cope  with  the  crisis  in  the 
home-financing  field  by  refinancing  the  mortgages 
of  distressed  home  owners.  With  a  capital  stock  of 
$200,000,000,  fully  paid  for  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  it  was  authorized  to  issue  bonds  in  an 
aggregate  amount  not  exceeding  $4,750,000,000.  As 
of  Dec.  31,  1940,  excluding  those  bonds  called  for 
retirement,  the  HOLC  had  a  total  of  $2,609,758,- 
750  in  bonds  outstanding,  all  guaranteed  by  the 
U.S.  Government  as  to  both  principal  and  interest. 

The  Corporation's  lending  authority  lasted  three 
years,  until  June,  1936.  During  this  period,  it  loaned 
$3,093,000,000  to  1,018,000  home  owners  threatened 
with  foreclosure  and  unable  to  obtain  private  cred- 
it. The  HOLC  now  is  principally  engaged  in  the 
collection  of  its  loans  and  the  liquidation  of  the 

Properties  it  has  been  forced  to  acquire.  As  of  Dec. 
1,  1940,  some  90,782  loans,  amounting  to  $216,- 
449,558,  had  been  paid  in  full.  Of  the  remaining  ac- 
tive original  loans,  658,996,  or  89.4  per  cent,  were 
current  or  less  than  three  months  in  arrears ;  28,- 
727  others  were  in  a  liquidating  class,  meaning  that 
such  borrowers  were  meeting  current  bills  and 
making  regular  monthly  payments  on  their  arrear- 
ages ;  some  49,752  others  were  still  active,  but  in 
various  stages  of  delinquency.  In  all,  HOLC  bor- 
rowers had  repaid  $863,716,531  on  their  principal 
indebtedness.  The  Corporation  had  acquired  and 
sold  125,529  properties;  51,722  others  still  remained 
on  its  books,  the  great  majority  rented  pending 
sale. 

The  average  HOLC  borrower,  at  the  time  of  re- 
financing, was  delinquent  two  years  in  principal 
and  interest  and  between  two  and  three  years  in 
arrears  on  taxes.  Borrowers'  loans  were  reduced 
approximately  $200,000,000  in  the  refinancing  trans- 
actions and  they  since  have  saved  an  estimated 
$400,000,000  on  interest  charges  alone.  Excluding 
accounts  paid  in  full,  the  average  HOLC  borrow- 
er's debt  had  been  reduced  27.4  per  cent  at  the  end 
of  1940.  The  Corporation's  personnel  has  been  re- 
duced 59.0  per  cent  since  its  peak ;  annual  expendi- 
tures have  been  curtailed  38.5  per  cent. 

JOHN  H.  FAHEY. 

FEDERAL  HOUSING  ADMINISTRA- 
TION (FHA).  The  Federal  Housing  Adminis- 
tration, established  in  June,  1934,  pursuant  to  the 
terms  of  the  National  Housing  Act,  insures  quali- 
fied lending  institutions  against  loss  on  home  mort- 
gage or  property  improvement  loans  which  con- 
form to  FHA  requirements.  The  purpose  of  the 
FHA  program,  as  defined  by  Congress,  is  "to  en- 
courage improvement  in  housing  standards  and 
conditions"  and  "to  provide  a  system  of  mutual 
mortgage  insurance." 

During  1940,  the  activities  of  the  FHA  in  the 
housing  field  attained  the  largest  volume  in  its  his- 
tory. Loan  insurance  of  all  tvpes  written  during 
the  year  totaled  $1,025,500,000  as  compared  with 
$953,824,000  in  1939,  the  previous  record  year.  By 
Dec.  31,  1940,  the  total  amount  of  insurance  writ- 
ten by  the  FHA  since  its  formation  was  $4,076,- 
265,000.  All  of  these  funds  were  advanced  by  pri- 
vate lending  institutions  since  the  FHA  itself  lends 
no  money. 

About  two-thirds  of  the  FHA's  operations  in- 
volve the  insurance  of  long-term  mortgage  loans 
on  small  homes.  In  1940,  applications  for  FHA  in- 


surance on  home  mortgages  aggregated  $1,271.- 
983,776  as  compared  with  $1,123,792,380  in  1939. 
Insurance  was  issued  during  the  year  on  168,300 
small-home  mortgages  amounting  to  $736,500,000, 
as  compared  with  153,747  mortgages  aggregat- 
ing $660,416,000  in  1939.  By  Dec.  31,  1940,  the 
FHA  had  insured  634,023  home  mortgages  totaling 
$2,706,350,000. 

In  1940,  78  per  cent  of  the  small-home  mort- 
gages selected  for  appraisal  by  the  FHA  involved 
new  homes  to  be  built  under  its  inspection,  as 
apainst  70  per  cent  in  1939  and  58  per  cent  in  1938 
Construction  was  started  or  completed  during  1940 
under  FHA  inspection  on  slightly  more  than  164,- 
000  new  small  homes.  In  1939,  131,000  new  homes 
were  started  under  the  FHA  program.  About  40 
per  cent  of  the  new  single-family  homes  built  in 
1940  were  constructed  under  FHA  inspection.  The 
FHA  program  thus  played  an  important  role  in 
the  expansion  in  total  residential  construction  to 
the  highest  levels  since  1928. 

Under  Title  I  of  the  National  Housing  Act,  the 
FHA  insures  short-term  modernization  and  repair 
loans.  A  total  of  662,948  loans  of  this  type  were 
insured  during  1940  compared  with  513,091  in  1939. 
In  amount,  last  year's  loans  totaled  $276,500,000 
compared  with  $233,067,349  in  1939.  Since  the  start 
of  the  FHA  program,  a  total  of  3,009,000  loans 
aggregating  $1,243,000,000  have  been  insured  under 
Title  I.  Included  in  last  year's  total  were  about 
9000  loans,  not  exceeding  $2500  each,  to  finance 
construction  of  new  small  homes  in  the  lowest 
price  brackets. 

The  FHA  also  insures  mortgages  on  large-scale 
rental  housing  projects  which  conform  to  FHA  re- 
quirements. In  1940,  48  such  mortgages  totaling 
$12,481,000  were  insured.  Since  the  start  of  its  pro- 
gram, the  FHA  has  insured  317  rental  housing 
mortgages  in  the  amount  of  $126,952,675. 

The  Federal  Housing  Administration's  activities 
are  carried  on  without  cost  to  the  Federal  govern- 
ment. Its  income,  derived  from  insurance  premi- 
ums, inspection  fees,  and  other  sources,  substantial- 
ly exceeds  its  operating  expenses  and  insurance 
losses  under  Title  II  and  results  in  large  additions 
each  year  to  its  reserves  against  possible  future 
losses.  In  1940-41,  the  FHA's  income  will  exceed 
its  operating  expenses  and  realized  losses  by  about 
$9,000,000.  Charges  against  the  FHA's  insurance 
funds  for  losses  realized  on  foreclosed  homes 
turned  over  to  the  FHA  have  amounted  thus  far 
to  only  one-thirtieth  of  1  per  cent  of  the  total 
mortgage  insurance  written.  See  ARCHITECTURE. 
ABNER  H.  FERGUSON. 

FEDERAL  LAND  BANKS.  See  FARM  CRED- 
IT ADMINISTRATION. 

FEDERAL  LOAN  AGENCY.  An  agency  of 
the  United  States  government  under  which  are 
grouped  those  agencies  established  for  the  pur- 
pose of  stimulating  and  stabilizing  the  financial, 
commercial,  and  industrial  enterprises  of  the  na- 
tion. The  component  agencies  are :  Disaster  Loan 
Corooration  (q  v.) ;  Electric  Home  and  Farm  Au- 
thority (see  ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER)  ;  Ex- 
port-Import Bank  of  Washington  (q.v.)  ;  Federal 
Home  Loan  Bank  Board  (q.v.) ;  Federal  Housing 
Administration  (q.v.) ;  Federal  National  Mort- 
gage Association ;  Reconstruction  Finance  Corpo- 
ration (q.v.).  Administrator  in  1940:  Jesse  H. 
Jones. 

FEDERAL  PRISON  INDUSTRIES,  INC. 
See  PRISONS,  PAROLE,  AND  CRIME. 


FEDERAL  RESERVE  SYSTEM        257     FEDERAL  TRADE  COMMISSION 


FEDERAL    RESERVE    SYSTEM.    See 

BANKS  AND  BANKING. 

FEDERAL  SAVINGS  AND  LOAN  IN- 
SURANCE  CORPORATION.  See  FEDERAL 
HOME  LOAN  BANK  BOARD. 

FEDERAL  SECURITY  AGENCY.  An 
agency  of  the  United  States  government  under 
which  are  grouped  those  agencies  whose  major 
purposes  are  to  promote  social  and  economic  se- 
curity, educational  opportunity,  and  the  health  of 
the  citizens.  The  component  agencies  are  discussed 
in  the  following  separate  articles :  CIVILIAN  CON- 
SERVATION CORPS;  EDUCATION,  OFFICE  OF;  FOOD 
AND  DRUG  ADMINISTRATION;  NATIONAL  YOUTH 
ADMINISTRATION;  PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE;  SO- 
CIAL SECURITY  BOARD.  Administrator  in  1940: 
Paul  V.  McNutt. 

FEDERAL  SURPLUS  COMMODITIES 
CORPORATION  (FSCC).  See  SURPLUS  MAR- 
KETING  ADMINISTRATION;  also,  DISASTER  LOAN 
CORPORATION. 

FEDERAL  TRADE  COMMISSION 
(FTC).  The  Federal  Trade  Commission  was  cre- 
ated in  1914  by  an  Act  of  Congress,  as  a  result  of 
general  public  demand  for  legislation  to  curb 
monopolistic  and  other  unfair  trade  practices.  In 
promoting  the  basic  public  policies  of  the  laws 
which  it  administers,  the  functions  of  the  Com- 
mission can  be  divided  into  two  general  classes. 
One  is  remedial  or  corrective,  and  the  other  may 
be  described  as  fact-finding  and  advisory  in  char- 
acter. In  connection  with  its  corrective  or  remedi- 
al functions,  the  Commission  is  invested  with  qua- 
si-judicial powers  to  prohibit  parties  from  using 
unfair  methods  of  competition  and  unfair  and  de- 
ceptive acts  and  practices  in  interstate  commerce, 
and  also,  under  carefully  specified  conditions,  from 
using  certain  other  practices,  including  price  dis- 
crimination, exclusive  dealing  arrangements,  and 
acquisition  of  stock  in  competing  corporations. 

Corrective  proceedings  by  the  Commission  may 
be  either  initiated  by  the  Commission  on  its  own 
motion  or  by  a  complaint  by  a  member  of  the  pub- 
lic. The  identity  of  complainants  is  kept  confiden- 
tial by  the  Commission.  Radio  and  periodical  ad- 
vertising is  subject  to  constant  review  by  members 
of  the  Commission's  staff.  For  illustration,  during 
the  calendar  year  of  1940  the  Commission's  Radio 
and  Periodical  Division  examined  759,218  commer- 
cial radio  continuities  and  367,041  advertisements 
in  newspapers,  magazines,  etc  In  order  that  cor- 
rective proceedings  by  the  Commission  may  be 
conducted  efficiently,  the  Commission's  investiga- 
tory powers  are  implemented  by  the  power  of  sub- 
poena. The  formal  procedure  of  the  Commission 
embodies  the  general  principles  of  adversary  liti- 
gation and  also  of  appellate  court  review.  The  Su- 
preme Court  has  accepted  the  Commission  proce- 
dure as  being  fully  in  accord  with  the  constitution- 
al functioning  of  administrative  agencies. 

The  formal  corrective  action  by  the  Commission 
consists  in  the  issuance  of  a  complaint  after  an  in- 
vestigation has  been  made  and  the  Commission  has 
found  that  a  proceeding  in  the  matter  would  be  in 
the  public  interest.  If  the  evidence  taken  in  the 
case  sustains  the  allegations  of  the  complaint,  the 
Commission  issues  its  findings  as  to  the  facts  and 
order  to  cease  and  desist.  The  respondent  may, 
within  sixty  days  after  service  of  the  order,  appeal 
therefrom  to  a  United  States  Circuit  Court  of  Ap- 
peals. If  a  respondent  violates  an  order  issued  un- 
der the  Federal  Trade  Commission  Act,  after  such 
order  has  become  final,  he  is  subject  to  a  civil  pen- 


alty of  not  more  than  $5000  for  each  violation.  The 
Commission  may  also  obtain  temporary  court  in- 
junctions, pending  completion  of  formal  proceed- 
ings by  the  Commission,  against  sellers  who  false- 
ly advertise  foods,  drugs,  cosmetics,  or  devices. 
The  Commission  during  the  calendar  year  of  1940 
issued  460  complaints  and  292  orders  to  cease  and 
desist.  As  an  illustration  of  the  constantly  expand- 
ing case  work  of  the  Commission,  300  complaints 
were  issued  during  the  calendar  year  of  1939. 

In  addition  to  its  formal  remedial  procedure, 
the  Commission  has  two  important  informal  meth- 
ods of  promoting  its  statutory  remedial  objectives. 
Certain  types  of  cases,  mainly  involving  false  and 
misleading  advertising,  may  be  disposed  of  by  stip- 
ulation. Under  this  procedure,  if  the  advertiser  ad- 
mits that  certain  representations  are  incorrect,  he 
is  given  the  opportunity  to  sign  a  stipulation  in 
which  he  agrees  to  discontinue  using  such  misrep- 
resentations. The  privilege  of  stipulation  is  not  ex- 
tended in  cases  involving  fraud,  dangerous  drugs, 
or  other  unusual  conditions.  During  the  calendar 
year  of  1940  the  Commission  accepted  594  stipula- 
tions to  cease  and  desist  as  compared  to  470  ac- 
cepted during  the  calendar  year  of  1939. 

Another  informal  method  used  by  the  Commis- 
sion in  furtherance  of  its  statutory  remedial  ob- 
jectives is  the  trade  practice  conference.  Under 
the  supervision  of  the  Commission  and  after  no- 
tice of  public  hearing,  and  subject  to  final  approval 
or  acceptance  by  the  Commission,  members  of  in- 
dustry may  voluntarily  adopt  trade  practice  rules 
condemning  unfair  practices  and  promoting  ethical 
practices. 

The  Commission  is  authorized  and  directed  un- 
der the  Wool  Products  Labeling  Act  of  1939  to 
issue  rules  and  regulations  for  the  information  and 
guidance  of  members  of  industry,  consumers,  and 
the  general  public  as  to  the  minimum  requirements 
for  labeling  wool  products. 

The  functions  of  the  Commission  which  are  fact 
finding  and  advisory  are  designed  to  place  at  the 
service  of  Congress,  the  President,  the  courts,  and 
the  general  public  the  expert  knowledge  and  skill 
acquired  by  the  Commission  and  its  staff  in  ascer- 
taining and  analyzing  the  facts  regarding  industry 
and  in  recommending  remedies  for  evils  disclosed. 
During  the  calendar  year  of  1940  reports  were  re- 
leased as  to  the  corporations  producing  and  selling 
the  following  articles :  cigarettes  and  tobacco,  air- 
craft, bread  and  bakery  products,  biscuits  and 
crackers,  food  specialties,  beet  and  cane  sugar, 
corn  products,  agricultural  machinery  and  tractors, 
automobile  parts  and  accessories,  glass  and  glass- 
ware, rubber  products,  motor  vehicles,  railroad 
equipment,  lead  and  zinc  products,  coke-oven  prod- 
ucts, steel  castings,  machine  tools,  clay  products, 
heating  and  cooking  apparatus,  domestic  laundry 
equipment,  and  rayon  and  allied  products.  These 
reports  covered  159  different  corporations,  the  to- 
tal annual  sales  of  which  amounted  to  approxi- 
mately 8%  billion  dollars. 

The  Commission  is  represented  on  the  Tempo- 
rary National  Economic  Committee,  which  was 
created  by  Congressional  resolution.  The  Commis- 
sion was  originally  assigned  the  basic  tasks  of 
studying  monopolistic  practices  in  American  indus- 
try. Among  the  data  submitted  to  the  Committee 
by  the  Commission  in  connection  with  its  studies 
are  reports  on  the  following  subjects-  Relative 
Efficiency  of  Large,  Medium-sized  and  Small 
Business,  History  of  the  Pennsylvania-Dixie  Ce- 
ment Merger,  History  of  the  Bethlehem  Steel 


FEDERAL  WORKS  AGENCY 


258 


FERTILIZERS 


Merger.  Natural  Gas  and  Natural  Gas  Pipe  Lines 
in  the  United  States.  Operation  of  the  Export 
Trade  Act  191&-40  (Webb-Pomerenc  Uw)f  Rates 
of  Return  on  Invested  Capital  in  the  Rayon,  To- 
bacco, Iron  and  Steel,  Cement,  and  Farm  Machin- 
ery Industries,  Trade  Practice  Conference  work 
of  the  Commission,  Practices  in  the  Agricultural 
Implement  and  Farm  Machinery  Industries,  Mo- 
nopolistic Practices  in  Industries,  Monopoly  and 
Competition  in  Steel,  Concentration  of  Control 
Over  Sales  and  Distribution  of  Milk  and  Dairy 
Products,  and  A  Survey  of  Controversial  Market- 
ing Practices  in  the  Petroleum  Products  Industry. 
See  BIRTH  CONTROL. 

EWIN  L.  DAVIS. 

FEDERAL  WORKS  AGENCY.  An  agency 
of  the  United  States  government  under  which  are 
grouped  those  agencies  dealing  with  public  works 
and  administering  Federal  grants  and  loans  for 
the  purposes  of  construction.  The  component  agen- 
cies are :  Federal  Fire  Council ;  Public  Buildings 
Administration  (q.v.) ;  Federal  Real  Estate  Board ; 
Public  Roads  Administration ;  Public  Works  Ad- 
ministration (q.v.) ;  Housing  Authority,  U.S. 
(q.v.)  ;  and  Work  Projects  Administration  (q.v.). 
Administrator  in  1940:  John  M.  Carmody. 

FEDERATED  CHURCHES.  A  name  given 
to  churches  made  up  of  two  or  more  denomina- 
tional organizations  united  for  local  purposes  only. 
See  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS. 

FEDERATED  MALAY  STATES.  See 
BRITISH  MALAYA. 

FEEDS.  See  DAIRYING;  LIVESTOCK;  POULTRY; 
VETERINARY  MEDICINE  under  Toxicology. 

FENCING.  The  art  of  sticking  your  fellow 
human  being  with  the  point  of  a  sword  was  refined 
by  some  degrees  during  1940,  and  though  there 
were  frequent  eliminations  of  adversaries,  none  of 
them  were  permanently  dispatched.  The  veterans 
had  the  field  more  or  less  to  themselves,  with  Fred 
Seibert  of  the  Lake  Shore  A.  C  in  Chicago  com- 
prising the  lone  successful  newcomer  in  the  ranks 
of  the  champions.  He  grabbed  the  national  £pee 
title  by  defeating  Alfred  Skrobisch  of  the  Fencers 
Club,  3  to  1,  in  a  fence-off  after  each  had  won  six 
of  eight  tests  in  the  regular  round-robin. 

The  national  foil  tourney  saw  Dernell  Every  of 
the  New  York  A.  C.  regain  the  laurels  he  had 
worn  in  1938.  He  found  it  comparatively  easy  to 
dethrone  Norman  Lewis,  the  Salle  Santelli  young- 
ster who  surprised  the  fencing  world  in  1939  by 
winning  the  crown.  But  Lewis  did  not  yield  with- 
out a  desperate  fight. 

The  national  saber  title  continued  in  the  hands 
of  Norman  Armitage  of  the  Fencers  Club.  It  was 
the  sixth  time  since  1930  that  Armitage  won  the 
crown. 

In  the  national  three-weapon  tournament,  John 
C  Huffman  of  the  New  York  A.  C.  took  first 
honors. 

The  champion  team  in  both  the  national  ep£e  and 
foil  events  was  the  Salle  Santelli,  with  Jose  de  Ca- 
priles,  Diaz  Cetrulo,  Lewis,  and  Albert  Axelrod,  a 
substitute,  capturing  the  foil  title  for  the  club  for 
the  third  straight  time.  Jose"  de  Capriles,  his  broth- 
er Miguel,  and  Lewis  made  up  the  victorious  e*p£e 

In  the  realm  of  swordswomen,  Miss  Helena 
Mroczkowska,  former  intercollegiate  foil  queen, 
succeeded  to  die  national  championship  in  the  ab- 
sence of  Hiss  Helene  Mayer,  the  winner  in  1939. 
The  Salle  Santelli  put  an  end  to  the  10-year  reign 


of  the  Safe  d'Armes  Vintemt  foil  teatt  tkkfcoider. 

With  one  of  the  strongest  squads  in  its  history, 
New  York  University  carried  off  five  of  the  seven 
titles  at  the  major  men's  tourney.  Silvio  GioHto 
was  supreme  in  foilt  Frank  Scharfstein  in  saber 
and  Arthur  Tauber  in  epee  Army  won  the  saber 
and  Princeton  the  6pe*e  crowns. 

Hunter  College  dominated  the  women's  inter* 
collegiates,  with  Miss  Maria  Cerra  taking  the  in- 
dividual honor. 

FERNANDO  PO.  See  SPAIN  under  Colonial 
Empire. 

FERTILIZERS.  The  Bureau  of  Plant  Indus- 
try of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  has  as 
its  principal  functions  the  investigations  of  soils, 
fertilizers,  and  plants.  In  its  reports  for  the  year 
1939-40  the  Bureau  summarized  the  outstanding 
results  of  fertilizer  research  in  part  as  follows. 

Source  of  Magnesium.  Magnesium  is  required 
by  plants  for  their  normal  development,  in  quanti- 
ties only  slightly  less  than  the  requirements  for 
nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium.  Heretofore 
calcined  kieserite  has  been  imported  from  Germa- 
ny and  incorporated  in  mixed  fertilizers  to  supply 
them  with  water-soluble  magnesium.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  present  war  in  Europe  importations 
ceased  and  the  finding  of  a  substitute  became  high- 
ly desirable.  Investigation  showed  that  some  do- 
mestically produced  magnesium  oxide,  although 
water-insoluble,  was  largely  converted  in  mixed 
fertilizers  into  water-soluble  forms  and,  with  sim- 
ple precautions,  undesirable  reactions  that  dimin- 
ished the  plant  food  content  of  nitrogen  and  phos- 
phorus could  be  avoided.  The  use  of  magnesium 
oxide  in  mixed  fertilizers  also  improved  the  physi- 
cal condition  of  the  fertilizers. 

Granulation  of  Superphosphate.  Though  the 
advantages  obtained  by  granulating  a  fertilizer 
material  are  fewer  than  those  accruing  from  simi- 
lar treatment  of  a  mixed  fertilizer,  the  decrease  in 
tendency  to  cake,  the  improvement  of  the  drilling 
qualities,  and  the  prevention  of  losses  as  dust  dur- 
ing application  to  the  soil  on  windy  days  make  the 
production  of  granulated  superphosphate  desirable. 
Experiments  under  conditions  similar  to  those  in 
the  factory  showed  that  fresh  superphosphate  as 
taken  from  the  dens  used  in  its  manufacture  can 
be  granulated  by  regulation  of  the  temperature  of 
the  material  in  the  granulator  rather  than  by  the 
addition  of  water  during  granulation.  By  this  pro- 
cedure the  troublesome  tendency  of  the  superphos- 
phate to  adhere  to  the  granulator  walls  is  greatly 
reduced,  the  expense  of  removal  of  added  water  is 
eliminated,  and  a  uniform  product  of  any  desired 
size,  density,  and  hardness  of  granules  is  obtained. 

The  Caking  Tendency.  An  annoyance  often 
experienced  by  manufacturers  and  consumers  of 
fertilizers  is  that  of  finding  that  the  material  in  a 
pile  or  bag  has  consolidated  into  a  large,  compact, 
hard  mass  or  cake,  which,  before  it  can  be  used, 
must  be  crushed  or  ground.  The  formation  of  these 
cakes  is  most  frequent  and  most  pronounced  with 
certain  fertilizer  materials,  such  as  urea,  ammoni- 
um nitrate,  and  calcium  nitrate,  that  are  prone  to 
absorb  moisture  from  the  air.  Studies  have  shown 
that  treatment  of  these  materials  with  ammonia 
under  moderate  pressure  in  the  presence  of  a  small 
quantity  of  inert  mineral  matter  or  organic  pow- 
der renders  them  highly  resistant  to  caking  even 
when  stored  under  conditions  of  high  atmospheric 
humidity. 

Soil  Fertility  Investigations.  In  experiments 
on  strawberry  soils,  standard  analysis  fertilizer 


FESTIVALS  ; 

(5-8-6)  compounded  with  inorganic  and  insoluble 
organic  nitrogen  pave  no  better  plant  growth  or 
yield  of  strawberries  than  when  equivalent  amounts 
of  plant  food  per  acre  were  applied  in  a  higher 
analysis  fertilizer  (7.5-12-9)  containing  the  same 
nitrogen  materials.  The  higher  analysis  fertilizer 
is  advantageous  to  handle  on  the  farm,  and  less 
labor  is  required  for  its  application  to  crops.  Equiv- 
alent amounts  of  plant  food  in  the  higher  analysis 
fertilizer  cost  about  12  per  cent  less  than  in  the 
standard  analysis  fertilizer.  Application  of  ferti- 
lizer to  strawberries  in  the  fall  and  early  winter 
results  in  better  plant  growth  and  more  abundant 
fruiting  than  late  winter. 

The  practice  of  neutralizing  fertilizers  with  dol- 
omitic  limestone  for  crops  in  the  southeastern 
truck-crop  belt  has  proved  advantageous.  The  in- 
clusion of  dolomitic  limestone  assures  adequate 
amounts  of  nutrient  calcium  and  magnesium  and 
prevents  soil  deterioration  by  increased  acidity.  It 
also  increases  efficiency  of  low-cost  ammonia 
sources  of  nitrogen  and  has  made  possible  their 
substitution  for  the  more  expensive  organic  mate- 
rials. In  recent  years  cotton  fertilizers  have  been 
formulated  neutral  by  including  substantial  quan- 
tities of  dolomitic  limestone  in  the  mixture.  In  ex- 
periments begun  in  1937  in  the  Southeastern  States, 
data  on  many  soil  types  indicate  that  neutralizing 
the  fertilizer  with  dolomitic  limestone  does  not  af- 
fect the  response  of  the  crop  or  the  soil  require- 
ment for  potash  fertilization.  Neutralizing  the  fer- 
tilizer in  this  way  produced  essentially  the  same 
increase  in  yield  regardless  of  the  potash  content 
of  the  fertilizer. 

Chemical  analyses  of  the  leaves  and  root  bark 
of  cotton  plants  showed  highly  significant  differ- 
ences in  composition  due  to  fertilizer  application 
to  the  soil.  The  higher  the  nitrogen  content  of  the 
root  bark  of  the  cotton  plants  grown  under  con- 
ditions of  high-nitrogen  fertilizers,  the  less  cotton 
was  killed  from  root  rot,  indicating  that  some  or- 
ganic-nitrogen compound  in  the  root  bark  is  inhibi- 
tive  to  the  development  of  the  root  rot  fungus. 

Studies  of  a  prolific  variety  of  pecan  trees  over 
a  four-year  period  showed  that  most  soils  used  for 
pecan  growing  in  the  Southeastern  States  and  in 
many  of  the  South  Central  States  respond  to  ferti- 
lizer application  in  pecan  production.  Experiments 
with  sugar  beets  in  the  Platte  River  valley  of  Ne- 
braska have  shown  an  increase  of  as  much  as  5 
tons  of  beets  per  acre  from  the  use  of  40  Ib.  of 
nitrogen  as  sulfate  of  ammonia,  while  12  tons  of 
manure  gave  only  about  3.5  tons  per  acre  increase 
over  the  unfertilized  sugar  beets.  Domestic  muriate 
of  potash  was  found  to  be  as  satisfactory  as  the 
higher-priced  sulfate  shipped  in  from  abroad.  Such 
findings  should  tend  to  allay  any  apprehension  con- 
cerning the  use  of  potash  produced  in  the  United 
States. 

See  CO-OPERATIVE  MOVEMENT;  FARM  MACHIN- 
ERY AND  EQUIPMENT;  MAGNESIUM;  POTASH; 
TENNESSEE  VALLEY  AUTHORITY. 

FESTIVALS.  See  Music. 

FHA.  See  FEDERAL  HOUSING  ADMINISTRATION. 

FHLBB.  See  FEDERAL  HOME  LOAN  BANK 
BOARD. 

FIFTH  .COLUMN.  A  term  for  elements 
within  a  nation  or  jp-oup  who  sympathize  with  and 
aid  an  enemy  nation  or  group.  The  term  origi- 
nated during  the  Spanish  civil  war  when  Gen. 
S°  ISft  Aching  wiA  four  Nationalist  col- 
umns against  the  Loyalist  Government  in  Madrid 
in  1936,  was  asked  which  column  would  capture 


9  FINANCIAL  REVIEW 

the  city.  He  replied  "the  filth  column,"  meaning 
the  Nationalist  sympathizers  in  the  capital 

The  designation  gained  wide  currency  during 
1940  as  a  result  of  the  effective  aid  rendered  Ger- 
man armed  forces  by  pro-Nazi  elements  in  Den- 
mark, Norway,  the  Netherlands,  Belgium,  Luxem- 
burg, and  France  when  Hitler  invaded  each  of 
those  countries.  Pro-German  "fifth  columns"  were 
active  also  in  supporting  the  German  Fuehrer  dip- 
lomatically, economically,  and  otherwise  and  in 
demoralizing  his  opponents  in  most  of  the  other 
countries  of  the  world,  especially  Sweden,  Huh- 
wry,  Rumania,  Yugoslavia,  Switzerland,  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  and  many  of  the  Latin 
American  countries.  See  each  of  these  countries 
under  History. 

MHB/!tiiihnif  ^5  vuty'  in  an  offidal  pM»pMet 
published  in  1940,  referred  to  the  Communist  Party 

in  Great  Britain  as  the  "sixth  column  operating 
abroad  on  behalf  of  the  Soviet  imperialism  and 
gower  politics/*  In  the  United  States,  the  term 
sixth  column"  was  frequently  used  to  designate 
an  organization  or  group  formed  to  fight  "fifth 
column"  elements. 

Along  with  "fifth  column"  activities,  Hitler  em- 
ployed  a  modern  variety  of  the  Trojan  horse 
stratagem  described  in  Homer's  poems,  particu- 
larly in  the  surprise  attack  upon  Norway.  German 
soldiers  with  full  military  equipment  were  hidden 
in  the  holds  of  ore  vessels  and  other  merchant 
ships  and  sent  into  the  chief  Norwegian  ports  to 
await  the  signal  for  the  attack. 

See  BELGIUM,  CANADA,  DENMARK,  FRANCE,  ICE- 
LAND,  IRELAND,  LUXEMBURG,  NETHERLANDS,  NOR- 
WAY, RUMANIA  SOUTH  AFRICA,  SWITZERLAND, 
URUGUAY  and  YUGOSLAVIA,  under  History;  Eu- 


, 

»  The  Norwegian  Campaign. 

FIJI.  A  British  crown  colony  in  the  south- 
w£st£rn_,?acifi<;'  ?omPr«ing  some  250  islands  (80 
inhabited)  and  its  dependency—  the  islands  of 
Rotuma.  Total  area,  7083  square  miles;  total  pop- 
ulation (Jan.  1,  1939),  210,518.  Capital  Suv£ 
bugar,  copra,  bananas,  pineapples,  native  food- 
stuffs, and  gold  constitute  the  chief  products.  Var- 
1/°,lJ?^mb?rs  arc  Produ<*d  from  the  forests.  Trade 
(1939):  import*  £1,625,054;  exports,  £2,746,207 

ftSfifr  £M25'70?o;onf?!d'  «2Cl28).  Finance 
(1938)  :  revenue,  £889,514;  expenditure,  £966,957; 
public  debt  (December  31),  £1.574,692.  The  gov- 
ernor is  assisted  by  an  executive  council.  There 
is  a  legislative  council  consisting  of  32  members 
2.r.udin*  the  governor  as  president.  Governor  of 
Fiji  and  High  Commissioner  for  the  Western 

^  CharlCS  LukC  (appointcd 


lstory.  The  Native  Lands  Trust  Bill  was 
passed  by  the  legislative  council  during  the  first 
half  of  1940.  This  measure  underlines  the  posi- 
tlfm  Sf  •**  S°vcrnm?nt  as  trustees  of  the  land  for 
the^  Fijian  people;  improves  the  position  of  the 
njfcve  owners  and  ensures  the  equal  development 
of  all  the  land  and  not  merely  of  favored  sec- 
tions; and  makes  proper  provision  for  permanent 
native  reserves.  Compulsory  military  training  for 
?L  **?  ?*  European  descent  between  the  ages  of 
18  and  36  was  introduced  during  the  year.  The 
Defense  Force  had  Fijian  and  Indian  units  in 
which  volunteers  were  enrolled. 

FILMS.  See  MOTION  Picnnus  ;  PHOTOGRAPHY. 
,  P™ANCIAL  REVIEW.  Fiance,  both  with- 
|n  the  United  States  and  abroad,  was  profoundly 
influenced  by  the  spectacular  military  events  in  Eu* 
rope  during  the  spring  of  1940,  the  outcome  of 


FINANCIAL  REVIEW 


260 


FINANCIAL  REVIEW 


which  was  the  establishment  of  the  hegemony  of 
Germanv  over  most  of  the  continent  of  Europe. 
International  financial  dealings  were  greatly  con- 
tracted as  a  result  of  this  development,  while  the 
consequent  intensive  armament  program  in  the 
United  States  and  the  establishment  of  a  virtual 
military  alliance  between  the  United  States  and  the 
British  Empire  had  important  financial  repercus- 
sions within  this  country. 

Several  of  the  major  financial  developments  of 
the  year  constituted  merely  an  intensification  of 
trends  that  had  been  fully  apparent  previously. 
Imports  of  gold  into  the  United  States  reached  a 
new  high  level,  as  continental  European  countries 
sought  to  shift  their  hoards  of  yellow  metal  across 
the  Atlantic  before  the  arrival  of  the  invader  and 
British  Empire  countries  sold  gold  freely  to  pay 
for  their  large  wartime  purchases  of  goods  from 
the  United  States.  Ever  mounting  gold  reserves 
produced  a  further  expansion  of  bank  deposits,  and 
a  decline  in  interest  rates  in  the  United  States  to 
new  low  record  levels.  Activity  on  American  finan- 
cial markets  contracted,  in  view  of  the  new  pro- 
found uncertainties  created  by  the  European  situa- 
tion. The  turnover  on  the  New  York  Stock  Ex- 
change during  1940  was  the  lowest  for  any  year 
since  1921. 

At  the  same  time,  a  number  of  new  financial 
problems  came  to  the  fore.  The  occupation  of  a 
number  of  countries  hi  western  Europe  by  Ger- 
many led  to  the  issuance  of  Treasury  orders  freez- 
ing assets  owned  by  nationals  of  occupied  countries, 
in  order  to  assure  that  such  resources  would  not  be 
taken  over  by  force  for  the  benefit  of  the  invader. 
Cash  and  other  assets  covered  by  these  freezing 
orders  could  be  obtained  by  their  owners  only 
through  application  to  the  Treasury  and  the  issue 
of  licenses.  Serious  thought  was  being  given  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  year  to  a  more  inclusive  freez- 
ing order  that  would  tie  up  German  and  Italian 
balances  also,  as  part  of  the  program  of  co-operat- 
ing with  Great  Britain.  In  fact,  imposition  of  a 
fully  developed  foreign  exchange  control  system  to 
implement  the  aid  to  Britain  program  was  dis- 
cussed in  official  circles. 

The  gradual  exhaustion  of  Great  Britain's  dollar 
resources  created  a  far  more  serious  financial  prob- 
lem, but  its  solution  was  deferred  for  the  new 
Congress  which  convened  Jan.  3,  1941. 

Security  Markets.  Stock  prices  fluctuated  with- 
in a  narrow  range  during  the  first  four  months 
of  the  year,  when  business  activity  was  declining 
in  this  country  from  the  high  level  of  the  early 
war  months  and  the  conflict  on  the  western  front 
appeared  to  be  a  complete  stalemate.  Germany's 
successful  invasion  of  Norway  made  for  nervous- 
ness in  the  markets,  but  the  sweep  across  the  Low 
Countries  and  the  collapse  of  France  caused  a  very 
sharp  decline  during  May  and  June,  which  carried 
share  prices  down  to  the  lowest  level  since  the 
depression  of  1938.  The  imminent  end  of  the  war 
with  a  British  defeat  was  widely  awaited  in  the 
early  summer.  The  end  of  the  war  in  itself  was 
expected  to  usher  in  a  period  of  reduced  business 
activity  and  lower  commodity  prices,  but  a  victory 
for  Germany  promised  to  produce  a  number  of 
new  problems,  economic  and  financial,  that  held  out 
serious  threats  to  American  export  trade  and  even 
the  military  safety  of  the  western  hemisphere. 
When  it  became  apparent  that  the  British  Empire 
was  going  to  carry  on  the  war  alone  with  some 
chance  of  success,  however,  and  that  the  United 
States  was  going  to  embark  forthwith  upon  a  huge 


armament  program  of  its  own,  security  prices  re- 
covered and  by  the  end  of  August  approximately 
one-half  of  the  losses  in  the  decline  of  May  and 
June  had  been  regained  Apart  from  a  flurry  of 
strength  in  public  utility  stocks,  followed  by  a 
subsequent  severe  decline,  the  Presidential  elections 
in  November  did  not  affect  the  markets  materially. 
The  re-election  of  President  Roosevelt  was  not 
followed  by  any  such  extended  advance  as  occurred 
after  the  1936  election,  since  inflation  fears  because 
of  heavy  Treasury  spending  had  failed  to  material- 
ize on  earlier  occasions.  Stock  prices  during  the 
final  four  months  of  the  year  again  remained  with- 
in a  narrow  range,  about  midway  between  that  of 
the  beginning  of  the  year  and  the  June  lows. 

The  rapid  rise  in  industrial  activity  during  the 
final  months  of  the  year  was  not  reflected  to  any 
material  extent  in  the  movement  of  stock  prices. 
One  reason  for  this  was  the  gravity  of  the  Euro- 
pean situation,  and  the  caution  among  investors 
about  bidding  prices  up  at  a  time  when  military 
developments  might  precipitate  a  repetition  of  what 
happened  in  May  and  June,  1940.  The  enactment  of 
two  major  revenue  acts  raising  taxes  on  corporate 
incomes  and  establishing  an  excess  profits  tax  was 
another  influence  which  neutralized  the  very  favor- 
able business  reports.  Furthermore,  Government 
resistance  to  commodity  price  increases  promised 
to  narrow  profit  margins  for  many  concerns,  since 
taxes  and  to  a  lesser  extent  wages  were  tending 
upward. 

The  highs  and  lows  of  the  New  York  Times 
stock  price  averages  during  each  month  of  1940 
were  as  follows : 

NEW  YORK  TIMES  STOCK  MARKET  AVERAGE,  1940 
[50  Stocks— 25  Rails  and  25  Industrials] 


Month 
January 
February    . 
March...  . 
April  

High 
.     11178 
109.22 
.     10901 
111  18 

Low 

10469 
10540 
10622 
10719 

Last 
10644 
107.24 
10846 
10859 

jfi?..  ... 
te::  :• 
£££•>« 

October. 
November 
December 

10860 
9211 
9326 
9465 
9893 
100.19 
99.69 
95.22 

8287 
8232 
88.99 
8923 
93.43 
9495 
9248 
91.68 

8659 
9020 
92.69 
94.40 
9753 
9802 
9366 
9182 

While  the  general  level  of  stock  prices  did  not 
fluctuate  widely  during  the  final  months  of  the 
year,  there  were  substantial  price  movements  in 
diverse  directions  among  major  groups  of  issues. 
Aircraft,  steel,  and  other  groups  that  directly  re- 
flected the  armament  boom  were  firm  to  strong. 
On  the  other  hand,  issues  of  consumer-goods  man- 
ufacturing concerns  were  adversely  affected  by  the 
fact  that,  while  the  volume  of  their  business  was 
not  greatly  influenced  by  national  defense,  their 
taxes  rose  sharply.  Food  and  tobacco  manufactur- 
ing concerns  and  the  public  utilities  were  examples 
of  issues  that  were  regarded  as  being  adversely 
affected  on  balance  by  national  defense.  Railroad 
securities  .were  among  the  strongest  groups  be- 
cause, while  enjoying  an  increase  in  traffic  due  to 
national  defense,  the  railway  companies  fared  bet* 
ter  than  others  from  the  tax  viewpoint  owing  to 
their  heavy  fixed  charges  and  their  extensive  capi- 
tal investment,  which  gave  a  high  base  from  which 
excess  profits  could  be  figured 

The  high,  low,  and  closing  prices  of  the  more 
active  stocks  listed  on  the  New  York  Exchange, 
during  1940,  were  as  follows : 


FINANCIAL  REVIEW  261 

PRICES  OF  THE  MOST  ACTIVE  STOCKS,  1940 


U.S.  Steel..., 


__ 

General  Motors 
Republic  Steel 
International  Paper 

&  Power 
N.Y.  Central 
Anaconda  . 
Bethlehem  Steel 
Lockheed 
General  Electric 
United  Air  Lines 


High 

76UNov.  9 
.3911  Apr  8 
.UN  Mar.  8 
56HApr.  8 
24HNov.  9 

21kf  May  3 
18jjjan.  3 
32  Apr-  9 
93WNov  9 
41J?Apr  15 
41  Jan  2 
4 


Clou 


42  May  21 
15H  May  21 
6«  July  25 
37H  May  28 
14  May  21 

10H  May  21 
9K  May  21 

18  MaJ  21 
63H  May  23 
22^  July  3 
26J^  May  21 
12  May  21 


The  turnover  on  the  New  York  Stock  Exchange 
during  1940  aggregated  207,599,749  shares,  which 
compared  with  262,029,599  shares  in  1939.  Sales  of 
bonds  on  the  Exchange  also  declined  to  the  lowest 
level  in  more  than  twenty  years,  aggregating 
$1,669,438,000  which  compared  with  $2,046,083,000 
in  1939  The  total  value  of  all  listed  stocks  on  Dec. 
30,  1940,  was  $41,890,646,959,  which  compared  with 
$46,467,613,372  the  year  before. 

High  grade  bond  prices  were  reactionary  in  May 
and  June,  when  stocks  declined  sharply,  but  the 
recession  in  bond  quotations  was  relatively  mild. 
In  the  closing  months  of  the  year,  with  excess  re- 
serves at  new  high  levels  and  the  supply  of  new 
bonds  quite  limited,  a  brisk  advance  occurred  which 
brought  yields  of  gilt-edge  obligations  down  to  the 
lowest  recorded  level.  Government  and  other  tax- 
exempt  bonds  were  especially  strong  because  of  the 
proposal  of  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  Morgen- 
thau  that  Congress  enact  legislation  to  make  future 
issues  of  such  obligations  taxable.  The  Treasury 
Department  reported  that  the  average  yield  of  all 
Federal  obligations  with  maturity  or  call  dates 
twelve  years  or  more  away  was  1.89  per  cent  in 
December,  1940,  as  compared  with  2  35  per  cent  in 
December,  1939  The  yield  on  five  high  grade  cor- 
porate bonds  fell  within  this  period  from  2  86  per 
cent  to  2.59  per  cent  The  greatly  widened  spread 
between  yields  of  Treasury  and  corporate  obliga- 
tions reflected  the  prospective  diminution  of  the 
supply  of  tax-exempts  through  legislation. 

Middle  grade  and  speculative  bonds  fluctuated 
with  stock  prices,  but  showed  greater  strength  later 
in  the  year  than  stocks.  The  reason  for  this  was 
chiefly  the  more  favorable  position  of  lower  grade 
bonds  under  the  tax  laws,  since  earnings  used  to 
pay  bond  interest  are  not  subject  to  income  and 
excess  profits  taxation. 

The  course  of  corporate  bond  prices,  as  meas- 
ured by  indices  of  the  Standard  Statistics  Com- 
pany, was  as  follows : 

AVERAGES  OF  BOND  PRICES 


Total 

Corporate 
Industrial   Railroad 

Utility 

Number  of  issues  . 

60 

20 

20 

20 

1940—  January 

824 

873 

582 

1018 

February  . 

822 

873 

578 

1016 

March 

821 

87.3 

572 

1018 

April 

82.5 

875 

582 

1017 

May     .. 

79.4 

853 

535 

993 

June  .  •  . 

78  S 

847 

520 

987 

July  

812 

86.3 

571 

1002 

August 
September 
October 
November 
December 

815 
82.7 
816 
839 
84.0 

868 
878 
892 
903 
90.2 

575 
597 
61.0 
609 
61.1 

1002 
1006 
1006 
1005 
1007 

Financial  Regulation.  The  Securities  and  Ex- 
change Commission  pursued  without  remission  its 


FINANCIAL  RBVIRW 

policy  of  extending  and  tightening  Federal  regula- 
tion of  finance.  The  most  important  new  legislation 
in  this  field  during  the  year  was  the  Investment 
Company  Act  of  1940  requiring  investment  trusts 
of  most  types  to  register  with  the  Securities  and 
Exchange  Commission,  which  thus  acquired  broad 
regulatory  control  over  such  concerns.  Registra- 
tion of  investment  trusts  was  effected  by  the  end 
of  the  year,  and  the  SEC  issued  a  number  of  regu- 
lations under  its  new  powers.  Title  II  of  the  In- 
vestment Company  Act,  known  as  the  Investment 
Advisers  Act  of  1940,  gave  the  SEC  authority  to 
supervise  investment  counsel  and  investment  man- 
agement organizations  Registration  of  concerns 
and  individuals  engaged  in  this  field  was  also  ef- 
fected. 

The  SEC  proceeded  more  vigorously  to  enforce 
the  integration  and  simplification  provisions  of  the 
Public  Utility  Holding  Company  Act  of  1935.  A 
number  of  hearings  were  held  in  the  course  of  the 
year  on  orders  issued  by  the  Commission  designed 
to  compel  many  of  the  public  utility  holding  com- 
panies to  dispose  of  non-integrated  properties  and 
to  simplify  their  capital  and  corporate  structures. 
The  staff  of  the  SEC  proposed  late  in  the  year  that 
registered  public  utility  holding  companies  and 
their  subsidiaries  be  required  to  sell  new  bond  is- 
sues through  competitive  bidding,  rather  than  by 
negotiation  with  regular  investment  banker  con- 
nections. This  was  proposed  in  order  to  carry  out 
the  injunction  contained  in  the  law  that  "arms- 
length  bargaining"  be  enforced  as  between  the  is- 
suer and  the  underwriter,  where  registered  public 
utilities  undertook  new  financing.  The  SEC  itself, 
however,  did  not  adopt  this  proposal  immediately, 
but  called  for  hearings  to  begin  in  1941. 

Another  indication  of  the  expansion  of  the  scope 
of  financial  regulation  was  the  action  of  the  SEC 
in  calling  upon  the  New  York  Stock  Exchange  not 
to  enforce  its  rule  barring  "multiple  trading,"  or 
the  making  of  markets  on  other  stock  exchanges 
for  securities  listed  on  the  New  York  Stock  Ex- 
change by  member  firms  of  the  latter.  Where  New 
York  Stock  Exchange  members  acted  as  odd-lot 
dealers  or  specialists  on  exchanges  in  other  cities, 
it  was  felt  that  business  was  being  diverted  from 
New  York  at  a  time  when  the  turnover  had  already 
shrunk  to  alarmingly  small  proportions. 

In  one  respect,  however,  financial  regulation  was 
relaxed.  Congress  amended  the  Securities  Act  of 
1933  to  permit  the  SEC  to  wave  the  20-day  com- 
pulsory waiting  period  before  registration  state- 
ments for  new  security  issues  could  become  effec- 
tive. As  a  result,  a  number  of  high  grade  issues 
were  sold  within  a  few  days  after  registration 
statements  for  them  had  been  filed  with  the  SEC. 
Conferences  were  held  between  members  of  the 
SEC  staff  and  representatives  of  the  stock  ex- 
changes, the  Investment  Bankers'  Association  and 
the  National  Association  of  Securities  Dealers, 
with  a  view  to  the  improvement  of  regulatory  leg- 
islation and  methods.  These  conferences  had  failed 
to  produce  any  results,  however,  by  the  end  of  the 
year,  and  there  were  evidences  of  wide  divergences 
of  opinion  as  to  desirable  changes  in  the  securities 
laws  and  regulatory  policies. 

New  Financing.  The  bulk  of  new  financing 
during  1940  was  once  again  for  refunding  purposes, 
the  decline  in  interest  rates  causing  many  corpora- 
tions to  replace  outstanding  bond  issues  with  new 
lower-coupon  obligations.  Public  financing  to  raise 
new  capital  was  still  relatively  small  in  amount,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  following  table : 


FINANCIAL  REVIEW 


262 


FINANCIAL  REVIEW 


NEW  PUBLIC  FINANCING,  1940 
(Thousands  9fd*Hvt} 


Month 


Total        New  Capital    Refunding 


173,465 
257,346 
134,327 
279 


KK:: 

jfc.  .....  :.  :..:.:  8US 

September  .......  130,471 

October  ..........  392,625 

November  ...........  261,186 

December  ..........  389343 


35,470 


47,278 
168,699 
61,132 


137,995 
211342 
103,799 
192353 

83810 
101,476 
225,623 
111,494 

62,465 
345,347 

92,487 
328,212 


Source.  Tk§  Commercial  and  Financial  Ckromde. 

The  Federal  Government  in  1940  raised  $1,212,- 
000,000  through  the  sale  of  bond  and  note  issues, 
and  sold  $1,722,000,000  of  its  obligations  for  re- 
funding purposes.  Of  the  securities  sold  to  raise 
new  money,  $531,000,000  issued  on  December  18 
represented  the  initial  sale  of  notes  for  national 
defense,  authorized  by  special  legislation,  which 
may  have  a  maturity  up  to  five  years.  These  notes 


At  in  the  previous  year,  a  large  proportion  of 
new  securities  sales  consisted  of  private  placements 
with  one  or  t  few  insurance  companies  or  banks. 
Investment  bankers  charged  that  the  ability  of  the 
issuer  to  escape  the  registration  requirements  was 
the  chief  reason  for  the  sustained  popularity  of 
these  private  sales,  which  tended  to  eliminate  the 
investment  banking  profession  from  its  basic  role 
of  raising  capital  for  industry.  SEC  spokesmen 
ascribed  the  favor  for  private  placements  to  the 
great  surplus  of  capital  seeking  investment  in  in- 
stitutional hands.  A  number  of  banks  made  term 
loans  to  corporations  which  used  such  funds  to  pay 
for  bond  issues  held  by  the  public.  Owing  to  the 
thin  markets  on  the  New  York  Stock  Exchange, 
there  were  also  a  number  of  public  offerings  by 
groups  of  dealers  of  blocks  of  already  outstanding 
stocks  at  fixed  prices,  constituting  so-called  "sec- 
ondary distributions.  Many  of  these  were  >  for 
British  account,  representing  holdings  of  British 
investors  taken  over  and  liquidated  by  the  Govern- 
ment there  to  realize  foreign  exchange.  Others 
were  for  the  account  of  large  domestic  holders. 


SUMMARY  OF  NEW  FINANCING 

(In  millions  of  doUan] 


Total 
(New  and 
Year                   refunding) 
1928  -          9.992 

Total  new 
capital 

8,114 
10,183 
7,023 
3116 
1,192 
710 
1,386 
1,412 
1,973 
2,101 
2,355 
2,298 
1,944 

Total 
domestic 

6,789 
9,420 
6,004 
2,860 
1,165 
708 
1,386 
1,409 
1,972 
2,098 
2329 
2238 
1942 

New  Capital 
State  and     Federal              Corporate 
municipal  •  agencies  *  Bonds  fr  notes  Stocks 

1,379            64          2,385           2,961 
1,418              0          2,078           5,924 
2,980             87           2,980           1,503 
1,235            75           1,239             311 
762             77             305                20 
483            64              40             120 
803          405             144              35 
855           150             334               69 
735            22             839             352 
712           157             817             408 
971           481             807               65 
931           924             287               97 
757          461             589             135 

Foreign* 

1,325 
763 
1,019 
256 
27 

0 
25 

25 
60 

Total 
refunding 

1,877 
1,409 
654 
907 
538 
344 
826 
3,340 

tffl 

m 

2,821 

1929  

11,592 

1930  

7,677 

1931.       . 
1932  
1933  

.        4,023 
1,730 
1,054 

1934  

2.212 

1935  

..::::.    4752 

1936  
1937  

6,254 
4,001 

1938  

.   .   .        4,459 

1939  
1940  

.      ..        5853 
4,765 

•  Includes  issues  of  noncontiguous  U.S  Territories  and  Possessions.  *  Includes  publicly  offered  issues  of  Federal  land  banks,  Federal 
intermediate  credit  banks,  Federal  Farm  Mortgage  Corporation,  and  Home  Owners1  Loan  Corporation;  excludes  direct  obligations  of  U.S. 
Treasury.  •  Figures  do  not  include  funds  obtained  by  States  and  municipalities  from  any  agency  of  the  Federal  government. 


bore  a  coupon  of  %  of  1  per  cent.  The  Federal 
Government  also  raised  $985,000,000  during  the 
calendar  year  through  the  sale  of  United  States 
savings  bonds.  Government  credit  agencies  did  lit- 
tle financing  during  the  year,  the  Commodity  Cred- 
it Corporation  (q.v.)  selling  $289,000,000  of  short 
term  notes  for  cash  to  finance  the  increasing  vol- 
ume of  crop  loans  which  it  made  for  the  Govern- 
ment, while  the  United  States  Housing  Authority 
(q.v.)  sold  $112.000,000  of  one-year  notes  with  a 
coupon  of  %  of  1  per  cent,  to  finance  the  construc- 
tion of  slum  clearance  projects,  the  cost  of  which 
was  to  be  financed  later  through  the  sale  of  long 
term  bonds  on  the  completion  of  these  develop- 
ments. 


International  Capital  Movements.  The  war 
in  Europe  accelerated  the  flow  of  funds  from  other 
countries  to  the  United  States,  and  gold  imports 
for  the  year  amounted  to  $4,745,000,000,  the  high- 
est figure  ever  attained.  This  total  is  larger  than 
the  entire  monetary  gold  stock  of  the  United  States 
before  1933.  Enormous  shipments  of  gold  during 
the  spring  and  summer,  in  part  via  Canada,  largely 
exhausted  European  monetary  gold  stocks,  and  by 
the  close  of  the  year  such  shipments  tapered  off, 
and  henceforth  will  have  to  conform  more  closely 
to  the  amount  of  new  gold  production.  The  chief 
sources  of  gold  imported  by  the  United  States  dur- 
ing 1940,  and  comparisons  with  preceding  years, 
were  as  follows : 


GOLD  MOVEMENT  TO  AND  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES 
(In  million  dollars  at  $35  per  ounce} 


Calenda 
year 

1934  

Total  net 
r          imports 
ornet        United 
exports  (—)  Kingdom 
....    1.1320        409.9 

Net    import    from    or 

Nether-      Svit- 
France       lands       terland     Canada 

2602          94.3         12.4          86.8 
9342         227.2           10          95.2 
5737          71.0          7.5          72.6 
-137           6.5         545         111.5 
81.1         163.0           14          76.3 
3.8        341.6        87.0        613.0 
2416          63.3        90.2      2.622.4 

net     export     (—  )     to: 

British 
Japan      Belgium      India 

8.9          76.8 

*246.5          90.9          S0'.8 
168.7          15.5           16.2 
165  6        165.2          53.3 
111.7            1.0          499 

Aus- 
tralia 

13 

23.3 
34.7 

ft 

103.8 

Att  Other 

91.7 
86.9 
113.1 
112.3 
203.5 
244.0 
827.7 

1935  , 

1,739  o 

315.7 
174.1 

JttJ 

1,826.4 
633.0 

1936    .  .  .. 

1,1166 

1937.  ..... 

1.585  J 

1938  , 

;.;..  1  973:6 

1939 

....    3  574  2 

1940 

4,744.6 

Source:  U.S.  Department  of  Commerce. 


FINANCIAL  REVIEW 


263 


FINLAND 


NET  CAPITAL  MOVEMENT  BETWEEN  THE  UNITED 
1935  THROUGH  OCTOf 


'ATES  AND  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES, 
1940 


[In  mOttont  ofdoUan.  Ctptal  infiov  or  capital  outflow  (-)] 


Grand 

United 

to- 

Ntikv- 

Swit- 

Offer 

Total 

Latin 

All 

Total 

Kingdom 

Franc* 

many    Italy 

lands 

terland 

Europe 

Europe 

Canada 

America 

Asia 

Other 

Jan.   2,1935-Ttn.    1,19361,412.5 
Jan.    1,  1936-Dec.  30,  1936  1,195.9 
Dec.  30,  1936-Dec.  29,  1937    8019 

554.9 
274.4 
164.4 

210.2 
89.3 
-17.8 

36.6     24.0 
46.5      21.6 
40.8  -23.5 

114.5 
115.2 
82.2 

1304 
2052 
271.9 

1230 
985 
83.8 

1,200.6 
850.7 
6017 

150.5 
-44.2 

709 
130.3 
209.4 

1283 
557 
40.5 

12.7 
8.7 
-5.5 

Dec.  29,  1937-Dec.  28,  1938     415.3 
Dec.  28,  1938-Jan     3,  1940  1,195  6 

192.3 
-84.8 

57.8 
129.2 

168      10.9 
25.2      25  0 

127 
145.7 

-535 
2190 

1516 
289.1 

388.7 
7484 

50.9 
72.3 

-21.1 
93.9 

-21.4 
227.8 

18.2 
533 

Jan.    3,  1940-Oct.  30,  1940     7729 

-1069 

211.2 

8.0      17.8 

-13.4 

123.8 

177.0 

417.5 

155.0 

117.6 

84.4 

-1.7 

Total  5,7941 

9944 

679.9 

173.9      75.9 

4569 

896.7 

9300 

4,2076 

384.4 

601.0 

515.4 

85.6 

•  Inflow  less  than  $50,000. 

A  substantial  portion  of  the  gold  imported  dur- 
ing the  year  was  held  here  earmarked  for  foreign 
account,  particularly  for  France,  Holland,  Belgium, 
and  other  countries  occupied  by  Germany,  the  met- 
al being  frozen  under  the  Treasury's  orders  and 
subject  to  release  only  under  license.  Earmarked 

DRAIN  ON  GOLD  AND  DOLLAR  RESOURCES  OF  BRITISH 

EMPIRE,  EXCLUDING  CANADA  AND  NEWFOUNDLAND 

[From  Sept.  1, 1939,  to  Dec.  31, 1940} 

Gold  and  Dollar  Expenditure* 
(In  Millions  of  U3  Dollars) 

A.  Payments  to  the  United  States  by  United 

1    On  British  Government  orders  in  the 

United  States  ..     .   .  $1,380 

Goods  delivered $660 

Advanced  payments      . .  .    570 

Capital  assistance 150 

2.  For  other  merchandise  imports  from  the 

United  States  ...  705 

3    For  shipping,  interest,  etc  ...  197 


B    Payments  to  the  United  States  by  Empire 
countries,  excluding  U  K.  and  Canada 
1    For  commodity  imports     .                    .435 
2.  For  shipping,  interest,  etc. 48 

C    Payments  by  Empire  countries,  excluding 

Canada,  to  areas  outside  the  U.S.  requiring 

gold  or  dollars 

1  Payments  by  Empire  countries  (chiefly 
U  K )  to  areas  outside  the  U.S  and  Can- 
ada requiring  gold  or  dollars 550 

2.  Gold  payments  by  Empire  countries  to 

Canada  and  Newfoundland  (net) 225 

D.  Withdrawal  of  Capital 

1  By  American  and  others,  through  sale  of 
free  sterling  to  American  importers  .  . . 

2.  By  repayment  of  outstanding  export 
credits  as  required  by  our  Neutrality  Act . 

3.  By  liquidation  of  forward  exchange  posi- 
tion in  dollars 

E.  Residual— Miscellaneous  items  and  errors  of 
estimation 

Total  gold  and  dollar  requirements  for  all  trans- 
actions  

Gold  and  Dollar  Receipts 

A.  Receipts  from  United  States  by  United  King- 
dom 

1.  JYom  merchandise  exports 

2.  From  interest,  shipping,  etc 

B.  Receipts  from  United  States  by  Empire  coun- 
tries, excluding  U  K  and  Canada 

1,  From  merchandise  exports 

2.  From  tourist  travel,  remittances,  etc. 


300 
200 
235 


I  205 
140 


640 
30 


\rf.     j^vtuki  ftta^ifb*  ujr  «,UI] 

ing  Canada,  from  areas 
D.  Receipts  from 
ductlon  and  " 


i  j 
,  exciuo- 

S 


n  on  goM  and  dollar  resources  of  British 

dNe 


$2,282 
483 

775 

735 

71 

<4/t46 

345 

670 

50 
965 

$2,030 


gold  in  this  country  at  the  end  of  1940  aggregated 
some  $1,800,000,000.  These  stocks  of  the  yellow 
metal  are  not  included  with  the  monetary  gold 
stock  of  the  country,  which  aggregated  $21,994,- 
500,000  at  the  end  of  1940.  See  MONEY. 

The  Treasury's  statistics  of  capital  movements 
into  the  United  States  reflected  the  gradual  liquida- 
tion of  British  holdings  of  American  securities 
during  the  year,  but  showed  increases  in  the  re- 
sources held  here  for  the  account  of  nationals  ^  of 
France  and  a  number  of  other  European  countries, 
due  to  the  last-minute  transfer  of  funds  to  the 
United  States  before  these  nations  were  occupied. 
Capital  movements  during  the  first  ten  months  of 
1940,  and  comparable  statistics  for  the  preceding 
five  years,  are  tabulated  at  the  top  of  this  page. 

These  Treasury  statistics,  however,  failed  to  re- 
flect fully  the  extent  to  which  Great  Britain  liqui- 
dated her  dollar  resources  in  order  to  pay  for  im- 
ports from  the  United  States  and  to  make  advance 
payments  to  American  manufacturers  on  contracts 
calling  for  the  production  and  delivery  of  huge 
amounts  of  aircraft  and  other  war  materials.  More 
precise  data  on  the  extent  of  British  liquidation  of 
gold  and  dollar  resources  were  disclosed  shortly 
after  the  turn  of  the  year  by  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  Morgenthau,  who  made  public  data  (see 
column  1)  received  from  the  British  Treasury. 

These  figures  indicate  the  extent  to  which  the 
dollar  resources  built  up  in  this  country  by  the  per- 
sistent transfer  of  capital  to  the  United  States  by 
European  nationals  before  and  after  the  outbreak 
of  the  present  war  is  being  used  up  to  pay  for  war- 
time purchases  of  armaments.  As  during  the  World 
War,  the  United  States  in  wartime  finds  it  easy  to 
redeem  large  investments  made  in  this  country  by 
Europeans  under  peacetime  conditions.  On  balance, 
therefore,  this  country  will  be  a  creditor  nation  to 
a  much  larger  extent  after  the  war  than  before, 
wholly  apart  from  loans  and  leases  of  war  materi- 
als to  Great  Britain  and  her  allies.  See  also  BANKS 
AND  BANKING  ;  BUSINESS  REVIEW  ;  INTERNATION- 
AL BANKING  AND  FINANCE;  MONEY;  PUBLIC  FI- 
NANCE; RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE  CORPORATION. 

JULES  I.  BOGEN. 

FINE  ARTS.  See  ART;  DRAMA;  LITERATURE; 
Music;  PAINTING;  PRINTS;  SCULPTURE. 

FINGERPRINTS.  See  COURTS  tinder  Adtnis- 
sibility;  FEDERAL  BUREAU  OF  INVESTIGATION;  IM- 
MIGRATION, EMIGRATION,  AND  NATURALIZATION. 

FINLAND.  A  republic  of  Northern  Europe. 
Capital,  Helsinki  (Helsingfors). 

Area  and  Population.  Finland  had  an  area  of 
147.811  square  miles  at  the  beginning  of  1940, 
which  was  reduced  to  134,253  square  miles  by  the 
cession  of  13,558  square  miles  to  the  Soviet  Union 
under  the  Treaty  of  Moscow  of  Mar.  12,  1940* 
The  population  on  Jan.  1,  1939,  was  estimated  at 


FINLAND 


264 


FINLAND 


3,659,000.  The  cession  of  land  to  Soviet  Russia  did 
not  involve  a  concomitant  decrease  in  the  popula- 
tion of  Finland,  for  the  great  bulk  of  the  inhabit- 
ants  in  the  disputed  territory  were  evacuated  to 
Finland  before  the  Russian  occupation.  About  90 
per  cent  of  the  people  speak  Finnish,  and  most  of 
the  remainder  speak  Swedish.  Living  births  in  1938 
numbered  76,695  (21  0  per  1000)  ;  deaths,  47,901 
(13.1  per  1000).  Estimated  populations  of  the  chief 
cities  in  1937  were:  Helsinki  (Helsingfors),  293,- 
237;  Viipuri  (Viborg),  ceded  to  Russia,  73,917; 
Turku  (Abo),  72,918;  Tampere  (Tammerfors), 
74,736;  Vaasa  (Vasa),  32,108.  Swedish  place 
names  are  given  above  in  parentheses. 

Education  and  Religion.  School  attendance  in 
1938-39  was :  Elementary,  403,403 ;  secondary,  50,- 
580;  university  and  schools  for  higher  education, 
8752;  vocational  and  technical,  20,583.  Less  than 
1  per  cent  of  the  adult  population  was  illiterate  in 
1930.  War  damage  to  educational  institutions  in 
1939-40  was  estimated  at  333,000,000  marks.  The 
Technical  University  of  Helsinki,  where  damage 
totaled  20,000,000  marks,  was  repaired  and  reo- 
pened by  Oct.  1,  1940.  The  population  on  Jan.  1, 
1938,  included  3,680,237  Lutherans,  70,887  Greek 
Catholics,  9840  Baptists  and  other  Evangelical 
church  members,  1551  Roman  Catholics,  1755  Jews, 
and  360  Moslems. 

Production.  About  6,368,000  acres  (7.5  per  cent 
of  the  total  area)  were  under  cultivation  in  1939. 
(Agriculture  engaged  60  per  cent  and  industry 
16.8  per  cent  of  the  working  population  at  the  1930 
census.)  Chief  products  in  1939  in  metric  tons 
were:  Wheat,  227,000;  barley,  192,000;  rye,  331,- 
000;  oats,  798,000;  potatoes,  1,556,000;  beet  sugar, 
11,700;  fish,  22,400  (1938) ;  butter,  33,200  (1938)  ; 
wool,  1100  (1938) ;  wood  pulp,  2,100,000  (1938) ; 
pyrites,  352,000  (1938) ;  pig  iron  and  ferroalloys, 
36,000  (1938) ;  steel,  77,000  (1938) ;  silver,  1800 
(1938)  ;  and  copper,  13,400  (1938).  Livestock  losses 
during  the  Russo-Finnish  war  were  estimated  at 
169,950  cattle  (9.2  per  cent  of  the  total),  153,000 
sheep  (14.9  per  cent),  75,500  swine  (15.7  per  cent), 
and  13,000  reindeer  (6  per  cent).  The  number  of 
chickens  declined  from  2,700,000  in  1939  to  1,500,- 
000  in  October,  1940. 

Forests  are  a  source  of  great  wealth.  Growing 
stock  timber  in  1939  was  estimated  at  57,214,000,- 
000  cu.  ft;  merchantable  timber,  1,557,000,000 
trees  (60.7  per  cent  pine,  28.1  per  cent  spruce;  re- 
mainder deciduous,  mostly  birch)  ;  annual  incre- 
ment, about  1,568,000,000  board  ft. ;  annual  felling, 
about  1,413,000,000  board  ft. 

Foreign  Trade.  General  imports  in  1939  to- 
taled 7,566,300,000  Finnish  marks  (8,612,300,000  in 
1938)  and  general  exports  were  7,696,200,000  marks 
(8,431,000,000  in  1938).  The  decrease  was  attrib- 
uted to  the  Russo-Finnish  war.  For  distribution  of 
trade  see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  273. 

Finance.  The  budget  estimates  for  1941  placed 
revenue  and  expenditures  at  18,000,000,000  marks, 
more  than  three  times  the  1940  budget  and  the 
largest  in  the  history  of  the  country.  The  1940 
ordinary  and  supplementary  budgets  provided  for 
total  receipts  of  5,845,000,000  marks  and  expendi- 
tures of  7,052,000,000.  The  1941  budget  allocated 
8,000,000,000  marks  for  compensation  under  the 
War-Damage  Compensation  Law  and  2,000,000,000 
for  national  defense.  The  Finnish  mark  averaged 
$0.0216  in  1938,  $0.0199  in  1939,  $0.0187  in  1940. 

Transportation.  The  railway  mileage  in  1939 
was  5107  (mostly  operated  by  the  State).  A  new 
60-mile  railway  from  Varkaus  to  Veinyaivi  was 


opened  officially  on  Oct.  23,  1940.  Net  earnings  of 
the  Finnish  State  Railways  in  1939  totaled  210,- 
600,000  marks.  For  details  of  the  railway  agree- 
ment with  the  U.S.S.R.,  see  History  below.  High- 
ways and  roads  aggregated  39,631  miles  in  1939. 
Construction  of  a  motor  road  from  Rovaniemi  to 
Petsamo  was  begun  in  1940,  with  2000  men  en- 
gaged in  the  work.  In  1939  there  were  three  civil 
air  services  covering  741  route  miles.  A  thrice- 
weekly  service  between  Helsinki  and  Petsamo  was 
inaugurated  July  16,  1940.  On  Jan.  1,  1940,  the 
Finnish  merchant  marine  consisted  of  492  vessels 
of  635,165  tons. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  July  17,  1919, 
vested  executive  power  in  a  President  elected  for 
six  years  by  300  electors,  chosen  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  members  of  the  Diet  Legislative  power 
rests  with  the  unicameral  Diet  and  the  President. 
The  200  members  of  the  Diet  are  elected  by  direct 
vote  of  all  citizens,  male  and  female,  24  years  or 
more  of  age.  The  cabinet  is  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent but  is  responsible  to  the  Diet.  President,  Rjsto 
Ryti  (National  Progressive),  who  succeeded  Kyosti 
Kallio  (Agrarian)  as  Acting  President  on  Nov. 
28,  1940,  and  was  elected  President  December  19 
For  the  standing  of  the  parties  in  the  Diet,  see 
YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  276. 

HISTORY 

Russo-Finnish  War  Ends.  After  three  and  a 
half  months  of  severe  fighting  to  check  the  Soviet 
invasion  launched  Nov.  30,  1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 
1939,  p.  273  f.),  the  Finnish  army  and  government 
was  forced  to  sue  for  peace.  Finnish  cities  were  in 
ruins  from  repeated  Soviet  bombing  raids.  Despite 
conspicuous  successes  won  on  other  fronts,  the  ar- 
my defending  the  Mannerheim  Line  was  exhausted 
by  continuous  attacks  from  the  numerically  supe- 
rior invaders.  Its  munitions  supply  was  low.  Vol- 
unteers and  supplies  reaching  Finland  from  abroad 
were  insufficient  to  offset  the  war's  drain  upon 
Finnish  manpower  and  munitions.  For  a  full  de- 
scription of  the  fighting,  see  EUROPEAN  WAR  under 
Russo-Finnish  War. 

Consequently  the  Helsinki  Government  accepted 
the  Soviet  offer  to  resume  peace  negotiations  which 
had  been  transmitted  through  the  Swedish  Govern- 
ment on  January  29.  (The  British  Government  on 
January  22  had  refused  to  transmit  a  similar  Soviet 
offer.)  While  fighting  continued  with  the  greatest 
intensity,  a  Finnish  delegation  proceeded  to  Mos- 
cow. Negotiations  were  opened  on  March  7  and  on 
March  12  a  peace  treaty  was  concluded  under 
which  fighting  ended  at  noon  of  the  following  day. 
The  treaty  was  ratified  by  the  Finnish  Diet  on 
March  15  by  a  vote  of  145  to  3. 

Peace  Terms.  The  peace  terms  imposed  upon 
the  Finns  were  considerably  more  severe  than  the 
Soviet  demands  made  in  October,  1939  (see  1939 
YEAR  BOOK,  p.  274).  The  text  of  the  principal  arti- 
cles of  the  treaty  follows : 

II.  The  national  boundary  between  the  Union  of  Soviet 
Socialist  Republics  and  the  Finnish  Republic  •hall  be  es- 
tablished  along  a  new  line  in  accordance  with  which  the 
entire  Karelian  isthmus  with  the  city  of  Viborg  (Viipuri) 
and  Viborg  bay  with  its  islands;  the  western  and  northern 
shores  of  Lake  Ladoga  with  the  cities  of  Kexholm,  Sorta- 
vala,  and  Suojarvi;  a  number  of  islands  in  the  Golf  of 
Finland;  .territory  to  the  east  of  Merkjarvi  with  the  city 
of  Kuolajfirvi;  and  part  of  the  Rybachi  and  Sredny  pen- 
insulas—in accordance  with  the  map  attached  to  the  present 


Treaty— shall  be  included  within  the  territory  of  the  Un- 
ion  of  Soviet  Socialist   Republics. 

A  more  detailed  delineation  of  the  boundary  line  shall 
be  established  by  a  mixed  commission  of  representatives 
of  tbe  Contracting  Parties,  and  such  a  commission  must 


FINLAND 


265 


FINLAND 


be  appointed  within  ten  days  from  the  date  of  signature 

III.  Thetwo  Contracting  Partiei  undertake  to  refrain 
mutually  from  any  attack  upon  each  other,  and  not  to 
conclude  any  alliance  or  participate  in  coalitions  directed 
againat  one  of  the  Contracting  Parties. 

IV.  The  Finnith  Republic  agrees  to  rent  to  the  Soviet 
Union  for  a  period  of  30  years,  with  the  annual  payment 
of  eight  million  finmarkt  by  the  Soviet  Union,   Hang8 
peninsula  and  its  surrounding  waters  within  a  radius  of 
5  miles  to  the  south  and  east  and  of  3  miles  to  the  west 
and  north  of  the  peninsula,  as  well  as  a  number  of  islands 
adjacent   to  the  peninsula    (indicated  upon  an   attached 
map)  for  the  establishment  of  a  naval  base  there  capable 
of  defending  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Finland  from 
aggression,  and  the  Soviet   Union  shall  be  granted  the 
right  to  maintain  the  requisite  number  of  land  and  air 
armed  forces  there  at  its  own  expense  for  the  purpose  of 
defending  the  naval  base. 

Within  10  days  from  the  moment  that  the  present 
Treaty  shall  enter  into  effect,  the  Finnish  Government 
shall  withdraw  all  of  its  troops  from  Hangd  peninsula, 
and  Hango  peninsula  with  the  adjacent  islands  shall  be 
transferred  to  the  administration  of  the  Union  of  Soviet 
Socialist  Republics,  in  accordance  with  the  present  article 
of  the  Treaty 

V.  The  Union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Republics  undertakes 
to  withdraw  its  troops  from  Pctsamo  province,  which  the 
Soviet   State   voluntarily   ceded   to   Finland   according  to 
the  Peace  Treaty  of  1920. 

Finland  undertakes — as  was  provided  in  the  Treaty  of 
1920 — not  to  maintain  warships  and  other  armed  ships  in 
the  waters  along  the  Finnish  coast  of  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
with  the  exception  of  armed  ships  of  less  than  100  tons 
displacement,  of  which  Finland  shall  have  the  right  to 
maintain  an  unlimited  number,  as  well  as  to  maintain  not 
more  than  15  warships  and  other  armed  ships  the  tonnage 
of  which  may  not  exceed  400  tons  each. 

Finland  undertakes — as  was  provided  by  the  same  Treaty 
— not  to  maintain  submarines  and  armed  aircraft  in  the 
said  waters 

Likewise  Finland  undertakes — as  was  provided  by  the 
same  Treaty — not  to  construct  naval  ports,  bases  tor  a 
naval  fleet  or  naval  repair  shops  on  this  coast  on  a  larger 
scale  than  is  required  for  the  above-mentioned  ships  and 
their  armaments 

VI.  The  Soviet  Union  and  its  citizens — as  was  provided 
by  the  Treaty  of  1920 — shall  be  granted  the  right  of  un- 
restricted transit   through   Petsamo   province  to   Norway 
and  return,  and   the   Soviet   Union  shall  be  granted  the 
right  to  establish  a  consulate  in  Petsamo  province. 

Freight,  which  is  transported  through  Petsamo  province 
from  the  union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Republics  to  Norway, 
as  well  as  freight  which  is  transported  from  Norway  to 
the  Union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Republics  through  the  same 
province,  shall  not  be  subject  to  inspection  and  control, 
with  the  exception  of  that  control  which  is  necessary  for 
regulation  of  transit  communication,  and  shall  be  exempt 
from  customs  duties,  transit,  and  other  fees 

The  above-mentioned  control  of  freight  in  transit  shall 
be  permitted  only  in  the  manner  observed  in  such  cases 
by  the  established  practices  of  international  communica- 
tion 

Citizens  of  the  Union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Republics 
traveling  to  Norway  or  returning  from  Norway  to  the 
Union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Republics  through  Pctsamo  prov- 
ince, shall  have  the  right  of  unrestricted  travel  on  the  basis 
of  passports  issued  by  the  appropriate  Soviet  organs 

Upon  observation  of  the  general  regulations  in  effect. 
Soviet  unarmed  aircraft  shall  have  the  right  to  aerial 
communication  between  the  Union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Re- 
publics and  Norway  across  Petsamo  province. 

VII  The  Finnish  Government  shall  grant  to  the  Soviet 
Union  the  right  of  transit  for  freight  between  the  Union 
of  Soviet  Socialist  Republics  and  Sweden,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  the  development  of  this  transit  along  the  short- 
est railway  route  the  Union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Republics 
and  Finland  consider  it  necessary  for  each  Partv  to  con- 
struct, if  possible  during  1940,  on  its  own  territory  a 
railway  uniting  the  city  of  Kandalaksha  with  the  city  of 
Kemijarvi 

VIII.  Upon  the  entry  of  the  present  treaty  into  force, 
trade  relations  between  the  Contracting  Parties  shall  he 
restored  and  for  this  purpose  the  Contracting  Parties  shall 
enter  into  negotiations  for  conclusion  of  a  trade  agree- 
ment. 

A  protocol  to  the  peace  treaty  provided  for  the 
withdrawal  of  Finnish  troops  from  the  ceded  areas, 
by  stages,  between  March  15-26,  while  withdrawal 
of  Soviet  troops  from  the  Petsamo  region  was  to 
be  completed  by  April  10.  It  called  for  the  ex- 
change of  military  prisoners  on  the  basis  of  a  spe- 
cial agreement  and  stipulated  that  all  "towns,  vil- 
lages, military  and  economic  structures"  in  the 
evacuated  areas  "shall  be  safeguarded  against  dam- 
age and  destruction."  These  provisions  were  car- 


ried out  as  stipulated,  though  not  without  some 
friction  between  Finnish  and  Soviet  representa- 
tives. 

The  treaty  gave  the  Soviet  Union  all  of  the 
Mannerheim  Line  fortifications  in  the  Karelian 
isthmus,  the  Finnish  shores  of  Lake  Ladoga  with 
the  admirable  system  of  railway  and  road  com- 
munications radiating  from  Viborg,  a  substantial 
slice  of  territory  in  east  central  Finland  bisected 
by  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  small  sections  of  the 
Finnish  Arctic  Coast  giving  the  Russians  strategic 
control  of  the  Finnish  warm-water  port  of  Pet- 
samo. Truncated  Finland  was  more  than  ever  vul- 
nerable to  Soviet  invasion,  even  though  its  army 
remained  intact.  It  was  shorn  of  important  agri- 
cultural and  industrial  resources  as  well  as  of  its 
fortifications  in  the  southeast  Its  sea  approaches 
were  dominated  by  Soviet  naval,  land,  and  air 
forces  installed  at  Hango  The  projected  railway 
connecting  the  Finnish  city  of  Kemijarvi  with  the 
Murmansk  Railway  at  Kandalaksha  on  Che  White 
Sea  afforded  an  easy  route  for  a  future  Soviet 
drive  across  Finland's  "waistline"  to  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  There  Finland's  vital  rail 
communications  with  Sweden,  Norway,  and  the 
outside  world  could  be  cut. 

However  the  peace  treaty  left  Finland  free  and 
independent  for  the  time  being.  According  to  For- 
eign Minister  Tanner's  speech  of  March  13,  the 
Kremlin  made  no  political  demands  upon  the  Finns 
during  the  negotiations.  It  also  agreed  to  "thrust 
aside"  the  Terijoki  "People's  Government"  led  by 
the  Finnish  Communist,  Otto  Kuusinen,  which 
Moscow  had  recognized  on  Dec  1,  1939,  as  the 
legal  government  of  Finland  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK, 
p.  275). 

Foreign  Aid.  Substantial  supplies  reached  Fin- 
land from  abroad  before  the  peace  treaty  was 
concluded.  The  British  and  French  Governments 
announced  the  shipment  of  285  planes,  590  cannon 
of  all  types,  100  anti-tank  guns,  5000  machine  guns, 
200,000  hand  grenades,  60,000,000  rounds  of  rifle 
ammunition,  and  other  equipment.  Apparently  not 
all  of  this  reached  the  Finnish  front  lines  in  time. 
Sweden  sent  several  thousand  volunteers  as  well 
as  funds  and  large  quantities  of  arms  and  supplies, 
valued  at  $120,000,000  as  of  April,  1940.  Food, 
clothing,  and  other  non-military  supplies  came  in 
quantity  from  Norway,  Denmark,  the  United 
States,  and  other  friendly  countries  The  United 
States  Government  on  February  29  loaned  Finland 
$20,000,000  for  the  purchase  of  non-military  sup- 
plies additional  to  the  $10,000,000  advanced  on  Dec. 
10,  1939.  Private  relief  funds  reaching  Finland 
from  abroad  up  to  Mar.  22, 1940,  were  reported  at 
nearly  200,000,000  Finnish  marks  (roughly  $4,000,- 
000),  of  which  84,000,000  marks  were  forwarded 
by  the  Hoover  relief  committee  in  the  United 
States. 

Foreign  Minister  Tanner's  speech  of  March  13 
attributed  the  Finnish  capitulation  to  the  lack  of 
sufficient  troop  reinforcement  from  abroad  to  re- 
lieve the  battle-weary  Finnish  soldiers.  On  March 
12  Premier  Daladier  of  France  announced  that  as 
early  as  February  5  the  Allied  Governments  had 
decided  to  aid  the  Finns  and  had  assembled  50,- 
000  troops  for  embarkation  the  moment  the  Finns 
officially  requested  help.  After  vainly  requesting 
the  Swedish  and  Norwegian  Governments  to  send 
troops  to  their  aid,  the  Finns  asked  Stockholm 
and  Oslo  to  permit  the  transit  of  the  Allied  expe- 
ditionary force  across  their  territories.  Under  pres- 
sure of  German  threats  to  intervene,  the  Swedish 


FINLAND 


266 


FINLAND 


and  Norwegian  Governments  rejected  both  the 
Finnish  plea  and  a  similar  Allied  request  of 
March  5.  In  view  of  this  stand,  the  Finns  made 
no  formal  request  for  Allied  military  aid,  fearing 
that  Germany's  reaction  might  involve  Finland  in 
the  major  European  War.  Convinced  that  there 
was  no  hope  of  effective  foreign  aid  or  of  winning 
better  terms  by  continuing  the  war,  the  Finnish 
Government  decided  to  accept  the  onerous  Soviet 
peace  terms. 

The  Soviet  Government  on  March  18  formally 
assured  Sweden  that  it  had  no  further  territorial 
demands  to  make  in  Northern  Europe.  Immedi- 
ately after  peace  was  concluded  the  Finns  sounded 
out  Sweden  and  Norway  on  a  Scandinavian  de- 
fensive military  alliance.  These  discussions  were 
abandoned  in  Stockholm  late  in  March  when  the 
U.S.S.R.  announced  that  it  would  regard  such  a 
pact  as  a  violation  of  Article  III  of  the  Russo- 
Finnish  treaty. 

Cost  of  the  War.  According  to  a  Finnish  com- 
munique* issued  in  June,  1940,  the  short  16-weeks' 
struggle  cost  them  19,263  killed  and  43,500  wound- 
ed. Official  Soviet  estimates  placed  Finnish  losses 
at  over  70,000  killed  in  action,  15,000  mortally 
wounded,  and  250,000  other  wounded.  The  Finnish 
Government  was  burdened  with  the  care  of  nearly 
10,000  widows,  20,000  to  30,000  orphans,  and  600,- 
000  homeless  persons,  of  whom  about  470,000  were 
evacuees  from  the  territory  ceded  to  the  U.S.S.R. 

The  ceded  territory  represented  one-tenth  of 
Finland's  land  area  and  one-twelfth  of  its  tangible 
national  wealth  in  the  form  of  farms,  factories 
and  forests.  It  accounted  for  11  per  cent  of  the  re- 
public's forest  resources,  16  per  cent  of  the  rail- 
way lines,  and  10  per  cent  of  the  industrial  output. 
Factories  in  the  ceded  Karelian  isthmus  and  Lake 
Ladoga  areas  had  accounted  for  86  per  cent  of  all 
Finnish  exports.  Viborg  and  Hango  had  handled 
about  one-third  of  the  foreign  trade.  In  addition 
to  the  territorial  losses,  32  of  Finland's  38  towns 
were  wholly  or  partially  destroyed  by  Russian  air 
raids.  Some  9000  buildings  housing  around  40,000 
persons  were  demolished.  Altogether  the  cost  of 
the  war  was  estimated  about  30,000,000,000  Finnish 
marks  (approximately  $600,000,000),  or  about  one- 
fourth  of  Finland's  total  national  wealth. 

Reconstruction  Measures.  Finland  had 
scarcely  begun  to  face  the  huge  task  of  recon- 
struction when  the  spread  of  the  European  War  to 
Norway  in  April  cut  off  a  large  part  of  the  im- 
ports and  relief  funds  reaching  Finland  from 
abroad.  This  multiplied  the  government's  difficul- 
ties. Foreign  trade  during  the  first  half  of  1940 
was  about  one-fourth  that  of  the  first  six  months 
of  1939.  The  production  index  for  export  indus- 
tries (Base:  1935=100)  was  42  for  the  second 
quarter  of  1940  as  compared  with  102  for  the  same 
period  of  1939.  At  the  beginning  of  September 
there  were  5100  unemployed  registered  in  addition 
to  183,467  evacuees  on  relief. 

The  government  adopted  drastic  measures  to 
deal  with  this  economic  emergency.  During  the 
session  of  the  Diet  that  ended  August  3,  an  emer- 
gency settlement  law  was  passed  for  placing  the 
470.WO  evacuees  from  ceded  territory  on  new 
land.  A  capital  levy  estimated  to  yield  4,000,000,- 
000  marks  over  a  four-year  ^period  was  imposed 
upon  all  property  subject  to  income  and  property 
taxes  ana  upon  scientific  and §  philosophic  institu- 
tions, private  railways  and  savings  banks  The  rate 
of  the  levy'  ranged  from  2%  per  cent  on  property 
valued  at  40,000  marks  to  20  per  cent  on  that 


valued  at  41,000,000  marks  or  more.  Surtaxes 
ranged  from  4%  to  20  per  cent  This  income  was 
set  aside  to  compensate  individuals  and  corpora* 
tions  for  war  losses  on  a  sliding  scale  from  100 
per  cent  for  property  valued  at  less  than  10,000 
marks  down  to  5  per  cent  on  property  valued  at 
41,000,000  marks  or  more. 

Refugees  from  the  ceded  territories  were  reset- 
tled on  farms  carved  out  of  the  larger  private  es- 
tates and  government  and  church  land  holdings. 
Agricultural  societies  and  banks  subscribed  50,- 
000,000  marks  for  a  corporation  (the  Land  Clear- 
ing Co.)  to  undertake  large-scale  land-clearing 
operations  with  modern  machinery.  At  the  same 
time  a  comprehensive  program  for  the  intensifica- 
tion of  agricultural,  mineral,  and  industrial  pro- 
duction was  inaugurated.  A  government  committee 
drafted  legislation  for  the  replacement  of  essential 
industries  lost  to  the  Soviet  Union. 

To  combat  the  rising  cost  of  living,  the  Diet  on 
June  7  fixed  rents  for  houses,  apartments,  and 
other  buildings  at  the  level  existing  June  1,  1939. 
Another  law  established  maximum  prices  for  do- 
mestic cereals  and  authorized  purchase  of  all  do- 
mestic wheat,  rye,  and  barley  by  the  government 
grain  store.  Other  powers  conferred  by  the  Diet 
enabled  the  government  to  regulate  the  distribu- 
tion, consumption,  and  price  of  firewood.  Ration- 
ing and  price  fixing  for  essential  food  supplies  be- 
came more  rigorous  during  the  winter.  A  licensing 
board  was  established  to  regulate  and  encourage 
foreign  trade.  By  agreement  between  workers  and 
employers,  wages  were  adjusted  to  the  rising  cost 
of  living.  Trade  agreements  were  negotiated  with 
Denmark,  Germany,  Hungary,  Sweden,  and  the 
Soviet  Union.  Together  with  relief  supplies 
brought  in  from  the  United  States  through  Pet- 
samo,  the  foodstuffs  and  other  materials  obtained 
through  barter  agreements  enabled  the  Finns  to 
emerge  from  the  winter  of  1940-41  without  actual 
famine,  although  hardships  were  severe. 

Political  Changes.  Premier  Risto  Ryti's  gov- 
ernment, representing  a  coalition  of  the  five  largest 
political  parties  (Social  Democrats,  Agrarians. 
National  Coalition,  Swedish  People's  party,  and 
National  Progressives) ,  was  reorganized  on  March 
27,  1940,  to  carry  out  the  reconstruction  program. 
Dr.  Ryti,  a  National  Progressive,  remained  at  the 
head  of  the  cabinet,  but  replaced  seven  of  the  14 
Ministers. 

The  government's  task  was  lightened  by  the 
unity  of  the  moderate  Left,  Right,  and  Center  po- 
litical groups  that  had  been  cemented  in  the  cruci- 
ble of  war.  A  formal  declaration  issued  February 
20  had  healed  the  long  antagonism  between  the 
Rightist  Civic  Guard  and  the  powerful  Social 
Democratic  party.  The  Civic  Guard  announced 
that  henceforth  it  would  admit  Social  Democrats 
to  its  ranks,  while  the  Social  Democrats  agreed  to 
participate  in  this  elite  corps  that  played  a  leading 
part  in  winning  Finnish  independence  from  Soviet 
Russia  in  191M8.  A  radical  faction  of  Social 
Democrats,  critical  of  the  party's  moderate  poli- 
cies, was  expelled  on  September  27  and  formed  a 
new  party,  called  the  Socialist  Dissenters. 

After  the  peace  treaty  was  signed,  some  Finnish 
citizens  and  newspapers  urged  Field  Marshal  Bar- 
on Carl  Gustav  Mannerheim,  commander  of  the 
Finnish  armies,  to  assume  "direction  of  the  na- 
tional fate."  Majority  sentiment  strongly  opposed 
a  dictatorship  and  the  democratic  governmental 
system  remained  unimpaired.  However  a  bill  post- 
poning parliamentary  elections  until  1942  went  in- 


FINLAND 


267 


FINLAND 


to  effect  October  25.  This  move  was  attributed  to 
the  tense  international  situation  (see  below)  and 
to  the  difficulty  of  fixing  new  electoral  districts  as 
a  result  of  boundary  changes. 

President  Kallio  resigned  on  November  28  be- 
cause of  ill  health  and  Premier  Ryti  succeeded  him 
as  Acting  President  until  formally  elected  to  the 
Presidency  by  the  electoral  college  on  December 
19.  The  vote  was  288  to  2.  On  the  same  day  the 
retiring  President  collapsed  and  died  at  the  con- 
clusion of  a  great  farewell  demonstration  by  the 
people  of  Helsinki  (see  NECROLOGY).  Sworn  in  be- 
fore Parliament  on  December  21,  President  Ryti 
described  the  country's  policy  as  one  of  remaining 
outside  all  wars,  maintaining  its  existence  and  in- 
dependence at  all  costs,  developing  "the  best  rela- 
tions with  our  neighbors,  especially  the  Soviet  Un- 
ion," and  the  strengthening  of  Finland's  connec- 
tions with  Germany. 

On  the  night  of  December  19,  President  Ryti  ap- 
pointed Minister  of  Defense  Gen.  Karl  Rudolf 
Walden  as  Acting  Premier.  After  vain  efforts  to 
form  a  party  government,  the  national  union  gov- 
ernment was  continued  under  a  new  Premier, 
Johan  Wilhelm  Rangell,  appointed  Jan.  4,  1941.  A 
non-party  man  and  former  head  of  the  Bank  of 
Finland,  Rangell  made  only  two  changes  in  the 
former  Cabinet  line-up. 

Post-war  Relations  with  U.S.S.R.  Diplomat- 
ic relations  between  Finland  and  the  Soviet  Union 
were  resumed  on  April  7,  with  the  appointment  of 
Ministers  to  Moscow  and  Helsinki  respectively. 
On  April  12  the  Petsamo  district  was  returned  to 
Finland  in  accordance  with  the  peace  treaty.  A 
Finnish-Soviet  trade  and  clearing  agreement  was 
concluded  June  28  On  September  6  another  accord 
was  signed  in  Moscow  providing  for  direct  pas- 
senger and  freight  traffic  between  the  U.S  S  R. 
and  Finland,  transit  traffic  between  the  Soviet 
Union  and  Sweden  across  Finland,  and  between 
the  U  S.S  R.  and  the  leased  base  at  Hango.  Con- 
struction of  the  Kemijarvi-Kandalaksha  railway 
proceeded.  At  the  demand  of  the  Soviet  Union,  the 
Finns  early  in  July  were  reported  to  have  blown 
up  the  fortifications  and  gun  emplacements  they 
erected  on  the  Aland  Islands  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Russo-Finnish  war. 

New  Soviet  demands  were  made  upon  Finland 
at  frequent  intervals,  arousing  Finnish  fears  that 
Moscow  planned  to  establish  complete  domination 
by  a  step-by-step  policy  without  resort  to  war.  In 
late  July  the  Soviet  Government  was  reported  to 
have  insisted  upon  Finnish  demobilization.  At  the 
same  time  the  Moscow  press  became  increasingly 
critical  of  the  Finnish  Government's  internal  poli- 
cies. It  attacked  the  legalization  of  the  Fascist 
movement  in  Finland  under  Gen.  Kurt  Wallenius 
and  bitterly  assailed  the  police  measures  taken  to 
curb  pro-Russian  demonstrations  in  Helsinki  and 
other  cities  early  in  August.  The  Soviet  Premier, 
Molotov,  on  August  1  assumed  a  protectorate  over 
the  outlawed  Communist  movement  in  Finland  by 
asserting  that  "Russo-Finnish  relations  may  suffer 
unless  coercion  of  those  classes  that  are  striving  to 
strengthen  good  relations  between  Finland  and  the 
Soviet  Union  is  stopped." 

The  Finnish  Government  on  August  9  issued  a 
lengthy  statement  in  response  to  persistent  Russian 
demands  for  the  release  of  ringleaders  of  the  pro- 
Soviet  demonstrations.  It  asserted  that  Finland  had 
striven  to  establish  good  relations  with  the  Soviet 
Union  but  that  since  a  few  trouble-makers  were 
disturbing  public  order,  further  demonstrations 


had  been  forbidden.  Neutral  sources  in  Helsinki 
reported  that  the  demonstrators  were  almost  with- 
out exception  paid  Russian  agents,  numbering 
about  200  in  the  capital  and  smaller  groups  hi 
other  cities.  Nevertheless  formidable  Soviet  pres- 
sure upon  the  Finns  continued.  It  was  held  respon- 
sible for  the  resignation  of  Minister  of  Social 
Welfare  Tanner  from  the  cabinet  in  August,  for 
the  Soviet-Finnish  railway  accord  in  September, 
and  for  the  Soviet-Finnish  agreement  of  October 
11  for  permanent  demilitarization  of  the  Aland 
Islands.  Finland  agreed  to  maintain  the  demilita- 
rization and  not  to  place  the  islands  at  the  dis- 
posal of  any  other  power.  Despite  these  conces- 
sions, the  Soviet  press  campaign  against  "bour- 
geois democracy"  in  Finland  continued  through- 
out the  year. 

Finnish-German  Relations.  Russia's  threat- 
ening attitude  forced  the  Finns  to  seek  closer  re- 
lations with  Germany  in  the  hope  of  winning  Hit- 
ler's military  support  if  the  Red  Army  agan  in- 
vaded Finland.  A  mission  that  visited  Berlin  for 
this  purpose  during  the  summer  reportedly  was 
advised  to  seek  a  reconciliation  with  Moscow. 
However  an  important  Finnish-German  trade  ac- 
cord was  signed  in  Berlin  June  29,  under  which 
Finland  supplied  the  Reich  with  large  quantities 
of  cellulose,  used  in  munitions-making. 

On  September  24  the  Finnish  Government  an- 
nounced that,  following  German  demands  upon 
Finland,  it  had  agreed  to  permit  the  transport  of 
German  troops  and  supplies  across  northern  Fin- 
land to  Norway  German  troops  landed  at  Vasa  the 
same  night  and  a  small  number,  estimated  at  less 
than  5000,  remained  quartered  at  transit  points 
leading  to  northern  Norway.  After  Foreign  Com- 
missar Molotov's  visit  to  Berlin,  it  was  reported 
in  mid-November  that  the  German  troops  were  be- 
ing withdrawn  from  Finland. 

Speaking  in  Helsinki  on  November  19,  Premier 
Ryti  said  that  Finland  would  co-operate  with  Ger- 
man plans  for  the  economic  reconstruction  of  Eu- 
rope, provided  no  violation  or  impairment  of  its 
political  independence  was  involved  These  devel- 
opments were  believed  to  indicate  that  Finland  was 
prepared  to  throw  in  its  lot  with  Germany  if  it 
had  to  choose  between  German  and  Soviet  domi- 
nation. 

Other  Foreign  Relations.  The  British  Gov- 
ernment registered  a  vigorous  protest  against  the 
Finnish  decision  to  permit  the  transit  of  German 
troops.  It  threatened  to  bar  passage  of  supplies  to 
Finland  through  the  blockade  if  the  Helsinki  Gov- 
ernment committed  "any  further  unneutral  act." 

Despite  their  own  pressing  needs  and  problems, 
the  Finns  sent  Norway  more  than  $500,000  in  cash 
and  supplies  in  less  than  a  month  after  the  Ger- 
man invasion  of  Norway  in  April.  This  was  to  re- 
pay Norway  for  aid  received  by  Finland  during 
the  s  Soviet-Finnish  War.  Swedish-Finnish  diplo- 
matic and  economic  collaboration  remained  close, 
and  in  June  an  agreement  was  concluded  for  joint 
use  of  the  port  of  Petsamo. 

The  Finnish  Government  again  paid  its  semi-an- 
nual installment  due  June  15,  1940,  on  its  debt  to 
the  U.S.  Government,  but  the  December  15  install- 
ment was  postponed  in  accordance  with  the  joint 
resolution  of  the  U.S.  Senate  and  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, approved  by  President  Roosevelt  June 
15  (see  REPARATIONS  AND  WAR  DEBTS)  The  $30,- 
000,000  in  relief  loans  advanced  to  Finland  in 
1939-40  by  the  Export-Import  Bank  of  Washing- 
ton waa  virtually  exhausted  by  the  end  of  1940. 


FINNISH  CAMPAIGN 


268 


FIRS  PROTECTION 


See  COMMUNISM  ;  LABOR  CONDITIONS  ;  LEAGUE 
or  NATIONS  ;  REPARATIONS  AND  WAR  DEBTS  ;  and 
FRANCE,  GERMANY,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  NORWAY, 
SWEDEN  and  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUB- 
LICS, under  History.  Also  see  Music;  WAR  RE- 
LIEF. 

FINNISH  CAMPAIGN.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR. 

FIRE  PROTECTION.  Estimates  of  the  Na- 
tional Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  place  the  na- 
tional fire  loss  during  1940  at  $306,469,520.  This  is 
a  decrease  of  approximately  $7,000,000  from  the 
corresponding  estimate  of  the  fire  loss  for  1939. 
This  reduction  is  a  reversal  of  the  trend  which  has 
manifested  itself  during  the  past  four  or  five  years. 

COMPARATIVE  MONTHLY  LOSS  ESTIMATES 


Month 

1938 

1939 

1940 

January 
February  .   . 

$27,676,337 
26,472,626 

$27,615,316 
29,303,520 

$36,260,650 
34,410,250 

March..      . 
April 

29,050,968 
25,616,112 

30,682,168 
27,061,522 

29,788,800 
26,657,190 

May 

22,917,577 

27,031,700 

23,446,590 

June 

19,473,617 

24,190,700 

19,506,000 

July     ... 

August 

20,434,688 
20,821,184 

22,468,304 

22.800.SOO 

20,322,800 
20,722,100 

September  . 
October     .   .     .. 
November  . 

23,372,528 
24,797,624 
28,658,695 

22,837,250 
24,300,500 
27,248,160 

21,198,000 
22,091,140 
23,449,000 

December.     . 

32,758,044 

27,959,200 

28,617,000 

Total 

.   $302,050,000 

$313,498,840 

$306,469,520 

The  year  got  off  to  a  bad  start  when  the  Marl- 
borough  apartment  hotel  in  Minneapolis  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  on  the  morning  of  January  3,  caus- 
ing 19  deaths.  Poor  construction  and  inadequate 
exit  facilities  were  largely  responsible.  The  largest 
loss  of  life  by  fire  occurred  on  April  23  at  Natchez, 
Miss.,  when  207  Negroes  were  burned  to  death  and 
200  others  injured  in  a  fire  which  swept  through 
a  dance  hall.  Nearly  every  well-known  principle  of 
ordinary  fire  protection  was  violated  in  this  in- 
stance. 

According  to  the  National  Fire  Protection  As- 
sociation, 38  fires  occurred  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada  during  1940,  each  of  which  resulted  in  a 
loss  estimated  at  not  less  than  $250,000.  Of  these, 
four  occurred  in  Canada.  This  represents  an  in- 
crease of  11  fires  over  the  number  reported  for 
1939  and  is  3  greater  than  the  average  for  the 
past  five  years.  A  total  of  71  lives  were  lost  in 
these  fires,  60  more  than  were  lost  in  the  corre- 
sponding fires  of  1939  but  only  10  more  than  in 
1938. 

The  largest  loss  of  the  year  was  the  conflagra- 
tion of  July  30  at  Camden,  N.J.,  which  involved  a 
plant  engaged  in  manufacturing  waxes,  polishes, 
greases,  and  other  flammable  compounds.  The  fire 
destroyed  a  block  of  factory  buildings  and  numer- 
ous nearby  dwellings  with  a  loss  estimated  close  to 
$2,000,000.  Ten  other  fires  caused  losses  exceeding 
$500,000. 

An  analysis  by  the  National  Fire  Protection  As- 
sociation classifying  the  national  fire  record  by  oc- 
cupancies and  causes  attracted  considerable  atten- 
tion. It  showed  that  during  1939,  the  last  year  for 
which  figures  were  available,  there  were  an  esti- 
mated 685,000  fires  in  the  United  States,  of  which 
340,000  occurred  in  dwellings  and  53,000  in  hotels 
and  apartment  houses.  The  principal  causes  were 
shown  to  be  smoking,  sparks  on  roofs,  defective 
or  overheated  chimneys  and  flues,  and  electrical  fires. 

Without  question,  the  most  important  develop- 
ment in  the  fire  field  during  1940  was  the  utiliza- 
tion of  fire  as  a  deadly  weapon  by  the  warring 
countries  by  means  of  the  incendiary  bomb.  To 


meet  this  new  situation,  England  alone  increased 
its  fire-fighting  forces  tenfold.  Daily,  the  fire  bri- 
gades, auxiliary  fire  forces,  and  the  air-raid-pre- 
caution units  in  England  have  been  making  history. 

This  development  has  aroused  widespread  inter- 
est among  the  fire  fighters  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  By  the  end  of  1940  for  the  most  part,  spe- 
cific plans  for  fire  defense  of  American  cities  had 
not  been  crystallized.  The  indications  were  clear, 
however,  that  during  1941  a  considerable  move- 
ment to  organize  auxiliary  fire  forces  and  to  de- 
velop civilian  defense  plans  for  fire  emergencies 
would  be  undertaken.  New  York  made  an  elaborate 
survey  of  its  situation  and  of  its  facilities  from 
the  point  of  view  of  possible  fire  attack  by  air.  In 
Boston,  an  auxiliary  fire  service  was  initiated  and 
hundreds  of  civilian  volunteers  were  trained  in  the 
elements  of  fire  fighting.  In  the  various  Canadian 
cities,  comprehensive  plans  for  air-raid  defense,  in- 
cluding elaborate  fire-protection  procedures,  were 
developed  and  were  just  getting  under  way  at  the 
close  of  the  year. 

The  Federal  Bureau  of  Investigation  assumed 
responsibility  for  the  protection  of  industries  pro- 
ducing defense  supplies  from  sabotage  and  fire. 
Many  fire  organizations  throughout  the  country 
took  special  steps  to  investigate  conditions  in  es- 
sential industries  and  to  prepare  for  anticipated 
sabotage. 

Already  njany  steps  are  being  taken  by  a  wide 
variety  of  organizations  and  individuals  to  cope 
with  the  problems  of  fire  defense.  The  War  De- 
partment, Navy  Department,  FBI,  National  De- 
fense Advisory  Commission,  State  and  local  de- 
fense committees,  State  fire  marshals,  municipal 
fire  chiefs,  fire-insurance  boards  and  bureaus,  and 
safety  and  fire-protection  engineers  of  industry  are 
all  concerned  with  various  phases  of  this  problem. 
It  is  probable  that  in  1941  more  adequate  co-ordi- 
nation of  these  efforts  will  be  developed  so  that 
mistakes,  confusion,  and  overlapping  may  be  avoid- 
ed. The  whole  program  of  fire  defense,  as  it  de- 
velops, may  have  a  lasting  effect  toward  reduction 
of  loss  of  life  and  property  by  fire  under  war-time 
or  peace-time  conditions. 

The  great  strides  in  firemen's  training  which 
have  been  made  in  recent  years  continued  during 
1940.  Seven  States,  Alabama,  Florida,  Indiana,  Io- 
wa, Nebraska,  New  Hampshire,  and  Vermont,  of- 
fered firemen  definite  measured  courses  of  instruc- 
tion for  the  first  time.  This  brings  to  23  the 
number  of  States  where  comprehensive  training  is 
available.  Nearly  13,000  firemen  completed  one  or 
more  units  in  such  courses  during  the  year.  Annual 
short  courses  were  held  in  25  States  and  regional 
courses  in  11  States.  Field  instructors  gave  train- 
ing in  12  States.  It  is  estimated  that  80,000  firemen 
received  some  benefits  from  these  training  pro- 
grams during  the  year.  There  are  now  only  seven 
States  which  do  not  have  some  sort  of  State-wide 
training  program,  and  three  of  them  have  pro- 
grams to  be  initiated  during  the  coming  year. 

An  interesting  development  is  the  plan  adopted 
in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  for  a  board  of  strategy  for  the 
fire  department  under  the  supervision  of  the  Di- 
rector of  Public  Safety.  The  board  is  made  up  of 
the  fire-department  division  and  battalion  chiefs 
and  meets  regularly.  The  board  sponsors  a  con- 
test between  the  various  battalions  of  the  fire  de- 
partment creating  great  interest  in  fire-prevention 
work.  Cleveland  won  the  award  for  excellence  in 
Fire  Prevention  Week  activity,  competing  with 
over  1000  other  communities  in  the  contest  con- 


FISCAL  SERVICE 


269      FISH  AND  WILDLIFE  SERVICE 


ducted  by  the  National  Fire  Protection  Associa- 
tion. Cincinnati,  Ohio,  took  first  place  in  the  Inter- 
Chamber  Fire  Waste  Contest  conducted  by  the 
National  Fire  Waste  Council  for  excellence  in  all- 
around  fire-prevention  activity  during  the  previous 
year. 

The  most  significant  technical  developments  in 
the  field  of  fire  protection  during  1940  were  the 
publication  of  a  new  edition  of  the  National  Elec- 
trical Code,  perhaps  the  most  widely  adopted  tech- 
nical standard  in  the  country,  and  the  issuance  of 
completely  new  standards  for  the  installation  of 
automatic  sprinkler  systems.  Both  of  these  were 
developed  by  technical  committees  of  the  National 
Fire  Protection  Association. 

Few  legislative  items  are  gaining  such  wide- 
spread popularity  as  adequate  State-wide  control  of 
fireworks.  The  State  of  New  York  adopted  a  fire- 
works law  in  1940  prohibiting  the  promiscuous  dis- 
tribution of  fireworks  to  the  public,  thus  making  a 
total  of  nine  States  which  now  restrict  the  use  of 
fireworks  to  supervised  public  display.  Bills  of  this 
character  are  scheduled  for  introduction  in  the  leg- 
islatures of  many  States  during  the  coming  year. 

See  CIVILIAN  CONSERVATION  CORPS;  FORESTRY; 
GENERAL  LAND  OFFICE,  INSURANCE. 

CHARLES  S.  MORGAN. 

FISCAL  SERVICE.  The  Fiscal  Service  of 
the  Treasury  Department  was  created  by  the  Pres- 
ident's Reorganization  Plan  No.  Ill,  dated  Apr.  2, 
1940,  under  the  provisions  of  the  Reorganization 
Act  of  1939.  This  plan  was  made  effective  June  30, 
1940,  by  joint  resolution  approved  June  4,  1940. 
The  Fiscal  Service  consists  of  the  following  bu- 
reaus and  offices. 

Office  of  the  Fiscal  Assistant  Secretary. 
The  Fiscal  Assistant  Secretary  is  a  permanent  ca- 
reer officer  and  shall  be  appointed  by  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  in  accordance  with  the  Civil  Serv- 
ice laws.  The  Fiscal  Assistant  Secretary,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Secretary,  performs  all  functions 
pertaining  to  (1)  the  administration  of  financing 
operations ,  (2)  the  supervision  of  the  administra- 
tion of  the  functions  and  activities  of  the  units 
grouped  under  the  Fiscal  Service;  (3)  supervision 
of  the  administration  of  accounting  functions  and 
activities  in  the  Treasury  Department  and  all  its 
bureaus  and  offices,  through  the  Commissioner  of 
Accounts. 

The  Bureau  of  Accounts.  The  Bureau  of  Ac- 
counts consists  of  the  Office  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Accounts,  the  Division  of  Bookkeeping  and 
Warrants,  the  Division  of  Disbursement,  the  Di- 
vision of  Deposits,  the  Section  of  Surety  Bonds, 
the  Section  of  Investments,  and  the  Emergency 
Relief  Accounting  Organization. 

Government  Reorganization  Plan  No.  Ill  trans- 
ferred to  the  Fiscal  Assistant  Secretary,  to  be  ex- 
ercised under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  and  through  the  Commissioner  of  Ac- 
counts, all  functions  vested  in  the  Under  Secretary 
and  any  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  per- 
taining to  supervision  of  the  administration  of  the 
accounting  functions  and  activities  in  the  Treasury 
Department  and  in  all  its  bureaus,  divisions,  and 
offices,  and  all  functions  vested  in  any  other  officer 
or  employee  of  the  Treasury  Department  (except 
the  Coast  Guard)  of  authorizing  the  installation, 
maintenance,  revision,  and  elimination  of  account- 
ing records,  reports,  and  procedure. 

The  Bureau  of  the  Public  Debt.  The  Bureau 
of  the  Public  Debt,  under  the  Commissioner  of  the 


Public  Debt,  is  charged  with  the  conduct  of  trans- 
actions in  public  debt  and  paper  currency  issues  of 
the  United  States.  It  also  is  charged  with  the  pro- 
curement of  distinctive  paper  required  for  printing 
currency  and  public  debt  securities  of  the  United 
States.  The  Bureau  also  conducts  transactions  in 
the  interest-bearing  issues  of  the  Philippine  and 
Puerto  Rican  Governments,  for  which  the  Treas- 
ury Department  acts  as  agent,  and  of  the  Home 
Owners1  Loan  Corporation,  the  Federal  Farm 
Mortgage  Corporation,  the  Federal  Housing  Ad- 
ministration, the  Reconstruction  Finance  Corpora- 
tion, the  Commodity  Credit  Corporation,  the  unit- 
ed States  Housing  Authority;  and  in  the  consoli- 
dated issues  of  the  Federal  farm-loan  banks.  The 
Buieau  organization  consists  of  the  Office  of  the 
Commissioner,  the  Division  of  Loans  and  Curren- 
cy, the  Office  of  the  Register  of  the  Treasury,  the 
Division  of  Public  Debt  Accounts  and  Audit,  the 
Division  of  Savings  Bonds,  and  the  Division  of 
Paper  Custody. 

Office  of  the  Treasurer  of  the  United 
States.  The  Treasurer  of  the  United  States  is 
charged  with  the  receipt  and  disbursement  of  pub- 
lic moneys  that  may  be  deposited  m  the  Treasury 
at  Washington  and  in  the  other  depositaries  au- 
thorized by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  re- 
ceive deposits  of  Government  funds  for  credit  in 
the  account  of  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States. 
There  are  in  the  Office  of  the  Treasurer  six  divi- 
sions: Accounting  Division,  Cash  Division,  Cur- 
rency Redemption  Division,  Division  of  Chief 
Clerk,  Division  of  General  Accounts,  and  Division 
of  Securities. 

D.  W.  BELL. 

FISH  AND  FISHERIES.  See  ALASKA; 
FISH  AND  WILDLIFE  SERVICE;  ZOOLOGY. 

FISH  AND  WILDLIFE  SERVICE.  The 
Federal  Government's  work  in  1940  in  connection 
with  the  country's  resource  of  wild  creatures  was 
distinguished  largely  by  improvements  in  organiza- 
tion and  by  attention  to  the  relationship  of  wild- 
life conservation  to  the  needs  of  national  defense. 
Most  of  the  year's  activities  were  a  continuation 
of  programs  already  under  way 

A  year  of  organizational  changes  began  on  July 
1,  1939,  with  the  transfer  of  the  Bureau  of  Bio- 
logical Survey  and  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries  to  the 
Department  of  the  Interior,  from  the  Departments 
of  Agriculture  and  Commerce,  respectively.  Later 
the  wildlife  division  of  the  National  Park  Service 
was  transferred  to  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Sur- 
vey, and  the  field  work  of  that  Bureau  was  reor- 
ganized into  five  regions,  with  headquarters  at 
Portland,  Ore. ;  Albuquerque,  N.M. ;  Minneapolis, 
Minn. ;  Atlanta,  Ga. ;  and  Boston,  Mass.  On  June 
30,  1940,  the  Biological  Survey  and  the  Bureau  of 
Fisheries  were  consolidated  to  form  the  Fish  and 
Wildlife  Service.  Under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Ira 
N.  Gabrielson,  former  Chief  of  the  Biological  Sur- 
vey, the  new  Service  carries  on  its  work  through 
13  divisions,  as  follows :  Administration,  Wildlife 
Research,  Fishery  Biology,  Fishery  Industries,  Fed- 
eral Aid  in  Wildlife  Restoration,  Land  Acquisition, 
Wildlife  Refuges,  Construction  and  Civilian  Con- 
servation Corps  Operations,  Fish  Culture,  Game 
Management,  Alaska  Fisheries,  Predator  and  Ro- 
dent Control,  and  Public  Relations.  W.  C.  Hender- 
son, formerly  Associate  Chief  of  the  Biological 
Survey,  and  Charles  E.  Jackson,  last  Deputy  and 
Acting  Commissioner  of  Fisheries,  are  Assistant 
Directors. 


PISH  AND  WILDLIFE  SERVICE      270 


FLOOD  CONTROL 


Wildlife  conservation  which  helps  to  make  a 
"country  worth  living  in"  plays  an  important  part 


op  individual  and  national  morale.  More  tangible 
emergency  contributions  have  also  been  pointed 
out  The  value  of  the  food  resources  in  fishes,  for 
example,  has  been  emphasized  in  many  ways,  in- 
cluding the  recent  establishment  of  radio  outlets 
in  Boston,  Chicago,  Jacksonville,  and  New  Orleans 
for  the  daily  broadcast  of  market  news  reports  to 
encourage  the  economic  and  profitable  use  of  fishes 
as  food.  Fisheries  personnel  and  material  have 
been  of  assistance  to  the  Navy,  and  the  fishing 
fleet  is  regarded  as  a  valuable  reserve.  The  Service 
is  prepared  to  meet  emergency  needs  for  control- 
ling the  numbers  of  birds  and  mammals  that  de- 
stroy crops  and  livestock  and  to  co-operate  in  other 
ways  in  the  defense  program.  The  importance  of 
maintaining  conservation  policies  during  the  stress 
of  emergencies,  as  well  as  at  other  times,  and 
avoiding  unwise  exploitation  has  been  emphasized. 

Six  new  laboratories  for  fishery  research  were 
established,  bringing  the  total  to  eleven,  including 
a  new  floating  laboratory  for  studies  on  the  fish- 
eries grounds.  Research  on  birds  and  mammals 
continued  in  the  field  and  in  laboratories,  including 
two  new  ones  at  the  Patuxent  Research  Refuge, 
in  Maryland. 

Statistics  compiled  indicated  that  in  1938,  the 
latest  year  for  which  complete  data  are  available, 
the  landings  of  United  States  fishing  craft  totaled 
more  than  4,250,000,000  Ib.  The  wholesale  value  of 
fishery  products  exceeded  $251,000,000  About  250,- 
000  persons  were  employed  in  capturing,  process- 
ing, and  wholesaling  the  catch  Estimates  compiled 
indicated  that  the  big  game  population  of  the  United 
States  in  1939  was  more  than  5,800,000  The  an- 
nual waterfowl  inventory  in  January,  1940,  resulted 
in  an  estimate  of  more  than  65  million  ducks  and 
geese,  representing  the  fifth  consecutive  annual  in- 
crease as  a  result  of  the  restoration  program.  Com- 
pilations of  State  reports  indicated  that  in  the  1938- 
39  seasons  more  than  7,858,275  persons  paid  a 
total  of  $10,837,168  for  fishing  licenses  and  more 
than  ?y*  million  paid  a  total  of  $12,600,000  for 
hunting  licenses.  Sales  of  the  Federal  stamp  re- 
quired of  all  over  16  who  hunt  migratory  water- 
fowl continued  to  increase,  a  total  of  1,111,561 
stamps  having  been  sold  in  the  1939-40  year. 

The  Federal  wildlife  refuge  system  increased  to 
a  total  of  263  refuges,  with  an  acreage  of  13,595,- 
812.  Output  of  fish  and  eggs  at  the  110  Federal 
hatcheries  during  the  year  ended  June  30,  1940,  ap- 
proximated 7,400,000,000,  a  drop  from  the  previous 
year's  8,042,000,000  attributed  mainly  to  curtail- 
ment of  cod,  haddock,  and  flounder  production ;  24 
out  of  the  45  species  handled  were  distributed  in 
increased  numbers. 

Regulations  governing  migratory-bird  hunting 
in  1940  provided  a  60-day  hunting  season  in  each 
of  3  zones,  an  increase  over  the  previous  45-day 
season,  but  shortened  seasons  on  woodcocks  and 
reduced  bag  limits  on  geese,  mourning  doves,  and 
white-winged  doves. 

The  program  for  aiding  the  States  in  wildlife 
restoration  became  more  extensive  and  more  effec- 
tive. In  all,  237  projects  were  begun  by  the  States 
with  Federal  aid  during  the  year  ended  June  30, 
involving  $2,082,735,  a  great  increase  over  the  pre- 
ceding year,  first  under  the  program,  when  58 
projects  were  begun  at  a  cost  of  $343,932.  An  in- 
creased Federal  appropriation  of  $2,300,000  be- 
came available  on  July  1  for  this  program,  which 


provides  for  Federal  payment  of  75  per  cent  of  the 
cost  of  projects  carried  on  by  the  States  with  Fed- 
eral approval 

Publication!  (1940):  Wildlife  Research  Bulletin  1, 
Food  Habttt  of  a  Croup  of  Shorebirds:  Woodcock,  Snip*, 
Knot,  and  Dowitcher;  Technical  Bulletin  711,  Economic 
Status  of  the  English  Sparrow  m  the  United  States:  In- 
vestigational  Report  34,  Home  Canning  of  Fishery  Prod- 
ucts, Bulletin!  31  and  32,  Natural  History  and  Method 
of  Controlling  the  Starfish,  and  The  History  and  Develop- 
ment  of  the  fisheries  of  the  Columbia  River;  Miscellane- 
ous Publication  355,  Hart  Mountain  Antelope  Refuge; 
Conservation  Bulletin  1,  Attracting  Birds\  and  The  Birds 
of  Oregon,  published  by  the  Oregon  State  College,  as  a 
co-operative  project. 

IRA  N.  GABRIELSON. 

FISHERIES,  Bureau  of.  Formerly  bureau  of 
the  U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior,  consolidated 
with  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey  on  June  30, 
1940.  to  form  the  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service  (q.v.). 

FLANDERS,  Battle  of.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR 
under  The  Battle  of  Flanders. 

FLAX.  Flaxseed  production  in  the  United 
States  in  1940  was  estimated  by  the  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  to  total  31,127,000  bu.  from 
3,228,000  acres  as  compared  with  20,152,000  bu. 
from  2,250,000  acres  in  1939  and  almost  three 
times  as  large  as  the  1929-38  average  production 
of  10,846,000  bu.  Increased  production  in  1940  was 
attributed  to  a  greatly  expanded  acreage  in  re- 
sponse to  AAA  regulations  favoring  flax  produc- 
tion and  favorable  prices  for  the  1938  and  1939 
crops,  and  above  average  acre  yields,  9.6  bu.  versus 
9.0  in  1939.  Leading  flax  States  were  •  Minnesota 
with  16,695,000  bu.,  North  Dakota  3,888,000,  Cali- 
fornia 2,814,000,  Iowa  2,520,000,  and  South  Da- 
kota 1,904,000  bu.  Flaxseed  made  a  large  yield  on 
an  increased  acreage  in  the  main  producing  states 
and  production  was  increased  in  the  new  winter 
flax  areas  in  the  Southwest.  The  season  average 
price  per  bu.  (preliminary)  received  by  farmers 
was  $1.341  and  the  value  of  production  was  esti- 
mated at  $41,746,000  in  1940  compared  to  $1.463 
and  $29,492,000  in  1939. 

The  1940-41  crop  of  flaxseed  in  other  countries 
reporting  was  for  Canada  3,189,000  bu.,  Lithuania 
1,294,000,  India  18,680,000,  and  Hungary  266,000 
bu. ;  and  the  1939-40  crop  of  Argentina  was  39,- 
935,000  bu.  and  of  Uruguay  4,693,000  bu.  Flax  fiber 
production  reported  in  1940  was  in  Hungary  7,180,- 
000  Ib.,  Rumania  12,163,000,  Estonia  17,527,000, 
Lithuania  63,709,000,  and  Egypt  8,419,000  Ib.  The 
1939  crop  of  Belgium  was  estimated  at  130,053,000 
Ib.  and  of  U.S.S.R.  1,388,917,000  Ib. 

FLOOD  CONTROL.  Works  for  flood  con- 
trol and  the  regulation  and  utilization  of  flood 
waters,  together  with  the  protection  of  land  and 
property  from  damage  and  destruction  by  flood 
overflows,  are  in  progress  in  nearly  every  part  of 
the  United  States,  even  in  semi-arid  areas.  Such 
works  become  of  increasing  necessity  and  impor- 
tance with  the  development  of  the  country  and  the 
phenomenon  of  increase  in  flood  heights  and  flood 
volumes.  Many  projects  of  this  kind,  however,  will 
be  affected  adversely  by  the  momentous  decision 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  in  December,  giving  to  the 
Federal  government  authority  over  practically  all 
streams,  instead  of  only  over  navigable  streams. 
The  tendency  will  be  to  leave  such  work  to  be 
planned  by  and  paid  for  by  the  Federal  govern- 
ment, with  consequent  delays.  (See  also  ELECTRIC 
LIGHT  AND  POWER,  under  Government;  SUPREME 
COURT.) 

Dams  form  reservoirs  to  detain  or  store  flood 


FLOOD  CONTROL 


271 


FLOODS 


waters  that  would  otherwise  pursue  a  devastating 
course.  Levees-  confine  flood  flows  within  restricted 
channels  and  protect  vast  areas  of  adjacent  low 
lands.  Short  cuts  across  long  serpentine  bends  in 
the  streams  hasten  the  passage  of  flood  waters. 
Few  dams  are  for  flood  control  exclusively,  the 
stored  water  being  utilized  for  power  or  irrigation, 
or  discharged  under  regulation  in  order  to  main- 
tain a  uniform  minimum  flow  in  the  stream.  How- 
ever, such  dual  use  presents  a  problem  in  that  such 
a  reservoir  should  have  ample  capacity  to  receive 
and  hold  a  sudden  heavy  flood  flow,  while  for 
power  purposes  it  needs  to  have  a  constant  and 
uniform  supply  and  discharge.  A  bill  appropriating 
$191,000,000  for  flood  control  works  passed  the 
House  of  Representatives  in  May. 

One  of  the  greatest  problems  in  flood  control 
is  the  control  of  the  Mississippi  River,  which  in- 
volves reservoirs  at  the  headwaters  and  along  the 
courses  of  the  main  river  and  its  tributaries  as 
well  as  levees  to  confine  the  flood  to  definite  chan- 
nels through  low-lying  lands.  An  item  in  this  work, 
to  be  begun  in  1941,  is  the  $25,000,000  Norfork 
dam  in  Arkansas,  on  a  tributary  of  the  White 
River. 

The  great  Shasta  dam,  now  being  built  on  the 
Sacramento  River,  has  its  main  purpose  in  flood 
protection  for  the  lower  part  of  the  valley.  The 
greatest  flood  on  record  for  this  river  occurred  in 
February,  1940,  causing  property  loss  estimated  at 
$10,000,000,  which  included  the  wrecking  of  the 
contractor's  construction  plant  on  the  unfinished 
dam  A  series  of  four  dams  on  the  Colorado  River 
will  provide  much-needed  protection  for  a  stretch 
of  300  miles  above  its  mouth.  The  reservoirs  thus 
formed  will  serve  for  irrigation,  power  develop- 
ment and  regulation  of  the  flow  in  the  river  chan- 
nel Three  of  the  dams  (Buchanan,  Inks,  and 
Austin)  are  completed,  and  the  Marshall  Ford 
dam  is  under  construction.  Flood  control  along  the 
Tennessee  River  and  its  tributaries  is  one  of  the 
many  purposes  of  the  Tennessee  Valley  Authority. 

On  the  Ohio  River,  a  series  of  locks  and  dams 
regulates  the  flow  and  maintains  a  uniform  level, 
but  many  cities  along  the  river  need  to  provide 
protection  for  low-lying  areas.  At  Cincinnati,  a 
court  decision  has  removed  opposition  to  the  issue 
of  bonds  for  such  protection  for  the  Mill  Creek 
industrial  district  At  Louisville,  Ky.,  a  bond  issue 
has  been  authorized  for  a  flood  wall  along  the 
river  front,  but  nothing  can  be  done  until  the  Fed- 
eral government  makes  money  available  for  its 
share  of  the  work.  In  view  of  the  present  activities 
for  "defense"  projects,  Federal  funds  normally 
available  for  such  projects  have  been  withdrawn, 
so  that  many  such  projects  are  halted  indefinitely. 

The  city  of  Huntington,  W.Va.,  has  a  flood  pro- 
tection wall  and  levees  along  the  Ohio,  and  when 
the  Ohio  rose  6%  ft.  above  previous  flood  levels  in 
April,  1940,  the  normal  openings  for  traffic  were 
closed  by  gates.  Extensive  flood  works  in  the  city 
and  along  the  rivers  has  been  needed  at  Pittsburgh, 
Pa.,  and  as  part  of  these  works  the  State  Water 
Power  and  Resources  Board  has  approved  the  con- 
struction of  a  $23,000,000  dam  on  the  Conemaugh 
River,  near  Salzburg,  about  30  miles  above  Pitts- 
burgh. An  unusual  stipulation  is  that  the  stored 
water  must  not  be  used  for  power  purposes.  Thus 
the  dam  will  be  of  the  retention  type,  normally 
empty,  and  having  openings  allowing  a  restricted 
flow  of  the  flood  water.  Of  ten  dams  proposed  to 
reduce  flood  flows  in  the  Ohio  and  thus  protect 
Pittsburgh,  and  to  be  built  by  the  Federal  govern- 


ment, the  sixth  is  to  be  started  in  1941  on  the 
Youghioghcny  River,  at  Confluence,  Pa. 

A  $30,000,000  flood-control  project  for  Harris 
County,  Texas,  and  the  city  of  Houston,  approved 
in  1940,  includes  a  dam  and  retention  reservoir  on 
Buffalo  Bayou,  15  miles  west  of  the  city,  and 
canals  around  both  sides  of  the  city  to  take  care 
of  possible  excessive  flood  flows.  At  the  opposite 
side  of  the  country  is  Hartford,  Conn.,  whose  pro- 
tection against  such  a  flood  as  that  of  1936  in  the 
Connecticut  River  is  being  completed  by  the  U.S. 
Engineers  in  the  form  of  long  levees. 

One  curious  phase  of  flood-protection  projects 
is  that  of  towns  removed  from  their  original  sites 
in  order  to  escape  from  recurring  floods.  This  is 
practicable  only  for  small  communities.  Probably 
the  largest  is  Shawneetown,  111.,  on  the  Ohio  River, 
which  had  a  population  of  2000,  while  the  new 
town,  on  high  ground  three  miles  distant,  is  laid 
out  for  about  2500.  River-front  levees,  periodically 
raised  or  rebuilt,  were  periodically  overtopped  or 
breached  as  successive  floods  rose  to  higher  levels. 
Besides  new  dwellings  and  other  facilities,  a  new 
water  supply  system  and  sewerage  system,  with 
treatment  plants,  had  to  be  provided  Three  small 
towns  which  have  removed  from  sites  subject  to 
periodical  flooding  are  Leavenworth,  Ind.  (450 
population) ;  Hill,  N.H.  (400)  ;  and  Greenville,  Mo. 

See  COAST  GUARD,  U.S.;  CONNECTICUT  under 
History;   ENGINEERS,   CORPS  OF;   FLOODS;   SOIL 
CONSERVATION  SERVICE;  WATERWAYS,  INLAND. 
E.  E.  RUSSELL  TRATMAN. 

FLOODS.  In  general  the  floods  which  occur 
when  natural  streams  of  inland  regions  overflow 
their  banks  may  be  grouped  into  two  classes.  One 
is  the  local  type  over  the  land  bordering  a  small 
stream;  if  the  small  stream  flows  through  land 
which  is  not  densely  populated  little  damage  is 
done  but  if  the  land  is  thickly  settled  great  damage 
may  be  caused  by  a  local  flood.  The  other  is  the 
flood  over  land  bordering  a  large  stream.  Both 
classes  of  floods  arc  caused  by  heavy  rains  (oc- 
casionally supplemented  by  melting  snow).  While 
there  is  no  sharp  line  of  demarcation  between  the 
two  types  of  floods,  it  may  be  said  that :  ( 1 )  the 
average  intensity  of  the  rainfall  over  the  drainage 
area  which  causes  a  local  flood  must  be  consider- 
ably greater  than  that  causing  a  flood  in  a  large 
stream  before  much  outside  public  interest  is  at* 
tracted  to  the  local  flood ;  (2)  local  floods  are  of 
short  duration  while  floods  in  large  streams  may 
last  weeks  or  months;  (3)  in  the  present  state  of 
meteorological  and  hydrological  sciences  it  is  im- 
possible to  predict  the  occurrence  of  local  floods, 
while  floods  in  large  streams  can  usually  be  ac- 
curately predicted  and  most  governments  maintain 
services  for  this  purpose.  A  seacoast  sometimes 
experiences  a  flood  of  a  third  class;  such  floods 
are  not  due  to  rains  but  result  from  the  so-called 
tidal  waves  caused  by  earthquakes  or  terrific 
windstorms. 

There  were  several  noteworthy  floods  in  the 
United  States  during  the  year  as  well  as  about  the 
usual  number  of  minor  floods. 

There  was  a  flood  in  the  Sacramento  river  valley 
late  In  February  which  exceeded  the  flood  in  that 
valley  of  December,  1937,  and  in  many  respects 
surpassed  any  flood  there  since  systematic  records 
of  floods  have  been  kept.  From  Kennett,  Calif.,  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Feather  River  new  high  water 
marks  were  established.  The  magnitude  of  this 
flood  was  by  far  the  greatest  of  record  in  the  upper 


FLOODS 


272 


FLORIDA 


part  of  the  basin.  However,  farther  down  the 
river,  where  the  flood-control  system  with  its  by- 
passes and  levee  construction  work  has  been  con- 
stantly changing  the  natural  conditions  and  present 
river  gage  heights  are  not  comparable  with  those 
of  earlier  years  and  consequently  are  not  a  true 
index  of  the  volume  of  water  that  is  being  dis- 
charged by  the  river.  Before  there  was  any  flood 
control  system  in  operation  in  the  Sacramento  Val- 
ley the  overflow  waters  drained  into  natural  reach- 
es of  unreclaimed  lowlands  on  each  side  of  the 
river.  Under  present  conditions  where  the  water  is 
confined  to  leveed  channels,  not  only  are  gage 
heights  proportionately  higher  for  the  same  vol- 
ume of  water  but  failures  in  levees  are  more  dis- 
astrous because  the  reclaimed  lands  are  affected. 
The  extraordinary  vigilance  that  was  maintained 
by  supervising  engineers  and  reclamation  officials 
throughout  the  valley  both  in  safeguarding  levees 
that  were  severely  strained  and  in  repairing  hun- 
dreds of  minor  breaks  was  instrumental  in  pre- 
venting wholesale  disaster  in  many  areas.  For  ex- 
ample, the  Sutler  Basin  with  a  60-mile  levee  sys- 
tem was  saved  only  by  desperate  efforts.  Neverthe- 
less the  overflow  due  to  the  high  water  was  ex- 
tensive. The  total  acreage  of  agricultural  lands 
flooded  was  slightly  more  than  half  a  million.  The 
total  flood  damage  was  nearly  $7,000,000. 

There  were  extensive  floods  in  the  Ohio  River 
and  Valley  in  May  but  the  flood  waters  did  not 
reach  especially  high  levels  and  hence  these  floods 
were  not  noteworthy. 

On  June  4  and  5  excessively  heavy  rains  in 
northeast  Nebraska  caused  disastrous  local  floods 
in  small  streams  in  that  section  of  the  State  The 
greatest  damage  was  in  the  towns  of  Homer, 
Fender,  and  Winnebago;  the  area  in  which  the 
heavy  rain  occurred  is  hilly  so  that  the  run-off  was 
rapid,  and  it  was  sufficiently  large  to  cause  flood 
conditions  in  some  of  the  larger  streams  such  as 
Logan  Creek  and  Elkhorn  River  Five  persons 
were  drowned  and  the  property  damage  was  near- 
ly $2,000,000. 

There  was  a  damaging  flood  in  the  Tombigbee 
River  system  in  July.  Rains  were  heavy  over  the 
Black  Warrior  and  Tombigbee  basins  on  July  2 
and  3  causing  sharp  rises  on  the  latter  of  these 
days.  Heavy  showers  occurred  over  the  upper  parts 
of  both  drainage  areas  every  day  except  one  from 
the  third  to  the  fifteenth ;  the  Black  Warrior  at 
Tuscaloosa,  Ala.,  had  three  flood  crests  and  the 
upper  Tombigbee  had  two  flood  crests  during  this 
period  In  the  lower  portion  of  the  Tombigbee 
River  the  flood  continued  until  August  1.  This 
flood  caused  over  $4,000,000  worth  of  damage  most 
of  which  was  to  prospective  crops 

In  August  there  were  severe  floods  in  the  rivers 
of  North  Carolina  and  in  portions  of  Virginia, 
South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Tennessee.  These 
floods  resulted  from  excessive  precipitation  ac- 
companying the  passage  of  a  tropical  Hurricane 
(q.v.)  near  Savannah,  Ga.,  on  August  11.  This 
Hurricane  moved  slowly  westward  to  the  Southern 
Appalachian  Mountain  region ;  it  gradually  turned 
clockwise  and  on  the  thirteenth  it  was  moving 
northward  and  on  the  next  day  eastward,  finally 
ft  pasted  out  to  sea  again  on  August  17.  All  the 
rivers  op  the  Atlantic  Slope  from  the  James  River 
in  Virginia  to  the  Altamaha  River  in  Georgia  had 
floods  as' well  as  the  New,  French  Broad,  and  Hol- 
ston  Rivers  of  the  Ohio  Valley.  Previous  high 
stages  of  record  were  exceeded  at  a  number  of 
places ;  at  Weldon,  N.C.,  on  the  Roanoke  River  a 


stage  of  58  feet  was  reached  on  August  18,  ex- 
ceeding the  crest  stage  at  that  place  during  the 
great  flood  of  1877  by  nearly  5  feet  See  DISAS- 
TER LOAN  CORPORATION  ;  FLOOD  CONTROL. 

RICHMOND  T.  ZOCH. 

FLORIDA.  Area,  58,666  sauare  miles,  includ- 
ing (1930)  3805  square  miles  of  water.  Population, 
Apr.  1,  1940  (census),  1,897,414  (1,045,791  urban 
and  851,623  rural) ;  1930,  1,468,211.  The  figure  for 
1940  came  within  40,000  of  doubling  that  of  1920 
(968,470).  Chief  cities  (1940) :  Jacksonville,  173,- 
065;  Miami,  172,172;  Tampa,  108,391 ;  Tallahassee 
(State  capital),  16,240. 

Agriculture.  Florida  harvested,  in  1940,  1,620,- 
000  acres  of  the  principal  field  crops;  another 
great  part  of  the  agricultural  return  came  from  the 
orchards.  The  year's  indicated  crop  of  oranges,  29,- 
800,000  boxes,  was  expected  to  bring  the  growers 
$24,034,000;  that  of  grapefruit,  21,000,000  boxes, 
$11,994,000.  Of  the  field  crops,  corn,  on  821,- 
000  acres,  made  9,031,000  bu.  (approximate  value, 
$5,870,000)  ;  potatoes,  on  28,000  acres,  4,312,000  bu. 
($4,010,000) ;  tobacco— mainly  for  cigars,  16,700 
acres,  16,123,000  Ib.  ($4,536,000)  ;  sugar  cane,  30,- 
400  acres,  1,216,000  tons  ($3,283,000),  much  ex- 
ceeded the  average  of  previous  years ;  sweet  pota- 
toes, 18,000  acres,  yielded  1,080,000  bu  ($1,026,- 
000).  The  great  production  of  truck  crops  brought, 
for  1940,  an  estimated  $31,165,000. 

Mineral  Production.  Phosphate  rock  fur- 
nished about  two-thirds  of  Florida's  total  value  of 
mineral  production  for  1938,  which  attained  $12,- 
866,981  (Bureau  of  Mines'  estimate  published  in 
1940).  Producers'  sales  of  phosphate  rock  fell  to 
2,678,784  long  tons  for  1939,  from  2,707,335  for 
1938 ;  in  value,  more  sharply,  to  $7,893,457,  from 
$8,773,680.  The  Federal  Department  of  the  Interior 
suspended,  in  1939,  sales  of  public  lands  in  the 
State  prior  to  the  outcome  of  an  investigation,  then 
started,  to  find  whether  land  in  addition  to  the  ac- 
tual 66,000  acres  should  be  put  into  the  Federal 
Phosphate  Reserve.  An  estimate  of  the  geologist 
George  R.  Mansfield,  published  in  1940,  put  total 
reserves  of  phosphate  rock  in  Florida  above  5  bil- 
lion tons:  of  this,  over  2  billions  known,  1*4  prob- 
able, and  1%  possible. 

Education.  Florida's  inhabitants  of  school  age 
(from  6  years  to  20)  were  reckoned  at  468,755. 
For  the  academic  year  1939-40,  enrollments  of  pu- 
pils in  public  schools  numbered  397,900  this  com- 
prised 912  in  kindergarten,  249,354  in  elementary 
studies  through  sixth  grade,  and  147,634  in  the  six 
higher  grades.  The  year's  current  expenditure  for 
public-school  education  amounted  to  $18,910,624. 
The  13,629  teachers'  and  principals'  salaries,  taken 
together,  averaged  $1009.14  for  the  year. 

History.  A  severe  and  persistent  cold  spell, 
which  afflicted  the  southern  States  from  Louisiana 
to  Virginia  in  the  latter  part  of  January,  did  much 
of  its  worst  damage  to  crops  in  Florida.  Freezing 
temperatures  recurred  every  night  in  the  greater 
part  of  the  State,  from  January  19  to  January  28; 
the  lows  ranged  from  42  at  Key  West  to  10  at 
Deland,  and  24  was  reported  near  Miami.  The  chief 
damage  befell  vegetables  growing  in  Broward  and 
Dade  counties,  where  losses  apparently  ran  to  some 
$15,000,000.  Damage  to  oranges  and  grapefruit, 
while  reported  extensive,  was  limited  by  smudging. 

The  U.S.  Supreme  Court  set  aside  (February 
12)  the  conviction  of  four  Negroes  found  guilty  in 
a  Florida  court  and  sentenced  to  death  for  the 
murder  of  a  white  merchant  in  1933 ;  the  decision 


FLORIDA 


273 


FOOD  AND  DRUG  ADM. 


held  that  confession  had  been  extorted  from  the 
accused  after  a  week  of  questioning  attended  with 
brutality,  and  that  they  had  thus  been  deprived  of 
the  Constitutional  guarantee  of  due  process  of  law 
and  of  guarantees  in  the  Fourteenth  Amendment. 

Some  of  the  cities  of  the  State  reportedly 
showed  symptoms  of  the  tendency  toward  corrupt 
or  weak  government  familiar  among  communities 
of  rapid  growth.  The  Federal  Bureau  of  Investiga- 
tion worked  with  the  State's  Attorney  General  to 
break  up  gambling  enterprises  against  which  re- 
formers, notably  in  Miami  and  Orlando,  had  ex- 
erted themselves  in  vain ;  gambling-houses,  chiefly 
running  lottery-like  games  known  as  cuba  and 
bolito,  were  closed  by  use  of  injunction. 

The  disturbance  of  foreign  trade  by  war  abroad, 
rendering  the  nation's  importation  of  rubber  un- 
certain, renewed  interest  in  experiments  toward 
growing  rubber  in  Florida.  One  of  these,  a  rubber 
plantation  at  Miami,  maintained  by  the  Federal 
Government,  had  spent,  according  to  the  Dallas 
News,  over  $1,000,000,  through  a  number  of  years, 
and  was  successfully  growing  more  than  2000  rub- 
ber trees  introduced  about  17  years  before,  after 
the  rubber  corner  of  1922  Heels  of  rubber  from 
this  plantation  were  being  tested  in  Washington. 
The  trees  had  apparently  not  suffered  severely 
from  cold  spells,  but  the  problem  how  to  raise  rub- 
ber in  competition  with  the  cheaply  produced  East 
Indian  article  had  still  to  he  solved.  In  the  Ever- 
glades, the  scanty  remnant  of  the  Seminole  tribe 
that  had  never  formally  submitted  to  the  authority 
of  the  United  States  were  visited  by  Federal  agents 
in  October  and  persuaded  to  register  for  the  mili- 
tary draft.  See  ROADS  AND  STREETS. 

Elections.  Florida's  elections  of  State  candi- 
dates were  virtually  settled,  in  the  absence  of  any 
formidable  Republican  vote,  at  the  Democratic  pri- 
maries in  May.  U.S.  Senator  Charles  O.  Andrews 
was  chosen  to  retain  his  office  for  six  years  more, 
but  it  required  a  run-off  primary  to  assure  his  re- 
nomination.  Spessard  L.  Holland,  nominated  by  the 
Democratic  vote  for  Governor,  was  elected  unop- 
posed in  November.  Both  Andrews  and  Holland 
prevailed  in  the  primaries  over  opponents  put  up 
by  the  Townsend  old-age-pension  organization. 

At  the  general  election  (November  5)  the  State 
cast  a  popular  vote  for  Roosevelt  (Dem.)  as  Presi- 
dent, and  against  Willkie  (Rep.)  by  about  3  to  1 
and  formally  elected  the  State's  Democratic  nomi- 
nees, as  named  above.  Presidential  vote:  Dem., 
360,407;  Rep.,  126,412.  Except  one  railroad-com- 
mission seat,  unopposed  Democrats  won  all  State 
offices. 

The  voters  dealt  on  November  5  with  six  pro- 
posed amendments  to  the  State  constitution  •  they 
gave  ^majorities  in  favor  of  five—to  forbid  the 
State's  taxing  property,  save  intangible,  ad  valo- 
rem ;  to  let  the  Legislature  create  a  system  of  pa- 
role ;  to  allow  any  excess  over  the  expected  collec- 
tion of  the  State's  levy  on  pari-mutuels  to  go  to 
the  counties ;  to  add  a  seventh  member  to  the  State 
Supreme  Court ;  and  to  exempt  $500  of  every  wid- 
ow's property  from  taxation ;  an  amendment  to  let 
the  Legislature  create  a  system  of  electing  county 
commissioners  according  to  districts  was  defeated. 

Officers.  Florida's  chief  officers,  serving  in  1940, 
were:  Governor,  Fred  P.  Cone  (Dem.)  ;  Secretary 
of  State,  R.  A  Gray;  Attorney  General,  George 
Couper  Gibbs;  Comptroller,  J.  M.  Lee;  Treasurer, 
W.  V.  Knott ;  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Na- 
than Mayo;  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
Colin  English. 


FLOWERS.  See  HORTICULTURE;  BOTANY. 

FLUID  COUPLING.  See  AUTOMOBILES. 

FLUORESCENT  LAMPS.  See  ELECTRICAL 
ILLUMINATION. 

FLUSHING  MEADOW  PARK.  See  FAIRS, 
EXPOSITIONS,  AND  CELEBRATIONS. 

FM  BROADCASTING.  See  under  FRE- 
QUENCY MODULATION. 

FOOD  AND  DRUG  ADMINISTRA- 
TION. Most  of  the  legal  actions  taken  by  the 
Food  and  Drug  Administration  during  the  fiscal 
year  1939-40  were  for  violations  of  the  Food, 
Drug,  and  Cosmetic  Act  of  1938,  though  this  new 
consumer  statute  did  not  completely  supersede 
the  pioneer  pure-food  law  of  1906  until  July  1, 
1940. 

Enforcement  of  the  new  measure  brought  Fed- 
eral regulation  in  several  new  fields,  notably  cos- 
metics, therapeutic  devices,  and  containers.  Nu- 
merous seizures  of  harmful  beauty  preparations  in 
1938-39  together  with  continuous  surveillance  of 
the  industry  quickly  forced  the  few  manufactur- 
ers who  made  such  products  to  eliminate  poten- 
tially dangerous  ingredients  from  their  formulas 
with  the  result  that  only  one  seizure  of  a  danger- 
ous cosmetic  was  necessary  in  1940  It  involved 
an  eyelash  and  brow  dye  containing  a  poisonous 
coal-tar  color. 

On  the  other  hand,  more  than  2,000,000  Ib.  of 
coal-tar  colors  were  certified  by  the  Administra- 
tion as  harmless  and  suitable  for  use  in  foods, 
drugs,  and  cosmetics. 

Thirty-four  shipments  of  devices  bearing  false 
and  misleading  curative  claims  were  seized  during 
the  year.  Most  of  them  were  therapeutic  lamps, 
heat  and  light  applicators,  or  other  electrical  gadg- 
ets offered  as  treatments  for  such  serious  disor- 
ders as  kidney  and  heart  disease,  eczema,  abscesses, 
gangrene,  varicose  veins,  asthma,  ulcers,  rheuma- 
tism, Bright's  disease,  and  diabetes.  Next  in  num- 
ber were  vaporizers  and  inhalers  for  respiratory 
diseases,  as  well  as  other  worthless  or  harmful 
contraptions. 

Deceptive  containers  brought  about  the  seizure 
of  145  shipments  of  tooth  paste,  cosmetic  creams, 
face  powders,  cheese,  spices,  candy,  ice  cream,  ali- 
mentary pastes,  tea  balls,  cookies,  nose  drops,  band- 
ages, and  adhesive  tape 

Another  project  under  the  new  law  was  the  pro- 
mulgation of  legal  standards  for  several  foods,  in- 
cluding tomato  products,  egg  products,  and  vari- 
ous canned  fruits  and  vegetables.  Hearings  were 
also  held  on  the  standards  proposed  for  many  oth- 
er kinds  of  food.  Eventually,  of  course,  the  entire 
food  field  will  be  covered 

Thanks  to  the  increased  power  afforded  by  the 
new  law  to  control  sanitary  conditions  in  the  fac- 
tory, the  Administration  was  able  to  stop  certain 
offensive  practices  carried  on  by  a  small  minority, 
especially  in  the  production  of  candy  and  shelled 
pecans. 

The  new  requirements  for  more  informative 
labeling  brought  about  vast  changes  in  the  compo- 
sition and  labeling  of  drug  products  during  the 
year.  Dangerous  drugs  had  virtually  been  driven 
from  the  market  by  the  many  seizures  made  the 
previous  year.  Work  with  new  drugs,  for  which 
applications  must  be  filed  with  the  Government  to 
establish  that  these  products  are  safe  for  use,  was 
continued  in  increased  volume. 

Marked  changes  for  the  better  were  noted  in 
various  branches  of  the  food  industry.  As  for  the 
food-poisoning  cases  investigated  by  the  Adminis- 


FOOD  AND  FOOD  INDUSTRY        274 


FORESTRY 


tration,  with  one  exception  those  due  to  botulism 
involved  home-canned  food.  Seventeen  cases  of 
another  type  were  caused  by  "tenderized"  ham. 
These  activities,  of  course,  represent  but  a  few 
of  the  aspects  of  the  Administration's  work  in 
protecting  the  consumer  under  the  Food,  Drug, 
and  Cosmetic  Act.  As  usual  the  Administration 
also  enforced  the  Insecticide  Act,  the  Caustic  Poi- 
son Act,  Import  Milk  and  Filled  Milk  Acts,  Tea 
Act,  and  the  Naval  Stores  Act 

WALTER  G.  CAMPBELL. 

FOOD    AND    FOOD    INDUSTRY.    See 

CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL;  LIVING  COSTS  AND 
STANDARDS  ;  MARKETING.  For  foodstuffs  and  farm- 
ers' prices,  sec  AGRICULTURE;  DAIRYING;  HORTI- 
CULTURE; LIVESTOCK;  and  articles  on  products. 
Compare  RATIONING. 

FOOD  POISONING.  See  FOOD  AND  DRUG 
ADMINISTRATION. 

FOOD  STAMP  PLAN.  See  SURPLUS  MAR- 
KETING ADMINISTRATION;  also  DAIRYING. 

FOOTBALL.  The  gridiron  continued  its  un- 
shakeable  hold  on  the  public  mind  in  1940  and  the 
game  showed  no  deterioration  in  the  quality  of  the 
playing. 

Huge  crowds,  exciting  games,  astounding  re- 
versals of  form  and  ruling,  and  an  unusual  series 
of  mistakes  in  score-keeping,  all  combined  to  keep 
the  collective  public  pulse  in  high  speed.  On  one 
occasion  a  post-mortem  examination  of  a  close 
play  resulted  in  the  reversal  of  the  final  score  two 
days  after  the  game  had  ended 

In  one  of  the  most  colorful  sporting  spectacles 
in  history,  and  on  the  golden  anniversary  of  their 
first  gridiron  conflict,  Navy  defeated  Army  14-0 
at  Philadelphia's  Municipal  Stadium  before  a 
crowd  of  102,000  persons. 

Another  exciting  contest  was  the  Cornell- Penn- 
sylvania smash-up  before  80,000  spectators  in 
Franklin  Field,  one  of  the  most  nerve-wracking 
sessions  of  the  season,  with  Penn  emerging  victor 
after  yielding  13  points  in  the  first  seven  minutes 
of  the  game.  The  triumph  made  Pennsylvania  the 
champion  of  the  Ivy  League. 

Stanford  was  the  surprise  team  of  the  year  and 
qualified  for  Rose  Bowl  honors  with  a  climactic 
victory  over  California  at  Berkeley.  The  triumph 
established  Clark  Shaughnessy  as  the  miracle  per- 
former of  the  year.  Coming  from  Chicago,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  leadership  of  an  aggregation  that 
had  won  only  a  single  game  in  1939  and  by  some 
mysterious  power  and  tactical  equipment  he  piloted 
the  team  through  a  campaign  in  which  it  never 
met  defeat.  In  that  respect,  Stanford  shared  hon- 
ors with  only  four  other  major  teams.  The  others 
were  Minnesota,  which  was  generally  considered 
the  top  team  of  the  year;  Tennessee,  which  fin- 
ished its  third  successive  regular  schedule  without 
upset;  Boston  College,  the  No.  1  eleven  of  the 
East;  and  Lafayette. 

Outstanding  elevens  of  the  season  included 
Michigan  and  Northwestern  in  the  Middle  West, 
Pennsylvania  and  Cornell  in  the  East,  Washington 
on  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  Texas,  Rice,  and  S.M.U. 
in  the  South.  Michigan  had  one  of  the  finest  ag- 
gregations of  the  year ;  and  in  Tom  Harmon  the 
Wolverines  had  one  of  the  greatest  backs  in  the 
history  of  football.  In  his  final  appearance  of  the 
season,  he  broke  the  15-year-old  record  of  the  un- 
forgettable Red  Grange. 

Cornell,  unconquerable  in  18  games,  was  finally 
vanquished  by  Dartmouth  b  one  of  the  strangest 


denouements  in  the  memory  of  football  fans*  In 
the  final  play  of  the  game,  Cornell  made  an  ap- 
parent touchdown  and  was  acclaimed  the  victor. 
Motion  pictures,  however,  showed  that  the  pass 
had  been  made  on  an  illegal  fifth-down.  The  ref- 
eree acknowledged  the  error  two  days  later ;  and 
Cornell  conceded  its  defeat  by  a  score  of  3-0. 

Notre  Dame,  after  a  brilliant  start,  which  in- 
cluded the  defeat  of  Army,  was  beaten  by  Iowa 
and  Northwestern.  In  its  first  upset  in  three  years, 
Georgetown  was  downed  by  Boston  College  19-18, 
after  leading  by  10  to  0.  Penn  State  experienced 
the  sensation  of  meeting  its  first  defeat  in  the  final 
game  of  the  season,  losing  to  Pittsburgh.  Though 
vanquished  several  times,  Harvard,  Columbia,  and 
Dartmouth  had  remarkably  strong  teams ;  and  oth- 
er creditable  elevens  were  those  of  Navy,  Temple, 
Pittsburgh,  Princeton,  Colgate,  and  Syracuse. 

The  post-season  games  played  on  New  Year's 
Day  1940  resulted  as  follows:  Rose  Bowl  (Pasa- 
dena, Calif.)  :  Southern  California  14,  Tennessee 
0;  Sugar  Bowl  (New  Orleans,  La.):  Texas  A. 
and  M.  14,  Tulane  13;  Orange  Bowl  (Miami. 
Fla.)  :  Georgia  Tech  21,  Missouri  7;  Sun  Bowl 
(El  Paso,  Tex.)  :  Catholic  University  0,  Arizona 
State  of  Tempe  0;  Cotton  Bowl  (Dallas,  Tex.)  : 
Clemson  6,  Boston  College  3. 

The  corresponding  events  played  one  year  later, 
on  New  Year's  Day  1941,  produced  the  following 
results : 

Rose  Bowl:  Stanford  21,  Nebraska  13;  Sugar 
Bowl:  Boston  College  19,  Tennessee  13;  Orange 
Bowl:  Mississippi  State  14,  Georgetown  7:  Sun 
Bowl :  Western  Reserve  26,  Tempe  (Ariz.)  Teach- 
ers 13 ;  Cotton  Bowl :  Texas  A.  and  M.  13,  Ford- 
ham  12. 

Professional  football  continued  to  command  the 
serious  attention  of  the  American  public.  One  of 
the  sensational  events  of  the  season  was  the  mas- 
sacre of  the  Washington  Redskins  by  the  Chicago 
Bears  by  the  astronomical  score  of  73  to  0.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  season  the  Redskins  won  seven 
straight  and  seemed  destined  for  championship 
honors.  Their  success  was  short-lived,  however, 
and  in  November,  after  defeating  the  Bears  7-3, 
they  were  definitely  headed  downhill.  They  were 
humbled  by  the  Brooklyn  Dodgers  and  also  by  the 
New  York  Giants.  Then  the  race  tightened  and 
the  Redskins,  by  an  effort  born  of  sheer  deter- 
mination, managed  to  beat  the  Philadelphia  Eagles 
13  to  6  and  capture  the  laurels  of  the  eastern  divi- 
sion. 

In  the  west,  the  Chicago  Bears  and  the  Green 
Bay  Packers  ran  neck  and  neck  till  the  very  end, 
the  former  taking  final  honors.  The  play-off  be- 
tween the  Washington  Redskins  and  the  Chicago 
Bears,  representing  the  eastern  and  western  divi- 
sions respectively,  occurred  on  December  8  in 
Griffith  Stadium  before  a  crowd  of  36,034  persons 
who  paid  some  $102,280  to  watch  the  slaughter. 

FOREIGN  EXCHANGE.  See  INTERNA- 
TIONAL BANKING  AND  FINANCE;  the  countries 
under  Finance. 

FOREIGN  RELATIONS.  See  UNITED 
STATES  under  Foreign  Affairs  and  the  foreign 
countries  under  History ;  also,  PAN  AMERICANISM. 

FORESTRY.  Because  of  the  sharp  demand 
for  lumber  for  construction  of  barracks  and  other 
uses  incident  to  the  defense  program,  there  was  a 
notable  increase  in  lumber  output  in  1940  over  that 
of  the  preceding  year.  As  a  result,  lumber  prices 
rose  sharply,  to  the  detriment  of  home  building 
and  other  ordinary  domestic  uses.  As  emphasized 


FORESTRY 


275 


FORMOSA  (TAIWAN) 


by  Earie  H.  Clapp,  Acting  Chief  of  the  Fore* 
Service  in  his  annual  report  to  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture,  forests  are  unlike  many  of  our  natu- 
ral resources.  With  planned  management  and  pro- 
tection, the  forests  can  be  continuously  harvested. 
At  present,  the  nation  is  not  making  adequate  pro- 
vision for  the  perpetuation  of  the  forests,  Approxi- 
mately three-fourths  of  the  commercial  forest 
areas  are  in  private  ownership.  The  Forest  Service 
stressed  the  need  of  public  co-operation  and  aid 
to  private  owners  and  urged  that  private  owners 
be  encouraged  to  co-operate  by  effecting  reason- 
able practices  that  would  aim  toward  sustained 
production.  At  the  present  time,  more  than  85  per 
cent  of  the  202  million  acres  in  private  ownership 
lack  forest  management  of  any  kind.  Of  some  one 
million  industrial  and  non-farm  owners,  only  215 
are  operating  on  a  sustained  yield  basis  and  the 
properties  so  managed  represent  less  than  11.5 
million  acres.  Forests  are  so  vital  to  the  welfare  of 
the  nation,  both  in  time  of  peace  and  war,  that 
their  constructive  management  is  a  matter  of  pri- 
mary concern  to  the  American  people. 

Lumber  Production.  Based  on  figures  released 
by  the  National  Lumber  Manufacturers  Associa- 
tion, Washington,  D.C.,  there  was  a  considerable 
increase  in  lumber  production  in  the  United  States 
in  the  calendar  year  1940  as  compared  with  1939. 
The  data,  in  board  feet,  are  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying table. 


1939 

1940 

Month 

(Board  f«t) 

(Board  feet) 

January  
February  

1,782,200,000 
1,637,400.000 

1,899,471,000 
1,823,576,000 

March. 

1,922,700,000 

1,988,497,000 

April    ... 
May 

1,968,300,000 
2,234,900,000 

2,151,887,000 
2,433,522,000 

June 
July 
August 

2,251,600,000 
2,143,400,000 
2,400,800,000 

2,217,113,000 
2,321,597,000 
2,489,724,000 

September 

2,303,100,000 

2,439,702,000 

October 

2,362,500,000 

2,743,397,000 

November 

2,250,300,000 

2,288,381,000 

December 

2,001,800,000 

2,169,820,000 

Lumber  Trade.  An  analysis  of  data  in  the  Oc- 
tober, 1940,  Monthly  Summary  of  Foreign  Com- 
merce of  the  United  States,  published  by  the  U.S. 
Department  of  Commerce,  shows  a  distinct  upward 
trend  in  the  values  of  both  export  and  import  items 
as  compared  with  those  of  the  preceding  year.  The 
total  values  for  the  10  months  ended  October  31 
were  as  follows  -  Imports :  1940,  $210,918,427 ;  1939, 
$204,539,707.  Exports:  1940,  $134,113,177;  1939, 
$80,571,184.  A  breakdown  for  1940  shows  the  fol- 
lowing : 


Imports 

Wood,  Unmanufactured $    6,877,059 

Wood,  Sawmill  Products 19,274,5 12 

Wood,  Manufactures    9,537,285 

Paper  Base  Stocks          65,117,330 

Paper  and  Manufactures 110,112,241 


Exports 
$  2,249,107 
31,244,315 
16,904,011 
27809,308 
55,906,436 


The  very  important  item  of  paper  (q.v.)  and 
manufactures  is  indicated  and  under  imports  in- 
cludes the  vast  amount  of  news  print  obtained 
from  Canadian  sources. 

Pt?bli£jr°.rc8,t8-  Ac«>rding  to  the  1940  Report 
of  the  Chief  of  the  U.S.  Forest  Service,  there 
are  196  million  acres  of  publicly  owned  forest  land 
in  the  United  States  outside  Alaska.  Community 
forests  owned  by  villages,  towns,  cities,  and  coun- 
ties total  about  8  million  acres.  State  forests  in- 
clude approximately  19  million  acres.  The  balance 


of  169  million  acres  was  in  the  National  Forests. 
With  forest  lands  outside  continental  United  States 
included,  the  National  Forests  embraced  on  June 
30,  1940,  176,567,095  acres  owned  or  in  process  of 
acquisition  as  compared  with  175,843,405  acres  at 
the  end  of  the  preceding  fiscal  year.  The  great  sig- 
nificance of  nationally  owned  forests  rests  not  only 
in  their  production  of  lumber  on  a  sustained  basis 
but  also  in  their  value  for  protection  of  water  re- 
sources, their  recreational  facilities  and  the  inclu- 
sion of  vast  grazing  areas  that  are  managed  also 
on  a  sustained  basis.  Under  systematic  forest  fire 
protection,  the  national  forests  have  a  fine  record 
in  keeping  losses  at  a  minimum,  despite  the  fact 
that  millions  of  citizens  utilize  these  forests  as  a 
source  of  recreation  and  restful  vacations. 

Forest  Protection.  A  most  interesting  devel- 
opment in  forest  fire  control  in  1940  was  the  greatly 
expanded  use  of  airplanes  and  trained  parachute 
jumpers  for  the  suppression  of  fires  in  remote 
areas  lacking  in  roads  or  accessible  trails.  Prompt 
attack  on  forest  fires  is  a  potent  factor  in  reducing 
potential  losses.  Education  through  the  facilities  of 
the  radio,  motion  pictures,  and  public  press  was 
actively  pursued  in  an  attempt  to  reduce  man- 
caused  fires.  The  Civilian  Conservation  Corps,  with 
322  camps  on  National  forests,  176  on  State  for- 
ests, and  101  on  privately  owned  forest  land,  again 
constituted  a  most  important  arm  of  defense  in  the 
reduction  and  suppression  of  forest  fires.  In  addi- 
tion to  direct  fire  fighting,  the  CCC  aided  greatly 
by  the  construction  of  roads  and  trails,  reservoirs, 
and  the  like.  See  CIVILIAN  CONSERVATION  CORPS; 
LAND  UTILIZATION,  OFFICE  OF;  SOIL  CONSERVA- 
TION SERVICE. 

Working  through  the  Northeastern  Timber  Sal- 
vage Administration,  the  U.S.  Forest  Service  aid- 
ed in  the  disposal  of  timber  and  pulpwood  result- 
ing from  the  disastrous  September,  1938,  hurricane. 
Fire  hazards  in  New  England  were  reduced  by  the 
systematic  disposal  of  limbs  and  brush. 

In  the  Pacific  Northwest,  control  of  white  pine 
blister  rust  was  actively  pursued  by  the  destruction 
of  wild  currant  and  gooseberry  bushes,  on  the 
leaves  of  which  the  disease  passes  an  essential  part 
of  its  life.  The  task  is  tremendous,  with  over  a 
million  and  a  half  acres  of  western  white  or  sugar 
pine  lands  from  which  the  alternate  host  plants 
must  be  eradicated. 

Publications.  Through  the  public  press  and 
journals  such  as  American  Forests,  conservation- 
ists continued  to  press  actively  the  great  need  of 
preserving  our  American  forests  and  of  acquaint- 
ing the  public  with  forest  species  and  their  uses. 
The  U.S.  Forest  Service  published  Fortst  Out- 
ings, a  finely  illustrated  book  of  311  pages  devoted 
to  outstanding  features  of  the  National  Forests, 
particularly  from  the  viewpoint  of  recreational 
possibilities. 

J.  W.  WELLINGTON. 

FORMOSA  (TAIWAN).  An  island  near 
the  southeast  coast  of  China,  ceded  to  Japan  by 
China  hi  1895.  Total  area,  including  the  Pesca- 
dores, 13,889  square  miles.  Total  population  (1937 
estimate),  5,609.000.  Chief  towns:  Taihoku  (the 
capital),  278,440  inhabitants  in  1935 ;  Tainan,  111,- 
959;  Keelung,  84,978;  Takao,  83,735.  The  chief 
agricultural  products  are  rice,  sugar,  tea,  sweet 
potatoes,  ramie,  jute,  and  tumeric.  Camphor  is  ob- 
tained from  the  forests  under  a  government  mo- 
nopoly. Livestock  (1937);  1,849,195  swine,  282,- 
101  buffaloes,  76,341  cattle,  and  70,384  goats.  Gold, 


FOUNDATIONS 


276 


FRANCE 


silver,  copper,  and  coal  are  the  main  mineral  prod- 
ucts. Trade  (1938) :  Imports,  ¥366,659,000:  ex- 
ports, ¥456,454,000  (yen  averaged  $02845  for 
1938;  $02596  for  1939).  Budget  (1939-40)  :  Rev- 
enue and  expenditure  were  estimated  to  balance  at 
¥208,602,000.  Governor  General,  Adm.  Kiyoshi 
Hasegawa  who  succeeded  Adm.  Seizo  Kobayashi 
on  Nov.  26,  1940.  See  JAPAN  under  History. 

FOUNDATIONS.  Construction  procedure  on 
foundation  work  must  often  be  changed  as  work 
progresses,  due  to  unexpected  conditions  encoun- 
tered. With  good  bearing  material  found  only  at  a 
depth  of  90  ft.  under  the  site  for  the  west  pier  of 
the  new  Black  River  bascule  bridge  at  Lor  a  in, 
Ohio,  it  was  planned  to  sink  cylinders  of  steel 
plate,  8  and  12  ft.  in  diameter,  to  this  depth  and 
fill  them  with  concrete  to  form  supporting  piers. 
This  was  to  be  done  within  a  cofferdam.  But  as 
conditions  appeared  to  be  favorable  for  pile  driv- 
ing, it  was  decided  to  make  the  cylinders  by  driv- 
ing steel  sheet  piles.  However,  obstructions  that 
had  not  been  revealed  by  borings  led  to  the  use  of 
steel  piles  instead  of  the  shafts  and  piers.  Curious 
behavior  of  some  Mississippi  River  bridges  seems 
to  indicate  that  piers  founded  in  the  deep  bed  of 
soft  clay  and  silt  will  rise  and  fall  slightly  with 
change  in  level  of  the  water,  but  the  records  are 
not  complete  enough  to  be  reliable. 

Steel  H-beam  piles  194  ft  long,  the  longest  ever 
driven,  were  used  in  the  foundations  for  the  con- 
crete piers  of  the  Potomac  River  bridge  at  Ludlow 
Ferry,  Md.,  and  also  as  combined  foundation  piles 
and  trestle  posts  of  the  viaduct  approaches.  Some 
of  those  under  the  river  piers  were  driven  until 
their  tops  were  80  ft.  below  water.  They  were 
made  in  two  pieces,  one  being  115  ft.  long  and  the 
other  making  up  the  desired  length,  the  two  being 
connected  by  riveted  splices.  In  the  trestles,  the 
part  above  ground  is  cased  in  concrete.  Steel  piles 
of  Z-section  have  been  used  to  build  up  hollow 
piers  which  are  filled  with  concrete. 

Wood  piles  150  ft.  long  were  used  under  the  new 
Post  Office  building  at  San  Francisco.  The  maxi- 
mum length  of  single  piles  was  126  ft.,  requiring 
special  construction  of  pile  drivers  to  handle  them 
For  greater  lengths,  two  piles  were  put  end  to  end, 
with  steel  dowels  and  barbed  grids  between  them, 
the  joint  being  spliced  by  an  18-in.  length  of  10-in. 
steel  pipe.  Of  the  4000  piles  used,  about  2500  were 
spliced. 

Foundations  of  large  buildings  have  presented 
many  interesting  features  and  difficult  problems. 
To  provide  against  expected  unequal  settlement 
under  different  parts  of  the  New  England  Mutual 
Life  Insurance  Building  at  Boston,  Mass.,  due  to 
varying  character  of  soil  materials,  the  foundations 
were  made  so  stiff  as  to  distribute  the  load  over 
the  softer  spots.  The  concrete  foundation  walls 
were  made  as  girders  of  reinforced  concrete.  Foun- 
dation design  for  the  new  building  of  the  Aetna 
Casualty  &  Surety  Company,  in  New  York,  was 
complicated  by  rapid-transit  subways  on  two  sides. 
As  rock  was  too  deep  to  be  reached  economically, 
spread  footings  on  piles  were  used  in  the  interior 
area*  Along  the  sides  adjacent  to  the  subways, 
however,  the  foundations  consist  of  steel  pipes 
driven  as  piles  to  a  depth  below  the  subway  level 
and  then  filled  with  concrete. 

A  troublesome  foundation  problem  arising  from 
the  construction  of  the  Chicago  rapid-transit  sub- 
ways at  a  deep  level  in  the  clay  formation,  is  the 
effect  of  the  excavation  of  these  tunnels  upon  many 
buildings  which  have  shallow  or  spread  founda- 


tions. Movement  of  the  clay  and  drainage  of  con- 
tained water  is  bound  to  occur  and  may  endanger 
foundations  built  near  the  surface  of  the  soil.  In 
anticipation  of  such  troubles,  many  buildings,  large 
and  small  have  been  pulled  down,  as  their  value 
would  not  warrant  the  cost  of  building  new  foun- 
dations. Notable  among  these  are  the  23-story  Cap- 
itol Building,  and  the  14-story  Great  Northern 
Hotel,  the  latter  built  in  1892  and  pulled  down  in 
1940.  Some  of  the  wrecked  buildings  have  been 
replaced  by  two-story  structures  having  rental 
value  sufficient  to  pay  their  taxes.  In  other  cases, 
the  sites  are  utilized  as  parking  areas  for  automo- 
biles. The  general  effect  is  a  marked  change  in  the 
appearance  of  the  business  district,  since  some 
notable  ''skyscrapers"  and  many  old  buildings  of 
moderate  height  have  disappeared. 

An  exception  to  the  policy  of  abandonment  is  the 
17-story  Monadnock  Block,  66X400  ft.  in  plan 
and  216  ft.  high.  The  old  foundations  were  brick 
piers  on  grillage  mats  or  footings  consisting  of  six 
or  seven  layers  of  steel  rails  embedded  in  a  deep 
slab  of  concrete,  about  15  ft.  below  the  street 
level.  Its  longer  side  fronts  on  Dearborn  St.,  which 
is  the  route  of  a  subway  line.  To  establish  a  sure 
foundation  on  this  side,  the  old  footings  of  the 
columns  were  underpinned  and  held  on  jacks  while 
shafts  were  sunk  beneath  them  to  rock  at  about 
60  ft.  below  the  street  and  25  ft.  below  the  floor 
of  the  subway.  These  shafts,  4  to  5^  ft.  in  diame- 
ter and  belled  out  at  the  bottom  to  9%  or  13%  ft , 
were  filled  with  concrete  to  form  piers  supporting 
the  old  foundations. 

In  recent  years  much  progress  has  been  made  in 
earthquake-resistant  buildings  and  their  founda- 
tions. A  1940  example  is  the  Hoover  Library  of 
War  and  Peace  at  Stanford  University,  in  Cali- 
fornia. This  building,  situated  near  an  active  geo- 
logical "fault,"  consists  mainly  of  a  16-story  steel- 
frame  tower  52%  ft.  square  and  280  ft.  high,  with 
reinforced  concrete  walls  and  containing  several 
floors  of  book  racks.  Its  foundation  is  a  massive 
slab  of  reinforced  concrete  61  ft.  square  and  5}6 
ft.  thick.  A  two-story  building  around  the  base  of 
the  tower  has  independent  footings  for  its  columns, 
on  the  sand  and  gravel  formation. 

Pneumatic  or  compressed-air  caissons  are  ap- 
plied to  an  unusual  purpose  in  forming  the  deep 
foundations  for  the  cut-off  or  core  wall  in  the 
Merriman  earth  dam  for  the  Delaware  River 
water  supply  of  New  York.  There  are  18  caissons 
in  a  row,  mainly  45  X  12  ft.  in  plan,  and  the  high- 
est is  169  ft.,  penetrating  136  ft.  below  the  bottom 
of  the  cut-off  trench. 

E.  E.  RUSSELL  TRATMAN. 

FOUNDATIONS    AND    TRUSTS.    See 

BENEFACTIONS. 

FRACTURES,  Compound.  See  MEDICINE 
AND  SURGERY. 

FRANCE.  A  country  of  western  Europe.  As 
a  result  of  the  German  invasion  of  1940,  the  capi- 
tal was  transferred  successively  from  Paris  on 
June  10  to  Tours,  Bordeaux,  Clermont-Ferrand, 
and  Vichy.  German  and  Italian  troops  remained  in 
occupation  of  a  large  part  of  France  from  the 
commencement  of  the  armistice  on  June  26  until 
the  told  of  the  year. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  at  the  begin- 
ning of  1940  was  212,722  square  miles.  It  was  re- 
duced during  the  year  by  5605  square  miles  to  ap- 
proximately 207,117  square  miles  as  a  result  of  the 
annexation  by  Germany  of  the  departments  of 


FRANCS 


277 


FRANCS 


Bai-Rhin,  Haut-Rhin,  and  Moselle,  the  former 
German  provinces  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine.  The 
population  of  France  on  Jan.  1,  1939,  was  esti- 
mated at  41,980,000.  The  population  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine  in  the  1936  census  was  1,915,627.  See 
History  below.  Live  births  in  1938  numbered  612,- 
138  (14.6  per  1000);  deaths,  646,879  (15.4  per 
1000).  Live  births  in  the  first  six  months  of  1939 
totaled  312,652  (14.9  per  1000)  ;  deaths,  350,369 
(167  per  1000).  Populations  of  the  chief  cities  at 
the  1936  census  were:  Paris  proper,  2,829,746; 
Marseille,  914,232;  Lyon.  570,622;  Bordeaux,  258,- 
348;  Nice,  241,916;  TouUse,  213,220;  Lille,  200,- 
575;  Nantes,  195,185;  Strasbourg,  193,119;  Saint- 
fitienne,  190,236;  Le  Havre,  164,083 ;  Toulon,  150,- 
310;  Rouen,  122,832;  Nancy,  121,310;  Reims,  116,- 
687;  Roubaix,  107,105 ;  Clermont-Ferrand,  101,128. 

Colonial  Empire.  The  colonies,  protectorates, 
dependencies,  and  mandated  territories  of  France 
had  a  total  area  of  some  4,617,579  square  miles 
and  a  total  estimated  population  of  70,000,000  in 
1938.  See  the  separate  articles  in  this  YEAR  BOOK 
covering  each  of  the  following  divisions :  ALGERIA  ; 
CAMEROON,  FRENCH  ;  FRENCH  EQUATORIAL  AF- 
RICA; FRENCH  GUIANA;  FRENCH  INDIA;  FRENCH 
INDO-CHINA;  FRENCH  WEST  AFRICA;  GUADE- 
LOUPE; MADAGASCAR;  MARTINIQUE;  MOROCCO; 
NEW  CALEDONIA;  NEW  HEBRIDES;  OCEANIA, 
FRENCH  ;  REUNION  ;  ST.  PIERRE  AND  MIQUELON  ; 
SOMALILAND,  FRENCH;  SYRIA  AND  LEBANON; 
TOGO,  FRENCH  ;  and  TUNISIA. 

Religion  and  Education.  With  the  exception 
of  about  1,000,000  Protestants  and  a  few  thousand 
Jews,  the  French  people  profess  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic faith  At  the  1931  census  there  were  2,286,273 
persons  of  five  years  or  over  (7  per  cent  of  the 
total)  unable  to  read  or  write  The  school  enroll- 
ment was:  Elementary  (1937-38).  5,436,554;  high- 
er elementary  (Nov.  15,  1937) ,  257,597 ;  secondary 
(November,  1938),  268,043;  universities  (July  31, 
1938),  74,832. 

Agriculture.  About  38  per  cent  of  the  working 
population  is  directly  supported  by  agriculture,  31 
per  cent  by  industry,  and  11.5  per  cent  by  com- 
merce. There  were  50,148,088  acres  of  arable  land 
(3684  per  cent  of  the  total)  in  1937.  Yields  of 
the  chief  products  in  1938  in  metric  tons  except 
where  otherwise  indicated  were:  Wheat,  7,800,000 
(1939)  ;  rye,  811,100 ;  barley,  1,290,800 ;  oats,  5,457,- 
400;  corn,  578,600;  potatoes,  17,314,500;  beet  sug- 
ar, 930,000  (1939)  ;  olive  oil,  4800;  wine,  61,000,- 
000  hectoliters  Livestock  on  Jan.  1,  1939,  com- 
prised 2,692,000  horses;  135,000  mules;  185,000 
asses ;  15,622,000  cattle ;  9,872,000  sheep  and  lambs ; 
7,127,000  pigs;  1,416,000  goats. 

Mining  and  Manufactures.  Mineral  and  met- 
allurgical production  in  1938  in  metric  tons  was 
Coal  and  lignite,  47,557,000;  iron  ore,  10,100,000; 
pyrites,  147,000;  potash  (K«O  content),  582,000; 
bauxite,  683,400;  pig  iron  and  ferroalloys,  6,049,- 
000;  steel  ingots  and  castings,  6,174,000.  Silk  pro- 
duction (1939)  was  41  metric  tons;  rayon,  25,500 
metric  tons;  alcohol  (1937),  109,701,000  gal.;  ves- 
sels launched,  47,700  gross  tons  (1938). 

Foreign  Trade.  Merchandise  imports  in  1938 
^E^^H-45'981'0^'000  francs;  exports  at 
30,586,000,000  For  the  first  eight  months  of  1939, 
hlKJSJ5frf  32'539fiOO.OOO  francs;  exports,  23,- 
832,000,000  francs.  For  distribution  of  trade  in 
1937  and  1938,  see  the  1939  YEAR  BOOK. 

Finance.  Civil  budget  revenues  for  1939  were 
63,657,000,000  francs  and  expenditure  appropria- 
tions 106,377,000,000  francs.  Defense  appropria- 


tions, covered  entirely  by  borrowings,  totaled  about 
80,000,000,000  francs.  The  aggregate  deficit  was 
thus  about  123,000,000,000  francs,  or  approximate- 
ly $3,000,000,000  at  the  average  exchange  rate  of 
$0.0251  for  1939.  Civil  budget  estimates  for  1940 
placed  revenues  at  79,951,183,112  francs;  expendi- 
tures, 79,889,137,098  francs.  At  the  beginning  of 
1940,  the  defense  budget  for  that  year  was  esti- 
mated at  249,000,000,000  francs,  all  of  which  was 
to  be  borrowed;  it  was  almost  equivalent  to 
France's  entire  national  income  in  1939.  The  French 
Treasury  reported  the  total  public  debt  on  Aug. 
31,  1939,  at  445,000,000,000  francs.  See  History. 

Transportation.  The  French  railway  network, 
comprising  seven  large  systems  with  about  26,427 
miles  of  line,  incurred  an  aggregate  deficit  aver- 
aging about  2,500,000,000  francs  annually  previous 
to  the  European  War.  On  Mar.  14,  1940,  the  Min- 
ister of  Public  Works  reported  that  the  railways 
were  operating  with  a  small  excess  of  receipts. 
Highway  mileage  (1939),  393,761  (see  ROADS  AND 
STREETS).  Inland  waterways  carried  45,006,000 
metric  tons  of  freight  in  1938.  Operating  statistics 
of  Air  France,  which  virtually  monopolized  air 
transport,  were  for  1939 .  Length  of  services,  27,- 
823  miles;  miles  flown,  5,838,917;  passengers,  91,- 
469;  mail,  1,774,243  lb.;  freight  and  excess  bag- 

Ee,  1,897,718  lb.  Previous  to  the  European  War 
r.)  the  leading  ports  by  volume  of  freight  han- 
l  were  Marseille,  Le  Havre,  Cherbourg,  Dun- 
kirk, Rouen,  Boulogne,  and  Bordeaux.  In  June, 
1939,  the  French  merchant  marine  had  a  gross  ton- 
nage of  2,952,975. 

Government.  Under  the  Constitution  of  1875, 
with  its  amendments,  executive  power  was  vested 
in  the  President,  acting  through  a  ministry  selected 
by  him  but  responsible  to  Parliament.  Legislative 
power  was  vested  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and 
the  Senate,  members  of  which  jointly  elected  the 
President  for  seven  years.  The  Senate  in  1940  had 
314  members,  all  40  years  or  more  of  age  and 
chosen  by  electoral  colleges  in  each  department  for 
nine  years,  with  one-third  retiring  every  three 
years.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  had  618  members, 
elected  by  direct  manhood  suffrage  for  four  years. 
President,  Albert  Lebrun  (re-elected  Apr.  5,  1939). 
The  Cabinet  at  the  beginning  of  1940,  headed  by 
Edouard  Daladier  (Radical  Socialist),  was  ap- 
pointed Apr.  10,  1938,  and  reorganized  on  a  war 
basis  Sept.  13,  1939.  The  chief  members  were: 
Premier,  Minister  of  National  Defense,  War  and 
Foreign  Affairs,  Edouard  Daladier  (Radical  So- 
cialist) ;  Armaments,  Raoul  Dautry ;  Blockade, 
Georges  Pcrnot  (Socialist  and  Republican  Un- 
ion) ;  Justice,  Georges  Bonnet  (Radical  Socialist) ; 
Interior,  Albert  Sarraut  (Radical  Socialist)  ;  State, 
Camille  Chautemps  (Radical  Socialist) ;  Finance, 
Paul  Reynaud  (Radical  Socialist)  ;  Colonies, 
Georges  Mandel  (Independent  Republican)  ;  Edu- 
cation, Yvon  Delbos  (Radical  Socialist) ;  Air,  Guy 
La  Chambre  (Radical  Socialist);  Navy,  C6sar 
Campinchi  (Radical  Socialist) ;  Public  Works, 
Anatole  de  Monzi  (Independent  Socialist) ;  Com- 
merce, Fernand  Gentin  (Radical  Socialist) ;  Agri- 
culture, Henri  Queuille  (Radical  Socialist)  ;  Trans- 
port, Jules  Julien  (Radical  Socialist);  Labor, 
Charles  Pomaret  (Socialist  and  Republican  Un- 
ion). For  political  changes  during  1940,  including 
the  overthrow  of  the  Republic  in  July,  see  History. 

HISTORY 

At  6:50  p.m.  on  June  22  1940,  Gen.  Charles 
Huntriger  of  France  and  Col.  Gen.  Wilhelm  Keit- 


FRANCS 


278 


FRANCS 


el,  chief  of  the  High  Command  of  the  German 
armed  forces,  signed  an  armistice  that  marked  the 
most  humiliating  setback  for  France  since  the  end 
of  the  Napoleonic  wars. 

The  French  peace  delegation  was  received  on 
June  21  by  Adolph  Hitler  in  the  same  railway  din- 
car  in  the  same  spot  in  the  forest  of  Com- 
5,  France,  where  General  Foch,  commander- 
ef  of  the  Allied  armies,  received  the  uncon- 
ditional surrender  of  the  Germans  on  Nov.  11, 
1918.  There  the  armistice  was  signed  the  follow- 
ing day.  On  June  24  France  also  capitulated  to 
Italy;  General  Huntziger,  as  head  of  the  French 
peace  negotiators,  signed  a  Franco-Italian  armi- 
stice pact  in  the  Villa  Incisa  12  miles  from  Rome. 
Both  agreements  went  into  effect,  and  simultane- 
ously fighting  stopped,  at  12:35  a.m.  (French 
time)  on  June  25.  The  armistice  reduced  France  to 
impotence,  leaving  her  virtually  at  the  mercy  of 
the  Rome-Berlin  Axis. 

France's  surrender  followed  the  crushing  defeat 
of  her  armies  in  two  great  battles  that  began  with 
the  German  invasion  of  Belgium,  Luxemburg,  and 
the  Netherlands  on  May  10.  Her  fate  was  sealed 
when  Italy  entered  the  war  on  June  10  while 
French  defense  lines  before  Paris  were  crumbling 
under  the  fierce  assault  of  German  armored  divi- 
sions. See  EUROPEAN  WAR  for  a  complete  account 
of  the  military  operations. 

Armistice  Terms.  The  armistice  agreements 
(•ee  p.  231)  exacted  from  France  every  conces- 
sion that  might  be  useful  to  Germany  and  Italy  in 
prosecuting  their  struggle  with  Britain.  German 
troops  occupied  more  than  half  of  France,  includ- 
ing the  entire  coast  on  the  English  Channel  and 
the  Atlantic  (see  map  on  p.  232).  This  area  com- 
prised all  the  coal  mines  and  virtually  all  the  war 
industries  of  France.  All  factories,  mines,  and 
transportation  facilities  in  this  region  were  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  the  occupying  forces.  Germany 
and  Italy  held  all  French  war  prisoners  pending 
conclusion  of  a  permanent  peace,  but  France  was 
required  to  release  its  war  prisoners  and  also  all 
German  and  Italian  subjects,  particularly  refugees, 
designated  by  the  victors.  Moreover  the  Reich  re- 
served the  right  to  denounce  the  armistice  if,  in 
the  judgment  of  the  German  Government,  France 
did  not  fulfill  all  of  its  terms. 

Political  Developments.  The  collapse  of 
French  military  defenses  was  accompanied  by  the 
fall  of  the  Third  Republic,  born  during  the  travail 
of  the  Franco- Prussian  War.  It  not  only  discred- 
ited the  parliamentary  system  and  the  politicians 
charged  with  responsibility  for  maintaining 
French  security,  but  also  opened  the  pathway  for 
the  ascendency  of  the  Fascist,  pro-German  and 
pro-Italian  elements  in  France  and  the  crushing  of 
Leftist  political  influence.  Coincidently  there  be- 
gan  a  reorientation  of  French  foreign  policy  that 
brought  the  government  into  closer  collaboration 
with  France's  victorious  foes — in  the  hope  of  ob- 
taining more  favorable  peace  terms — while  widen- 
ing the  rift  with  Britain  that  began  with  the 
French  capitulation  to  Hitler. 

Premier  Daladier,  by  utilizing  the  extensive 
powers  granted  his  government  by  Parliament  in 
1939  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  287  f.),  managed 
to  curb  political  and  class  antagonisms  during  the 
first  part  of  1940  and  to  present  what  seemed  like 
a  united  front  to  the  enemy.  The  censorship  was 
further  tightened  and  other  repressive  measures 
taken  to  end  the  defeatist  and  pacifist  propaganda 
assiduously  circulated  by  German  agents  and  sym- 


pathizers on  the  one  hand  and  by  Communists  and 
pacifists  on  the  other.  On  January  25  the  ban 
against  expressions  tending  to  weaken  French  mo* 
rale  was  extended  to  remarks  made  in  public  or  on 
posters  and  placards.  Severe  measures  were  taken 
to  curb  the  activities  of  spies  and  traitors.  Dr. 
Karl  Roos,  leader  of  a  pro-German  Alsatian  au- 
tonomist movement,  was  executed  for  espionage 
on  February  7. 

Drive  on  Communism.  The  government's 
drive  against  communism  was  extended.  In  mid- 
January  both  houses  of  Parliament  by  overwhelm- 
ing majorities  passed  a  law  excluding  Communist 
representatives  from  Parliament  and  from  munici- 
pal offices  throughout  France.  Those  Communists 
who  publicly  repudiated  their  party's  policies  be- 
fore Oct.  26,  1939,  were  exempted.  Expulsion  of 
60  of  the  72  Communist  members  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  was  consummated  on  February  20. 
On  March  19  Minister  of  Interior  Albert  Sarraut 
reported  to  the  Senate  that  in  addition  to  the  60 
Deputies,  2778  Communist  members  of  municipal 
councils  had  been  suspended,  620  Communist  labor 
unions  dissolved  and  675  other  Communist  organ- 
izations banned.  In  all,  3400  Communist  agitators 
had  been  arrested  up  to  March  7,  he  said. 

After  a  secret  trial,  36  Communist  Deputies  who 
signed  a  letter  to  Edouard  Herriot,  Speaker  of  the 
Chamber,  urging  acceptance  of  Hitler's  peace 
terms  in  the  fall  of  1939,  were  sentenced  on 
April  3  to  five-year  prison  terms,  fines,  and  loss  of 
civil  rights  for  five  years.  Eight  others,  who 
fought  for  France  in  the  World  War,  received 
suspended  sentences.  On  May  3  some  200  Com- 
munist leaders  were  interned  on  islands  off  the 
French  west  coast  Nazi  sympathizers  and  agents 
also  came  in  for  severe  punishment,  particularly 
during  May  and  June  when  France  was  fighting 
with  her  back  to  the  wall.  Five  Paris  newspaper- 
men were  arrested  June  5.  There  were  numerous 
executions  of  French  and  foreign  spies.  Many  of 
the  latter  entered  France  among  refugees  from 
Belgium  and  the  Netherlands  and  played  an  im- 
portant role  in  disrupting  French  communications 
and  morale. 

Fall  of  Daladier.  In  the  effort  to  end  defeat- 
ist and  pro-German  propaganda  and  to  prevent  the 
Germans  from  obtaining  useful  information,  the 
censorship  was  administered  with  a  rigidity  that 
had  unfortunate  effects  upon  the  French  people  at 
large.  Little  information  was  given  to  Parliament 
or  the  public  concerning  the  administration  and 
progress  of  the  war.  The  resulting  restlessness 
found  expression  early  in  February  in  demands 
from  many  Deputies  for  a  report  on  the  progress 
of  armament  industries,  on  military  operations, 
and  on  the  government's  economic  and  foreign 
policies. 

Premier  Daladier  sought  to  still  this  unrest  by 
giving  the  desired  information  to  the  committees 
of  the  Chamber.  But  the  Deputies  were  not  satis- 
fied and  on  February  9  they  voted  262  to  227  for  a 
secret  session  of  the  Chamber  to  hear  a  full  ex- 
planation of  the  government's  war  policies.  M. 
Daladier's  convincing  statement  of  his  govern- 
ment's progress  earned  him  a  534-0  vote  of  confi- 
dence in  the  Chamber  on  March  10  after  a  two- 
day  debate.  The  resolution  expressed  the  Cham- 
ber's confidence  in  ultimate  victory.  But  belief  in 
Allied  supremacy,  and  with  it  the  fortunes  of  the 
Daladier  Government,  soon  began  to  wane. 

A  parliamentary  barrage  of  criticism  against 
the  inept  handling  of  the  censorship  led  Daladier 


FRANCE  279 

on  February  27  to  create  a  Ministry  of  Public  In- 
formation for  the  co-ordination  of  published  in- 
formation, broadcasting,  propaganda,  and  censor- 
ship. With  the  signing  of  the  Finnish-Soviet  peace 
treaty  on  March  12  and  the  consequent  German 
diplomatic  and  strategical  gain,  criticism  of  Dala- 
dier's  conduct  of  the  war  gained  strength.  On 
March  16  he  obtained  a  vote  of  confidence  in  the 
Senate,  240  to  0,  after  another  secret  debate,  but 
60  Senators  under  the  leadership  of  former  Pre- 
mier Pierre  Laval  abstained  as  an  expression  of 
their  disapproval.  Laval  was  said  to  have  demand- 
ed a  "white  peace"  with  Germany  "to  offset  the 
Red  danger.'^ 

The  Socialists  on  the  Left  and  the  Republican 
Federation  on  the  Right  seized  the  opportunity  to 
press  for  representation  in  tf  e  Cabinet,  which  was 
largely  composed  of  Radical  Socialists.  There  was 
also  sentiment  for  more  aggressive  prosecution  of 
the  war.  The  impression  began  to  gain  ground 
that  while  the  French  army  was  sitting  tight  be- 
hind the  Maginot  Line  at  a  cost  of  a  billion  francs 
daily,  the  Allied  cause  was  losing  ground  on  the 
diplomatic,  military,  and  economic  fronts.  On 
March  19,  in  another  secret  session  of  the  Cham- 
ber, only  239  Deputies  voted  to  support  Daladier 
while  300  abstained.  The  Premier  immediately  pre- 
sented the  resignation  of  his  cabinet. 

Reynaud  Cabinet  Formed.  President  Lebrun 
called  upon  Paul  Reynaud,  the  politically  inde- 
pendent Minister  of  Finance  in  the  Daladier  Min- 
istry, to  form  a  new  cabinet.  Reynaud  was  an  ar- 
dent foe  of  those  elements  in  France  favoring  fur- 
ther appeasement  of  Hitler  and  a  compromise 
peace.  He  had  handled  France's  difficult  financial 
problems  with  exemplary  vigor  and  success.  He 
proceeded  energetically  to  form  a  new  government 
with  wider  political  backing — seven  parties  from 
the  Socialists  on  the  Left  to  the  right  wing  of  the 
Center  were  represented — and  to  reorganize  the 
cabinet  system  for  more  efficient  prosecution  of 
the  war  on  all  fronts. 

The  composition  of  the  Reynaud  Ministry 
formed  March  21  was  as  follows:  Premier  and 
Foreign  Minister,  Paul  Reynaud;  Vice  Premier, 
Camilla  Chautemps  (Radical  Socialist)  ;  National 
Defense  and  War,  Edouard  Daladier  (Radical  So- 
cialist) ;  Justice,  Albert  Se>ol  (Socialist) ;  Inte- 
rior, Henri  Roy  (Radical  Socialist) ;  Finance,  Lu- 
cien  Lamoreux  (Radical  Socialist) ;  Information, 
Louis-Oscar  Frossard  (Republican  Socialist) ; 
Navy,  C6sar  Campinchi  (Radical  Socialist) ;  Air, 
Laurent  Eynac  (Left  Democrat) ;  Education,  Al- 
bert Sarraut  (Radical  Socialist) ;  Colonies, 
Georges  Mandel  (Independent  Republican)  ;  Com- 
merce and  Industry,  Louis  Rollin  (Left  Republi- 
can) ;  Public  Works  and  Transport,  Anatole  de 
Monzie  (Republican  Socialist) ;  Labor.  Charles 
Pomaret  (Republican  Socialist);  Merchant  Ma- 
rine, Alphonse  Rio  (Republican  Socialist)  ;  Sup- 
plies, Henri  Queuille  (Radical  Socialist):  Na- 
tional Economy  and  Agriculture,  Paul  Thellier 
(Left  Republican) ;  Armament,  Raoul  Dautry 
(non-party)  ;  Public  Health,  Marcel  HSraud  (Re- 
publican Socialist) ;  Pensions,  Albert  Riviere  (So- 
cialist);  Blockade,  Georges  Monnet  (Socialist). 

A  number  of  much-criticized  members  of  the 
Daladier  Cabinet  were  dropped  from  the  Reynaud 
list,  including  Minister  of  Justice  Georges  Bonnet, 
advocate  of  appeasement,  and  Air  Minister  Guy 
La  Chambre.  In  the  interests  of  efficiency,  the  cab- 
inet was  divided  into  a  War  Committee  of  five ;  a 
War  Cabinet  composed  of  the  Premier,  Vice  Pre- 


FRANCE 


mier,  and  Ministers  of  War:  Navy,  Air,  Finance, 
Armaments,  Blockade,  and  Colonies ;  and  the  Eco- 
nomic Committee  to  co-ordinate  all  economic  ac- 
tivities, comprising  the  Ministers  of  Interior, 
Commerce,  Agriculture,  Public  Works,  Supply, 
and  Merchant  Marine. 

The  Reynaud  Ministry  got  off  to  an  inauspicious 
start.  It  was  confronted  from  the  start  with  the 
political  opposition  of  the  extreme  Right,  which 
was  not  represented,  and  of  part  of  the  Radical 
Socialists,  who  were  resentful  of  the  overthrow 
of  the  largely  Radical  Socialist  Daladier  Ministry 
and  the  loss  of  three  key  cabinet  positions*  There 
was  also  growing  opposition  from  the  appeasers 
led  by  Laval,  Bonnet,  and  Pierre-Etienne  Flandin 
while  the  underground  Communist  movement  con- 
tinued to  give  the  government  trouble.  Reynaud 
scraped  through  the  first  test  in  the  Chamber  with 
a  majority  of  only  one  vote  but  he  proceeded  to 
organize  his  government  to  "wage  war  in  all 
fields."  Nevertheless  the  strength  of  the  opposition 
indicated  that  the  Premier  might  be  overthrown  in 
secret  hearings  scheduled  before  the  Senate  on 
April  9  and  before  the  Chamber  on  April  11-12. 
His  overthrow  would  have  greatly  increased  the 
demand  for  peace  with  Hitler  on  the  basis  of  the 
status  quo. 

Effect  of  Norway  Campaign.  Before  dawn 
of  April  9  the  Germans  launched  their  surprise  at- 
tack upon  Denmark  and  Norway  and  the  "sit- 
down  war"  that  had  done  so  much  to  sap  French 
morale  came  to  an  end.  Without  a  dissenting  vote, 
both  houses  of  Parliament  decided  to  give  the  Pre- 
mier a  free  hand  to  carry  on  during  the  Norwe- 
gian campaign.  A  week  later,  however,  he  was 
called  upon  to  give  a  full  report  of  his  progress 
both  at  home  and  abroad.  His  statements  before 
secret  sessions  of  the  Senate  and  Chamber  did 
much  to  revive  confidence  and  he  received  unani- 
mously favorable  votes  in  the  Senate  on  April  18 
and  in  the  Chamber  on  April  19. 

Little  news  of  the  Norwegian  campaign  reached 
the  French  people  until  May  2  when  the  disheart- 
ening announcement  was  made  that  the  Allied 
forces  had  been  evacuated  from  the  Trondheim 
region.  The  Reynaud  Government  then  came  in 
for  some  of  the  criticism  that  forced  the  resigna- 
tion of  Prime  Minister  Chamberlain  in  Great 
Britain.  The  stability  of  the  cabinet  was  again  in 
danger  when  the  German  onslaught  against  Lux- 
emburg, Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands  on  the 
morning  of  May  10  inaugurated  the  decisive  bat- 
tles on  the  Western  Front. 

The  Struggle  for  Survival.  Again  the  parties 
and  groups  hostile  to  the  government  withheld 
their  criticisms  and  temporarily  abandoned  their 
partisan  maneuvers  to  support  the  government  in 
meeting  France's  supreme  test  on  the  field  of  bat- 
tle. Premier  Reynaud  moved  to  widen  the  gov- 
ernment's support  by  adding  to  the  War  Cabinet 
as  Ministers  of  State  two  extreme  Rightists,  Louis 
Marin  (Republican  Federation)  and  Jean  Ybarn- 
Sgaray  of  the  pro-Fascist  French  Social  party.  A 
month  before  their  parties  had  refused  to  join  the 
cabinet  because  of  their  unwillingness  to  co- 
operate with  the  Socialists. 

Reynaud,  with  the  support  of  a  majority  of  the 
government,  made  heroic  efforts  to  check  the  mili- 
tary debacle  that  began  with  the  quick  collapse  of 
the  Netherlands,  the  piercing  df  the  main  Belgian 
defense  lines  before  Allied  troops  could  reach  their 
assigned  positions,  and  the  fatal  German  break 
through  the  French  defense  system  along  the 


FRANCE 


280 


FRANCS 


Meusc  between  Namur  and  Montm^dy  on  May  15 
(see  EUROPEAN  WAR).  On  May  16  Parii  was 
placed  under  military  rule  and  Premier  Reynaud 
warned  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  the  French 
people  that  new  "methods  and  men"  might  be  nec- 
essary. On  May  18  he  took  over  direct  control  of 
the  War  Ministry  from  Daladier,  to  whom  he 
transferred  the  Foreign  Affairs  portfolio.  The  aged 
Marshal  Henri  Philippe  P&tain,  famous  organizer 
of  French  resistance  at  Verdun  in  the  World  War, 
was  called  home  from  his  Ambassadorship  in  Ma- 
drid to  become  Vice  Premier  and  chief  adviser  to 
Reynaud  in  the  conduct  of  the  war.  Georges  Man- 
del,  disciple  of  Clemenceau  and  an  able  adminis- 
trator, was  appointed  Minister  of  Interior  to  carry 
out  the  Premier's  orders  that  weakness  be  punished 
by  death.  Armament  and  airplane  factories  were 
placed  on  a  24-hour  basis,  while  strong  measures 
were  taken  against  spies,  saboteurs,  and  slackers. 

On  May  19  Gen.  Maxime  Weygand  was  hur- 
riedly recalled  from  Syria  to  replace  Gen.  Marie 
Gustave  Gamelin  as  commander-in-chief  of  all 
French  armed  forces.  With  the  inexorable  German 
advance  continuing,  Premier  Reynaud  told  the 
Senate  on  May  21  the  full  story  of  the  disaster 
that  was  overtaking  French  arms.  "The  truth  is," 
he  declared,  "that  our  classic  conception  of  war- 
fare has  run  counter  to  a  new  conception.  The 
basis  of  this  conception  is  not  only  in  the  massive 
use  of  armored  divisions  and  of  fighting  airplanes ; 
it  is  in  the  disorganization  of  the  enemy  rear  .  .  ." 
He  declared  the  German  forcing  of  the  Meuse  was 
achieved  as  a  result  of  "unbelievable  faults  which 
will  be  punished."  These  revelations  and  Reynaud's 
appeal  for  a  super-human  effort  to  save  France 
awoke  the  ill-informed  nation  from  its  compla- 
cency, but  last-minute  efforts  to  remedy  the  situa- 
tion proved  unavailing. 

The  surrender  of  the  Belgian  army  by  King 
Leopold  and  the  defeat  of  nearly  one-third  of  the 
Allied  forces  in  the  Battle  of  Flanders,  which 
ended  with  the  German  capture  of  Dunkirk  on 
June  3  (see  EUROPEAN  WAR),  lent  impetus  to  de- 
mands of  defeatist  elements  for  immediate  peace 
negotiations.  However  Premier  Reynaud  resolute- 
ly rejected  talk  of  surrender.  On  June  6,  the  day 
after  the  Germans  launched  their  offensive  against 
the  hastily  improvised  Somme  front,  Reynaud  re- 
organized his  government  to  eliminate  the  defeat- 
ists and  others.  He  took  over  the  Foreign  Affairs 
portfolio  from  Daladier,  who  was  dropped,  and 
named  Jean  Prouyost,  France's  leading  newspaper 
publisher,  as  Minister  of  Information.  Maj.  Gen. 
Charles  de  Gaulle,  long  an  unheeded  advocate  of 
mechanized  warfare,  became  Reynaud's  chief  as- 
sistant in  the  War  Ministry,  and  Paul  Baudouin, 
president  of  the  Bank  of  Indo-China,  was  chosen 
to  assist  the  Premier  in  the  Foreign  Office.  Albert 
Sarraut,  Lucien  Lamoureux,  Anatole  de  Monzie, 
and  Marcel  H6raud  were  replaced  by  Yvon  Del- 
bos,  Marcel  Bouthillier,  Louis  Oscar  Frossard,  and 
Georges  Pernot,  respectively. 

In  the  face  of  the  steady  German  advance,  the 
Premier  made  a  final  effort  to  rally  all  French 
forces  to  avert  catastrophe.  Ably  aided  by  Minis- 
ter of  Interior  Mandel,  he  took  further  measures 
to  punish  slackers,  fifth  columnists,  and  other  pro- 
German  elements.  At  the  same  time  he  named 
Eirik  Labonne  to  the  vacant  French  Embassy  in 
Moscow  in  an  effort  to  gain  Soviet  aid.  The  "mir- 
acle" for  which  Reynaud  strove  failed  to  mate- 
rialize, however.  On  June  10  his  government  was 
forced  to  leave  Paris  for  Tours.  Italy  entered  the 


war  on  the  German  side  the  same  day,  eliminating 
hope  that  the  beaten  French  armies  might  make  a 
successful  stand  in  southern  France.  The  attitude 
of  Spain  also  became  threatening.  On  the  night  of 
June  13  the  government  fled  from  Tours  to  Bor- 
deaux, and  the  following  day  German  troops  oc- 
cupied Paris. 

Fill  of  Reyntud.  These  tragic  events  rein- 
forced the  peace  faction  in  France.  Members  of 
the  cabinet  demanded  that  the  Premier  open  nego- 
tiations for  an  armistice.  Hoping  to  win  sufficient 
American  support  to  remain  in  office  and  prosecute 
the  war  to  the  bitter  end,  the  Premier  on  June  10 
sent  a  personal  appeal  to  President  Roosevelt  for 
"material  support  by  all  means  'short  of  an  expe- 
ditionary force.' "  He  declared  that  if  his  govern- 
ment were  driven  out  of  France  "we  shall  estab- 
lish ourselves  in  North  Africa  to  continue  the 
fight  and  if  necessary  in  our  American  posses- 
sions." 

By  June  12  Reynaud's  position  was  gravely  en- 
dangered. President  Lebrun  presided  over  a  cabi- 
net session  in  the  Chateau  de  Cange,  Tours,  that 
day.  Premier  Reynaud  called  in  General  Weygand, 
who  in  "the  most  dramatic  meeting  of  any  govern- 
ment in  the  French  Republic's  history"  informed 
the  ministers  that  the  military  position  of  the 
French  armies  was  hopeless.  The  cabinet  unani- 
mously decided  to  ask  Prime  Minister  Churchill 
to  come  to  France  for  consultation.  Churchill  ar- 
rived at  Tours  on  June  13,  accompanied  by  Foreign 
Secretary  Halifax,  Lord  Beaverbrook,  Minister  of 
Aircraft  Production,  and  a  cabinet  secretary.  They 
conferred  with  Premier  Reynaud  and  Minister  of 
Interior  Mandel. 

Reynaud  asked  the  British  Prime  Minister  to  re- 
lease France  from  her  obligation  not  to  open  peace 
negotiations  without  Britain's  consent.  According 
to  Churchill's  account  of  this  interview,  given  be- 
fore the  House  of  Commons  on  June  2S,  he  re- 
fused his  consent  but  agreed  that  if  the  United 
States  failed  to  guarantee  sufficient  aid  to  enable 
Reynaud  to  continue  the  struggle,  he  would  recon- 
sider his  decision.  He  also  undertook  to  send  all 
possible  British  aid  to  the  hard-pressed  French 
armies.  According  to  a  statement  of  the  P£tain 
Government  issued  June  24,  Reynaud  informed  the 
cabinet  after  his  conference  with  Churchill  that 
the  latter  had  stated  that  Britain  would  not  blame 
France  if  events  forced  her  to  seek  an  armistice. 

That  same  evening  Premier  Reynaud  (June  13) 
broadcast  his  final  appeal  to  the  United  States  for 
"clouds"  of  war  planes.  He  frankly  admitted  that 
the  Battle  of  France  was  lost  and  implied  that 
France  could  not  continue  the  war  without  the 
"hope  of  a  common  victory"  through  American 
aid.  President  Roosevelt  replied  on  June  IS  that 
his  administration  would  redouble  its  efforts  to 
supply  the  Allied  war  needs  as  long  as  they  re- 
sisted, but  that  only  Congress  could  make  military 
commitments.  He  added  that  the  U.S.  Government 
would  not  recognize  infringement  by  force  of  the 
"independence  and  territorial  integrity  of  France." 

On  June  16  Reynaud  advised  Churchill  that  the 
President's  response  did  not  meet  France's  need. 
He  again  requested  release  from  the  Anglo-French 
agreement  not  to  make  a  separate  peace.  The  Brit- 
ish Government's  reply  stated  that  while  Britain 
was  determined  to  continue  the  struggle,  it  would 
agree  to  French  armistice  negotiations  provided 
the  French  fleet  was  sent  to  British  ports  and  held 
there  during  the  negotiations.  Seeking  to  induce 
France  to  continue  the  war,  the  British  a  few 


K  ide  U  nrld 

OI-FK  IAL  END  OP  THE  FRENCH  REPUBLIC 
1  ht  French  National  Assembly,  convened  in  a  theater  in  \  ichy,  uhen  it  voted  in  favor  of  a  totalitarian  dictatorship 


Wide  World 


MARSHAL  HENRI  PHILIPPE  PfiTAIN  AND  HIS  CABINET 


right     Gen  Charles  mmiziger,  war,  Raphael  Alibert,  Justice,  Marshal  Pelam,  Chief  of  State,  Paul  Baud 
Admiral  Jean  Darlan,  Navy,  Pierre  Caziot,  Agriculture,  Marcel  Peyrouton,  Interior,  Pierre  Laval,  Vice  Pre 
on  December  14;  Yves  Boutilher,  finance,  and  Rene*  Belln,  Industrial  Production 


Acme 


GENERAL  MAXIME  WE\GAND  (LEFT)  ARRIVES  IN  MOROCCO 
Accompanied  by  Gen  Auguste  Nogues,  Weygand  is  welcomed  at  Rabat  by  Moroccan  chiefs  and  French  officers 


Wide  World 


GENERAL  DE  GAULLE  INSPECTING  "FREE  FRENCH"  TROOPS  IN  LONDON 


FRANCE 


hours  later  formally  proposed  the  "indissoluble  un- 
ion" of  the  British  and  French  empires,  with  a 
constitution  providing  "joint  organs  of  defense, 
foreign,  financial  and  economic  policies" ;  the  con- 
ferring of  British  citizenship  on  all  Frenchmen  and 
French  citizenship  on  all  British  subjects;  joint 
responsibility  for  the  repair  of  war  devastation  on 
their  territories;  a  single  war  cabinet  controlling 
all  Anglo-French  forces  on  land,  sea,  and  air ;  and 
formal  association  of  the  British  and  French  Par- 
liaments. 

This  offer  was  rejected.  Instead  the  Reynaud 
Cabinet,  meeting  again  the  same  night,  voted  13 
to  11  in  favor  of  concluding  a  separate  peace.  Rey- 
naud immediately  resigned  and  a  new  government 
headed  by  Marshal  Petain  was  formed  to  sue  for 
peace.  It  included  Camille  Chautemps  as  Vice  Pre- 
mier, Generals  Weygand,  Louis  Colson,  Bertrand 
Pujo,  and  Adm.  Jean  Darlan  as  heads  of  the  de- 
fense ministries,  and  other  officials  who  had  held 
posts  in  the  two  Reynaud  cabinets. 

On  June  17  Marshal  Petain,  whose  support  of 
Weygand's  capitulation  proposal  had  beep  decisive, 
announced  to  his  stunned  countrymen  in  a  radio 
address  that  as  Premier  of  France  he  had  applied 
to  Hitler  the  previous  night  for  an  honorable  ter- 
mination of  hostilities.  This  appeal,  forwarded 
through  Gen  Francisco  Franco  of  Spain,  was 
made  with  full  expectation  that  France  s  victori- 
ous enemies  would  demand  Alsace-Lorraine,  Nice, 
Savoy,  and  other  border  areas ;  Corsica ;  overseas 
colonies,  and  probably  the  French  fleet  as  the  price 
of  peace. 

Three  high  British  cabinet  and  naval  officials 
were  rushed  to  Bordeaux  by  Prime  Minister 
Churchill  to  remind  the  Petain  Government  that 
the  condition  on  which  Britain  agreed  to  release 
France  from  her  alliance  obligations— dispatch  of 
the  French  fleet  to  British  ports — had  not  been 
complied  with.  They  received  assurances  from  Ad- 
miral Darlan  and  other  members  of  the  govern- 
ment that  the  fleet  would  never  be  allowed  to  fall 
into  German  and  Italian  hands.  Yet  the  Petain 
Government,  after  some  hesitation  and  debate,  au- 
thorized General  Huntziger  to  sign  the  armistice 
accords,  providing  among  other  hard  conditions 
that  the  French  fleet  should  be  demobilized  and 
disarmed  under  German  or  Italian  control  in  ports 
to  be  specified  by  the  victors. 

According  to  officials  of  the  Petain  Government, 
they  surrendered  for  the  following  reasons  (1) 
To  end  the  slaughter  of  French  troops,  the  suffer- 
ing of  hordes  of  refugees  driven  before  the  ad- 
vancing German  armies,  and  the  devastation  of 
cities  and  towns  in  unoccupied  France  by  German 
and  Italian  air  raids,  (2)  to  forestall  the  military 
occupation  of  all  France  and  to  maintain  the  gov- 
ernment on  unoccupied  French  soil  in  order  to  lead 
the  nation  through  the  trials  awaiting  it,  and  (3) 
because  Britain  and  the  other  French  allies  were 
unable  to  give  the  aid  needed  to  continue  the  strug- 
gle. Neutral  observers  asserted  that  the  Pftain 
Government  was  composed  of  persons  who  believed 
an  early  German  victory  over  Britain  certain  and 
that  a  pro- Axis  policy  was  henceforth  necessary 
in  order  to  obtain  more  lenient  peace  terms  from 
Hitler  and  Mussolini  than  would  be  possible  if 
France  fought  to  the  bitter  end  with  Britain.  This 
view  was  supported  by  the  inclusion  in  the  govern- 
ment on  the  day  after  the  Franco-German  armi- 
stice was  signed  of  former  Premier  Pierre  Laval, 
who  replaced  Chautemps  as  Vice  Premier,  and 
Mayor  Adnen  Marquet  of  Bordeaux.  Both  were 


281  FRANCE 

known  for  their  marked  pro-Nazi  and  pro-Fascist 
leanings. 

Split  over  Armistice.  The  Petain  Government's 
surrender  and  adoption  of  a  pro-Axis  orientation 
deepened  the  divisions  among  the  French  people. 
On  June  20,  while  Premier  Petain's  order  to  con- 
tinue resistance  until  honorable  peace  terms  were 
obtained  was  still  in  effect,  a  group  of  nearly  100 
parliamentary  leaders,  opposed  to  surrender,  sailed 
from  Le  Verdon  near  Bordeaux  on  the  steamship 
Massilia  for  Casablanca,  French  Morocco.  The 
group  was  headed  by  the  ex-cabinet  officers  Dala- 
dier,  Campinchi,  Delbos,  and  Mandel.  French  au- 
thorities aided  the  ship's  departure,  arousing  belief 
that  the  P6tain  Government  was  seriously  consid- 
ering continuation  of  the  struggle. 

At  Casablanca  the  parliamentarians  were  wel- 
comed by  Gen.  Albert  Nogues,  Resident  General 
of  Morocco,  who  at  first  seemed  disposed  to  con- 
tinue the  war.  However  he  received  orders  to  de- 
tain the  Massilia  and  its  passengers,  and  was  won 
over  to  acceptance  of  the  armistice  by  Gen.  Henri 
Gouraud,  whom  Marshal  Petain  sent  post-haste  to 
Casablanca  on  June  27.  Meanwhile  the  British  Gov- 
ernment had  sent  General  Lord  Gort  and  Minister 
of  Information  Duff  Cooper  to  Morocco  to  estab- 
lish contact  with  Daladier  and  his  associates  and 
persuade  them  to  fight  on  with  Britain.  Through 
some  misunderstanding,  they  landed  by  seaplane  at 
Rabat  instead  of  Casablanca.  The  French  authori- 
ties at  Rabat  displayed  a  hostile  attitude  and  re- 
fused to  allow  the  British  representatives  to  get 
in  touch  with  those  on  board  the  Massilia 

This  convinced  the  British  of  the  authenticity  of 
a  report — said  to  have  been  deliberately  circulated 
by  the  Germans— that  an  agreement  had  been 
reached  for  the  surrender  of  the  French  fleet  at 
Oran  The  British  attack  on  the  French  fleet  fol- 
lowed on  July  3,  ending  all  hope  of  forming  a 
separatist  government  in  North  Africa.  The  par- 
liamentarians on  the  Massilia  were  refused  trans- 
port facilities  by  the  Franco-German  armistice 
commission  when  they  sought  to  return  to  Vichy 
for  the  July  9-10  session  of  Parliament  (see  be- 
low). Some  of  the  most  prominent  were  later  re- 
turned to  France  under  arrest  to  face  trials  or 
court-martials. 

Ex-Premier  Reynaud  also  attempted  to  leave 
France  in  order  to  organize  resistance  in  North 
Africa,  but  was  turned  back  at  the  Spanish  border 
and  arrested.  Thus  the  little-known  Gen.  Charles 
de  Gaulle  was  left  to  assume  leadership  of  the  nu- 
merous Frenchmen  at  home  and  in  the  colonies  who 
refused  to  accept  the  armistice  and  repudiated  the 
Petain  Government.  He  had  gone  to  London  upon 
the  collapse  of  the  Reynaud  Cabinet,  in  which  he 
was  Under-Secretary  for  War,  and  issued  radio 
appeals  to  the  French  people  to  continue  the  strug- 
gle. On  June  23  he  announced  the  formation,  in 
agreement  with  the  British  Cabinet,  of  a  French 
National  Committee  in  London  to  carry  on  the  war 
in  alliance  with  Britain.  On  June  28  the  British 
Government  formally  recognized  de  Gaulle  as 
"leader  of  all  free  Frenchmen,  wherever  they  may 
be,  who  rally  to  him  in  support  of  the  Allied 
cause." 

General  de  Gaulle  declared  that  France  could  not 
honorably  surrender  while  the  governments  of  Po- 
land, Norway,  the  Netherlands,  Belgium,  and  Lux- 
emburg continued  to  fight  as  allies  of  Britain  and 
while  France  had  at  her  disposal  a  vast  empire  with 
large  military  forces,  a  formidable  fleet,  and  a 
large  gold  reserve  deposited  in  England  and  the 


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United  States.  In  defiance  of  Plain's  orders,  he 
recruited  Frenchmen  in  Britain,  the  French  colo- 
nies, and  foreign  countries  to  continue  Hie  struggle. 
The  Pe'tatn  Government  depraved  him  of  his  mili- 
tary rank  on  June  23  and  on  July  7  a  military  court 
in  Toulouse  sentenced  him  in  absentia  to  four  years 
in  prison  for  disobeying  orders  and  inciting  sol- 
diers to  disobedience.  On  August  2  he  was  sen- 
tenced to  death,  also  in  absentia,  for  plotting  against 
the  State. 

Punitive  measures  were  taken  against  other 
French  leaders,  within  and  without  France,  for 
their  refusal  to  accept  the  armistice.  After  several 
plots  against  the  Pttain  regime  had  been  discov- 
ered, street  assemblies  and  demonstrations  were 
forbidden  on  June  24.  However  the  bulk  of  the 
military  and  political  leaders  remaining  in  France 
rallied  behind  Marshal  Ptein.  Largely  through 
the  influence  of  General  Weygand,  Petain  over- 
came the  strong  opposition  of  French  commanders 
in  French  Indo-Cmna,  Syria,  Algeria,  and  Tunisia 
to  the  armistice  and  secured  their  pledge  of  al- 


ee Goes  Totalitarian.  At  the  end  of  June, 
the  Pertain  Government  moved  from  Bordeaux  to 
Clermont-Ferrand  and  then  to  Vichy.  On  July  5, 
Pe*tain  announced  that  he  had  designated  his  new 
Vice  Premier,  Pierre  Laval,  to  draw  up  a  consti- 
tution giving  France  an  "ultra-modern  version  of 
democracy."  On  July  9, 398  out  of  the  618  Deputies 
in  the  Chamber  and  226  out  of  314  Senators  met 
in  Vichy  and  approved  a  draft  resolution  giving 
Marshal  P£tain  full  power  to  promulgate  a  new 
constitution.  The  vote  was  395  to  3  in  the  Chamber 
and  229  to  1  in  the  State.  There  was  no  debate  on 
the  resolution  on  July  9,  but  when  it  came  before 
both  houses  meeting  jointly  as  the  National  As- 
sembly on  July  10,  opposition  groups  succeeded  hi 
inserting  a  provision  for  a  national  plebiscite  on 
the  new  charter.  The  resolution  was  then  formally 
enacted,  569  to  80.  It  was  stipulated  that  the  con- 
stitution "shall  guarantee  the  rights  of  work,  fam- 
ily and  native  country"  and  be  "applied  by  the  As- 
semblies which  it  shall  create  " 

Under  authority  of  this  resolution,  Marshal 
P&atn  issued  six  Constitutional  Acts  establishing 
an  authoritarian  regime  and  repudiating  the  prin- 
ciples and  abolishing  the  institutions  which  France 
derived  from  the  French  Revolution.  By  Act  No. 

1  (July  11),  he  assumed  the  functions  of  the  head 
of  the  French  State  and  repealed  Art  2  of  the 
1875  Constitution  providing  for  the  election  of  a 
President  by  the  National  Assembly.  By  Act  No. 

2  (July  11),  he  assumed  virtually  unlimited  pow- 
ers of  administration  and  legislation,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  power  to  declare  war.  By  Act  No.  3 
(July  11),  he  decreed  that  the  Senate  and  Cham- 
ber should  remain  in  existence  until  the  Assemblies 
provided  for  in  the  Constitutional  Law  of  July  10 
were  formed.  The  Senate  and  Chamber  were  or- 
dered to  adjourn  until  further  order;  they  were 
to  convene  only  at  the  call  of  the  Head  of  the 
State. 

By  Act  No.  4  (July  12),  Marshal  Pfcaln  pro- 
Tided  that  Pierre  Laval  should  automatically  suc- 
ceed him  if  he  should  be  prevented  from  exercis- 
ing his  functions  before  ratification  by  the  nation 
of  the  new  constitution.  If  Laval  were  prevented 
from  assuming  the  office,  the  Council  of  Ministers 
would  assume  the  powers  of  the  Chief  of  State 
until  they  designated  someone  to  fill  the  post  "by 
a  majority  of  seven  votes."  Act  No.  5  of  July  30 
provided  for  the  establishment  of  a  Supreme  Court 


of  Justice.  A  supplementary  law  of  the  same  date 
authorized  the  court  to  try  officials  for  crimes,  mis- 
demeanors, or  betrayal  of  duty  and  all  persons 
charged  with  attacks  against  the  security  of  the 
State;  it  was  empowered  to  sit  in  secret  session 
"whenever  the  public  interest  calls  for  it"  All  pro- 
visions of  the  1875  Constitution  contrary  to  these 
five  Constitutional  Acts  were  abrogated. 

The  Dictatorship  in  Action.  In  assuming  dic- 
tatorial powers  on  July  11,  Marshal  Petain  in  a 
radio  broadcast  to  the  nation  declared  that  labor 
was  France's  "supreme  resource,"  that  "interna- 
tional capitalism  and  socialism  exploited  and  de- 
graded France"  and  must  be  excluded  from  the 
new  order,  that  an  "elite  corps"  of  leaders  must  be 
created,  and  the  family  strengthened  and  preserved. 
He  stated  that  the  government  was  preparing  to 
return  to  German-occupied  territory  and  had  re- 
quested "that  Versailles  and  the  ministerial  quar- 
ters in  Paris  be  vacated  for  us." 

On  July  12  he  named  a  new  cabinet  with  Laval 
as  Vice  Premier  and  the  other  Ministers  as  fol- 
lows :  Defense,  Gen.  Maxime  Weygand ;  Interior, 
Adrien  Marquet ;  Foreign  Affairs,  Paul  Baudouin ; 
Finance,  Yves  Bouthillier;  Justice,  Raphael  Ali- 
bert;  Youth  and  Family,  Jean  YbarnSgaray;  Ag- 
riculture, Pierre  Caziot ;  Communications,  Deputy 
Francois  Pietri;  Colonies,  Sea  Henri  Lemery; 
Public  Instruction,  Sen.  Emile  Mireaux.  The  Mar- 
shal also  announced  that  he  would  appoint  gov- 
ernors for  the  12  French  provinces,  giving  them 
a  large  measure  of  personal  responsibility  and  au- 
thority. 

Under  the  direction  of  Pltain  and  his  Ministers, 
the  complete  reorganization  of  France  along  to- 
talitarian lines  was  gradually  carried  into  effect. 
The  process  was  by  no  means  completed  by  the 
year's  end  and  the  promised  new  constitution  was 
still  in  the  process  of  formulation,  but  the  main 
outlines  of  the  new  State  had  been  shaped.  Munici- 
pal elections  were  provisionally  abolished  in  2722 
towns  and  cities  having  more  than  2000  inhabit- 
ants in  order  to  end  municipal  politics  and  electoral 
strife.  Administration  of  these  communities  by 
technical  experts  along  the  lines  of  the  American 
city  manager  system  was  planned.  On  December 
15  Marshal  P&ain  announced  his  intention  of  cre- 
ating a  Consultative  Assembly.  A  decree  of  De- 
cember 25  made  the  prefects  the  supreme  authori- 
ties in  the  departments,  subordinate  to  the  provin- 
cial governors  but  with  authority  over  all  local 
officials.  There  was  a  sweeping  reorganization  of 
the  personnel  of  the  prefects,  judiciary*  police,  and 
virtually  all  other  governmental  services.  The  new 
Supreme  Court,  created  to  fix  war  responsibilities, 
and  the  Summary  Court,  to  curb  subversion,  com- 
menced operations. 

Church  and  Educational  Reforms.  Secret  so- 
cieties were  abolished,  their  headquarters  closed 
and  their  properties  confiscated  in  a  move  aimed 
chiefly  at  Freemasonry.  All  government  officials 
were  required  to  take  an  oath  barring  membership 
in  secret  societies.  Jews  were  barred  from  direct- 
ing positions  in  the  government  and  from  some 
professions.  The  influence  and  some  former  privi- 
leges of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  were  restored. 
Public  church  processions,  banned  for  many  years, 
were  resumed  in  August  on  Assumption  Day.  In 
September  the  Cabinet  abrogated  the  law  of  1904 
forbidding  religious  orders  to  teach  in  France,  and 
the  law  of  1901  discriminating  against  religious 
associations. 

The  educational  system  was  reorganized  both  as 


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283 


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to  personnel  and  methods.  Liberal  and  radical  in- 
fluences were  eliminated  and  inculcation  of  the 
love  of  family,  home,  and  country  was  made  a 
major  objective.  Physical  education  and  sports  were 
emphasized.  Latin  was  made  compulsory  in  lower 
grades,  and  normal  colleges  for  training  teachers 
of  primary  schools  were  abolished.  A  youth  pro- 
gram was  initiated  "to  prepare  youth  morally  and 
physically  to  meet  the  painful  exigencies  of  exist- 
ence." To  replace  the  former  conscript  system, 
abolished  by  the  armistice,  all  youths  in  their 
twenties  were  required  to  enroll  for  six  months  in 
a  compulsory  National  Service  organization,  mod- 
eled on  the  German  labor  camps.  All  private  youth 
organizations  were  placed  under  government  su- 
pervision. In  an  effort  to  strengthen  and  encourage 
the  family,  various  State  subsidies  were  given  par- 
ents of  large  families.  Divorce  was  made  more 
difficult.  The  education  of  girls  was  revised  to 
stress  preparation  for  family  life,  and  moral  and 
legal  barriers  were  erected  against  women  in  the 
professions  and  in  industry. 

Censorship  Measures.  A  partial  prohibition 
law,  banning  strong  drinks  in  the  afternoon,  was 
introduced.  State  supervision  was  established  over 
the  medical  profession,  the  motion  pictures,  the 
press,  and  other  forms  of  communication  and  prop- 
aganda. Foreigners  were  barred  from  French  jour- 
nalism and  advertising,  and  publicity  as  well  as  news 
and  editorials  were  strictly  censored.  On  Novem- 
ber 3  the  government  took  over  the  Havas  news 
agency.  At  the  same  time  severe  penalties  were 
established  for  listening  to  foreign  radio  stations 
broadcasting  "anti-national"  propaganda  and  for 
the  publication  of  slurs  or  attacks  upon  the  Chief 
of  State.  A  government  Office  of  Information  was 
established  December  20  to  centralize  and  control 
the  distribution  of  all  news  in  France. 

Economic  Reorganization.  The  dictatorship 
also  undertook  the  reorganization  of  the  economic 
system  along  corporative  lines.  Labor  unions,  em- 
ployers' associations,  and  trusts  were  dissolved.  The 
regime  of  economic  liberalism  was  abolished.  New 
federations  of  workers,  employers,  and  professional 
men  were  established  under  strict  government  con- 
trol and  supervision.  Each  industry  was  placed  un- 
der a  standard  organization  attached  to  a  cabinet 
Ministry  and  a  permit  system  made  membership  in 
the  organization  and  observance  of  its  rules  and 
regulations  a  virtual  necessity.  State  control  over 
production,  marketing,  and  consumption  of  indus- 
trial goods  was  established  September  12.  The 
French  Line  was  reorganized  under  government 
control  on  December  15.  The  rebuilding  and  elec- 
trification of  the  railway  system  was  undertaken. 

The  franc  was  detached  from  the  pound  sterling 
and  placed  on  a  managed  currency  basis.  The  task 
of  framing  the  1941  budget  was  placed  in  the  hands 
of  a  committee  of  13  members  appointed  by  Mar- 
shal Pttain.  Standard  prices  were  imposed  for  sta- 
ble foods  and  other  necessities  and  this,  together 
with  rationing  regulations  and  the  control  of  pro- 
duction and  distribution,  maintained  prices  on  a 
fairly  stable  level.  Foreign  commerce  was  severe- 
ly regulated  and  conducted  mainly  on  a  barter  ba- 
sis. 

Particular  care  was  taken  in  reorganizing  agri- 
culture on  a  corporative  basis.  Local  syndicates  of 
peasant  families  were  grouped  into  regional  un- 
ions functioning  through  regional  councils,  charged 
with  supervision  of  insurance,  health,  etc.  Delega- 
tions from  the  regional  unions  were  to  form  a  na- 
tional council,  charged  with  supervision  over  the 


regional  units.  In  addition  the  national  council  was 
to  control  special  groups  of  peasants,  organized  by 
categories  of  production,  to  promote  agricultural 
progress.  A  back-to-the-land  movement  was  initi- 
ated, with  the  direct  assistance  and  under  the  or- 
ganized control  of  the  government  The  State  as- 
sumed power  to  give  landless  farmers  nine-year 
concessions  to  land  that  had  been  idle  for  more 
than  two  years.  It  undertook  the  organization  of 
"farm  crews"  to  aid  in  the  seasonal  activities  of 
sowing  and  harvesting.  Some  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  demobilized  soldiers  and  unemployed  work- 
ers were  mobilized  to  aid  in  the  reconstruction  of 
war  damage  and  other  State  activities. 

The  New  Army,  etc.  The  army  was  demobi- 
lized in  accordance  with  the  armistice  terms  and 
then  reorganized  on  a  volunteer  basis.  Large  num- 
bers of  officers  were  retired.  The  new  army  law 
of  October  9  provided  for  terms  of  service  varying 
from  three  to  15  years,  according  to  the  branch  of 
service.  Recruiting  of  a  "quality  force"  of  men 
between  18  and  25  was  begun  in  November.  The 
liberties  and  privileges  accorded  foreigners  in  re- 
publican France  were  withdrawn  and  many  of  anti- 
Nazi  refugees  from  Germany  and  German-occupied 
territories  were  turned  over  to  the  Gestapo  under 
the  terms  of  the  armistice.  Increasingly  harsh 
measures  were  taken  to  curb  underground  activities 
of  the  Communists,  who  had  played  a  prominent 
part  in  the  demoralization  and  defeat  of  France. 
On  October  25,  1000  "Communist  militants  and 
propagandists"  were  arrested  in  the  Paris  area  and 
elsewhere  and  a  number  of  arms  caches  were 
raided. 

Meanwhile  the  government  gradually  brought 
order  out  of  the  chaos  that  resulted  from  the  French 
military  collapse.  Most  of  the  10,000,000  refugees, 
who  had  fled  into  Southern  France  before  the  ad- 
vancing Germans,  were  repatriated.  (Over  3,000,- 
000  persons  had  left  the  Paris  area  alone.)  The 
number  of  unemployed  was  reduced  to  about  800,- 
000  by  the  year  end.  Some  2,000,000  demobilized 
soldiers  were  returned  to  their  homes. 

The  Food  Problem.  The  food  shortage  became 
increasingly  acute,  notwithstanding  the  progressive 
tightening  of  the  rationing  system  introduced  on 
October  1.  In  August  an  American  Red  Cross  of- 
ficial reported  that  the  "situation  throughout  France 
now  is  worse  than  in  Belgium  after  the  World 
War  and  is  growing  still  worse."  The  Germans 
shipped  large  quantities  of  foodstuffs  from  France 
to  the  Reich  and  in  addition  the  army  of  occupa- 
tion requisitioned  much  French  produce.  The  dis- 
ruption of  the  French  transportation  and  distribu- 
tion system  also  made  it  difficult  to  distribute  ex- 
isting food  supplies.  However  some  food  shipments 
were  B  received  from  the  French  North  African 
colonies  and  a  small  quantity  of  American  relief 
supplies  were  allowed  through  the  British  block- 
ade, which  cut  France  off  from  most  of  the  out- 
side sources  of  supply.  As  a  result,  actual  famine 
was  averted  during  1940  although  the  shortage  of 
food,  fuel,  and  clothing  caused  widespread  hard- 
ship. 

Purge  of  Opposition  Leaders.  While  laving 
the  foundations  for  a  Fascist  France,  the  Petain 
Government  undertook  a  "moral  purge"  of  the  op- 
position leaders.  The  Supreme  Court  of  Justice, 
created  under  the  Constitutional  Act  of  July  30, 
convened  at  Riom  on  August  8.  After  a  secret  in- 
vestigation into  the  alleged  "crimes  and  misde- 
meanors" of  governmental  officials  held  responsible 
for  France's  involvement  and  defeat  in  war  and 


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others  charged  with  attempts  against  the  security 
of  the  State,  indictments  were  returned  on  Sep- 
tember 5  against  former  Air  Ministers  Guy  La 
Chambre  and  Pierre  Cot,  both  of  whom  were  then 
hi  the  United  States. 

On  September  7,  ex-Premiers  Daladier  and 
Reynaud  and  General  Gamelin  were  taken  into 
"administrative  internment"  under  Daladier's  de- 
cree of  Sept.  3,  1939,  providing  for  the  internment 
of  persons  regarded  as  dangerous  to  public  secur- 
ity and  the  national  defense.  Former  Minister  of 
Interior  Mandel  was  brought  from  Morocco  and 
confined  under  the  same  law  on  September  11.  On 
September  15  ex-Premier  Leon  Blum  was  confined 
with  the  four  other  notables  in  the  Chateau  de 
Chazeron  near  Vichy.  Subsequently  many  other 
leaders  of  the  Popular  Front  and  of  the  Daladier 
and  Reynaud  Governments  were  interned. 

The  public  prosecutor  assigned  to  the  Riom 
court  asked  the  indictment  of  Daladier  and  Game- 
lin on  September  18.  Daladier  was  accused  of  de- 
claring war  without  consulting  Parliament  and  of 
failing  to  equip  the  army  properly  while  serving  as 
Minister  of  War.  General  Gamelin  was  charged 
with  blundering  in  his  conduct  of  French  military 
operations.  On  October  19,  the  prosecutor  asked 
the  indictment  of  Blum  for  "betrayal  of  the  duties 
of  his  charge"  as  Premier  in  the  first  Popular 
Front  Government;  of  Mandel  for  "corruption 
and  speculation  on  the  value  of  the  national  cur- 
rency;" and  of  Reynaud  for  "embezzlement  of 
public  funds." 

On  November  17  Gamelin,  Daladier,  and  Blum 
were  formally  arrested  and  transferred  from  the 
Chateau  de  Chazeron  to  the  detention  center  at 
Bourrasol  near  Riom  A  few  days  later  Reynaud 
and  Mandel  were  moved  to  Pellevoisin,  where  a 
dozen  lesser  political  figures  and  airplane  manu- 
facturers were  being  detained.  At  the  end  of  De- 
cember, preparations  were  still  being  made  at 
Riom  for  the  formal  trial  of  the  indicted  men. 

Vichy  officials  stated  that  the  purpose  of  these 
trials  was  to  apportion  responsibility  for  France's 
entrance  into  the  war  and  subsequent  defeat.  Gen- 
eral de  Gaulle,  in  London,  charged  that  "the 
wretched  people  who  betrayed  France  by  capitu- 
lating are  trying  to  divert  attention  from  their 
own  crimes."  Neutral  observers  in  France  report- 
ed that  the  Riom  trials  had  two  major  objectives — 
to  discredit  the  defunct  Republic  and  its  still  in- 
fluential leaders,  and  to  prove  to  the  Germans  that 
a  few  politicians  and  not  the  French  nation  as  a 
whole  were  responsible  for  France's  participation 
in  the  conflict.  It  was  hoped  in  this  way  to  temper 
the  harshness  of  the  terms  that  the  Germans  were 
believed  likely  to  impose  in  the  final  peace  settle- 
ment. 

Meanwhile  punishment  was  meted  out  to  many 
prominent  Leftist  politicians,  journalists,  bankers, 
and  others — many  of  them  Jews — who  had  taken 
refuge  abroad  and  continued  to  oppose  the  P£tain 
Government  and  its  program  of  collaboration  with 
Germany.  The  Vichy  Government  during  October 
revoked  the  citizenship  and  confiscated  the  prop- 
erties of  34  leading  exiles.  A  military  tribunal  at 
Clermont-Ferrand  tried  others  on  military  charges 
arising  from  their  support  of  General  de  Gaulle's 
"Free  French"  movement  or  from  the  ill-fated 
effort  of  Daladier  and  his  associates  to  continue 
the  war  from  North  Africa.  Jean  Zay,  who  re- 
signed his  post  as  Minister  of  Education  to  join 
the  army  when  war  was  declared,  and  Pierre 
Vienot,  Under-Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign 


Affairs  in  the  Blum  Government,  were  convicted 


of  desertion  for  going  to  Morocco  on  the  MassUia. 
Two  former  aides  of  Premier  Reynaud  were  con- 
victed in  absentia  of  desertion  and  removing  war 
documents.  Some  de  Gaullist  officers  arrested  for 
rebellious  activity  at  Dakar,  Senegal,  were  await- 
ing a  hearing  at  the  year's  end  on  treason  charges 
before  the  Summary  Court  established  to  try 
speculators  and  traitors. 

France  and  Germany.  Marshal  Plain's  ca- 
pitulation to  Germany  and  his  program  for  the  re- 
organization and  reconstruction  of  France  was 
predicated  largely  upon  his  conviction  that  a  Ger- 
man victory  over  Britain  was  inevitable  and  that 
France  must  come  to  terms  with  the  new  master 
of  Europe.  Hitler  likewise  anticipated  the  early 
collapse  of  British  resistance.  The  terms  of  the 
armistice  imposed  upon  France  were  based  on  that 
assumption.  When  the  British  fought  off  the  Ger- 
man air  invasion  during  August  and  September 
and  later  launched  successful  offensives  against 
the  Italians  in  Africa  and  the  Mediterranean,  the 
Vichy  and  Berlin  Governments  were  both  forced 
to  revise  their  policies. 

British  tenacity  strengthened  Petain's  hand  in 
resisting  German  demands,  while  at  the  same  time 
it  undermined  the  prestige  of  his  government 
among  Frenchmen  and  made  his  policy  of  limited 
collaboration  with  the  Reich  more  and  more  dan- 
gerous to  the  unity  of  the  nation  and  of  the  empire. 
Support  for  General  de  Gaulle's  "Free  French" 
movement  gained  momentum  with  each  British 
and  Greek  victory,  making  it  increasingly  difficult 
for  Vichy  to  hold  the  French  colonies  in  line 
Simultaneously  Hitler's  anxiety  to  win  French 
collaboration  against  Britain  increased,  and  the 
Germans  resorted  increasingly  to  a  combination  of 
threats  and  promises  to  secure  the  Vichy  Govern- 
ment's co-operation. 

Loss  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine.  Beginning  late 
in  July  the  Germanization  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine 
commenced  under  German  civil  administrators  ap- 
pointed by  Chancellor  Hitler.  National  Socialism 
was  introduced  a  step  at  a  time,  while  all  elements 
of  French  culture  were  rooted  out  through  repres- 
sive legislation,  the  deportation  of  French-speak- 
ing inhabitants,  the  closing  of  French  schools,  etc. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  year,  it  was  formally  an- 
nounced that  Alsace  and  Lorraine  were  being  re- 
incorporated  in  the  Reich. 

Conditions  in  Occupied  Area.  In  the  remain- 
der of  the  occupied  area  of  France,  German  meas- 
ures became  progressively  more  onerous  while  the 
long-drawn-out  negotiations  with  Vichy  proceed- 
ed. And -German  and  pro-British  individuals  were 
imprisoned  or  removed  from  their  positions.  On 
June  27  severe  penalties  were  imposed  for  the  pos- 
session of  arms  or  radio-sending  apparatus,  for 
listening  to  non-German  radio  broadcasts,  spread- 
ing anti-German  reports,  holding  meetings  or  dem- 
onstrations, and  for  either  the  dismissal  of  em- 
ployees or  the  quitting  of  work  by  employees  in 
order  to  harm  German  interests. 

Factories  in  the  occupied  area  were  put  to  work 
on  German  war  orders  wherever  possible.  The  ma- 
chinery of  others  was  shipped  to  Germany.  On 
Julyg28ma  ban  was  imposed  on  traffic  and  com- 
munication between  the  occupied  and  unoccupied 
areas,  while  a  mounting  barrage  of  criticism  was 
aimed  at  the  Vichy  Government  by  official  German 
spokesmen  and  by  the  press,  which  had  been  placed 
under  rigid  German  control.  French  producers  and 
storekeepers  were  forced  to  exchange  their  goods 


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for  paper  marks,  printed  especially  for  the  army 
of  occupation  and  not  exchangeable  outside  of  the 
occupied  area.  On  August  10  all  banks  and  other 
financial  institutions  in  the  occupied  zone  were 
placed  under  German  supervision. 

The  efforts  of  the  Vichy  Government  to  return 
to  Paris  in  accordance  with  the  armistice  terms 
were  repeatedly  rebuffed.  Marshal  Petain,  in  a 
broadcast  on  August  13,  announced  that  the  Ger- 
man Government  informed  him  on  August  7  that 
it  could  not  permit  the  transfer  to  Paris  "for 
reasons  of  a  technical  nature  and  so  long  as  cer- 
tain material  conditions  had  not  been  realized" 
From  various  sources  it  was  indicated  that  the 
Germans  wanted  the  co-operation  of  the  Vichy 
Government  in  obtaining  the  French  gold  reserves 
in  the  United  States.  They  demanded  the  elimina- 
tion of  suspected  anti-German  individuals  from 
the  Vichy  Cabinet  and  the  restriction  of  French 
authority  in  the  unoccupied  area.  Foreign  Minis- 
ter Baudouin  was  denounced  for  his  alleged  efforts 
to  form  an  I talo-French- Spanish  bloc  as  a  coun- 
ter-weight to  Germany. 

Pttaln  Reorganizes  Cabinet.  The  Vichy  Gov- 
ernment made  efforts  to  conciliate  the  Germans 
and  relieve  this  mounting  pressure.  Vichy  suspend- 
ed relations  with  the  refugee  Dutch  and  Belgian 
governments,  interned  all  British  subjects,  and  re- 
organized the  personnel  of  the  Foreign  Service  to 
eliminate  persons  unacceptable  to  Berlin.  More- 
over all  of  the  former  parliamentarians  in  the 
Petain  Government  except  Vice  Premier  Laval 
were  eliminated  in  a  cabinet  reorganization  on 
September  6.  Laval,  who  had  conducted  negotia- 
tions with  the  German  Ambassador  in  Pans,  ob- 
tained greatly  increased  powers.  He  secured  con- 
trol of  all  means  of  propaganda  and  communica- 
tion along  with  the  duty  of  co-ordinating  the  work 
of  the  various  governmental  departments. 

Important  changes  in  the  cabinet  included  the 
replacement  of  the  influential  Adrien  Marquet  as 
Minister  of  Interior  by  Marcel  Peyrouton  and  of 
War  Minister  Maxime  Weygand  by  Gen.  Charles 
Huntziger  Weygand  was  sent  to  French  North 
Africa  as  general  delegate,  armed  with  full  civil 
and  military  powers,  including  command  of  all 
France's  armed  forces  in  North  and  West  Africa 
and  Syria.  The  purpose  of  his  mission  was  not 
only  to  keep  the  colonies  loyal  to  the  Vichy  Gov- 
ernment but  also  to  back  up  Marshal  Pftain  in  his 
negotiations  with  the  Germans.  The  other  mem- 
bers of  the  cabinet  were  either  military-naval  men 
or  experienced  civil  servants  sympathetic  to  Pe- 
tain's  program  of  national  reconstruction. 

The  foregoing  measures  failed  to  appease  the 
Germans,  who  were  becoming  more  insistent  upon 
control  of  unoccupied  France  and  the  use  of 
French  air  and  naval  bases  in  North  Africa,  West 
Africa  and  Syria.  On  September  14  travel  and 
communication  between  the  occupied  and  unoccu- 
pied zones  were  further  restricted.  Deportations 
from  Alsace-Lorraine  and  other  parts  of  the  oc- 
cupied zone  were  increased  and  the  whole  machin- 
ery of  German  control  was  tightened.  Hundreds 
of  thousands  of  French  war  prisoners  were  sent  to 
Germany  to  augment  the  labor  force. 

In  a  message  to  the  French  people  on  October 
10,  Marshal  Petain  appealed  to  Hitler  to  make  "a 
wholly  new  peace  of  collaboration"  rather  than 
"the  traditional  peace  of  oppression."  He  said  that 
France  would  collaborate  with  the  Reich  on  an 
honorable  basis  but  that  "if  all  roads  are  closed  to 
us,  we  shall  know  how  to  suffer  and  wait" 


Hitler  and  Petain  Confer.  This  statement  was 
followed  by  a  new  effort  to  arrive  at  a  settlement 
with  the  Germans  that  would  ease  the  tragic  posi- 
tion of  French  war  prisoners  and  the  whole  civil 
population.  Vice  Premier  Laval  was  entrusted 
with  the  negotiations.  On  October  21  P£tain  an- 
nounced through  the  French  press  that  his  govern- 
ment had  decided  to  change  its  foreign  policy.  On 
the  following  day  Laval  conferred  with  Hitler  in 
Paris.  He  reported  to  the  cabinet  at  Vichy  and 
was  returning  to  Pans  for  further  discussion  with 
the  German  Fuehrer  when  Marshal  Petain  decided 
to  intervene  directly.  Laval  was  recalled  to  Vichy 
and  a  communique  was  issued  stating  that  under 
no  circumstances  would  France  fight  against  Brit- 
ain or  turn  over  her  fleet  or  armaments  for  war 
purposes.  It  was  indicated  that  Laval  had  agreed 
to  such  conditions  in  his  talks  with  Hitler  and  that 
P£tain  had  repudiated  Laval's  stand. 

There  followed  on  October  24  a  historic  meeting 
between  Hitler  and  Marshal  Petain  near  Tours  m 
occupied  France.  Two  days  later  the  Marshal  in- 
formed his  cabinet  that  after  discussing  means  of 
"reconstructing  peace  in  Europe"  they  had  "come 
to  agreement  on  the  principle  of  collaboration 
Methods  of  application  are  yet  to  be  examined." 
The  cabinet  approved  this  decision  and  on  October 
28  Vice  Premier  Laval  replaced  Paul  Baudouin  as 
Foreign  Minister  to  carry  on  the  negotiations  with 
the  Germans  for  application  of  the  accord  How- 
ever Petain  sent  War  Minister  Huntziger  to  Paris 
with  Laval  to  participate  in  the  negotiations.  In  a 
radio  broadcast  to  the  nation  on  October  30,  which 
hinted  at  dissensions  within  his  government,  the 
Marshal  called  upon  the  nation  and  the  colonial 
empire  to  follow  his  leadership.  He  said  he  had 
accepted  only  the  principle  of  collaboration  with 
Germany  and  that  such  collaboration  "might" 
lighten  France's  burden  by  improving  the  status 
of  the  war  prisoners,  reducing  the  cost  of  the  Ger- 
man occupation,  and  relaxing  the  barrier  between 
occupied  and  unoccupied  France 

The  Petain-Laval  Split.  The  conflict  between 
Petain  and  Laval  over  the  extent  of  French  co- 
operation with  Germany  rapidly  widened  in  subse- 
quent weeks.  Before  conferring  with  Hitler  on 
October  22,  Laval  had  asserted  in  a  press  inter- 
view in  Paris  that  he  was  staking  the  future  of 
France  on  collaboration  with  the  Reich,  that  he 
was  convinced  democracy  was  doomed  everywhere, 
and  that  he  hoped  for  the  complete  destruction  of 
the  British.  He  apparently  was  determined  to  turn 
over  French  metropolitan  and  colonial  bases  to  the 
Axis^to  cede  part  of  the  French  fleet,  and  even 
to  join  openly  in  the  war  upon  Britain.  Petain 
firmly  rejected  these  proposals,  which  threatened 
to  throw  the  French  colonial  empire  into  the  arms 
of  General  de  Gaulle  and  the  British  and  to  pro- 
voke civil  conflict  within  France.  There  were  seri- 
ous anti-German  demonstrations  in  Paris  on  Armi- 
stice Day  (November  11). 

With  the  support  of  the  Germans,  Laval  strength- 
ened his  position  at  Vichy  in  preparation  for  an 
attempt  to  oust  Marshal  Petain  and  swing  France 
over  to  a  policy  of  full  co-operation  with  the  Reich 
under  his  leadership.  Meanwhile  the  German  oc- 
cupationary  authorities  continued  to  tighten  the 
screws  on  P6tain  and  the  French  people  generally 
to  force  acceptance  of  Laval's  policies.  The  tight- 
ening of  German  controls  was  varied  with  occa- 
sional minor  concessions  to  aid  Laval  in  his  strug- 
gle with  P6tain.  Among  such  gestures  was  Hitler's 
announcement,  on  the  centenary  of  the  return  of 


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Napoleon's  ashes  from  Si.  Helena  to  Paris;  that 
the  remains  of  Napoleon's  only  son.  the  Duke  of 
Refchstadt,  would  be  returned  from  Vienna  to 
Paris.  Marshal  Ptein  was  invited  to  attend  the 
ceremonies  in  connection  with  the  reinterment  in 
the  Invalides  (Napoleon's  tomb)  on  December  15. 

Laval  apparently  conspired  to  take  the  Marshal 
into  custody  in  Paris  and  seize  control  at  Vichy. 
The  plot  was  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  Min- 
ister of  Interior  Peyrouton,  who  denounced  Laval 
to  P£tain.  The  Marshal  confronted  Laval  at  a 
cabinet  meeting  in  Vichy  on  December  14  and 
ordered  him  placed  under  arrest.  In  a  radio  ad- 
dress to  the  nation  that  evening  he  announced  the 
dismissal  of  Laval  from  the  cabinet  and  the  rev- 
ocation of  Constitutional  Act  No.  4,  designating 
Laval  as  his  successor.  Announcing  that  rierre- 
Etienne  Flandin  had  been  appointed  Foreign  Min- 
ister, the  Marshal  declared  that  he  had  taken 
action  against  Laval  "for  high  reasons  of  interior 
policy  ...  in  no  way  connected  with  our  rela- 
tions with  Germany." 

Pressure  on  Pittin.  The  detention  of  Laval 
and  the  eradication  of  his  influence  at  Vichy  was 
a  severe  setback  to  German  plans  in  France.  The 
Nazi  press  and  official  statements  from  Berlin 
adopted  a  more  threatening  tone  toward  the  Pltain 
Government.  On  December  16  Otto  Abetz,  Ger- 
man Ambassador  in  Paris,  arrived  at  Vichy  with 
a  guard  of  picked  German  troops  and  demanded 
the  "moral  rehabilitation"  of  Laval.  He  obtained 
Laval  release,  and  after  an  interview  with  Petain 
the  former  Vice  Premier  took  up  residence  in 
Paris.  Laval's  friend,  Fernand  de  Brinon,  was 
named  chief  liaison  officer  between  Vichy  and 
Paris  and  the  palace  guard  organized  by  Minister 
of  Interior  Peyrouton  was  dissolved.  But  the  Mar- 
shal up  to  the  end  of  the  year  stubbornly  resisted 
German  demands  that  Laval  be  readmitted  into 
the  cabinet. 

On  Christmas  Eve  Petain  sent  Adm.  Jean  par- 
Ian  to  Paris  to  resume  negotiations  for  limited 
collaboration  with  Germany.  No  progress  was 
achieved  up  to  the  end  of  the  year,  however.  The 
cost  of  the  German  army  of  occupation  amounted 
in  September  to  400,000,000  francs  a  day  or  half 
the  cost  of  prosecuting  the  war.  On  December  22 
the  total  provisional  non-interest-bearing  advances 
from  the  Bank  of  France  to  the  State  to  defray 
the  cost  of  supporting  German  troops  were  in- 
creased to  73,000,000,000  francs.  No  progress 
whatever  was  made  toward  liberating  the  war  pris- 
oners in  Germany  and  occupied  France.  The  food 
situation  throughout  France  was  becoming  increas- 
ingly acute.  How  long  the  Vichy  Government  could 
resist  Hitler's  demands  under  these  circumstances 
remained  problematical.  But  all  signs  pointed  to  a 
stiffening  of  French  morale  and  a  revival  of  hope 
for  liberation  as  Axis  difficulties  multiplied. 

"Free  French"  Activities.  Throughout  the 
critical  months  following  Petain's  capitulation, 
General  de  Gaulle's  "Free  French"  forces  slowly 
gained  strength  and  prestige  as  the  prospects  for 
successful  Allied  prosecution  of  the  war  bright- 
ened and  as  German  mastery  in  France  became 
more  onerous.  On  August  7,  the  British  Govern- 
ment undertook  to  bear  the  cost  of  de  Gaulle's 
armed  forces  in  so  far  as  necessary,  and  to  permit 
them  to  retain  their  French  character  and  leader- 
ship tinder  nominal  British  control.  At  the  same 
time  Prime  Minister  Churchill  pledged  the  "full 
restoration  of  the  independence  and  greatness  of 
France"  when  an  Allied  victory  was  gained. 


This  enabled  de  Gaulle  and  the  French  officers 
who  rallied  to  his  cause  to  reorganize  the  military, 
naval,  and  air  units  that  had  escaped  to  Britain 
during  the  debacle  in  France.  Those  desiring  to 
return  to  France  were  repatriated,  but  their  places 
were  taken  by  Frenchmen  who  escaped  from 
France  or  the  Vichy-controlled  French  colonies  or 
who  volunteered  from  British  Empire  and  neutral 
countries.  One  "Free  French"  military  force  was 
organized  in  Britain,  with  a  nucleus  of  veterans  of 
the  Narvik  campaign  and  of  troops  evacuated  from 
Dunkirk.  Many  French  pilots  flew  their  planes 
across  the  Channel  from  unoccupied  France,  while 
others  stationed  in  French  North  Africa  new  to 
Gibraltar  or  Egypt  to  join  the  British  and  "Free 
French."  Large  units  of  the  French  forces  in 
Syria  crossed  into  Palestine  rather  than  accept  the 
armistice  terms  and  in  December  participated  in 
the  British  offensive  in  North  Africa.  On  Novem- 
ber 29  de  Gaulle  claimed  that  his  forces  comprised 
35,000  trained  troops,  20  warships,  1000  aviators, 
and  60  merchant  ships. 

Beginning  in  August  some  of  the  lesser  French 
colonies  ousted  their  pro-Vichy  officials  and  threw 
in  their  lot  with  General  de  Gaulle,  while  similar 
movements  in  other  colonies  were  repressed  with 
difficulty.  The  New  Hebrides  and  New  Caledonia 
in  the  Pacific,  French  Cameroon  and  most  of 
French  Equatorial  Africa  repudiated  the  Vichy 
Government  in  August  and  smaller  colonies  in 
French  India  and  the  Pacific  followed  suit.  On 
September  23  "Free  French"  forces  under  the  per- 
sonal  direction  of  General  de  Gaulle,  supported  by 
a  British  naval  squadron,  attempted  to  capture  the 
strategically  important  port  and  capital  of  French 
West  Africa  at  Dakar.  The  attack,  which  was  de- 
signed to  bring  all  of  French  West  Africa  under 
"Free  French  control  and  encourage  the  move- 
ment in  French  North  Africa,  was  beaten  off. 

This  fiasco  delayed  the  progress  of  the  de  Gaull- 
ist  movement  temporarily.  But  on  October  10  his 
forces  landed  at  Duala,  capital  of  French  Camer- 
oon, and  shortly  afterward  began  a  military  cam- 
paign that  brought  the  rest  of  French  Equatorial 
Africa  under  "Free  French"  control  early  in  No- 
vember. Meanwhile  on  October  27  General  de 
Gaulle  issued  a  proclamation  from  Leopoldville,  in 
the  Belgian  Congo,  declaring  that  "since  the  French 
Government  and  the  representation  of  the  French 
people  do  not  exist  normally  and  independently  of 
the  enemy,  the  powers  formally  performed  by  the 
Chief  of  State  and  by  the  Council  of  Ministers  will 
be  exercised  by  the  leader  of  the  Free  French 
forces  assisted  by  a  Council  of  Defense." 

While  consolidating  his  position  in  Equatorial 
Africa  and  preparing  to  aid  the  British  in  Egypt 
and  East  Africa,  General  de  Gaulle  returned  to 
London  and  in  a  series  of  radio  broadcasts  attacked 
the  Vichy  Government  for  its  anti-Jewish  meas- 
ures and  other  anti-democratic  legislation  and 
aims.  He  appealed  for  resistance  to  German  pres- 
sure and  for  the  aid  of  the  colonial  military  forces 
under  Vichy's  control  in  driving  the  Italians  out  of 
Africa. 

Supported  by  General  Weygand  in  French  North 
Africa,  the  Pltain  Government  sought  to  counter 
de  Gaulle's  efforts  by  rounding  up  his  adherents, 
curbing  their  propaganda,  replacing  doubtful  offi- 
cials in  the  colonies  with  pro- Vichy  appointees, 
and*  revoking  the  limited  powers  of  self-govern- 
ment exercised  by  some  of  the  colonial  assemblies. 
On  November  25  Jean  Chiappe,  former  prefect  of 
the  Paris  police  and  a  well-known  Rightist,  was 


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appointed  High  Commissioner  of  Syria,  but  he  was 
killed  in  an  airplane  accident  while  crossing  the 
Mediterranean.  A  communique  issued  by  Laval's 
department  of  information  in  Vichy  charged  that 
his  plane  was  shot  down  by  a  British  pursuit  plane. 
Gen.  Henri  Dentz  was  then  named  to  the  vacant 
post.  See  the  accompanying  outline  map,  and  each 
of  the  French  colonies  under  History. 

Anglo-French  Relations.  British  and  French 
collaboration  was  never  so  close  as  in  the  months 
preceding  the  Allied  military  debacle  in  May  and 
June.  The  far-reaching  economic  and  financial  ac- 
cords of  1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  290)  were 
extended  on  Feb.  17,  1940,  by  a  pact  facilitating 
mutual  trade.  On  February  22  the  French  Socialist 
party  and  British  Labor  party  announced  an  agree- 
ment to  maintain  permanent  liaison.  An  Anglo- 
French  Workers'  War  Council  was  set  up  by  the 
British  Trades  Union  Congress  and  the  Confeder- 
ation G£n£rale  du  Travail  to  combat  Nazi  and 
Communist  propaganda  and  mutually  to  defend  la- 
bor interests.  The  two  big  British  and  French  fed- 
erations of  industrialists  on  March  9  published  an 
accord  substituting  co-operation  for  competition 


on  a  scale  foreshadowing  permanent  cartellization 
of  Anglo-French  industries.  On  March  16-18  the 
governments  made  further  plans  for  co-operation 
m  colonial  field. 

The  Allied  Supreme  War  Council  at  its  sixth 
meeting  in  London  on  March  28  extended  this  col- 
laboration. The  British  and  French  governments 
formally  recorded  their  prior  undertaking  not  to 
cease  fighting  except  by  mutual  agreement,  or  dis- 
cuss peace  terms  until  reaching  an  accord  on  condi- 
tions necessary  for  their  permanent  security.  They 
agreed  that  after  peace  was  restored  they  would 
maintain  "a  community  of  action  in  all  spheres  for 
so  long  as  may  be  necessary  to  safeguard  their 
security/1  and  to  build  an  international  order,  with 
the  assistance  of  other  nations,  "which  will  ensure 
the  liberty  of  peoples,  respect  for  law  and  the 
maintenance  of  peace  in  Europe," 

The  Allied  reverses  in  Norway  and  the  Low 
Countries  placed  a  severe  strain  upon  this  collabo- 
ration. Following  P&ain's  capitulation  to  Hitler 
and  the  extension  of  British  support  to  General  de 
Gaulle,  Anglo-French  relations  went  from  bad  to 
worse.  The  British  attack  upon  the  French  fleet  at 


Contra/ted  ky  fety  ao*mm«nt 
•ftwftmrtontro/fcd  by  tefeu^ 
by  Germany 


ew  York  Timn 


FRANCE 


288 


FRANKLIN  INSTITUTE 


Oran  on  July  3  was  followed  by  French  air  attacks 
upon  Gibraltar  and  on  July  8  by  Vichy's  severance 
of  diplomatic  relations  with  London.  Their  respec- 
tive embassies  were  closed  on  July  17,  but  it  was 
agreed  to  exchange  agents  to  liquidate  the  impor- 
tant economic  matters  still  outstanding  between  the 
two  former  allies. 

During  July  Vichy  directed  a  series  of  angry 
protests  to  London  against  the  Oran  affair,  the 
requisitioning  of  French  merchantmen  in  British 
ports,  the  bombing  by  the  R.A.F.  of  German-held 
bases  in  France,  the  distribution  of  propaganda 
leaflets  by  British  aircraft  over  French  territories, 
etc.  The  revolt  of  the  French  colonies  was  also  at- 
tributed to  British  influence.  While  enforcing  the 
blockade  against  Vichy-controlled  colonies,  the 
British  purchased  the  surplus  products  of  the  colo- 
nies under  "Free  French"  control  and  extended 
other  economic  support.  The  joint  "Free  French" 
and  British  attack  on  Dakar  brought  another  re- 
taliatory bombing  of  Gibraltar  by  French  planes 
based  in  Morocco. 

When  the  negotiations  between  Laval,  Hitler, 
and  Petain  appeared  to  be  nearmg  a  conclusion, 
Prime  Minister  Churchill  on  October  22  broadcast 
a  radio  appeal  to  the  French  people  to  continue  the 
fight  against  the  Germans  and  not  to  hinder  Brit- 
ain in  the  prosecution  of  the  war.  On  October  23 
the  British  agreed  to  permit  medical  supplies  to 
enter  occupied  and  unoccupied  France  through  the 
blockade.  About  the  same  time  King  George  VI 
sent  a  message  to  Marshal  Petain  expressing  sym- 
pathy for  French  sufferings  and  assuring  him  that 
France  would  share  in  Britain's  ultimate  victory 
The  Marshal  was  reported  to  have  replied  by  curt- 
ly pointing  out  the  unfortunate  effect  of  British 
attacks  on  Frenchmen  at  Oran  and  Dakar.  A  minor 
air  attack  on  Marseille,  attributed  to  a  British  air- 
plane, brought  another  French  protest  on  Novem- 
ber 25.  In  December  it  was  revealed  that  French 
warships  were  convoying  foodships  between  Mar- 
seille and  French  North  Africa  without  British 
interference. 

Influence  of  United  Statei.  In  their  efforts  to 
prevent  the  Vichy  Government  from  collaborating 
with  Germany,  the  British  and  "Free  French"  re- 
ceived influential  support  from  Washington.  French 
assets  in  the  United  States  valued  at  more  than  a 
billion  dollars  were  "frozen"  by  order  of  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt  on  June  17  to  prevent  their  acquisi- 
tion by  the  Germans.  A  large  stock  of  French  gold 
was  transferred  from  France  to  the  United  States 
on  a  U.S.  cruiser  during  the  same  month.  Ameri- 
can authorities  delayed  giving  the  Vichy  Govern- 
ment access  to  any  of  these  funds  until  they  re- 
ceived assurances  that  French  collaboration  with 
Germany  would  not  go  to  the  extent  of  impairing 
American  interests. 

An  announcement  at  Vichy  on  September  30 
that  the  defenses  of  the  island  of  Martinique  in  the 
West  Indies  would  be  strengthened  was  frowned 
upon  in  Washington,  and  the  State  Department 
made  futile  efforts  to  regain  about  100  American 
airplanes  that  had  been  taken  to  Fort  de  France, 
Martinique,  by  the  French  aircraft  carrier  Beam. 
The  disposition  of  some  $200,000,000  worth  of  gold 
held  by  the  French  Government  at  Fort  de  France 
was  also  at  issue.  On  the  day  Marshal  Petain  con- 
ferred with  Hitler,  President  Roosevelt  sent  him 
a  personal  message  warning  that  close  military 
collaboration  with  Germany  would  lead  the  United 
States  to  invoke  the  Declaration  of  Havana  and 
to  occupy  the  French  West  Indian  possessions. 


Petain  replied  that  France  did  not  intend  to  go  to 
war  against  Britain,  surrender  her  fleet  to  Ger- 
many, or  permit  Axis  use  of  additional  French 
bases. 

Through  American  mediation,  an  agreement  for 
partial  demilitarization  of  Martinique  and  the  ces- 
sation of  the  British  naval  blockade  was  concluded 
(see  MARTINIQUE  under  History).  On  November 
22  President  Roosevelt  appointed  Rear  Admiral 
W.  D.  Leahy  as  Ambassador  to  France.  He  arrived 
in  Vichy  at  the  beginning  of  January,  1941. 

France  and  Italy.  Mussolini's  entry  into  the 
European  War  on  June  10,  when  German  victory 
over  France  seemed  assured,  marked  the  final  fail- 
ure of  repeated  French  efforts  to  conciliate  Italy 
and  obtain  either  her  active  aid  against  the  Reich 
or  her  neutrality  without  granting  the  extensive 
territorial  and  other  concessions  demanded  by 
Rome  (see  YEAR  BOOKS  for  1935  to  1939).  These 
efforts  were  pursued  by  the  Daladier  and  Reynaud 
Governments  during  the  first  part  of  1940.  Nego- 
tiations for  a  revised  Franco-Italian  trade  pact 
were  begun  in  Paris  February  26,  but  were  never 
completed.  After  the  Brennero  meeting  between 
Hitler  and  Mussolini  on  March  18  the  Italian  press 
assumed  a  more  threatening  tone  toward  France 
and  Britain.  During  the  campaign  in  Norway  be- 
ginning April  9,  Fascist  threats  to  enter  the  war 
caused  the  Allies  to  shift  additional  naval  forces 
to  the  Mediterranean  and  contributed  materially  to 
the  German  triumph. 

Nevertheless  Premier  Reynaud  on  April  20  again 
proclaimed  France's  desire  for  a  settlement  of 
questions  at  issue  with  Italy.  Adopting  Pierre  La- 
val's policy,  he  declared  that  his  government  con- 
sidered a  Mediterranean  entente  with  Italy  and 
Spain  to  be  one  of  the  indispensable  bases  of  peace. 
This  overture  met  with  no  response,  other  than 
Italian  protests  at  the  alleged  damage  caused  Ital- 
ian industry  by  the  Anglo-French  blockade.  »On 
June  6,  the  second  day  of  the  Battle  of  France, 
Premier  Reynaud  made  a  final  effort  to  prevent 
Italian  participation.  He  called  upon  Italy  to  settle 
peacefully  her  disputes  with  France  in  order  "to 
avoid  the  hegemony  of  Germany."  But  on  June  10 
the  French  Ambassador  at  Rome  was  informed 
that  Italy  was  entering  the  conflict  in  "fulfillment 
of  her  Axis  obligations." 

On  June  20  the  Petain  Government  asked  Italy 
for  an  armistice.  The  Italians  carefully  avoided 
drama  and  humiliating  conduct  in  their  negotia- 
tions with  the  French  armistice  delegation  com- 
mencing June  23.  But  their  terms  were  considered 
severe  and  were  accepted  by  the  French  only  after 
extended  debate. 

For  France's  relations  with  other  powers  during 
1940,  see  BELGIUM,  CANADA,  CHINA,  FINLAND, 
FRENCH  INDO-CHINA,  GREECE,  IRAQ,  ITALY,  JA- 
PAN, MEXICO,  NORWAY,  PANAMA,  RUMANIA, 
SPAIN,  SWITZERLAND,  SYRIA  AND  LEBANON,  TAN- 
GIER, TURKEY,  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  RE- 
PUBLICS, under  History.  See  also  BIRTH  CONTROL; 
EDUCATION;  EUROPEAN  WAR;  FASCISM;  JEWS; 
LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS;  MOTION  PICTURES;  Music; 
NAVAL  PROGRESS  ;  REPARATIONS  AND  WAR  DEBTS  ; 
WAR  RELIEF. 

FRANKLIN  INSTITUTE.  The  Franklin 
Institute  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  the  Mechanic  Arts,  founded  in  1824,  is 
devoted  to  the  increase  of  useful  knowledge,  to 
the  encouragement  of  invention  and  discovery,  and 
to  the  education  of  the  public  in  the  achievements 
of  science  and  industry.  Its  very  title  has  always 


FREEMASONRY 


289 


FREEMASONRY 


indicated  a  desire  to  do  honor  to  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin. 

The  Committee  on  Science  and  Arts,  formed  of 
66  members  of  the  Institute,  reviews  in  great  de- 
tail many  of  the  advances  of  science  and  technol- 
ogy. It  recommends  to  the  Board  of  Managers 
those  persons  deserving  the  annual  awards  of  the 
Institute,  which  are  formally  presented  at  Medal 
Day  Exercises  in  May.  A  Franklin  Medal,  highest 
award  of  the  Institute,  was  presented  in  1940  to 
Dr.  Leo  Hendrik  Baekeland,  retired  president  of 
the  Bakelite  Corporation,  and  to  Dr.  Arthur  H. 
Compton  of  the  University  of  Chicago  for  his 
"brilliant  experiments  on  various  properties  of 
X-rays.M  The  Cresson  Gold  Medal  was  awarded 
to  Dr.  Robert  R.  Williams,  chemical  director  of 
the  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories,  for  his  researches 
on  vitamin  Bl. 

The  Franklin  Institute  includes  in  its  activity 
publication  of  The  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Insti- 
tute, established  in  January,  1826,  lectures  pre- 
sented about  20  times  a  year  by  distinguished  per- 
sons in  science  and  industry,  and  traveling  shows 
which  extend  its  educational  influence  beyond  its 
walls.  From  the  laboratories  of  the  Bartol  Re- 
search Foundation  and  the  Biochemical  Research 
Foundation,  additions  are  constantly  being  made 
to  scientific  knowledge.  The  Institute  also  operates 
a  seismograph  and  promotes  scientific  expeditions. 
The  seismograph  and  observatory,  with  Franklin 
Hall  and  the  Fels  Planetarium,  together  with  its 
4000  active  exhibits  constitute  the  Institute's  muse- 
um. The  library  now  numbers  121,000  volumes  and 
40,000  pamphlets,  devoted  entn  ely  to  works  on  ap- 
plied science  and  technology,  and  is  particularly 
noted  for  the  collection  of  patent  literature. 

The  President  in  1940  was  Philip  C.  Staples; 
Secretary  and  Director,  Henry  Butler  Allen.  The 
Institute  is  located  in  a  new  building  on  Benjamin 
Franklin  Parkway,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

FREEMASONRY.  Dedication  of  the  new 
Scottish  Rite  Temple  in  Washington,  D.C.,  oc- 
curred on  May  12  with  elaborate  ceremonies.  The 
Order  of  De  Molay  for  boys  (under  Masonic  aus- 
pices) is  raising  $40,000  for  the  erection  of  a 
statue  of  George  Washington  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Memorial  Temple  at  Alexandria,  Va.  Under  a 
special  dispensation  from  the  Alberta  (Can.t 
Grand  Lodge,  Ivanhoe  Lodge  No.  142  at  Edmon- 
ton, dedicated  a  445-lb.  granite  pillar,  to  mark  the 
site  of  the  first  Masonic  lodge  meeting  in  Canada 
within  the  Arctic  Circle. 

Civic  Activities.  The  Connecticut  Grand  Lodge 
now  requires  each  applicant  for  the  degrees  to 
submit  duplicate  fingerprint  cards,  one  set  for  fil- 
ing with  the  Department  of  Justice  in  Washington. 
According  to  the  Masonic  Relief  Association, 
$4,670,043  were  spent  for  charity  during  the  fiscal 
year  ending  in  1940  by  the  49  American  Grand 
Lodges,  of  which  28  maintain  each  a  Masonic 
Home  for  aged  and  indigent  Masons  and  7  more 
maintain  two  such  Homes.  Hospitals  in  connection 
with  the  Homes  are  supported  in  17  jurisdictions. 
The  Missouri  Grand  Lodge,  which  maintains  two 
Homes,  offers  the  use  thereof,  together  with  trans- 
portation and  education,  to  25  European  refugee 
children  now,  and  possibly  15  more  later. 


ICom- 

.    -  .  ....  w..  Supreme 

Council  in  presenting  a  silver  trophy  to  the  win- 
ning basket  ball  team  of  Ciudad  Trujillo  Normal 
High  School ;  for  some  years  the  Council  has  do- 


nated  copy  books  to  the  schools.  Despite  the  war. 
a  total  of  £297381  was  raised  by  the  stewards  of 
English  lodges  for  the  three  Royal  Masonic  Insti- 
tutions maintained  by  the  premier  Grand  Lodge. 

France.  On  August  3  the  P6tain  government 
at  Vichy,  formally  decreed  the  dissolution  of  all 
secret  societies,  including,  of  course,  the  Masonic 
Order. 

Ireland.  "Freemasonary  is  not  banned  by  the 
Government,"  writes  J.  Edward  Allen ;  "quite  the 
contrary;  but  lawless  bands  of  Irish  from  time 
to  time  storm  and  occupy  the  Masonic  Temples  . . . 
When  Masons  protest  they  are  told  that  it  is  pos- 
sible to  stop  the  lawlessness  .  .  .  but  that  it  is 
strongly  advised  not  to." 

Japan.  The  Masonic  bodies,  whose  membership 
is  required  to  be  limited  to  foreigners,  are  facing 
complete  suppression,  following  the  dissolution  of 
Rotary  Clubs. 

Netherlands.  Masonry  has  been  suppressed  by 
the  Nazi  military  government 

Norway.  Under  date  of  September  21  it  was 
announced  that  the  Masonic  Lodges  "had  been 
dissolved,"  and  on  November  29,  Quisling,  the 
Nazi  Fuehrer,  issued  a  decree  penalizing  continued 
membership  and  converting  the  order's  headquar- 
ters into  a  museum. 

Spain.  On  March  2,  Dictator  Franco  issued  a 
retroactive  decree  dissolving  "Masonic,  commu- 
nistic, and  other  secret  orders ;"  but  the  decree  was 
primarily  directed  against  the  first,  confiscating 
property  and  imposing  penalties  of  six  years  im- 
prisonment for  membership  or  support 

Yugoslavia.  As  the  result  of  a  crusade  spon- 
sored by  the  clerical  Minister  of  Education,  Koro- 
shetz,  the  Grand  Lodge,  it  was  announced  on  Au- 
gust 2,  "decided"  to  dissolve  and  discontinue  its 
activities. 

The  Mother  Scottish  Rite  Supreme  Council  an- 
nounced in  October  that  no  communications  had 
been  received  from  Masonic  bodies  in  Finland, 
Denmark,  or  Belgium  since  their  invasion  by  the 
totalitarian  powers.  The  most  recent  estimate  of 
Masons  in  Europe  is  63,050. 

Conventions,  etc.  (National  and  International)  : 

February  23,  24,  National  Conference  of  Grand  Masters 
at  Washington;  8  subjects  were  on  the  agenda  and  a  com- 
mittee was  appointed  to  report  on  "continuity  of  adminis- 
tration" at  the  1941  conference. 

April  6.  centenary  celebration  of  Illinois  Grand  Lodge, 
Jacksonville. 

April  24,  Annual  Festival  of  Grand  Lodge  of  England, 
Duke  of  Kent,  Grand  Master,  presiding,  Earl  of  Hare- 
wood  reappointed  pro-Grand  Master,  5056  subordinate 
lodges  reported  with  an  estimated  membership  of  450,000. 
(Masons  in  the  British  Empire,  1,048,426.) 

June  3.  centenary  of  first  Masonic  convocation  in  Mis- 
souri, celebrated  at  Lexington  by  Lodge  No.  149. 

June  11-13,  annual  meeting.  Imperial  Council,  Nobles 
of  the  Mystic  Shrine  at  Memphis,  Tenn  George  F.  Olcn- 
dorf  of  Springfield,  Mo.,  was  elected  Imperial  Potentate. 
Iowa  Grand  Lodge  observed  centennial  of  Iowa  Masonry 
at  Burlington;  1500  Masons  attended. 

July  13-19,  41st  triennial  conclave  of  Grand  Encamp- 
ment of  Knights  Templar,  at  Cleveland. 

September  22,  annual  meeting  of  Northern  Supreme 
Council  at  Cincinnati 

October  lt  annual  session,  Canadian  Supreme  Council 
at  Montreal;  total  membership  of  the  1379  Canadian  sub- 
ordinate lodges  is  reported  as  168,951. 

October  8.  centennial  celebration  of  Louisville  Com- 
mandery  and  the  beginnings  of  Knight  Templary  in  Ken- 
tucky. 

Total  membership  of  the  50  (including  Philip- 
pine) Grand  Lodges  of  the  United  States  is  re- 
ported as  2,489,587 ;  estimated  grand  total  of  the 
world,  3,798,451.  See  BULGARIA  under  History. 

C.  SUMNER  LOBINGIER. 


FRENCH  ACADEMY 


290 


FRENCH  INDO-CHtNA 


FRENCH  ACADEMY.  ACADIMY,  FRENCH. 

FRENCH  CAMEROON.  See  CAMEROON, 
FRENCH. 

FRENCH  CONGO.  See  FRENCH  EQUATORIAL 
AFRICA. 

FRENCH  EQUATORIAL  AFRICA.  A 
French  colonial  territory  consisting  of  the  four 
colonies:  Chad  (461,202  sq.  mi.;  capital,  Fort 
Lamy),  Gabon  (93,218  sq.  mi.;  capital,  Libre- 
ville), Middle  Congo  (166,069  sq.  mi.;  capital, 
Brazzaville),  and  Ubangi-Shari  (238,767  sq.  mi.; 
capital,  Bangui).  Total  area,  959,256  square  miles; 
total  population  (Jan.  1,  1938  estimate),  3,500,000. 
Capital,  Brazzaville.  The  chief  products  are  palm 
oil,  coffee,  cacao,  cotton,  and  wild  rubber.  Tropi- 
cal forests  of  300,000  miles  in  area  contain  trees 
of  industrial  value.  Ivory  is  an  important  item  of 
export.  The  minerals  found  include  copper,  zinc, 
and  lead.  A  railway,  318  miles  in  length,  connects 
Pointe-Noire  with  Brazzaville.  Trade,  values  in 
old  United  States  gold  dollars  (1938):  Imports, 
$5,000,000;  exports,  $5,200,000  Budget  (1938): 
Revenue  and  expenditure  balanced  at  224,629,000 
francs  (franc  averaged  $0.0288  for  1938;  $0.0251 
for  1939).  French  Equatorial  Africa  is  a  single 
administrative  unit  under  the  rule  of  a  governor 
general,  aided  by  an  administrative  council. 

History.  French  Equatorial  Africa  was  the 
most  important  French  colony  to  declare  its  inde- 
pendence of  the  Vichy  Government  during  1940  and 
throw  in  its  lot  with  Gen.  Charles  de  Gaulle's 
"Free  French"  forces.  The  secession  movement 
began  in  the  Chad  Colony  on  August  28  and  spread 
immediately  afterward  to  French  Cameroon  (q  y.) 
and  to  Brazzaville,  capital  of  Equatorial  Africa, 
in  the  Middle  Congo  district.  The  pro- Vichy  Gov- 
ernor General  at  Brazzaville  was  replaced  by  Gen- 
eral de  Gaulle's  representative,  General  de  Larmin- 
at.  Officials  of  the  Gabon  district  remained  loyal 
to  the  Vichy  regime  until  the  second  week  of  No- 
vember when  Lambarene,  Libreville,  and  Port 
Gentil  were  captured  by  "Free  French"  forces  in 
a  short  campaign. 

See  CONGO.  BELGIAN  and  FRANCE  under  History ; 
EUROPEAN  WAR  under  Effects  of  the  Fall  of 
France. 

FRENCH  GUIANA.  A  French  colony  in 
South  America.  Area,  7722  square  miles ;  popula- 
tion (1936  census),  30,906.  The  penal  settlement 
had  a  population  of  5628  men.  Capital,  Cayenne, 
11,704  inhabitants.  Rice,  maize,  manioc,  cacao,  cof- 
fee, bananas,  and  sugar  cane  are  the  chief  agri- 
cultural crops.  There  are  large  forests  rich  in  va- 
rious kinds  of  timber.  Gold  mining  is  the  most 
important  industry.  Trade  (1937) :  Imports,  52,- 
708,646  francs;  exports,  36,853,999  francs  (franc 
averaged  $00405  for  1937).  Budget  (1937) :  Bal- 
anced at  17,704,755  francs.  The  colony  is  adminis- 
tered by  a  governor,  assisted  by  a  privy  council 
and  a  general  council. 

Inim,  TERRITORY  OF.  This  territory  comprises 
the  hinterland  separated  from  French  Guiana  by 
the  Decree  of  July  6,  1930.  Area,  27,027  square 
miles;  population  (1936),  6099;  The  main  center 
is  Maroni.  Rose  wood  and  cabinet  wood  are  the 
chief  products.  Figures  of  commerce  are  included 
in  those  of  French  Guiana.  Budget  (1937) :  Bal- 
anced at  3,329,542  francs.  The  territory  is  under 
the  direct  administration  of  the  governor  of  French 
Guiana,  assisted  by  an  administrative  council. 

History.  Although  strong  sentiment  in  favor 
of  Gen.  Charles  de  Gaulle's  *Free  French"  move- 
ment was  reported  from  French  Guiana  after  the 


defeat  of  France,  GOT.  Robert  Chot  and  hii  ad- 
ministration remained  loyal  to  the  Vichy  Gov- 
ernment throughout  the  remainder  of  the  year. 
On  October  11  a  de  Gaulle  spokesman  in  London 
charged  the  Vichy  Government  with  attempting 
to  introduce  a  German  mission  into  French  Gui- 
ana, but  this  was  denied  by  Vichy  officials.  To 
keep  in  touch  with  developments  in  the  colony,  the 
State  Department  in  Washington  on  August  17 
announced  the  opening  of  a  consulate  at  Cayenne. 

See  FRANCE  under  History. 

FRENCH  GUINEA.  See  FRENCH  WEST 
AFRICA. 

FRENCH  INDIA.  The  five  French  colonies 
in  India — Chandernagor,  Karikal,  Mah£,  Pondich- 
ery,  and  Yanaon.  Area,  196  square  miles ;  popula- 
tion (1938),  300,353.  Capital,  Pondichery  (50,209 
inhabitants).  Chief  products:  Rice,  groundnuts, 
and  manioc.  In  1938  (at  the  ports  of  Pondichiry 
and  Karikal),  imports  amounted  to  79,053,000 
francs  and  exports  to  118,446,000  francs  (franc 
averaged  $0.0288  for  1938).  All  five  colonies  ad- 
hered to  the  "Free  French"  movement  headed  by 
Gen.  Charles  de  Gaulle  following  the  French  ca- 
pitulation to  Germany  and  Italy  in  June,  1940.  See 
FRANCE  under  History. 

FRENCH  INDO-CHINA.  A  French  de- 
pendency in  southeastern  Asia  comprising  the  di- 
visions shown  in  the  accompanying  table. 


Dinnon 

Sq.  mi. 
57,143 

Pop    (1936)       Capital 
5,656,000      Hu6 

Cambodia  • 
Cochin  China6  .       .   . 
Kwangchowan*  ..     . 
LAOS*    .                 ... 
Tonkin  (Tongking)  «... 

69,884 
25,096 
309 
89,189 
44,787 

3,046,000      Pnom-Penh 
4,616,000      Saigon 
230,000      Fort  Bayard 
1,012,000      Vientiane 
8,700,000      Hanoi 

French  Indo-Cluna 

286,408 

23,260,000      Hanoi*' 

•Protectorate.  *  Colony.  'Also  known  as  Kwangchow. 
Leased  from  China  for  99  years  in  1898  (territory  increased  m  1899) 
and  placed  under  the  authority  of  the  Governor-General  of  French 
Indo-China.  'The  capital  city  is  Hanoi,  but  during  certain 
seasons  of  the  year,  when  climatic  conditions  are  oppressive,  the 
government  offices  move  to  Saigon 

Chief  towns :  Hanoi,  the  capital,  145,491  inhabi- 
tants; Bmh-Dinh,  147,199;  Cholon,  145,254;  Hai- 
phong, 122,000;  Saigon,  111,000;  Pnom-Penh, 
102,678 ;  Tchekam,  35,000 ;  Hu6, 33,222 ;  Vientiane, 
28,000 ;  Battambang,  22,000 ;  Fort  Bayard,  12,000. 
Education  (1938)  :  6934  primary,  secondary,  and 
professional  schools  with  a  total  of  488,821  stu- 
dents enrolled;  the  university  at  Hanoi  had  631 
students. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  most  important 
agricultural  product  is  rice,  of  which  1,692,000 
metric  tons  were  exported  during  1939.  Other  agri- 
cultural products  were  rubber  (66,000  metric  tons 
in  1939),  maize,  pepper,  spices,  tea,  kapok,  ground- 
nuts, and  copra.  Mineral  production  (1939)  in 
metric  tons:  Coal  (2,544,000),  tin  (1200),  zinc 
(6000),  manganese,  wolfram,  and  salt.  Trade 
(1939):  imports,  2,382,000,000  francs;  exports, 
3,492,400,000  francs  (franc  averaged  $0.0251  for 
1939). 

Communications.  In  1938  there  were  22,270 
miles  of  highway  and  2093  miles  of  railway 
(1,170,727  tons  of  freight  and  12,963,804  passen- 
gers were  carried).  Air  services  were  operated  on 
the  following  routes:  Saigon-Batavia  (Nether- 
lands Indies),  Hanoi- Vientiane,  Saigon-Bangkok 
(Siam).  A  radio-telephone  service  is  in  operation 
between  Saigon  and  Europe. 

Finance.  The  revenue  and  expenditure  of  the 


PRENCH  INDO-CHINA 


291 


FRENCH  INDO-CHINA 


1939  general  budget  balanced  at  1,076,381,800 
francs.  In  addition,  the  supplementary  railway 
budget  for  1939  balanced  at  156,438,800  francs. 
The  public  debt  on  Jan.  1,  1940,  amounted  to 
2,444,383,000  francs. 

Government.  The  government  for  the  whole 
of  French  Indo-China  is  administered  by  a  gov- 
ernor assisted  by  a  secretary-general,  a  govern- 
ment council,  and  a  grand  council  for  economic 
affairs.  Cochin  China,  which  is  a  direct  French 
colony,  is  headed  by  a  governor  aided  by  a  colonial 
council,  and  each  of  the  four  protectorates  is 
headed  by  a  resident-superior  assisted  by  a  pro- 
tectorate council  and  a  council  of  economic  af- 
fairs. 

HISTORY 

The  Japanese  Invasion.  The  defeat  of  France 
by  German  arms  in  June,  1940,  was  the  signal  for 
Japan  to  launch  its  long-planned  attempt  to  seize 
control  of  French  Indo-China.  The  groundwork 
for  invasion  had  been  laid  by  the  conquest  of 
Hainan  Island  and  other  Chinese  territories  ad- 
joining Indo-China  during  1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 
1939,  pp.  290,  394).  A  foothold  in  French  Indo- 
China  was  obtained  by  concessions  extracted 
from  France  in  the  weeks  previous  to  the  French 
military  debacle  in  Europe.  On  June  20  the  French 
Ambassador  at  Tokyo  agreed  to  cut  off  most  of 
China's  remaining  trade  through  French  Indo- 
China.  ( Shipments  of  munitions  had  been  pro- 
hibited since  early  in  1939  )  Moreover  the  French 
permitted  scores  of  Japanese  inspectors,  includ- 
ing military  and  diplomatic  officials,  to  enter 
French  Indo-China  and  establish  trade  control  sta- 
tions at  five  key  points  on  highways  and  railways 
leading  into  China. 

While  the  control  stations  were  being  established 
late  in  June,  Japanese  warships  appeared  at  Hai- 
phong and  Japanese  troops  were  concentrated  in 
Kwangsi  Province  on  the  Chinese  side  of  the 
French  Indo-China  border.  An  immediate  military 
occupation  of  the  French  colony  appeared  immi- 
nent until  the  British  attack  upon  the  French  fleet 
at  Oran  on  July  3  and  simultaneous  pressure  ex- 
erted from  Washington — and  possibly  from  Berlin, 
also — caused  a  change  in  Japan's  tactics.  The  war- 
ships were  withdrawn  from  Haiphong  on  July  4. 

Shortly  afterward  a  Japanese  military  mission 
headed  by  General  Nishihara  arrived  at  Hanoi  and 
demanded  the  right  to  establish  naval  and  air  bases, 
move  troops  across  Indo-Chinese  territory  to  at- 
tack the  Chinese  in  Yunnan  Province,  and  control 
all  trade  through  the  ports  of  Northern  and  Cen- 
tral Indo-China.  The  Japanese  insisted  on  cessation 
of  French  defense  preparations  and  close  co-opera- 
tion with  Japan  in  economic  matters.  The  Chinese 
Government  at  Chungking,  on  the  other  hand, 
warned  Hanoi  authorities  that  they  would  send 
troops  across  the  frontier  if  Japanese  forces  en- 
tered French  Indo-China.  Early  in  September  Chi- 
nese forces  did  attempt  to  cross  the  frontier  but 
they  were  repulsed  in  a  minor  clash. 

Supported  by  diplomatic  and  military  moves  by 


hara.  Early  in  September,  however,  the  Vichy  Gov- 
ernment, under  pressure  from  Berlin,  ordered  Ha- 
noi officials  to  grant  "limited  military  facilities" 
to  the  Japanese.  The  Nipponese  subsequently  in- 
creased their  demands,  and  it  was  not  until  Sep- 
tember 22  that  an  agreement  was  reached  at  Hanoi 


providing  for :  (1)  Immediate  landing  of  a  limited 
number  of  Jananese  troops  at  Haiphong,  (2)  estab- 
lishment of  three  Japanese  air  bases  north  of  the 
Red  River  in  Tonkin,  (3)  the  garrisoning  of  these 
air  bases  with  6000  Japanese  troops,  and  (4)  main- 
tenance of  a  "few  Japanese  effectives"  at  Hai- 
phong. 

At  10  o'clock  that  night  an  army  of  more  than 
10,000  Japanese  troops  advanced  across  the  Indo- 
Chinese  frontier  from  Kwangsi  Province  in  China 
and  attacked  French  forces  at  three  frontier  posts. 
A  battle  of  considerable  proportions  raged  along 
the  frontier  until  September  25  when  the  French 
were  obliged  to  evacuate  the  important  railway 
center  of  Langson.  Although  the  agreement  signed 
at  Hanoi  had  not  provided  for  the  entry  of  these 
troops,  the  French  accepted  the  fait  accompli. 
Fighting  ceased  and  on  September  26  the  first  con- 
tingent of  Japanese  troops  authorized  by  the  agree- 
ment landed  at  Haiphong. 

Once  in  control  of  the  new  air  bases,  from  which 
they  raided  the  Burma  Road  and  Chinese  cities  that 
were  previously  beyond  the  range  of  their  bomb- 
ing planes,  the  Japanese  demanded  further  military 
bases  and  economic  concessions  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  colony,  particularly  at  Saigon.  In  No- 
vember and  December  large  Japanese  forces  were 
concentrated  in  southern  China  and  on  Spratly  Is- 
land (see  map  in  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  392)  in  prep- 
aration for  the  occupation  of  all  of  French  Indo- 
China  as  soon  as  the  world  political  and  military 
situation  permitted.  The  negotiations  for  an  eco- 
nomic treaty  between  Japan  and  French  Indo-China 
were  transferred  to  Tokyo  from  Hanoi  on  Decem- 
ber 20. 

Hostilities  with  Thailand.  While  attempting 
to  stall  the  Japanese  advance,  the  French  authori- 
ties in  Hanoi  were  obliged  to  face  other  threats  to 
France's  tenuous  hold  on  the  colony.  The  govern- 
ment of  Thailand  seized  the  opportunity  presented 
by  French  impotence  to  demand  the  return  of  sec- 
tions of  Laos  and  Cambodia,  conquered  by  the 
Thai  people  in  the  16th  century  and  taken  from 
them  by  France  in  1893.  To  reinforce  Bangkok's 
demands,  Thai  warplanes  bombed  French  military 
posts  in  the  disputed  region  on  September  28.  The 
French  Minister  at  Bangkok  then  undertook  to 
negotiate  a  settlement  on  orders  from  Vichy.  On 
October  15  it  was  announced  that  France  had  re- 
fused to  cede  territory  in  Cambodia  and  Laos  west 
of  the  Mekong  River  but  had  agreed  to  arbitrate 
Thai  claims  to  certain  islands  in  the  Mekong  and 
to  establish  a  mixed  commission  to  settle  frontier 
incidents. 

B  Notwithstanding  the  French  offer  to  send  a  mis- 
sion to  Bangkok  to  continue  negotiations  and  pres- 
sure from  Washington  for  the  maintenance  of 
peace  and  the  territorial  status  quo,  the  Thai  Gov- 
ernment concentrated  100,000  troops  along  the 
frontier^  Beginning  in  October  Thai  raids  into 
Indo-China  were  resisted  by  French  and  native 
troops.  An  undeclared  border  war  gradually  de- 
veloped, marked  by  frequent  air  raids  and  sporadic 
clashes  between  military  and  naval  forces.  Hostili- 
ties were  continuing:  at  the  year  end,  with  no  defi- 
nite outcome  in  sight.  The  French  meanwhile 
suspended  negotiations  with  Bangkok  pending  the 
cessation  of  Thai  attacks.  Japan  was  said  to  be 
encouraging  Thailand  to  continue  its  aggressive 
policy  in  order  to  make  Hanoi  more  amenable  to 
Japanese  demands 

Native  Uprisings.  The  French  authorities  also 
had  to  contend  with  serious  native  uprisings  in 


FRENCH  IVORY  COAST 


292 


FRENCH  LITERATURE 


Southern  French  Indo-China  toward  the  end  of 
November.  They  were  variously  attributed  to  na- 
tionalist and  Communist  elements  eager  to  end 
French  rule,  to  the  activities  of  pro-Thai  or  pro- 
Japanese  agitators,  and  to  sympathizers  with  Gen- 
eral de  Gaulle's  "Free  French"  movement.  Not 
long  after  riots  and  demonstrations  in  seven  south- 
ern provinces  and  in  the  suburbs  of  Saigon  weie 
suppressed,  another  native  revolt  occurred  m  mid- 
December  northwest  of  Hanoi  in  the  Langson  re- 
gion. French  officials  asserted  that  this  outbreak 
was  organized  and  the  rebels  armed  by  the  Japa- 
nese. The  movement  was  reported  to  have  been 
crushed  by  French  forces  without  great  difficulty 

The  anti-French  outbreaks  were  accompanied  by 
some  demonstrations  of  loyalty  to  the  French  re- 
gime, particularly  in  the  districts  demanded  by 
Thailand.  King  Sisowathmonivong  of  Cambodia  on 
December  16  pledged  his  full  co-operation  with  the 
French  in  defending  the  colony.  Thai  newspapers 
reported  on  July  8  that  King  Bao-Dai  of  Annam 
had  been  assassinated  at  Hue. 

Dissensions  Among  French.  The  Petain 
Government's  capitulation  to  Germany  and  Italy 
in  June  divided  French  officials,  military  men  and 
civilians  in  Indo-China  into  pro- Vichy  and  pro-de 
Gaulle  factions.  Their  struggle  for  control  of  the 
colony  further  weakened  it  in  facing  the  onslaught 
of  internal  and  external  enemies.  Gen.  Georges 
Catroux,  whose  sympathies  were  with  the  "Free 
French"  forces,  was  recalled  as  Governor  General 
about  June  26  by  the  Vichy  Government  and  re- 
placed by  Vice  Admiral  Jean  Decoux.  This  move 
and  the  subsequent  British  attack  on  the  French 
fleet  at  Oran  ended  the  co-operation  between 
French  and  British  forces  in  the  Far  East  that 
might  have  delayed  the  Japanese  invasion  of 
French  Indo-China. 

Following  an  abortive  effort  of  pro-de  Gaulle 
elements  late  in  August  to  seize  control  of  the  col- 
ony, Governor  General  Decoux  was  reported  to 
have  dismissed  "Free  French"  sympathizers  from 
commands  and  offices  throughout  Indo-China.  On 
November  20  another  group  of  de  Gaulle  adher- 
ents were  arrested  in  Saigon  in  connection  with  a 
conspiracy  to  oust  the  pro- Vichy  government.  The 
Vichy  regime  made  further  changes  in  the  colony's 
administrative  personnel  on  December  13,  appoint- 
ing Henri  George  Rivoal  as  Governor  General  and 
Emile  Grand  jean  as  Resident  General  of  Tonkin. 

Meanwhile  the  cost  of  living  rose  sharply,  add- 
ing to  native  unrest.  Foreign  and  domestic  trade 
was  disorganized,  and  the  colony  seemed  headed 
for  major  political  and  economic  difficulties  as  well 
as  eventual  absorption  by  Japan. 

See  CHINA,  FRANCE,  JAPAN,  and  THAILAND 
under  History. 

FRENCH  IVORY  COAST.  See  FRENCH 
WEST  AFRICA. 

FRENCH  LITERATURE.  Literary  pro- 
duction in  France  had  been  brought  to  an  almost 
complete  standstill  in  September  1939.  The  relative 
calm  of  the  first  weeks  of  hostilities,  however, 
brought  about  a  rapid  reaction  in  France  as  well 
as  in  England ;  people  let  themselves  be  lulled  into 
a  tragic  illusion  that  things  were  to  continue  that 
way  indefinitely,  and  literary  activity  again  assumed 
a  quick  tempo.  This  tempo  was  kept  up  until  the 
very  eye  of  the  invasion  and  the  occupation  of 
Paris  in  June.  Meetings  were  held  as  if  nothing 
had  happened.  The  French  Academy  (qv.)  pro- 
ceeded to  the  election  of  a  new  "secretaire  per- 
p£tuel,"  Andre*  Bellessort,  and  announced  the  elec- 


tion of  Paul  Hazard  to  the  "fauteuil"  of  Georges 
Goyau;  on  January  18th,  Jerome  Tharaud's  be- 
lated reception  took  place  with  the  usual  ceremo- 
nies ;  as  late  as  May  the  annual  "seance  de  distri- 
bution des  Prix  de  vertu"  was  held.  Centenaries 
were  commemorated — Daudet,  Zola,  Rodin.  News- 
papers and  periodicals  brought  their  sizes  nearer 
to  normal,  and  the  printing  firms  resumed  their 
business. 

Paris  was  surrendered  on  the  13th  of  June ;  but 
on  the  1st  and  8th  the  Nouvelles  htttratres  still 
came  out,  printing  reports  of  a  Charles  Peguy 
commemoration  at  the  Com6die  Franchise,  the  elec- 
tion as  members  of  the  "Institut"  of  the  Villon 
scholar,  Pierre  Champion,  and  of  the  Balzac  schol- 
ar, Marcel  Bouteron.  Books  had  kept  coming  from 
the  press,  tragically  optimistic  on  the  outcome ,  like 
Joseph  Pesquidoux's  Un  petit  Univers — which  was 
the  garden  of  France  that  one  must  cultivate  in 
peace  to  remain  faithful  to  the  old  mother  coun- 
try; or  like  G.  Duhamel's  Positions  Francoises,  a 
continuation  of  Memoires  sur  la  Guerre  Blanche 
(1939),  with  the  theory  that  Totalitarianism  is  a 
result  of  materialism  and  of  the  mechanization  of 
life.  Roland  Dorgeles,  the  author  of  Croix  de  Bois, 
in  his  Rctour  au  Front  returned  from  the  Maginot 
Line  quite  certain  that  the  soldier  of  1940  was  fully 
as  sure  of  victory  as  the  "poilu"  of  1914.  And  one 
read  with  delight  the  witty  and  gay  pages  written 
by  Amedee  Pavart,  Pavart  s'en  va-t-en  guerre, 
telling  of  the  mobilization  of  Sept.  6-8,  1939. 

Then  all  of  a  sudden  France  is  invaded,  and  il- 
lustrious refugees  come  to  these  shores — Andre 
Maurois,  Paul  Hazard,  Jules  Romains,  Henri 
Bernstein,  and  others.  Of  course  all  publications 
come  to  a  sudden  stop,  as  Pasteur's  Correspond- 
ance,  prepared  by  Robert  Vail  cry- Radot,  of  which 
just  one  volume  had  come  from  the  press ;  the 
great  Encyclopedic,  La  Cwnhsation  ecrite  (under 
the  direction  of  Monzie)  was  interrupted  after  the 
18th  volume;  so  was  Frangois  Mauriac' s  Journal 
after  the  third  volume.  Jules  Romains's  Hommes 
de  Bonne  volontc  could  not  go  on ,  neither  could 
Henri  Troyat's  Judith  Madrier  which  was  to  have 
a  continuation  of  at  least  one  more  volume.  Of 
course,  Quatre  mots  au  front,  by  Chamson  will 
never  be  continued. 

Some  papers  and  reviews  have  tried  hard  to  face 
adversity  [and  very  few  copies  were  received  in 
America].  The  Odyssei  of  L' Illustration  offers  a 
good  example  of  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome . 
The  last  number  distributed  was  that  of  June  8; 
the  15th  of  June  number  had  been  all  printed  but 
has  remained  undistributed;  the  publishers  tried 
to  go  to  Tours,  but  could  not  stay  and  went  on  to 
Bordeaux  where  three  numbers  were  printed  in  re- 
duced size ;  then  they  tried  Clermont-Ferrand  and 
printed  nine  numbers,  again  in  reduced  size;  and 
only  since  September  14  have  they  succeeded  in 
coming  to  normal — but  in  Lyons. 

Poetry.  In  Le  Temps  of  January  13,  Robert 
Kemp  revealed  that  Fr.  Mauriac,  the  novelist  and 
playwright,  had  been  in  his  younger  years  a  poet, 
and  that  some  of  his  poetry  formed  part  of  his  last 
story  Les  Chemins  de  la  mcr.  The  theme  of  the 
philosophical  verses  is  the  struggle  between  Cy- 
bele,  who  represents  nature,  and  man ;  nature  tries 
to  seduce  mortals  and  tear  them  away  from  their 
aspirations  for  spiritual  redemption.  This  is  indeed 
the  Mauriac  of  the  somber  novels  he  has  consist- 
ently signed  which  brought  to  him  the  honor  of 
the  French  Academy.  It  has  been  said  that  the  dire 
consequences  of  war  for  humankind  brought  about 


FRENCH  LITERATURE 


293 


FRENCH  LITERATURE 


a  revival  of  religious  aspirations ;  this  is  borne  out 
certainly  in  the  field  of  poetry.  Among  the  success- 
ful poets  of  the  early  part  of  1940  several  are  pro- 
foundly Catholic;  such  as  Jean  Cayrol,  author  of 
Phenomenes  celestes  (Cahiers  du  Sud),  and  of 
L'Age  d'or  (Cahiers  des  poetes  catholiques)  ;  or 
as  Raymond  Millet,  author  of  a  Poeme  de  la  Mes- 
se,  which  offers  a  sort  of  lyric  dramatization  of  the 
ceremonies  of  the  holy  mass :  "Introibo,"  "confit- 
eor,"  "Credo,"  "Gloria,"  etc.  It  must  further  be  re- 
marked that  some  of  the  most  important  "Prix  de 
poesie"  went  to  religious  poets :  "Prix  Desbordes 
Valmore,"  to  Rose  Malham6,  for  a  collection  called 
Au  Dteu  tnconnu;  "Prix  Petit-Didier"  (15,000 
francs)  went  to  Fernand  Rivoire,  for  his  general 
work;  also  entirely  in  the  most  idealistic  note, 
the  "Prix  Louis  Le  Cardonnel"  (who  was  a  priest 
himself)  to  Fernandet,  for  the  latter's  collective 
works.  Let  us  not  forget  the  well  known  inspired 
Jewish  poet,  Edmond  Fleg,  who  as  early  as  1913 
had  started  on  a  long  epic  of  the  Jewish  creed  with 
ficoute  Israel.  He  offered  in  1940  a  second  part  of 
his  ambitious  philosophical  poem  under  the  title 
L'fiternel  cst  noire  Dieu,  and  he  announces  the 
third  and  last  L'Eternel  cst  Un  Other  poets  are 
Mme.  Mane  Cossa,  who  was  awarded  the  "Prix 
Blemont" ;  Philippe  Dumaine,  who  received  the 
"Prix  Verlaine" ;  Paul  Prist,  who  earned  the  "Prix 
Allan  Poe"  (reserved  to  a  non-French  poet)  for 
Messages.  (Paul  Prist  is  a  Belgian,  editor  of  the 
well  known  Indepcndance  Beige.)  A  warm  wel- 
come was  extended  to  a  young  woman  poet,  An- 
dree  Homps,  who  published  a  first  collection  called 
Disparates 

Theater.  Here  as  in  other  domains,  efforts 
were  made  to  continue  active  as  much  as  possible, 
in  spite  of  the  war.  The  company  of  the  "Come*die 
Francaise"  completed  a  triumphal  tour  through 
several  European  countries,  playing  especially  Ra- 
cine's Andromaque  ( 1939  had  been  called  the  Ra- 
cine year,  on  account  of  the  tri-centenary  of  the 
poet's  birth),  and  Merimee's  Le  Carosse  du  Saint- 
Sacrement  The  students  of  Professor  Cohen,  of 
the  Sorbonne,  the  "Theophihens"  as  they  call  them- 
selves, kept  reviving  medieval  plays  for  scholarly 
audiences.  So  little  was  dreamed  of  the  sudden 
stop  in  June  that  in  May,  when  Edpuard  Bourdet, 
the  director  of  the  Comedie  Franchise,  was  tempo- 
rarily incapacitated  by  an  accident,  it  was  thought 
expedient  to  appoint  Jacques  Copeau  as  a  substi- 
tute— a  very  short-lived  function  indeed! 

The  influence  of  the  war  was  felt,  however,  on 
the  stage.  Fewer  new  plays  were  produced,  and  in- 
terest in  what  they  call  "revues" — i  e.  humorous 
comments  on  events  of  the  day  on  the  stage — was 
more  intense  than  usual.  Plenty  of  material  for 
satire  was  provided  by  political  and  military  hap- 
penings. The  two  best  known  revuists  in  Paris  in 
some  years  have  been  Rip,  who  wrote  Quelque 
part  ...  a  Paris,  and  De  Letraz  who  offered  Fa- 
miliale.  In  the  cabarets,  the  "chansonniers"  shared 
in  this  popularity  with  their  witty  comments  in 
lines  composed  on  popular  tunes.  A  revival  of 
"Marionette  plays,"  offering  distraction  to  soldiers 
in  the  leisurely  first  weeks  of  the  war,  were  pro- 
vided where  real  actors  could  not  be  produced,  and 
from  the  front  the  boom  of  wooden  actors  passed 
to  the  rear  of  the  lines. 

As  for  the  plays  themselves,  one  only  stood  out 
as  an  actual  war-play .Elyire,  by  Henri  Bernstein, 
built  on  the  background  of  the  horrors  of  the  rums 
brought  about  by  the  invasion  and  the  horrid  de- 
struction in  Czechoslovakia  and  Poland  A  play  by 


Andre"  Savoir,  Banvo,  about  air-raids  was  pro- 
duced again.  The  bulk  of  theatrical  activity  con- 
sisted of  "reprises"  of  successful  plays  of  recent 
years,  such  as  Balzac's  Le  Faiseur  (Atelier), 
Giraudoux's  Ondine  (Athenee),  Racine's  Phedre 
in  modern  scenery  (Montparnasse),  Steve  Pas- 
seur's  Je  vivais  d'un  grand  amour  (Oeuvre).  Of 
new  plays,  one  may  mention  Maurice  Rostand's 
Le  Roi  de  France,  which  pictures  the  Count  de 
Chambord  who,  in  1873,  lost  the  throne  of  France 
because  he  refused  to  accept  the  flag  of  the  Revo- 
lution. (Did  the  author  think  of  the  Duke  of  Wind- 
sor, or  simply  of  the  recent  and  sporadic  attempts 
of  the  royalists  in  France  to  re-establish  the  mon- 
archy?) Sometimes  in  order  to  forget  the  war,  the 
public  favored  lighter  plays,  or  at  least  such  as 
would  not  remind  them  of  war.  Jean  Cocteau  called 
"comedie  legere"  his  Les  monstres  sacrest  which 
tells  of  two  stage  artists  deeply  in  love  with  each 
other,  but  whose  serene  life  is  spoiled  temporarily 
by  a  mythomaniac.  Another  play  by  one  of  the  the- 
ater celebrities  was  Cetait  Ihistoire  de  rire  by 
Armand  Salacrou,  called  by  the  author  "farce  dra- 
matique" — an  ultra-modern  theme  treated  frankly 
but  with  indisputable  psychological  insight;  i.e. 
married  couples  who  imagine  to  exchange  mates — 
"histoire  de  rire."  Claude-Andre  Puget,  who  had 
earned  such  recognition  in  1938  with  his  play  Les 
jours  hcureux — hailed  as  a  sort  of  new  Musset  or 
Edmond  Rostand  on  account  of  the  light,  charm- 
ing, witty,  youthful  spirit  of  his  theater — offered 
Ce  petit  ange  n'est  rien  du  tout  ;  he  did  not,  how- 
ever, achieve  a  success  comparable  to  that  of  two 
years  earlier ;  the  scene  is  in  the  artists  quarter  in 
Paris,  where,  for  a  time  only  however,  a  sort  of 
Ariel  appears,  called  here  Myncl  Sacha  Guitry's 
never  exhausted  vein  inspired  him  with  an  amus- 
ing comedy,  Florence ,  preceded  by  a  little  stunt — 
before  the  curtain  rises,  Sacha  Guitry  comes  be- 
fore the  public  and  says  that  a  woman  in  the  au- 
dience has  threatened  to  shoot  at  the  actors  because 
she  has  been  told  that  the  marital  complications 
enacted  are  her  own  adventure  1 

Novel.  A  few  comments  first  on  some  novels 
which  had  remained  quite  unnoticed  during  the  last 
weeks  of  1939  on  account  of  the  war  but  received 
due  attention  early  in  1940.  The  "Prix  Femina," 
Paul  Vialar's  Rose  de  la  mcr,  tells  a  sea  adventure 
and  of  rough  sailors  who  experience  something 
that  reminds  one  of  the  famous  Bret  Harte  story 
The  Luck  of  Roaring  Camp  (a  little  child  born  at 
sea  makes  very  human  beings  of  those  rough  men). 
The  "Prix  interallie,"  Les  Figurants  de  la  mort  is 
a  story  in  which  a  socialist  leader  succeeds  in  en- 
listing men  for  a  revolutionary  coup  by  making 
them  believe  that  they  are  just  fighting  a  mock  bat- 
tle for  a  film.  In  view  of  the  war  events  Varillon's 
Massacre  des  Innocents  has  inspired  some  new  de- 
bates; the  theme  is  that  of  Paul  Raynal's  play 
Tombeau  sous  I' Arc  de  Triomphe  (1924  and  1929) : 
Has  the  generation  of  the  first  world  war  not  been 
cruelly  sacrificed  to  the  pre-war  generation  which 
succeeded  in  reaping  the  advantages  the  1918  vic- 
tory? 

It  was  during  1940  that  the  Canadian  writer 
Ringuet  (real  name  Dr.  Philippe  Panneton)  came 
to  his  own  in  France;  the  French  Academy  had 
awarded  him  its  "Grand  Prix  du  roman"  in  1939 
for  Trente  arpcnts,  but  political  events  precluded 
its  success  with  the  public;  then  in  1940  another 
award  was  made,  the  "Prix  des  Vikings,"  and  the 
book  which  had  been  at  first  printed  only  in  Mont- 
real was  advertised  by  the  well  known  Flammarion 


FRENCH  LITERATURE 


294 


FRENCH  LITERATURE 


firm.  (The  book  was  also  published  in  translation 
by  Macmillan,  New  York.)  It  is  a  story  of  a 
French  Canadian  family,  somewhat  the  same  mi- 
lieu as  that  of  Louis  Hemon's  famous  Maria  Chap- 
delaine.  An  honest  "habitant11  is  fairly  prosperous 
in  his  farm,  but  has  to  face  the  challenge  of  the 
new  generation  which  lacks  respect  for  old  tradi- 
tions. Here  belongs  also  Marcelle  Tinayre's  Est- 
ce  un  miracle  f  a  keen  analysis  of  a  religious  soul 
that  reminds  one  of  the  novel  that  made  her  fa- 
mous in  1902,  La  Maison  du  PIM. 

Jules  Romains's  last  published  volumes  in  the 
collection  Homines  de  Bonne  Volontt — what  will 
be  the  fate  of  the  continuation  ?— are  (XVII) 
Verge  contre  Quinctte,  the  story  of  some  unsavory 
dealings  of  a  bookbinder  during  the  first  world 
war,  dealings  which  had  passed  unnoticed  by  the 
courts,  but  were  taken  up  after  peace  had  been  re- 
stored (Vorge  is  a  naive  or  a  shrewd  eccentric 
who  happens  to  be  involved  too) ;  and  (XVIII) 
La  douceur  de  vtvre,  which  tells  of  an  idyllic  liai- 
son at  Nice  between  a  young  intellectual  and  a 
pretty  "fleuriste"  in  the  days  that  followed  the 
strenuous  years  now  over.  Roger  Martin-du-Gard 
ends  his  "roman  fleuve"  with  Epilogue,  giving  the 
philosophical  testament  of  the  old  scientist  Antoine 
Thibault;  he  dies  discouraged;  his  hopes  for  a 
"Wilsonian"  peace  ideal  is  shattered :  Mankind  can 
only  try  to  accept  courageously  its  inhuman  des- 
tiny. Claude  Farrgre  in  his  La  onsieme  heure  takes 
us  to  Asia  which  he  knows  so  well  and  suggests 
a  faithful  psychology  of  the  representatives  of  the 
two  great  nations  involved  in  the  gigantic  conflict, 
the  Japanese  and  the  Chinese.  A  similar  attempt  is 
made  for  the  two  nations  at  war  in  western  Eu- 
rope, the  French  and  the  Germans;  Jacques  Mo- 
reau,  in  his  Intelligence  avec  I'ennemi,  introduces 
two  young  men,  one  from  the  East,  the  other  from 
the  West  of  the  Rhine,  who  had  become  acquaint- 
ed before  1914,  exchanged  letters  with  respect  to 
each  other's  country,  trying  to  iron  out  disagree- 
ments ;  both  are  open  minded,  the  Frenchman,  how- 
ever, after  having  understood  the  claims  of  Ger- 
many immediately  after  the  Versailles  Treaty,  can- 
not accept  the  Hitler  gospel. 

From  the  novels  that  have  no  especial  connec- 
tion with  the  present  wars,  the  few  following  may 
be  picked  out:  Simenon's  Le  Bourgmestre  de  Fur- 
nes,  in  which  the  author  treats  the  psychology  of 
remorse  as  he  often  has  done  before.  Somewhat 
in  the  same  vein  is  the  novel  by  Jean  Schlumberger, 
Stephane  le  Glorieux — the  hero  lives  in  the  near 
East,  the  lands  of  everlasting  wars ;  he  is  consid- 
ered boastful,  but  is  one  day  to  realize  that  he  has 
brought  about  the  death  of  a  fellow  man,  and  can 
no  longer  free  his  mind  from  the  remembrance. 
Jean  Coctcau,  the  cryptic  author  who  is  or  is  not  a 
surrealist,  returned  to  his  career.  He  had  published 
a  mystifying  novel  in  1913,  Le  Potomac,  and  has 
now  produced  a  sequence,  La  fin  du  Potomac, 
which  again  can  be  understood  by  initiates  only. 

As  was  to  be  expected,  the  depressing  note  is 
not  lacking  in  the  1940  crop  of  French  novels. 
Reflecting  something  like  a  somber  anticipation, 
we  are  treated  to  a  gallery  of  despondent  people, 
not  seldom  cases  of  morbid  discouragement ;  Jean 
Guirec  (author  of  the  recent  Maison  au  bord  du 
monde)  writes  Le  crime  des  indifferent*;  Chris- 
tian Mlgret,  also  known  before  for  his  pessimistic 
outlook  on  life  Les  fausses  compagmes;  J.  P. 
Sarthe  (author  of  La  Nausee  and  of  Le  Mur)t 
L'lmagination;  Drieu  de  la  Rochelle,  Gilles;  Ber- 
trand  de  la  Salle,  Monfenil  (conflict  between  gen- 


erations) ;  Germaine  de  Beaumont,  Les  cleft.  Not 
quite  as  gloomy,  are  Louis  Aragon,  Voyage  sur 
flmpMoU;  Claude  Silve  (C9"9  De  Laforest  Di- 
vonne)9  Le  Paler  tin  \  A.  Colling.  Demain-Reldch*; 
Pierre  Benoit,  Let  environs  d'Aden;  and,  actually 
written  in  a  light  vein,  is  Ren£  Joglet's  Valparaiso. 

Two  short  story  collections  might  be  indicated : 
Peisson,  La  carte  marine  (nine  moving  stories), 
Andre  Armandy  L'Arc-en-ciel  de  lune  (six  sto- 
ries). 

Miscellany.  Publications  of  a  strictly  timely 
interest — war — have  been  mentioned.  A  few  have 
no  direct  connection  with  present  day  events.  Sev- 
eral volumes  are  souvenirs  of  early  life :  Ch.  Maur- 
ras's  Images  de  mon  enfance;  Ck-F.  Ramuz,  die 
French  Swiss  writer  tells  of  his  student  days  in 
Paris,  Notes  d'un  Vaudois',  Fr.  Carco  was  lucky 
enough  to  bring  to  a  conclusion  his  autobiographi- 
cal Souvenir  Boheme  d'artiste  (vol.  5)  ;  F.  Balden- 
sperger,  Une  vie  parmi  d'autres,  is  printed  and 
was  ready  for  going  on  sale  when  the  war  broke 
out ;  Jacques  Chadourne,  Chronique  privee  is  not 
so  much  an  autobiography  as  a  sort  of  soliloquy 
on  life — something  of  the  order  of  Montaigne's 
Essats.  The  souvenir  of  CUmenceau,  the  "Tiger" 
of  the  last  war  was  vividly  evoked  by  his  great 
friend  General  Mordacq.  The  Jewish  problem  is 
taken  up  by  one  of  the  sharpest  French  pens  of 
our  days,  Robert  Vallery-Radot :  Israel  et  nous 
does  not  try  to  hide  the  seriousness  of  the  ques- 
tion, but,  of  course,  cannot  accept  for  one  mo- 
ment the  brutal  solution  given  to  it  by  modem 
apostles  of  barbarism;  it  could  be  solved  if  the 
Christians  would  endeavor  to  convert  the  Jews  to 
their  philosophy  of  life.  Auguste  Bailly  publishes 
another  of  his  fascinating  books  of  history,  By- 
*ance.  Henri  Bordeaux,  in  Crimes  involontatres, 
has  three  striking  stories:  "Marie  Rave  lie,  em- 
poisonneuse"  "Infanticide,"  and  "Parricide" 

History  of  Literature  and  Criticism.  A 
great  collective  work,  sponsored  by  the  "Nouvelle 
Revue  Franchise,"  Tableau  de  la  litterature  fran- 
faise,  could  not  be  finished  on  account  of  the  war, 
but  stopped  with  the  18th  century.  The  authors  of 
the  different  chapters  are  all  men  of  high  reputa- 
tion, such  as  Alain,  Thibaud,  Valery,  etc.  Several 
scholarly  books  could  come  from  the  press  before 
the  invasion :  A  large  volume  on  Claude  Fauchet, 
the  historiographer  of  Henry  IV,  by  J.  P.  Espinet- 
Scott;  three  belated  books  on  Racine,  by  Saint- 
Rene  Taillandier,  by  Dimier,  and  by  Crouzat;  a 
captivating  volume  by  Georges  Mongredien  on 
Marion  de  Lorme  et  ses  amours  (the  Marion  of 
Victor  Hugo's  drama) ;  Vianey  offered  a  new 
Psychologic  de  LaFontaine.  Daniel  Mornet,  once 
more  gives  proof  of  his  formidable  erudition  in  a 
Histoire  de  la  Litterature  du  XVII1"'  sitcle;  ses 
caracteres  vtritables\  ses  aspects  inconnus.  Two 
French  professors  at  Hunter  College,  Henri  Du- 
pont  and  Ren6  Taupin.  wrote  a  France  au 
XV1I1*"  siicle.  Two  books  on  Lamartine,  one  by 
H.  Guiilemin,  Lamartine,  the  other  by  a  young 
American  scholar,  A.  J.  George.  Romantic  Una- 
nimism.  Very  interesting  is  a  volume  on  Balzac  a 
Fougeres,  by  E.  Aubre'e ;  another,  no  less  interest- 
ing, is  by  Paul  Souchon,  Olympio  et  Juliette,  Let- 
ires  intdites  de  Juliette  et  de  factor  Huao  (Juli- 
ette was  to  Hugo's  Tristesse  d' Olympio  what  Mad- 
ame Charles  was  to  Lamartine's  Le  Lac).  At  last 
an  exhaustive  volume  (850  pp.)  came  out  on  Al- 
phonse  Daudet  (whose  centenary  was  commemo- 
rated), by  a  very  conscientious  lady,  Yvonne  Mar- 
tinet. At  the  same  time  L£on  Daudet  publishes 


FRENCH  SOMALILAND 


295    GARBAGE  AND  REFUSE  DISPOSAL 


Souvenir*  intdits  about  his  father.  A  new 
book  on  Mallarmt  whose  fame  seems  to  be  still 


ujr    vuii,    iu«    vbiivi     uy    cui    AMU  mil,    wivvatui*    ATJ.OV 

chia.  A  study  on  La  geographic  de  Marcel  Proust, 
by  Andre  Ferre,  and  a  very  important  new  edi- 
tion, brought  up  to  date,  of  Rene  Lalou's  well 
known  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  frangaise  con- 
temporaine,  bring  us  to  the  20th  century. 

In  closing,  let  us  mention  an  open  Lettre  a 
I'Acadtmie  Frangaise,  by  the  famous  French  lin- 
guist, Albert  Dauzat,  asking  for  spelling  reform. 
It  was  in  Le  Francois  moderne,  April  number, 
and  came  after  several  articles  in  the  same  review 
giving  in  detail  the  arguments  for  resurrecting  the 
old  problem. 

ALBERT  SCHINZ. 

FRENCH  SOMALILAND.  See  SOMALI- 
LAND,  FRENCH. 

FRENCH  SUDAN.  See  FRENCH  WEST  AF- 
RICA. 

FRENCH  TOGO.  See  TOGO,  FRENCH. 

FRENCH  WEST  AFRICA.  A  French  co- 
lonial federation  made  up  of  the  colonies  shown 
in  the  accompanying  table 


Colony 

Sq  m* 
43,232 

Pop  (1937) 
1.289,128 

Capital 
Porto  Novo 

Dakar  •        

60 

126,929 

Dakar 

French  Guinea  , 

96,886 

2,065,527 

Conakry 

French  Sudan  .        ... 
Ivory  Coast     . 
Mauritania            . 
Niger     

590,966 
184,174 
.      323,310 
.      499,410 

3,635,073 
3,981,459 
370,764 
1,809,576 

Bamako 
Abidjan 
St.  Louis  » 
Niamey 

Senegal  

77,730 

1,666,374 

St  Louis 

French  West  Africa 

1,815,768 

14,944,830 

Dakar 

•  Including  dependencies  *  The  lieutenant-governor  of  Mauri- 
tania resides  in  St  Louis,  Senegal 

Chief  towns:  Dakar  (the  capital),  42,000  in- 
habitants ;  Kaolak,  39,981 ;  St.  Louis,  35,927 ;  Por- 
to Novo,  27,483;  Bamako,  26,182;  Abidjan,  26,- 
143 ;  Thies,  18,915 ;  Bobo-Dioulasso,  18,589 ;  Kayes, 
16J036. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  principal  agri- 
cultural products  are  groundnuts,  maize,  rice,  palm 
kernels  and  oil,  cottonseed,  coffee,  cotton,  tobacco, 
sesamum,  and  cacao.  Gold  was  the  chief  mineral 
produced.  Trade  (1938):  Imports,  1,627,200,000 
francs  (textiles,  fuel  oil,  machinery,  foodstuffs, 
and  beverages  were  the  chief  items)  ;  exports, 
1,416,100,000  francs  (franc  averaged  $0.0288  for 
1938;  $0.0251  for  1939). 

Communications.  In  1938  railways  extended 
2453  route  miles.  There  were  8314  miles  of  tele- 
phone line  and  21,457  miles  of  telegraph  line.  The 
road  mileage  in  1939  was  33,565  and  the  number 
of  motor  vehicles  was  15,783. 

Finance.  The  various  budgets  in  the  financial 
estimates  for  1938  balanced  as  follows:  General 
budget,  335,000,000  francs;  local  budgets,  498,162,- 
000  francs;  supplementary  budgets,  293,102,486 
francs. 

Government.  The  federation  of  French  West 
Africa  is  under  the  general  rule  of  a  governor 
pjeneral,  aided  by  a  council.  Each  colony  is  admin- 
istered by  a  lieutenant  governor,  subject  to  the 
governor  general  at  Dakar. 

History.  French  West  Africa  was  one  of  the 
mam  theaters  of  the  struggle  for  control  of  the 
French  colonial  empire  that  broke  out  between  the 


Vichy  Government  and  the  adherents  of  Gen. 
Charles  de  Gaulle's  "Free  French"  movement  fol- 
lowing the  capitulation  of  France  to  the  Axis  pow- 
ers in  June,  1940.  On  September  23  a  de  Gaulle 
expedition,  supported  by  British  and  "Free  French" 
warships,  attacked  Dakar  in  an  attempt  to  wrest 
control  of  the  capital  and  chief  port  from  pro- 
Vichy  officials.  The  attack  was  repulsed  by  shore 
batteries  and  warships  loyal  to  the  Vichy  Govern- 
ment. Numerous  adherents  of  General  de  Gaulle 
were  arrested  and  imprisoned.  The  pro- Vichy  au- 
thorities in  French  West  Africa,  headed  by  Gov. 
Gen.  Pierre  Boisson,  were  still  in  control  at  the 
year's  end. 

See  EUROPEAN  WAR  under  Effects  of  the  Fall 
of  France ;  FRANCE  under  History. 

FREQUENCY  MODULATION.  See 
BROADCASTING  STATIONS;  FEDERAL  COMMUNICA- 
TIONS COMMISSION;  RADIO. 

FRIENDLY  ISLANDS  (TONGA).  See 
BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

FRIENDS  (QUAKERS).  A  religious  group 
founded  in  England  by  George  Fox  (1624-91), 
which  teaches  the  doctrine  of  nonresistance  and 
the  absence  of  outward  ordinances  There  are  four 
denominations  of  Friends  in  the  United  States,  the 
oldest  and  largest  of  which  is  the  Orthodox  So- 
ciety of  Friends.  Headquarters,  Richmond,  Ind. 
For  statistics,  see  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS. 

FRUIT.  See  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY  AND 
ENGINEERING,  BUREAU  OF;  ENTOMOLOGY,  ECO- 
NOMIC; HORTICULTURE. 

FSA.  See  FARM  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION. 

FSCC.  FEDERAL  SURPLUS  COMMODITIES  COR- 
PORATION. See  SURPLUS  MARKETING  ADMINISTRA- 
TION. 

FTC.  See  FEDERAL  TRADE  COMMISSION. 

FUEL.  See  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL;  ELECTRIC 
LIGHT  AND  POWER;  LIVING  COSTS  AND  STAND- 
ARDS; also,  COAL,  GAS,  etc. 

FUKIEN.  See  CHINA  under  Area  and  Popu- 
lation. 

FURNITURE  AND  FURNISHINGS.  See 
LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS. 

FURS.  See  FASHION  EVENTS;  GARMENT  IN- 
DUSTRY. For  fur  production,  see  ALASKA, 

FUTUNA  AND  ALOFI.  See  NEW  CALEDO- 
NIA. 

FUTURES  TRADING.  See  COMMODITY  EX- 
CHANGE ADMINISTRATION. 

GABUN.  See  FRENCH  EQUATORIAL  AFRICA. 

GALAPAGOS  ISLANDS.  See  ECUADOR, 
under  Area  and  Population  and  History. 

GAMBIA.  See  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

GAMBIER  ISLANDS.  See  OCEANIA, 
FRENCH. 

GAMBLING.  See  FLORIDA  and  ILLINOIS  under 
History. 

GARBAGE  AND  REFUSE  DISPOSAL. 
Incineration  of  garbage  and  refuse  continues  to 
increase  in  favor,  but  this  method  is  far  from  tak- 
ing care  of  all  of  the  huge  aggregate  of  these 
materials  gathered  by  municipal  and  private  scav- 
engers. Much  garbage  and  refuse  is  dumped  un- 
ceremoniously on  vacant  land;  a  few  cities  have 
such  dumps  under  engineering  control,  covering 
the  waste  material  with  ashes  or  earth,  thus  form- 
ing sanitary  fills  and  converting  mosquito  breed- 
ing or  other  idle  spaces  into  park  or  building  areas. 
The  country  over,  a  large  percentage  of  the  gar- 
bage collected  is  fed  to  hogs.  For  the  most  part 
this  is  done  by  private  collectors  under  as  inade- 
quate engineering  control  as  is  exercised  at  the 


GARBAGE  AND  REFUSE  DISPOSAL  296 


GARMENT  INDUSTRY 


majority  of  the  garbage  dumps;  but  a  few  ex- 
ceptional cases  show  that  hog  farms  can  be  con- 
ducted as  well  as  sanitary  fills.  Inquiries  made  on 
behalf  of  the  YEAR  BOOK  show  that  at  the  close 
of  1940  garbage-reduction  works,  for  the  recovery 
of  grease  and  fertilizing  material,  were  being  op- 
erated to  treat  the  garbage  of  eight  municipalities 
Boston,  Rochester,  Syracuse,  Philadelphia,  Read- 
ing, Washington,  Indianapolis,  and  the  small  town 
of  Royal  Oak,  Mich.  At  Philadelphia  only  half 
and  at  Washington  about  a  third  of  the  garbage 
is  treated  by  the  reduction  process.  All  these  works 
are  now  owned  and  operated  by  the  cities  except 
Boston  and  Syracuse;  Syracuse  owns  the  works 
but  has  them  operated  by  contract.  At  one  time  or 
another  privately  owned  reduction  works  treated 
the  garbage  of  New  York,  Buffalo,  Pittsburgh, 
Baltimore,  Cincinnati,  Columbus,  Detroit,  Chicago, 
St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  New  Orleans,  and  a  few 
smaller  places.  Most  of  these  cities,  with  some 
that  owned  reduction  works,  have  built  incinera- 
tors. These  have  the  advantage  over  reduction 
plants  in  that  they  destroy  refuse  as  well  as  gar- 
bage. One  reason  for  the  abandonment  of  reduc- 
tion works  is  the  uncertainty  of  revenue  from  the 
by-products — grease  and  tankage — owing  to  fluc- 
tuations in  price.  Grease  in  particular  is  some- 
times a  drug  on  the  market.  Privately  owned 
works  received  a  bonus  from  the  city.  The  revenue 
from  any  method  of  garbage  and  refuse  disposal 
pays  only  a  part  of  the  yearly  operation,  mainte- 
nance, and  capital  charges,  and  the  heavy  cost  of 
collection  is  extra. 

Sanitary  land-fills  in  Queens  Borough,  New 
York  City,  for  the  disposal  of  garbage  and  refuse 
were  approved  by  a  committee  of  leading  sanita- 
rians chosen  by  the  Surgeon  General  of  the  U  S 
Public  Health  Service  on  agreement  for  the  dis- 
missal of  a  local  grand  jury  indictment  of  the  fills 
as  a  nuisance.  Extensive  areas  of  land  have  been 
reclaimed  for  park  and  other  purposes  by  these 
fills  and  large  savings  effected  by  shutting  down 
incinerators.  At  the  close  of  the  year  New  York 
City  was  operating  11  sanitary  fills  in  the  boroughs 
outside  of  Manhattan.  Eleven  of  the  older  and 
least  efficient  incinerators  had  been  shut  down, 
leaving  12  in  use.  (See  Engineering  Nrws-Rccord, 
Mar.  28  and  Dec.  5,  1940,  for  committee  report 
with  rules  for  sanitary  fills  in  general,  and  for  a 
description  of  New  York's  sanitary  fills;  for  a 
description  of  new  750-ton  incinerator,  with  heat 
utilization,  see  Sewage  Works  Engineering,  Aug , 
1940.) 

Concern  over  the  possibility  that  garbage  dis- 
posal by  feeding  to  hogs  spreads  trichinosis  among 
both  hogs  and  humans  was  noted  in  the  YFAR  BOOK 
for  1939.  At  Fontana  Farms,  50  miles  from  Los 
Angeles,  where  a  contractor  has  fed  the  garbage 
of  that  city  to  hogs  for  many  years,  studies  of  hog 
feeding  were  being  made  in  1940,  the  University 
of  California  and  the  State  Board  of  Health  co- 
operating with  the  contractor.  The  studies  are  said 
to  show  that  although  the  chemical  contents  of 
raw  and  pasteurized  garbage  are  practically  the 
same,  pasteurization  destroys  vitamins  and  de- 
creases pork  products  by  15  per  cent.  The  studies 
were  prompted  in  part  by  the  fact  that  a  bill  to 
prohibit  feeding  garbage  to  hogs  has  been  before 
the  legislature  which,  if  passed,  would  prevent  the 
renewal  of  the  disposal  contract  on  its  expiration 
in  1941.  That  would  not  only  deprive  the  city  of 
the  50  cents  a  ton  it  is  paid  for  200,000  tons  of 
garbage  a  year  but  also  necessitates  the  adoption 


of  some  other  means  of  disposal,  requiring  not 
only  capital  outlay  and  charges  but  also  operating 
and  maintenance  expenses.  Indianapolis,  for  some 
years,  has  recovered  grease  and  stock  food  from 
its  garbage,  the  sale  of  which  materially  reduces 
the  cost  of  disposal. 

Additions  have  been  made  to  the  cities  which 
treat  garbage  and  sewage  together  to  the  extent 
of  either  grinding  the  garbage  and  Adding  it  to 
the  sewage  sludge  or  solid  residue  for  digestion  or 
for  incineration.  Notable  instances  are  Gary,  Ind., 
and  Rock  Island,  111.  At  Gary  ground  garbage  is 
delivered  to  the  sewage-sludge  digesters,  adding 
to  the  gas  produced  for  utilization  by  the  sew- 
age alone.  (See  Sewage  Works  Engineering, 
Sept.,  1940.)  At  Rock  Island,  garbage  from  one 
grinder  goes  to  the  sludge  digesters  and  from 
another  to  an  incinerator  which  burns  both  filtered 
sewage  sludge  and  ground  garbage.  Dry  refuse  is 
burned  in  a  third  incinerator.  Digestor  gas  is 
stored  in  two  spherical-shaped  steel  tanks  for  heat 
and  power  used  by  the  combined  plant  (See  En- 
gineering News-Record,  Aug.  15,  1940.)  At  Tona- 
wanda,  N  Y ,  refuse  and  sewage  treatment  plants 
were  put  in  use,  the  latter  including  settling  and 
sludge  digestion  tanks  and  mechanical  sludge- 
dewatering  apparatus.  Dayton,  Ohio,  has  com- 
pleted a  garbage  and  refuse  incinerator  with  equip- 
ment for  drying  sewage  sludge  for  use  as  a  fer- 
tilizer or  for  incineration 

Bibliography.  Refuse  Collection,  Amencan  Public 
Works  Association;  four  pamphlets.  Preparation  for 
Treatment,  Factors  Affecting  Costs,  Methods,  Equipment 
(Chicago) 

M.  N.  BAKER. 

GARMENT  INDUSTRY.  The  men's  and 
women's  apparel  industry,  slow  as  it  was  to  assume 
the  garb  of  depression  which  had  enveloped  most 
other  manufacturing  enterprises  in  the  early  1930's, 
has  been  equally  dilatory  in  reacting  from  oppres- 
sive conditions,  once  these  gained  a  foothold  in  the 
clothing  trades  This  phenomenon  was  clearly  dem- 
onstrated during  1940,  when  prosperity  smiled 
upon  such  heavy  industries  as  building,  steel,  and 
automobiles,  but  continued  to  turn  a  stern  counte- 
nance to  the  garment  producing  world. 

A  trend  toward  lower  priced  units,  generally, 
and  casual  and  sports  items  in  particular,  has  char- 
acterized  both  men's  and  women's  wear.  Indicative 
of  the  growing  importance  of  outdoor  clothes  is 
the  showing  made  by  separate  coats  for  men.  In 
the  first  ten  months  of  1940,  separate  coats  cut 
exceeded  the  1939  total  by  27.7  per  cent.  In  Oc- 
tober, alone,  the  increase  was  217  per  cent  Slack 
suits,  too,  have  enjoyed  greatly  widened  popularity 
In  the  women's  wear  trades,  such  articles  as  active 
and  spectator  sports  dresses,  blouses,  skirts,  jack- 
ets, beach-wear,  and  ski-wear  have  frequently  re- 
turned handsome  dividends  to  their  makers. 

Contrariwise,  the  major  feminine  apparel  divi- 
sions-^-dresses  and  coats  and  suits — have  had  diffi- 
culty in  "breaking  even."  Serious  tmder-capitaliza- 
tion,  reflected  in  intensive  competition,  is  as  true 
today  as  ever  of  the  people  of  marked  individual- 
ism and  untiring  ambition  who  comprise  the  bulk 
of  these  consumers'  goods'  entrepreneurs.  The 
dress  field,  for  example,  is  said  to  have  a  capital 
of  $400  per  worker,  as  compared  with  $2150  to 
$6000  for  most  of  the  heavy  manufacturing  in- 
dustries. While  this  would  seem  to  be  sufficient 
handicap,  the  industry,  generally,  has  been  further 
weighed  down  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  its  very 
life-blood  is  Fashion  (q.v.).  Prolonged  lulls  in 


GARMENT  INDUSTRY 


297 


OAf  INDUSTRY 


each  season's  demand  and  an  insistence  on  the  part 
of  retailers  upon  adhering  to  rigorous  hand-to- 
mouth  buying  have  served  as  stumbling  blocks  to 
many  a  manufacturer's  success. 

In  an  effort  to  combat  sluggish  deliveries  to  the 
stores—a  concomitant  of  the  laborious  processes 
of  production  in  the  medium-to-better  priced  sec- 
tion of  the  women's  wear  trades — the  higher  qual- 
ity sportswear  houses,  banded  together  as  the 
Sportswear  Guild,  a  division  of  the  Fashion  Origi- 
nators' Guild  of  America,  have  led  a  movement  for 
earlier  seasonal  openings.  A  policy  of  introducing 
costume  suits  in  mid-June,  fall  lines  in  July,  mid- 
season  things  in  September,  Southern  resort  col- 
lections in  October,  advance  spring  showings  hi 
mid-November,  regular  spring  goods  in  January, 
and  summer  openings  in  March,  is  the  Guild's  an- 
swer to  the  geographically  diverse  needs  of  the 
country's  retailers. 

The  past  year  has  also  been  distinguished  by  the 
birth  of  a  plan  in  the  New  York  dress  market  to 
stave  off  the  advancing  decentralization  of  its 
$350,000,000  business  to  such  other  centers  as  Chi- 
cago, Los  Angeles,  and  St.  Louis,  not  to  mention 
smaller  communities  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
land. 

A  "streamlined"  promotional  program,  soon 
to  be  inaugurated,  has  been  conceived  by  the  Dress 
Joint  Board  of  the  International  Ladies'  Garment 
Workers'  Union.  This  entails  the  raising  of  a 
$1,500,000  fund  among  manufacturers,  the  union, 
real  estate  men,  bankers,  fabric  houses,  and  retail- 
ers to  be  expended  in  an  advertising  campaign  to 
maintain  and  extend  New  York's  leadership  in  the 
dress  field,  to  foster  a  desire  for  better  dress,  and 
to  increase  total  dress  sales  as  a  whole.  A  corollary 
modernized  production  project  provides  for  the 
opening  of  a  "school  for  management,"  establish- 
ment of  fair  trade  practices  between  retailer  and 
manufacturer,  improvement  of  jobber-contractor 
relations,  and  institution  of  better  planning  and  cost 
accounting  systems  by  the  producers.  Another  as- 
pect of  tiiis  determination  to  "save  New  York's 
industries"  is  the  six-months'  impartial  study  of 
men's  and  women's  wear  trade  exodus,  begun  in 
November,  by  the  Institute  of  Public  Administra- 
tion, employed  jointly  by  the  New  York  City  De- 
partment of  Commerce  and  the  Committee  of 
Fifteen. 

The  women's  coat  and  suit  trade's  dollar  volume 
has  fallen  slightly  below  that  of  1939.  The  num- 
ber of  units  sold  to  the  retailers  of  the  country  de- 
creased about  4  or  5  per  cent  below  last  year's 
figure.  This  is  an  estimate  gathered  from  the  sale 
of  labels  to  manufacturers  and  jobbers  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  by  the  National  Coat  and  Suit  Industry 
Recovery  Board,  whose  members  are  responsible 
for  95  per  cent  of  the  country's  total  production  of 
these  garment  types.  In  1940,  approximately  15,- 
500,000  labels  were  sold,  as  against  about  16,300,- 
000  in  1939,  and  slightly  over  15,400,000  in  1938. 
Just  as  in  all  other  branches  of  the  garment  trades, 
coats  and  suits  have  ended  the  year  with  the  mar- 
ket practically  depleted  of  finished  goods  and  piece 
goods,  thereby  imparting  a  salutary  tone  to  the  out- 
look. 

The  women's  fur  trade  is  an  exception  to  the 
rule  of  adversity.  For  the  first  time  in  many  years 
—some  say  since  the  First  World  War— this  field 
is  taking  on  the  form  and  substance  of  a  "sellers' 
market.  Diminished  stocks  of  fur  coats,  plus  con- 
sistently stronger  raw  fur  quotations,  have  been 
factors  in  the  transition,  perhaps  the  only  one  in 


evidence  in  the  numerous  apparel  producing  classi- 
fications. 

Millinery  has  pulled  itself  up  by  its  own  boot- 
straps, partly  through  an  industrywide  publicity 
campaign  under  the  auspices  of  the  Millinery  Sta- 
bilization Commission  of  New  York. 

Sales  of  men's  clothing  for  the  year  show  an 
approximate  gain  of  5  per  cent.  Men's  suits  cut 
declined  about  7  per  cent.  Overcoats  cut  revealed 
a  gain  of  4  per  cent.  Wholesale  suit  prices  aver- 
aged about  $1.10  higher  than  in  1939  and  about 
$1.30  more  than  in  1938. 

SAMUEL  FEINBERG. 

GAS,  Natural.  See  GAS  INDUSTRY;  OHIO  and 
MISSISSIPPI  under  Mineral  Production. 

GAS  INDUSTRY.  The  gas  utilities  of  the 
United  States  continued  their  record  of  progress 
and  expansion  during  1940  Manufactured  and 
natural  gas  companies,  supplying  towns  and  cities 
with  a  population  of  more  than  84,000,000,  served 
a  total  of  17,980,300  customers,  representing  the 
largest  number  of  consumers  ever  connected  to 
the  mains  of  the  industry  This  was  an  increase 
of  481,000  over  the  year  1939  Of  these,  10,232,- 
900  were  served  by  the  manufactured  gas  industry 
and  the  remaining  7,747,400  were  served  by  the 
natural  gas  industry.  Revenues  of  the  entire  in- 
dustry, both  manufactured  and  natural,  aggregated 
$873,358,000,  a  gain  of  7.3  per  cent  over  the  pre- 
ceding year  of  1939.  The  natural  gas  companies 
grossed  $491,276,000,  a  gain  of  9.4  per  cent  for 
the  year,  while  revenues  of  the  manufactured  gas 
companies  were  $382,082,000,  as  compared  with 
$365,150,000  in  1939,  an  increase  of  4.6  per  cent 

PRELIMINARY  ESTIMATES  ON  THE 

GAS  INDUSTRY  FOR  1940 
Statistical  Department,  American  Gas  Association 


Change 

Customers 

1940 

1939 

/o 

Domestic  (Incl. 

House  Heating) 
Industrial  &   Com- 

16,910,000 

16,459,000 

+  27 

mercial 
Total 

1,070,300 
17,980,300 

1,040,000 
17,499,000 

+  29 
+  28 

Gas  Sales  (MCF) 

Domestic  (Incl 
House  Heating)  . 

686,792,000 

622,309,000 

+10.4 

Industrial  & 

Commercial  .... 

1,147,203,000 

1,068,343,000 

+  74 

Total 

1,833,995,000 

1,690,652,000 

+  85 

Revenue  (Dollars) 

Domestic  (Incl. 

House  Heating) 

$585,770,000 

$546,866,000 

+  7.1 

Industrial  & 

Commercial 
Total 

287,588,000 
$873,358,000 

267,143,000 
$814,009,000 

+  7.7 
+  73 

Sales  of  manufactured  gas  for  domestic  uses, 
such  as  cooking,  refrigeration,  house-heating,  wa- 
ter heating,  etc.,  amounted  to  267,438,000,000  cubic 
feet,  an  increase  of  73  per  cent  for  the  year. 
House-heating  sales  registered  a  gain  of  25.1  per 
cent.  The  sales  of  natural  gas  for  domestic  uses 
registered  a  pronounced  upturn,  rising  from  372,- 
971,000,000  cubic  feet  in  1939  to  419,354,000,000 
cubic  feet  in  1940,  a  gam  of  12.4  per  cent.  Sales 
of  natural  gas  for  industrial  purposes  rose  from 
654,662,000,000  cubic  feet  in  1939  to  719,776,000,- 
000  cubic  feet  in  1940,  an  increase  of  9.9  per  cent. 
Sales  of  manufactured  gas  for  industrial  and  com- 
mercial purposes  showed  an  upturn,  rising  from 
111,078,000,000  cubic  feet  in  1939  to  119,624,000,- 
000  cubic  feet  in  1940,  an  increase  of  7.7  per  cent 


GAS  INDUSTRY 


298 


QAB  INDUSTRY 


Statistical  Department.  Amman  Gas  Assodasbn 


Change 

Ceutemm 

1940 

1939 

Domestic  

9,462,100 

9,325  .000 

+  15 

House  Heating 

307,400 

264JOOO 

+164 

Industrial  ft 

Commercial  . 

454,000 

447,000 

+  1.6 

MitcfillaniHT11* 

9,400 

9.000 

Total  

10,232,900 

10,045.000 

+  19 

Gas  Sales  (MCF) 

Domestic  .    .  . 
House  Heating. 

..      197,539,000 
69,899,000 

193,455,000 
55,883,000 

+  21 
+251 

Industrial  & 

Commercial 
Miscellaneous. 

..      119,624,000 
2,270,000 

111,078,000 
1,993,000 

+  7.7 

Total      .  . 

.      389,332,000 

+  7.4 

Revenue  (Dollars) 

Domestic.    . 
House  Heating 

.    $260,063,000 
44,240,000 

$255,131,000 
35,930,000 

+  19 

+231 

Industrial  & 

Commercial 

76,356,000 

72,774,000 

+  49 

Miscellaneous 

1,423,000 

1,315,000 

Total    

.  .     $382,082,000 

$365,150,000 

+~46 

Preliminary  estimates  indicate  that  the  total  pro- 
duction of  natural  gas  in  1940,  including  amounts 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  carbon  black  and  for 
field  purposes,  reached  a  total  of  2,600,000,000,000 
cubic  feet.  Approximately  183  billion  cubic  feet 
of  natural  gas  were  used  as  fuel  for  generating 
electric  power  in  1940. 

The  outstanding  engineering  achievement  of  the 
year  was  the  installation  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  of  a 
new  plant  which  reduces  natural  gas  to  a  liquid 
state  at  a  temperature  of  250°  below  zero  and 
stores  it  in  special  containers  from  which  it  is 
later  withdrawn  in  its  original  form  and  fed  into 
distribution  mains.  Some  of  the  advantages  fore- 
seen in  this  novel  type  of  plant  are  a  substantial 
saving  in  storage  facilities,  the  ready  availability 
of^a  gas  supply  in  case  of  emergencies,  and  the 
ability  to  maintain  uninterrupted  service  during 
severe  peak  demands.  The  new  plant  has  incited 
great  interest  not  alone  within  the  gas  industry, 
but  in  the  engineering  and  chemical  professions  as 
welt 

PRELIMINARY  ESTIMATES  ON  THE 

NATURAL  GAS  INDUSTRY  FOR  1940 

Statistical  Department,  Ameruan  Gas  Association 


Customers 

1940 

1939 

Change 

% 

Domestic  (Inch 

House  Heating).* 
Commercial    .   ... 

7,140,500 
562,100 

6,870,000 
541.000 

+  3.9 
+  3.9 

Industrial  

44,800 

43,000 

+  4.2 

Total      

7,747,400 

7,454,000 

+  3.9 

Gas  Sales  (If  CF) 

Domestic  (Ind. 

House  Heating).. 
Commercial  ^^ 

419,354,000 
122,987,000 

372,971,000 
109,314,000 

+124 
+12.5 

Industrial  

719,776,000 

654,662,000 

4-  99 

Electric  Genera- 

tion       
Total  Ind.  &  Elec. 

182,546,000 

191,296,000 

-  4.6 

Generation 

Total  ".".'. 

902,322,000 
1,444,663,000 

845,958,000 
1,326,243,000 

+  6.7 

+  8.8 

R*mmt  (Dollars) 

Domestic  (Ind. 
Bouse  Heating)  . 
Commercial 

$281,467,000 
55I942IOOO 

$255,805,000 
SO,362;000 

+10.0 
+11.1 

Industrial  fit  Electric 

153,867,000 
$491,276,000 

$J48,'859,'000 

+  7.8 
+  94 

. 

i   '•» 

Gas  companies  continued  to  inaugurate  more 
favorable  rates  for  house  heating  through  central 
plant  burners  and  equipment  It  is  estimated  that 


the  total  number  Of  gas  central  house-heating  in* 
stallations  connected  to  the  lines  of  all  United 
States  gas  companies  in  1940  amounted  to  800.000. 
In  addition  there  were  approximately  1,800,000 
dwellings  heated  by  unit  heaters,  space  heaters, 
floor  furnaces,  etc.,  giving  a  total  of  more  than 
2,600,000  homes  in  the  United  States  that  are 
heated  by  gas. 

In  recent  years,  the  gas  industry  has  supple- 
mented the  substantial  amount  of  research  con- 
ducted by  gas  appliance  manufacturers  by  a  vigor- 
ous and  well-planned  program  of  research  and 
development  through  the  American  Gas  Associa- 
tion. Even  better  and  more  efficient  gas  equipment 
will  shortly  be  available  which  should  serve  to 
enhance  the  competitive  position  of  gas. 

The  gas  industry  is  taking  a  leading  part  in 
supplying  the  vast  industrial  heating  needs  of  fac- 
tories and  mills  that  are  producing  the  thousands 
of  parts  for  equipment  and  machines  necessary  in 
the  National  Defense  program.  For  hardening  the 
small  and  intricate  parts  of  machine  guns  to  the 
final  heat  treatment  of  the  largest  guns,  specially 
designed  gas  furnaces  are  speeding  production  at 
an  ever  increasing  pace.  In  the  navy  yards,  some 
of  the  largest  industrial  furnaces  ever  built  are 
annealing  fully  assembled  gun  turrets  with  gas. 
Equipment  which  has  been  developed  for  peace- 
time uses  during  the  last  decade  through  co-opera- 
tive research  and  engineering  by  the  gas  utilities 
and  leading  equipment  manufacturers  under  the 
sponsorship  of  the  American  Gas  Association  is 
rapidly  being  put  to  work  to  speed  production  in 
war  industries. 

Industry  and  business  used  about  55  per  cent 
more  gas  during  1940  than  during  the  boom  period 
of  1929.  It  is  estimated  that  the  normal  use  of 
industrial  and  commercial  gas  during  1941  will  be 
at  least  10  per  cent  greater  than  1940  and  supple- 
menting this  will  be  the  great  quantities  of  gas 
used  for  purely  defense  production  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada. 

New  streamlined  gas  equipment  for  restaurants, 
hotels,  clubs,  and  bakeries  is  being  installed  in  in- 
creasing quantities  and  is  contributing  materially 
to  the  modernization  of  all  kinds  of  eating  places. 
Food  preparation  technique  is  changing  rapidly 
and  chefs  are  finding  that  the  newly  designed  spe- 
cialized gas  equipment  enable  them  to  easily  adopt 
the  newer  cooking  methods.  Formerly  all  res- 
taurant foods  were  cooked  on  heavy  duty  ranges 
and  in  range  ovens.  While  the  range  is  still  the 
main  cooking  appliance,  it  is  being  supplemented 
by  such  special  gas  appliances  as  deep  fat  fryers, 
thermostatically  controlled  grills,  individual  deck 
baking  and  roasting  ovens,  radiant  ceramic  broil- 
ers, various  types  of  coffee  makers,  and  a  host  of 
other  special  gas  devices. 

The  attitude  of  American  housewives  toward 
gas  fuel  and  the  modern  gas  range  has  undergone 
a  marked  improvement  over  the  last  five  years  dur- 
ing which  the  industry  has  sponsored  a  national 
advertising  program,  a  survey  conducted  near  the 
close  of  the  year  reveals.  During  1940,  full-page 
advertisements  on  the  modern  gas  range  and  on 
the  four  mam  household  uses  of  gas  fuel  appeared 
in  national  magazines  with  a  circulation  of  nearly 
20,000,000.  In  addition,  16  magazines  serving  the 
trade  and  professional  fields  carried  advertising 
promoting  the  industrial  use  of  gas.  Augmented  by 
local  newspaper  advertising,  the  national  campaign 
was  an  influential  factor  in  increasing  sales  of  gas 
and  modern  gas-using  equipment 


299  GENERAL  LAND  OFFICE 


The  gas  industry  continued  its  activities  to  pro- 
mote the  use  of  gas  for  the  "4  Big  Jobs"  in  the 
homes  of  the  nation.  During  1939,  gas  utilities  re- 
ported that  of  the  new  homes  constructed  in  their 
territories,  91  per  cent  used  gas  for  cooking,  77 
per  cent  for  water  heating,  62  per  cent  for  house- 
heating,  and  12  per  cent  for  refrigeration.  Pre- 
liminary figures  for  the  year  1940  indicate  further 
increases  in  each  of  these  uses. 

An  impressive  record  of  gas  service  was  made 
in  the  housing  projects  completed  by  various  gov- 
ernmental departments  and  bureaus  during  1940 
and  the  industry  is  supplying  gas  for  many  serv- 
ices in  numerous  cantonments  and  defense  housing 
projects  throughout  the  nation. 

Total  sale  of  gas  ranges  during  1940  was  1,725,- 
000  units— the  highest  record  in  the  history  of  the 
industry,  according  to  the  Association  of  Gas  Ap- 
pliance and  Equipment  Manufacturers.  The  sale 
of  "Certified  Performance  Gas  Ranges/'  inaugu- 
rated in  August,  1938,  has  continued  to  increase 
to  the  point  where  this  type  of  range,  tested  and 
approved  for  unexcelled  cooking  performance,  rep- 
resents a  substantial  portion  of  total  range  sales. 
More  than  500,000  automatic  gas  water  heaters 
were  sold  during  1940. 

See  POWER  PLANTS;  OHIO;  MISSISSIPPI. 

ALEXANDER  FORWARD. 

GASOLINE.  See  PETROLEUM. 

GEMS.  See  MINERALOGY. 

GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD,  The. 
An  institution  incorporated  by  an  act  of  Congress 
in  1903,  with  the  stated  object  of  promoting  edu- 
cation within  the  United  States  of  America,  with- 
out distinction  of  race,  sex,  or  creed.  The  total 
amount  received  by  the  Board  in  gifts  and  the 
accretion  thereof,  exclusive  of  income  from  in- 
vestments, was  $179,756,000.  The  Board  is  em- 
powered to  expend  the  principal  as  well  as  the 
income  from  these  funds.  The  present  program 
is  now  restricted  to  the  continuance  of  the  existing 
program  in  .he  Southern  States.  Support  of  re- 
search and  experimentation  in  relation  to  the  prob- 
lems presented  in  the  field  of  general  education, 
i.e.  the  secondary  school  through  junior  college 
level,  and  the  program  in  child  growth  and  devel- 
opment were  brought  to  a  close  at  the  end  of  1940. 
At  the  end  of  the  year  1940  the  Board's  unappro- 
priated assets  amounted  to  $13,937,414,  of  which 
the  major  portion  was  definitely  earmarked  for 
programs  already  undertaken. 

During  the  year  ended  Dec.  31,  1940,  appropria- 
tions approximating  $6,500,000  were  made  by  the 
Board.  They  included:  General  Education:  To 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  $67,200 
for  support  of  the  program  of  science  teaching  of 
the  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  in  Science, 
and  $50,000  toward  expenses  incurred  by  the  Con- 
gress on  Education  for  Democracy ;  to  the  Educa- 
tional Policies  Commission  of  the  National  Edu- 
cation Association  of  the  United  States,  $65,000 
for  general  support  and  $10,000  for  its  program 
of  education  for  civic  responsibility;  to  the  Na- 
tional Association  of  Secondary  School  Principals, 
the  Department  of  Secondary  Education  of  the 
National  Education  Association,  $24,750  for  sup- 
port of  the  study  of  occupational  adjustment;  to 
the  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  $61,700 
for  support  of  the  study  of  adolescent  development 
being  conducted  by  the  Institute  of  Child  Wel- 
fare of  the  University  of  California ;  to  the  Amer- 
ican Council  on  Education,  $40,000  toward  sup- 


port of  the  co-operative  study  in  general  educa- 
tion at  the  junior  college  level;  and  to  Leland 
Stanford  Junior  University,  California,  $40,000 
for  support  of  the  program  in  social  studies. 
Southern  Education:  To  Bennett  College,  Greens- 
boro, North  Carolina,  $200,000  toward  endowment ; 
to  Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute,  Ala- 
bama, $60,000  for  enlargement  of  the  plant  and 
equipment  of  the  School  of  Agriculture;  to  the 
University  of  North  Carolina,  Chapel  Hill,  $60,- 
000  to  the  department  of  chemistry  for  apparatus, 
equipment,  and  organic  materials,  and  for  a  study 
of  new  sources  of  tanning  materials ;  to  Fisk  Uni- 
versity, Nashville.  Tennessee,  $50,000  for  current 
expenses,  primarily  for  teaching  and  research ;  to 
the  University  of  Virginia,  Charlottesville,  $48,- 
800  toward  support  of  a  bureau  of  industrial  re- 
search; to  the  Virginia  State  Planning  Board, 
Richmond,  $90,000  for  support  of  a  population 
study  of  the  State  of  Virginia;  to  the  Virginia 
Polytechnic  Institute,  Blacksburg,  $38,450  toward 
support  of  a  research  and  planning  project  in  agri- 
cultural economics  with  special  reference  to  land 
use;  to  Louisiana  State  University  and  Agricul- 
tural and  Mechanical  College,  Baton  Rouge,  $25,- 
000  toward  support  of  visiting  teachers  and  $9500 
for  courses  in  techniques  of  population  research 
in  the  department  of  sociology ;  $135,000  for  State 
agents  and  assistants  for  rural  schools  for  Ne- 
groes ;  to  the  University  of  Georgia,  Athens,  $27,- 
700  toward  the  program  of  development  of  die 
library,  biological  sciences,  and  administration;  to 
Atlanta  University,  Atlanta,  Georgia,  $25,000  to- 
ward current  expenses  of  the  School  of  Social 
Work;  to  Clark  University,  Atlanta,  $50,000  for 
the  purchase  of  land  for  a  new  site;  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Kentucky  $27,210  for  research  in  rural 
population  changes  in  Kentucky ;  to  Meharry  Med- 
ical College,  Nashville,  Tennessee,  $3,700,000  to- 
ward endowment  and  $160,000  toward  current  ex- 
penses of  the  Medical  School  and  Hospital ;  to  the 
Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  for 
Negroes,  $40,000  for  support  of  the  secondary 
school  study. 

The  executive  officers  of  the  General  Education 
Board  during  1940  included :  Ernest  M.  Hopkins, 
chairman  of  the  board  of  trustees;  Raymond  B. 
Fosdick,  president;  William  W.  Brierley,  secre- 
tary. Offices  are  at  49  West  49th  Street,  New 
York  City. 

GENERAL  LAND  OFFICE.  Millions  of 
acres  of  public  land  protected  under  national  con- 
servation policies  are  today  valuable  elements  in 
the  program  for  national  defense  as  a  result  of  ac- 
tivities of  the  General  Land  Office  during  the  1940 
fiscal  year. 

More  than  7,000,000  acres  of  the  public  domain 
were  embraced  in  withdrawals  and  requests  for 
withdrawals  of  tracts  for  bombing  ranges  and  oth- 
er defense  uses.  In  many  sections  of  the  United 
States,  township  plats  depicting  public  land  sur- 
veys prepared  by  the  General  Land  Office  supply 
the  only  map  data  available  for  military  purposes. 
Speeded  up  to  meet  defense  demands,  cadastral  en- 
gineering activities  during  the  year  resulted  in  sur- 
veys embracing  5,693,105  acres. 

Protection  of  the  nation's  food  supply  through 
the  development  of  an  adequate  supply  of  potash, 
a  vital  agricultural  fertilizer  ingredient,  also  was 
among  the  important  defense  moves  brought  about 
during  the  year.  As  a  result  of  the  war,  shipments 
of  this  material  from  Europe  and  elsewhere  have 
practically  ceased.  To  meet  the  emergency,  more 


GENERAL  LAND  OFFICE 


300 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


than  6000  acres  of  land,  comprising  the  greater 
bart  of  the  dry  bed  of  Searlcs  Lake  in  California, 
have  been  leased  by  the  General  Land  Office.  It 
is  estimated  that  the  supply  available  from  this 
source,  together  with  other  potash  produced  in  this 
country  largely  from  land  leased  from  the  Govern- 
ment in  California  and  New  Mexico,  should  be 
sufficient  to  meet  all  domestic  needs. 

The  General  Land  Office  last  year  was  listed 
among  the  few  Federal  agencies  which  returned 
to  the  Treasury  more  money  than  was  expended  in 
their  operation.  Total  cash  receipts  amounted  to 
$7,057,942.16,  which  was  more  than  three  times  the 
amount  of  expenditures  for  operations  and  marked 
the  fourth  consecutive  year  in  which  receipts  were 
in  excess  of  $7,000,000. 

The  Branch  of  Planning,  Use,  and  Protection 
made  substantial  progress  on  an  inventory  of  the 
resources  of  the  public  domain,  the  mapping  of 
public  domain  lands,  range  improvement  services, 
and  the  assembly  and  analysis  of  information  con- 
cerning the  economic  resources  of  Alaska.  Man- 
agement of  the  timber  resources  on  approximately 
2,500,000  acres  of  revested  Oregon  and  California 
railroad  grant  lands  was  furthered  through  addi- 
tional research,  inventory,  and  classification,  and 
through  establishment  of  improved  procedures  for 
maintaining  sustained  yield  cutting. 

Approximately  250,000,000  acres  of  the  325,000,- 
000  acres  of  public  domain  in  Alaska  administered 
by  the  General  Land  Office  are  in  need  of  fire  pro- 
tection. During  1940,  the  skeleton  Alaskan  Fire 
Control  Service,  established  earlier  in  the  year, 
conducted  a  vigorous  educational  campaign  for  fire 
prevention,  in  which  Federal  agencies,  civic  organi- 
zations, and  the  general  public  rendered  active  co- 
operation, and  a  short  course  on  forest  conserva- 
tion and  protection  was  conducted  in  co-operation 
with  the  University  of  Alaska.  Defense  activities 
in  progress  and  those  in  prospect  will  greatly  in- 
crease the  fire  hazard,  and  serious  losses  will  re- 
sult unless  the  protection  organization  is  material- 
ly strengthened 

Under  the  CCC  program  of  the  General  Land 
Office,  an  incalculable  amount  of  the  nation's  coal 
resources  have  been  saved  from  destruction  by 
controlling  underground  coal  fires  which  have  been 
consuming  many  of  the  large  coal  beds  in  public 
lands  in  the  vicinity  of  Little  Thunder  Basin,  Gil- 
lette, Wyoming. 

Conservation  of  the  grazing  resources  on  the 
vacant  and  unreserved  public  lands  was  furthered 
by  regulated  grazing  under  section  15  of  the  Tay- 
lor Grazing  Act.  At  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year, 
grazing  leases  were  outstanding  on  7,411,986.77 
acres,  as  against  5,830,743  acres  outstanding  at  the 
close  of  the  preceding  year.  Revenues  from  graz- 
ing leases  during  the  fiscal  year  aggregated  $152,- 
378,  compared  with  $137,365  during  the  preceding 
year. 

The  change  from  the  system  of  issuing  permits 
to  prospect  for  oil  and  gas  on  the  public  domain  to 
the  system  of  issuing  leases  has  been  practically 
completed.  The  change  was  designed  to  aid  in  the 
conservation  of  the  oil  and  gas  resources,  prevent 
speculation  and  secure  more  adequate  returns  to 
the  United  States  from  such  resources. 

Regulations  were  issued  governing  the  utiliza- 
tion, primarily  through  lease,  of  small  areas  of  the 
public  domain  outside  certain  national  reservations 
for  home-site,  cabin,  camp,  health,  recreational,  or 
business-site  purposes  under  the  provisions  of  the 
five-acre  tract  act  of  June  1,  1938.  The  conserva- 


tion of  national  resources  and  the  welfare  of  the 
applicants  and  of  the  communities  in  which  the 
lands  applied  for  are  situated  will  be  given  primary 
consideration  in  connection  with  all  applications  re- 
ceived. 

The  regulations  relating  to  the  public  lands 
which  were  codified  and  printed  as  a  part  of  Vol- 
ume II,  Title  43,  of  the  Code  of  Federal  Regula- 
tions have  been  reprinted  as  a  separate  volume, 
with  an  index  and  tables,  and  with  a  supplement 
which  in  effect  brings  the  volume  up  to  Apr.  17, 
1940.  A  series  of  information  bulletins  relating  to 
the  work  of  the  General  Land  Office  is  available 
upon  request. 

FRED  W.  JOHNSON. 

GENETICS.  See  BOTANY  ;  ZOOLOGY. 

GEOGRAPHY.  See  EXPLORATION  ;  POLAR  RE- 
SEARCH. 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY.  The  work  of  the 
Geological  Survey  is  highly  technical  and  diversi- 
fied. It  consists  of  investigations  in  the  fields  of 
geology  and  hydraulic  engineering,  of  topographic 
surveys,  of  land  classification,  and  of  supervision 
of  mineral-leasing  operations  on  Government- 
owned  lands.  During  the  fiscal  year  1940  more 
than  $6,500,000  were  made  available  for  such  work 

The  Geological  Survey's  investigations  of  stra- 
tegic minerals,  begun  in  1939,  assume  an  important 
place  in  the  national  defense  program.  Deposits 
of  manganese,  chrome,  mercury,  tungsten,  and 
nickel  in  a  number  of  western  States  and  deposits 
of  tin  and  mica  in  North  Carolina  were  examined 
or  re-examined,  and  reports  were  submitted  on  18 
of  the  20  projects  before  the  close  of  the  fiscal 
year.  Studies  were  also  made  of  tin,  nickel,  and 
chrome  in  Alaska.  At  the  same  time  the  regular 
program  of  geologic  investigations  continued  with- 
out interruption.  Important  studies  were  conducted 
in  the  metal-mining  districts  of  Colorado  and 
Idaho,  in  the  oil  and  gas  region  of  Kansas,  in  the 
phosphate  fields  of  Florida,  and  in  a  number  of 
other  geologically  important  areas. 

Measurements  of  stream  flow  were  made  dur- 
ing the  year  at  4761  gaging  stations  throughout 
the  continental  United  States  and  Hawaii.  The  re- 
sulting records  will  appear  as  parts  of  the  regular 
series  of  water  supply  papers  that  show  the  be- 
havior of  streams  in  flood,  in  drought,  and  under 
normal  conditions.  Stimulated  by  the  ever-increas- 
ing use  of  water  from  wells,  numerous  ground- 
water  investigations  were  conducted  in  1940.  Peri- 
odic measurements  of  water  levels  or  artesian 
pressures  were  made  in  about  5500  observation 
wells,  and  analyses  were  made  of  2255  samples  of 
both  surface  and  underground  waters  to  determine 
their  suitability  for  industrial,  agricultural,  or  do- 
mestic use. 

In  46  States,  the  District  of  Columbia,  and 
Puerto  Rico  more  than  24,000  square  miles  were 
covered  by  topographic  surveys  or  resurveys,  the 
resulting  quadrangle  maps  being  scheduled  for 
publication  as  parts  of  the  topographic  atlas  of  the 
United  States.  A  detailed  survey  was  also  made 
of  a  part  of  Annette  Island  in  southeastern  Alaska 
for  an  airplane  landing  field.  These  three-dimen- 
sional maps  are  indispensable  in  the  planning  and 
execution  of  modern  military  operations  as  well 
as  in  the  everyday,  nonmilitary,  peacetime  pur- 
suits of  the  Nation.  In  the  production  of  some  of 
them  the  Survey  continued  to  use  the  stereophoto- 
grammctric  equipment  by  which  mapping  is  ac- 
complished through  the  use  of  aerial  photographs. 


GEOLOGY 


301 


GEOLOGY 


As  technical  adviser  to  the  land-administrative 
agencies  of  the  Federal  Government,  the  Geologi- 
cal Survey  made  more  than  7500  reports  upon  the 
mineral  resources,  water  power,  or  storage  possi- 
bilities of  public  lands.  At  the  same  time  technical 
supervision  was  given  to  6500  properties  contain- 
ing oil  and  gas,  more  than  200  containing  coal,  and 
100  containing  other  minerals.  On  Indian  lands 
more  than  4000  oil  and  gas  leases  were  supervised, 
in  addition  to  more  than  200  properties  containing 
coal,  asbestos,  lead,  and  zinc.  Minerals  produced 
during  the  year  from  public  and  Indian  lands  and 
naval  petroleum  reserves  under  the  supervision  of 
the  Geological  Survey  had  an  estimated  value  of 
$80,000,000  and  revenue  derived  by  the  Govern- 
ment as  a  result  of  this  production  amounted  to 
$8,000,000. 

The  Survey  issued  a  total  of  667  publications 
during  the  year,  these  including  49  reports  in  the 
regular  series  and  102  new  or  revised  topographic 
and  other  maps.  It  distributed  during  the  same  pe- 
riod 67,735  books  and  pamphlets  and  808,764  maps. 
W.  C.  MENDENHALL. 

GEOLOGY.  Geology  in  National  Defense. 

During  the  World  War  of  1914-18  Germany  was 
the  first  nation  to  make  use  of  geologists  as  active 
consultants  in  the  field,  and  from  the  very  begin- 
ning German  geologists  were  assigned  to  army 
staffs.  The  value  of  geological  advice  was  soon 
appreciated  by  other  combatants,  and  before  the 
end  of  the  war  geologists  were  widely  employed 
in  the  field  by  all  armies.  In  1940  geologists  of  the 
United  States  were  beginning  once  more  to  think 
in  terms  of  war-time  usefulness  and  accepted  as  a 
matter  of  course  their  listing  in  the  newly  organ- 
ized National  Roster  of  Scientific  and  Specialized 
Personnel,  from  which  selection  of  competent  in- 
dividuals for  national  defense  purposes  will  be 
made.  This  increasing  preoccupation  with  the  geo- 
logical aspects  of  national  defense  was  indicated  at 
the  December,  1940,  meetings  of  the  important  geo- 
logical societies,  where  a  considerable  proportion 
of  the  papers  was  devoted  to  various  aspects  of  the 
place  of  geology  in  preparing  for  and  waging  war. 

In  connection  with  the  field  operations  of  an 
army,  the  work  of  the  geologists  consists  in  noth- 
ing more  than  the  application  of  the  well -recog- 
nized methods  of  engineering  geology  to  a  rather 
specialized  type  of  problem.  Very  often  this  em- 
ployment is  in  the  selection,  where  considerations 
of  military  effectiveness  allow  a  choice,  of  the  best 
possible  locations  for  trenches,  dugouts,  tunnels, 
air-raid  shelters,  and  underground  fortifications. 
Other  things  being  equal  the  best  location  for  these 
structures  is  in  well  drained  rock  or  soil,  which  is 
also  easily  excavable.  It  was  often  found,  for  ex- 
ample, during  the  last  war  that  one  dugout  might 
be  comparatively  dry  and  comfortable,  while  an- 
other on  the  same  line  but  at  slightly  greater  or 
lesser  depth  was  cold  and  wet.  This  difference  was 
often  due  to  the  varying  permeability  of  the  mate- 
rial in  which  the  dugouts  were  constructed,  and  a 
slight  shift  in  the  vertical  location  of  the  poorly 
drained  dugout  might  have  placed  it  in  the  more 
permeable  formation,  where  it  too  would  have  been 
dry.  Since  the  health  and  comfort  of  troops  may 
depend  upon  the  quality  of  their  quarters,  geolo- 
gists who  could  point  out  such  differences  in  rock 
behavior  were  very  useful. 

Geologists  have  also  shown  that  the  potential  dc- 
structiveness  of  bombs  and  shells  varies  greatly  in 
different  types  of  soil.  In  clay  soils,  bombs  pene- 


trate deeply,  make  a  relatively  deep  crater,  and 
throw  material  vertically  upward,  so  that  the  radi- 
us of  the  area  of  danger  is  small.  In  sandy  soils, 
however,  craters  tend  to  be  shallow  and  fragments 
to  fly  horizontally  over  an  area  of  much  greater 
radius.  At  the  front  geologists  are  also  used  in  lo- 
cating abundant  and  safe  water  supply  for  troops 
and  in  finding  materials  for  road  building  and  oth- 
er military  construction.  Some  aspects  of  this  sub- 
ject have  been  discussed  by  Douglas  Johnson  in 
Battlefields  of  the  World  War  (American  Geo- 
graphical Society  New  York,  1931),  and  a  con- 
siderable bibliography  upon  it  developed  after  1918. 
It  may  be  confidently  stated  that  the  new  techniques 
of  geophysics  will  further  enlarge  the  field  of  ge- 
ologists in  future  military  operations,  whenever  the 
characteristics  of  earth  materials  must  be  taken 
into  consideration. 

With  the  tremendous  enlargement  of  the  U.S. 
Army  now  occurring,  problems  of  officer  training 
arise,  and  here  again  the  geologist  may  contribute. 
It  is  essential  that  officers  be  able  to  understand,  if 
not  make,  maps,  for  there  is  scarcely  a  military  op- 
eration from  the  inception  of  a  plan  of  campaign 
to  its  execution  in  the  field  that  does  not  require  an 
extended  knowledge  of  maps  Because  of  his  wide 
use  of  maps  in  the  field,  the  geologist  is  better  able 
than  any  other  map-user  to  picture  the  details  of 
topography,  which  can  only  be  depicted  in  part  on 
a  map  of  usual  scale  and  contour  interval,  but 
which  may  be  of  tremendous  importance  under 
battle  conditions.  The  geologist  is  often  able  to 
read  much  between  the  contour  lines,  and  a  map  to 
him  is  as  good  and  even  better  than  a  model  in 
showing  topography.  For  example,  knowing  some- 
thing of  the  origin  of  a  fiat  plain  shown  on  the  map 
without  a  contour,  the  geologist  knows  pretty  well 
whether  it  is  likely  to  have  elevations  or  depres- 
sions of  one  origin  or  another  too  small  to  be 
caught  by  the  contour  interval,  but  large  enough 
to  be  of  great  tactical  importance.  Such  knowledge 
can  be  of  inestimable  value  to  officers,  and  much  of 
it  can  be  quickly  imparted  to  innumerable  future 
officers  by  geologists  and  others  especially  selected 
for  this  service.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  it  is 
already  becoming  difficult  for  colleges  to  obtain 
topographic  models,  because  the  entire  output  of 
some  model-making  firms  is  already  required  by 
the  government  for  instructional  purposes. 

In  the  allied  field  of  aerial  photograph  interpre- 
tation, which  has  been  developed  to  a  great  extent 
by  oil  company  geologists,  it  seems  probable  that 
men  trained  in  this  specialty  will  be  called  upon  to 
interpret  and  to  teach  interpretation  of  aerial  pho- 
tographs for  military  purposes. 

So  far  as  national  defense  requirements  demand 
the  planning  and  construction  of  large  engineering 
works  such  as  the  much-discussed  St  Lawrence 
Canal,  geologists  will  continue  to  be  called  into 
consultation  to  solve  the  multitude  of  varied  prob- 
lems dealing  with  the  behavior  of  rocks  and  soils, 
which  are  met  in  every  great  engineering  under- 
taking. 

Strategic  Metals.  Of  the  25  metals  which  are 
listed  as  essential  for  national  defense  by  the  Army 
and  Navy  Munitions  Board,  eight  are  regarded  as 
strategic  in  the  sense  that  they  are  required  for 
waging  of  modern  war,  and  at  present  are  unob- 
tainable within  our  boundaries  in  quantities  suffi- 
cient for  our  own  use.  The  strategic  metals  are 
tungsten,  mercury,  tin,  chromium,  aluminum,  anti- 
mony, nickel,  and  manganese.  A  discussion  of  the 
uses,  sources,  substitutes,  and  possibilities  of  in- 


GEOLOGY 


302 


creasing  domestic  production  of  these  metftU  lies 
largely  within  the  fascinating  field  designated  min- 
eral economics,  although  the  problems  are  as  much 
technologic  as  economic.  They  can  only  be  touched 
upon  here,  and  the  reader  who  is  interested  should 
turn  to  the  following  annual  volumes  covering  the 
world  production  and  containing  much  in  addition 
to  bare  statistics:  The  Mineral  Industry  (Mc- 
Graw-Hill) and  The  Minerals  Yearbook  (U.S. 
Bureau  of  Mines).  Broad  discussions  of  the  entire 
subject  may  be  found  in  Roush  Strategic  Mineral 
Supplies  and  Leith  IV  or  Id  Minerals  and  World 
Politics,  both  published  by  McGraw-Hill. 

In  some  instances,  as  seems  likely  for  tungsten, 
domestic  production  sufficient  to  meet  war-time  re- 
quirements could  probably  be  obtained  by  mere  in- 
crease in  price.  In  other  cases,  however,  no  increase 
in  price,  no  matter  how  extraordinary,  could  much 
enlarge  production.  This  is  true  of  tin,  for  it  is 
unfortunately  probable  that  there  is  more  tin  in 
some  of  our  large  city  dumps  than  in  all  our  mines. 
An  increase  in  the  price  of  manganese  would  prob- 
ably result  in  a  considerable  gain  in  domestic  pro- 
duction, but  it  would  probably  never  be  sufficient 
for  our  needs.  Our  nickel  comes  from  Canada,  and, 
since  overseas  transportation  is  not  involved  and 
Canada  is  a  friendly  nation,  does  not  constitute  a 
problem. 

For  many  years  the  U.S.  Geological  Survey 
(q.v.)  has  been  engaged  in  studying  the  economic 
deposits  of  the  United  States,  and  within  the  past 
two  years  has  been  able  to  extend  its  investigations 
greatly  so  that  many  field  parties  have  been  en- 
gaged in  examinations  of  all  promising  prospects, 
as  well  as  in  careful  restudy  of  many  abandoned 
and  largely  worked-out  mines.  The  successful 
search  for  potash  made  in  this  country  as  a  result 
of  the  inability  to  obtain  this  important  fertilizer 
material  from  Germany  during  the  World  War 
was  a  triumph  of  economic  geology  and  will  serve 
to  illustrate  something  of  its  methods.  In  1916  pot- 
ash was  almost  unobtainable  and  sold  for  as  much 
as  $119  per  ton;  in  1939  we  produced  over  six 
hundred  thousand  tons  at  an  average  price  of  about 
$19.  The  great  potash  deposits  of  Stassfurt,  Ger- 
many, occur  in  beds  of  Permian  age  deposited  in 
an  isolated  and  evaporating  arm  of  the  ocean.  Al- 
though no  potash  occurred  at  the  surface  in  west- 
ern Texas  and  eastern  New  Mexico,  it  was  recog- 
nized that  the  beds  were  of  the  same  age  and 
character  as  those  of  Stassfurt.  Exploratory  drill- 
ing located  the  potash  beneath  the  surface,  and  it 
is  now  estimated  that  there  is  a  reserve  of  over  one 
hundred  million  tons  in  this  district  from  which 
most  of  our  potash  now  comes. 

The  occurrence  of  chromite  may  furnish  another 
example  of  the  methods  of  geology  in  the  search 
for  metals.  Chromite,  the  mineral  from  which 
chromium  is  obtained,  often  occurs  in  association 
with  the  iron  mineral,  magnetite.  Frequently  it  oc- 
curs in  lenticular  masses,  which  may  be  cut  off  at 
any  level  by  erosion.  Since  magnetite,  as  its  name 
suggests,  is  magnetic,  it  will  deflect  the  compass 
needle,  and  a  region  where  masses  of  chromite  and 
magnetite,  even  though  small,  occur  at  the  surface 
is  a  promising  one  for  exploration  for  underground 
bands  of  chromite  by  magnetic  methods.  Once  a 
mass  is  located  and  its  general  size  and  shape  de- 
termined by  dip  needle  surveys,  exploratory  drill- 
ing is  undertaken  to  determine  the  proportion  of 
chromite  before  any  steps  toward  mining  operation 
are  taken. 

By  such  and  by  far  more  complicated  methods, 


geologists  hope  to  locate  new  deposits  of  the  stra- 
tegic minerals  and  to  lessen  the  dependence  of  the 
United  States  upon  foreign  sources.  But  in  some 
instances  there  is  little  that  the  geologist  can  do. 
for  if  the  metal  does  not  occur  within  the  desired 
limits,  it  will  do  no  good  to  seek  it 

Chinese  Geomorphology.  Among  the  books 
appearing  in  1940,  one  of  unusual  interest  because 
of  the  circumstances  attending  its  publication  was 
Geotnorjhology  by  S.  Ting.  Published  in  Chung* 
king,  this  is  the  first  text  on  landforms  to  appear 
in  Chinese.  When  it  is  considered  that  geomor- 
phology  is  a  science  with  so  few  practical  applica- 
tions that  this  text  could  have  little  immediate  use 
in  warring  China,  its  appearance  at  this  time  seems 
a  remarkable  indication  of  a  national  will  to  carry 
on.  It  may  be  contrasted  with  the  statement  reli- 
ably attributed  to  a  Japanese  when  asked  why  he 
no  longer  sent  an  American  colleague  copies  of  his 
published  articles,  "We  are  just  beginning  to  real- 
ize that  Japanese  science  is  for  Japanese." 

Shore  and  Beach  Protection.  With  the  tre- 
mendous increase  in  the  recreational  use  of  beaches 
the  problem  of  their  preservation  from  wave  at- 
tack has  received  widespread  attention  in  almost 
all  States  bordering  on  the  ocean  or  on  the  Great 
Lakes.  The  shores  of  some  States  such  as  New 
Jersey  and  Connecticut  near  large  centers  of  popu- 
lation are  almost  entirely  occupied  for  summer  rec- 
reational use,  and  are  sources  of  large  income  to 
the  States  and  their  citizens  in  the  form  of  taxes 
and  spending  by  vacationists.  Active  wave  erosion 
immediately  causes  economic  loss  in  the  form  of 
"taxes  to  the  sea/1  which  in  the  aggregate  amounts 
to  millions  in  depreciation  of  property  value  and 
cost  of  protective  works.  There  is  a  national  or- 
ganization of  engineers,  scientists,  and  civic  divi- 
sions interested  in  shore  protection,  which  publishes 
an  enlightening  quarterly  known  as  Shore  and 
Beach  and  meets  annually  at  various  shorefront 
cities  in  the  United  States.  The  problems  of  shore 
defense  against  wave  and  tidal  current  attack  are 
complex  and  require  co-operation  of  engineer  and 
geologist,  although  most  studies  of  wave  processes 
now  being  published  are  by  engineers.  Successful 
shore  defense  requires  community  effort,  for  one 
property  owner  working  alone  may  cause  damage 
all  along  a  shore  or  be  defeated  in  his  efforts,  be- 
cause undefended  shore  on  each  side  of  him  con- 
tinues to  be  eroded  until  he  is  outflanked.  For  this 
reason  the  construction  of  any  large  protective 
works  or  of  other  edifices  likely  to  change  shore 
currents  requires  authorization  by  State  or  Federal 
bureaus.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  established 
beaches  are  not  only  protected  against  destruction, 
but  in  many  instances,  as  in  the  case  of  the  famous 
Coney  Island  beach,  are  greatly  widened  by  artifi- 
cial deposition. 

Contour  Map  Symbols.  Two  recent  additions 
to  the  standard  symbols  used  by  the  U.S.  Geologi- 
cal Survey  on  its  contour  maps  have  resulted  in 
making  many  of  these  five-color  maps,  whereas 
for  many  years  they  were  printed  in  three  colors, 
brown,  blue,  and  black,  except  in  those  maps  where 
green  was  rather  unsuccessfully  used  to  denote 
forest  areas.  For  a  number  of  years  too,  important 
State  and  Federal  highways  have  been  shown  in 
red  with  the  highway  route  number  printed  in  a 
red  circle  or  shield ;  this  has  proved  a  useful  prac- 
tice, although  unavoidably  confusing  when  routes 
are  altered.  In  the  latest  maps  red  is  used  in  short 
diagonal  dashes  and  in  a  stippled  pattern  of  various 
widths  superposed  upon  the  accustomed  black  to 


QBOLOOY 


303 


GEORGIA 


indkatc  political  boundaries.  Although  this  may 
make  the  maps -more  useful  to  those  to  whom  the 
contour  lines  have  no  meaning,  the  red  pattern  un- 
fortunately makes  the  topography  more  obscure  to 
geological  users.  In  addition  to  the  new  use  of  red. 
a  light  gray  tint  is  now  used  in  a  helpful  way  to 
denote  the  closely  built-up  parts  of  cities,  where 
individual  buildings  shown  in  black  would  com- 
pletely conceal  the  topography.  In  these  built-up 
city  areas  public  structures  only  are  now  shown 
in  black,  and  the  result  is  a  much  more  legible  map 
to  the  reader  of  contours,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  new 
Weehawken,  N.J.,  Quadrangle,  where  the  topog- 
raphy of  the  Palisades  can  now  be  seen  in  the  area 
of  Jersey  City,  which  under  the  old  system  would 
be  entirely  black.  On  these  new  maps,  however,  it 
must  not  be  assumed  that  all  the  gray-tinted  dis- 
tricts are  solidly  covered  with  buildings. 

Studies  of  Living  Glaciers.  Research  on  liv- 
ing glaciers  in  the  past  few  years  has  made  rap- 
id headway  in  three  directions.  The  first  of  these, 
in  which  Ahlmann  of  Sweden  has  made  notable 
contributions,  is  in  the  quantitative  study  of  the 
amount  of  snow  falling  on  the  upper  parts  of  a 
glacier,  the  thickness  of  nev6  thus  added  to  the  ice 
mass  annually,  and  the  volume  of  ice  that  is  lost 
by  melting  and  evaporation  from  different  parts  of 
the  glacier  each  year.  Such  studies  require  that 
the  investigator  live  with  the  glacier  for  a  pro- 
longed period;  they  have  not  yet  been  made  of 
American  glaciers,  although  there  are  many  on  the 
continent  that  would  repay  the  student  for  the  time 
spent  upon  them.  The  second  line  of  research  has 
involved  microscopic  study  of  glacier  ice  in  a  re- 
frigerated laboratory  where  its  behavior  under  dif- 
ferential pressure  could  be  observed  The  details 
of  ice  flowage  have  been  revealed  and  recorded  on 
motion-picture  film,  so  that  the  reorientation  of  the 
ice  crystals  during  flowage  is  clearly  seen.  This 
work  was  first  undertaken  in  1938  by  an  English 
group  under  Seligman,  which  set  up  their  labora- 
tory in  a  room  hewn  into  the  practically  stationary 
ice  above  the  bergschrund  of  the  Great  Aletsch 
Glacier  in  Switzerland.  In  this  country  Demorest 
has  carried  on  similar  studies  with  ice  of  Mount 
Rainier  glaciers  and  has  felt  justified  in  concluding 
that  under  sufficient  pressure  ice  acts  as  a  viscous 
fluid. 

The  third  field  of  research  deals  with  variations 
in  the  size  of  existing  glaciers  in  response  to  cli- 
matic fluctuations ;  it  has  recently  brought  out  evi- 
dence that  the  present  cirque  glaciers  of  the  west- 
ern United  States  are  not  diminished  remnants  of 
their  Ice  Age  predecessors  but  represent  a  new 
generation  of  ice  bodies  of  late  Post- Pleistocene 
age,  at  most  4000  years  old.  In  addition  Matthes 
believes  that  the  larger  glaciers  of  the  Northwest, 
Canada,  and  Alaska,  did  not  melt  entirely  away 
but  diminished  greatly  in  size ;  since  then  they  are 
believed  to  have  expanded  to  the  limits  from  which 
they  are  even  now  receding.  If  these  interpretations 
are  substantiated,  it  will  not  be  improper  to  speak 
of  a  minor  ice  age  more  recent  than  the  last  great 
glaciation. 

It  has  not  been  possible  to  determine  whether 
any  correlation  between  glacier-maxima  of  short 
duration  in  Europe  and  North  America  exists,  but 
it  seems  quite  certain  that  in  both  continents  the 
maxima  of  the  17th,  18th,  and  19th  centuries  were 
*!*  gr^?test  lce  €xt«n«ons  since  the  end  of  the  Ice 
Age.  The  present  rapid  decline  of  glaciers  does  not 
necessarily  mark  the  end  of  this  last  great  period 
of  ice  advance,  for  it  may  be  only  one  of  many 


temporary  recessions  that  have  occurred,  and  h  it 
known  that  the  Alpine  glaciers  are  now  much  larg- 
er than  they  were  during  the  Middle  Ages  and  still 
cover  the  sites  of  villages  overwhelmed  as  late  as 
1643-44.  In  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  Moun- 
tains the  glaciers  continue  to  lose  greatly  both  in 
thickness  and  in  length ;  in  one  glacier  a  decrease 
in  thickness  of  32  feet  occurred  in  six  years,  in 
another  the  ice  front  retreated  345  feet  in  one  year. 
A  number  of  small  glaciers  have  disappeared  com- 
pletely, one  within  the  lifetime  of  the  man  for 
whom  it  was  named.  In  addition  to  their  great  sci- 
entific interest,  these  studies  are  of  some  economic 
significance  to  the  hydrologist,  inasmuch  as  melt- 
water  from  glaciers  is  often  an  important  source 
of  water  supply  maintaining  flow  in  streams  which 
would  otherwise  dry  up  during  the  summer. 

Many  of  these  studies  have  been  furthered  by  the 
International  Commission  on  Snow  and  Glaciers, 
a  group  of  scientists  whose  co-operation  one  with 
another  must  nearly  come  to  a  standstill  during 
these  years  of  war. 

See  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

HENRY  S.  SHARP. 

GEORGIA.  Area,  59,265  square  miles,  includ- 
ing 540  square  miles  of  water.  Population,  Apr.  1, 
1940  (census),  3,123,723  (1,073,808  urban  and 
2,049,915  rural)  ;  1930,  2,908,506.  Atlanta,  the  capi- 
tal, had  (1940)  302,288;  Savannah,  95,996:  Au- 
gusta, 65,919;  Macon,  57,865;  Columbus,  53,280. 

Agriculture.  Georgia  harvested,  in  1940,  10,- 
673,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Cotton,  while 
it  supplied  hardly  over  one-third  of  apparent  value 
of  the  return  on  cultivation  of  the  soil,  remained 
the  chief  cash-yielding  crop.  Largely  counteracting 
the  diminution  of  the  yearly  planted  acreage  dur- 
ing the  years  of  the  New  Deal,  improvement  of 
the  yield  of  cotton  to  the  acre  held  production 
fairly  close  to  the  average  for  1929-38.  Cotton  in 
Georgia  yielded  251  Ib.  to  the  acre  (1940),  as 
against  an  average,  for  the  stated  years,  of  218. 
On  1,946,000  acres  (stated  years'  average,  2,595,- 
000),  cotton  made  1,020,000  bales  (average,  as 
above,  1,175,000)  ;  in  estimated  value  to  the  grow- 
ers, $48,450,000.  Corn,  on  4,259,000  acres,  grew 
46,849,000  bu.  (estimated  value,  $31,857,000) ;  pea- 
nuts, on  663,000  acres,  553,605,000  Ib.  ($17,715,- 
000) ;  tobacco,  72,100  acres,  76,420,000  Ib.  ($12,- 
328,000)  ;  sweet  potatoes,  99,000  acres,  6,930,000 
bu.  ($6,237,000)  ;  tame  hay,  1,141,000  acres,  648,- 
000  tons  ($7,582,000) ;  oats,  443,000  acres,  8,638,- 
000  bu.  ($4,405,000).  Peaches,  the  main  orchard 
crop,  made  4,154,000  bu.  ($5,192,000). 

Mineral  Production,  The  value  of  native  min- 
erals produced  in  Georgia  in  1938  (as  stated  in 
1940  bv  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines)  totaled  $11,- 
598,421.  Stone  furnished  over  three-tenths  of  this ; 
raw  clay,  somewhat  less ;  clay  products  (exclusive 
of  pottery),  one  sixth  Quarries'  sales  of  stone  rose 
to  1,988,SO  short  tons  for  1939,  from  1,465,680  for 
1938;  in  value,  to  $4,838,623,  from  $3,581,319.  Di- 
mensional stone  for  building,  monuments,  etc., 
formed  the  greater  part  of  these  values :  in  1939 
granite  contributed  $1,166,207;  marble,  $1,464,960. 
Kaolin  (used  chiefly  as  a  filler  for  paper  and  mak- 
ing china)  made  up  95  per  cent  of  the  producers' 
sales  of  clay;  the  total  of  kaolin  rose  to  512,214 
short  tons  (1939)  from  412,632  (1938),  and  in  val- 
ue to  $4,135,727,  from  $3,314,918.  The  production 
of  fullers'  earth  (its  statistics  separate  from  those 
of  clay)  was  also  important :  producers1  sales  (in- 
clusive of  a  minor  pan  attributed  to  Florida) 


GEORGIA 


304 


GERMAN  LITERATURE 


amounted  to  $1,035,066  for  1939.  Products  made 
from  clay  (exclusive  of  pottery  and  refractories) 
amounted  to  $1,980,943  for  1938. 

Manufacturing.  Yearly  production  of  manu- 
factured goods  in  Georgia  totaled  $677,402,657  for 
1939;  $708,652,241  for  1937.  Other  totals  for  1939 
(each  with  that  for  1937  subjoined)  :  3150  (2875) 
manufacturing  establishments  employed  157,970 
(159,496)  persons  for  wages  of  $108,078,264 
($110,501,344),  paid  for  materials,  etc.,  and  con- 
tract work  $394,076,490  ($439,145,132),  and  added 
to  material,  by  process  of  manufacture,  a  value  of 
$283,326,167  ($269,507,109). 

History.  Governor  Rivers's  failure  in  1939  to 
move  the  Legislature  to  raise  the  taxes  in  order  to 
support  his  system  of  help  for  schools  and  other 
liberal  measures  was  followed  in  1940  by  other 
setbacks  to  his  administration.  W.  L.  Miller,  the 
former  close  friend  whom  Rivers  had  removed  late 
in  1939  from  the  chairmanship  of  the  Highway 
Commission,  fought  this  extension  of  the  execu- 
tive authority  in  the  courts  and  obtained  State 
Circuit  Court  orders  to  keep  him  in  his  position. 
Rivers  countered  by  declaring  martial  law,  thus 
seeking  to  suspend  the  operation  of  the  orders. 
Courts  pronounced  jail  sentences  on  officers  of  the 
National  Guard  who,  under  Rivers's  orders,  pre- 
vented the  operation  of  court  mandates;  Rivers 
issued  pardons  to  the  officers.  Miller  carried  his 
trouble  to  the  Federal  courts  on  the  ground  of  the 
Federal  duty  to  support  the  lawful  State  authori- 
ties; Judge  Deaver  granted  him  a  Federal  injunc- 
tion against  the  Governor;  the  Governor  ignored 
it  on  the  plea  of  States'  rights  and  was  arrested 
for  contempt  (March  15)  but  released  on  his  own 
recognizance.  Rivers  appealed  to  the  Federal  Cir- 
cuit Court  at  New  Orleans  when  thus  threatened 
with  Federal  imprisonment  for  contempt  Mean- 
while proceedings  in  the  State's  courts  had  been 
carried  up  to  its  Supreme  Court  It  decided  (April 
10)  that  Miller  was  the  lawful  incumbent,  nullify- 
ing Rivers's  order  of  removal.  Rivers,  defeated  at 
every  point,  gave  up  the  legal  contest.  He  had  ac- 
complished the  immediate  object  of  Miller's  re- 
moval, the  diversion  of  moneys  from  the  highway 
fund  to  meet  the  State's  current  contributions  in 
aid  of  public  schools.  Late  in  October  Rivers  bor- 
rowed $3,500,000  from  a  banking  house  in  New 
York,  wherewith  to  continue  the  State's  payments 
toward  the  salaries  of  teachers  in  the  public 
schools.  The  loan  was  to  come  due  on  Feb.  28, 
1941,  soon  after  Rivers's  successor  and  inveterate 
opponent,  Talmadge,  took  office;  Rivers  declared 
that  ad  valorem  and  income  taxes  "when  paid  next 
spring"  would  amply  meet  the  maturity.  On  Oc- 
tober 26  the  State's  Auditor  submitted  to  Rivers 
an  audit  purporting  to  show  that  the  Highway  De- 
partment's balances  indicated  a  deficit  of  $13,843,- 
408  on  June  30 ;  and  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Public 
Roads  promptly  gave  notice  that  the  State  would 
receive  no  more  of  the  Federal  road  money  until 
the  Highway  Department  should  get  into  shape  to 
meet  its  part  of  the  shared  cost  of  road  work 

The  State's  audit  came  as  a  sequel  to  a  legisla- 
tive inquiry  into  the  Highway  Department.  In  May 
an  economy  committee  of  the  House,  questioning 
Hiram  Wesley  Evans,  National  head  of  the  Ku 
Klux  Klan  and  member  of  the  Governor's  military 
staff,  learned  of  Evans's  receiving  income  for  co- 
operating with  five  companies  engaged  in  bidding 
for  highway  contracts.  The  Federal  District  At- 
torney at  Atlanta  took  up  the  matter  and  started 
investigating  highway  dealings  before  a  grand  ju- 


ry. The  Ku  Klux  Klan  itself  came  into  notice  on 
account  of  the  flogging  to  death  of  an  alleged 
wife-beater  of  East  Point  early  in  March,  for 
which  nine  members  of  the  Klan  were  tried  and 
the  flogging  of  an  organizing  agent  of  the  C.I.O. 
in  the  same  area,  for  which  the  principal  offender 
was  sentenced  to  imprisonment  and  fine,  April  25. 
An  order  of  Imperial  Grand  Wizard  Colscott 
(April  17)  required  members  of  the  association  to 
cease  wearing  the  mask  that  had  formed  part  of 
their  costume. 

Rivers,  who  had  weakened  himself  by  resorting 
to  the  high-handed  methods  that  he  had  condemned 
in  his  predecessor,  Talmadge,  and  by  defying  senti- 
ment against  further  taxation,  sought  a  more  pop- 
ular course  in  May  by  ordering  all  aliens  to  be 
registered  and  forbidding  them  to  engage  in  li- 
censed occupations,  unless  applicants  for  citizen- 
ship. 

Elections.  At  the  State  primaries  (September 
10)  the  Democratic  nomination  for  Governor,  as- 
suring election  in  November,  went  to  former  Gov- 
ernor Talmadge;  the  supporters  of  Rivers  failed 
to  retain  any  of  the  major  elective  offices. 

At  the  general  election  (November  5)  the 
State's  vote  for  President  went  to  Roosevelt 
(Dem.)  265,194  votes,  and  against  Willkie  (Rep.), 
who  got  46,362  votes,  by  about  6  to  1.  Talmadge 
for  Governor  and  the  State's  other  Democratic 
nominees  were  duly  elected. 

Officers.  Georgia's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  E.  D.  Rivers  (Dem.)  ;  Sec- 
retary of  State,  John  B.  Wilson;  Attorney  Gen- 
eral, Ellis  Arnall;  Treasurer,  George  B.  Hamil- 
ton; Comptroller,  William  B.  Harrison  (died) 
and  Downing  Musgrove  (successor) ;  Superin- 
tendent of  Schools,  M.  D.  Collins. 

GEORGIAN  ^OVIET  SOCIALIST  RE- 
PUBLIC.  See  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  RE- 
PUBLICS under  Area  and  Population. 

GERMAN-AMERICAN  BUND.  See  DIES 
COMMITTEE;  FASCISM. 

GERMAN  LITERATURE.  The  year  1940 
finds  German  literature  in  a  chaotic  condition.  It 
is  very  difficult,  almost  impossible,  to  make  a  reli- 
able and  complete  report  Magazines  and  books 
from  Nazi  Germany  are  hardly  obtainable,  even 
scientific  publications  do  not  reach  the  libraries  and 
have  not  for  months.  The  literature  within  Ger- 
many's walls  has  now  totally  become  the  instru- 
ment of  the  propaganda  machine.  In  later  years  it 
will  be  a  very  interesting  task  to  compare  the  lit- 
erary situation  during  the  first  world  war  with 
that  of  the  second  world  war.  At  that  time  an  un- 
usual literary  activity,  an  abundance  of  intellectual 
intensity,  that  broke  through  in  spite  of  the  strict 
censorship  regulations,  today  a  sinister  silence.  The 
literary  "Fuehrer"  of  the  Third  Reich,  Hanns 
Johst,  describes  a  trip  through  conquered  Poland 
in  a  propaganda  paper  Ruf  des  Reiches — Echo  des 
Volkes  (Call  of  the  Reich— Echo  of  the  people). 
Martin  Luserke  publishes  a  short  story  from  the 
Irish  legendary  circle  Bran  watet  durch  das  Meer 
(Bran  wades  through  the  ocean).  E.  M.  Mungenast 
in  Der  Zauberer  Muzot  (The  sorcerer  Musot) 
writes  the  story  of  a  soldier  from  Lothringia,  who, 
after  the  war  of  70/71  has  fullest  understanding 
for  the  new  German  regime.  Agnes  Miegel,  a  sec- 
ond-class writer  of  former  times  publishes  a  new 
volume  of  poems  Ostland  (Eastern  country)  in 
which  she  writes  about  the  fate  of  East  Prussia 
from  the  first  world  war  to  the  present.  The  pub- 
lishing house  of  S.  Fischer  brings  out  a  two-vol- 


GERMAN  LITERATURE 


305 


GERMAN  LITERATURE 


ume  collection  of  carefully  "purged"  essays,  cover- 
ing two  centuries  under  the  title  Deutscher  Grist 
(German  spirit).  Wilhelm  Schellberg  and  Fried- 
rich  Fuchs  publish  a  very  noteworthy  collection 
of  unknown  letters  of  Clemens  Brcntano  under  the 
title  Das  unsterbltche  Leben  (Immortal  Life).  In 
Oelkrieg  (Oil  war)  Anton  Zischka  announces  the 
end  of  the  imperialistic  battles  for  the  oil  fields  of 
the  world.  By  a  gasoline  developed  from  coal,  Ger- 
many, he  sets  forth,  has  broken  the  world  power 
of  oil.  Out  of  the  abundance  of  absolute  propagan- 
da literature,  anti-Semitic  literature,  and  inferior 
novels,  the  novel  of  the  talented  Ernst  Juenger 
Auf  den  Marmorklippen  (On  the  marble  cliffs) 
stands  out,  a  work  that  contains  genuine  contempo- 
rary critical  notes.  Otherwise  the  rank  and  file  of 
the  new  publications  shows  no  name  of  any  literary 
value.  And  a  new  poetic  production  has  been 
denied  the  Third  Reich  up  to  the  present.  The 
separation  of  German  literature  in  two  enemy 
camps,  the  literature  of  the  exile  and  that  of  the 
Nazi,  has  become  more  apparent  as  the  war  pro- 
gresses It  is  interesting  in  this  connection,  that 
German  publishers  demand  of  American  publishers 
of  German  textbooks  for  use  in  colleges,  that  they 
will  refrain  from  publishing  manuscripts  of  non- 
aryan  or  expatriated  aryan  German  writers.  In 
one  case  it  has  been  found  that  the  American  pub- 
lisher agreed  to  this  demand 

The  German  writers  in  exile  have  spent  the  year 
1940  in  saving  their  own  lives  or  in  helping  to  save 
the  lives  of  their  comrades  Hitler's  advance  has 
placed  the  avowed  and  hated  enemies  of  the  Third 
Reich  in  an  extraordinarily  difficult  position.  A 
rescue  movement,  that  wab  inaugurated  by  the 
"Emergency  Rescue  Committee"  with  a  large  scale 
assistance  of  American  authorities,  has  saved  many 
important  writers  from  definite  destruction.  A 
large  number  of  these  are  now  in  America,  among 
them  Hermann  Kesten  whose  historical  novel  with 
a  Spanish  background  I  the  Kinq  has  appeared  in 
the  course  of  the  year  in  an  American  edition; 
Heinnch  Mann,  Thomas  Mann's  brother,  who  is  at 
work  on  a  diary  of  his  French  experiences;  Leon- 
hard  Frank;  Alfred  Polgar;  Leopold  Schwarz- 
schild,  the  former  publisher  of  the  Neues  Tagebuch 
(New  Diary)  formerly  published  in  Paris;  Golo 
Mann,  a  son  of  Thomas  Mann,  who  last  published 
Mass  and  Wert  a  Swiss  magazine,  now  abandoned ; 
Adrienne  Thomas;  Franz  Werfel,  whose  novel 
The  embezzled  heaven  recently  appeared  here  as 
the  "Book  of  the  Month"  ;  Gustav  Regler,  now  liv- 
ing in  Mexico,  whose  novel  on  the  Spanish  war 
(Lonqmanns)  was  a  well-deserved  success;  Kon- 
rad  Heiden,  who  has  won  acclaim  as  the  author  of 
two  biographical  works  on  Hitler;  Leo  Lania; 
Lion  Feuchtwanger ;  Julius  Bab ;  Fritz  von  Unruh ; 
E.  J.  Gumbel.  A  number  of  these  authors  have  re- 
ceived contracts  in  Hollywood,  but  the  transplant- 
ing into  new  surroundings,  presents  a  difficult,  ma- 
terial, and  intellectual  problem.  Several  are  still 
expected,  the  whereabouts  of  others  is  unknown 
A  number  of  the  writers  have  become  the  victims 
of  events.  Walter  Benjamin,  a  philosopher  of  sin- 
gular stamp  and  Walter  Hasenclever,  one  of  the 
most  successful  playwrights  of  the  war  generation, 
committed  suicide  on  the  French-Spanish  border 
Rudo If  Olden,  the  author  of  a  brilliant  Hitler  anal- 
ysis, lost  his  life  on  the  way  from  England,  when 
the  ship  on  which  he  was  crossing  was  torpedoed 

The  printing  of  German  books  in  exile  had 
ceased  almost  entirety  as  a  result  of  the  occupation 
of  the  neutral  countries  of  Europe.  The  important 


publishing  concerns,  who  were  active  in  Holland, 
such  as  "Querido"  and  "Allert  de  Lange,"  natural- 
ly had  to  give  up  every  activity.  Of  "Querido"  it 
is  said  that  the  firm  will  move  its  seat  to  Batavia, 
if  the  head  of  the  concern  succeeds  in  getting  out 
of  England  The  only  German  publishing  house 
still  in  existence  outside  of  Nazi  Germany  is  the 
Berman-Fischer  Publishing  House  in  Stockholm, 
which  has,  however,  reduced  its  output  to  a  mini- 
mum. At  any  rate  said  publishing  house  published 
a  translation  of  Sholem  Asch's  Nazarene  and  a 
new  short  novel  by  Thomas  Mann  Die  vertauschten 
Koepfe  (The  exchanged  heads)  a  half  fairy-tale- 
like  love  story  of  greatest  charm,  with  India  as  its 
locale. 

It  is  remarkable  how  large  a  place  is  accorded 
translations  of  American  books  within  the  scope  of 
the  limited  German  literature,  which  actually  still 
only  has  a  public  in  Switzerland  We  find  such 
titles  from  the  pens  of  Willa  Gather,  Dale  Carne- 
gie, Paul  de  Kruif ,  Norah  Lofts,  Daphne  du  Mau- 
rier,  Christopher  Morley,  John  Steinbeck,  Thom- 
as Wolfe,  Richard  Wright 

A  pamphlet  appeared  by  Karl  Barth,  the  Swiss 
theologian,  who  was  banished  from  Bonn;  this 
pamphlet  is  entitled  Gottesbund  und  Staat  (God's 
alliance  and  state). 

Georg  Kaiser,  possibly  the  most  significant  liv- 
ing German  playwright  published  in  Switzerland 
two  new  dramas  Rosamunde  Floris  and  Der  Soldat 
Tanaka. 

Bernhard  Baumgartner,  a  Swiss  author,  must  be 
mentioned  as  the  creator  of  a  very  noteworthy  and 
thorough  Mozart-Biography.  Heinrich  Strobel 
wrote  a  Debussy  Otto  Strasser,  at  one  time  a  col- 
laborator of  Hitler  and  today  one  of  his  most  de- 
cided opponents,  in  his  book  Hitler  und  Ich  (Hit- 
ler and  I)  has  made  some  sensational  disclosures, 
especially  about  the  background  of  the  German- 
Russian  alliance.  The  book  has  become  known  by  a 
translation  in  America 

Among  the  arrivals  in  the  course  of  the  year  to 
these  shores  is  Carl  Zuckmaycr,  one  of  the  strong- 
est poetic  talents  of  the  German  theater.  His  bi- 
ographical presentation  Second  Wind  appeared  re- 
cently at  Doubleday,  Doran.  Stefan  Zweig,  the 
Austrian  writer,  seems  to  have  settled  permanently 
in  Brazil.  He  published  a  collection  of  historical 
essays.  Emil  Ludwig  moved  from  Switzerland  to 
California.  During  the  course  of  this  year  there 
appeared  by  his  pen  in  German  Ueber  das  Glueck 
und  die  Liebe  (On  happiness  and  love),  a  collec- 
tion of  articles.  He  is  preparing  a  German  History 
and  a  biography  of  Trotsky.  Bruno  Frank,  also  a 
resident  of  California,  is  at  work  on  a  play  with  a 
historical  background,  the  action  of  which  takes 
place  during  the  Boxer  uprising. 

The  Viennese  author  Hermann  Broch,  whose 
great  novel  The  sleejnvalker  has  gained  much  at- 
tention, has  received  a  Guggenheim- fellowship.  He 
is  at  present  at  work  on  a  new  Vergil-novel. 

The  only  German  literary  work  that  appeared  in 
the  United  States  in  1940  is  a  new  edition  of 
Thomas  Mann's  Lotte  in  Weimar,  which  publica- 
tion the  publisher  Berman-Fischer,  now  in  New 
York,  made  possible  with  the  assistance  of  Har- 
court,  Brace.  Interesting  plans  are  in  progress  for 
a  sort  of  "Museum  of  European  Literature,1'  a 
foundation,  that  intends  to  publish  new  editions  of 
classical  and  contemporary  works  of  German,  Ital- 
ian, French,  Dutch,  Czech,  and  Polish  authors  in 
the  original  languages. 

A  number  o{  German  authors  published  books  in 


GERMANY 


306 


GERMANY 


original  American  editions.  Erika  Mann  published 
The  Lights  Go  Down,  a  collection  of  short  stories, 
each  based  upon  documentary  proof  and  that  de- 
scribe the  fate  of  a  German  small  town  and  its 
citizens  under  the  Nazi  regime  She  has  also  col- 
laborated in  the  book  Zero  Hour,  prefaced  by 
Stephen  Vincent  Benet,  which  is  a  political  appeal 
to  American  youth.  The  novel  of  Franz  Hoel- 
lering,  The  Defenders,  dealing  with  the  Austrian 
labor  movement,  had  a  great  literary  success.  A 
work  by  the  Bavarian  author  Oscar  Maria  Graf, 
entitled  My  Mother,  a  touching  and  simple  por- 
trayal of  the  life  of  the  authors  mother,  has  at- 
tracted great  attention.  From  the  pen  of  the  Vien- 
nese author  Raoul  Auernheimer  there  is  a  fasci- 
nating biography  of  Metternich.  Heinz  Pol  de- 
scribed the  collapse  of  French  democracy,  from 
the  point  of  view  of  an  eye-witness.  Theodor  Reik, 
for  many  years  the  collaborator  of  Sigmund  Freud, 
wrote  a  volume,  which  contains  personal  memoirs 
of  Freud  and  a  collection  of  psychoanalytical  es- 
says. The  psychiatrist  Kurt  Goldstein,  who  now 
occupies  a  chair  at  Tufts  College  in  Boston,  pub- 
lished in  the  Yale  Press  the  interesting  attempt  at 
a  social  pathological  biology.  A  volume  of  articles 
has  been  published  out  of  the  estate  of  the  soci- 
ologist Emil  Lederer,  formerly  of  Heidelberg  and 
last  connected  with  the  New  School  for  Social  Re- 
search. A  stirring  report  of  facts  on  the  murder  of 
her  son,  the  lawyer  Hans  Litten,  by  the  Nazis,  was 
written  by  his  mother,  Irmgard  Litten,  under  the 
title  Beyond  Tears. 

A  typical  example  for  the  odyssey  of  the  Ger- 
man emigration  is  the  "Institute  for  Social  Re- 
search," that  formerly  was  a  part  of  the  University 
at  Frank fort-on-Main.  In  1933  it  transferred  its 
seat  to  Geneva.  In  1934  it  was  joined  to  Colum- 
bia University  as  "Institute  of  Social  Research." 
The  official  organ  of  the  institute  Zeitschrift  fuer 
Sojtialforschung  was  published  up  to  1940  by  a 
Paris  publisher  in  several  languages.  After  the  col- 
lapse of  France  the  publication  is  now  being  con- 
tinued under  the  title  of  Studies  in  Philosophy  and 
Science  in  New  York. 

Finally  the  new  magazine  Decision,  published  by 
Klaus  Mann,  deserves  mention.  This  is  a  first  at- 
tempt to  bring  about  a  synthesis  between  the  Eu- 
ropean literary  emigration  and  American  literature. 
To  quote  the  editor  himself,  the  magazine  "is  de- 
signed to  become  instrumental  in  intensifying  the 
relations  between  the  American  and  European  spir- 
it." In  the  first  number  the  German  authors  were 
represented  by  Franz  Werfel,  Stefan  Zweig,  and 
Bruno  Walter,  the  musical  conductor 

The  incongruity  of  this  summary  demonstrates 
best  the  illness  from  which  German  Literature 
was  suffering  in  1940.  Dependent  upon  very  power- 
ful historical  events,  which  will  decide  the  fate  of 
the  German  language  and  its  cultural  world  sig- 
nificance, it  looks  forward  to  an  unknown  future. 

MARTIN  GUMPERT. 

GERMANY.  A  former  Federal  republic  of 
Europe,  transformed  into  a  centralized,  totalita- 
rian state  by  the  National  Socialist  revolution  com- 
mencing in  1933  Capital,  Berlin. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  and  population 
of  Germany  proper  and  its  component  States  at 
the  census  of  May  17,  1939-.  with  comparative  fig- 
ures for  the  census  of  1933,  are  shown  in  the 
first  table  in  the  next  column. 

The  second  table  shows  the  area  and  popula- 
tion of  territories  formally  incorporated  into  the 


GERMANY:  AREA  AND  POPULATION  BY  STATES 


Stales 

Ana 

Population 

Population 

SQ  mitoJ*nil6,  1933 

May  17%  1939 

Prussia-.... 

113,012 

39,934,011 

41,762,040 

Bavaria    

29336 

7,681.584 

8,280,090 

WUrttemberg  . 
Baden 

7,530 
5,817 

2,696,234 
2,411,462 

2,907,166 
2,518,103 

Saxony 
Mecklenburg*  . 
Thuringia 

5,785 
6,197 
4,540 

5,196,652 
805,213 
1,659,510 

5,206,861 
910,826 
1,760,595 

Hesse 

2,969 

1,429,048 

1,469,909 

Oldenburg  . 
Brunswick  .... 

2,480 
1,417 

573,853 
512,989 

582,400 
599,208 

Anhalt    .     . 

893 

364,415 

436,213 

Saarland. 

738 

812,030 

863,736 

Uppe 

469 

175,538 

188,598 

Hamburg.  .  . 

160 

1,218,447 

1,682,220 

Schaumburg-Lippe  . 

131 

49,955 

54,162 

LQbeck  ... 

115 

136,413 

400,086 

Bremen 

99 

371,558 

400,086 

German  Reich. 

181,688 

66,030,491 

69,622,843 

Austria  • 

34,055 

7,009,014 

Sudetenland* 

8,718 

2,945,261 

Greater  Germany 

224,461 

79,576,758 

•Excluding   Saarland   and   including   Waldeck     *  Excluding 
Saarland.    'Annexed  Mar  13,1938.    'Annexed  Oct  1,1938. 

Reich  but  not  included  in  the  May  17,  1939,  cen- 
sus. It  does  not  include  States  under  German  pro- 
tection, such  as  Bohemia-Moravia  and  the  Gov- 
ernment General  of  Poland,  or  the  occupied  coun- 
tries (q.v.). 

OTHER  AREAS  INCORPORATED  INTO  THE  REICH 


Date  of 

Area 

annexation 

sg  miles 

Population 

Mexnel 

Mar  22,  1939 

976 

153,000  « 

German  Poland 

Oct      8,  1939 

35,512 

9,627,000* 

Danzig  .    .     .. 

Sept.    1,1939 

754 

403,000* 

MaSmftfyl  .... 
Moresnetj 

May  19,  1940 

386 

62,000* 

Alsace-Lorraine 

Nov  -Dec  ,  1940 

5,605 

1,915,627- 

Total 

42,257 

12,007,627 

•  Estimate     »  1939 

«1936 

According  to  the  foregoing  tables,  the  area  of 
Germany  proper  on  Dec.  31,  1940,  was  about  266,- 
718  square  miles.  The  total  population  was  approx- 
imately 91,584,385. 

Living  births  in  Germany  in  1939  numbered  1,633,- 
078,  including  Austria,  the  Sudetenland,  Memei, 
and  Danzig,  as  compared  with  1,506,340  in  1938. 
Deaths  totaled  1,009,290  as  against  950,144  in  1938 
The  birth  rate  for  Germany,  including  the  Saar 
but  excluding  Austria  and  subsequent  annexations, 
was  20.3  per  1000;  death  rate,  123  per  1000. 

Populations  of  the  chief  cities  at  the  May  17, 
1939,  census  were :  Berlin,  4,332,242 ,  Vienna,  1,918,- 
462;  Hamburg,  1,682,220;  Munich,  828,325;  Co- 
logne, 768,426;  Leipzig,  701,606;  Essen,  659,871; 
Dresden,  625,174;  Breslau,  6 15,006;  Frankfort-on- 
Main,  546,649;  Diisseldorf,  539,905;  Dortmund, 
537,000;  Hanover,  472,527;  Stuttgart,  459,538; 
Duisburg-Hamborn,  431,256;  Nurnberg,  430,851; 
Wuppertal,  398,099 ;  Komgsberg,  368,433 ;  Bremen, 
342,113;  Chemnitz,  334,563;  Magdeburg,  334,358; 
Gelsenkirchen,  313,003;  Bochum,  303,288;  Mann- 
heim, 283,801;  Kiel,  272,311;  Stettin,  268,915; 
Halle-on-Saale,  220,364;  Kassel,  217,085;  Graz, 
210,175 ;  Brunswick,  201,306.  According  to  the  cen- 
sus, the  Jewish  population  was  330,892  in  Ger- 
many, including  Austria  and  the  Sudetenland.  This 
did  not  include  half-Jews,  of  whom  there  were 
72733. 

Education  and  Religion.  Primary  education 


GERMANY 


307 


GERMANY 


is  compulsory  and  there  is  little  illiteracy.  Exclud- 
ing Austria  and  the  Sudctenland,  there  were  50,- 
592  elementary  schools  and  7,503,195  pupils  in  1939, 
as  compared  with  51,118  schools  and  7,596,000  stu- 
dents in  1938.  In  Austria  there  were  4721  schools 
and  657,000  pupils ;  in  the  Sudetenland,  2957  schools 
and  274,000  pupils.  Other  school  enrollment  (in 
1937-38)  was:  Intermediate, 272,365 ;  "gymnasien" 
and  "realschulen,"  370,985;  universities  and  ad- 
vanced schools,  69,981  (universities,  45,989;  ad- 
vanced technical  schools,  9554;  others,  14,438). 
There  are  three  new  special  colleges  for  the  edu- 
cation of  political  leaders.  According  to  the  1933 
census,  Protestants  comprised  62.7  per  cent  of  the 
total  population;  Roman  Catholics  32.5  per  cent; 
other  Christians  0.1  per  cent;  Jews  0.7  per  cent; 
adherents  of  other  sects  4  per  cent. 

Agriculture.  The  Reich  (including  Austria  and 
the  Sudetenland)  had  55,302,000  acres  of  arable 
land  in  1939;  27,601,000  in  meadows  and  pastures; 
2,470,000  in  trees,  shrubs,  and  orchards ;  and  42,- 
032,000  acres  of  forests.  The  gross  value  of  agri- 
cultural production  in  the  harvest  year  1938-39 
was  14,050,000,000  marks,  representing  an  increase 
of  7  per  cent  over  1937-38.  Milk  accounted  for 
23.5  per  cent  of  the  total.  The  potato  crop  for  1940 
was  estimated  at  58,900,000  tons  for  Greater  Ger- 
many, including  Austria  and  the  Sudetenland  but 
excluding  territory  subsequently  annexed  by  the 
Reich.  The  sugar-beet  crop  was  said  to  total  18,- 
400,000  tons.  Yields  of  chief  cereals  in  1939  were 
(in  metric  tons)  :  Wheat,  5,613.500;  barley,  4,261,- 
800;  rye,  9,454,800;  oats,  6,867,700 ;  and  corn,  379,- 
600  (1938).  Meat  production  in  1938  totaled  3,676,- 
800  metric  tons,  of  which  hogs  accounted  for 
2,305,600  metric  tons.  The  livestock  census  in  De- 
cember, 1939,  showed  29,100,000  swine;  23,900,000 
cattle.  In  the  old  Reich  in  1938  there  were  19,900,- 
000  cattle,  23,600,000  hogs,  4,800,000  sheep,  2,500,- 
000  $oats,  and  97,900,000  poultry. 

Mining  and  Manufacturing.  The  net  value  of 
industrial  production  in  some  of  the  larger  cate- 
gories was  divided  as  follows  in  1938:  Shipbuild- 
ing, 273,500,000  marks;  metal,  559,500,000  marks; 
leatherware,  106,300,000  marks;  motor  vehicles, 
636,500,000  marks.  The  1938  output  of  minerals 
and  metals  in  metric  tons  was:  Coal,  186,179,000, 
lignite,  232,000,000;  iron  ore,  3,100,000,  lead,  185,- 
200;  copper  (smelter),  66,000  (1939);  pig  iron, 
18,595,000;  steel,  23,208,000;  aluminum  (smelter), 
3000  (1939)  ;  cadmium,  432;  zinc,  212,300  (1939) ; 
crude  petroleum,  647,000  (1939).  Rayon  produc- 
tion was  66,500  metric  tons ;  wood  pulp,  2,544,000. 
Pig-iron  production  in  Germany  and  German  Po- 
land during  1939  was  estimated  provisionally  at 
22,850,000  tons ;  steel,  30,950,000  tons ;  aluminum, 
185,000  tons.  Output  of  electric  energy  totaled 
5,500,000,000  kilowatt-hours  in  1938.  Manufacture 
of  synthetic  rubber  was  accelerated  in  1940  and  a 
second  factory,  under  construction  during  the  year 
at  Huls,  was  expected  to  exceed  the  capacity  of 
the  original  plant  at  Schkopau. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  for  consumption  in 
i^8n^e.re  ivn^d  ai  5,449,000,000  marks  (5,468,- 
000,000  in  1937)  and  exports  of  German  products 
at  5,256,000,000  marks  (5,911,000,000  in  1937).  For 
the  first  seven  months  of  1939,  merchandise  im- 
ffi™0'31^  H?4'000'000  marks;  exports,  3,314,- 
000,000  marks.  No  trade  statistics  have  been  made 
?J#nCJ?y  ^?  G.erman  G°ve"«nent  since  Aug.  1, 

1939inFn°vdlStributlon  °<Ltrmdc  amo"g  countries, 
see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  315.  Also  see  TRADE  FOR- 
EIGN. 


Finance.  Revenue  from  all  Reich  taxes  for  the 
fiscal  year  ended  Mar.  31,  1940,  totaled  23,575,100,- 
000  marks  as  compared  with  17,712,000,000  for  the 
preceding  year,  according  to  an  official  report  of 
the  Ministry  of  Finance.  The  increase  over  the 
1938-39  year  was  consequently  5,863,000,000  marks, 
as  compared  with  an  increase  of  3,750,000,000  for 
the  1937-38  year.  The  1939  figure  encompassed  a 
contribution  of  300,000,000  marks  from  Austria 
for  the  first  quarter  of  the  year;  while  the  1940 
year  includes  the  full  annual  allotment  from  Aus- 
tria and  the  Sudetenland.  Governmental  expendi- 
tures have  not  been  published  since  1933.  Including 
the  wartime  contribution  of  German  communes  and 
other  miscellaneous  items,  the  Reich's  revenues 
from  all  sources  except  borrowings  were  estimated 
to  total  30  billion  reichsmarks  for  the  year  ending 
Mar.  31,  1941.  Estimated  expenditures  were  29,- 
288,000,000  reichsmarks  in  1938-39,  44,963,000,000 
in  1939-40,  and  about  64,000,000,000  in  1940-41. 

The  disclosed  public  debt  on  Tune  30,  1940,  was 
computed  at  60,144,800,000  marks  against  35,500,- 
200,000  on  Sept.  30,  1939,  one  month  after  the  Eu- 
ropean War  began.  The  1940  figure  represented 
pre-1924  obligations  of  3,076,000,000  marks;  for- 
eign debts  of  1,236,800,000;  domestic  long-term 
and  medium-term  debts,  29,268,000,000;  domestic 
short-term  obligations,  22,780,200,000 ;  tax  certifi- 
cates, 3,783,700,000.  Note  circulation  of  the  Reichs- 
bank  on  Dec  31, 1940,  totaled  14,033,000,000  marks, 
compared  with  11,798,000,000  on  Dec.  31,  1939.  The 
nominal  average  exchange  rate  of  the  reichsmark 
was  $0.4016  in  1938,  $04006  in  1939,  $0.4002  in 
1940.  See  History. 

Transportation.  Railway  mileage  under  Ger- 
man control  totaled  86,000  after  the  occupation  of 
German  Poland.  At  the  beginning  of  1939  mileage 
was  38,107.  Exclusive  of  that  in  occupied  France, 
the  total  railway  mileage  under  German  control  on 
Dec.  31,  1940,  was  109,904.  The  figure  includes 
Bohemia-Moravia,  German  Poland,  Danzig,  Mem- 
el,  Denmark,  Norway,  Luxemburg,  the  Nether- 
lands, and  Belgium.  Highways  (1940)  covered 
263,267  miles.  Extension  of  the  express  highway 
system  in  1939  consumed  921,000,000  marks  and 
brought  the  length  of  these  super  roadways  to 
more  than  2000  miles.  Because  of  the  British  block- 
ade, German  mail  to  and  from  North,  South,  and 
Central  America  was  routed  without  exception  via 
Siberia  and  Japan,  according  to  official  reports 
dated  Dec.  2,  1940.  Under  construction  in  1940  was 
a  100-mile  canal  linking  Pinsk  on  the  Pripet  River 
with  Brest-Litovsk  on  the  Bug,  thus  linking  the 
Black  and  Baltic  Seas  via  Russia  and  Germany. 
The  Lufthansa  system  resumed  air  connections  on 
Oct.  14,  1939,  between  Berlin  and  Copenhagen, 
Stockholm,  Rome,  and  Budapest.  The  Berlin-Dan- 
zig-K6nigsberg  route  was  extended  to  Moscow  on 
Jan.  20,  1940.  Berlin-Prague-Vienna  were  linked 
on  Jan.  15,  1940.  A  week-day  airmail  service  be- 
tween Berlin  and  Barcelona  via  Stuttgart  was  in- 
augurated on  Aug.  7,  1940.  Total  length  of  Ger- 
man air  services  in  operation  on  Oct.  22,  1940,  was 
officially  reported  at  7457  route  miles,  with  daily 
flights  averaging  18,642  miles. 

Government.  Under  the  Enabling  Act  of  Mar. 
24,  1933,  giving  the  cabinet  unrestricted  powers 
to  legislate  by  decree,  dictatorial  powers  were  as- 
sumed by  Adolf  Hitler  in  his  dual  capacity  as 
Chancellor  (appointed  Jan.  30,  1933)  and  head  of 
the  National  Socialist  (Nazi)  party,  the  only  legal 
political  organization.  Upon  the  death  of  President 
vou  Hindenburg,  Aug.  2,  1934,  Hitler  assumed  the 


GERMANY 


308 


GERMANY 


functions  of  both  Chancellor  and  President  under 
the  title  of  Leader  (Fuehrer)  and  Chancellor 
(Reichskanzler).  On  Oct.  16,  1934,  it  was  officially 
announced  that  Hitler  would  occupy  both  offices 
for  life.  Rights  of  the  former  Federal  States  were 
abolished  by  the  decree  of  Feb.  1,  1934.  Between 
1933  and  1940,  the  Nazi  party  progressively 
brought  under  its  control  not  only  the  government 
and  the  army  but  virtually  all  departments  of  po- 
litical, cultural,  social,  and  economic  life  (see  pre- 
ceding YEAR  BOOKS).  The  Reichstag  of  855  mem- 
bers (1940)  was  elected  Apr.  10  and  Dec.  4,  1938, 
from  nominees  selected  by  the  Nazi  party.  It  is  a 
purely  advisory  body,  meeting  infrequently  at  the 
call  of  the  Fuehrer. 

The  cabinet  was  composed  as  follows  at  the  end 
of  1940 :  Fuehrer,  Chancellor,  and  Minister  of  De- 
fense, Adolf  Hitler ;  Interior,  Dr.  Wilhelm  Fnck ; 
Foreign  Affairs,  Joachim  von  Ribbentrop  (ap- 
pointed Feb.  4,  1938)  ;  Finance,  Count  Ludwig 
Schwenn  von  Krosigk ;  Food  and  Agriculture,  Dr. 
Walther  Darr6;  Economic  Affairs,  Dr.  Walther 
Funk  (Jan.  15, 1938)  ;  Labor,  Franz  Seldte ;  Posts, 
Dr.  Wilhelm  Ohnesorge  (Feb.  2,  1937)  ;  Trans- 
port, Dr.  Julius  Heinrich  Dorpmueller  (Feb.  2, 
1937)  ;  Aviation,  and  Commissioner  for  the  Four- 
Year  Plan,  Field  Marshal  Hermann  Goenng;  Jus- 
tice, Dr.  Franz  Guertner ;  Science,  Education,  and 
Public  Instruction,  Dr.  Bernhard  Rust  (Apr.  30, 
1934);  Church  Affairs,  Hanns  Kerrl  (July  19, 
1935)  ;  National  Enlightenment  and  Propaganda, 
Dr.  Joseph  Goebbels;  Munitions,  Dr.  Fritz  Todt 
(Mar.  20,  1940). 

An  Inner  Council  of  Defense  formed  Aug.  30, 
1939,  consisted  of  Field  Marshal  Goenng  (Chair- 
man), Rudolf  Hess,  deputy  leader  of  the  Nazi 
party;  Cabinet  Ministers  Frick  and  Funk;  Dr. 
Hans  Heinrich  Lammers,  Minister  without  Port- 


folio and  Chief  of  the  Reich  Chancery;  and  Gen. 
Wilhelm  Keitel,  chief  of  the  general  staff.  The 
Council  was  authorized  to  issue  decrees  and  ordi- 
nances without  Hitler's  signature  in  his  absence. 

HISTORY 

Germany  Astride  Europe.  Combining  his  dy- 
namic diplomacy  with  some  of  the  most  sensational 
military  victories  in  recorded  history  (see  EURO- 
PEAN WAR)  Adolf  Hitler  brought  virtually  the 
entire  European  continent  under  the  sway  of  Nazi 
Germany  during  1940.  Denmark,  Norway,  the 
Netherlands,  Belgium,  Luxemburg,  and  France 
were  added  to  the  list  of  Nazi  military  conquests. 
Alsace-Lorraine  and  the  Belgian  districts  ot  Eu- 
pen,  Malmedy,  and  Moresnet  were  remcorporated 
in  the  Reich,  thus  liquidating  the  last  vestiges  of 
the  Versailles  Treaty.  Luxemburg  was  likewise  ab- 
sorbed 

Italy  entered  the  war  as  Hitler's  ally  and  fell 
increasingly  under  German  control.  Japan  adhered 
to  the  Rome-Berlin  Axis,  and  the  three  Fascist 
powers  staked  an  exclusive  claim  to  control  of 
Europe  and  Eastern  Asia.  Hungary,  Slovakia,  and 
the  remnants  of  Rumania  were  brought  into  the 
Axis  camp  without  open  war  by  combined  prom- 
ises and  threats.  Extreme  pressure  was  brought 
upon  Bulgaria  and  Yugoslavia  to  do  likewise  Swe- 
den, Finland,  and  Switzerland  were  cut  off  from 
virtually  all  communication  with  the  anti-Nazi 
world  and  confronted  with  the  alternatives  of  mili- 
tary conquest  or  peaceful  acceptance  of  Hitler's 
"new  order"  in  Europe  Spain,  bound  to  the  Reich 
by  close  political  and  ideological  ties,  awaited  only 
a  favorable  opportunity  to  throw  its  military 
weight  on  the  German  side. 

By  the  end  of  1940  about  167,000,000  Europeans 
were  included  within  Great  Germany  or  the  ter- 


H___  annexed  or 

occupied  by  Germany 


Couruty  of  fttw  York  'I  imes 

GERMANY'S  MILITARY  CONQUESTS  DURING  FIRST  YEAR  OF  WAR 


AVI  II 


1  LO\M  K-STRI  \\1S   SI  ROTS  HEREIN  GREETS  TTb  HERO  At  PER  THE 
MC10RY  IN  IRANCE 


\  ide  World 

THE  CHANCELLOR,  HEAV1LV    C,UARL)fl)    ADDRESSES  A  GATHERING  OF   \\ORKFRS  l\ 
A  MUNITIONS  PL\NI   NEAR  BERLIN  ON  DEC    12,  1940 


International 


OCTOBER  MEETING  0*  HITLER  AND  MUSSOLINI   AT  URIAVRR  PASS 


AMBASSADOR  IvURUSU,  COUNT  CiANO,  AND  FUEHRER  HITLER  AS  JAPAV  SIGNS  THE  AXIS  PACT 

IN  BERLIN  ON  SEPT   27,  1940 


GERMANY 


309 


GERMANY 


ritories  under  its  direct  military  control.  Another 
90,000,000  persons  in  Italy,  unoccupied  France, 
Hungary,  Slovakia,  and  Rumania  were  under  vari- 
ous degrees  of  indirect  Nazi  domination.  All  of  the 
conquered  and  vassal  territories,  together  with 
Sweden,  Finland,  and  Switzerland,  were  in  process 
of  reorganization  as  a  single  great  economic  unit 
under  German  direction,  with  Berlin  as  its  clear- 
inghouse and  the  reichsmark  as  its  currency.  Only 
Britain  and  its  Balkan  allies  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  Soviet  Union  on  the  other  remained  as  obsta- 
cles to  the  consolidation  of  German  domination 
over  Europe.  British  influence,  moreover,  had  been 
expelled  from  all  parts  of  the  Continent  except  Gi- 
braltar, Greece,  and  Turkey,  and  the  British  Isles 
themselves  were  being  badly  battered  and  slowly 
strangled  by  the  German  air  and  sea  warfare. 

Threats  to  Nazi  Hegemony.  There  was  a  re- 
verse side  to  this  glittering  picture  of  German  in- 
vincibility. The  British  Navy  retained  complete 
control  of  the  seas  and  the  blockade  initiated  in 
1939  reduced  Europe's  overseas  commerce  to  a 
mere  trickle.  The  Royal  Air  Force,  having  re- 
pulsed Germany's  "all-out"  air  attack  during  the 
autumn  of  1940,  systematically  bombed  factories 
and  communications  throughout  areas  under  Axis 
control.  This  contributed  to  the  acute  shortage  of 
food,  fuel,  and  other  essential  war  materials  re- 
sulting from  the  naval  blockade  Italy,  shaken  by 
a  series  of  British  victories  in  Africa  and  the 
Mediterranean  and  by  the  ignominious  failure  of 
Mussolini's  Greek  campaign,  was  forced  to  depend 
more  and  more  upon  the  Reich  for  economic  sup- 
plies and  for  military  assistance  and  moral  sup- 
port. 

The  task  of  holding  the  conquered  countries  in 
subjection  became  more  and  more  difficult  as  their 
sufferings  increased  and  as  hope  for  a  British  vic- 
tory revived.  The  United  States  at  the  end  of  1940 
was  steadily  increasing  its  aid  to  Britain  and  her 
allies.  Moreover  the  uneasy  partnership  concluded 
by  Hitler  and  Stalin  on  the  eve  of  the  European 
War  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  pp.  316-317)  grew 
more  strained  as  the  Nazi  steamroller  pressed  into 
the  Soviet  sphere  of  influence  in  the  Balkans. 
While  preparing  for  a  final  assault  upon  Britain, 
Hitler  was  thus  obliged  to  spread  his  armed  forces 
over  a  large  part  of  Europe  and  in  particular  to 
keep  many  divisions  on  guard  along  the  eastern 
frontiers  of  the  German  "living  room"  in  Central 
and  Southeastern  Europe 

The  Military  Stalemate.  The  stalemate  in  the 
European  War  that  followed  the  conclusion  of 
Germany's  Polish  campaign  in  September,  1939, 
continued  through  the  first  quarter  of  1940.  The 
"peace  offensive"  launched  by  Hitler,  with  Russian 
support,  in  the  autumn  of  1939  had  revealed  no 
basis  of  agreement  with  the  Allied  Governments 
although  its  propaganda  value  was  exploited  to  the 
full.  The  visit  of  President  Roosevelt's  special  em- 
issary, Under-Secretary  of  State  Sumner  Welles, 
to  the  belligerent  capitals  in  February  and  March 
revived  peace  talk.  But  the  German  terms  present- 
ed to  Welles  led  him  to  report  on  his  return  to 
Washington  that  there  was  no  immediate  prospect 
of  a  settlement.  According  to  the  Berlin  corre- 
spondent of  the  Netherland  newspaper  Telcgraaf, 
Hitler's  conditions  were:  (1)  Allied  recognition 
of  Germany  s  permanent  control  over  Bohemia- 
Moravia  and  Poland,  and  of  its  politico-economic 
hegemony  in  Central  Europe,  (2)  an  end  to  Brit- 
ish "intrigue"  in  Scandinavia,  (3)  surrender  of 
Britain's  "pirate  nests"  at  Gibraltar,  Malta  and 


Germany's  pre- 


Singapore,  and  (4)  restoration  of 
World  War  colonies. 

Lest  Welles'  trip  should  arouse  undue  peace 
hopes  in  Germany,  Hitler  in  a  radio  broadcast  of 
February  24  affirmed  his  faith  in  Germany's  victo- 
ry and  his  determination  to  wage  war  until  the 
"plutocratic  terror"  from  abroad  was  ended.  This 
unleashed  a  Nazi  press  campaign  calling  for  the 
complete  destruction  of  British  sea  power  to  safe- 
guard Germany's  "living  space." 

War  Economy  Strengthened.  Except  for  the 
activities  of  German  submarines  and  a  few  sur- 
face raiders,  Germany  prosecuted  the  war  exclu- 
sively on  the  economic,  diplomatic,  and  ideological 
fronts  from  January  to  April  9,  1940.  While  the 
Allies  contented  themselves  with  efforts  to  tighten 
the  blockade,  Hitler  and  his  aides  worked  to 
strengthen  the  Reich's  war  economy  against  the 
blockade.  The  labor,  wealth,  and  resources  of  con- 
quered Poland  and  Czecho- Slovakia  were  mobi- 
lized for  German  war  industries.  At  the  same  time 
German  diplomacy,  effectively  backed  by  the  Nazi 
barter  system,  threats  of  invasion  and  well-organ- 
ized "fifth  column"  activities,  succeeded  in  in- 
creasing German  trade  and  political  influence  in 
Hungary  and  the  Balkans  at  the  expense  of  An- 
glo-French interests 

Field  Marshal  Goering  in  January  expanded  his 
powers  as  Commissioner  for  the  Four- Year  Plan 
by  assuming  complete  control  over  all  German 
war  industries  and  government  departments  con- 
cerned with  the  war  economy.  A  new  trade  accord 
made  with  the  Soviet  Union  on  February  13 
promised  to  supply  the  Reich  with  much-needed 
oil,  fodder,  manganese,  and  other  war  materials. 
By  negotiations  with  Moscow  and  with  Rome, 
marked  by  the  Hitler-Mussolini  conference  at 
Brenner o  on  March  18,  Berlin  sought  to  enlist 
Russia  and  Italy  in  a  Nazi-dominated  political 
and  economic  bloc  powerful  enough  to  dictate  a 
settlement  of  the  European  conflict.  Meanwhile  by 
threatening  military  intervention  in  Norway  and 
Sweden,  Hitler  prevented  the  Allies  from  seizing 
the  opportunity  presented  by  the  Russo-Finnish 
War  to  establish  a  new  military  front  in  Scandi- 
navia and  cut  off  the  Reich's  vital  iron  ore  sup- 
plies, mined  in  Sweden  (see  EUROPEAN  WAR; 
FINLAND  under  History). 

The  War  of  Nerves.  Throughout  this  period 
Hitler  and  his  aides  made  careful  military  and 
diplomatic  preparations  for  the  renewal  of  the 
armed  struggle  on  the  Western  Front.  German 
diplomacy  was  successful  in  preventing  the  small 
neutral  nations  of  Western  and  Northwestern  Eu- 
rope from  either  casting  in  their  lot  openly  with 
the  Allies  or  taking  the  precautionary  steps  to- 
ward military  collaboration  that  might  have  saved 
Norway,  the  Netherlands,  and  Belgium.  The  neu- 
tral peoples  and  likewise  the  French  and  British 
were  subjected  to  a  "war  of  nerves"  in  which 
German  propaganda  alternately  lulled  them  into 
complacent  inaction  and  frightened  them  with 
threats  of  a  terrible  total  war.  Increasingly  during 
1940  German  propaganda  appropriated  the  revolu- 
tionary slogans  and  appeals  of  world  communism 
to  stir  up  class  divisions,  civil  strife,  and  moral 
confusion  among  enemy  and  neutral  peoples  (see 
FASCISM). 

In  this  propaganda  campaign  and  in  the  closely 
related  program  of  sabotage  and  subversion  con- 
ducted by  their  agents  and  sympathizers  in  demo- 
cratic countries,  the  Germans  received  invaluable 
aid  from  the  orthodox  Communist  parties  (see 


GERMANY 


310 


GERMANY 


COMMUNISM).  In  France,  particularly,  Hitler 
reaped  large  dividends  in  1940  from  the  deal  he 
made  with  Stalin  in  August,  1939. 

Invasion  of  Scandinavia.  Expertly  co-ordi- 
nated, Hitler's  new  military  and  non-military  tech- 
niques proved  their  effectiveness  in  warfare  when 
the  Germans  on  April  9  ended  the  military  stale- 
mate by  the  sudden  occupation  of  Denmark.  Si- 
multaneously a  paralyzing  blow  was  struck  at  the 
nerve  centers  of  Norway.  An  Allied  expedition 
that  was  sent  to  Norway  to  bolster  the  kingdom's 
resistance  was  soon  driven  out 

The  invasion  of  Scandinavia,  made  tinder  the 
pretext  of  forestalling  a  similar  move  by  the  Al- 
lies, was  apparently  precipitated  by  the  growing 
menace  of  the  Allied  blockade,  which  caused  much 
hardship  in  Germany  during  the  exceptionally  se- 
vere winter  of  1939-40.  This  bold  venture  brought 
Hitler  important  military  and  economic  advan- 
tages that,  temporarily  at  least,  outweighed  the 
accompanying  losses.  The  Allied  menace  to  Ger- 
many's northern  flank  was  removed.  Norwegian 
bases  gave  the  Germans  great  advantages  in  pros- 
ecuting their  naval  and  air  war  upon  Britain  and 
its  overseas  communications.  Important  supplies 
of  food,  minerals,  and  raw  materials,  a  large  pro- 
portion of  which  had  gone  to  Great  Britain,  were 
diverted  to  the  Reich.  Replacement  of  these  sup- 
plies from  overseas  placed  an  increased  strain  up- 
on British  shipping.  Sweden  and  Finland  were  cut 
of!  from  contact  with  the  democratic  world  and 
by  economic  pressure  and  propaganda  gradually 
forced  into  the  German  orbit.  Germany  and  Nazi- 
dominated  Europe  became  the  only  outlet  for 
Swedish  iron  ore,  pulp,  etc.,  and  the  Reich  was 
the  only  power  now  in  a  position  to  aid  Finland 
and  Sweden  against  Soviet  ambitions  in  northern 
Europe.  On  July  9,  Dr.  Alfred  Rosenberg,  Nazi 
party  philosopher,  announced  that  the  Germanic 
peoples  of  Norway,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Ger- 
many were  to  be  united  in  a  future  "community 
of  fate." 

As  against  these  advantages,  Germany's  attack 
on  Denmark  and  Norway  incurred  the  moral  in- 
dignation of  a  large  part  of  the  world.  It  aroused 
bitter  hatred  in  the  occupied  countries,  expressed 
passively  in  Denmark  but  with  increasing  violence 
in  Norway.  The  Norwegian  Government,  taking 
refuge  in  London,  placed  the  large  Norse  mer- 
chant marine  at  the  disposal  of  the  British  and 
organized  a  naval  and  air  force  to  join  in  the 
struggle  for  recovery  of  Norwegian  independence. 
The  severance  of  the  overseas  trade  of  Denmark 
and  Norway  made  them  a  growing  economic  lia- 
bility to  the  Reich  after  their  accumulated  food 
and  raw-material  supplies  were  exhausted. 

The  Balkan  Diversion.  The  German  assault 
on  Denmark  and  Norway  coincided  with  a  new 
effort  to  bring  the  Balkan  countries  completely 
within  the  Reich's  "new  order."  Large  numbers  of 
German  "tourists"  appeared  in  Hungary,  Ruma- 
nia, Yugoslavia,  and  Bulgaria.  "Fifth  column"  ac- 
tivities were  intensified  and  diplomatic  pressure 
was  applied  to  secure  police  rights  on  the  Danube 
and  co-operative  governments  in  the  Balkan  capi- 
tals. The  Balkan  countries,  however,  were  not  yet 
in  a  position  to  be  intimidated,  and  showed  grow- 
ing reluctance  to  meet  German  demands  for  more 
foodstuffs  and  raw  materials.  Led  by  Yugoslavia, 
the  Balkan  countries  took  effective  measures 
against  Nazi  "fifth  column"  activities.  For  the 
time  being  Anglo-French  economic  and  financial 
power  remained  too  formidable  to  permit  a  blood- 


less Nazi  victory  in  Southeastern  Europe.  On 
April  18  German  military  missions  arrived  in  Italy 
in  a  new  effort  to  enlist  Mussolini's  more  active 
co-operation  in  the  war,  but  neither  threats  nor 
persuasion  moved  II  Duce  from  his  policy  of 
"non-belligerency." 

Effects  of  Victory  in  West.  Italy's  caution 
and  the  resistance  offered  to  German  penetration 
by  the  Danubian  and  Balkan  States  underwent  a 
marked  change  as  a  result  of  the  smashing  Ger- 
man military  victories  of  May  and  June  in  the 
Low  Countries  and  France.  There  the  tactics  fol- 
lowed in  Norway  brought  even  more  sensational 
success.  The  Netherlands,  Belgium,  and  Luxem- 
burg were  invaded  without  warning  on  the  ground 
that  their  governments  had  schemed  with  the  Al- 
lies to  permit  an  Allied  invasion  of  the  Ruhr.  The 
Netherlands  was  overrun  in  four  days.  The  Bel- 
gian army  capitulated  on  May  28.  The  British  Ex- 
peditionary Force  was  driven  across  the  English 
Channel  with  the  loss  of  all  its  equipment,  and 
France's  great  army  was  battered  into  helpless- 
ness by  the  middle  of  June. 

In  his  Order  of  the  Day  to  the  soldiers  of  the 
Western  Front  issued  simultaneously  with  the 
opening  of  the  offensive,  Hitler  declared  that  "the 
fight  beginning  today  decides  the  fate  of  the  Ger- 
man nation  for  the  next  1000  years."  With  the 
collapse  of  France,  the  complete  success  of  his 
great  gamble  appeared  certain.  The  early  capitula- 
tion of  Great  Britain  was  expected  everywhere 
except  in  Britain.  The  Nazi  leaders,  confidently 
announcing  that  they  would  be  in  London  before 
August  25,  ordered  a  10-dav  victory  celebration  in 
the  Reich  and  immediately  began  the  absorption  of 
the  newly  conquered  areas  into  the  German  "liv- 
ing space." 

Possession  of  the  Low  Countries  and  of  the  en- 
tire French  Atlantic  coast  gave  the  Germans  air 
and  naval  bases  for  a  close-range  attack  upon 
Britain  and  its  overseas  trade.  It  gave  them  the 
rich  iron-ore  mines  of  Lorraine  and  large  supplies 
of  food,  war  materials,  and  goods  of  all  kinds 
captured  or  requisitioned  in  the  newly  occupied 
areas.  Even  from  unoccupied  France,  trainloads 
of  foodstuffs  were  taken  to  relieve  the  shortage  in 
the  Reich.  More  than  1,400,000  prisoners  of  war 
and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  civilians  from  the 
conquered  territories  were  sent  to  Germany  to 
work  in  factories  and  fields  and  to  replace  the 
manpower  conscripted  into  the  German  armed 
forces. 

The  strangling  effects  of  the  British  blockade 
were  thus  shifted  in  part  during  the  summer  and 
winter  of  1940  from  the  Germans  to  the  alien  peo- 
ples under  their  rule.  At  the  same  time  part  of  the 
financial  burden  of  supporting  the  Nazi  military 
machine  was  transferred  to  the  subjugated  coun- 
tries. The  pessimism  and  criticism  of  the  Nazi 
dictatorship  in  evidence  in  the  Reich  during  the 
winter  and  early  spring  of  1940  was  temporarily 
dissipated.  In  the  words  of  an  anti-Nazi  German, 
the  German  people  became  "prisoners  of  Hitler's 
great  military  triumphs."  He  received  a  tremen- 
dous ovation  in  Berlin  upon  his  return  from  the 
Western  conquest. 

The  effect  of  these  victories  upon  the  neutral 
countries  of  continental  Europe  was  even  more 
striking.  Italy  was  the  first  to  jump  aboard  the 
German  band  wagon,  entering  the  war  on  June  10. 
This  forced  the  British  to  divert  a  larger  part  of 
their  fleet  and  other  defense  forces  to  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  Near  East,  leaving  the  British 


GERMANY 


311 


GERMANY 


Isles  more  exposed  to  German  invasion.  On  June 
14  the  Nationalist  Government  of  Spain  aban- 
doned neutrality  in  favor  of  a  "non-belligerency" 
favorable  to  Germany,  and  occupied  Tangier 
(q.v.)  within  artillery  range  of  the  British  strong- 
hold at  Gibraltar.  Turkey,  although  bound  by  al- 
liance with  Britain  and  France  to  enter  the  strug- 
gle on  their  side  if  Italy  attacked  them,  continued 
its  "non-belligerency"  and  on  June  13  concluded  a 
new  trade  pact  with  the  Reich.  Anglo-French  in- 
fluence collapsed  throughout  the  Balkans.  When 
Hitler  and  Mussolini  met  at  Munich  on  June  18 
in  an  atmosphere  of  jubilation,  it  appeared  as 
though  the  destiny  of  Europe  henceforth  rested 
in  their  hands. 

Soviet-German  Tension.  It  was  not  long  be- 
fore the  bright  future  confronting  the  Axis  pow- 
ers became  shadowed.  Alarmed  by  the  Allied  de- 
bacle that  freed  large  German  forces  for  possible 
service  against  the  Soviet  Union,  Moscow 
strengthened  its  defenses  by  seizing  Estonia,  Lat- 
via, and  Lithuania  during  June  15-17.  On  June  26 
a  Soviet  ultimatum  was  served  on  Rumania,  which 
resulted  in  the  cession  of  Bessarabia  and  North- 
ern Bukovina.  This  led  King  Carol  to  place  his 
kingdom  under  Hitler's  protection  on  July  1.  The 
Fuehrer  guaranteed  Rumania  against  further  So- 
viet aggression.  He  sent  German  troops  to  protect 
the  Soviet-Rumanian  frontier,  thus  warning  Russia 
that  he  was  determined  to  exclude  Soviet  influence 
from  the  Balkans.  During  August  and  September 
he  attached  Hungary  and  Bulgaria  to  the  Axis 
cause  by  forcing  Rumania  to  cede  a  large  part  of 
Transylvania  to  Hungary  and  Southern  Dobruja 
to  Bulgaria.  The  ensuing  political  breakdown  in 
Rumania  enabled  the  Reich  to  occupy  the  rem- 
nants of  the  kingdom  with  its  armed  forces  and 
to  establish  a  completely  subservient  government 
at  Bucharest. 

The  struggle  between  Soviet  and  German  in- 
fluence in  the  Balkans  was  then  centered  in  Bul- 
garia and  Yugoslavia,  where  the  masses  were  tra- 
ditionally sympathetic  to  Russia  but  where  the 
governments  gradually  yielded  to  German  pres- 
sure. By  the  end  of  1940  Bulgaria  appeared  firmly 
if  unofficially  within  the  Axis  camp,  with  Yugo- 
slavia fated  to  follow  soon.  Whether  the  Soviet 
Union  would  peacefully  accept  German  domina- 
tion of  the  Balkan  peninsula  and  eventually  of  the 
Straits  was  one  of  the  most  important  and  uncer- 
tain issues  in  European  politics  at  the  end  of  1940. 
The  War  Against  Britain.  Meanwhile  the 
projected  German  invasion  of  Great  Britain  had 
been  frustrated  by  the  success  of  the  Royal  Air 
Force  in  repulsing  the  great  German  air  attacks 
of  August  and  September.  Facing  a  second  winter 
of  war  and  increased  American  aid  to  Britain, 
Hitler  was  obliged  to  revise  his  plans  and  strategy. 
On  August  17  he  proclaimed  a  "total  blockade" 
of  the  British  Isles.  During  the  remaining  months 
of  the  year  his  air  force  and  navy  undertook  to 
soften  up  Britain  by  continual  attacks  upon  its 
cities,  factories,  and  shipping.  Japan  was  induced 
to  join  the  Rome-Berlin  Axis  on  September  27  on 
terms  calculated  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  cither 
the  United  States  or  Russia  into  the  conflict  on 
Britain's  side. 

In  September  Italy  was  prodded  into  opening 
offensives  in  Africa,  with  the  primary  objective  of 
closing  the  Suez  Canal.  Simultaneous  German 
diplomatic  activities  in  the  Balkans  were  designed 
to  open  a  path  for  German  armies  across  Turkey 
to  the  oilfields  of  Iraq,  to  Palestine,  and  the  east- 


ern approaches  to  the  Suez  Canal.  To  secure  So- 
viet acquiescence,  the  Germans  were  variously  re- 
ported to  have  offered  Moscow  Iran  and  part  of 
India,  or  control  of  the  Dardanelles  and  a  portion 
of  Turkey.  Hitler's  proposals  were  laid  before  the 
Soviet  Premier  and  Foreign  Commissar,  Vyache- 
slav  Molotov,  during  his  visit  to  Berlin  in  mid- 
November,  but  up  to  the  end  of  1940  the  Soviet 
Government  had  given  no  definite  indication  of  its 
course. 

During  the  latter  part  of  October  Hitler  made 
an  intensive  effort  to  carry  the  war  to  the  British 
in  the  Western  Mediterranean  by  bringing  France 
and  Spain  into  the  conflict  on  the  side  of  the  Axis. 
This  would  have  opened  the  way  for  an  attack  up- 
on Gibraltar  and  utilization  of  French  naval  and 
air  bases  in  North  Africa  and  Syria  for  an  effort 
to  drive  the  British  fleet  out  of  the  Mediterranean. 
Hitler's  conferences  with  General  Franco  at  the 
Spanish-French  border  on  October  23  and  with 
Marshal  P6tam  on  October  24  failed  to  convince 
them.  Despite  the  reported  offer  of  Gibraltar  and 
French  Morocco,  Franco  declined  to  enter  the  war 
or  permit  German  troops  to  attack  Gibraltar  at 
that  time,  while  P£tain  insisted  that  French  col- 
laboration with  Germany  must  be  restricted  to 
economic  matters.  See  FRANCE  and  SPAIN  under 
History. 

Year-End  Setbacks  to  Axis.  The  failure  of 
these  diplomatic  efforts  was  attributable  primarily 
to  the  rising  doubt  as  to  Germany's  ability  to  de- 
feat Britain,  even  with  Italy's  assistance.  This 
doubt  was  greatly  increased  by  the  successive  re- 
verses suffered  by  Italian  arms  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, in  Greece,  and  in  North  Africa  during  No- 
vember and  December  (see  EUROPEAN  WAR). 
Mussolini's  abortive  attempt  to  invade  Greece  at 
the  end  of  October  was  apparently  made  without 
the  previous  knowledge  of  Hitler.  II  Duce  wanted 
to  forestall  the  Fuehrer  and  reserve  at  least  part 
of  the  Balkans  for  Italy.  Nevertheless  the  Italian 
failure  there  and  the  subsequent  defeat  of  Mar- 
shal Graziani's  army  at  Sidi  Barrani  in  Egypt  was 
a  severe  blow  to  Axis  prestige  and  to  Hitler's 
plans  for  driving  the  British  out  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. In  December  the  Germans  found  it  neces- 
sary to  send  military  and  air  reinforcements  to  the 
Italian  fronts  as  well  as  to  increase  their  econom- 
ic support  of  Italy's  faltering  economy. 

Persistent  British  air  raids  on  the  cities  of 
Western  Germany,  the  recurrence  of  the  food 
stringency,  and  the  non-fulfillment  of  Hitler's 
promise  of  an  early  victory  over  the  British  mean- 
while had  revived  pessimism  and  unrest  in  Ger- 
many. Hope  of  a  British  victory  was  restored 
throughout  the  conquered  countries,  accompanied 
by  stronger  resistance  to  the  German  program  in 
Europe.  Nevertheless  Hitler  on  November  8  an- 
nounced his  "unalterable  decision  to  continue  the 
struggle  to  a  clear  decision."  In  a  speech  on  the 
eye  of  the  17th  anniversary  of  his  abortive  Mu- 
nich beer-hall  "putsch,"  he  declared  that  no  com- 
bination of  powers  could  equal  the  resources  and 
armed  might  of  Germany  and  her  allies  and  that 
he  would  reject  any  compromise. 

In  another  speech  to  German  workers  on  De- 
cember 10,  the  Fuehrer  declared  that  Germany 
was  engaged  in  a  struggle  between  "two  worlds, 
one  of  which  must  crack  up.  He  described  it  as  a 
war  between  the  "haves"  and  "have-nots,"  be- 
tween the  "plutocratic  democracies"  enriched  by 
three  centuries  of  robbery  and  crowded  Germany 
and  Italy,  whose  only  riches  were  labor  and  skill 


QSRMANY 


312 


GERMANY 


"Our  capacity  for  work  is  our  gold,  our  capital, 
and  with  it  we  will  defeat  the  entire  world/  the 
Berlin  office  of  the  Associated  Press  quoted  him 
as  saying.  He  promised  the  "broad  masses"  of  the 
German  people  that  the  Nazi  world  "of  co-opera- 
tive labor"  would  bring  wide  economic  and  educa- 
tional benefits  once  the  enemy  was  crushed. 

Relations  with  United  States.  One  of  the 
major  objectives  of  German  diplomatic  and  propa- 
ganda activities  during  the  year  was  to  keep  the 
United  States  out  of  the  conflict  and  to  limit  its 
aid  to  the  Allies.  A  series  of  White  Books  issued 
by  the  German  Foreign  Office  were  designed  to 
strengthen  anti-war  and  isolationist  sentiment  in 
America.  On  March  29  a  White  Book  was  pub- 
lished containing  documents  alleged  to  have  been 
found  in  the  archives  of  the  Polish  Foreign  Of- 
fice in  Warsaw  and  purporting  to  contain  accounts 
of  conversations  held  between  Polish  and  United 
States  diplomatic  representatives  These  accounts 
represented  the  American  ambassadors  in  Paris 
and  London  as  "warmongers'*  who  had  encour- 
aged Polish  resistance  to  German  demands  and 
egged  Britain  and  France  into  war  with  the  Reich 
The  White  Book  was  dismissed  as  propaganda  by 
the  individuals  named.  Secretary  of  State  Hull 
stated  that  his  department  did  not  place  the  slight- 
est credence  in  the  allegations 

After  his  victory  over  France,  Hitler  in  mid- 
June  gave  an  interview  to  an  American  newspa- 
per correspondent  denying  that  the  Reich  had  any 
territorial  aspirations  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 
President  Roosevelt  in  reply  pointed  to  the  Fuehr- 
er's long  list  of  broken  pledges,  and  took  steps  to 
prevent  Germany  from  using  the  American  colo- 
nies of  conquered  European  countries  as  spring- 
boards for  aggression  in  the  New  World  (see  PAN 
AMERICANISM;  UNITED  STATES). 

Ensuing  months  witnessed  an  intensification  of 
the  German-American  struggle  for  political  and 
economic  advantages  throughout  Latin  America. 
The  German  press  warned  all  of  the  American  re- 
publics that  they  must  come  to  terms  with  Hitler's 
"new  Europe"  or  face  the  economic  and  other  con- 
sequences. It  declared  that  the  huge  U.S.  gold  re- 
serve would  be  useless  in  the  German-organized 
European  economy  and  that  free  trade  must  give 
\\ay  to  the  German  barter  system.  For  a  descrip- 
tion of  German  methods  and  activities  in  Latin 
America,  see  each  Latin  American  country  under 
History;  also  FASCISM 

According  to  the  Madrid  correspondent  of  the 
New  York  Times,  Hitler's  effort  in  October  to 
line  up  France  and  Spain  with  the  Axis  in  a  Eu- 
ropean bloc  was  designed  in  part  to  influence  the 
American  presidential  election  Such  a  bloc,  it  was 
felt,  would  help  to  convince  the  United  States 
that  the  Roosevelt  policy  of  aid  to  Britain  was 
destined  to  involve  America  in  a  disastrous  war. 
Until  after  President  Roosevelt's  re-election,  Ger- 
man official  spokesmen  and  the  press  took  the  po- 
sition that  American  aid  to  Britain  could  not  af- 
fect the  outcome  of  the  war.  But  on  December  21, 
the  day  following  President  Roosevelt's  appoint- 
ment of  a  four-man  board  to  expedite  production 
of  defense  materials  for  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  a  German  Foreign  Office  spokesman  ex- 
pressed sharp  objection  to  Washington's  policies. 
He  warned  that  seizure  of  Axis  ships  in  Ameri- 
can harbors  for  British  use  would  be  regarded  as 
a  warlike  act,  and  accused  the  United  States  of  a 
policy  of  "pinpricks,  injury,  insult,  challenge,  and 
moral  aggression"  in  the  face  of  German  "re- 


straint" verging  on  "self-effacement."  The  situa- 
tion, he  declared,  was  approaching  "insupportabil- 
ity. 

Internal  Affairs.  Judging  from  the  available 
evidence,  the  German  war  economy,  in  process  of 
organization  since  1933,  bore  the  strain  imposed 
upon  it  during  1940  without  undue  difficulty.  De- 
spite continued  boom  conditions  in  war  industries, 
wholesale  prices  rose  only  3.7  per  cent  during  the 
first  year  of  the  conflict.  The  employment  of  more 
than  2,000,000  war  prisoners  and  foreign  civilians 
in  agriculture,  mines,  and  factories  enabled  the 
Reich  to  maintain  production  at  a  comparatively 
high  level.  On  October  18  Hitler  decreed  a  second 
Four- Year  Plan,  reappointing  Marshal  Goenng 
"to  continue  the  work  and  adapt  it  especially  to 
the  demands  of  war." 

However  the  ration  system  and  the  shortage  of 
consumers  goods  caused  a  gradual  decline  in  liv- 
ing standards.  The  wholesale  requisitioning  of 
foodstuffs  from  conquered  territories  during  the 
summer  of  1940  did  not  materially  relieve  the  se- 
rious shortage  of  meat,  fats,  fresh  vegetables,  and 
fruits  A  deficient  diet  left  many  Germans  hungry 
a  good  deal  of  the  time,  and  the  prospect  that  the 
food  situation  would  get  worse  was  not  conducive 
to  the  maintenance  of  national  morale.  Some  in- 
crease in  malingering  was  reported  among  Ger- 
man workers  during  the  autumn  of  1940 

During  the  second  half  of  1940  wartime  expend- 
itures were  averaging  about  68,000,000,000  reichs- 
marks  annually,  excluding  the  occupation  costs 
imposed  upon  Norway,  Denmark,  the  Nether- 
lands, Belgium,  and  France.  The  occupation  costs 
levied  on  France  alone  averaged  7,200,000,000 
reichsmarks  annually.  Germany's  wartime  expendi- 
tures for  1940-41  (see  Finance  above)  were  near- 
ly 70  per  cent  of  the  estimated  current  national 
income  Roughly  one-third  of  all  expenditures 
were  met  from  taxation  and  the  remainder  from 
borrowing  and  levies  on  the  occupied  countries. 
The  total  public  debt,  as  contrasted  with  the  dis- 
closed debt  (see  Finance),  was  variously  esti- 
mated at  between.  100  and  150  billion  reichsmarks 
in  November,  1940.  During  the  second  half  of 
1940  the  disclosed  debt  rose  by  19,000,000,000 
reichsmarks  to  79,000,000,000.  Inflation  was  kept 
latent  by  rigid  controls  over  every  branch  of  the 
national  economy ;  the  interest  rate  on  State  loans 
was  even  lowered  during  1940. 

Reports  of  political  unrest  within  Germany 
grew  more  frequent  toward  the  end  of  the  year. 
A  secret  anti-Nazi  radio  station  within  the  Reich 
resumed  the  broadcasting  of  attacks  upon  the  dic- 
tatorship in  October.  There  were  frequent  reports 
of  executions  and  disciplinary  measures.  Possibly 
to  offset  mounting  dissatisfaction,  Chancellor  Hit- 
ler on  November  18  announced  a  scheme  for  the 
construction  of  some  6,000,000  homes  by  mass 
production  methods  in  the  10  years  following  con- 
clusion of  the  war. 

Nazi  controls  over  the  State  and  nation  were 
tightened  up  all  along  the  line.  In  April  the  politi- 
cal set-up  in  Austria  was  changed  (see  AUSTRIA) 
and  it  was  officially  revealed  that  the  new  organi- 
zation would  serve  as  a  model  for  the  entire  Third 
Reich.  In  October  the  army  inaugurated  a  new 
system  for  the  instruction  of  boys  seeking  careers 
as  non-commissioned  officers,  opening  preparatory 
schools  to  those  between  13 1/2  and  15j4  years  of 
age.  A  decree  of  October  23  authorized  the  em- 
ployment of  police  force  in  making  youths  report 
for  duty  with  the  Hitler  Youth  Organization. 


International 

Rl  \1\\1\  I-NIERS  THE  ROME  BERLIN  TOKYO  AXIS 

I'nmu  r  Ion  \ntonesui  ot  Rumania  (ripht)  is  recent  d  1>>  the  tterman  Fuehrer  in  Ikrlm  as  another  small  country  urtu.illv 

n  rulers  its  independence 


Wide  World 


HUNGAR\   JOINS  THE  THREE-POWER  PAC'l 
(  oun!  (  saky  (risht)  signs  for  Hungary  in  the  presence  of  von  Ribbentrop  of  (ierman>  and  Count  Ciano  of  Italv 


International 


MARSHAL  HEMRJ   PHLLIPPF  PfcTAiN  (LEFT)  I-  AC  ES  THt    C.ERMAM   FUEHRER   AT    IHblR 
(ONH.RE\(F    NEAR  TOURS,   hRA\(L,  (K   FOKLR  24 


International 


SPANISH  DM  FATOR,  (,EN    FRANC  isc  O  I-RANCO  (RIGHT),  (,RL*  IS  HJILhR  AT  FRKN(  H  SPANISH 

I  RONTIER,  OCTOBER  23 


QBRMICIDAL  LAMPS 


313 


GLASS 


Church-State  Conflict.  Although  the  Catho- 
lic Field  Bishop  of  the  German  Army  on  Octo- 
ber 4  issued  a  pastoral  letter  expressing  conviction 
that  Germany  was  "waging  a  just  war,"  there  was 
continued  friction  between  the  Nazi  State  and  the 
Catholic  Church.  In  January  a  pastoral  letter  is- 
sued by  Adolf  Cardinal  Bertram  of  Breslau  in- 
directly denounced  the  action  of  the  Nazi  leaders 
Himmler  and  Hess  in  urging  the  Elite  Guard  to 
beget  children  in  or  out  of  wedlock. 

The  Vatican  City  radio  station  on  September  15 
charged  the  Hitler  regime  with  explicit  violation 
of  the  1933  concordat  in  forcibly  closing  all  Cath- 
olic colleges  in  the  Reich  and  converting  Catholic 
elementary  schools  into  institutions  for  educating 
all  youth  in  the  principles  of  Nazism.  It  was  re- 
ported at  the  same  time  that  because  of  the  war 
the  Vatican  had  forbidden  publication  of  the  pas- 
toral letter  drawn  up  by  the  German  bishops  at 
their  annual  conference  which  was  held  at  Fulda 
in  August 

Other  denunciations  of  German  National  So- 
cialism as  hostile  to  the  Church  and  anti-Christian 
were  broadcast  from  the  Vatican  on  November  19 
and  December  19  The  latter  statement  declared 
that  "Catholic  life  and  teaching  have  truly  been 
extinguished  in  Germany  "  The  Vatican  organ  Os- 
servaiore  Romano  on  October  12  accused  the  Ger- 
man Government  of  "killing"  Catholicism  in  Po- 
land 

Continuation  of  the  struggle  between  the  State 
and  the  Protestant  Confessional  Synod  was  indi- 
cated in  the  announcement  from  Berlin  on  Decem- 
ber 23  that  Dr  Heini  ich  Grueber  had  been  arrested 
by  the  Gestapo  and  taken  to  the  Sachsenhausen- 
Oranienburg  concentration  camp,  where  the  Rev 
Martin  Niemoeller  had  been  confined  since  1937. 
Dr.  Grueber  had  been  active  in  assisting  Christian- 
ized Jews  and  other  victims  of  racial  and  religious 
persecution  to  leave  Germany.  New  restrictions 
were  placed  on  Jews  in  Germany  by  regulations 
issued  August  2 

See  AFGHANISTAN,  ARGENTINA,  BELGIUM,  BO- 
HEMIA AND  MORAVIA,  BOLIVIA,  BRAZIL,  BULGARIA, 
CANADA,  CHILE,  COLOMBIA,  CONGO,  BELGIAN, 
CZECHO-SLOVAKIA,  DENMARK,  ECUADOR,  FIN- 
LAND,  FRANCE,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  GREECE,  GREEN- 
LAND, GUATEMALA,  HUNGARY,  ICELAND,  IRELAND, 
ITALY,  JAPAN,  LITHUANIA,  LUXEMBURG,  MEXICO, 
NETHERLANDS,  NORWAY,  PANAMA,  POLAND,  POR- 
TUGAL, RUMANIA,  SOUTH  AFRICA,  UNION  OF, 
SPAIN,  SWEDEN,  SWITZERLAND,  TURKEY,  URU- 
GUAY, and  YUGOSLAVIA,  under  History;  also 
BIRTH  CONTROL;  CO-OPERATIVE  MOVEMENT;  DIES 
COMMITTEE;  FASCISM;  INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY; 
INTERNATIONAL  BANKING  AND  FINANCE;  LABOR 
CONDITIONS;  LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS;  MO- 
TION PICTURES  ;  Music ;  NAVAL  PROGRESS  ;  REPA- 
RATIONS AND  WAR  DEBTS 

GERMICIDAL  LAMPS.  See  ELECTRICAL 
ILLUMINATION. 

GIBRALTAR.  A  British  crown  colony  and 
fortified  naval  base  at  the  western  entrance  to  the 
Mediterranean.  It  is  a  peninsula  and  includes  a 
long  mountain  commonly  called  the  "Rock"  which 
has  an  extreme  height  of  1396  feet.  Area,  1% 
square  miles;  total  civilian  population  (Jan  1, 
1939),  20,339,  including  1 7,33 lPfixed  residents. 

Gibraltar  is  a  free  port.  Its  staple  trade  is  the 
supplv  of  fuel,  provisions,  and  water  to  shipping, 
and  the  transit  of  cargoes  to  Spain  and  Morocco. 

R"™^938  a  total  °?  ?752  vcssels  aggregating 
13,772,321  tons  entered  the  port. 


Government.  Finance  (1938)  :  Revenue,  £207,- 
628;  expenditure,  £199,725;  public  debt,  nil.  A 
governor  assisted  by  an  executive  council  adminis- 
ters the  government  under  Letters  Patent  of  Sept. 
12,  1922.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the 
governor  who,  in  addition,  is  the  general  officer 
commanding  the  garrison.  Governor,  Lieut.  Gen. 
Sir  Clive  Liddell  (assumed  office  during  Septem- 
ber 1939). 

History.  Following  Italy's  entrance  into  the 
European  War  and  the  surrender  of  France,  Gi- 
braltar played  an  increasingly  important  role  in 
the  conflict.  The  day  Italy  entered  the  struggle 
five  Italian  merchant  ships  in  Gibraltar  Bay  were 
captured  by  the  British  and  one  was  scuttled  by 
its  crew.  Thereafter  the  fortress  was  subjected  to 
intermittent  long-distance  Italian  air  raids.  In  July 
and  again  in  September  French  planes  from 
nearby  French  Morocco  bombed  Gibraltar  in  re- 
taliation for  British  attacks  upon  the  French  fleet 
at  Oran  and  the  port  of  Dakar,  French  West 
Africa. 

About  14,500  inhabitants,  mostly  women,  chil- 
dren, and  aged  persons,  were  evacuated  from  Gi- 
braltar to  French  Morocco  during  the  first  part  of 
1940.  After  the  French  capitulation  they  were 
transferred  to  Madeira,  Jamaica,  and  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  British  garrison  was  strongly  re- 
inforced during  the  latter  half  of  the  year  and  the 
fortifications  greatly  strengthened.  In  anticipation 
of  an  attack  from  Spain,  a  canal  was  constructed 
across  the  isthmus  which  joins  the  Rock  to  the 
mainland 

See  EUROPEAN  WAR;  GREAT  BRITAIN  and  SPAIN 
under  Uistoi  v 

GIFTED  CHILDREN.  See  EDUCATION  ;  PSY- 
CHOLOGY 

GIFTS.  See  BENEFACTIONS. 

GILBERT  AND  ELLICE  ISLANDS.  See 
BRITISH  EMPIRE 

GLACIERS.  Living.  See  GEOLOGY 

GLANDS,  Study  of.  See  BIOLOGICAL  CHEM- 
ISTRY. 

GLASS.  A  new  all-time  high  in  production  was 
established  in  1940  by  glass  manufacturers,  ac- 
cording to  The  Glass  Industry,  and  the  total  manu- 
factured value  of  all  glass  products  for  the  year 
reached  $368,000,000.  This  is  15  per  cent  greater 
than  in  1939,  and  4  per  cent  above  the  previous  rec- 
ord set  in  1937. 

Plate  glass  production  amounted  to  164,371.570 
sq  ft.,  representing  a  16  per  cent  increase  over 
1939,  but  lacking  I/  per  cent  of  equaling  the  198,- 
069,000  sq.  ft.  record  of  1936.  Window  glass  to- 
taled 13,678,927  boxes,  a  figure  that  exceeds  1939 
by  35  per  cent.  While  this  figure  is  the  highest  for 
any  year  since  window  glass  figures  have  been 
publicly  available,  it  is  known  that  the  years  of  the 
building  boom  actually  were  larger.  Glass  contain- 
er production  exceeded  all  previous  years,  includ- 
ing the  former  record  high  set  in  1937,  with  54,- 
264,509  gross.  This  figure  was  6  per  cent  greater 
than  1939  Stocks  on  hand  at  the  close  of  1940 
were  9,988,210  gross,  a  figure  that  is  regarded  as 
large  but  by  no  means  alarming.  Miscellaneous 
glass  products  also  soared  to  new  levels,  with  a 
value  of  $127,000,000  Important  items  included  in 
this  category  are  machine-made  tumblers  (43,600,- 
762  dozens) ,  machine-made  table  and  kitchen  ware 
(33,592.796  dozens),  and  illuminating  ware  ($22,- 
250,000). 

Approximately  75,300  persons  were  employed  on 
an  average  by  the  industry,  The  Glass  Industry  es- 


OOA 


314 


GOLD  COAST 


timttes,  and  the  $104,000,000  payroll  wai  the  larg- 
est ever  paid  to  the  industry's  workmen. 

Foreign  trade  directly  reflected  the  war  influ- 
ence, and  in  a  manner  logically  to  be  expected. 
Exports  for  the  year  were  valued  at  $14,750,000, 
the  highest  since  1920,  and  41  per  cent  above  1939. 
All  types  of  ware  shared  in  the  increase,  showing 
the  following  increases  over  1939:  window  glass 
928  per  cent ;  illuminating  ware  55  per  cent ;  plate 
glass  38  per  cent ;  containers  32  per  cent ;  and  ta- 
bleware 35  per  cent.  Canada  and  Latin  America 
continue  as  leading  outlets.  In  the  same  manner, 
imports  dropped  heavily,  the  total  value  being  only 
$2,312,000.  This  is  55  per  cent  below  last  year  and 
the  smallest  since  1919.  Plate  glass  was  the  only 
item  to  show  an  increase. 

1940  UNITED  STATES  FOREIGN  TRADE  IN  GLASS 


Kind  of  Glass 

Exports 

Imports 

Plate       

$  1,527,000 

$   119,000 

Window. 

720,000 

359,000 

Containers 

.   ..        4,558,000 

142,000 

Tableware     .   .         .     . 
Illuminating  Ware 
Allother  

2,448,000 
732,000 
4,765,000 

415,000 
72,000 
1,205,000 

Total  

$14,750,000 

$2,312,000 

In  sharp  contrast  to  1939,  there  were  no  out- 
standing new  products  of  glass  developed  during 
1940.  The  industry  did  continue  to  malce  techno- 
logical advancements  in  the  art  of  production, 
however,  and  this  was  particularly  true  of  contain- 
ers. Noteworthy  among  the  container  achievements 
was  the  extension  of  the  new  light-weight  type  of 
bottle  to  many  new  markets. 

A  number  of  factors  in  the  industry  have  been 
attacked  by  the  United  States  Government,  nota- 
bly the  glass  container,  plate,  and  optical  indus- 
tries. Monopolistic  practices  as  well  as  restraint  of 
trade  have  been  alleged.  Only  one  of  several  suits 
have  been  settled  however.  Of  vital  importance  to 
the  future  of  the  glass  container  industry  is  the 
government's  insistence  upon  the  dissolution  of  the 
Hartford-Empire  Co.  This  concern  holds  most  of 
the  patents  on  glass  container  manufacture,  and 
performs  an  engineering  service  for  its  licensees. 

See  SCULPTURE. 

JOHN  T.  OCDEN. 

GO  A.  See  PORTUGAL  under  Colonial  Empire. 

GOLD.  World  production  of  gold  in  1940  ex- 
ceeded in  volume  and  value  any  previous  annual 
output.  The  principal  details,  and  comparison  with 
1939,  arc  given  in  the  accompanying  table  of  world 
gold  production,  according  to  Engineering  and 
Mining  Journal.  In  the  United  States,  California 
continued  to  hold  first  rank  among  the  producers. 
The  Philippines  were  second  and  Alaska  (q.v.) 
third.  Transvaal  gold  production  was  higher  than 
in  any  other  geographical  unit,  reaching  a  new 
peak  of  over  14,000,000  ounces,  valued  at  $491,- 
000,000.  The  largest  monthly  production  on  record, 
1,21 1,277  ounces,  was  made  in  October. 

Throughout  1940  the  United  States  continued 
to  buy  all  gold  offered,  at  $35  per  ounce.  This  was 
tremendously  important  in  creating  dollar  ex- 
change for  the  British  Empire  in  the  purchase  of 
war  supplies  and  munitions.  AH  told  the  United 
States  purchased  four  billion  dollars  of  gold,  equal 
to  the  entire  domestic  gold  stock  before  revalua- 
tion of  the  dollar  in  1934.  The  value  of  the  gold 
in  the  Treasury  at  the  close  of  the  year  was  $21,- 


994,548,000  compared  with  $17,697,000,000  on  Dec. 
31,  1939. 

Considerable  speculation  was  voiced  during  the 
year  on  the  future  of  gold  as  a  monetary  metal, 
particularly  in  the  event  of  Nazi  domination  of 
World  trade.  Economists  were  of  the  opinion  that 
a  victorious  Germany  would  be  in  a  position  to  use 
gold  in  international  trade  only  so  long  as  any  of 
the  metal  remained  in  her  Treasury,  and  that 
thereafter  she  might  supply  international  business 
on  another  basis.  In  that  event  the  stock  of  gold 
in  the  U.S.  Treasury  might  easily  become  almost 
worthless.  This  contingency  was,  however,  con- 
sidered rather  remote.  See  BANKS  AND  BANKING  ; 
FINANCIAL  REVIEW;  INTERNATIONAL  BANKING. 

WORLD  GOLD  PRODUCTION 
[In  thousands  of  fin*  ounces] 


Principal  gold-producing  countries 
North  America  . 
United  States  (inc  Philippines) 
Canada      .   .  . 
Mexico     . 
South  America  . 
Colombia  
Chile  

1940  • 
11,979 
5,883 
5,230 
.       866 
...     1,034 
....       658 
376 

1939 
11,628 
5,611 
5,094 
923 
895 
570 
325 

Russia  

5.236 

5,236 

Africa            
South  Africa.. 
Rhodesia     .                    .     . 
West  Africa. 
Belgian  Congo              

.     .     16,426 
14,106 
.       830 
965 
525 

14,957 
12,822 
800 
840 
495 

Ask  and  Oceania 
Australia 
British  India 
Total  principal  countries 
Other  countries    .   .  . 
World  Totals  . 

1,936 
.     1,655 
281 
36,611 
5,369 
.     41,980 

1,961 
1,646 
315 
34,677 
5,020 
39,697 

*  Preliminary 


H.  C.  PARMELEE. 


GOLD  COAST.  A  British  colony  in  West 
Africa,  consisting  of  the  Gold  Coast  colony  (23,- 
937  sq.  mi.),  Ashanti  (24,379  sq.  mi.),  Northern 
Territories  (30,486  sq.  mi.),  and  Togoland  (13,- 
041  sq.  mi.).  Total  area,  91,843  square  miles;  total 
population  (1938),  3,786,659,  excluding  4463  non- 
Africans.  Chief  towns:  Accra  (capital),  72,977 
inhabitants;  Kumasi,  43,413;  Sekondi,  21,614; 
Cape  Coast,  19,412;  Tamale,  18,591. 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  products:  Ca- 
cao, kola  nuts,  palm  kernels,  copra,  rubber,  maize, 
yams,  timber,  gold,  manganese,  and  diamonds. 
Gold  production  during  1939  totaled  820,000  fine 
oz.  In  the  world  production  of  diamonds  and  man- 
ganese ore,  the  Gold  Coast  ranks  second  and  third 
respectively.  Trade  (1939) :  Imports  of  merchan- 
dise, £6,948,000 ;  exports  of  merchandise  and  bul- 
lion, £12,660,000. 

Government.  Finance  (1938-39):  Revenue, 
£5,185,595;  expenditure,  £4,871,370;  public  debt 
(Mar.  31,  1939),  £11,435,000.  The  deficit  for  the 
year  1939-40  amounted  to  £226,000.  Budget  (1940- 
41)  :  Revenue,  £3,965,000;  expenditure,  £3,620,000. 
A  governor,  assisted  by  executive  and  administra- 
tive councils,  administers  the  Gold  Coast  colony. 
Ashanti,  Northern  Territories,  and  (British)  To- 
goland are  administered  by  the  governor  of  the 
Gold  Coast,  and  their  statistics  for  trade,  etc.,  are 
included  in  the  general  total  for  the  Gold  Coast. 
Governor  and  Commander-in-Chief,  Sir  Arnold 
W.  Hodson  (term  extended  for  one  year  from 
October,  1940). 

History.  It  was  announced  on  Feb.  22,  1940, 
that  the  British  government  had  purchased  the 
whole  British  West  African  cacao  crop  for  1939- 
40  in  order  to  protect  the  farmers  from  loss 


GOLDEN  GATE  EXPOSITION        315 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


caused  by  the  war's  dislocation  of  various  mar- 
kets. The  new  government  technical  school  at 
Takoradi  and  a  £250,000  rehousing  scheme  were 
completed  in  1940.  Takoradi  was  a  port  of  call  in 
the  air  journey  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan.  The  government  of  the 
Gold  Coast  made  a  gift  of  £100,000  and  a  loan  of 
£500,000  (free  of  interest  for  the  duration  of  the 
war)  to  the  fund  for  the  purchase  of  war  aircraft 
for  Great  Britain.  It  was  reported  in  September 
that  battalions  of  the  native  Cold  Coast  Regiment 
had  arrived  in  Kenya  for  the  campaign  against 
Italian  forces  in  Italian  East  Africa  (q.v.). 

GOLDEN  GATE  INTERNATIONAL 
EXPOSITION.  See  FAIRS,  EXPOSITIONS,  AND 
CELEBRATIONS. 

GOLD  IMPORTS  AND  GOLD  RE- 
SERVES. See  INTERNATIONAL  BANKING  AND 
FINANCE. 

GOLD  MOVEMENTS.  See  FINANCIAL  RE- 
VIEW under  International  Capital  Movements. 

GOLF.  The  elimination  on  a  technicality  of  a 
strong  contender  for  the  national  open  champion- 
ship was  one  of  the  biggest  headlines  in  the  1940 
history  of  golf.  That  and  a  record  low  score  by 
Craig  Wood  provided  about  all  the  nervous  excite- 
ment a  fan  would  care  to  experience  in  one  par- 
ticular season. 

The  major  event  of  the  year  was  the  national 
open  championship,  played  over  the  Canterbury 
course  in  Cleveland.  Lawson  Little,  former  king 
of  the  amateurs,  was  the  legally  accredited  winner 
of  this  classic,  but  not  until  he  had  disposed  of 
Gene  Sarazen  in  a  play-off.  The  play-off  was  ne- 
cessitated by  a  tie  of  287  between  Little  and  Sara- 
zen, and  there  would  have  been  a  triple  tie  with 
Ed  Oliver  of  Hornell,  N.Y.,  in  the  running  if 
Oliver  had  not  been  disqualified  for  beginning  his 
final  round  before  his  official  starting  time.  As  it 
was,  he  finished  out  the  round  for  an  unofficial  but 
genuine  score  of  287. 

Thunder  clouds  hung  over  Canterbury  that  fate- 
ful day  and  there  was  a  question  whether  the  title 
match  would  be  played  to  a  conclusion.  Fear  of 
that  eventuality  impelled  one  threesome  to  cut 
short  its  luncheon  period,  rush  to  the  first  tee  and 
drive  off.  Oliver's  party  followed  the  example  and 
had  made  only  their  tee  shots  when  they  were  dis- 
qualified by  the  United  States  Golf  Association. 

The  victim  of  one  of  the  toughest  breaks  ever 
accorded  to  man  in  golf,  Oliver  accepted  the  ver- 
dict without  protest  and  went  home.  The  following 
day  Little  and  Sarazen  played  off  over  18  holes 
and  Little  won  with  a  score  of  70,  or  two  under 
par,  to  73. 

Extraordinary  doings  occurred  also  in  the  na- 
tional amateur  championship,  which  was  captured 
by  Dick  Chapman  of  the  Winged-Foot  Golf  Club 
of  Mamaroneck,  N.Y.,  over  his  home  links.  Chap- 
man began  by  winning  the  qualifying  medal  and 
then  defeated  W.  B.  McCullough  Jr.  of  Phila- 
delphia, 11  up  and  9  to  play,  in  the  36-hole  final, 
the  most  one-sided  score  in  the  final  since  1895.  In 
the  quarter-finals  of  this  tournament,  the  titlehold- 
er,  Marvin  (Bud)  Ward  faded  out,  defeated,  4 
and  3,  by  Ray  Billows  of  Poughkeepsie,  whom 
Ward  had  vanquished  the  year  before  Chapman 
in  this  round  outplayed  John  Burke,  the  Metro- 
politan titleholder,  5  and  4;  Wilford  Wehrle  de- 
feated George  Dawson  of  Chicago,  6  and  5,  and 
McCullough  wrested  victory  from  the  former 
champion,  Johnny  Fischer,  5  and  4. 
Billows  took  the  long  end,  5  and  3,  to  McCul- 


lough after  being  4  down  at  the  end  of  the  first 
18  holes.  Chapman  rubbed  out  Wehrle,  3  and  2,  in 
a  surprising  match.  Requiring  42  for  the  first  nine 
holes  of  the  36-hole  semi-final  round,  Chapman 
found  himself  5  down.  Then  he  came  back  in  34 
while  Wehrle  was  using  40.  The  result  was  that 
Chapman  was  1  up  at  the  end  of  the  round. 

Although  McCullough  got  off  to  a  fine  start  in 
the  final,  Chapman  overtook  him  and  was  3  up  at 
the  end  of  the  morning  round.  In  the  afternoon 
McCullough's  game  went  completely  berserk.  He 
lost  eight  of  the  next  nine  holes.  His  best  showing 
was  at  the  fifth,  where  he  got  a  half. 

The  national  P.G.A.  title  was  annexed  by  By- 
ron Nelson,  the  hero  of  the  1938  open  champion- 
ship. The  national  women's  tournament  was  held 
in  California  and  Miss  Betty  Jameson  successfully 
defended  her  championship  of  this  division.  In  the 
final  she  defeated  Miss  Jane  Cothran  of  Green- 
ville, S.C.,  by  6  and  5. 

GOUGH  ISLAND.  See  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

GRAHAM  LAND.  See  FALKLAND  ISLANDS. 

GRAND  COULEE  DAM.  See  DAMS. 

GRAPE  BERRY  MOTH.  See  ENTOMOLOGY, 
ECONOMIC. 

GRAPHIC  ARTS.  See  PRINTS. 

GRASSHOPPERS.  See  ENTOMOLOGY,  ECO- 
NOMIC; FARM  MACHINERY  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  Official  designation  for 
the  political  union  embracing  England,  Scotland, 
and  Wales.  Capital,  London.  Sovereign  in  1940, 
George  VI,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  upon  the 
abdication  of  Edward  VIII  on  Dec.  10,  1936,  and 
was  proclaimed  King  on  Dec.  12,  1936.  Great  Brit- 
ain, together  with  Northern  Ireland,  the  Isle  of 
Man,  and  the  Channel  Islands,  forms  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Northern  Ireland. 
For  statistical  purposes,  the  Isle  of  Man,  the  Chan- 
nel Islands,  and  in  some  cases  Northern  Ireland, 
are  included  under  Great  Britain.  See  BRITISH 
EMPIRE;  IRELAND,  NORTHERN. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, the  census  population  of  Apr.  27,  1931,  and 
the  estimated  population  on  Jan.  1, 1939,  are  shown 
by  political  divisions  in  the  accompanying  table. 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  AREA  AND  POPULATION 


Division* 
England  • 
Wales  

Area  in 
sq.  miles 
.  .    50,874 
.  .  .      7.466 

Population 
1931                1939 

37,794,0031      4nnnmn 
21S8374/      ^.SOO.OOO 
4,842,980         5,002,000 
49,3081          uq  mn 
93.205/          14S'000 

Scotland  

.     30,405 
221 
75 

Isle  of  Man     .   .  .. 
Channel  Islands  

Total  

.   .     89,041 

44,937,444 

46,447,000* 

•  Including  Monmouthshire.  *  Including  Northern  Ireland  the 
total  population  (1939)  is  47,737,000 

Live  births  in  1939  were  provisionally  numbered 
620,257  (15.5  per  1000) ;  deaths,  499,192  (12.1  per 
1000)  ;  marriages,  437,406.  Corresponding  numbers 
for  1938  were  621,627  (15.1) ;  478,927  (11.6) ;  and 
360,339  (8.7)  respectively.  Estimated  populations 
of  the  chief  cities  in  1937  (except  when  otherwise 
indicated)  were :  Greater  London,  8,655,000 ;  Coun- 
ty of  London,  4,141,000  (1936);  Glasgow,  Scot- 
land, 1,126,000  (1938);  Birmingham,  1,029.700; 
Liverpool,  836,300,  Manchester,  736,500;  Sheffield, 
518.200;  Leeds,  491,880;  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 
468,500  (1938);  Belfast,  Northern  Ireland,  438,- 
112;  Hull,  319,400;  Bradford,  289,510;  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne,  290,400;  Stoke-on-Trent,  272,800;  Not- 
tingham, 278,800;  Leicester,  262,900;  Portsmouth, 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


316 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


256,200;  Croydon.  242,300;  Cardiff,  Wales,  224,- 
850;  Plymouth,  210,460;  Salford,  201,800. 

Education  and  Religion.  For  the  school  year 
1937-38,  there  were  in  England  and  Wales  21,678 
elementary  schools  with  an  average  attendance  of 
4,526,701 ;  in  Scotland,  2898  primary  schools,  with 
an  average  attendance  of  567,220.  For  secondary 
education,  there  were  in  England  and  Wales  1393 
grant -aided  schools  with  466,245  pupils;  in  Scot- 
land, 252  secondary  schools  with  151,988  students. 
Attendance  at  industrial  and  commercial  schools 
in  England  and  Wales  was:  Full  time,  49,057; 
part  time,  1,157,179.  The  11  universities  in  Eng- 
land had  37,284  students  in  1939-40 ;  the  four  Scot- 
tish universities,  9413;  and  the  University  of 
Wales,  2485  students. 

The  Church  of  England  (q.v.),  with  an  Episco- 
pal form  of  government,  and  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land (Presbyterian)  are  the  "established  religions" 
in  England  and  Scotland,  respectively.  Recent  sta- 
tistics of  "full  members"  of  leading  denominations 
in  England  and  Wales  were :  Anglican,  2,294,000 ; 
Methodist,  1,250,589;  Congregational,  494,199, 
Baptist,  392,535;  Calvinistic  Methodist,  261,287. 
The  number  of  Roman  Catholics  was  estimated 
at  2,361,504  in  1937.  The  Church  of  Scotland  had 
2536  congregations  and  1,286,509  full  members  on 
Dec.  31,  1938;  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 
Scotland,  614,021  adherents. 

Agriculture.  In  1939  arable  land  totaled  11,- 
923,000  acres,  including  the  Isle  of  Man ;  perma- 
nent pasture,  17,355,000  acres;  orchards  and  small 
fruit,  312,149  acres.  The  value  of  agricultural  pro- 
duction in  England  and  Wales  in  1937-38  was 
£223,500,000  (livestock  and  products,  £154,400,000; 
farm  crops,  £35,300,000 ;  fruit,  vegetables,  and  mis- 
cellaneous crops,  £33,800,000).  Yields  of  chief 
crops  in  1939  in  the  United  Kingdom  were  (in 
metric  Ions)  :  Wheat,  1,680,000;  barley,  903,300, 
oats,  1,760,800,  potatoes,  5,197,100  (1938);  beet 
sugar,  494,100,  hops,  13,100  (1938).  Livestock  sta- 
tistics for  1939  in  Great  Britain  (exclusive  of  the 
Isle  oi  Man  and  the  Channel  Islands)  were:  Cat- 
tle, 8,118,788;  sheep,  25,992,793;  swine,  3,767,365; 
horses,  987,415;  poultry  (including  Northern  Ire- 
land), 69,119,000  The  wool  clip  as  in  the  grease 
was  about  108,700,000  Ib.  in  1938 

Mining  and  Manufacturing.  Because  of  the 
war,  figures  on  industry  are  incomplete.  Mineral 
and  metallurgical  production  of  the  United  King- 
dom in  1938  (except  where  otherwise  indicated) 
was  (in  metric  tons)  :  Coal,  231,875,000;  iron  ore, 
3,615,000;  pig  iron  and  ferro-alloys,  6,871,000; 
steel  ingots  and  castings,  10,561,000 ;  copper,  7200 ; 
aluminum  (smelter  production),  25,500  (1939)  ; 
tungsten  ore,  154;  lead  ore,  30,200;  zinc  (smelter 
production),  including  some  secondary  metal,  50,- 
400  (1939).  The  production  of  alcoholic  spirits 
was  58,011,000  U.S.  gal.;  beer,  1,066,775,000  gal. 
Vessels  (of  100  or  more  tons)  launched  in  1938 
aggregated  1,030,000  gross  tons.  A  total  of  447,- 
561  motor  vehicles  were  manufactured  in  1938 
(342,390  passenger  cars  and  105,171  trucks  and 
buses).  Rayon  manufacture  was  54,450  metric  tons 
in  1939. 

Fisheries.  During  1938  the  fisheries  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales  landed  776,635  tons  of  non-shell 
fish  valued  at  £12,233,209  and  those  of  Scotland 
269,028  tons  valued  at  £3,826,671.  Great  Britain's 
shell-fish  catch  was  valued  at  £488,490. 

Foreign  Trade.  Recent  trends  in  British  for- 
eign trade  are  shown  in  the  table  at  the  top  of  the 
next  column. 


BRITISH  FOREIGN  TRADE  • 
[In  thousands  of  pounds  sterling] 


Re-exports 

Exports 

(imported 

Excess 

Calendar 

British 

Total 

of  im- 

year 

Imports* 

products  • 

"disc)  ?~ 

exports' 

ports 

1929 
1912 

1,220,765 
701,670 

729,349 
365,024 

109,702 
51,021 

839,051 
416,045 

381,714 
285,625 

19J7 

1,027,824 

521,391 

75,134 

596,525 

431,299 

19*8 
1939 

920,438 
885,944 

470,883 
438,806 

61,608 
45,925 

532,491 
484,731 

387,946 
401,213 

1940 

1,099,900 

413,100 

26,200 

439,300 

660,600 

0  Not  including  bullion  and  specie  movements     *  C  i  f   value 
c  F  o  b  value 

Food,  drink,  and  tobacco  accounted  for  £399,- 
460,000  of  Great  Britain's  purchases  in  1939,  other 
leading  imports  being.  Non-ferrous  ores,  scrap, 
and  manufactures,  £56,590,000 ;  scrap  iron  and  iron 
and  steel  manufactures,  £27,315,000;  oils  and  fats 
and  derivatives,  £77,865,000;  machinery,  £24,531,- 
000;  wood  and  timber,  £37,064,000;  cotton  and 
wool,  £74,854,000.  The  chief  exports  were .  Cotton 
and  wool  manufactures,  £124,825,000;  machinery, 
£47,340,000;  vehicles,  including  ships  and  aircraft, 
£39,086,000 ;  coal  and  other  mining  products,  £38,- 
259,000 ;  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  £32,844,000. 
For  distribution  of  trade  see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p. 
328. 

Finance.  Budget  operations  for  the  fiscal  years 
ending  March  31  are  shown  in  the  accompanying 
table. 

UNITED  KINGDOM    BUDGET  OPERATIONS 


Years  ending 
March  31 
1937-38 
1938-39 
1939-40 
194CM1- 

Receipts 

£872,580,000 
927,285,000 
1,049,189,000 
1,360,191,000 

Expenditures 
£908,661,000 
1,06  «,049,000 
1,816,000,000 
3,466,790,000 

Balance 
-  £36,081,000 
-  140,764,000 
-  767,6S4,000 
-  2,106,599,000 

•  Estimates 

Of  the  1940-41  expenditures,  £2,800,000,000  were 
earmarked  for  defense ;  £419,790  for  the  civil  serv- 
ices; and  £247,000  for  national  debt  and  other 
consolidated  fund  services.  Rises  in  income,  cus- 
toms, and  excise  taxes  were  principally  respon- 
sible for  the  increased  revenue  The  growth  of  the 
total  national  debt  is  indicated  in  the  following 
table : 

PUBLIC  DEBT  OF  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM 


Funded 

Floating 

Date 

£ 

£ 

Aug      1,  1914 

638,000,000 

16,000,000 

Dec    31,  1919 
Mar.  31,  1938 

6,683,000,000  « 
7.  1  84,000,000  • 

1,350,000,000 
842,000,000 

Mar  31,  1939 

7,243,000,000- 

920,000,000 

Mar  31,  1940 
Sept.  30,  1940       . 

7,45  3,000,000  • 
7,969,000,000  « 

1,489,000,000 
2,137,000,000 

«  Including  external  debt  of  £1,157.000,000  in  1919  and  Gl,032,- 
000,000  since  then,  chiefly  owed  to  the  United  States 

The  average  free  exchange  value  of  the  pound 
sterling  was  $4.8894  in  1938,  $4  4354  in  1939,  $3.83 
in  1940. 

Shipping.  The  size  of  Great  Britain's  merchant 
marine  fluctuated  during  1940.  Sinkings  by  Ger- 
man naval  craft  were  partially  offset  by  construc- 
tion of  new  ships  and  the  acquisition  of  the  fleets 
of  countries  overrun  by  the  Nazis,  such  as  Nor- 
way, Holland,  Belgium,  and  Denmark.  Semi-offi- 
cial advices  in  London  on  November  1  estimated 
the  total  shipping  available  to  the  British  on  that 
date  at  21,000,000  tons.  The  British  merchant  ma- 
rine on  June  30,  1939,  aggregated  21,001,925  gross 
tons.  It  consisted  of  7203  vessels  of  17,781,000 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


317 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


gross  tons  on  June  30,  1938.  The  national  income 
from  shipping  in  1939  was  estimated  at  £100,000,- 
000  (£90,000,000  in  1938). 

Railways,  etc.  There  were  20,162  miles  of  rail- 
way line  open  in  Great  Britain  on  Jan.  1, 1939  (51,- 
000  miles  of  track).  Net  revenue  for  the  year  was 
£28,984,000.  Roads  and  highways  in  the  United 
Kingdom  totaled  180,527  miles  in  1940.  The  total 
length  of  British  home  and  overseas  civil  air  routes 
was  30,624  miles  in  August,  1939.  Some  were  sus- 
pended for  the  duration  of  the  war.  Twice-a-week 
service  between  London  and  Lisbon,  Portugal,  was 
inaugurated  on  June  4,  1940.  By  the  end  of  the 
year,  more  than  400  passengers  had  used  the  route. 
Civil  aircraft  flew  a  total  of  5,000,000  miles  and 
carried  nearly  30,000,000  airmail  letters  during 
1940 

Government.  The  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Northern  Ireland  is  a  limited  mon- 
archy, with  an  unwritten  constitution,  under  which 
final  legislative,  judicial,  and  administrative  au- 
thority is  vested  in  a  Parliament  of  two  houses, 
acting  through  a  cabinet  drawn  from  its  members. 
The  House  of  Commons  consists  of  615  members, 
elected  by  universal  male  and  female  suffrage  on 
the  basis  of  one  member  for  every  70,000  of  popu- 
lation. The  House  of  Lords  in  1940  had  788  mem- 
bers, including  24  minors  not  seated,  who  are  vari- 
ously selected — by  heredity,  appointment,  by  virtue 
of  office,  and  by  election 

The  elections  of  November,  1935,  gave  the  Na- 
tional Government  431  out  of  the  615  seats  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  The  standing  of  the  govern- 
ment parties  at  the  end  of  1940,  modified  slightly 
by  by-elections,  was  as  follows  (names  of  leaders 
in  parentheses)  •  Conservatives  (Winston  Church- 
ill), 374,  Labor  (Clement  R.  Attlee),  164;  Liberal 
National  party  (Viscount  Simon),  32;  Liberals 
(Sir  Archibald  Sinclair),  18;  Independents,  11; 
National  Labor  party  (Malcolm  MacDonald),  7; 
Nationals,  5;  total,  611.  The  Opposition  consisted 
of  3  Independent  Laborites  (leader,  James  Max- 
ton)  and  1  Communist.  See  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p. 
328,  for  the  members  of  Prime  Minister  Neville 
Chamberlain's  war  government  formed  Sept  3, 
1939.  For  changes  during  1940,  see  History  below. 

HISTORY 

The  year  1940  opened  with  Anglo-French  ar- 
mies holding  the  Germans  in  check  behind  the 
Maginot  Line  and  with  the  bulk  of  the  British 
people  confidently  awaiting  the  strangulation  of 
the  Reich's  military  ambitions  by  the  naval  block- 
ade Meanwhile  the  complacent  Chamberlain  Gov- 
ernment continued,  as  in  1939,  to  prosecute  the 
war  under  the  slogan  of  "business  as  usual  " 

The  year  ended  with  Britain  fighting  a  desperate 
last-ditch  struggle  for  survival  and  with  her  great 
empire  in  imminent  peril  of  dismemberment  and 
dissolution.  Adolf  Hitler's  tremendous  military 
machine  had  crushed  France,  driven  the  B.E  F 
back  across  the  English  Channel,  appropriated  the 
military  and  economic  resources  of  virtually  the 
entire  European  Continent,  and  spread  ruin  among 
the  cities,  the  industries,  and  the  commerce  of  the 
British  Isles.  Italy  had  taken  up  arms  on  the  Ger- 
man side.  Japan  and  various  lesser  powers  had 
allied  themselves  with  the  Reich  in  the  hope  of 
sharing  in  the  rich  spoils  of  the  British  and  French 
empires. 

Britain  and  her  Dominions,  rejecting  all  thought 
of  capitulation,  were  fighting  a  tenacious  uphill 
struggle.  Neville  Chamberlain  was  dead  His  poli- 


cies and  methods  were  discarded  months  before  he 
died  with  German  bombs  sounding  a  requiem  The 
British  people  had  found  an  inspired  new  leader 
in  Winston  Churchill.  An  increasing  flow  of 
planes,  arms,  and  munitions  was  reaching  British 
forces  from  the  United  States  and  more  aid  was 
promised.  The  Greeks,  in  repulsing  an  Italian  in- 
vasion, had  bolstered  Britain's  strength  and  given 
her  a  military  foothold  in  the  Balkans  and  in 
Crete.  The  exiled  governments  of  Poland,  Czecho- 
slovakia, Norway,  the  Netherlands,  and  Belgium, 
and  the  "Free  French"  forces  under  Gen.  Charles 
de  Gaulle  added  their  resources  to  the  British  war 
effort.  But  the  major  share  of  the  burden  of  com- 
bating the  military  master  of  Europe,  while  mo- 
bilizing opposition  forces  throughout  the  world 
for  his  eventual  defeat,  rested  upon  the  British 
people. 

Prelude  to  Disaster.  While  rebuffing  Hitler's 
peace  feelers,  the  government  during  the  first 
quarter  of  1940  stubbornly  resisted  Opposition  de- 
mands for  more  drive  and  leadership  in  the  con- 
duct of  the  war.  There  were  exhortations  for 
economy  and  sacrifice  from  key  cabinet  Ministers. 
But  Prime  Minister  Chamberlain  rejected  Oppo- 
sition proposals  for  mobilizing  British  economic 
resources  under  a  single  director  with  wide  pow- 
ers. Likewise  he  deprecated  David  Lloyd  George's 
demand  for  a  more  intensive  food-growing  pro- 
gram to  relieve  the  strain  on  British  shipping  War 
Minister  Leslie  Hore-Belisha  was  forced  to  resign 
on  January  5  for  reasons  that  remained  obscure. 
Chamberlain's  appointment  of  Oliver  Stanley  as 
Hore-Belisha's  successor  was  widely  criticized  as 
adding  nothing  to  the  cabinet's  stature  or  vigor. 
Yet  a  poll  of  public  opinion  taken  toward  the  end 
of  January  showed  52  per  cent  of  British  voters 
as  favoring  Chamberlain's  continuance  in  office, 
while  30  per  cent  wanted  Winston  Churchill  at 
the  head  of  the  government. 

A  few  positive  steps  were  taken  during  this 
period.  The  Admiralty  assumed  complete  charge 
of  the  operation,  repair,  and  enlargement  of  the 
merchant  marine  on  February  1.  As  First  Lord 
of  the  Admiralty,  Winston  Churchill  on  January 
20  appealed  to  the  small  neutral  countries  of  Eu- 
rope to  support  the  Allied  cause,  but  his  warning 
that  neutrality  was  a  trap  menacing  their  inde- 
pendence and  security  was  rejected  with  some 
warmth  by  the  press  in  all  of  the  neutral  States  of 
western  and  northwestern  Europe.  Rationing  of 
meat  was  introduced  March  11.  Political  debate 
centered  on  such  issues  as  the  government's  guar- 
antee of  a  minimum  return  of  3.3  per  cent  on  the 
capital  of  the  railways  (maximum,  4  7  per  cent)  ; 
the  government  subsidy  of  about  £1,000,000  a  week 
for  checking  the  rise  of  retail  food  prices,  which 
were  already  19  points  above  the  prewar  level ;  the 
financing  of  the  war;  restoration  of  compulsory 
education;  and  the  return  to  the  great  cities  of 
mothers  and  children  evacuated  to  the  country  the 
preceding  September. 

Aid  to  Finland.  The  government  meanwhile 
watched  the  course  of  the  Russo-Finnish  war  with 
apprehension,  fearing  a  Finnish  defeat  might  lay 
all  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  open  to  Russian 
and  German  armies.  London  announced  January  1 
that  the  French  and  British  Governments  were 
sending  planes,  anti-tank  and  anti-aircraft  guns, 
gasoline,  and  ammunition  to  Finland.  On  February 
14  the  House  of  Commons  repealed  the  law  bar- 
ring British  subjects  from  volunteering  for  serv- 
ice in  the  Finnish  and  other  foreign  armies.  But 


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319 


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both  the  government  and  the  Opposition  were  re- 
luctant to  run  the  risk  of  forcing  Russia  into 
closer  alliance  with  Germany  by  intervening  offi- 
cially on  the  side  of  the  Finns.  Thus  the  oppor- 
tunity to  outflank  Germany  by  sending  an  Allied 
army  into  Finland  was  allowed  to  pass.  The  Allied 
Supreme  War  Council  made  preparations — later 
shown  to  be  quite  inadequate — for  sending  such  a 
force,  but  the  enterprise  was  dropped  when  Nor- 
way and  Sweden  refused  permission  for  the  trans- 
port of  these  troops  across  their  territories.  See 
EUROPEAN  WAR;  FINLAND,  NORWAY,  and  SWEDEN 
under  History. 

Blockade  Tightened.  The  Allies  during  this 
period  had  been  steadily  tightening  their  pressure 
on  the  neutral  countries  of  Europe  in  an  effort  to 
make  the  blockade  more  effective.  A  series  of  war 
trade  agreements  were  concluded  with  Norway, 
Sweden,  Iceland,  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  Den- 
mark, Spain,  Greece,  and  Turkey,  all  of  which  cur- 
tailed exports  of  fats  and  other  domestic  products 
of  these  countries  to  Germany.  On  February  15,  in 
response  to  retaliatory  German  measures  against 
neutral  shipping  submitting  to  the  British  blockade, 
the  London  Government  offered  to  convoy  all  neu- 
tral ships  passing  through  contraband  control  sta- 
tions. Norway  was  pressed  to  restrict  the  passage 
of  German  ships  through  its  territorial  waters  in 
evasion  of  the  blockade.  On  February  17  the  Brit- 
ish destroyer  Cossack  entered  Norwegian  waters 
to  seize  the  German  prison  ship  Altmark,  from 
which  300  British  war  prisoners  were  rescued.  See 
NORWAY  under  History. 

At  the  end  of  March  the  Allied  Supreme  Coun- 
cil undertook  a  further  tightening  of  the  blockade 
and  wider  application  of  Anglo-French  economic 
power  against  the  Reich.  The  British  Ministry  of 
Economic  Warfare  undertook  the  purchase  of  all 
surplus  crops,  oil,  minerals,  and  other  exportable 
products  from  the  Balkan  countries  in  order  to 
leave  as  little  as  possible  for  shipment  to  Ger- 
many. Rumania,  which  under  heavy  German  pres- 
sure had  resisted  Allied  demands,  was  brought  into 
line  in  February  when  the  Allies  suspended  li- 
censes for  the  export  of  raw  materials  to  Rumania 
and  cut  off  shipments  of  rubber  and  other  imports 
reaching  Rumania  via  the  Mediterranean  The 
British  Government  also  threatened  to  withdraw 
its  guarantee  of  Rumania's  independence  and  ter- 
ritorial integrity.  Italy,  which  in  mid-February  re- 
fused to  conclude  a  deal  exchanging  Italian  air- 
plane engines  and  other  armaments  for  British 
coal,  was  penalized  in  March.  The  British  seized 
a  number  of  Italian  colliers  carrying  German  coal 
to  Italy  through  the  English  Channel,  and  this 
traffic  was  diverted  to  the  heavily  taxed  German 
and  Italian  railways. 

The  Allies  also  sought  to  cut  to  a  minimum 
German  imports  of  Swedish  iron  ore.  The  British- 
Swedish  trade  agreement  provided  for  the  ship- 
ment of  a  large  share  of  Sweden's  output  to  Brit- 
ain via  the  Norwegian  port  of  Narvik.  On  April  7 
British  vessels  sowed  mines  at  three  points  in  Nor- 
wegian territorial  waters,  primarily  to  stop  Ger- 
man freighters  from  carrying  iron  ore  from  Nar- 
vik to  the  Reich  under  the  protection  of  Nor- 
wegian neutrality  (see  NORWAY  under  History). 
British  agents,  arrested  in  Sweden,  were  charged 
with  plotting  to  blow  up  railway  bridges  in  order 
to  prevent  ore  shipments  from  the  Kiruna  iron 
mines  to  Germany  by  way  of  the  Swedish  Baltic 
ports.  Russia  remained  the  major  leak  in  the  Allied 
blockade.  Nevertheless  at  the  beginning  of  April, 


the  blockade  was  estimated  to  be  about  90  per  cent 
effective  in  cutting  Germany  off  from  overseas 
sources  of  supply. 

Cabinet  Reshuffled.  Further  intensification  of 
Allied  efforts  on  the  economic  and  military  fronts 
was  presaged  by  the  replacement  of  Premier  Dala- 
dier  by  Reynaud  in  France  and  the  subsequent  re- 
organization of  the  Chamberlain  Government 
(April  3).  Winston  Churchill,  while  remaining  as 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  received  added  pow- 
ers in  formulating  war  policies.  Lord  Chatfield 
was  dropped  as  Minister  for  Coordination  of  De- 
fense, reducing  the  war  cabinet  from  nine  mem- 
bers to  eight.  Sir  Kingsley  Wood,  Minister  for 
Air,  and  Sir  Samuel  Hoare,  Lord  Privy  Seal, 
exchanged  posts.  Sir  John  Simon,  Chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer,  assumed  general  direction  of  eco- 
nomic strategy.  Lord  Woolton  replaced  William 
S.  Morrison  as  Minister  of  Food,  Robert  S.  Hud- 
son became  Minister  of  Shipping,  and  a  number  of 
other  minor  changes  were  made.  The  reorganiza- 
tion aroused  little  enthusiasm,  the  public  feeling 
being  that  much  more  new  blood  was  needed  in 
the  government. 

Setback  in  Norway.  The  tightening  of  the 
blockade  apparently  was  a  major  factor  behind 
the  sudden  German  attack  upon  Denmark  and  Nor- 
way on  April  9.  This  bold  move,  which  brought 
the  British  navy  into  immediate  action,  failed  to 
disturb  British  complacency.  The  Prime  Minister 
on  the  same  date  told  the  House  of  Commons  that 
"this  rash  and  cruel  act  of  aggression  will  redound 
to  Germany's  disadvantage  and  contribute  to  her 
ultimate  defeat."  Winston  Churchill  on  April  12 
reported  that  "we  are  greatly  advantaged  by  what 
occurred  (in  Norway)  providing  we  act  with  un- 
ceasing and  increasing  vigor  to  turn  to  the  utmost 
profit  the  strategic  blunder  into  which  our  mortal 
enemy  has  been  provoked."  British  forces  were 
landed  in  the  Faroe  Islands  and  Iceland  to  fore- 
stall German  occupation  of  these  strategic  points. 

A  hastily  assembled  and  poorly  organized  Allied 
expeditionary  force  was  sent  to  Norway  in  re- 
sponse to  an  appeal  from  the  Norwegian  Govern- 
ment. The  reverses  suffered  by  these  troops  and 
the  abandonment  of  all  southern  Norway  to  the 
Germans  in  May  unloosed  a  storm  of  criticism. 
When  Parliament  reconvened  on  May  2,  the  Prime 
Minister  defended  the  small  scope  of  the  military 
measures  taken  in  Norway  by  stating  that  Hitler 
was  prepared  to  invade  the  Low  Countries  and 
that  the  government  was  not  going  "to  be  trapped 
into  such  dispersal  of  our  forces  as  would  leave 
us  dangerously  weak  at  a  vital  center."  The  Brit- 
ish press  and  many  Conservatives  refused  to  ac- 
cept the  explanations  of  Chamberlain  and  his  chief 
Ministers.  On  May  8  the  government  escaped  de- 
feat by  a  margin  of  only  81  votes  on  a  motion  to 
adjourn,  as  contrasted  with  a  majority  of  222  that 
the  government  received  in  support  of  its  foreign 
policy  following  the  Munich  Conference  in  Sep- 
tember, 1938.  The  demand  for  new  leadership  was 
echoed  in  most  of  the  Dominions. 

Churchill  Forma  Cabinet.  Chamberlain  sought 
to  strengthen  his  ministry  by  bringing  Labor  party 
representatives  into  a  national  government.  The 
Labor  leaders,  however,  bluntly  informed  him  they 
would  not  serve  under  him.  The  Prime  Minister's 
long  control  of  British  public  affairs  was  already 
doomed  when  the  Germans  on  May  10  launched 
their  invasion  of  the  Low  Countries.  That  same 
evening  Chamberlain  presented  the  resignation  of 
his  government  to  the  King,  who  called  upon 


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320 


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Churchill  to  form  a  new  ministry.  (Foreign  Sec- 
retary Halifax  was  said  to  have  been  favored  by 
the  retiring  Prime  Minister  for  the  post) 

The  War  Cabinet,  sworn  in  on  May  12,  was 
reduced  from  eight  to  five  members,  and  four  of 
the  five  were  freed  of  departmental  responsibilities 
in  order  that  they  might  concentrate  upon  the 
broader  problems  of  the  war.  Besides  Prime  Min- 
ister Churchill,  who  also  assumed  charge  of  the 
Ministry  of  Defense,  the  War  Cabinet  included 
Mr.  Chamberlain  as  Lord  President  of  the  Coun- 
cil ;  Viscount  Halifax,  who  continued  on  as  For- 
eign Secretary;  Maj.  Clement  R.  Attlee,  leader  of 
the  Labor  party,  who  became  Lord  Privy  Seal; 
and  Arthur  Greenwood,  deputy  leader  of  the  La- 
bor party,  named  Minister  without  Portfolio.  On 
May  18  the  Prime  Minister  designated  Attlee  as 
deputy  leader  of  the  government  in  the  House  of 
Commons. 

It  was  May  16  before  the  list  of  other  Ministers, 
Under-secretaries,  and  occupants  of  junior  posts 
was  completed.  The  final  list  showed  46  Conserva- 
tives, 15  Laborites,  5  Liberal  Nationals,  3  Liberals, 
and  2  National  Laborites.  All  of  the  principal 
parties,  controlling  611  of  the  615  seats  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  were  thus  included  in  the 
government  coalition  (see  SOCIALISM  for  the  La- 
bor party's  attitude).  There  remained  in  Opposi- 
tion only  three  Independent  Laborites,  led  by 
James  Maxton,  and  one  Communist. 

The  Ministers  not  included  in  the  War  Cabinet, 
with  their  party  affiliations  (C  =  Conservative), 
were:  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  Sir  Kingsley 
Wood  (C)  ;  War,  Anthony  Eden  (C)  ;  Air,  Sir 
Archibald  Sinclair,  leader  of  the  Liberal  party; 
Admiralty,  A  V.  Alexander  (Labor) ;  Lord  Chan- 
cellor, Viscount  Simon,  leader  of  the  Liberal  Na- 
tional party ,  Aircraft  Production,  Lord  Beaver- 
brook  (C)  ;  Home  Secretary  and  Minister  of 
Home  Security,  Sir  John  Anderson  (C) ;  Domin- 
ions, Viscount  Caldecote  (C) ;  India  and  Burma, 
L.  S.  Amery  (C) ;  Colonies,  Lord  Lloyd  (C) ; 
Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  Lord 
Hankey  (C)  ;  Scotland,  Ernest  Brown  (Liberal 
National)  ;  Trade,  Sir  Andrew  Duncan  (Liberal 
National) ;  Education,  Herwald  Ramsbotnam  (C) ; 
Health,  Malcolm  MacDonald  (National  Labor)  ; 
Labor  and  National  Service,  Ernest  Bevin  (La- 
bor) ;  Supply,  Herbert  Morrison  (Labor)  ;  Agri- 
culture and  Fisheries,  Robert  Hudson  (C)  ;  Trans- 
port, Sir  John  Reith  (C) ;  Food,  Lord  Wool  ton 
(C) ;  Information,  Alfred  Duff  Cooper  (C)  , 
Economic  Warfare,  Hugh  Dalton  (Labor) ;  Ship- 
ping, Ronald  Hibbert  Cross  (C) ;  First  Commis- 
sioner of  Works,  Lord  Tryon  (C)  ;  Postmaster 
General,  W.  S.  Morrison  (C) ;  Attorney  General, 
Sir  Donald  B.  Somervell  (C)  ;  Lord  Advocate, 
T.  M.  Cooper  (C)  ;  Solicitor  General,  Sir  William 
Jo witt  (Labor) ;  Financial  Secretary  to  the  Treas- 
ury, Capt  H.  Crookshank  (C) ;  Pensions,  Sir 
Walter  Womersley  (C)  ;  Paymaster-General,  Vis- 
count Cranborne  (C). 

The  New  Leadership.  While  Churchill  was 
organizing  his  government,  the  Germans  overran 
the  Netherlands.  By  the  end  of  May  they  had 
crushed  Belgium  and  driven  the  defeated  B.E.F. 
out  of  Dunkirk,  with  the  loss  of  all  of  its  mecha- 
nized equipment.  Then  in  June  followed  even 
greater  disasters — the  defeat  of  France,  the  entry 
of  Italy  into  the  war,  and  Marshal  Petain's  capit- 
ulation to  Hitler  notwithstanding  strenuous  Brit- 
ish efforts  to  keep  France  in  the  war  (see  FRANCE 
under  History).  Not  since  the  Napoleonic  wars 


had  Britain  been  so  isolated  and  in  such  imminent 
danger  of  invasion.  The  early  collapse  of  British 
resistance  was  taken  for  granted  in  virtually  all 
of  the  world  capitals  except  London. 

In  this  great  emergency,  Winston  Churchill 
quickly  established  his  position  as  one  of  the 
greatest  war  leaders  in  Britain's  long  history.  Un- 
der the  stimulus  of  his  purposeful  action,  dogged 
determination  and  stirring  oratory,  the  empire 
shook  off  its  lethargy  and  threw  its  energies  and 
resources  into  the  struggle  with  a  reckless  bravery 
that  won  admiration  even  in  Berlin. 

"I  have  nothing  to  offer,"  Churchill  told  the 
House  of  Commons  on  May  13,  "but  blood,  toil, 
tears,  and  sweat."  He  said  his  policy  was  "to  wage 
war  by  land,  sea,  and  air  ...  with  all  our  might" 
and  that  the  government's  aim  was  "victory  at  all 
costs — victory  in  spite  of  all  terrors — victory  how- 
ever long  and  hard  the  road  may  be,  for  without 
victory  there  is  no  survival."  The  House,  which 
had  met  secretly  to  avoid  a  possible  Nazi  bombing 
raid,  approved  the  new  government,  380  to  0. 

In  a  radio  address  on  May  19  the  Prime  Minis- 
ter warned  his  people  that  soon  the  "hideous  ap- 
paratus of  aggression  .  .  .  will  be  turned  upon 
us."  He  called  for  ever-increasing  quantities  of 
arms  and  munitions  and  declared  that  the  interests 
of  property  and  hours  of  labor  must  alike  be  sac- 
rificed in  the  national  defense.  King  George's  Em- 
pire Day  broadcast  on  May  24  carried  a  similar 
warning.  "The  issue  is  now  plain,"  he  said.  "It 
is  the  issue  of  life  or  death  for  us  all  Defeat  will 
not  mean  some  brief  eclipse  from  which  we  shall 
emerge  with  strength  renewed — it  will  mean  de- 
struction of  our  world  as  we  have  known  it  and 
the  descent  of  darkness  upon  its  rums/' 

Announcing  the  surrender  of  the  Belgian  aimy 
by  King  Leopold,  Churchill  concluded  his  short 
speech  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  May  28  as 
follows : 

I  have  only  to  add  that  nothing  which  can  happen  in 
this  battle  can  in  any  way  relieve  us  of  our  duty  to  defend 
the  world  cause  to  which  we  have  bound  ourselves,  nor 
can  it  destroy  our  confidence  in  our  power  to  make  our 
way — as  on  former  occasions  in  our  history — through 
disaster  and  grief  to  ultimate  defeat  of  our  enemy. 

On  June  4,  describing  to  the  hushed  House  of 
Commons  the  disaster  that  had  overtaken  the  Brit- 
ish Expeditionary  Force  in  Belgium  and  France 
and  the  evacuation  from  Dunkirk,  the  Prime  Min- 
ister likened  Hitler  to  Napoleon  waiting  with  his 
fleet  of  flatbottomed  boats  at  Boulogne  for  a  fa- 
vorable wind  that  never  blew.  He  continued  de- 
fiantly : 

We  shall  go  on  to  the  end.  We  shall  fight  in  France, 
we  shall  fight  on  the  seas  and  oceans;  we  shall  fight  with 
growing  confidence  of  strength  in  the  air,  we  *hall  fight 
on  beaches:  we  shall  fight  on  landing  grounds,  we  shall 
fight  in  fields,  streets  and  hills.  We  shall  never  surrender 
and  even  if — which  I  do  not  for  a  moment  believe — this 
island  or  a  large  part  of  it  is  subjugated  and  starving, 
then  our  empire  beyond  the  seas,  armed  and  guarded  by 
the  British  Fleet,  will  carry  on  the  struggle  until  in  God's 
good  time  the  New  World,  with  all  its  power  and  might, 
steps  forth  to  the  liberation  and  rescue  of  the  Old. 

Following  Marshal  Petain's  capitulation  to  the 
Germans,  Churchill  told  the  House  of  Commons 
that  Britain  would  fight  on  "if  necessary  for  years, 
if  necessary  alone."  He  declared  the  empire's 
forces  and  resources  offered  "good  and  reasonable 
hope  of  final  victory,"  but  that  if  they  failed  "the 
whole  world,  including  the  United  States  and  all 
that  we  have  known  and  cared  for,"  would  sink 
into  the  abyss  of  another  dark  age.  German  occu- 
pation of  the  Channel  Islands  on  June  30  and 


A  erne 


THE  BRITISH  KING,  QUEEN,  AND  PRIME  MINISTER  UIl'RCHILL 


LIVESTOCK 


418 


LIVESTOCK 


at  the  dose  of  the  year  were  that  the  number  fed 
in  the  Corn  Beit  would  be  11  per  cent  higher 
than  a  year  earlier,  and  that  the  total  number  of 
cattle  on  feed  during  the  1940-41  season  would  be 
somewhat  above  the  1939-40  level  with  increased 
feeding  operations  in  several  of  the  western  States. 
Late  reports  from  the  Range  States  showed  gen- 
erally good  supplies  of  winter  grass  and  forage 
with  cattle  going  into  the  winter  in  the  best  condi- 
tion in  several  years.  Market  prices  for  slaughter 
cattle  showed  a  marked  upward  trend  throughout 
1940.  Prices  received  by  farmers  for  beef  cattle 
in  mid-December  were  the  highest  for  that  season 
since  1929  and  10  per  cent  higher  than  a  year 
earlier. 

The  1940  lamb  crop  of  about  32,700,000  head 
was  the  largest  on  record  and  3  per  cent  larger 
than  that  of  1939,  with  Texas  accounting  for  the 
major  part  of  the  increase.  Total  Federal  inspected 
slaughter  of  sheep  and  lambs  in  1940  was  1 7,351,- 
157  head,  less  than  1  per  cent  above  that  of  1939. 
Movements  of  feeder  lambs  into  the  Corn  Belt 
from  July  through  November  were  of  record  pro- 
portions with  evidence  that  the  total  numbers  of 
lambs  fed  during  the  1940-41  season  would  be 
6  per  cent  larger  than  a  year  earlier.  Feeding  op- 
erations outside  the  Corn  Belt  were  about  3  per 
cent  higher.  Prices  of  slaughter  lambs  in  1940  were 
generally  above  the  1939  level  with  mid-December 
prices  on  the  farm  averaging  $7.88  per  100  Ib.  or 
50  cents  higher  than  a  year  earlier.  Improvement 
in  the  domestic  demand  for  meat  during  the  last 
half  of  the  year  gave  less  support  to  lamb  prices 
than  to  prices  of  other  livestock.  December  stocks 
of  frozen  lamb  and  mutton  exceeded  5  million 
pounds,  about  4  per  cent  above  the  preceding  5 
year  average. 

Meat  consumption  in  the  United  States  during 
1939  totaled  17.2  billion  pounds,  equivalent  to  131 
Ib.  per  capita,  while  that  of  1940  was  nearly  17 
per  cent  above  this  previous  record  high.  Com- 
mensurate with  this  increase  in  consumption,  the 
meat-packing  industry  paid  about  $100,000,000  more 
for  livestock  in  1940  than  in  1939. 


marked  (stimulus  to  horse  and  mule  production  in 
this  country. 

International  Conditions.  Fragmentary  infor- 
mation from  Europe  permits  only  a  general  ap- 
praisal of  the  livestock  and  meat  situation  there 
during  1940.  In  27  European  Countries,  exclusive 
of  the  Soviet  Union,  at  the  beginning  of  the  pres- 
ent war,  total  numbers  of  hogs,  cattle,  and  sheep 
reached  82,300,000;  110,768,000,  and  128,751,000  re- 
spectively, increases  of  3,  7,  and  8  per  cent  over 
1931-35  averages.  During  the  World  War  (1914- 
1918)  numbers  of  hogs,  cattle,  and  sheep,  respec- 
tively, declined  approximately  8,  2,  and  2  per  cent 
during  the  first  year  of  the  conflict  and  29.3,  7.5, 
and  13.1  per  cent  for  the  entire  period  which  sug- 
gests the  possible  effect  of  the  present  war  on 
European  livestock  populations.  Data  on  livestock 
numbers  during  1940  were  not  generally  available 
but  known  shortage  of  feed  supplies  pointed  to 
heavier-than-normal  slaughter  in  most  areas. 

Except  in  Belgium  and  France,  pork  supplies  in 
Continental  Europe  at  the  end  of  1940  appeared  to 
be  above  normal.  Rationing  of  meat  at  that  time 
was  fairly  common  in  most  of  the  countries.  Both 
Germany  and  Italy  were  obtaining  substantial  quan- 
tities of  live  hogs,  pork,  and  lard  from  countries 
in  the  Danube  Basin  under  1940  agreements.  All 
meat  and  livestock  exports  of  Denmark  and  neigh- 
boring countries,  much  of  which  formerly  went  to 
Great  Britain,  were  going  to  Germany.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1940,  the  Italian  Government  placed  the 
buying  and  selling  of  beef  cattle  for  civilian  con- 
sumption under  government  control  and  indicated 
that  hogs  would  be  handled  similarly.  All  meats 
were  strictly  rationed. 

With  imports  from  Continental  Europe  cut  off, 
the  United  Kingdom  was  rationing  bacon  and  hams 
at  about  one-half  normal  consumption,  consistent 
with  domestic  supplies  plus  imports  of  Empire 
products.  Domestic  production  of  hogs  along  with 
poultry  was  sharply  curtailed  as  the  volume  of  im- 
ported f eedstuffs  declined.  Production  of  cattle  and 
sheep  was  less  affected  because  of  fairly  abundant 
forage  supplies.  Since  January,  1940,  all  livestock 


MEAT  SLAUGHTERED  UNDER  FEDERAL  INSPECTION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


Cattle 

Calves 

nogs 

Sheep,  lambs 

Number  Slaughtered 
1940       

..       .              9,756,130 

5,358,695 

50,397,861 

17,351,157 

1939          ,         ... 

9,446,303 

5,264,058 

41,367,825 

17,241,037 

5-year  average  a 

9,985,848 

5,757,192 

34,261,739 

17,486,281 

Total  Dressed  Weight  of  Slaughtered  Animals 
1940—  Ibs 
1939—  Ibs. 
S-year  average  •  —  Ibs       .     . 

4,971,070,000 
4,803,161,448 
.     ,         4,836,243,992 

568,045,000 
559,354,696 
614,387,358 

8,709,524,000 
7,296,299,659 
5,881,847,928 

702,120,000 
693,945,331 
695,579,318 

Exports* 

1940-lbs 

16,654,000* 

295,148,000* 

615,000 

1939—  Iba      .   .                 ... 

.     .            15,163,000* 

.          ... 

406,815,000* 

486,000 

5-year  average  «  —  Ibs 

13,764,000* 



254,639,000  • 

522,000 

Per  Capita  Consumption 

1940-lbs              

42.15* 

6137* 

5.32 

1939—  Ibs                          .   . 

4131* 

5209* 

528 

5-year  average  °  —  Ibs             

.       .               4284* 

44.08* 

5.38 

•  Average  for  1935-36-37-38-39.    *  Beef  and  Veal.    •  Pork  and  Lard. 


The  downward  trend  in  numbers  of  horses  and 
mules  on  farms  and  the  low  price  of  work  stock 
in  relation  to  that  of  all  farm  products  persisted, 
while  the  number  of  tractors  on  farms  continued  to 
increase.  Horses  and  mules  on  farms  in  1920,  1930, 
and  1940  numbered  approximately  26,  19,  and  15 
millions  respectively.  There  was  little  evidence 
that  European  War  conditions  would  provide  any 


marketed  in  the  United  Kingdom  must  be  sold  to 
the  Government  at  fixed  prices,  consistent  with 
farm  costs.  A  British-Canadian  agreement  of  Jan- 
uary, 1940,  providing  for  the  export  to  Great  Brit- 
ain of  4,480,000  Ib.  of  Canadian  bacon  and  ham 
weekly  was  replaced  by  a  new  agreement  of  No- 
vember, 1940,  which  provided  for  British  purchases 
of  not  less  than  8,185,000  Ib.  weekly.  The  stimulus 


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321 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


July  1  emphasized  the  gravity  of  the  situation. 

Counter-Invasion  Measures.  The  Prime  Min- 
ister's eloquent  oratory  and  blunt  warnings  of  the 
dangers  confronting  the  British  people  were 
matched  by  the  vigor  and  effectiveness  with  which 
government  and  people  prepared  to  repulse  the 
expected  German  invasion.  These  measures  took 
three  main  forms — the  mobilization  of  human  and 
material  resources  for  greater  war  production,  the 
suppression  of  subversive  elements,  and  military 
precautions.  For  the  military  measures,  see  EU- 
ROPEAN WAR  under  The  Battle  of  Britain. 

To  speed  the  re-equipment  of  the  British  defense 
forces,  Parliament  on  May  22  passed  the  Emer- 
gency Powers  Defense  Act  after  less  than  three 
hours  debate.  Far  more  drastic  than  the  emergency 
legislation  of  the  World  War,  this  Act  authorized 
the  government  to  (1)  control  all  persons  and 
property,  (2)  conscript  labor  and  regulate  condi- 
tions of  employment,  (3)  control  banks  and  the 
financial  system,  and  (4)  impose  an  excess  profits 
tax  of  100  per  cent.  The  objective  was  the  re- 
organizing and  nationalizing  of  war  industries  and 
the  mobilization  and  redistribution  of  labor  power. 
The  Act  was  cheerfully  accepted  and  supported  by 
virtually  all  classes  of  the  population  and  all 
branches  of  industry  and  labor.  It  led  to  a  notable 
quickening  of  the  nation's  war  efforts 

Increase  of  War  Production.  An  Order-in- 
Council  of  May  25,  issued  under  the  Emergency 
Powers  Defense  Act,  authorized  the  Ministry  of 
Supply  to  designate  as  "controlled  undertakings" 
all  enterprises  of  actual  or  potential  value  in  pro- 
ducing arms  and  munitions  These  undertakings 
became  completely  subject  to  government  control 
Government  officials  prescribed  the  articles  to  be 
produced,  hours  of  work,  the  amount  and  kind  of 
labor  employed,  and  the  prices  of  the  products. 

Responsibility  for  recruiting  labor  and  prescrib- 
ing wages  and  conditions  of  work  was  placed  upon 
Minister  of  Labor  Bevin  He  established  a  national 
Labor  Supply  Board,  functioning  through  Labor 
Supply  Committees  in  each  important  local  area. 
Inspectors  of  Labor  Supply  were  appointed  to  in- 
sure the  most  advantageous  employment  of  skilled 
workers.  Facilities  for  training  labor  for  jobs  in 
war  production  were  greatly  expanded  By  a  de- 
cree of  June  5,  Minister  Bevin  outlawed  strikes 
and  lockouts,  substituting  compulsory  arbitration 
of  all  labor  disputes.  Employment  of  coal  miners 
and  farm  workers  in  other  industries  was  pro- 
hibited. War  industries  were  placed  on  a  seven- 
day  week  basis.  Drastic  restrictions  were  placed 
upon  production  of  many  non-military  articles  in 
common  use  in  order  to  free  more  workers  for 
war  industries. 

On  June  8  exemptions  under  the  military  con- 
scription act  were  revised  to  permit  skilled  indus- 
trial and  other  workers  to  choose  between  service 
in  the  armed  forces  and  in  war  industries  On  June 
22,  Minister  of  Supply  Morrison  instituted  the 
compulsory  collection  of  ordinary  waste  materials 
usable  in  war  production.  The  wages  of  agricul- 
tural workers  were  raised  and  they  were  forbidden 
to  leave  their  occupation.  The  sugar,  butter,  and 
bacon  rations  were  cut  on  May  27.  Aircraft  pro- 
duction was  completely  reorganized  under  the  di- 
rection of  Lord  Beaverbrook.  As  a  result  of  these 
and  related  measures,  the  number  of  registered  un- 
employed declined  by  December  9  to  715,279,  the 
lowest  figure  since  1921.  Substantial  increases  in 
the  output  of  planes,  tanks,  artillery,  and  other 
heavy  weapons  were  reported  before  the  end  of 


June,  and  this  increase  was  understood  to  have 
continued  during  the  rest  of  the  year  despite  in- 
terruptions from  German  air  raids. 

"Fifth  Column"  Curbed.  Meanwhile  the  gov- 
ernment took  energetic  measures  to  nip  in  the  bud 
the  activities  of  spies,  saboteurs  and  other  subver- 
sive elements.  Profiting  from  the  experience  of 
Norway,  Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands,  the  police 
on  May  12  began  the  internment  of  enemy  aliens. 
Restricted  areas  were  established  covering  all  the 
east  coast  and  the  major  southeast  ports,  from 
which  enemy  aliens  were  excluded  and  other  male 
aliens  were  obliged  to  report  daily  in  person  to  the 
police.  Guards  were  posted  at  all  strategically  im- 
portant points.  Possession  of  firearms  by  aliens 
was  forbidden  (May  20)  and  all  stocks  of  gun- 
smith's shops  in  certain  areas  were  seized. 

Parliament  on  May  23  authorized  the  death  pen- 
alty for  serious  cases  of  espionage  and  sabotage 
and  severe  penalties  for  anti-war  propaganda.  The 
police  on  the  same  day  raided  the  headquarters  of 
the  British  Union  of  Fascists  and  arrested  Sir 
Oswald  Mosley,  leader  of  the  Fascist  movement, 
and  many  of  his  adherents  Others  imprisoned  in- 
cluded Capt.  Archibald  H  M  Ramsay,  a  Con- 
servative member  of  Parliament  A  clerk  employed 
in  the  American  Embassy  in  London  was  arrested 
and  later  convicted  on  espionage  charges.  A  cur- 
few law  required  all  aliens  to  be  in  their  "ordinary 
places  of  residence"  from  10  30  pm.  to  6  a.m., 
effective  June  3.  A  number  of  German  spies,  pos- 
ing as  refugees  and  equipped  with  radio  sending 
sets,  were  captured  and  three  of  them  were  exe- 
cuted late  in  the  year.  On  December  17  a  British 
housewife  in  the  German  espionage  service  was 
sentenced  to  death. 

The  Irish  Republican  Army  had  been  charged 
with  responsibility  for  further  bomb  outrages  in 
London  in  February  in  which  28  persons  were  in- 
jured (see  IRELAND  under  History).  Consequently 
suspected  members  of  this  organization  felt  the 
heavy  hand  of  the  police  during  the  drive  against 
subversive  elements.  On  June  8  drastic  passport 
regulations  were  established  covering  all  passage 
between  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  drive 
against  British  Fascists  and  pro-Nazis  was  marked 
by  the  arrest  of  Admiral  Sir  Barry  Domvile  and 
his  wife  on  July  8  and  the  dropping  of  the  Duke 
of  Buccleuch,  rich  Scottish  landowner,  from  his 
post  as  Lord  Steward  of  the  Royal  Household  on 
May  10.  The  Home  Secretary  on  July  1 1  banned 
meetings  of  the  British  Union  of  Fascists  and 
forbade  contributions  to  the  movement. 

By  August  the  police  and  government  officials 
expressed  confidence  that  all  except  a  few  unim- 
portant members  of  the  Nazi-organized  "fifth  col- 
umn" in  Britain  had  been  jailed  or  otherwise  ren- 
dered harmless.  Thereafter  the  authorities,  under 
pressure  of  criticisms  voiced  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, gradually  released  those  enemy  aliens  whose 
anti-Axis  sentiments  were  established.  At  the  end 
of  September,  1381  suspected  "fifth  columnists" 
were  being  detained  and  248  had  been  released. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  year  demands  were  voiced 
in  Parliament  for  either  the  trial  or  release  of  Sir 
Oswald  Mosley  and  several  hundred  of  his  Fascist 
adherents,  who  were  being  held  without  facing  a 
court  of  law. 

Democratic  Rights  Maintained.  This  disre- 
gard of  the  usual  civil  rights  and  liberties  was  re- 
stricted to  individuals  suspected  of  direct  conniv- 
ance with  the  enemy.  Parliament,  the  press,  and 
private  individuals  remained  free  to  criticize  the 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


322 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


government  The  activities  of  Lord  Swinton's  se- 
cret parliamentary  committee,  appointed  to  co-or- 
dinate the  work  of  various  agencies  engaged  in  the 
drive  against  spies  and  "fifth  columnists,"  led  to 
a  bitter  squabble  in  the  House  on  August  15  when 
Prime  Minister  Churchill  refused  to  answer  ques- 
tions from  Liberal  and  Labor  members  about  the 
committee's  work.  The  defense  regulations  issued 
by  the  Home  Secretary  and  the  censorship  over 
military  information  exercised  by  the  Minister  of 
Information  also  came  in  for  repeated  criticism 
in  Parliament  and  the  press.  On  July  24  Prime 
Minister  Churchill  agreed  to  an  immediate  review 
of  jail  sentences  and  fines  imposed  for  careless 
gossip  and  public  expression  of  defeatist  senti- 
ments. He  said  the  government  welcomed  free 
discussion  of  the  war  provided  official  secrets, 
troop  positions,  and  future  operations  were  not  re- 
vealed. 

"Stop  the  War"  Movement.  The  anti-war 
agitation  by  Communists  and  pacifists  continued 
throughout  the  year,  with  only  minor  restrictions. 
During  the  early  spring  they  appeared  to  be  mak- 
ing considerable  headway  among  labor  and  left- 
wing  groups,  but  as  Britain's  peril  increased  the 
influence  of  the  "stop  the  war"  movement  waned. 
A  move  in  Parliament  to  outlaw  the  Communist 
party  gained  relatively  little  support  Leaders  of 
the  Labor  party  and  of  the  Trades  Union  Congress 
fought  the  Communist  propaganda.  Sir  Walter 
Citrine  and  other  Trades  Union  Congress  leaders 
were  awarded  libel  damages  of  £1400  on  May  6 
against  Edward  Richard  Pountncy,  owner  of  The 
Daily  Worker,  organ  of  the  British  Communist 
party.  On  May  11  the  Minister  of  Information 
prohibited  the  sending  abroad  of  The  Daily  Work- 
er  and  of  Mosley's  Fascist  publication  Action 

Communist  activities  in  December  led  the  gov- 
ernment to  warn  Moscow  to  slop  its  alleged  ef- 
forts to  sabotage  Britain's  war  efforts.  Scotland 
Yard  on  December  16  reported  discovery  of  a 
Communist  plot  to  spread  discontent  among  Brit- 
ish workers.  About  the  same  time  the  People's 
Convention,  an  organization  of  Communists  and 
other  extreme  left-winders,  called  a  conference 
for  Jan.  11-12,  1941,  in  Manchester  to  further  its 
program  of  "a  people's  peace"  and  friendship  with 
Russia.  The  government  ignored  demands  in  Par- 
liament that  the  conference  be  banned. 

The  ineffectiveness  of  Communist  and  pacifist 
anti-war  propaganda  was  demonstrated  by  the 
overwhelming  majorities  by  which  their  candidates 
were  rejected  by  working  class  constituencies  in 
several  by-elections  during  the  year  On  Decem- 
ber 5  the  House  of  Commons  rejected  341  to  4  a 
motion  by  the  Independent  Labor  party  leader, 
John  McGovern,  condemning  the  government's 
failure  to  open  the  door  to  peace  talks  with  Hitler. 

Other  Defense  Measures.  In  addition  to  turn- 
ing Britain  into  an  armed  fortress  and  crushing 
subversive  activities,  the  government  took  various 
other  steps  in  preparation  for  the  German  assault. 
On  June  2  some  50,000  school  children,  evacuated 
from  large  cities  to  East  Coast  areas  in  1939,  were 
again  transferred — this  time  to  rural  districts  in 
the  Midlands  and  Wales.  Beginning  June  13,  120,- 
000  children  were  moved  from  London  to  areas 
less  exposed  to  German  bombing  inids  On  June 
19  the  government  announced  that  some  20,000 
children  would  be  sent  to  the  Dominions  and  the 
United  States  for  the  duration  of  the  war.  Parents 
of  about  200,000  children  sought  to  send  them  to 
homes  offered  overseas,  but  the  government  halted 


the  exodus  on  October  2  following  the  sinking  by 
a  German  submarine  of  the  City  of  Benares  in 
which  79  of  an  escorted  party  of  90  child  evacuees 
lost  their  lives  Up  to  that  time,  only  2650  children 
had  been  sent  overseas. 

Elaborate  precautions  were  taken  to  decentralize 
production  and  defense  so  that  a  German  blow  at 
London  would  not  paralyze  the  country.  Britain 
was  divided  into  13  regions,  each  in  charge  of  a 
commissioner  authorized  to  assume  dictatorial  pow- 
ers in  the  event  of  invasion.  Stores  of  food  and 
other  vital  supplies  were  distributed  throughout 
the  kingdom  for  emergency  use.  Every  community 
was  organized  to  meet  the  military  shock  and  eco- 
nomic dislocation  of  attack. 

Diplomatic  Moves.  In  addition  to  these  meas- 
ures for  home  defense,  Prime  Minister  Churchill 
late  in  May  moved  to  restrict  the  advance  of  Ger- 
man influence  in  Europe  by  sending  Ambassadors 
to  Russia  and  Spain  and  an  economic  expert  to 
Italy.  Sir  Stafford  Cnpps,  Left-wing  leader  in  the 
Labor  party,  went  to  Moscow  and  Sir  Samuel 
Hoare,  long  one  of  the  so-called  "appeasers"  in 
the  Chamberlain  Government,  was  sent  to  Madrid 
to  try  to  prevent  Spain's  entrance  into  the  war  on 
the  side  of  the  Reich  Sir  Wilfred  Greene  met 
with  complete  failure  in  his  effort  to  keep  Italy 
neutral  by  ironing  out  Italo-Bntish  differences 
over  the  blockade, 

Britain  under  Assault.  During  the  great  Ger- 
man air  attack  that  began  with  raids  upon  Chan- 
nel shipping  and  ports  in  July  and  August  and  de- 
veloped into  "all-out"  assaults  upon  London  and 
other  great  cities  commencing  September  7,  the 
Churchill  Government  and  the  British  people  gen- 
erally displayed  unshakable  morale  and  a  growing 
determination  to  carry  on  the  war  to  victory  (see 
EUROPEAN  WAR  under  The  Battle  of  Britain  for 
a  full  account).  Parliament  continued  to  meet  as 
usual.  The  expansion  of  armament  and  munitions 
industries  was  speeded  up.  The  training  and 
strengthening  of  the  armed  forces  continued  at 
top  speed.  And  in  the  face  of  the  continuous  threat 
of  a  German  attempt  to  cross  the  Channel,  consid- 
erable forces  with  new  airplanes,  tanks,  etc ,  were 
dispatched  by  sea  to  reinforce  Britain's  army  in 
Egypt.  British  naval  forces  in  the  Mediterranean 
were  also  heavily  reinforced. 

Meanwhile  Prime  Minister  Churchill  continued 
to  stiffen  and  inspire  his  countrymen  by  regular 
statements  in  Parliament  on  the  course  of  the  con- 
flict. On  September  12  he  reported  that  the  Ger- 
man effort  to  secure  daylight  mastery  of  the  air 
over  England,  which  he  described  as  "the  crux  of 
the  whole  war,"  had  so  far  failed  conspicuously 
and  "has  cost  them  very  dear."  Referring  to  the 
bombing  of  London  and  other  British  cities,  he 
said : 

He  (Hitler)  has  lighted  a  fire  which  will  burn  with  a 
steady  and  consuming  flame  until  the  last  vestiges  of  Nazi 
tyranny  have  been  burned  out  of  Europe  and  until  the 
Old  World  and  the  New  can  join  hands  to  rebuild  the 
temples  of  man  s  freedom  and  man's  honor  upon  founda- 
tions which  will  not  soon  or  easily  be  overthrown 

On  October  8  the  Prime  Minister  described  the 
decline  in  air  raid  casualties  resulting  from  im- 
proved shelters  and  other  precautionary  steps  He 
announced  that  a  bill  for  nation-wide  compulsory 
insurance  against  enemy  damage  to  property  would 
be  introduced  in  Parliament  (it  was  introduced  on 
December  11),  and  called  for  additional  steps  to 
"organize  our  lives  and  the  lives  of  our  cities  based 
on  dwelling  under  fire."  He  closed  with  a  warning 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


323 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


that  "it  is  only  by  supreme  and  superb  exertions, 
unwearied  and  indomitable,  that  we  shall  save  our 
souls  alive."  In  line  with  this  speech,  unemploy- 
ment assistance  pay  was  increased  in  November; 
heavy  penalties  were  imposed  to  curb  an  outbreak 
of  looting  of  bomb-damaged  premises ;  thousands 
of  women  and  children  were  evacuated  from  the 
battered  cities  at  government  expense;  and  suc- 
cessful measures  were  taken  to  safeguard  the 
health  of  the  population. 

By  the  end  of  October  the  R.A.F.  had  demon- 
strated its  ability  to  fend  off  the  German  daylight 
air  attacks  A  poll  taken  by  the  British  Institute 
of  Public  Opinion  toward  the  end  of  that  month 
showed  that  80  per  cent  of  those  questioned  be- 
lieved it  impossible  for  the  Germans  to  win  the 
war  by  air  attacks  alone.  Night  air  raids  continued 
to  inflict  great  material  damage,  as  was  demon- 
strated by  the  destruction  of  Coventry  on  the  night 
of  November  15  and  by  the  fire  bomb  raid  on  the 
ancient  City  district  of  London  on  the  night  of 
December  29,  which  started  a  conflagration  com- 
parable to  the  Great  Fire  of  1666  and  wiped  out 
countless  historic  landmarks  including  the  famous 
Guildhall. 

However  Churchill,  in  his  report  to  the  House 
of  Commons  on  November  5,  stated  that  "more 
serious  than  the  air-raiding  has  been  the  recent 
recrudescence  of  U-boat  sinkings  in  the  Atlantic 
approaches  to  our  island  The  fact  that  we  cannot 
use  the  South  and  West  Coast  of  Ireland  to  refuel 
our  flotillas  and  aircraft  and  thus  protect  trade  by 
which  Ireland,  as  well  as  Great  Britain  lives,  .  .  . 
is  a  most  heavy  and  grievous  burden  and  one 
which  should  never  have  been  placed  upon  our 
shoulders,  broad  though  they  may  be  "  This  grow- 
ing danger  to  British  shipping  (see  EUROPEAN 
WAR  under  The  Battle  of  Britain)  led  to  unsuc- 
cessful negotiations  with  the  Dublin  Government 
for  the  use  of  the  bases  that  Britain  had  returned 
to  Irish  control  in  1938  (see  IRELAND  under  His- 
tory) To  offset  sinkings,  the  British  Government 
during  the  last  quarter  of  1940  placed  large  orders 
for  ships  in  the  United  States  and  greatly  expand- 
ed construction  in  its  own  yards. 

The  growing  shortage  of  merchant  vessels 
forced  the  Food  Minister  in  December  to  an- 
nounce smaller  meat  and  other  food  rations  for 
1941  although  he  said  there  were  sufficient  stocks 
of  all  essential  food  commodities  to  prevent  resort 
to  "uon  rations  "  On  December  10  the  government 
flatly  rejected  the  proposal  of  ex-President  Her- 
bert Hoover  that  food  from  America  be  passed 
through  the  British  blockade  to  sustain  the  civil 
populations  in  German-occupied  countries.  The  gov- 
ernment contended  that  such  shipments  would  en- 
able Germany  to  appropriate  more  foodstuffs  from 
the  occupied  countries  for  conversion  into  essen- 
tial war  materials.  However  it  offered  to  permit 
shipments  of  American  medical  supplies  to  the  oc- 
cupied countries  and  to  unoccupied  France 

Thus  by  the  end  of  the  year,  the  air  and  sea 
struggle  between  Britain  and  Germany  had  devel- 
oped into  a  war  of  attrition,  with  neither  side  in 
imminent  danger  of  collapse.  This  stalemate  was 
in  danger  of  being  broken  at  any  time  by  a  Ger- 
man attempt  to  land  troops  in  Britain.  Meanwhile 
in  November  and  December  the  British  position 
on  other  fronts  had  improved  substantially  as  a 
result  of  Greek  and  British  victories  in  Greece, 
Albania,  the  Mediterranean,  and  Africa  (see  EURO- 
PEAN WAR). 

Rising  Cost  of  War.  When  Sir  John  Simon, 


as  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  presented  his 
estimates  for  the  1940-41  budget  to  Parliament  on 
April  23,  they  were  attacked  by  both  Parliament 
and  the  press  as  inadequate  for  the  vigorous  prose- 
cution of  the  war.  His  estimate  for  expenditures 
was  £2,667,000,000.  On  July  9  the  new  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer,  Sir  Kingsley  Wood,  obtained 
an  additional  £1,000,000,000  from  Parliament,  with- 
out a  dissenting  vote,  to  meet  rising  war  costs.  On 
July  22  he  presented  a  new  emergency  budget  call- 
ing for  the  expenditure  of  £3,467,000,000,  or  60 
per  cent  of  the  estimated  peacetime  income  of  the 
nation.  The  cost  of  the  war  rose  steadily  from  an 
estimated  £7,500,000  daily  early  in  July  to  nearly 
twice  that  figure  by  the  end  of  the  year.  Of  the 
1940-41  expenditures,  it  was  estimated  that  heavily 
increased  taxes  would  bring  in  only  about  £1,500,- 
000,000.  Government  loans  accounted  for  another 
£1,140,000,000,  the  Treasury  reali/ed  £500,000,000 
from  the  sale  of  gold  securities  called  in  from 
private  citizens ;  and  another  £300,000,000  was  esti- 
mated to  have  been  secured  through  inflation  of 
the  currency  See  Finance  above 

Political  Developments.  Throughout  this  pe- 
riod of  staggering  financial  dram,  of  heavy  civilian 
casualties  and  huge  material  losses,  the  political 
stock  of  Prime  Minister  Churchill  and  his  govern- 
ment steadily  mounted  A  poll  of  public  opinion 
taken  in  August  showed  that  88  per  cent  of  the 
voters  approved  of  Churchill's  leadership  and  7 
per  cent  disapproved.  In  mid-November  a  similar 
test  indicated  that  89  per  cent  approved  and  6  per 
cent  disapproved,  with  the  remaining  5  per  cent 
undecided. 

The  rising  popularity  of  the  Churchill  Govern- 
ment was  accompanied  by  mounting  criticism  of 
the  preceding  administration.  Chamberlain  and  his 
close  associates  were  bitterly  attacked  in  a  secret 
session  of  Parliament  on  June  20  for  their  inept 
handling  of  foreign  affairs  and  for  failing  to 
awaken  the  British  people  to  their  peril  and  re- 
sponsibilities. Some  Labor  leaders  and  other  critics 
of  Chamberlain's  Government  demanded  his  resig- 
nation from  Churchill's  War  Cabinet,  charging 
that  he  was  still  an  appeaser  at  heart  and  that  his 
presence  in  the  government  impaired  the  national 
war  effort  Mr.  Chamberlain  denied  that  he  de- 
sired peace  with  Germany  in  a  uorld  radio  broad- 
cast on  June  30  and  Foreign  Secretary  Halifax, 
who  came  in  for  an  equal  share  of  criticism,  did 
likewise  on  June  22.  Halifax  declared  that  an  un- 
bridgeable chasm  separated  the  philosophies  of  life 
of  Nazi  Germany  and  democratic  Britain  and  that 
the  war  must  continue  "until  freedom  for  our- 
selves and  others  is  secured  " 

These  assurances  did  not  halt  the  agitation  for 
the  resignation  of  the  "men  of  Munich"  but 
Churchill  firmly  resisted  it  in  the  interests  of  na- 
tional unity  until  Chamberlain,  weakened  by  an 
operation,  decided  to  retire  early  in  October.  On 
August  2  Churchill  brought  Lord  Beaverbrook, 
Minister  of  Aircraft  Production,  into  his  War 
Cabinet.  On  October  3,  announcing  Chamberlain's 
resignation,  the  Prime  Minister  reshuffled  his  Min- 
istry. Sir  John  Anderson  replaced  Chamberlain  as 
Lord  President  of  the  Council  and  was  succeeded 
as  Home  Secretary  and  Minister  of  Home  Secur- 
ity by  Herbert  Morrison  Anderson,  Morrison, 
Minister  of  Labor  Ernest  Bevin,  and  Sir  Kingsley 
Wood,  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  were  brought 
into  the  War  Cabinet,  increasing  the  membership 
to  eight.  Sir  Andrew  Duncan  succeeded  Morrison 
as  Minister  of  Supply  and  Capt.  Oliver  Lyttelton 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


324 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


succeeded  Sir  Andrew  as  President  of  the  Board 
of  Trade.  Lieut.  Col.  J.  T.  C.  Moore-Brabazon 
replaced  Sir  John  Reith  as  Minister  of  Transport 
and  Sir  John  became  Minister  of  Works  and  Pub- 
lic Buildings. 

The  day  after  this  shake-up  in  the  government, 
Chamberlain  resigned  as  leader  of  the  Conserva- 
tive party  Churchill  was  elected  to  the  vacant  post 
without  opposition  on  October  9.  Exactly  a  month 
later  Neville  Chamberlain  (see  NECROLOGY)  passed 
away  at  Heckfield  House  in  rural  Hampshire. 
With  leaders  of  all  the  Allied  nations  in  attend- 
ance, his  ashes  were  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey 
on  November  14. 

The  elevation  of  Minister  of  Labor  Bevin  to  the 
War  Cabinet  attracted  further  attention  to  this 
energetic  labor  leader,  whose  success  in  mobilizing 
the  British  working  classes  behind  Churchill's  war 
effort  had  won  wide  commendation.  He  was  fre- 
quently mentioned  as  a  likely  successor  to  Church- 
ill if  and  when  the  latter  retired  as  Prime  Minis- 
ter. Within  the  War  Cabinet,  Bevin  made  himself 
a  leading  exponent  of  the  Labor  party's  demand 
for  the  further  democratization  and  socialization 
of  the  country  as  a  reward  for  labor's  contribution 
to  the  nation's  war  effort.  On  October  9  he  told 
a  Trade  Union  Congress  meeting  in  London  that 
any  reconstruction  of  the  postwar  world  "must 
be  through  harnessing  of  the  rising  masses  of 
labor  to  whom  the  future  really  belongs."  In  a 
call  to  British  workers  to  increase  the  production 
of  war  materials,  he  declared  on  October  26  that 
victory  would  bring  a  revolutionary  and  a  "just 
order  in  Europe  that  will  not  tolerate  masses  of 
unemployed  or  poverty  or  privilege." 

The  more  conservative  elements  in  the  govern- 
ment and  in  the  country  at  large  were  not  enthusi- 
astic about  labor's  demand  for  a  socialized  Britain. 
It  was  partly  to  avoid  dissension  among  the  widely 
different  elements  within  the  government  and  among 
Britain's  Allies  that  Prime  Minister  Churchill  on 
October  15  rejected  demands  from  all  sides  of  the 
House  of  Commons  for  a  more  explicit  statement 
of  the  government's  war  aims.  He  said  that  when 
Britain's  capacity  to  survive  was  more  generally 
recognized  throughout  the  world,  "then  we  will  be 
in  a  good  position  to  take  a  further  view  of  what 
we  will  do  with  the  victory  when  it  is  won." 

On  November  21  Parliament's  second  wartime 
session  was  opened  with  traditional  pomp  and  cere- 
mony. The  Prime  Minister  reminded  the  members 
that  Britain  still  had  "a  long  road  to  travel"  and 
that  "deeds  and  not  words"  were  expected.  Fur- 
ther pressure  from  Labontes  failed  to  extract 
from  him  a  more  detailed  statement  of  war  aims. 
However  in  inaugurating  the  session  he  pro- 
claimed "our  resolve  to  keep  vital  and  active,  even 
in  the  midst  of  our  struggle  for  life,  even  under 
the  fire  of  the  enemy,  those  parliamentary  institu- 
tions which  have  served  us  so  well,  which  the  wis- 
dom and  civic  virtues  of  our  forbears  shaped  and 
founded,  and  which  have  proved  themselves  to  be 
the  most  flexible  instruments  for  securing,  amid 
unceasing  change  and  progress,  that  while  they 
throw  open  the  portals  of  the  future,  they  carry 
forward  also  the  traditions  and  glories  of  the  past." 

Further  changes  in  the  government  were  made 
December  23,  coincident  with  the  announcement 
of  the  appointment  of  Lord  Halifax  to  succeed 
the  late  Lord  Lothian  (see  NECROLOGY)  as  Am- 
bassador to  the  United  States.  Anthony  Eden  suc- 
ceeded Lord  Halifax  as  Foreign  Secretary  and 
member  of  the  War  Cabinet— thus  regaining  the 


post  he  resigned  on  Feb.  20, 1938,  in  protest  against 
Chamberlain's  appeasement  policies.  Capt.  David 
Margesson,  formerly  Chief  Government  Whip  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  replaced  Eden  as  Minis- 
ter of  War. 

Empire  Relations.  Previous  to  the  Anglo- 
French  disasters  in  Norway  and  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, the  British  Dominions  had  proceeded  with 
preparations  for  the  economic  and  military  sup- 
port of  the  Mother  Country  in  a  long  war  of  at- 
trition. But  their  efforts  were  short  of  potentiali- 
ties due  largely  to  the  failure  of  the  Chamberlain 
Government  to  explain  the  urgency  of  the  military 
situation  or  to  place  sufficiently  large  orders  to 
encourage  maximum  expansion  of  the  Empire's 
war  industries. 

The  collapse  of  the  Anglo-French  armies  in  the 
Low  Countries  and  France,  Italy's  entrance  into 
the  war,  and  later  Japan's  adheience  to  the  Axis, 
awakened  the  Dominions  to  a  realization  of  their 
danger  and  shocked  them  into  a  far  more  effective 
war  effort.  Without  any  suggestion  of  capitula- 
tion, except  from  small  Communist  and  pacifist 
minorities,  the  people  of  Australia,  Canada,  and 
New  Zealand  rallied  immediately  to  meet  the  emer- 
gency. Prime  Minister  Smuts'  South  African  Gov- 
ernment did  likewise,  in  spite  of  continued  ob- 
struction by  a  large  minority,  composed  mainly  of 
Afrikanders,  which  demanded  immediate  with- 
drawal from  the  war. 

The  leaders  of  the  All-India  National  Congress 
declined  to  take  violent  advantage  of  Britain's 
desperate  mid-year  plight,  although  refusing  to 
delay  their  demand  for  immediate  independence. 
However  the  native  Princes  and  many  other  in- 
fluential elements  in  India  loyally  supported  the 
British  cause  with  both  military  and  financial  con- 
tributions. The  industries  that  gave  India  seventh 
place  among  the  world's  industrial  producers  were 
geared  into  the  British  war  efToit  and  proved  an 
invaluable  source  of  supply  to  the  British  armies 
in  Africa  and  the  Near  East  In  October  units  of 
the  British  Empire  throughout  the  Middle  and 
Far  East  sent  representatives  to  a  conference  at 
New  Delhi,  India,  wheie  plans  were  laid  for  co- 
ordinating their  productive  facilities  and  increas- 
ing the  flow  of  war  supplies  to  the  various  war 
fronts.  Meanwhile  the  Commonwealth  Air  Train- 
ing Plan  was  speeded  up;  the  first  graduates  of 
the  Canadian  advanced  training  schools  arrived  in 
Britain  late  in  November 

The  colonies  without  exception  joined  in  con- 
tributing native  volunteers  and  materials  to  the 
Empire's  war  effort,  as  well  as  gifts  for  the  relief 
of  bomb-shattered  cities  in  Britain  Even  the  Brit- 
ish West  Indies,  where  a  sick  economy  and  bad 
social  conditions  had  given  rise  to  political  agita- 
tion and  disturbances,  offered  staunch  support  of 
Britain  in  its  time  of  peril.  Notwithstanding  the 
war,  the  British  Government  proceeded  to  carry 
into  effect  the  recommendations  of  the  Moyne 
Commission,  calling  among  other  things  for  a 
£500,000  annual  expenditure  over  a  10-year  period 
for  economic  rehabilitation  of  the  West  Indian  and 
other  colonies.  See  BRITISH  WEST  INDIES  under 
History  for  details 

British  Malaya,  with  its  great  economic  nerve 
center  and  naval  base  at  Singapore,  became  of  cru- 
cial importance  in  the  Empire's  struggle  for  sur- 
vival when  Japan  joined  the  Axis  and  bared  its 
designs  upon  Southeastern  Asia  and  all  of  Malaya. 
The  Singapore  garrison  and  air  force  was  heavily 
reinforced,  and  on  November  13  it  was  announced 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


325 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


that  Air  Chief  Marshal  Sir  Robert  Brooke-Pop- 
ham  had  been  appointed  to  the  newly  created  post 
of  Commander  in  Chief  in  the  Far  East,  with 
headquarters  at  Singapore.  See  BRITISH  EMPIRE 
and  the  separate  article  on  each  Dominion  and  col- 
ony, under  History 

Relations  with  United  States.  Despite  the 
rapid  expansion  of  Empire  war  industries,  the  slow 
undermining  of  Britain's  productive  power  by  Ger- 
man air  raids  and  sea  warfare  made  it  increasingly 
clear  by  the  end  of  1940  that  only  the  industrial 
power  of  the  United  States  could  furnish  war 
equipment  and  supplies  on  the  scale  needed  by  Brit- 
ain to  meet  Germany  on  an  even  basis  The  repeal 
of  the  arms  embargo  provisions  of  the  U  S  Neu- 
trality Act  on  Nov.  4,  1939,  enabled  Britain  and 
France  to  place  large  war  orders  in  America. 
However  deliveries  to  Britain  were  far  short  of 
those  required  to  meet  the  emergency  created  by 
the  collapse  of  France 

The  re-equipment  of  the  British  forces  in  prepa- 
ration for  the  expected  German  invasion  was 
greatly  facilitated  by  the  US.  Government  in 
June.  Through  private  American  intermediaries, 
it  transferred  to  the  British  Government  some  600,- 
000  rifles,  80,000  machine  guns,  800  75-mm  field 
guns,  and  a  large  quantity  of  ammunition — all  tak- 
en from  surplus  World  War  stocks  stored  by  the 
U.S.  Army. 

On  September  2  a  deal  was  concluded  for  the 
transfer  to  Britain  of  50  over-age  American  de- 
stroyers in  return  for  leases  on  naval  and  air  bases 
in  Newfoundland,  Bermuda,  the  Bahamas,  Jamai- 
ca, Antigua,  St  Lucia,  Trinidad,  and  British  Gui- 
ana (see  each  colony  under  History)  The  colonial 
legislative  and  governmental  authorities  were  con- 
sulted previous  to  conclusion  of  the  agreement,  and 
they  received  assurances  that  no  change  of  sover- 
eignty was  contemplated  The  leases  were  to  run 
for  99  years  The  delivery  of  the  American  ves- 
sels more  than  replaced  30  British  destroyers  lost 
in  action  up  to  that  date.  Coming  soon  after  the 
establishment  of  the  Canadian-American  Joint  De- 
fense Board,  the  destroyer-for-bases  agreement 
was  hailed  by  Prime  Minister  Churchill  as  an  in- 
dication of  still  closer  Anglo-American  collabora- 
tion in  the  future  It  was  followed  by  conversations 
among  the  British,  Australian,  New  Zealand,  and 
United  States  governments  looking  toward  the  co- 
ordination of  their  Pacific  defenses 

Washington  authorities  also  authorized  the  sale 
to  Britain  by  private  American  interests  of  132 
merchant  ships  (from  Sept  1,  1939,  to  Dec.  23, 
1940),  and  allocated  to  Britain  a  growing  propor- 
tion of  American  facilities  for  the  manufacture  of 
airplanes,  machine  tools,  and  other  vitally  neces- 
sary defense  articles  After  his  re-election  in  No- 
vember, President  Roosevelt  announced  a  "rule-of- 
thumb"  arrangement  whereby  Britain  would  be 
permitted  to  buy  about  50  per  cent  of  the  fighting 
planes  turned  out  by  American  factories 

Upon  his  return  to  the  United  States  from  a 
visit  to  London,  Lord  Lothian,  the  British  Ambas- 
sador, announced  on  November  23  that  British 
funds  available  for  the  purchase  of  war  materials 
in  America  were  nearing  exhaustion  and  that 
American  financial  aid  would  be  needed  in  1941  if 
the  purchases  were  to  continue.  It  was  estimated 
that  the  British  Purchasing  Commission  in  the 
United  States  up  to  that  time  had  let  contracts  for 
more  than  $4,000,000,000  worth  of  arms,  munitions, 
and  other  materials.  Shortly  afterward  Sir  Fred- 
erick Phillips,  British  Under-Secretary  of  the 


Treasury,  was  sent  to  the  United  States  to  present 
a  detailed  explanation  of  Britain's  financial  needs 
in  the  United  States  and  the  resources  available 
for  meeting  them. 

On  December  18  it  was  announced  in  Washing- 
ton that  the  British  Government  had  been  advised 
to  proceed  with  approximately  $3,000,000,000  worth 
of  new  war  orders  without  worrying  too  much 
about  payment  On  the  preceding  day,  President 
Roosevelt  advanced  his  proposal  for  lending  or 
leasing  war  materials  to  Britain  and  other  coun- 
tries resisting  aggression  The  continuance  of  Brit- 
ish armament  purchases  in  the  United  States  was 
thus  dependent  at  the  year's  end  upon  the  accept- 
ance of  the  proposal  by  Congress.  This  situation 
represented  a  marked  evolution  in  U.S.  policy  since 
the  beginning  of  1940,  when  Washington  was  en- 
gaged in  controversy  with  London  over  restrictions 
imposed  by  the  British  blockade  upon  American 
commerce  in  the  Mediterranean  area.  See  also 
CURAQAO  under  History;  UNITED  STATES  under 
Foreign  Affairs. 

Trade  Drive  in  Latin  America.  The  unde- 
clared Anglo-American  alliance  in  effect  at  the  end 
of  1940  appeared  unaffected  by  a  concerted  British 
effort  to  establish  new  markets  in  Latin  America 
for  those  lost  through  German  conquest  on  the 
European  Continent.  A  large  British  economic 
mission,  headed  by  Lord  Wilhngdon,  was  touring 
South  America  at  the  year's  end.  Both  British  and 
U.S.  commerce  with  Latin  American  countries 
reaped  advantages  from  the  elimination  of  Ger- 
man trade  through  the  British  blockade.  See  AR- 
GENTINA, BRAZIL,  etc ,  under  History. 

Anglo-Russian  Negotiations.  Relations  be- 
tween the  Allied  powers  and  the  Soviet  Union  ap- 
peared to  be  near  the  breaking  point  early  in  1940 
as  a  result  of  the  German-Soviet  pact  and  Allied 
assistance  to  the  Finns.  A  New  York  Times  dis- 
patch from  London  on  March  24  stated  that  the 
Allies  were  prepared  to  fight  Russia  rather  than 
permit  German-Soviet  control  of  Rumania.  On 
April  5  the  British  Government  warned  Norway 
and  Sweden  that  any  further  Soviet  aggression 
upon  Finland  would  prejudice  the  Allied  war  effort 
and  might  have  to  be  met  by  military  action 

Nevertheless  the  Anglo-Soviet  trade  talks,  in- 
terrupted by  the  Russo-Finmsh  war,  were  re- 
sumed early  in  April.  They  were  again  interrupted 
on  May  23  when  Moscow  refused  to  discuss  Brit- 
ish demands  for  restriction  of  Soviet  trade  with 
Germany.  Sir  Stafford  Cripps  resumed  the  negotia- 
tions when  he  arrived  in  Moscow  as  Britain's  new 
Ambassador  in  June  In  addition  to  the  issue  of 
German-Soviet  collaboration,  controversies  had  de- 
veloped over  the  Soviet  claim  to  some  £4,000,000  of 
gold  and  securities  owned  in  the  Baltic  States  and 
frozen  in  London  when  the  Soviet  Union  annexed 
those  territories.  Britain  advanced  a  counter-claim 
against  Moscow  for  some  £5,500,000  of  British  in- 
vestments in  the  Baltic  States. 

The  Russians  also  demanded  the  release  of  30 
Estonian,  Latvian,  and  Lithuanian  vessels  held  in 
British  ports  after  Russia's  absorption  of  those 
three  States.  On  October  16, 10  of  these  ships  were 
requisitioned  by  the  British  Government.  On  Octo- 
ber 29  Britain  protested  as  unneutral  Russia's  de- 
cision to  join  with  Germany,  Italy,  and  Rumania 
in  negotiations  for  a  new  Danube  Commission.  The 
protest  was  bluntly  rejected  by  Moscow  The  Brit- 
ish Government  on  October  22  was  reported  to 
have  offered  Russia  the  following  inducements  for 
a  "more  benevolent  attitude" :  A  guarantee  against 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


326 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


any  British  association  in  an  attack  upon  the  Sovi- 
et Union,  a  pledge  to  permit  Soviet  participation 
in  any  peace  settlement  at  the  end  of  the  war,  and 
de  facto  British  recognition  of  the  annexation  of 
the  Baltic  States  by  Moscow. 

To  this  offer  the  Soviet  Government  made  no 
reply  other  than  to  send  Premier  Molotov  to  Ber- 
lin. The  Anglo-Soviet  negotiations  thus  remained 
deadlocked  at  the  end  of  the  year.  However  the 
growing  tension  between  Germany  and  the  Soviet 
Union  in  the  Balkans  aroused  hope  in  London  that 
the  British  effort  to  insure  Soviet  neutrality  and 
possibly  bring  Russia  into  the  war  on  the  Allied 
side  might  meet  with  more  success  in  1941. 

Balkan  Situation.  After  the  debacle  in  the  Low 
Countries  and  France,  Britain  lost  ground  to  Ger- 
many economically  and  diplomatically  in  all  of  the 
Balkan  States  (q.v.)  except  Greece  and  Turkey. 
Greece  was  driven  into  armed  conflict  on  Britain's 
side  by  the  Italian  invasion  of  October  28.  In 
response  to  a  Greek  appeal,  the  British  fulfilled 
their  guarantee  of  Apr.  13,  1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 
1939,  p.  329)  and  provided  naval  and  air  support 
for  the  Greek  armies.  In  return,  Greek  ports  were 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  British  fleet.  The  stra- 
tegically situated  island  of  Crete  was  converted  in- 
to a  British  air  base.  And  the  British  Government 
obtained  control,  through  the  Greek  Shipping  Com- 
mittee in  London,  of  most  of  the  Greek  merchant 
marine — a  fleet  of  some  550  ships.  Turkey  main- 
tained its  1939  alliance  with  Britain,  although  when 
Italy  declared  war  the  Turks,  apparently  with 
British  consent,  did  not  fulfill  their  obligation  to 
aid  their  ally. 

The  Clash  with  Italy.  During  the  first  part  of 
the  year,  the  British  did  their  best  to  keep  Italy 
neutral  while  at  the  same  time  seeking  by  trade 
negotiations  and  by  the  gradual  tightening  of  con- 
trols over  Italian  overseas  trade  to  reduce  the  flow 
of  war  materials  reaching  Germany  through  Itali- 
an ports.  After  Germany's  success  in  Norway,  the 
attitude  of  the  Italian  Government  became  so 
threatening  that  on  April  30  British  merchant  ships 
were  ordered  to  keep  out  of  the  Mediterranean 
On  May  16,  when  the  German  drive  in  the  Low 
Countries  was  only  six  days  old,  Prime  Minister 
Churchill  sent  a  personal  appeal  to  Mussolini  to 
"stop  a  river  of  blood  from  flowing  between  the 
British  and  Italian  peoples"  by  staying  out  of  the 
conflict.  II  Duce  replied  on  May  18,  reminding 
Churchill  of  British  sanctions  against  Italy  in 
1935-36  during  the  Ethiopian  War  and  asserting 
that  "the  same  sense  of  honor  and  of  respect  for 
engagements  assumed  in  the  Italian-German  treaty 
(of  alliance)  guides  Italian  policy  today  and  to- 
morrow in  the  face  of  any  event  whatsoever." 

When  Italy  declared  war,  the  British  blockade 
was  clamped  down  at  Gibraltar  and  Suez  and  the 
British  navy  drove  Italian  shipping  from  all  ex- 
cept the  central  waters  of  the  Mediterranean.  In 
August  or  September  Churchill's  War  Cabinet  au- 
thorized the  diversion  of  ships  and  troops  for  a 
major  offensive  against  Italy  and  its  African  pos- 
sessions. This  daring  decision  bore  fruit  later  in 
the  year  in  the  shattering  blows  struck  by  air, 
land,  and  sea  (see  EUROPEAN  WAR).  While  Italian 
morale  was  badly  shaken  by  successive  defeats, 
Churchill  on  December  23  broadcast  an  appeal  to 
the  Italian  people  to  overthrow  Mussolini  and  con- 
clude peace  before  their  African  empire  was  torn 
"to  shreds  and  tatters"  and  Mussolini  was  forced 
"to  call  in  Attila  over  the  Brenner  Pass  .  .  ." 

Britain's  Dilemma  in  Spain.  As  in  the  case 


of  Italy,  the  Allies  during  the  first  stage  of  the 
war  sought  to  keep  Spain  neutral  by  permitting  it 
access  to  overseas  sources  of  supply.  Despite  the 
danger  of  strengthening  a  potential  enemy,  an 
Anglo-Spanish  treaty  was  signed  March  18  under 
which  Spain  obtained  much-needed  supplies  of 
wheat,  rice,  coal,  machinery,  and  other  products. 
In  return  Britain  obtained  Spanish  minerals  for 
her  war  industries. 

Upon  the  collapse  of  France,  the  Franco  Gov- 
ernment abandoned  its  neutrality  for  a  "non-bel- 
ligerency" favorable  to  the  Axis.  It  occupied  Tan- 
gier (q.v.),  started  a  press  campaign  for  the  re- 
turn of  Gibraltar,  and  gave  every  indication  of 
entering  actively  into  the  conflict  as  soon  as  an 
Axis  victory  over  Britain  appeared  imminent  To 
prevent  this  the  Churchill  Government  late  in  July 
took  the  dangerous  step  of  extending  the  blockade 
to  Spam  and  Portugal.  At  the  same  time,  ship- 
ments of  oil  and  other  vital  war  supplies  reaching 
Germany  through  Spam  and  occupied  France  were 
cut  off.  The  ensuing  critical  food  shortage  in  Spain 
was  a  major  factor  in  General  Franco's  rejection 
of  the  proposals  advanced  by  Hitler  in  October  for 
a  German  attack  upon  Gibraltar  through  Spain 
(see  GERMANY  under  History). 

After  repeated  protests  at  the  blockade,  the 
Franco  Government  late  in  August  agreed  to  ac- 
cept the  British  regulations  in  return  for  permis- 
sion to  import  limited  amounts  of  gasoline  and 
other  essential  commodities.  Guarantees  were  given 
that  none  of  the  imported  materials  would  be 
turned  over  to  Germany.  The  blockade  was  fur- 
ther relaxed  in  December,  after  a  month  of  nego- 
tiation. On  December  2  a  payments  accord  was 
signed  in  Madrid  giving  Spain  the  right  to  use 
frozen  credits  totaling  several  hundred  thousand 
pounds  for  purchases  in  the  United  Kingdom  and 
other  parts  of  the  sterling  area.  On  December  3 
the  British  agreed  to  permit  the  importation  into 
Spam  of  a  million  tons  of  wheat,  and  to  issue  ad- 
ditional navicerts  as  soon  as  the  Franco  Govern- 
ment obtained  American  credits  for  purchases  of 
other  supplies.  In  this  and  other  ways  the  British 
had  Washington's  co-operation  in  applying  eco- 
nomic pressure  to  keep  Spain  neutral.  Britain  con- 
sented on  December  8  to  permit  the  importation  in- 
to Spam  of  6000  tons  of  manganese  ore  and  a 
large  quantity  of  jute  from  India.  Up  to  the  end 
of  1940,  this  policy  had  sufficed  to  keep  Spain  on 
the  fence  and  protect  Gibraltar,  but  the  German- 
British  struggle  in  Spain  was  by  no  means  ended. 
See  SPAIN  under  History. 

Policy  Toward  Japan.  In  the  Far  East  Britain 
pursued  a  somewhat  similar  policy  of  economic 
pressure,  concessions,  and  military  threats  in  an 
effort  to  keep  Japan  neutral  and  to  limit  its  ex- 
pansion into  Malaya  and  Southeastern  Asia  There 
again  it  enjoyed  the  collaboration  of  the  United 
States  and  of  the  Dutch  authorities  in  the  Nether- 
lands Indies.  For  a  full  account,  see  BRITISH  MA- 
LAYA, CHINA,  JAPAN,  NETHERLANDS  INDIES,  and 
THAILAND,  under  History. 

Other  Events.  Other  events  of  the  year  in- 
cluded the  appointment  of  the  Duke  of  Windsor 
as  Governor  of  the  Bahama  Islands  on  July  9,  and 
the  merging  of  all  non-Anglican  Protestants  in  the 
United  Kingdom  in  a  central  organization  known 
as  the  Free  Church  Federal  Council  on  Septem- 
ber 15. 

In  addition  to  the  cross  references  in  this  article, 
see  AUSTRALIA,  BELGIUM,  BULGARIA,  BURMA, 
CANADA,  CONGO,  BELGIAN,  DENMARK,  EGYPT, 


QRBBCB 


327 


GREECE 


FRANCE,  FRENCH  INDO-CHINA,  FRENCH  WEST 
AFRICA.  GERMANY,  GREECE,  GUATEMALA,  ICELAND, 
INDIA,  IRAN,  IRAQ,  ITALIAN  EAST  AFRICA,  LITHU- 
ANIA, LUXEMBURG,  NETHERLANDS,  POLAND,  POR- 
TUGAL, RUMANIA,  SOUTH  AFRICA,  SWITZERLAND, 
TANGIER,  TURKEY,  URUGUAY,  VATICAN  CITY,  and 
YUGOSLAVIA,  under  History,  also  AERONAUTICS; 
BIRTH  CONTROL;  CO-OPERATIVE  MOVEMENT;  FAS- 
CISM; FINANCIAL  REVIEW;  INDUSTRIAL  CHEMIS- 
TRY; INTERNATIONAL  BANKING  AND  FINANCE; 
LABOR  CONDITIONS;  LIVING  COSTS;  MOTION  PIC- 
TURES; Music;  NAVAL  PROGRESS;  REPARATIONS 
AND  WAR  DEBTS  ;  SOCIALISM  ;  WAR  RELIEF. 

GREECE.  A  Balkan  kingdom  Capital,  Athens. 
Greece  has  an  area  of  50,270  square  miles  (main- 
land, 41,652;  islands,  6818),  and  a  population  esti- 
mated at  7,108,000  in  1939.  The  1928  census  showed 
6,204,684  inhabitants  (urban,  2,058,510).  Living 
births  in  1939  numbered  approximately  168,200 
(235  per  1000);  deaths,  about  92,800  (13.0  per 
1000);  marriages  in  1937  totaled  45,833  (66  per 
1000).  Estimated  populations  of  the  chief  cities  in 
1939  were:  Athens,  392,781,  Piraeus,  198,771; 
Salonika  (Thessalomki),  236,524;  Patras,  61,278; 
Kavalla,  49,980;  Canea,  26,608 ;  Corfu  (Kerkyra), 
32,221. 

Religion  and  Education.  School  attendance  in 
1936-37  was  •  Elementary,  967,588 ,  secondary,  90,- 
709;  university,  10,561  Illiteracy  is  high  The  1929 
census  returns  showed  5,961,529  members  of  the 
Greek  Orthodox  Church,  126,017  Moslems,  72,791 
Jews,  35,182  Roman  Catholics,  and  9003  Protes- 
tants 

Production.  Approximately  54  per  cent  of  the 
working  population  arc  supported  by  agriculture 
and  fishing,  16  per  cent  by  industry,  and  8  per  cent 
by  commerce.  There  were  6,087,000  acres  of  culti- 
vable land  in  1938  Yields  of  some  of  the  chief 
crops  in  1940  were  estimated  as  follows  (in  metric 
tons  unless  otherwise  specified)  Wheat,  800,000, 
barley,  205,000 ,  oats,  134,000 ;  rye,  53,000 ;  cotton, 
52,000 ;  currants,  114,000  tons ;  raisins,  30,000  tons , 
olive  oil,  105,000  tons;  figs  (exportable  crop),  22,- 
000  tons ,  tobacco,  40,000  tons.  Other  production 
(in  1939)  in  metric  tons  was:  Potatoes,  163,300; 
corn,  261,500;  wine,  5,000,000  hectoliters. 

Factory  production  in  1938  (excluding  winc,_ol- 
ive  oil,  and  wheat  products)  was  valued  at  13,552,- 
000,000  drachmas  In  1939,  318  metric  tons  of  ray- 
on were  produced ;  silk  production  in  1938  totaled 
250  metric  tons  Mineral  output  (in  metric  tons) 
in  1938  except  as  otherwise  indicated  was  Iron 
ore,  165,000,  pyrites,  120,000,  bauxite,  179,900, 
sulphuric  acid,  43,000;  chrome  ore,  19,900  (1937)  , 
zinc,  10,900  (1937)  ;  lead  (smelter),  9200  (1937)  ; 
lignite,  131,000  (1937)  ;  nickel,  1000  (1937). 

Foreign  Trade.  During  the  first  eight  months 
of  1940,  imports  were  valued  at  9,267,162,000 
drachmas  as  compared  with  9,091,989,000  in  the 
same  period  of  1939;  exports  were  6,895,528,000 
drachmas,  as  against  4,890,189,000  in  the  first  eight 
months  of  1939.  Total  imports  in  1939  were  valued 
at  12,275,000,000  drachmas  (14,761, 000,000  in  1938) , 
total  exports  aggregated  9,200,000,000  drachmas 
(10,149,000,000  in  1938)  For  distribution  of  trade 
see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  333.  Also  see  TRADE,  FOR- 
EIGN. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  for  the  fiscal  year 
ending  Mar.  31,  1941,  provided  for  expenditures  of 
15,514,000,000  drachmas  (15,940,000,000  in  1939- 
40)  and  revenues  of  14,851,000,000  drachmas  (14,- 
999,000,000  in  1939-40).  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
year,  budget  estimates  were  revised  to  cover  the 


cost  of  the  war  with  Italy.  Military  appropriations 
constituted  more  than  25  per  cent  of  the  total  esti- 
mated expenditures  in  the  original  1940-41  budget. 
The  total  public  debt  on  Jan.  31,  1940,  was  52,874,- 
700,000  drachmas,  of  which  37,373,000,000  drach- 
mas represented  obligations  to  foreign  countries. 
The  average  exchange  rate  of  the  drachma  was 
$0.0091  in  1937,  $0.0090  in  1938,  and  $0.0082  in 
1939. 

Transportation.  The  length  of  railway  lines  in 
operation  on  Mar.  31,  1939,  was  1864  miles.  During 
the  year  ending  Mar  31,  1939,  railways  carried 
31,434,700  passengers  and  2,452,261  metric  tons  of 
freight.  Gross  revenues  were  926,428,000  drachmas 
During  the  year  the  Athens-Piraeus-Peloponnesus 
Railway,  the  second  most  important  line  in  Greece, 
was  taken  over  in  receivership  by  the  Greek  Gov- 
ernment Highways  extended  8440  miles  in  1940. 
The  Greek  merchant  marine  on  June  30,  1939,  con- 
sisted of  607  vessels  (of  100  tons  or  over)  with  a 
gross  tonnage  of  1,780,666.  Also  see  History  be- 
low. 

Government.  Premier  John  Mctaxas  ruled  as 
dictator  of  Greece  from  Aug.  4,  1936,  through 
1940.  (He  died  Jan.  29,  1941.)  The  government  re- 
mained, none  the  less,  a  monarchy  in  form,  under 
King  George  II,  who  had  been  restored  to  the 
throne,  Nov.  25,  1935,  in  accordance  with  a  plebi- 
scite, to  rule  under  the  monarchic  constitution  of 
1911.  King  George  himself  gave  Metaxas  as  dic- 
tator a  color  of  legitimacy  by  issuing  the  decrees 
of  1936,  which  suspended  constitutional  guarantees, 
dissolved  the  Parliament,  abolished  political  par- 
ties, and  imposed  subjection  on  the  press.  All  legis- 
lation is  effected  by  royal  decree. 

History.  The  main  concern  of  Greece  in  1940 
was  to  surmount  the  perils  that  the  European  War 
brought  to  the  national  existence  and  the  livelihood 
of  the  population.  The  onset  of  the  Axis  powers 
shifted  largely  to  southeastern  Europe  after  the 
middle  of  the  year;  the  shift  indeed  had  been  pre- 
pared in  1939,  by  Italy's  seizure  of  Albania,  which 
put  an  Italian  army  on  the  Greek  northwestern 
border.  The  collapse  of  armed  resistance  to  Ger- 
many in  the  western  part  of  the  European  Conti- 
nent gave  Germany  and  Italy  the  opportunity  to 
advance  through  the  Balkans,  after  June,  without 
risk  of  adequate  military  opposition  from  stricken 
adversaries  Italy  accordingly  invaded  Greece  on 
October  28  with  forces  supposedly  almost  double 
those  that  Greece  could  put  into  the  field,  and 
equipped  with  such  modern  fighting  tools  as  the 
Greeks  could  not  at  all  rival.  For  the  course  of  the 
Italo-Greek  campaign,  see  EUROPEAN  WAR,  under 
Italo-Grcek  War.  The  campaign  of  1940  had  the 
astonishing  outcome  of  disaster  for  the  Italian 
forces,  which  lost  a  great  part  of  Albania  and 
failed  throughout  to  withstand  the  Greek  advance. 
The  Greek  forces,  despite  phenomenal  success, 
stood  at  the  end  of  the  year  in  the  uncomfortable 
position  of  having  yet  to  deal  with  German  troops 
if  these  should  come  to  the  Italians'  aid  in  1941. 

In  the  first  half  of  1940  the  country's  situation, 
in  the  disordered  state  of  Europe,  seemed  compara- 
tively secure.  A  guarantee  of  British  protection 
against  invasion  still  provided  a  deterrent  against 
invasion,  and  Italy  had  not  yet  joined  Germany 
against  the  British  and  French.  The  Balkan  en- 
tente still  functioned'  the  representatives  of  its 
members — Greece,  Rumania,  Turkey,  and  Yugo- 
slavia— met  early  in  February  and  adopted  har- 
monious if  vague  resolutions  to  "remain  in  close 
contact"  and  continue  a  "resolute  pacific  policy." 


GREECE 


328 


GREENLAND 


They  undertook  to  meet  again  in  1941.  Their  tenu- 
ous accord  benefited  Greece,  so  long  as  the  four 
might  hope  for  vigorous  British  and  French  sup- 
port if  Greece  were  attacked.  The  Greek  provision 
for  the  defense  of  the  Thracian  border  gained 
greatly  by  the  completion  on  May  5  of  a  new  rail- 
road line  from  Salonika  to  the  Bulgarian  line 

The  Franco-British  disaster  of  May  and  June 
forced  the  Greek  Government  to  seek  the  good  will 
of  Germany.  On  June  28  was  announced  the  con- 
clusion of  a  Greco-German  commercial  treaty  let- 
ting the  Reich  receive  ore,  for  which  Greece  in 
turn  was  to  get  German  coal ;  and  providing  also 
for  German  access  to  other  Greek  products  Again, 
in  August,  the  Greek  Government,  by  revoking  the 
extra  pay  that  it  had  allowed  to  seamen,  hindered 
the  passage  of  cargoes  to  Great  Britain  and  thus 
apparently  wooed  German  benevolence 

The  entrv  of  Italy  as  an  active  participant  in  the 
European  War,  on  the  German  side,  led  after  a 
considerable  interval  to  a  declaration  by  Premier 
Metaxas,  August  4,  of  the  government's  determina- 
tion to  remain  neutral,  but  to  make  "every  sacri- 
fice" for  the  country's  defense  if  attacked.  About 
a  week  later  the  Italian  Government  began  apply- 
ing overt  pressure  on  Greece  with  the  apparent  in- 
tent of  awing  the  latter  into  yielding  parts  of 
Greek  territory  between  the  Albanian  border  and 
the  Aegean  coast.  Italian  journals,  controlled  by 
the  government,  demanded  the  "revision"  of  the 
Albanian  frontier,  and  it  was  reported  in  Athens 
that  a  demand  had  been  made  of  Greece,  and  re- 
jected, that  she  formally  renounce  British  guaran- 
tees of  her  independence  and  territorial  integrity. 
There  followed  rapidly  a  demand  that  Greece  ac- 
count to  Italy  for  the  killing  of  an  Albanian  ir- 
redentist, Daut  Hoggia,  who  had  sought  the  in- 
clusion in  Albania  of  Greek  areas  having  inhabit- 
ants of  Albanian  stock.  The  Greek  mine-laying 
naval  cruiser  Helle  was  torpedoed  and  sunk,  Au- 
gust 15,  in  the  Greek  harbor  of  Tenos ;  naval  ex- 
perts declared,  August  20,  that  a  fragment  of  the 
torpedo  was  marked  as  made  in  Turin 

Metaxas  held  firm  against  the  application  of 
Italian  pressure  in  August  There  followed  several 
weeks  of  suspense,  marked  by  a  fruitless  appeal 
for  Hitler's  diplomatic  aid  in  restraining  Italy. 
After  the  German  partisans  had  mastered  Ruma- 
nia, the  Italian  Government,  having  abandoned 
hope  of  effecting  its  purpose  by  pressure,  prepared 
to  invade  Greece.  It  issued  an  ultimatum  on  Octo- 
ber 28,  which  the  Greek  government  rejected  on 
the  same  day,  and  war  followed  The  immediate 
occasion  of  the  ultimatum  was  an  Italian  complaint 
that  a  Greek  band  had  fired  on  an  Albanian  patrol, 
killing  two,  in  Albanian  territory 

One  of  the  effects  of  the  quarrel  with  Italy  was 
the  reconciliation  of  the  Metaxas  regime  with  some 
at  least  of  the  Venizelist  or  other  antagonistic 
leaders  that  it  had  kept  under  restraint  or  in  exile 
The  number  of  the  forgiven  included  John  Phe- 
okotis,  George  Caf  andaris,  Alexander  Milonas,  and 
Panayotis  Canellopoulos. 

Greece,  in  undertaking  to  resist  Italy,  had  hope 
of  substantial  aid  from  other  governments.  Turkey 
remained  aloof  in  1940,  despite  an  understanding 
with  Greece  for  common  defensive  measures. 
Great  Britain  supplied  technical  troops,  military 
aviation,  naval  activity  against  the  Italians,  and  a 
diversion  in  Libya  that  helped  to  disconcert  Italian 
military  policy.  The  United  States  gave  Greece  as- 
surance, December  7,  that  military  material  would 
be  forthcoming. 


The  reigning  dynasty  of  Greece  was  strength- 
ened in  some  respects,  but  weakened  in  others,  by 
the  birth,  June  2,  of  a  son  to  Prince  Paul,  brother 
of  King  George.  The  King  was  childless,  and 
Prince  Paul  had  at  the  time  no  male  offspring. 
His  fathering  a  son  gave  the  throne  the  prospect 
of  a  successor  in  the  next  generation.  But  Prince 
Paul  stood  in  favor  with  the  Axis  powers  and  out 
of  favor,  consequently,  with  the  Metaxas  regime. 

See  also  ALBANIA,  BULGARIA,  GERMANY,  GREAT 
BRITAIN,  ITALY,  TURKEY,  and  YUGOSLAVIA  under 
History,  ARCHAEOLOGY;  BALKAN  ENTENTE;  COM- 
MUNISM ;  EUROPEAN  WAR;  FASCISM  ;  INDUSTRIAL 
CHEMISTRY;  LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS;  REPARATIONS 
AND  WAR  DEBTS  ,  WAR  RELIEF 

GREEK  ORTHODOX  CHURCH.  See  RE- 
LIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS. 

GREEK  STUDIES.  See  PHILOLOGY,  CLASSI- 
CAL. 

GREENLAND.  A  large  island  off  northeast- 
ern Canada.  Denmark's  only  colonial  possession,  it 
has  an  area  of  736,518  square  miles,  of  which  705,- 
234  square  miles  comprises  the  central  plateau, 
averaging  about  10,000  feet  high  and  capped  by 
ice  1000  feet  or  more  thick  The  ice-free  coastal 
area  comprises  about  31,284  square  miles  Esti- 
mated population  in  1940,  18,200  including  about 
17,800  Eskimos  and  400  Danes.  The  area  under 
direct  Danish  administration  includes  46,740  square 
miles  and  is  divided  into  three  inspectorates  as  fol- 
lows South  Greenland  on  the  southwest  coast 
(pop,  about  7000;  capital,  Godthaab)  ;  North 
Greenland  on  the  west  coast  (pop,  9000,  capital, 
Godhavn)  ;  and  East  Greenland  on  the  east  coast 
(pop  1000).  The  chief  settlements  are  Julianehaab 
(2500  inhabitants),  Godthaab  (1300),  Godhavn, 
Angmagsalik,  and  Marmonhk 

Cryolite,  mined  at  Ivigttit,  accounts  for  nine- 
tenths  of  Greenland's  total  income  of  about  $800,- 
000  annually  Marble  is  mined  at  Marmorihk  in 
North  Greenland  Other  products  are  graphite, 
codfish,  halibut,  Arctic  salmon,  fox  and  bear  pelts, 
eider  down,  seal  blubber,  and  some  sheep.  Com- 
merce is  a  monopoly  of  the  Danish  Government 
and  its  representatives  in  Greenland.  Exports  to 
Denmark  in  1938  totaled  5,939,000  Danish  crowns  , 
imports  from  Denmark,  3,064,000  crowns  Reve- 
nue in  1938-39  was  4,810,000  crowns ,  expenditure, 
5,573,000.  The  administration  is  vested  in  a  duec- 
tor  (appointed  by  the  King)  in  Copenhagen,  who 
was  aided  by  governors  and  local  assemblies  in 
Greenland. 

History.  The  establishment  of  a  military  pro- 
tectorate over  Denmark  by  Germany  on  Apr.  9, 
1940,  brought  the  status  and  future  of  Greenland 
into  question  Communications  between  Greenland 
and  Denmark  were  severed,  and  with  them  the 
island's  normal  trade.  As  "protector"  of  Den- 
mark, the  Reich  acquired  at  least  a  technical  claim 
to  control  Greenland.  This  situation  led  to  con- 
sultations in  Washington  beginning  April  10  be- 
tween United  States  government  officials,  the  Dan- 
ish Minister,  and  the  diplomatic  representatives  of 
Great  Britain  and  Canada. 

On  April  10  President  Roosevelt  and  the  Dan- 
ish Minister  agreed  that  Greenland  was  part  of 
the  American  Continent  and  therefore  covered  by 
the  Monroe  Doctrine.  Its  freedom  from  German 
control  was  declared  to  be  of  vital  concern  to  the 
United  States  The  U.S.  Government  on  May  1 
announced  that  a  consulate  would  be  established 
at  Godthaab  and  on  May  10  James  K.  Penfield 
and  George  L,  West,  Jr.,  the  newly  designated 


GRENADA 


329 


GUATEMALA 


consul  and  vice  consul,  sailed  for  Greenland  to 
keep  the  State  Department  informed  as  to  devel- 
opments there.  The  Canadian  Government  like- 
wise sent  a  consul  to  Greenland  At  President 
Roosevelt's  request,  an  official  of  the  American 
Red  Cross  also  went  to  Greenland  to  investigate 
the  food  situation.  He  returned  in  mid-July  and 
reported  that  the  settlements  had  supplies  on  hand 
to  meet  their  needs  for  months  to  come. 

A  Greenland  trade  delegation  headed  by  Eske 
Brun,  Governor  of  North  Greenland,  arrived  in 
the  United  States  on  a  U  S.  Coast  Guard  cutter 
July  9  and  in  subsequent  negotiations  in  Washing- 
ton and  New  York  established  new  trade  channels 
with  the  United  States  to  replace  those  severed 
by  the  German  seizure  of  Denmark.  On  Septem- 
ber 21  Governor  Brun  announced  that  arrange- 
ments had  been  made  for  obtaining  $1,000,000 
worth  of  supplies  in  the  United  States  in  return 
for  Greenland  products.  The  U.S.  Government 
extended  further  aid  by  suspending  tonnage  duties 
on  "vessels  of  Greenland  and  the  produce,  manu- 
factures, or  merchandise  imported  in  the  said  ves- 
sels into  the  United  States  from  Greenland  or 
from  any  other  foreign  country,"  effective  Oct.  9, 
1940. 

The  British  Broadcasting  Corporation  on  No- 
vember 1  quoted  a  report  from  Stockholm  that  a 
German  ship  carrying  an  expedition  of  50  armed 
men  was  intercepted  and  captured  by  the  Nor- 
wegian vessel  Fndtjof  Nansen  off  Greenland 
while  en  route  to  seize  an  existing  meteorological 
station  in  Greenland  or  to  establish  a  new  one  for 
the  purpose  of  supplying  the  German  air  force 
with  advance  weather  reports 

Consult  Th.  Stauning  (Prime  Minister  of  Den- 
mark), "Greenland,"  The  American-Scandinavian 
Review,  Summer,  1940,  pp  135-40 ,  P.  E.  Mosely, 
"Iceland  and  Greenland  •  An  American  Problem," 
Foreign  Affairs,  July,  1940,  pp.  742-46. 

See  CANADA  and  DENMARK  under  History. 

GRENADA.  See  WINDWARD  ISLANDS. 

GROUP  MEDICAL  CARE.  See  CO-OPERA- 
TIVE  MOVEMENT;  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY 

GUADELOUPE.  A  French  West  Indian  col- 
ony comprising  two  main  islands — Guadeloupe 
proper  (Basse-Terre)  and  Grande-Terre,  and  the 
dependent  islands  of  Les  Saintes,  Desirade,  St 
Barthelemy,  St.  Martin  (northern  part),  and 
Mane  Galante.  Total  area,  688  square  miles ;  pop- 
ulation (1938  estimate),  310,000  Chief  towns- 
Basse-Terre,  the  capital  (13,638  inhabitants),  and 
Pomte-a-Pitre  (43,551).  Chief  products'  Sugar, 
coffee,  rum,  cacao,  logwood,  and  manioc.  Trade 
(1938)-  Imports,  250,583,000  francs;  exports, 
296,472,000  francs.  Budget  (1939):  Revenue  and 
expenditure  balanced  at  83,608,979  francs.  Public 
debt  (Dec  31,  1938),  12,110,210  francs  (franc 
averaged  $0.0288  for  1938;  $00251  for  1939). 
There  were  754  miles  of  roads  in  1938  The  gov- 
ernment was  administered  by  a  governor,  assisted 
by  an  elected  council. 

History.  Guadeloupe  remained  loyal  to  the 
Petain  Government  following  the  capitulation  of 
France  to  the  Axis  powers  in  June,  1940,  although 
many  of  the  islanders  were  said  to  sympathize 
with  Gen.  Charles  de  Gaulle's  "Free  French" 
movement  In  a  move  to  strengthen  its  position  in 
Guadeloupe,  the  Vichy  Government  appointed 
Constant  Sorin  as  governor  on  December  13.  The 
appointment  coincided  with  the  return  to  Vichy  of 
Jules  Carde,  a  French  colonial  official,  who  had 
been  sent  by  Marshal  Petain  to  investigate  the 


situation  in  France's  West  Indian  colonies.  The 
economic  situation  of  the  island  became  critical  as 
a  result  of  the  virtual  cessation  of  overseas  trade. 

See  FRANCE  under  History. 

GUAM.  An  insular  possession  of  the  United 
States;  the  largest  and  most  populous  island  of 
the  Marianas  group,  in  mid- Pacific.  It  lies  about 
5100  miles  from  San  Francisco,  3300  from  Hono- 
lulu, 1350  from  Yokohama,  and  1500  from  Manila. 
Area,  225  square  miles ;  estimated  population  (July 
1,  1940),  23,067,  which  included  21,502  native- 
born,  787  foreign-born,  and  778  members  of  the 
naval  establishment.  The  1940  census  population 
was  22,290  (18,509  in  1930).  Capital,  Agana  (pop., 
about  12,000). 

The  native  population  is  mainly  of  Chamorro 
stock.  The  languages  in  use  are  English,  Spanish, 
and  Chamorro.  Public  instruction  through  high 
school  grades  is  available  to  all  children  who 
make  satisfactory  progress.  Commencing  with  the 
seventh  grade,  attendance  is  limited  by  competitive 
examination.  The  number  of  enrolled  pupils  in  the 
public  schools  averaged  4694  for  the  year  1939-40. 
Most  of  the  pupils  were  in  native  schools,  taught 
by  native  teachers  An  American  school,  for  chil- 
dren of  non-natives,  was  maintained  Copra,  coco- 
nut oil,  alligator  pears,  and  kapok  are  exported. 
Products  grown  for  the  domestic  market  are 
cacao,  coffee,  rice,  sugar,  corn,  sweet  potatoes,  and 
fruits.  Exports  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1940, 
amounted  to  $102,575,  and  were  mainly  of  copra 
Imports  totaled  $642,936 

Guam  is  a  United  States  naval  station ;  its  Gov- 
ernor, who  is  also  the  commandant  of  the  station, 
is  a  naval  officer  commissioned  by  the  President. 
Governor,  Capt.  G.  J.  McMillin,  U.S.  Navy.  An 
elective  native  Congress  consisting  of  a  House  of 
Council  (16  members)  and  a  House  of  Assembly 
(27  members)  has  only  an  advisory  voice  in  the 
government.  Planes  of  Pan  American  Airways 
operating  between  Alameda,  Calif.,  Manila,  and 
Hong  Kong  stop  regularly  at  Guam.  A  cable 
station  on  the  island  relays  messages  between  San 
Francisco  and  the  Philippines,  China,  and  Japan. 

History.  Capt.  G.  J.  McMillin  replaced  Capt. 
J.  T.  Alexander  as  Governor  in  April,  1940.  Work 
proceeded  during  the  year  on  non-military  im- 
provements to  the  naval  station  authorized  in  the 
Naval  Public  Works  Act  of  June  2,  1939  For  the 
second  successive  year,  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives at  Washington  on  February  16  eliminated 
from  the  Naval  Appropriation  Bill  a  $1,000,000 
item  for  the  military  strengthening  of  the  naval 
station.  The  House  took  the  position  that  such 
improvements  might  lead  to  war  with  Japan.  On 
January  15  a  Japanese  fishing  vessel  was  wrecked 
on  the  southeast  coast  of  the  island  in  the  re- 
stricted area  established  by  the  United  States  naval 
authorities.  The  island  was  ravaged  on  Novem- 
ber 3  by  the  worst  typhoon  since  1900,  which  ren- 
dered three-fourths  of  the  inhabitants  homeless, 
damaged  the  Pan  American  Airways  hotel  and 
naval  and  other  establishments,  and  destroyed  vir- 
tually all  of  the  crops. 

GUATEMALA.  A  republic  in  Central  Ameri- 
ca. Capital,  Guatemala  City. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  42,364  square 
miles ;  population,  3,284,269  at  census  of  Apr.  7, 
1940.  Some  65  per  cent  of  the  population  are  In- 
dians and  the  bulk  of  the  remainder  are  mestizos. 
The  small  ruling  class  is  largely  of  European  ori- 
gin. Populations  of  the  chief  cities  with  their  sub- 
urbs in  1938  were  •  Guatemala  City,  164,771 ;  Que- 


GUATEMALA 


330 


GYMNASTICS 


zaltenango,  30,125;  Coban,  26,774;  Zacapa,  18,094. 

Defense.  Military  service  is  compulsory.  The 
active  army  on  Nov.  1,  1939,  comprised  about 
6000 ;  there  were  27,660  trained  reserves  and  about 
100  in  the  air  force.  Defense  appropriations,  1,900,- 
000  quetzales  in  1940-41.  A  U.S.  military  mission 
was  engaged  in  1939. 

Education  and  Religion.  About  80  per  cent  of 
all  adults  are  illiterate.  Eight  new  public  and  20 
private  schools  were  opened  during  1939-40 ;  total 
enrollment  for  that  year  was  147,909  pupils  in  2513 
schools  (including  4436  in  48  secondary  schools 
and  694  in  the  University  of  Guatemala).  Roman 
Catholicism  is  professed  by  the  great  majority. 

Production.  Coffee  and  bananas  account  for 
about  90  per  cent  of  all  exports.  The  chief  crops 
in  1938-39  were  (in  metric  tons,  except  as  noted)  : 
Coffee,  116,943;  bananas,  14,353,752  stems  (8,208,- 
517  stems  exported  in  calendar  year  1940)  ;  corn, 
702,063 ;  beans,  98,057 ;  wheat,  28,474 ;  sugar,  raw 
and  refined,  99,895;  rice,  17,887.  The  1939-40  chi- 
cle crop  was  estimated  at  1,300,000  Ib.  Livestock, 
gold,  hardwood  are  other  products.  Main  indus- 
tries :  Coffee  cleaning,  flour  milling,  sugar  refin- 
ing, and  the  making  of  shoes,  soap,  and  pottery. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1940  were  officially 
valued  at  $12,666,970  ($15,295,749  in  1939) ;  ex- 
ports, $13,761,755  ($16,985,309  in  1939).  The  Unit- 
ed States  supplied  54  5  per  cent  of  the  1939  im- 
ports (44.7  in  1938) ;  Germany,  27  (35.1).  Of  the 
1939  exports,  the  United  States  took  70.7  per  cent 
(694  in  1938)  ;  Germany,  11.5  (14.1).  See  TRADE, 
FOREIGN. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  for  year  ended  June 
30, 1940 .  10,555,000  quetzales.  In  1938-39  there  was 
a  deficit  of  1,245,043  quetzales  on  expenditures  of 
14,014,654  quetzales  The  public  debt  was  reduced 
during  1939  by  4,298,691  quetzales  to  a  total  of 
4,924,996  quetzales  and  1,520,432  pounds  sterling. 
Regular  interest,  but  not  sinking  fund,  payments 
were  made  on  the  sterling  debt.  The  quetzal  ex- 
changed at  $1  (U.S.)  in  1938  and  1939. 

Transportation.  On  Dec.  31,  1939,  there  were 
3684  miles  of  highway  open  to  traffic,  646  miles 
under  construction,  and  302  miles  projected.  Rail- 
way lines  extended  737  miles.  Domestic  airlines 
(TACA)  carried  5039  passengers  and  4,550,937 
Ib.  of  freight  and  mail  in  1939 ,  international  pas- 
senger traffic  on  Pan  American  Airways  increased 
21  per  cent  to  6799.  A  new  telephone  system  was 
being  installed  in  Guatemala  City  in  1940.  Chief 
ports :  Puerto  Barrios  and  Livingston  on  the  Car- 
ibbean and  San  Jose*  and  Champerico  on  the  Pa- 
cific. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  Jan.  1,  1928, 
as  amended,  provides  for  a  President  elected  for 
6  years  and  ineligible  for  re-election,  a  single- 
chambered  National  Assembly  of  74  members 
elected  by  popular  vote  for  4  years,  and  an  ap- 
pointive Council  of  State  of  7  members  which  su- 
pervises public  contracts  and  concessions.  Presi- 
dent in  1940,  Gen.  Jorge  Ubico,  who  assumed  office 
Feb.  14,  1931,  and  had  his  term  extended  by  a 
hand-picked  Constituent  Assembly  on  July  10, 1935, 
to  Mar.  15,  1943. 

History.  A  revolutionary  conspiracy  to  over- 
throw the  government  was  nipped  in  the  bud  just 
before  Christmas  of  1940.  On  December  28,  13  of 
the  conspirators  were  executed  by  firing  squads 
on  charges  of  sedition  and  attempted  rebellion. 
According  to  the  government,  the  ringleader  of  the 
plot  was  Julio  Castillo  Marin.  head  of  the  Con- 
servative Unionist  party  whicn  overthrew  Dicta- 


tor Estrada  Cabrera  in  1920.  He  was  put  to  death 
along  with  Reserve  Colonel  Pedro  Montenegro 
Morales,  Jos£  Pelaez,  six  army  sergeants,  two 
corporals,  and  a  private.  The  government  an- 
nounced on  December  30  that  the  country  was  quiet 
and  that  it  had  received  a  statement  of  support 
from  the  army. 

Some  economic  hardship  was  caused  during  the 
year  by  low  world  coffee  prices,  the  virtual  ex- 
clusion of  Guatemalan  coffee  from  European  mar- 
kets, a  sharp  drop  in  chicle  production,  and  the 
rising  cost  of  living.  These  adverse  factors  were 
offset  in  part  by  higher  production  from  the  new 
Pacific-coast  banana  plantations,  increased  trade 
with  the  United  States,  and  a  large  expansion  of 
the  tourist  trade.  The  government's  program  of 
highway  construction  and  other  public  works  was 
continued. 

In  his  annual  message  to  the  National  Assembly 
on  Mar.  1,  1940,  President  Ubico  announced  that 
demarcation  of  the  boundary  with  El  Salvador  had 
been  completed.  He  also  reviewed  Guatemala's 
controversy  with  Great  Britain  over  the  Guatema- 
la-British Honduras  boundary  question  (see  YEAR 
BOOK,  1939,  p.  337).  In  June,  1939,  he  said,  Wash- 
ington informed  both  Britain  and  Guatemala  of  its 
desire  to  have  the  boundary  issue  settled  At  the 
end  of  January,  1940,  the  British  Government  pro- 
posed arbitration  of  the  issue  of  its  responsibility 
under  the  compensatory  clause  of  the  boundary 
convention  of  1859.  Guatemala,  on  the  other  hand, 
demanded  arbitration  of  the  whole  issue  of  sover- 
eignty and  the  consequent  indemnity.  After  the 
Havana  Conference  in  July  had  expiessed  its  wish 
for  a  "just,  peaceful,  and  rapid  solution"  of  the 
controversy,  the  two  governments  were  reported 
to  have  accepted  President  Roosevelt  as  arbi- 
trator. 

This  action  was  in  line  with  Guatemala's  grow- 
ing co-operation  with  the  United  States  and  in- 
creasing public  antipathy  to  Nazi  Germany.  The 
Guatemalan  Government  in  June  refused  admis- 
sion to  Arthur  Dietrich,  press  attache  of  the  Ger- 
man legation  in  Mexico,  when  he  was  expelled 
from  Mexico  for  propagandist  activities.  President 
Ubico  was  reported  to  have  agreed  with  the  other 
Central  American  governments  on  a  policy  of  co- 
operation with  the  United  States  in  hemispheric 
defense.  Like  its  neighboring  republics,  Guatema- 
la was  undeterred  from  this  course  by  a  warning 
against  "unneutral  action"  received  from  the  Ger- 
man Minister  to  Central  America  preceding  the 
Havana  Conference  in  July.  A  large  number  of 
U.S.  military  planes  from  the  Canal  Zone  partici- 
pated in  the  celebration  of  Soldier  Day  in  Guate- 
mala City  on  June  30. 

See  PAN  AMERICANISM. 

GUGGENHEIM  FOUNDATION.  See 
BENEFACTIONS. 

GUIANA.  See  BRITISH  GUIANA,  FRENCH 
GUIANA,  SURINAM. 

GUINEA,  PORTUGUESE.  See  PORTUGAL 
under  Colonial  Empire. 

GYMNASTICS.  The  biceps  and  calves  of 
George  Wheeler,  25-year-old  school  teacher  of 
East  Washington,  Pa.,  continued  to  command  ex- 
traordinary attention  among  America's  muscle  fans 
in  1940.  For  the  fourth  successive  year,  he  cap- 
tured the  national  all-around  gymnastics  title  in 
the  A.A.U.  championship  tournament  at  Chicago. 
Representing  the  First  United  Presbyterian  Com- 
munity House  of  Pittsburgh,  Wheeler  was  supreme 
in  four  individual  contests :  long  horse,  side  horse, 


OYP3Y  MOTH 


331 


HAITI 


parallel  bars,  and  calisthenics.  The  University  of 
Illinois  was  awarded  the  team  crown  after  previ- 
ously taking  the  Big  Ten  and  N.C.A.A.  laurels. 
The  Eastern  Intercollegiate  Gymnastic  League's 
team  championship  was  won  by  Navy, 

GYPSY  MOTH.  See  ENTOMOLOGY,  ECONOMIC. 

HADHRAMAUT.  See  ARABIA  under  Aden 
Protectorate. 

HAITI.  A  West  Indian  republic,  occupying 
the  western  third  of  the  island  of  Haiti  or  His- 
paniola.  Capital,  Port-au-Prince. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  10,204  square 
miles;  population,  estimated  on  Dec.  31,  1939,  at 
3,000,000  (1,631,000  at  1918  census).  With  the  ex- 
ception of  some  3000  white  foreigners  (467  United 
States  citizens  on  Jan.  1,  1940)  and  a  few  thou- 
sand mulattoes,  the  inhabitants  are  all  Negroes. 
Estimated  populations  of  the  chief  cities  in  1936: 
Port-au-Prince,  105,000  (125,000  in  1940);  Cap 
Haitien,  15,000;  Aux  Cayes,  15,000;  Gonaives,  10,- 
000;  Saint  Marc,  10,000,  Jacmel,  10,000  French 
is  the  language  of  government  and  the  educated 
class.  The  peasants,  comprising  more  than  80  per 
cent  of  the  population,  speak  a  dialect  known  as 
Creole  French. 

Religion  and  Education.  Most  of  the  inhab- 
itants profess  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  About  85 
per  cent  of  the  people  are  illiterate  There  are 
about  1060  primary  schools,  with  87,000  pupils;  21 
secondary  schools,  with  6000  pupils;  68  farm  and 
vocational  schools,  with  12,200  pupils;  2  normal 
schools;  and  colleges  of  medicine,  law,  applied 
science,  and  agriculture 

Defense.  The  armed  constabulary,  organized 
by  United  States  officers  during  the  American 
military  intervention  (1915-34)  and  since  1934 
under  Haitian  command,  comprises  about  2500  offi- 
cers and  men  A  United  States  military  mission 
was  contracted  for  by  the  Haitian  Government  in 
1938  to  reorganize  the  military  school  and  act  as 
technical  advisers  to  the  general  staff  of  the  Garde 
d'Haiti  (constabulary). 

Production.  Agriculture  supports  the  mass  of 
the  population.  The  country's  prosperity  is  largely 
dependent  upon  export  crops,  chiefly  coffee.  For 
the  fiscal  year  ended  Sept  30,  1940,  the  principal 
exports  were-  Coffee,  16,187,765  kilos  (kilo  equals 
2.2  Ib )  valued  at  10.243,491  gourdes  (gourde 
equals  $0  20)  ;  raw  sugar,  29,856,208  kilos  valued 
at  4,725,427  gourdes;  sisal,  7,871,118  kilos  valued 
at  3,366,685  gourdes;  bananas,  2,268,387  bunches 
valued  at  3,148,2°4  gourdes;  raw  cotton,  3,105,003 
kilos  valued  at  3,048,302  gourdes;  cacao,  1,219,756 
kilos  valued  at  488,718  gourdes.  Manufacturing  is 
confined  to  sugar  refining,  rum  distilling  and  the 
preparation  of  tobacco  products,  canned  fruit,  and 
vegetable  lard  The  1939-40  coffee  crop  was  esti- 
mated at  22,600,000  kilos. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  during  the  1939-40 
fiscal  year  totaled  39,701,000  gourdes  (40,904,000 
in  1938-39) ;  exports,  26,995,000  gourdes  (36,338,- 
000  in  1938-39).  The  value  of  the  1939-40  exports 
was  the  lowest  recorded  since  1916.  The  United 
States  furnished  73  per  cent  of  the  1939-40  im- 
ports (63  in  1938-39)  ;  British  Commonwealth, 
12  (14);  France,  4  (5).  Of  the  exports,  the 
United  States  took  52  per  cent  in  1939-40  (35  in 
1938-39)  ;  British  Commonwealth,  30  (20)  ;  Bel- 
gium, 9  (10) ;  France,  4  (21).  See  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  1939-40,  govern- 
ment receipts  totaled  26,873,000  gourdes  (31,146,- 
000  in  1938-39)  and  expenditures  from  revenues 
were  28,478,000  gourdes  (29,585,000  in  1938-39). 


In  addition  there  were  expenditures  from  the 
United  States  public  works  credit  during  1939-40 
of  8,855,000  gourdes,  bringing  the  total  loan  ex- 
penditure under  this  account  to  17,494,000  gourdes. 
Unobligated  Treasury  reserves  on  Sept.  30,  1940, 
were  356,000  gourdes  (2,095,000  on  Sept  30, 
1939).  The  gross  public  debt  on  Sept.  30,  1940, 
was  60,872,000  gourdes  (52,137,000  on  Sept.  30, 
1939). 

Transportation.  Haiti  in  1940  had  158  miles 
of  railways,  about  1426  miles  of  roads,  and  a  con- 
nection at  Port-au- Prince  with  the  Pan  American 
Airways  Caribbean  network.  During  the  1938-39 
fiscal  year  657  steam  and  motor  vessels  of  1,595,- 
770  net  registered  tons  called  at  Haitian  ports,  in- 
cluding 28  tourist  ships  See  HISTORY. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  June  17, 
1935,  as  amended  Aug  8,  1939,  vested  executive 
powers  in  a  President  elected  for  five  years  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  of  the  National  Assembly  The 
National  Assembly  consists  of  37  Deputies,  elected 
for  four  years  by  the  vote  of  literate  property 
owners,  and  21  Senators,  11  elected  by  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  and  1 1  appointed  by  the  President 
for  six-year  terms.  Presidents  completing  their 
terms  since  1930  become  life  members  of  the  Na- 
tional Assembly.  President  in  1940,  Stenio  Vin- 
cent, who  was  elected  by  the  National  Assembly 
Nov  18,  1930,  and  whose  term  of  office  was  ex- 
tended for  five  years  from  May  15,  1936,  by  a 
special  clause  in  the  1935  Constitution  All  mem- 
bers of  the  cabinet  and  National  Assembly  were 
personal  followers  of  President  Vincent  and  no 
organized  opposition  was  permitted 

History.  Haiti's  economic  situation  went  from 
bad  to  worse  during  1940,  mainly  as  a  result  of 
the  cutting  off  of  additional  coffee  markets  in 
France  and  Scandinavia  by  the  European  War. 
Exports  for  the  1939-40  fiscal  year  declined  to 
less  than  half  the  average  annual  value  for  the 
preceding  23  years.  Imports  declined  only  slightly 
from  the  1938-39  level  due  to  continuance  of  the 
public  works  program  with  the  $5.000,000  credit 
obtained  in  1938  from  the  Export-Import  Bank 
of  Washington.  Budget  receipts  fell  to  the  lowest 
level  since  1921-22,  and  although  the  government 
reduced  salaries  of  its  employees  on  July  1,  1940, 
and  took  other  economy  measures,  there  was  a 
substantial  operating  deficit.  Moreover  the  gov- 
ernment was  faced  with  the  necessity  of  reducing 
or  eliminating  the  export  tax  on  coffee  to  enable 
the  1940-41  crop  to  compete  in  the  world  market. 
A  substantial  reduction  in  imports  of  staple  food 
products  indicated  a  decline  in  mass  purchasing 
power. 

These  economic  difficulties  stimulated  the  un- 
rest prevalent  in  Haiti  for  a  number  of  years  and 
increased  the  possibility  of  a  revolutionary  out- 
break in  connection  with  the  December,  1940,  elec- 
tions^  for  a  new  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  the 
Presidential  election  scheduled  for  the  following 
April.  The  political  situation  in  Hail:  remained 
obscure  due  to  the  strict  censorship  However  it 
was  plainly  indicated  by  the  end  of  1940  that  Presi- 
dent Vincent  had  decided  to  continue  in  office  for 
another  term  despite  his  promise  to  retire  and  a 
constitutional  bar  to  re-election.  The  Congression- 
al elections  originally  scheduled  for  January,  1941, 
were  held  in  mid-December  and  Deputies  pledged 
to  Vincent's  re-election  were  chosen  with  the  aid 
of  strong  government  pressure.  According  to  anti- 
Vincent  sources,  supporters  of  other  aspirants  for 
the  Presidency  who  attempted  to  run  for  Congress 


HAMBURG 


332 


HAWAII 


and  for  Mayor  of  Port-au-Prince  were  arrested 
and  beaten  up  by  the  Garde  d'Haiti.  Dr.  Price 
Mars,  a  leading  liberal,  and  Col.  Demosthenes  P. 
Calixte,  former  chief  of  the  Garde  d'Haiti  who 
was  in  exile  in  the  Dominican  Republic,  were  men- 
tioned as  the  principal  Presidential  aspirants 

An  agreement  regulating  the  passage  of  immi- 
grants and  seasonal  laborers  across  the  Haitian- 
Dominican  frontier  entered  into  effect  early  in 
1940.  It  helped  to  reduce  friction  between  the  two 
governments  over  this  issue.  Because  of  Haiti's 
financial  difficulties,  the  United  States  on  Sept 
27,  1940,  signed  a  supplementary  executive  agree- 
ment prolonging  for  an  additional  year  (to  Sept. 
30,  1941)  the  modifications  in  the  1933  financial 
convention  arranged  July  8,  1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 
1939). 

Consult  Ludwell  Lee,  Haiti  and  the  United 
States,  1714-1939  (Duke  Univ.  Press,  Durham, 
N.C,  1940). 

HAMBURG.  See  GERMANY  under  Area  and 
Population. 

HANDBALL.  Joe  Platak  of  Chicago  added  to 
his  reputation  as  the  game's  greatest  star  in  many 
years  by  annexing  for  the  sixth  successive  time 
the  national  four-wall  handball  championship  at 
the  A.A.U.  tournament  in  Chicago  in  April,  1940. 
He  vanquished  Jack  Clements  of  San  Francisco, 
21-15,  21-3,  in  the  final.  The  national  doubles 
championship  changed  hands  as  Joe  Goldsmith  and 
Joe  Gordon  of  Long  Beach,  Calif.,  defeated  Frank 
(Lefty)  Coyle  and  Ed  Lmz  of  the  New  York  A. 
C.  The  latter  team  won  the  honors  in  1938  and 
1939. 

In  the  national  one- wall  singles  meet  at  Man- 
hattan Beach  in  the  summer,  Morton  Alexander  of 
the  Trinity  Club,  Brooklyn,  triumphed  over  one  of 
his  clubmates,  Victor  Herschkowitz  in  the  final  by 
21-4,  21-5. 

Teamed  with  Marvin  Hecht,  Alexander  also 
won  the  national  one-wall  doubles  title. 

HARBOR  WORK.  See  ENGINEERS,  CORPS  OF; 
PORTS  AND  HARBORS. 

HATAY,  Republic  of.  See  SYRIA  AND  LEBA- 
NON. 

HATCH  ACT.  See  under  POLITICAL  ACTIVI- 
TIES. 

HATCHERIES.  See  FISH  AND  WILDLIFE 
SERVICE. 

HAWAII,  Territory  of.  A  territory  of  the 
United  States,  comprising  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  about  2800  miles  west-south- 
west of  San  Francisco.  Capital,  Honolulu. 

Area  and  Population,  The  islands  that  form 
the  Territory  have  a  combined  area  of  6407  square 
miles.  Their  population  of  Apr.  1,  1940  (U  S.  cen- 
sus), numbered  423,330;  1930,  368,336.  Approxi- 
mate population  of  June  30,  1940,  by  areas:  city 
of  Honolulu,  180,986;  rural  part  of  Oahu,  79,899; 
city  of  Hilo,  16,641;  rural  Hawaii  (island),  65,- 
922;  Kalawao,  465;  Kauai,  35,956;  Maui,  7809. 
The  diverse  origin  of  the  inhabitants  gave  a  some- 
what unusual  aspect  to  their  character  as  a  group : 
by  estimate  of  the  Territorial  Board  of  Health, 
for  June  30,  1940,  the  population,  by  origins,  num- 
bered 156,489  Japanese,  65,291  wholly  or  partly  of 
Hawaiian  aboriginal  stock,  115,836  Caucasian,  52,- 
148  Filipino,  28,809  Chinese,  6761  Korean,  and  960 
other.  There  were  by  these  estimates,  as  compared 
with  the  U.S.  Census  of  1930,  17,218  more  Japa- 
nese; 14,431  more  Hawaiian  or  part-Hawaiian; 
35,463  more  Caucasian;  1630  more  Chinese;  300 
more  Korean ;  180  more  unclassified  of  other  ori- 


gins; and  10,904  fewer  Filipinos.  Of  the  whole 
population  (estimate  for  June  30,  1940),  81.79  per 
cent  were  U.S.  citizens;  by  groups,  the  percent- 
ages were  77.9  for  the  Japanese ;  100  for  Hawaiian 
and  part  Hawaiian ;  97.85  for  the  Caucasian ;  33.86 
for  the  Filipino ;  86.89  for  the  Chinese ;  67.37  for 
the  Korean ;  and  91.46  for  the  others.  A  great  part 
of  the  non-American  Caucasians  were  Portuguese 
by  origin. 

Education.  The  enrollments  of  pupils  in  the 
public  schools  totaled  91,821  for  June,  1940;  this 
comprised  53,378  in  elementary  grades  (from  1 
through  6)  and  38,443  in  upper  grades  (7  through 
12).  The  elementary  enrollments  had  decreased  by 
4901  since  1933,  but  the  enrollments  in  the  upper 
grades  had  risen.  For  the  year  1939-40  the  public 
schools  cost  $6,996,947  in  current  expense  and  $335,- 
825  in  capital  outlay.  The  University  of  Hawaii 
had  (year  1939-40)  1947  undergraduate  students 
and  478  graduate  students,  not  to  count  other 
groups,  particularly  the  heavy  attendance  in  the 
summer  session. 

Employment  and  Production.  The  gainful 
industries  of  the  Territory  are  predominantly  agri- 
culture and  the  processing  of  agricultural  prod- 
ucts. The  main  expoits,  cane  sugar  and  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  pineapple,  accounted  for  more  than 
$50,000,000  each,  in  the  Hawaiian  exports  of  1939. 
The  two  covered  well  over  nine-tenths  of  yearly 
exports  In  the  case  of  the  pineapple  as  well  as  that 
of  the  cane,  agriculture  and  manufacture  were 
closely  associated,  in  the  hands  of  large  companies 
or  associations  Thus,  of  the  $9,099,832  paid  to 
farmers  in  the  Territory  during  the  fiscal  year 
1940  under  the  provisions  of  the  Agricultural  Ad- 
justment Act,  $8,975,614  went  to  a  group  of  2068 
growers  of  sugar  cane.  Workers  on  sugar  planta- 
tions numbered  44,810  in  1938  The  pineapple  in- 
dustry, though  somewhat  less  in  yearly  value  of 
product  than  the  sugar  industry,  was  estimated  by 
the  Pineapple  Producers  Co-operative  Association 
to  have  employed  78,000  persons  in  1939,  or  nearly 
one-fifth  of  the  population  The  Hawaii  Experi- 
ment Station  was  reported  in  1940  to  have  found 
a  practicable  way  of  treating  the  papaya  fruit  so 
that  it  would  stand  exportation,  and  there  appeared 
some  prospect  that  the  small  yearly  exports  of  the 
papaya  might  in  their  turn  expand  Manufacturing, 
proper,  employed  16,842  wage  earner*  in  1939  and 
put  out  $133,655,947  in  products 

For  the  calendar  year  1940  the  estimated  ship- 
ments of  canned  fruit  or  juice  of  the  pineapple 
rose  to  $54,000,000.  The  sales  of  cane  sugar  ap- 
parently fell  to  916,500  short  tons,  as  against  940,- 
060  tons  for  1939  and  allowable  exports  of  938,037 
tons  to  the  Union  under  the  quota  system. 

Finance.  The  general  fund  of  the  Territorial 
government  reported,  for  the  fiscal  year  ending 
with  June  30,  1940,  receipts  of  $16,158,301;  pay- 
ments of  $15,617,014;  and  cash  available  at  the 
close  of  the  year,  $2,956,295  The  Territory  (June 
30,  1940)  owed  $38,321,000  of  funded  debt,  not 
to  count  floating  debt;  it  held  sinking  funds  of 
$10,302,550. 

Oversea  Trade.  In  the  calendar  year  1939  Ha- 
waii imported  merchandise  to  the  value  of  $109,- 
296,478  and  exported  $115,095,809.  The  United 
States  sent  all  the  imports  and  took  all  the  exports, 
save  for  about  7  per  cent  of  imports  and  \Y*  per 
cent  of  exports,  the  shares  representing  trade  from 
and  to  foreign  countries  (including  the  Philippine 
Islands).  Products  of  the  pineapple  accounted  for 
$50,822,532  of  the  exports  to  the  United  States  and 


HAWAII 


333 


HAY 


$824,540  of  those  to  other  countries.  The  listed 
exports  of  sugar,  $55,217,960  in  value,  all  went  to 
the  United  States.  No  other  export  attained  $1,000,- 
000  in  value  for  1939;  but  exports  of  molasses, 
canned  fish,  and  (chiefly  to  foreign  countries)  cof- 
fee were  substantial. 

In  the  calendar  year  1940  Hawaii's  imports  from 
the  United  States  amounted  to  $127,439,539;  ex- 
ports of  Hawaiian  products  to  the  United  States 
totaled  $96,924,908.  Data  for  1940  did  not  cover 
Hawaiian  trade  with  the  other  countries.  Despite 
shipments  of  $5,165,942,  additional,  from  Hawaii, 
under  the  head  of  U.S.  products  returned,  the  to- 
tals for  1940  left  Hawaii  an  apparent  debtor  in 
trade  with  the  United  States  for  some  $25,000,000 
of  imports  in  excess  of  exports.  In  view  of  unusu- 
al military  and  naval  outlay  in  the  Territory,  in- 
volving many  kinds  of  shipments  from  the  United 
States,  the  heavy  adverse  balance  of  trade  did  not 
necessarily  represent  an  upset  in  the  usual  balance 
of  actual  commerce.  Among  the  chief  subtotals  of 
the  imports  above,  $18,109,684  of  vegetable  food- 
stuffs, $19,880,238  of  machinery  and  vehicles,  $18,- 
589,368  of  other  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  and 
$12,312,290  of  products  of  petroleum,  furnished 
the  greater  part  of  the  total  imports  of  U.S.  goods. 

Transportation.  Steam  railroads,  on  the  islands 
of  Oahu,  Hawaii,  and  Maui,  aggregated  322.64 
miles  of  track  in  1940  Motor  vehicles  registered 
in  1940  numbered  71,058 — this  made  one  to  every 
six  inhabitants.  The  Inter-Island  Steam  Naviga- 
tion Co  transports  passengers  and  freight  among 
the  chief  islands  by  sea  Inter-Island  Airways  cov- 
ers similar  routes  by  air.  The  mileage  of  vehicular 
roads  was  stated  in  1940  as  2040  Ship-lines  con- 
nect Honolulu  with  North  and  South  America, 
Australia,  and  the  Orient.  Pan  American  Airways 
touch  at  Honolulu  in  passage  between  the  United 
States  and  the  Far  East ,  the  same  system  started 
in  1940  a  service  between  San  Francisco  and  New 
Zealand  via  Ha\vaii 

Government.  The  Governor  of  the  Territory 
(in  1940  Joseph  B  Pomdexter)  holds  office  by 
appointment  of  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
for  a  term  of  four  years  The  registered  voters 
of  the  Territory  elect  quadrennially  15  Senatois 
and  biennially  30  Representatives,  constituting  the 
Legislature ;  it  passes  appropriations  and  other  acts 
within  the  Territorial  authority.  The  popular  vote 
elects  to  each  U  S  Congress  a  Delegate,  with  a 
voice,  but  no  vote,  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives; Samuel  W.  King  was  re-elected  Delegate 
in  1940. 

History.  The  entente  formed  by  Japan  with 
Germany  and  Italy,  as  read  in  connection  with  the 
current  foreign  policy  of  the  United  States,  served 
to  prompt  the  vigorous  prosecution  of  measures 
to  put  the  Hawaiian  Islands  in  a  more  thorough 
readiness  for  their  own  defense  and  for  the  sup- 
port of  U.S.  naval  power  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
The  bulk  of  the  warships  of  the  fleet  at  sea  were 
assigned  in  May,  after  spring  maneuvers,  for  an 
indefinite  period  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  Is- 
lands. In  August  the  New  York  Times  reported 
the  presence  at  Pearl  Harbor  (naval  base  near 
Honolulu)  of  some  10  U.S.  battleships,  2  aircraft 
carriers,  15  cruisers,  corresponding  numbers  of 
other  craft,  and  a  naval  air  force  to  match.  The 
Army's  forces  for  the  land  defenses  of  Honolulu 
and  Pearl  Harbor  were  augmented,  as  by  an  anti- 
aircraft regiment  of  the  Californian  National 
Guard.  The  development  of  the  Hickam  airfield 
at  Pearl  Harbor,  begun  in  1935  and  destined  to 


cost  $25,000,000,  was  carried  on  actively.  Much 
was  done  to  supply  other  islands  with  minor  air- 
fields for  possible  military  need;  but  the  policy  of 
concentrating  fortifications  solely  about  Honolulu 
and  Pearl  Harbor,  on  Oahu,  remained  in  force. 

The  numerous  inhabitants  of  Japanese  extrac- 
tion inspired  by  their  general  behavior  a  confidence 
in  their  loyalty  to  the  United  States.  They  still, 
however,  contributed  but  a  very  small  part  of  the 
Hawaiian  National  Guard — 40  among  1/41  enlisted 
men.  Accepted  as  commonly  loyal,  the  Japanese 
could  not  easily  prove  in  any  given  case  that  fidel- 
ity to  the  ancestral  bond  had  been  cast  off.  Some 
of  the  local  activities  ascribed  to  the  Japanese  Gov- 
ernment caused  uneasiness.  Four  Japanese  navigat- 
ing small  vessels  were  seized  and  charged  in  May 
with  trespassing  on  forbidden  waters  in  Pearl  Har- 
bor. In  December  the  Honolulu  Advertiser  criti- 
cized the  practice  of  the  Japanese  consulate  in  tak- 
ing a  census  every  five  years  of  the  Japanese  in 
the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

NLRB  in  the  Islands.  The  U.S.  House  of 
Representatives'  committee  investigating  the  NLRB 
brought  to  public  notice,  May  3,  a  report  made 
confidentially  to  the  Board  by  its  investigator,  E. 
J.  Eagen,  in  1937.  Sweeping  charges  in  this  report, 
as  summarized  in  the  press,  represented  the  five 
leading  sugar  companies  of  the  Territory  as  exer- 
cising a  sort  of  universal  control  over  industries, 
sales  of  land,  banks,  transportation,  agencies  for 
goods  sold  to  the  population,  telephones,  police, 
Legislature,  Executive,  judiciary,  bar,  university, 
churches,  election  machinery,  and  the  head  of  the 
National  Guard ;  a  halfway  qualification  was  made 
as  to  the  journals  The  report  was  supposed  to 
have  helped  the  Board  to  reach  decisions  adverse 
to  employers  in  the  Islands. 

Demand  for  Statehood.  The  Hawaiian  agita- 
tion for  elevating  the  Territory  into  Statehood 
gained  new  vigor  in  1940.  It  took  the  definite  form 
of  a  popular  vote,  cast  at  the  general  election  on 
November  5,  on  the  question  whether  the  individ- 
ual voter  favored  or  opposed  the  proposal  that  Ha- 
waii be  made  a  State  of  the  Union.  The  unofficial 
count  of  this  vote,  as  reported  on  November  14, 
showed  46,174  in  favor  and  22,428  opposed,  among 
some  90,000  registered  voters 

HAY.  The  hay  crop  in  1940  was  estimated  by 
the  U.S  Department  of  Agriculture  at  95,156,000 
tons  which  included  86,312,000  tons  of  tame  hay 
and  8,844,000  of  wild  hay,  about  11.8  per  cent 
more  than  the  85,124,000  tons  harvested  in  1939 
and  compared  with  the  1929-38  average  of  78,- 
948,000  tons.  The  72,488,000  acres  harvested  aver- 
aged 1.31  tons  per  acre  and  the  69,953,000  acres 
harvested  in  1939,  1.22  tons  per  acre,  compared 
with  the  10-year  average,  67,827,000  acres  and 
1.16  tons  per  acre.  The  farm  carry-over  of  11,- 
000,000  tons  from  the  previous  year  plus  the  1940 
crop  provided  a  total  supply  18,000,000  tons  larger 
than  the  10-year  average  and  5,000,000  tons  more 
than  the  101,000,000  ton  supply  for  the  1939-40 
season.  States  leading  in  production  of  tame  hay 
were:  Wisconsin  7,416,000  tons,  Iowa  6,512,000, 
New  York  5,554,000,  Minnesota  4,702,000,  Cali- 
fornia 4,657,000,  Illinois  4,515,000,  and  Ohio  4,241,- 
000  tons;  and  of  wild  hay  Minnesota  1,453,000 
tons,  North  Dakota  1,242,000,  Nebraska  998,000, 
and  South  Dakota  891,000  tons. 

^The  important  kinds  of  tame  hay  and  states 
with  the  highest  production  in  each  class  included 
alfalfa  30,578,000  tons  from  14,048,000  acres,  Cali- 
fornia 3,393,000  tons ;  clover  and  timothy  29287,- 


HEALTH 


334       HEATING  AND  VENTILATING 


000  tons  from  22,387,000  acres,  New  York  4,161,- 
000  tons ;  lespedeza  3,700,000  tons  from  3,778,000 
acres,  Missouri  875,000  tons;  soybeans  6,312,000 
tons  from  4,883,000  acres,  Iowa  1,146,000  tons; 
sweetclover  808,000  tons  from  678,000  acres,  North 
Dakota  184,000  tons;  cowpeas  1,567,000  tons  from 
2,068,000  acres,  Texas  511,000  tons ;  peanuts  1,003,- 
000  tons  from  1,920,000  acres,  Georgia  252,000 
tons;  small  grains  cut  green  for  hay  4,260,000 
tons  from  3,981,000  acres,  California  977,000  tons; 
sweet  sorghum  (sorgo)  for  forage  and  hay  13,- 
816,000  tons  from  8,042,000  acres,  Kansas  3,984,- 
000  tons ;  and  other  hay  crops  8,536,000  tons  from 
7,849,000  acres,  Minnesota  638,000  tons. 

Seed  of  important  kinds  of  hay  included  alfalfa 
seed  1,453,000  bu.,  red  clover  1,994,400  bu ,  alsike 
clover  422,300  bu ,  sweetclover  900,700  bu ,  tim- 
othy 1,312,900  bu.,  and  lespedeza  159,120,000  Ib. 
The  combined  production  of  seed  on  the  large 
area  of  4,524,000  acres  was  practically  the  same 
as  in  1939  but  much  above  the  1929-38  average. 
The  season  average  price  per  ton  received  by 
farmers  for  all  hay  was  $746  (December  1  price) 
and  the  estimated  value  of  production  was  $710,- 
291,000  in  1940  compared  to  $7.57  and  $644,760,- 
000  in  1939. 

HEALTH,  National  Institute  of.  See  PUB- 
LIC HEALTH  SERVICE 

HEALTH  WORK.  See  BENEFACTIONS  under 
Foundation  Activities \  BIRTH  CONTROL;  CHIL- 
DREN'S BUREAU;  COMMONWEALTH  FUND;  CO-OP- 
ERATIVE MOVEMENT;  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY; 
PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE;  RED  CROSS;  ROCKEFEL- 
LER FOUNDATION,  etc 

HEATING  AND  VENTILATING.  The 
year  1940  was  the  most  successful  one  since  1929 
in  the  physical  volume  of  heating  equipment  man- 
ufactured and  installed.  This  is  indicated  by  Heat- 
ing and  Vcnlilatmg's  "Index  of  Heating  Business 
Activity"  which  averaged  95  in  1940  (1929  =  100), 
whereas  in  1939  the  index  stood  at  79.5.  Most 
notable  in  heating  equipment  sales  were  those 
products  identified  with  automatic  house-heating, 
such  as  oil  burners,  domestic  stokers,  and  gas 
house-heating  equipment.  Sales  of  oil  burners 
were  up  25  per  cent  over  1939,  domestic  stoker 
sales  were  up  33  per  cent  from  the  preceding  year, 
while  gas  house-heating  equipment  sales,  as  indi- 
cated by  incomplete  statistics,  were  approximately 
at  1939  levels  (See  also  GAS  INDUSTRY.) 

Oil  burner  installations  totaled  250,000  for  the 
year,  while  stoker  sales  approximated  137,000 
units  Although  the  combined  volume  of  1940 
heating  business,  physically,  was  19  per  cent  over 
1939  this  was  not  the  case  with  the  dollar  volume 
of  business,  for  prices  during  the  year  were  still 
considerably  below  1929  levels.  There  were  in 
use  on  Dec  31,  1940,  about  3,649,000  automatic 
central-heating  plants  fired  with  oil,  gas,  or  stok- 
ers. 

Sales  of  the  air-conditioning  type  warm-air  fur- 
nace equipped  with  fan  and  filter,  which  account 
for  40  per  cent  of  total  furnace  sales,  showed  an 
increase  of  18  per  cent  over  1939,  while  sales  of 
gravity  furnaces  increased  39  per  cent 

Technically,  1940  heating  developments  included 
the  adoption  of  a  uniform  boiler-rating  code  by 
cast-iron  boiler  manufacturers;  launching  of  a 
co-operative  research  program  by  the  bituminous 
coal  interests,  to  include  a  study  of  complete  auto- 
matic residential  heating  with  soft  coal ;  a  further 
increase  in  interest  in  radiant  heating;  an  appar- 
ently growing  trend  toward  the  use  of  direct-i  " 


warm-air  units  for  heating  factory  buildings ;  the 
continuation  of  the  trend  toward  the  use  of  hot- 
water  heating  in  institutional  and  apartment  build- 
ings and  houses;  the  sponsoring  of  a  standard 
chimney  code  for  buildings  by  the  American 
Standards  Association;  studies  of  domestic  hot- 
water  supply  consumption  at  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology;  initiation  of  a  program  to 
study,  over  a  long  period,  radiator  heating  in  a 
specially  built  house  at  the  University  of  Illinois, 
a  program  sponsored  by  the  Institute  of  Boiler  & 
Radiator  Manufacturers;  and  a  rapid  growth  of 
electric  heating  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  due  to 
the  dropping  of  electric  rates  at  midyear. 

Outstanding  applications  of  heating  included  the 
direct-fired  warm-air  system  in  the  hangars  of 
New  York's  airport,  La  Guardia  Field;  four 
blocks  of  two- family  row  houses  on  Long  Island, 
each  block  served  by  an  individual  central-heating 
plant  with  steam  sold  to  tenants  and  owners  by 
the  real  estate  operating  company;  an  elaborate 
electric  heating  installation  for  General  Electric's 
office  building  on  the  West  Coast;  use  of  a  sepa- 
rate central-heating  plant  for  the  bathrooms  in  a 
large  Los  Angeles  apartment  building  with  the 
object  of  providing  adequate  heat  in  the  bath- 
rooms during  all  hours,  but  with  the  mam  central- 
heating  plant  in  operation  primarily  during  the 
daytime;  use  of  an  unusual  method  of  heating 
the  Glenside  Housing  Project  in  Reading,  Pa ,  by 
means  of  which  steam,  generated  in  a  central 
boiler  plant,  is  piped  to  individual  buildings  or  flats 
in  which  hot  water  is  heated  by  the  steam  and 
piped  to  the  individual  dwelling  units  where  the 
air  is  heated  by  the  water  with  unit  heaters  and 
distributed  to  the  individual  rooms  by  means  of 
ducts,  thus  combining  steam,  hot  water,  and  warm- 
air  heat  in  one  installation ,  the  combined  use  of 
radiant  heating  and  summer  air  conditioning  in 
the  New  Bankers  Life  Building  in  Des  Moines; 
and  the  electric  heating  of  Boston's  new  Concer- 
tonum. 

Air  Conditioning.  Preliminary  figures  indi- 
cate that  1940  summer  air-conditioning  installa- 
tions were  divided,  in  numbers,  as  follows  Com- 
mercial, 742  per  cent;  theaters,  1.8  per  cent; 
industrial,  4.9  per  cent;  institutional,  02  per  cent, 
and  residential,  189  per  cent  In  horsepower  ca- 
pacity, these  building  types  accounted  for  77.2  per 
cent,  14.4  per  cent,  7.1  per  cent,  02  per  cent,  and 
1.1  per  cent,  respectively.  Consequently,  as  in 
prior  years,  the  important  market  for  air  condi- 
tioning has  been  the  commercial  field  where  air 
conditioning  has  been  installed  to  return  dividends 
in  the  way  of  additional  sales  or  improved  cus- 
tomer or  client  relations.  This  trend  continued  in 
1940,  excepting  that  there  was  a  fair  increase  in 
industrial  installations,  due  to  the  increasing  reali- 
zation of  the  desirability  of  completely  controlling 
temperatures  and  humidity,  and  even  odors,  in 
manufacturing  plants. 

Outstanding  in  technical  developments  in  air 
conditioning  was  further  progress  in  dehumidify- 
ing  by  use  of  the  absorption  method ;  evidence  pro- 
duced by  the  medical  profession  that  the  effect  of 
temperature  and  humidity  on  the  human  body  is 
of  greater  significance  than  was  before  supposed; 
the  emphasis  being  placed  on  fluorescent  lighting, 
which  is  a  cooler  source  of  light  than  the  Mazda 
bulb  and  consequently  reduces  the  load  on  the  air- 
conditioning  system,  and  the  equipping  of  a  hos- 
pital in  Massachusetts  with  ultraviolet-ray  lamps 
to  sterilize  the  air  surrounding  the  nursery. 


HEILUNGKIANG 


335 


HOCKEY 


At  the  close  of  the  year  the  reverse-cycle  re- 
frigeration method  was  applied  to  a  room  air-con- 
ditioning unit.  By  means  of  this  method  a  refrig- 
erating machine  can  be  used  for  both  heating  and 
cooling.  The  unit  has  a  capacity  of  about  one 
room  for  cooling  but  its  heating  capacity  is  lim- 
ited to  spring  and  fall  months  in  the  North. 

Among  important  applications  of  the  year  in 
air  conditioning  was  that  of  an  ice-cooled  group 
of  apartments  in  Westchester  County,  New  York ; 
a  very  large  dehumidifying  installation  in  the 
plant  of  the  safety-glass  laminating  department 
of  the  Ford  Motor  Company;  an  installation  de- 
signed with  particular  reference  to  acoustics  in 
the  Kleinhans  Music  Hall  in  Buffalo;  use  of  a 
photo-electric  cell  to  detect  smoke  in  air-condi- 
tioning ducts,  installed  in  a  system  in  Kern's  De- 
partment Store  in  Detroit,  and  which  shuts  off 
the  fans  if  smoke  is  present,  and  a  number  of  in- 
stallations of  cooling  or  dehumidifying  in  plants 
engaged  in  manufacturing  goods  for  defense 
where  accurate  control  of  temperature  or  humid- 
ity is  important,  such  as  the  inspection  room  of 
the  Kollsman  Instrument  plant,  rooms  of  the  Heald 
Machine  Company,  and  others 

Ventilation.  During  the  year  ventilation  ex- 
panded on  one  front  hut  met  reverses  on  another. 
The  ventilation  of  industrial  plants,  involving  dust 
and  fume  removal,  showed  further  increases  dur- 
ing 1940,  due  to  increasing  awareness  on  the  part 
of  industrial  engineers  of  the  danger  of  dust  and 
fumes  to  the  workmen's  health  and  in  many  cases 
even  to  the  manufacturing  process  On  the  other 
hand,  mandatory  ventilation  in  New  York  State's 
public  schools  was  eliminated  in  accordance  with 
a  bill  signed  April  13  The  new  bill  provides  for 
"adequate  ventilation"  but  eliminates  the  specific 
quantities  of  outside  air  which  must  be  introduced 

The  desirability  of  camouflaging  and  of  black- 
outs of  industrial  plants  in  connection  with  de- 
fense brought  ventilation  into  the  foreground,  due 
to  the  design  of  a  number  of  windowless  buildings 
which  require  cither  large  amounts  of  ventilation 
or  summer  cooling  to  carry  away  the  body  and 
process  heat 

Outstanding  among  the  ventilating  applications 
of  the  year  were  the  ventilation  of  the  seven  tun- 
nels of  the  Pennsylvania  Turnpike  between  Har- 
risburg  and  Pittsburgh,  of  the  Midtown  Tunnel 
between  Queens  and  Manhattan  in  New  York, 
and  the  elaborate  ventilation  of  the  Ford  Motor 
Company's  Tool  and  Die  Shop  where  all  of  the 
exhaust  piping  is  concealed  beneath  the  floor. 

CLIFFORD  STROCK 

HEILUNGKIANG.  See  CHINA  under  Area 
and  Population. 

HETAZ.  See  ARABIA  under  Saudi  Arabia. 

HELIUM.  See  MINES,  BUREAU  OF. 

HEREDITY.  See  ZOOLOGY 

HEROIN.  See  NARCOTIC  DRUGS  CONTROL 

HESSE.  See  GERMANY  under  Area  and  Popu- 
lation. 

HIDES  AND  SKINS.  See  LEATHER. 

HIGH  BLOOD  PRESSURE.  See  MEDICINE 
AND  SURGERY. 

HIGHWAYS.  See  AUTOMOBILES  under  Motor 
Transportation;  BRIDGES;  ROADS  AND  STREETS 
Also,  articles  on  countries  under  Transportation 

HISPANIC  SOCIETY  OF  AMERICA, 
The  (Spanish  Museum  and  Library).  Founded 
in  1904  An  educational  institution,  containing  ob- 
jects of  artistic,  historic,  and  literary  interest,  its 


purposes  are  to  advance  the  knowledge  of  the 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  languages,  literature,  and 
history  and  to  encourage  the  study  of  the  coun- 
tries wherein  Spanish  and  Portuguese  are  or  have 
been  spoken  languages.  In  furtherance  of  these 
aims,  paintings  and  other  art  objects  together  with 
manuscripts,  maps,  and  a  library  of  about  40,000 
books  were  placed  in  charge  of  the  Society.  These 
varied  collections  have  been  gradually  increased 
so  that,  for  example,  the  library  now  forms  one 
of  the  most  notable  Hispanic  libraries  in  America. 
A  number  of  temporary  exhibitions  have  been  held 
of  the  works  of  noted  Hispanic  artists.  The  So- 
ciety has  issued  more  than  600  imprints  relating  to 
Spanish  art,  history,  and  literature  In  this  group 
are  the  Huntington  reprints  of  early  books,  mono- 
graphs, catalogues  on  the  collections,  a  Handbook 
of  the  museum  and  library  collections  (1938),  and 
several  works  published  in  co-operation  with  other 
institutions.  Membership  in  the  Society  is  honor- 
ary and  is  limited  chiefly  to  Hispamsts  of  distinc- 
tion. President,  Archer  M.  Huntington.  Head- 
quarters: Broadway,  between  155th  and  156th 
Streets,  New  York  City 

HISTORY.  For  books  on  history  published 
during  the  year  see  the  articles  on  literature.  For 
events,  see  the  sections  on  History  under  each 
country 

HLOND  REPORT.  See  POLAND  under  Ger- 
man Policy 

HOCKEY.  The  New  York  Rangers  won  the 
Stanley  Cup  and  the  hockey  championship  of  the 
world  by  beating  the  Toronto  Maple  Leafs  in  the 
final  play-off  session  conducted  by  the  National 
Hockey  League  in  April,  1940.  The  feat  marked 
the  first  occasion  since  1933  that  the  world  title 
was  brought  to  New  York  City. 

Before  they  vanquished  the  Leafs,  the  Rangers 
had  to  weather  a  violent  round  of  games  against 
the  Boston  Bruins,  winners  of  the  championship 
of  the  National  League  by  virtue  of  their  prime 
final  position  in  the  regular  loop  race  Fighting 
every  foot  of  the  way,  the  Bruins  forced  the  series 
into  six  games  before  yielding  to  the  superior  play- 
ing of  their  adversaries 

In  addition  to  capturing  the  Stanley  Cup,  the 
New  York  aggregation  attained  a  distinction  that 
will  long  continue  in  the  memory  of  hockey  fans. 
Coached  by  Frank  Boucher  and  managed  by  Lester 
Patrick,  the  Rangers  participated  in  19  consecu- 
tive league  encounters  without  experiencing  defeat 
They  theiewith  surpassed  the  previous  non-losing 
streak  of  18  games  accredited  to  the  Montreal  Ca- 
nadiens  in  1929-30  Nevertheless,  the  Rangers  did 
no  better  than  finish  second  in  the  standing,  being 
constantly  humiliated  by  the  Boston  Bruins,  who 
incidentally  were  the  defending  world  champions 
and  winners  of  the  1939  Stanley  Cup. 

As  in  1939,  the  National  League  operated  with 
seven  teams.  Finishing  third  behind  the  Rangers 
were  the  Leafs.  Next  in  order  were  the  Chicago 
Black  Hawks,  Detroit  Red  Wings,  and  New  York 
Americans,  with  the  Canadiens  in  the  cellar. 

The  Leafs  had  to  master  two  elimination  rounds 
before  coming  to  blows  with  the  Rangers  This 
they  accomplished  by  humbling  Chicago  and  De- 
troit in  two  straight  games  each.  Before  facing 
Toronto,  Detroit  had  to  triumph  over  the  New 
York  Americans  in  a  two-out-of -three  series 

The  Allan  Cup,  signifying  the  amateur  cham- 
pionship of  Canada,  was  captured  by  the  Blue 
Devils  of  Kirkland  Lake,  Ont  They  vanquished 
the  Calgary  Stampeders  in  three  straight  games  in 


HODGKIN'S  DISEASE 


336 


HONDURAS 


the  final  round.  The  University  of  Minnesota  won 
the  United  States  A.A.U.  laurels. 

The  Baltimore  Orioles  finished  first  in  the  East- 
ern Hockey  League,  although  the  New  York  Rov- 
ers, pace-setters  for  the  greater  part  of  the  season, 
captured  the  Hershey  Cup  and  the  Boardwalk 
Trophy.  The  Holzbaugh-Ford  team  of  Detroit  de- 
feated the  Orioles  in  a  post-season  clash  for  the 
unofficial  amateur  championship  of  the  United 
States. 

The  Providence  Reds  won  the  championship  of 
the  International  American  League,  and  St.  Paul 
took  the  chief  honors  in  the  American  Association 

Yale  was  the  winner  of  the  Quadrangular 
League,  the  losers  being  Harvard,  Dartmouth,  and 
Princeton.  The  University  of  Toronto  captured 
the  International  Intercollegiate  League  champion- 
ship and  the  Canadian  intercollegiate  crown. 

In  the  New  York  Amateur  Hockey  Association, 
the  St  Nicholas  Club  was  unquestionably  the  best 

Field  Hockey.  The  Women's  National  Field 
Hockey  Association  organized  a  tournament  in 
November,  1940,  at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  to  select 
two  all-America  teams.  A  dozen  aggregations,  cho- 
sen in  six  regional  competitions,  engaged  in  the 
tournament,  and  when  the  exercise  was  over,  nine 
of  the  winning  women  were  found  to  hail  from 
Philadelphia  and  environs 

Eight  young  women  who  occupied  positions  on 
the  United  States  first  or  reserve  team  a  year  ago 
were  selected  again,  this  time  all  making  the  regu- 
lar team.  They  were  the  Misses  Betty  Shellen- 
berger,  center  forward;  Margaret  Cornwall,  left 
wing ;  Barbara  Strobhar,  right  inner ;  Anne  Parry, 
right  wing;  Betty  Flersham,  center  half;  Louise 
Orr,  right  half;  Patricia  Kcnworthy,  left  back, 
and  Helen  Park,  goal  With  the  exception  of  the 
Misses  Cornwall  and  Park,  all  are  from  the  Phila- 
delphia area  Miss  Cornwall  is  from  University 
City,  Mo.,  Miss  Park  from  Greenwich,  Conn.  Oth- 
ers selected  for  the  first  team  were  Miss  Anne 
McConaghy,  left  inner;  Miss  Barbara  Strebeigh, 
left  half ;  Miss  Henrietta  Tomhnson,  right  back. 

HODGKIN'S  DISEASE,  See  MEDICINE  AND 
SURGERY. 

HOGS.  See  GARBAGE  AND  REFUSE  DISPOSAL, 
LIVESTOCK 

HOME  OWNERS'  LOAN  CORPORA- 
TION  (HOLC).  See  FEDERAL  HOME  LOAN 
BANK  BOARD  ;  also,  INSURANCE 

HOMESTEAD  PROJECTS.  See  FARM  SE- 
CURITY ADMINISTRATION 

HOMICIDES.  See  PRISONS,  PAROLE,  AND 
CRIME  CONTROL. 

HONAN.  See  CHINA  under  Area  and  Popula- 
tion. 

HONDURAS.  A  Central  American  republic. 
Capital,  Tegucigalpa. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  46,332  square 
miles.  Population,  estimated  at  1,038,061  on  June 
30,  1940  (854,154  in  1930).  The  people  aie  mainly 
of  mixed  Spanish  and  Indian  blood,  except  for  a 
considerable  Negro  element  in  the  north  coast  ba- 
nana region  and  some  35,000  aborigines.  Popula- 
tions of  the  chief  cities  (with  suburban  areas)  in 
1935  were.  Tegucigalpa,  42,903;  Comayaguela, 
15,095;  San  Pedro  Sula,  32,721 ;  Tela,  14,460.  Unit- 
ed States  citizens  resident  in  Honduras  Jan.  1, 
1940,  numbered  1074. 

Defense.  Every  male  citizen  is  liable  to  six 
months  compulsory  military  service  at  the  age  of 
21  and  to  service  in  the  reserves  from  23  to  40. 
As  of  Nov.  1,  1940,  the  army  comprised  2325  ac- 


tive soldiers  and  about  2600  trained  reserves.  De- 
fense budget  for  1939-40,  2,082,000  lempiras. 

Education  and  Religion.  According  to  the 
1935  census,  about  67  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants 
over  seven  years  old  were  illiterate.  Of  102,651 
children  of  school  age  in  1937-38,  47,764  were  re- 
ceiving instruction.  Secondary,  normal,  and  com- 
mercial schools  had  2239  students  and  the  National 
University  at  Tegucigalpa  298.  Roman  Catholicism 
is  the  prevailing  religious  faith. 

Production.  Agriculture,  stock  raising,  and 
mining  are  the  chief  occupations.  Bananas  account- 
ed for  63.3  per  cent  of  all  exports  in  1938-39,  al- 
though the  sigatoka  (leafspot)  disease  reduced 
banana  shipments  from  29,083,000  stems  valued  at 
$22,981,000  in  1929-30  to  12,537,487  stems  worth 
$6,244,746  in  1938-39  Gold  and  silver  accounted 
for  25  per  cent  of  the  1938-39  export  total.  Coco- 
nuts, coffee,  leaf  tobacco,  corn,  beans,  and  sugar 
are  other  crops.  The  forests  yield  mahogany  and 
other  hardwoods. 

Foreign  Trade.  For  the  year  ended  June  30, 

1939,  imports  totaled  $9,703,327 ;  exports,  $9,867,- 
156.  Besides  bananas,  the  chief  exports  were  silver, 
$1,675,729,  gold,  $777,574.  The  United  States  sup- 
plied 653  per  cent  of  the  imports  (Germany,  11.1 
per  cent)  and  took  90.7  per  cent  of  the  exports. 
See  TRADE,  FOREIGN 

Finance.  A  deficit  of  1,222,000  lempiras  on  ex- 
penditures of  12,306,000  lempiras  in  1938-39  brought 
the  cumulative  deficit  for  the  period  1935-39  to 
7,267,000  lempiras.  The  1939-40  budget  estimates 
balanced  at  11,026,000  lempiras  (10,848,000  in 
194(M1).  Public  debt  on  June  30,  1939,  18,507,255 
lempiras  (internal,  12,983,380,  external,  5,523,- 
875)  against  20,733,035  on  June  30,  1938  The 
lempira  exchanged  at  $0.50  in  1938  and  1939 

Transportation.  Railway  mileage  in  1940,  816; 
highways,  about  511  (see  ROADS  AND  STREETS). 
The  TACA  airways  network  links  Tegucigalpa 
with  all  parts  of  Honduras  and  the  chief  towns  of 
Nicaragua,  Guatemala,  and  El  Salvador.  Teguci- 
galpa is  a  stopping  point  on  the  Pan  American 
Airways  international  system. 

Government.  President  in  1940,  Gen.  Tiburcio 
Carias  Andino  (Nationalist),  who  was  elected  Oct 
30,  1932,  for  a  four-year  term.  By  constitutional 
amendment,  his  term  was  extended  in  1936  for  a 
further  six  years  and  in  December,  1939,  until  Jan- 
uary, 1949.  The  Constitution  of  Apr.  15,  1936,  ex- 
tended the  terms  of  the  President,  Vice-President, 
and  members  of  Congress  from  four  to  six  years ; 
it  stipulated  that  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  59 
members  (all  Nationalists)  should  automatically 
become  the  regular  National  Congress  with  the 
members  holding  office  until  Dec.  4,  1942. 

History.  The  opposition  to  President  Carias 
Andino's  dictatorship  remained  quiescent  during 

1940,  except  for  an  abortive  attempt  to  assassinate 
him  in  October,  and  to  all  appearances  the  repub- 
lic experienced  an  unusual  degree  of  peace.  The 
President  united  with  the  other  Central  American 
republics  in  supporting  the  United  States  and  the 
policy  of  inter-American  defense  against  German 
political  pressure.  On  July  12  Gen.  Carias  Andino 
publicly  urged  Pan  American  solidarity  against 
European  aggression.  On  July  19,  the  Honduran 
Foreign  Office,  acknowledging  receipt  of  a  note 
from  the  German  Minister  to  Central  America, 
said  that  his  "warning"  against  endorsing  meas- 
ures unfavorable  to  Germany  at  the  Havana  Con- 
ference would  be  ignored.  On  August  3  the  com- 
pulsory military  service  term  for  youths  of  21  was 


HONDURAS 


337 


HORTICULTURE 


increased  from  three  to  six  months,  and  the  re- 
serve, or  militia,  units  were  ordered  to  undergo 
special  training  every  Sunday. 

The  boundary  dispute  with  Nicaragua  that  broke 
out  in  1937  (see  1937  YEAR  BOOK,  pp.  319-320) 
remained  unsolved  by  the  Mediation  Commission. 
The  agreement  of  Dec.  10,  1937,  for  a  peaceful 
and  lawful  solution  of  the  dispute  expired  early 
in  1940  but  relations  between  the  two  republics 
remained  friendly.  An  experimental  rubber  plan- 
tation was  under  development  by  United  States 
and  Honduran  experts  on  the  Atlantic  coast  in 
1940.  It  was  reported  that  about  200,000  trees  were 
being  planted. 

See  PAN  AMERICANISM. 

HONDURAS,  British.  See  BRITISH  HONDU- 
RAS. 

HONG  KONG.  A  British  crown  colony  con- 
sisting of  the  island  of  Hong  Kong  (32  sq.  mi.), 
Old  Kowloon  (3  sq.  mi ),  and  the  New  Territories 
(356  sq.  mi.)  leased  from  China  (June  8,  1898) 
for  99  years  Total  area,  391  square  miles;  total 
population  (1939  estimate),  1,750,000  including  a 
large  number  of  refugees  from  the  Smo-Japanese 
war.  Based  on  the  foregoing  figures  the  birth  and 
death  rates  per  1000  were  26.7  and  27.6  respective- 
ly Approximately  98  per  cent  of  the  people  are 
Chinese.  Education  (1938)  :  1249  schools  and  104,- 
134  students  enrolled,  488  students  (full  time)  in 
the  University  of  Hong  Kong 

Production  and  Trade.  About  20  per  cent  of 
the  land  is  under  cultivation — the  chief  crops  be- 
ing sugar  cane,  rice,  and  vegetables  The  fishing 
industry  has  been  sharply  curtailed  as  a  result  of 
the  sinking  by  the  Japanese  of  764  Chinese  fishing 
junks  registered  in  Hong  Kong.  Mining  is  carried 
on  in  a  limited  way.  The  building  and  repair  of 
ships  is  the  most  important  industry.  Other  manu- 
factures include  cement,  flashlights,  rubber  shoes, 
matches,  gas  respirators,  and  war  implements. 
Trade  (1939):  Imports,  HK$594,240,000 ,  ex- 
ports, HK$533,400,000  (HK$  averaged  $0.2745 
for  1939).  Shipping  entered  and  cleared  during 
1939  totaled  30,897,948  tons.  Hong  Kong  is  a 
fortified  naval  base  for  the  British  Navy  and  is 
a  free  port  for  commerce.  During  January,  1940, 
the  port  began  operating  as  a  contraband  control 
base  for  shipping. 

Finance.  For  the  year  1939  actual  revenue 
totaled  HK$41.478,052;  actual  expenditure, 
HK$37,949,116  On  Dec.  31,  1939,  the  public  debt 
amounted  to  HK$  16,038,000.  The  ordinary  budget 
for  the  15-months  period  ending  Mar.  31,  1941, 
totaled  HK$49,706,787.  In  addition  there  was  a 
war  budget  of  HK$6,000,000  and  a  supplementary 
budget  of  HK$845,536. 

Government.  The  colony  is  governed  under 
Letters  Patent  of  Feb.  14,  1917,  and  Royal  In- 
structions of  the  same  and  following  dates,  by  a 
governor  who  is  aided  by  an  executive  council  of 
9  members.  There  is  a  legislative  council  of  17 
members,  presided  over  by  the  governor.  Gover- 
nor, Sir  Geoffry  Northcote  (appointed  June  24, 
1937) 

History.  The  threat  of  a  Japanese  attack  upon 
Hong  Kong  following  the  Allied  setbacks  in  the 
Low  Countries  and  France  in  May-June,  1940, 
was  intensified  late  in  June  when  10,000  Japanese 
troops  occupied  the  entire  border  zone  on  the 
mainland  and  cut  the  colony's  communications  with 
the  interior  of  China.  The  Hong  Kong  authori- 
ties took  the  precaution  of  blowing  up  bridges 
across  the  Schumchun  River,  barricading  the 


beaches,  inaugurating  emergency  measures  for  the 
control  of  saboteurs  and  fifth  columnists,  and  or- 
dering the  evacuation  to  Australia  (via  Manila) 
of  all  women  (except  those  enrolled  in  defense 
organizations)  and  children.  Some  4000  Europeans 
were  evacuated  during  the  following  weeks,  while 
military  reinforcements  arrived  to  strengthen  the 
garrison.  In  October  the  British  commander  re- 
portedly had  at  his  disposal  6000  regulars  and  3000 
volunteers.  Defense  works,  on  which  $40,000,000 
(United  States  currency)  had  been  spent  in  the 
preceding  three  years,  were  also  strengthened.  Lat- 
er the  excavation  of  huge  tunnels  in  cliffs  to  shel- 
ter the  civilian  population  from  air  raids  was  be- 
gun. 

The  cutting  off  of  former  supplies  of  vegetables 
and  fish  by  the  Japanese  made  conditions  among 
the  thousands  of  Chinese  refugees  in  the  colony 
more  difficult.  There  was  widespread  malnutri- 
tion and  danger  of  epidemics,  leading  the  authori- 
ties to  curtail  further  immigration. 

On  July  18  Prime  Minister  Churchill  announced 
in  London,  in  connection  with  the  closing  of  the 
Burma  Road  to  war  supplies  for  China,  that  the 
export  of  gasoline,  trucks  and  railway  material 
from  Hong  Kong  to  the  Chinese  Nationalists 
would  also  be  ended.  The  export  of  arms  and  mu- 
nitions from  Hong  Kong  was  prohibited  in  Janu- 
ary, 1939  The  Burma  Road  was  reopened  in  Oc- 
tober but  the  British  restrictions  on  shipments 
from  Hong  Kong  remained  in  effect.  Meanwhile 
trade  with  Japan  continued  without  interruption 

See  CHINA,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  and  JAPAN,  under 
Htstory. 

HOPEI.  See  CHINA  under  Area  and  Popula- 
tion. 

HORMONES.  See  BIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY. 

HORSE  RACING.  See  TURF. 

HORSES  AND  MULES.  See  LIVESTOCK; 
VETERINARY  MEDICINE.  For  statistics,  see  the  prin- 
cipal cor^ries  under  Production, 

HOP  iCULTURE.  Despite  the  Florida 
freeze  -i  late  January,  1940,  which  extended  to 
the  southernmost  tip  of  the  state  and  killed  prac- 
tically all  vegetable  and  flower  crops  and  ruined 
much  of  the  citrus  fruit,  production  of  horticul- 
tural commodities  in  the  country  as  a  whole  was 
more  than  adequate.  The  loss  due  to  the  European 
war  of  export  markets  for  fresh  fruits  continued 
to  be  a  major  problem,  particularly  in  areas  such 
as  the  Pacific  Northwest,  which  sell  ordinarily  a 
considerable  amount  of  fruit  in  foreign  markets. 
A  near  hurricane,  crossing  Nova  Scotia's  impor- 
tant apple  belt  on  the  night  of  September  16-17, 
stripped  about  one  half  the  crop  from  the  trees 
and  damaged  the  trees  severely  Although  some 
of  the  fallen  fruit  was  salvaged,  the  loss  was  esti- 
mated at  nearly  one  million  dollars. 

Ornamental  horticulture  suffered  a  severe  blow 
as  a  result  of  the  conquest  of  the  Netherlands, 
Belgium,  and  France,  countries  which  ordinarily 
supply  large  quantities  of  flowering  bulbs  to  the 
United  States.  Tulip  bulbs  were  particularly  lack- 
ing and,  as  a  result,  plantings  of  this  important 
winter  forcing  and  spring  flower  were  drastically 
reduced  in  the  fall  of  1940.  Smaller  bulbs,  such  as 
the  snowdrop  and  crocus,  were  practically  elimi- 
nated from  the  autumn  trade. 

World  Production.  Canada's  apple  crop  was 
estimated  as  something  over  thirteen  million  bu., 
a  decline  of  approximately  21  per  cent  from  that 
of  1940.  The  eastern  provinces  of  Nova  Scotia  and 
Ontario  were  particularly  low.  Fruit  production 


HORTICULTURE 


338 


HOUSING 


in  continental  Europe  was  apparently  small,  due 
to  the  unusually  heavy  crop  of  1939  and  also  to 
severe  winter  damage  over  much  of  the  area.  The 
war  prevented  the  accumulation  of  accurate  data 
from  many  of  the  countries  The  Great  Britain 
apple  and  pear  crops  were  small,  but  the  plum 
crop  was  large  and  the  government-organized 
"Fruit  Preservation  Scheme"  assisted  home  own- 
ers in  saving  a  large  proportion  of  the  crop. 

In  South  America,  Argentina  reported  a  great 
reduction  in  exports  of  pears  and  apples,  due 
largely  to  the  European  war.  The  United  States 
received  a  large  percentage  of  Argentine  exports. 
In  New  Zealand  and  Australia,  countries  which 
normally  export  a  large  proportion  of  their  fruit 
to  the  United  Kingdom,  the  government  subsi- 
dized the  commercial  growers  by  purchasing  the 
exportable  fruit  at  a  nominal  price  The  Canadian 
government  also  stepped  in  to  aid  its  growers  who 
had  lost  their  outlets  abroad  temporarily.  Canada 
increased  its  output  of  canned  apple  juice,  process- 
ing some  1,800,000  gallons,  more  than  one  million 
above  the  1939  mark.  Exports  of  fruit  from  Cuba 
to  the  United  States  were,  with  the  exception  of 
pineapples,  notably  larger  in  the  1940  season  than 
in  1939. 

Domestic  Production.  The  following  table, 
compiled  from  data  released  by  the  U.S  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  shows  a  well  balanced  pro- 
duction of  horticultural  crops  in  1940.  Somewhat 
lower  production  of  apples,  apricots,  prunes,  and 
cranberries  was  offset  by  increases  in  other  fruits, 
particularly  citrus  fruits.  Despite  a  decreased  acre- 
age, favorable  growing  conditions  resulted  in  a 
record  crop  of  truck  crops  for  the  fresh  market 
Prices,  on  the  whole,  were  fairly  good  as  the 
improving  domestic  situation  influenced  consump- 
tion favorably. 


Crop 
Apples... 
Peaches.  . 
Pears  
Grapes  

1940 
115,456,000 
52,772,000 
32,188,000 
2,482,000 

Unit 

Bu 
« 
Tons 

1939 
143,085,000 
61,072,000 
31,047,000 
2  526  000 

Cherries. 
Prunes  (dried) 
Oranges     . 
Grapefruit  

16H.OOO 
199,000 
81,887,000 
40,364,000 

u 

Boxes 

187,000 
213,000 
75,646,000 
34  °75  000 

Lemons. 
Cranberries  
Pecans    . 

13,430,000 
571,000 
87,286,000 
14,314,000 

n 

Bbl 
Lb 
Crates 

11,963,'000 
704,000 
63,639,000 
13  624000 

Asparagus         .     .  . 
Beans,  Snap.         .   . 
Beets             

7,831,000 
15,153,000 
2,025,000 

« 
Bu 

6.RS2.000 
16,871,000 
2  021  000 

Cabbage  . 
Cauliflower    . 
Cantaloupes.     .  .   . 
Celery            

1,136,000 
10,006,000 
13,313,000 
12,756,000 

Tons 
Crates 

99MOO 
9,027,000 
14,402,000 
11  527000 

Lettuce 
Onions  . 
Peas      

22,536,000 
15,397,000 
8,549,000 

« 

Sacks 
Bu 

24,004,000 
17,840,000 
9  726  000 

Spinach 

12,514,000 

«i 

13  275  000 

Tomatoes     .            . 
Watermelons 

23,705,000 
79428000 

Melons 

24,754,000 
66,203,000 

Foreign  Trade.  Declining  exports  of  horti- 
cultural products  marked  the  1940  season,  accord- 
ing to  data  released  in  December  by  the  U.S.  De- 
partment of  Commerce  This  was  shown  by  a  total 
value  of  $48,208,732  for  the  first  ten  months  of 
1940  as  compared  with  $85,528,992  for  the  cor- 
responding period  of  1939.  Imports  increased  with 
a  value  of  $65,899,968  in  1940  and  $54,450,372  in 
1939  Leading  exports  were  oranges,  apples,  grapes, 
raisins,  canned  grapefruit,  canned  peaches,  and 
canned  fruits  for  salad.  Bananas  were  again  the 
principal  import  item  with  a  value  of  $24,797,648. 


Other  important  imports  included  tapioca,  olives, 
and  Brazil  and  cashew  nuts.  War  was  without 
doubt  the  limiting  factor  in  foreign  trade,  elimi- 
nating many  of  the  important  outlets  and  upset- 
ting the  monetary  situation  in  many  countries.  As 
a  result  of  the  disastrous  January  freezes  in  Flor- 
ida and  Texas,  there  was  a  material  increase  in 
the  import  of  fresh  vegetables  from  Mexico  and 
Cuba  during  the  winter  and  early  spring  season. 

Co-operation.  The  vital  role  that  co-operation 
plays  in  the  successful  handling  of  large  horti- 
cultural crops  was  illustrated  in  California  and 
Arizona,  where  of  a  total  of  over  98,000  carloads 
of  packed  citrus,  one  organization  marketed  over 
73,000  cars.  In  addition,  the  association  operated  a 
byproducts  plant  for  the  conversion  of  unmer- 
chantable fruit  into  salable  products.  Recognizing 
the  important  function  of  this  type  of  co-opera- 
tion, Texas  citrus  growers  formed  a  similar  or- 
ganization which  handled  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  south  Texas  crop.  These  organizations  study 
the  national  situation,  direct  shipments  to  the  most 
profitable  markets,  and  prevent  glutting  in  certain 
areas  with  consequent  depression  of  prices  Ef- 
fective advertising  is  maintained  by  radio  and  press 
to  facilitate  the  marketing  of  large  crops 

Research  Activities.  Interest  in  growth-pi  o- 
moting  substances  for  increasing  the  rooting  of 
cuttings  and  for  retarding  the  dropping  of  nearly 
npe  apples  and  other  fruits  continued  at  a  high 
level.  There  were  at  least  eight  papers  relating 
to  the  control  of  pre-harvest  drop  of  apples  on 
the  program  of  the  37th  annual  meeting  of  the 
American  Society  of  Horticultural  Science  held 
at  Philadelphia  in  late  December  The  Oregon 
Station  reported  that  the  defoliation  of  holly 
leaves  from  cut  branches  and  wreaths  could  be 
prevented  by  spraying  with  dilute  solutions  of 
naphthaleneacetic  acid  One  or  more  proprietary 
materials  for  retarding  fruit  dropping  appeared 
in  the  trade.  Progress  was  made  in  studies  of  the 
so-called  lesser  elements  such  as  boron,  manga- 
nese, and  magnesium  as  factors  in  fruit  and  vege- 
table nutrition,  with  further  evidence  that  certain 
disorders  of  foliage  and  fruit  are  essentially  nu- 
tritional deficiencies  Much  work  was  done  on  the 
improvement  of  blueberries  as  a  cultivated  fruit, 
with  an  entire  session  at  the  Horticultural  Science 
meeting  devoted  to  this  fruit 

The  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  continued 
the  development  of  its  new  Horticultural  Field 
Station  at  Beltsville,  Maryland.  Provided  with  well 
equipped  greenhouses  and  laboratories  and  exten- 
sive plantings,  this  Station  is  rapidly  becoming  a 
highly  important  center  for  research  with  flowers, 
fruits,  and  vegetables. 

See  BOTANY  ;  ENTOMOLOGY,  ECONOMIC. 

JOSEPH  W.  WELLINGTON. 

HOSPITALS.  See  ARCHITECTURE. 

HOTELS.  See  ARCHITECTURE. 

HOURS  OF  WORK.  See  AMERICAN  FEDERA- 
TION OF  LABOR;  LABOR  CONDITIONS;  LABOR  LEGIS- 
LATION; WAGF  AND  HOUR  DIVISION. 

HOUSING.  See  ARCHITECTURE;  BENEFAC- 
TIONS under  Buhl  Foundation]  BUILDING;  CO- 
OPERATIVE MOVEMENT  ;  FEDERAL  HOUSING  ADMIN- 
ISTRATION; HOUSING  AUTHORITY,  U.S.;  LIVING 
COSTS  AND  STANDARDS;  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  AD- 
MINISTRATION; PUBLIC  WORKS  ADMINISTRATION. 
For  defense  housing,  see  NATIONAL  DEFENSE  AD- 
VISORY COMMISSION;  RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE 
CORPORATION. 


HOUSING  AUTHORITY 


539 


HUNGARY 


HOUSING  AUTHORITY,  U.S.  The  Unit- 
ed  States  Housing  Authority  came  into  being  in 
November,  1937.  According  to  the  Act  under 
which  it  was  established,  this  permanent  Federal 
corporation  was  set  up  to  provide  "financial  as- 
sistance to  the  States  and  political  subdivisions 
thereof  for  the  elimination  of  unsafe  and  insani- 
tary housing  conditions,  for  the  eradication  of 
slums,  for  the  provision  of  decent,  safe,  and  sani- 
tary dwellings  for  families  of  low  income,  and  for 
the  reduction  of  unemployment  and  the  stimulation 
of  business  activity." 

Thus  the  legislative  framework  for  a  long-range 
decentralized  public  housing  program  was  estab- 
lished, as  distinguished  from  the  experimental  pro- 
gram of  direct  construction  by  the  Federal  Emer- 
gency Administration  of  Public  Works  from  1934 
to  1937. 

To  achieve  the  purposes  set  forth  in  the  Act, 
the  US  HA  assists  Local  Housing  Authorities  in 
two  ways.  First,  it  makes  loans,  at  low  interest, 
for  slum-clearance  and  low-rent  housing  projects. 
Second,  after  the  new  homes  are  completed,  the 
USHA  makes  annual  contributions  to  enable  Lo- 
cal Authorities  to  operate  their  projects  at  rents 
within  reach  of  low-income  families  from  sub- 
standard quarters. 

The  Local  Authorities  responsible  for  planning, 
building,  and  operating  the  new  housing  are  public 
agencies  set  up  under  appropriate  State  laws.  At 
present,  38  States,  the  District  of  Columbia,  Ha- 
waii, and  Puerto  Rico  have  such  enabling  legisla- 
tion. The  number  of  Local  Authorities  established 
has  reached  a  total  of  517. 

By  the  end  of  1940  Local  Authorities  represent- 
ing 235  urban  and  rural  communities  in  all  parts 
of  the  country  had  USHA  loan  contracts  cover- 
ing 511  large-scale  projects  These  contracts 
amounted  to  a  total  of  $691,627,500  and  left  initial 
USHA  loan  authorizations  practically  exhausted. 
Under  the  terms  of  these  contracts,  118,045  family 
units  either  were  under  construction  or  had  been 
completed  by  the  end  of  the  year;  36,456  low-in- 
come families  had  moved  from  unfit  quarters  into 
comfortable  new  homes;  and  thousands  of  other 
families  were  being  rehoused  month  by  month. 

Only  low-income  families  from  substandard 
housing  are  eligible  as  tenants  in  USHA  homes. 
The  rents  being  achieved  in  the  projects  set  an  all- 
time  low  for  decent  new  housing,  public  or  private. 
In  projects  with  rents  approved  by  Dec  31,  1940, 
the  average  monthly  shelter  rent,  excluding  utili- 
ties, was  only  $12.71  per  family  When  all  economy 
factors  have  been  taken  into  account,  the  net  an- 
nual cost  of  the  Government  of  rehousing  a  fam- 
ily from  the  slums  amounts  to  only  about  $76,  or 
$18  to  $20  per  person  rehoused. 

The  anticipated  average  family  income  in  the 
projects  with  rents  approved  is  around  $800  a  year, 
though  some  families  with  annual  incomes  as  low 
as  $300  and  $400  are  being  served. 

The  average  net  construction  cost  on  the  344 
USHA-aided  projects  under  construction  or  com- 
pleted by  the  end  of  1940  was  only  $2705  per 
dwelling  unit.  This  figure  is  about  26  per  cent 
lower  than  the  comparable  cost  of  new  private 
housing  in  the  same  communities — despite  the  fact 
that  USHA-aided  projects,  unlike  much  private 
construction,  are  built  for  a  long  life,  by  labor 
paid  prevailing  wages. 

Some  293,000  building  tradesmen  and  profes- 
sional workers  have  been  or  will  be  employed  on 
the  344  projects  now  being  built  or  already  com- 


pleted. Materials  used  in  these  new  projects  will 
cost  about  $199,689,000.  Much  of  this  amount  will 
in  turn  be  paid  out  in  wages  to  production  work- 
ers in  mines,  mills,  and  factories. 

Increased  private  residential  construction  con- 
tinued to  accompany  the  public  housing  program 
during  1940.  Meanwhile,  thousands  of  dangerously 
unsafe  and  insanitary  slum  quarters  were  being 
eliminated  under  local  programs  as  required  by  the 
Housing  Act 

Authority  for  utilizing  the  Nation -wide  public 
housing  framework  in  the  solution  of  housing 
needs  arising  from  the  national  defense  emergency 
was  provided  in  legislation  enacted  by  the  Con- 
gress in  June  and  October,  1940.  By  the  end  of 
the  year  19  USHA-aided  projects,  comprising 
6400  family  units,  had  already  been  designated  for 
defense  workers  and  their  families,  and  other  proj- 
ects were  being  planned  for  development  out  of 
Lanhan  Act  funds. 

Widespread  housing  needs  of  both  permanent 
and  emergency  character  were  thus  being  met  un- 
der the  USHA  program  during  1940.  Significant- 
ly, where  emergency  needs  were  being  satisfied, 
there  was  assurance  that  the  accommodations  pro- 
vided would  be  available  to  low -income  families 
from  the  slums  as  soon  as— and  long  after — the 
defense  emergency  is  over. 

See  ARCHITECTURE. 

NATHAN  STRAUS. 

ROWLAND  ISLAND.  See  UNITED  STATES. 
HUMANITIES.  See  PHILOLOGY,  CLASSICAL; 

ROCKEFLLLLR  FOUNDATION. 

HUNAN.  See  CHINA  under  Area  and  Popula- 
tion. 

HUNGARY.  A  kingdom  in  central  Europe. 
Capital,  Budapest.  Regent  in  1940,  Nicholas  Hor- 
thy  de  Nagybanya 

Area  and  Population.  Including  the  territorial 
annexations  of  1938,  1939,  and  1940,  the  area  of 
Hungary  was  estimated  at  62,162  square  miles  and 
the  population  at  13,400,000.  Of  this  total,  4566 
square  miles  and  1,027,450  inhabitants  were  ceded 
by  Czecho-Slovakia  under  the  Italo-German  arbi- 
tral award  of  Nov.  2,  1938;  about  4966  square 
miles  and  633,057  inhabitants  were  acquired  through 
the  annexation  of  Carpatho-Ukrame  (Ruthema) 
and  additional  parts  of  Slovakia  in  March  and 
April  of  1939.  The  territory  of  northern  Tran- 
sylvania, ceded  by  Rumania  to  Hungary  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  Italo-German  award  of  Aug. 
30,  1940,  was  said  by  Rumania  to  consist  of  19,300 
square  miles  with  a  population  of  2,385,987  in  1930 ; 
the  area  was  estimated  by  Hungary  at  17,000 
square  miles  with  2,370,000  inhabitants.  See  His- 
tory below. 

Living  births  in  1939  numbered  172,628  (18.9 
per  1000)  for  that  part  of  Hungary  within  the 
frontiers  of  the  Treaty  of  Trianon;  deaths,  123,- 
135  (13.5  per  1000)  ;  marriages  totaled  73,287 
(8.1  per  1000)  in  1938  Populations  of  the  chief 
cities  at  the  census  of  Nov.  18,  1939,  were .  Buda- 
pest, 1,115,877;  Szeged,  131,893;  Debrecen,  122,- 
517;  Pestszenterzsebet,  71,150;  Kecskemet,  83,- 
732;  Kispest,  62,797,  tljpest,  72,940;  Pecs,  70,- 
547;  Miskolc,  73,503 

Education  and  Religion.  In  1938  about  9.6 
per  cent  of  the  population,  six  years  and  over,  was 
illiterate.  The  number  of  elementary  schools  in 
1937-38  was  6899  with  963,087  pupils.  The  coun- 
try has  five  universities,  all  maintained  by  the 
State.  According  to  the  1930  census,  Roman  Cath- 


HUNGARY 


340 


HUNGARY 


olics  comprised  64.9  per  cent  of  the  population; 
Helvetian  Evangelicals,  20.0  per  cent;  Augsburg 
Evangelicals,  6.1  per  cent;  and  Jews,  5.1  per  cent. 

Production.  About  51.8  per  cent  of  the  work- 
ing population  is  engaged  in  agriculture,  23  per 
cent  in  industry  and  mining,  and  9.3  per  cent  in 
trade,  transportation,  and  communications.  There 
were  2,735,263  acres  under  forest  in  1938.  Yields 
of  the  chief  products  in  1939  in  metric  tons  were : 
Wheat,  3,078,200;  barley,  789,600;  rye,  863,700; 
oats,  365,900 ;  corn,  2,350,000 ;  potatoes,  2,700,000 ; 
beet  sugar,  117,200;  tobacco,  19,800;  coal,  1,107,- 
000;  iron  ore  (including  the  Northern  Territo- 
ries), 220,000;  bauxite,  495,800;  beer,  7,608,000 
gal.  in  1938;  wine,  3,060,000  hectoliters  in  1938. 

Foreign  Trade.  Merchandise  imports  in  1939 
were  valued  at  489,282,000  pengos  (410,607,000  in 
1938)  and  exports  at  605,784,000  pengos  (522,382,- 
000  in  1938).  Imports  from  Germany  in  1939  were 
237,926,000  pengos  (170,816,000  in  1038) ;  exports 
to  Germany,  303,478,000  pengos  (238,755,000  in 
1938).  See  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  349  and  TRADE, 
FOREIGN. 

Finance.  The  1939-40  budget  (covering  18 
months,  from  July  1,  1939,  to  Dec.  31,  1940)  esti- 
mated revenues  at  2,563,194,000  pengos  and  ex- 
penditures at  2,693,156,000  pengos.  The  Minister 
of  Finance  announced  on  Oct  23,  1940,  that  the 
1941  budget  would  show  a  deficit  of  48,200,000  pen- 

fos.  The  total  public  debt  on  June  30,  1939,  was 
,088,527,230  pengos,  of  which  1,009,000,000  pen- 
gos represented  foreign  and  1,079,600,000  pengos 
domestic  obligations.  The  average  exchange  value 
of  the  pengd  was  $0.1924  in  1939  and  $0.1848 
(nominal)  in  1940. 

Transportation.  The  Hungarian  railways 
(mostly  State-owned)  extended  9321  miles  in  1940. 
Operating  revenue  for  the  State  railways  in  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1939,  totaled  275,971,- 
415  pengos;  expenditures  were  196,475,954  pengos. 
Passengers  carried  numbered  88,498,997.  The 
Highway  Motor  Transportation  Co ,  a  subsidiary 
of  the  State  railways,  operated  99  highway  pas- 
senger lines  of  which  84  were  permanent  and  15 
were  seasonal,  having  a  total  length  of  1917  miles. 
Total  highways  aggregated  51,049  miles  Hungar- 
ian Air  Lines  inaugurated  on  Aug.  15,  1940,  a 
daily  week-day  service  with  a  flight  in  both  direc- 
tions between  Berlin-Breslau- Vienna-Budapest. 

Government.  The  monarchical  constitution  in 
effect  prior  to  the  republican  revolution  of  Oct  31, 
1918,  was  restored  in  1920,  but  the  throne  re- 
mained vacant.  The  head  of  the  State  was  the  Re- 
gent, Admiral  Horthy  (elected  Mar  1, 1920) .  Parlia- 
ment consists  of  an  Upper  Chamber  of  243  mem- 
bers (76  elected  by  counties  and  cities,  43  appointed 
by  the  Regent,  and  the  rest  representing  various 
privileged  groups)  and  a  Lower  Chamber  of  295 
deputies  chosen  for  five  years  by  male  and  female 
suffrage  Commencing  in  1939,  the  secret  ballot  was 
required  for  the  election  of  all  deputies.  The  Upper 
Chamber  is  partly  reconstituted  every  five  years. 

The  composition  of  the  Lower  Chamber  follow- 
ing the  elections  of  May,  1939,  was  Party  of 
Hungarian  Life  (government  party),  177;  Arrow 
Cross  (National  Socialist),  27;  Upper  Hungarian 
Union  (pro-government),  26;  Independent  Agrar- 
ian, 14 ;  United  Hungarian  National  Socialist  par- 
ty (Arrow  Cross  Front),  11;  Rutheman  party 
(pro-government),  10;  United  Christian  party,  9; 
Social  Democrats,  5;  Liberal  Opposition,  5;  oth- 
ers, 11.  The  Ministry  during  1940  was  headed  by 
Count  Paul  Teleki  (appointed  Feb.  16,  1939). 


HISTORY 

The  Hungarian  Government  continued  through- 
out 1940  its  policy  of  close  collaboration  with  the 
Axis  powers  in  European  affairs,  while  fighting 
the  spread  of  national  socialism  within  the  king- 
dom. The  pro-Axis  foreign  policy  enabled  Hun- 
gary on  August  30  to  regain  approximately  one- 
half  of  Transylvania  from  Rumania.  It  was  the 
third  successive  slice  of  territory  that  Hungary 
had  obtained  in  three  years  without  resort  to 
armed  conflict  (see  above  under  Area  and  Popula- 
tion). With  this  annexation,  Hungary  had  recov- 
ered at  least  26,532  square  miles  of  territory  con- 
taining more  than  4,000,000  inhabitants  out  of 
some  74,100  square  miles  with  10,782,000  inhabit- 
ants ceded  under  the  Treaty  of  Trianon  in  1920. 

These  territorial  adjustments,  and  the  hope  of 
further  gains  at  the  expense  of  Rumania  and  Yu- 
goslavia, linked  Hungary  firmly  to  the  cause  of 
the  Axis,  as  was  demonstrated  by  the  adhesion  of 
the  Budapest  Government  to  the  Rome-Berlin- 
Tokyo  alliance  on  Nov.  20,  1940.  However  suc- 
cessful collaboration  with  the  Axis  was  accompa- 
nied by  the  progressive  weakening  of  Hungary's 
independence  and  its  parliamentary  institutions 
The  Hungarian  Government  became  increasingly 
subservient  to  Berlin  while  the  German-supported 
Hungarian  Nazi  movement  threatened  to  gam  con- 
trol of  the  kingdom  and  reorganize  it  along  Hit- 
lenan  lines 

Foreign  Relations.  During  the  first  part  of 
the  year  the  Teleki  Government  attempted  to  main- 
tain a  degree  of  independence  in  its  relations  with 
the  Reich.  Popular  feeling  in  Hungary  was  still 
strongly  anti-Nazi  as  a  result  of  the  German-So- 
viet invasion  of  Poland  and  the  Soviet  attack  on 
Finland,  Hungary's  oldest  ally,  which  was  attrib- 
uted to  the  free  hand  given  Moscow  under  the 
Hitler-Stalin  accord  of  1939.  Nevertheless  Ger- 
man economic  pressure,  threats  and  propaganda 
forced  Budapest  gradually  into  line  with  Berlin's 
program  for  the  political  and  economic  reorgani- 
zation of  Europe.  On  January  16,  Hungary  agreed 
to  increase  its  exports  of  foodstuffs  to  the  Reich, 
receiving  in  return  larger  shipments  of  German 
armaments  and  other  manufactures. 

Collaboration  with  Italy.  Anticipating  a  So- 
viet drive  into  Rumania,  Foreign  Minister  Count 
Stephen  Csaky  of  Hungary  conferred  with  the 
Italian  Foreign  Minister  at  Venice  on  January 
6^-7  and  reportedly  received  assurances  of  Italian 
aid  in  the  events  of  a  Soviet-Hungarian  clash  over 
the  partitioning  of  Rumania.  Since  the  efficacy  of 
Italian  military  assistance  depended  upon  Yugo- 
slav co-operation  in  permitting  the  transit  of  Ital- 
ian troops,  the  Budapest  Government  also  sought 
to  develop  closer  relations  with  Belgrade.  Mean- 
while it  increased  pressure  upon  Rumania  for  the 
voluntary  surrender  of  the  Hungarian  territories 
ceded  by  the  Treaty  of  Trianon 

When  King  Carol  refused  and  Hungarian-Ru- 
manian tension  seemed  likely  to  embroil  the  two 
countries  in  war,  Germany  and  Italy  joined  in 
warning  Budapest  that  its  claims  on  Rumania 
must  be  shelved  for  the  time  being.  This  order 
was  issued  by  Mussolini  during  Premier  Teleki's 
visit  to  Rome  on  March  26  It  followed  the  meet- 
ing of  the  Italian  and  German  dictators  at  Bren- 
nero  on  March  18,  when  it  was  agreed  that  peace 
must  be  maintained  in  the  Danube  Basin  and  Bal- 
kans to  permit  the  uninterrupted  flow  of  this  re- 
gion's foodstuffs  and  raw  materials  into  blockaded 
Germany  and  into  Italy. 


HUNGARY 


341 


HUNGARY 


Restoration  of  Czecho-Slovakia  Opposed. 

Hungary's  willingness  to  abide  by  the  Axis  dictum 
was  accentuated  by  the  agreement  for  co-opera- 
tion in  the  reconstruction  of  Central  Europe 
reached  by  the  exiled  Czecho-Slovak  and  Polish 
governments  in  London,  and  by  a  further  British 
step  toward  recognition  of  the  exiled  Czecho-Slo- 
vak regime  (see  CZFCHO-SLOVAKIA  and  POLAND 
under  History).  These  developments  led  Foreign 
Minister  Csaky  to  state  before  the  Hungarian 
Lower  Chamber  on  March  6  that  the  restoration 
of  Czecho-Slovakia  was  "against  the  interests  of 
Europe."  His  attitude  was  praised  by  the  Hungar- 
ian press  and  found  tangible  expression  in  the 
imprisonment  in  Hungary  of  more  than  1000  anti- 
German  political  refugees  from  Bohemia-Moravia 
and  Slovakia.  Many  of  them  were  reported  to 
have  been  turned  over  to  the  German  secret  police. 
Completing  the  absorption  into  Hungary  of  the 
former  Czecho-Slovak  territories  annexed  in  1938 
and  1939,  the  Ministry  for  the  Reannexed  Terri- 
tory was  abolished  on  March  21. 

Serious  friction  continued,  however,  between 
Hungary  and  the  German  protectorate  of  Slova- 
kia (qv.).  Early  in  May  the  Budapest  authorities 
announced  the  arrest  of  nearlv  200  persons  in  the 
area  taken  from  Czecho-Slovakia;  they  were 
charged  with  espionage  and  anti-Hungarian  prop- 
aganda. 

German  Pressure  Increased.  The  Teleki 
Government,  which  still  hoped  to  resist  German 
domination  with  Italian  co-operation,  was  subject- 
ed to  intensified  pressure  from  Berlin  coincident 
with  the  German  invasion  of  Norway  on  April  9. 
Inspired  rumors  of  a  German  attack  upon  Hun- 
gary led  the  government  on  April  20  to  take  mili- 
tary precautions  and  many  members  of  the  British 
and  French  colonies  left  Budapest  for  nearby 
countries.  The  official  Hungarian  news  agency  on 
May  8  announced  that  the  Reich  had  asked  for  the 
right  to  send  troops  through  Hungary,  and  subse- 
quent Axis  reports  indicated  that  this  right  had 
been  granted  The  German  victories  in  the  Low 
Countries  and  Northern  France  in  May  and  June, 
Italy's  entrance  into  the  war,  and  simultaneous 
Russian  troop  concentrations  along  the  Rumanian 
and  Hungarian  frontiers  further  restricted  Hun- 
gary's efforts  to  follow  a  semi-independent  foreign 
policy. 

When  Soviet  troops  seized  Rumania's  eastern 
provinces  of  Bessarabia  and  Northern  Bukovina 
at  the  end  of  June,  the  Budapest  Government  with 
difficulty  resisted  Hungarian  demands  for  the  im- 
mediate seizure  of  Transylvania  and  the  other 
former  Hungarian  territories  in  Rumania.  How- 
ever the  Teleki  Government  followed  Axis  orders 
in  return  for  assurances  that  Hungary's  claims 
would  receive  satisfaction.  These  claims  were  laid 
before  Reichsfuehrer  Hitler  and  Foreign  Minister 
Ciano  of  Italy  at  Munich  on  July  10  by  Premier 
Teleki  and  Foreign  Minister  Csaky.  Immediately 
afterwards  the  Hungarian  Government  announced 
that  it  would  join  the  Rome-Berlin  alliance. 

Axis  Arbitral  Award  on  Transylvania.  Ear- 
ly in  August  Germany  and  Italy  ordered  the  new 
pro-Nazi  regime  in  Rumania  to  negotiate  a  terri- 
torial settlement  with  Hungary.  The  negotiations 
were  opened  at  Turnu  Severin  in  Rumania  on  Au- 
gust 16  but  soon  became  deadlocked.  Incidents 
flared  up  along  the  disputed  frontier,  where  both 
sides  had  concentrated  troops.  The  Axis  powers 
intervened  on  August  26  to  prevent  war.  Hungari- 
an and  Rumanian  delegates  were  called  to  Vienna, 


where  they  agreed  to  a  settlement  of  their  dispute 
by  the  German  and  Italian  Foreign  Ministers. 

The  "arbitral  award"  issued  on  August  30  gave 
Hungary  the  northern  half  of  Transylvania  (see 
map  under  Rumania)  with  a  population  of  about 
2,370,000  (Hungarian  figure),  of  whom  an  esti- 
mated 1,154,000  were  Rumanians.  Germany  and 
Italy  guaranteed  the  new  frontier  against  further 
Hungarian  revisionist  aspirations,  which  included 
additional  parts  of  Transylvania  and  the  Rumani- 
an Banat.  Exact  delimitation  of  the  new  frontier 
was  left  to  a  Rumanian-Hungarian  commission. 
The  Rumanians  undertook  to  move  their  troops 
out  of  the  ceded  territory  within  two  weeks  and 
hand  it  over  "in  orderly  condition."  Rumanians 
within  the  ceded  area  automatically  became  Hun- 
garian subjects  unless  they  decided  within  six 
months  of  the  award  to  retain  Rumanian  national- 
ity. In  that  case  they  were  given  an  additional  12 
months  to  move  into  Rumania ,  they  were  author- 
ized to  take  all  their  movable  property  with  them 
and  were  to  be  compensated  by  Hungary  in  a 
"broad-minded  and  conciliatory  fashion"  for  im- 
movable property  The  same  provisions  were  to 
apply  to  some  375,000  Magyars  remaining  within 
the  new  boundaries  of  Rumania 

The  award  stipulated  that  Rumanians  in  the 
ceded  territory  deciding  to  become  Hungarian  sub- 
jects were  to  enjoy  "the  same  rights"  as  Hungari- 
ans, and  that  Hungarians  opting  for  Rumanian 
citizenship  were  to  receive  the  same  treatment 
Questions  arising  under  the  award  were  to  be  set- 
tled directly  by  Rumania  and  Hungary,  unless  this 
proved  impossible,  in  which  case  Germany  and  It- 
aly would  again  decide. 

Hungarian-Rumanian  Relations.  The  new 
Transylvanian  frontier,  disregarding  ethnic  and 
economic  considerations,  was  drawn  mainly  with 
strategic  factors  in  mind.  It  carried  Hungary's 
boundary  eastward  to  the  crest  of  the  Carpathians, 
the  great  natural  barrier  obstructing  a  possible 
Soviet  invasion  of  the  central  Danubian  plain.  The 
Hungarian  army  was  thus  enlisted  in  Axis  plans 
for  checkmating  the  Soviet  Union  while  the  strug- 
gle with  Britain  was  fought  to  its  conclusion.  The 
occupation  of  the  ceded  territory  by  Hungarian 
troops  was  carried  out  between  September  5  and 
13.  Admiral  Horthy  led  the  troops  into  some  of 
the  principal  cities  and  towns  They  were  greeted 
with  wild  enthusiasm  by  Hungarian  residents, 
while  the  Rumanian  inhabitants  displayed  sullen 
resentment.  Minor  clashes  between  Hungarian  ci- 
vilians and  the  withdrawing  Rumanian  troops 
were  reported.  An  attempt  by  the  Rumanian  Peas- 
ant Party  leader,  Juliu  Maniu,  to  obtain  a  Ruma- 
nian-Hungarian agreement  for  the  establishment 
of  an  autonomous  Transylvania  that  would  pre- 
serve the  economic  and  political  unity  of  the  his- 
toric province  was  rejected  by  the  Hungarian  lead- 
ers. 

Charges  and  counter-charges  by  Hungarians 
and  Rumanians  against  the  alleged  mistreatment 
of  each  other's  nationals  in  the  ceded  territory  and 
in  Rumania  proper  forced  the  Axis  powers  to 
send  another  arbitration  board  to  the  region  in 
mid-October.  Hungarian-Rumanian  relations  grew 
steadily  worse,  however.  The  Rumanian  press  and 
radio  at  the  year's  end  reflected  a  determination 
to  regain  the  ceded  districts  at  the  first  opportunity 
while  the  Hungarians  awaited  a  turn  of  the  Euro- 
pean War  that  would  enable  them  to  fulfill  their 
slogan  of  "everything  back/'  meaning  all  of  the 
territories  ceded  in  1920. 


HUNGARY 


342 


HUNGARY 


Meanwhile  the  incorporation  of  Northern  Tran- 
sylvania into  Hungary  was  unanimously  approved 
by  the  Lower  Chamber  in  Budapest  on  October  3. 
The  bill  provided  for  the  election  of  63  Transyl- 
vanian  deputies  to  the  Lower  Chamber  and  the 
appointment  by  the  Regent  of  10  Transylvanians 
to  the  Hungarian  Upper  Chamber  Civil  adminis- 
tration replaced  martial  law  throughout  the  ceded 
area  on  November  3 

Expansion  of  German  Influence.  The  arbi- 
tral award  of  the  Axis  was  followed  by  an  im- 
mediate increase  in  German  influence  in  Hungary. 
German  troops  were  reported  to  have  entered 
Hungary  at  the  beginning  of  September  and  by 
the  end  of  the  year  large-scale  movements  of  Ger- 
man troops  into  Rumania  via  Hungary  were  in 
progress  Other  German  troop  concentrations  ap- 
peared in  Southern  Hungary  on  the  Yugoslav 
frontier.  The  Germans  also  lost  no  time  in  gaining 
control  of  traffic  on  the  Danube  River  The  Inter- 
national Danubian  Commission,  established  under 
the  Versailles  Treaty,  was  abolished  at  a  confer- 
ence of  the  Danubian  po\\crs  held  in  Vienna  the 
second  week  in  September  In  its  place  was  set 
up  a  "consultative  committee"  under  a  permanent 
German  director,  who  was  authorized  to  convene 
and  adjourn  the  committee,  composed  of  delegates 
from  Italy,  Hungary,  Bulgaria,  Yugoslavia,  Ru- 
mania, and  Slovakia. 

Hungary's  formal  entrance  as  a  minor  partner 
of  the  German-Italian- Japanese  alliance  signed  at 
Berlin  on  September  27  took  place  in  Vienna  on 
November  20  Article  II  of  the  protocol  signed  by 
Foreign  Minister  Csaky,  the  German  and  Italian 
Foreign  Ministers  and  the  Japanese  Ambassador 
to  Berlin  read  •  "In  so  far  as  the  joint  technical 
commission  provided  for  in  Article  IV  (of  the 
Three- Power  Pact)  deals  with  questions  that 
touch  Hungary's  interests,  representatives  of  Hun- 
gary will  participate  in  the  commission's  consulta- 
tions." On  December  30,  as  though  in  co-operation 
with  German  military  and  diplomatic  maneuvers 
in  the  Balkans,  Hungary  began  to  call  men  to  the 
colors. 

German  experts  were  by  that  time  guiding  Hun- 
garian economic  policies  German  technicians  were 
reported  to  be  supervising  operations  on  the  main 
Hungarian  railway  lines  And  German  propa- 
gandists were  busily  engaged  in  strengthening  pro- 
Nazi  elements  within  Hungary.  It  was  believed 
that  Regent  Horthy  and  Premier  Teleki  were  still 
withholding  the  full  co-operation  demanded  by 
Hitler,  and  that  he  was  scheming  to  replace  them 
with  more  amenable  Hungarian  leaders 

Friendship  Pact  with  Yugoslavia.  Some  ob- 
servers reported  that  the  pact  of  "constant  peace 
and  perpetual  friendship"  signed  by  the  Hungarian 
and  Yugoslav  Foreign  Ministers  at  Belgrade  on 
December  12  was  a  move  to  form  a  common  front 
against  the  growing  German  pressure  Others  be- 
lieved that  Hungary  acted  as  the  intermediary  of 
Berlin  in  attempting  to  bring  Yugoslavia  into  the 
Axis.  The  pact  pledged  the  two  governments  "to 
consult  each  other  on  all  questions  which  they 
believe  could  affect  their  mutual  relationship."  See 
YUGOSLAVIA  under  History. 

Internal  Divisions.  The  government's  pro- 
Axis  foreign  policy  found  wider  support  follow- 
ing the  German  victories  in  the  Low  Countries 
and  France  On  May  31  Foreign  Minister  Csaky 
expressed  hope  that  these  victories  would  lead  to 
an  early  peace  that  would  spare  the  Danube  basin 
from  war.  On  June  10,  when  Italy  entered  the 


war,  World  War  veterans  demonstrated  in  Buda- 
pest, demanding  support  of  the  Axis  even  at  the 
risk  of  war.  At  the  same  time  the  government  re- 
affirmed Hungary's  non-belligerency,  favoring  It- 
aly and  Germany,  as  against  strict  neutrality.  The 
French  capitulation  was  greeted  with  rejoicing, 
Premier  Teleki  declaring  that  the  German  victory 
was  for  Hungary  a  hope  for  the  future,  ending 
20  years  of  humiliation 

As  German  control  tightened,  however,  there 
were  evidences  of  mounting  discontent  with  the 
government's  pro-Axis  policy.  General  resentment 
was  expressed  at  the  heavy  shipments  of  food- 
stuffs to  the  Reich,  which  were  facilitated  by  the 
establishment  of  government  control  over  the  ce- 
real and  vegetable  crops  on  September  20  Crops 
were  small  due  to  a  severe  winter  and  heavy  spring 
floods  Count  Csaky,  telling  Parliament  on  Novem- 
ber 13  that  the  government's  policy  was  designed 
to  keep  Hungary  out  of  war,  emphasized  that 
Hungary's  friendship  for  the  Axis  "does  not  mean 
that  we  will  relinquish  national  independence  or 
national  consciousness  " 

Replying  to  criticisms  of  the  signing  of  the  Axis 
alliance  pact,  Count  Csaky  asserted  that  it  was 
imperative  for  Hungary  to  obtain  a  privileged  po- 
sition at  the  conference  table  after  the  Axis  had 
won  the  war  However  Count  Stephen  Bethlen 
and  other  influential  statesmen  were  reported  to 
have  expressed  disbelief  in  an  Axis  victory  before 
the  Foreign  Affairs  Committees  of  the  Hungarian 
Parliament  Opposition  to  close  association  with 
the  Axis  also  came  from  some  clerical  and  legiti- 
mist circles  in  Hungary  In  December  Cardinal 
Seredi  in  a  Budapest  speech  attacked  the  racial 
legislation  of  the  Axis  powers 

Political  Trends.  The  pressure  of  the  totali- 
tarian powers  and  of  European  events  was  reflect- 
ed also  in  Hungarian  party  shifts  and  trends  The 
Social  Democratic  party  on  January  24  formally 
abandoned  the  doctrine  of  class  warfare  in  favor 
of  a  purely  nationalist  platform  There  was  con- 
stant warfare,  accompanied  by  outbreaks  of  politi- 
cal terrorism,  between  different  factions  of  the 
Arrow  Cross  (Nazi)  movement  and  between  the 
Nazis  and  the  government  The  parliamentary 
immunity  of  a  Nazi  deputy,  Ludwig  Gruber,  ac- 
cused of  terrorism  and  blackmail,  was  revoked  on 
March  6  to  permit  his  arrest. 

Responding  to  charges  of  persecution  leveled  at 
the  government  by  a  Nazi  deputy  on  April  24, 
Premier  Teleki  said  the  police  had  uncovered  a 
widespread  criminal  plot  affecting  municipal  works 
and  the  State  railways  and  had  acted  to  maintain 
public  order  K&lman  Hubay,  parliamentary  leader 
of  the  Arrow  Cross  party,  and  one  of  his  chief 
assistants  were  ousted  as  members  of  the  Lower 
Chamber  on  July  22  for  proposing  full  autonomous 
rights  for  the  minorities  in  Hungary.  The  govern- 
ment and  Magyars  generally  took  the  position  that 
the  proposal  was  designed  to  further  Hungary's 
disintegration. 

Following  the  return  of  Transylvania,  the  gov- 
ernment moderated  its  anti-Nazi  internal  policies. 
Maj.  Ferenc  Szalasi,  leader  of  the  Arrow  Cross 
party,  was  released  from  prison  after  serving  two 
years  for  high  treason  On  September  29  his  party 
absorbed  the  United  Hungarian  National  Socialist 
party,  which  previously  had  united  with  various 
other  small  Nazi  groups.  This  placed  virtually  all 
of  the  Nazis  in  Hungary  under  Major  Szalasi's 
direction  Simultaneously  the  government  acqui- 
esced in  a  new  anti-Semitic  campaign.  More  than 


HUNTING 


343 


HURRICANES 


70,000  Jews  were  placed  in  concentration  camps, 
allegedly  for  labor  service  (see  JEWS).  The  Ger- 
man minority  in  Hungary,  already  Nazified,  was 
given  a  privileged  status.  And  m  many  other  ways, 
such  as  in  application  of  the  censorship,  the  Buda- 
pest government  displayed  increasing  subservience 
to  Berlin. 

The  Minister  of  the  Interior  on  November  8  re- 
vealed a  Nazi  plot  to  kidnap  Regent  Horthy,  over- 
throw the  government,  and  name  Major  Szalasi 
as  Premier.  After  large-scale  raids  on  Nazi  quar- 
ters that  uncovered  large  numbers  of  hand  gre- 
nades and  rifles,  a  score  of  Arrow  Cross  members 
were  charged  with  participation  in  the  conspiracy 
and  on  December  21  16  of  them,  including  one 
deputy,  were  convicted  and  sentenced  to  prison. 
At  the  year's  end  another  group  of  24  Nazi  con- 
spirators were  awaiting  trial  on  a  charge  of  plan- 
ning to  assassinate  the  Minister  of  Interior  as  a 
signal  for  widespread  sabotage  and  violence. 

Meanwhile  a  section  of  the  government  party 
led  by  former  Premier  Bela  Imredy  had  displayed 
increasingly  pro-Nazi  tendencies  On  April  16  Pre- 
mier Teleki  threatened  to  dissolve  Parliament  if 
members  of  his  party  joined  the  opposition  On 
October  4  Imredy  resigned  from  the  Party  of 
Hungarian  Life  and  with  apparent  German  sup- 
port sought  to  lay  the  groundwork  for  a  new  gov- 
ernment that  would  work  in  closer  co-operation 
with  Berlin. 

In  line  with  these  political  trends  was  the  pro- 
gressive curtailment  of  civil  liberties  There  was 
a  country-wide  roundup  of  some  200  suspected 
Communists  and  "fifth  columnists"  on  May  18. 
Stricter  government  regulation  of  all  forms  of 
communication  with  foreign  countries  went  into 
effect  June  6  On  June  14  men  of  military  age  were 
forbidden  to  leave  the  country  without  permission 
Foreign  correspondents  in  Hungary  were  warned 
by  the  Foreign  Office  Press  Bureau  on  August  2 
against  sending  out  news  unfavorable  to  Germany, 
Italy,  or  to  "known  political  principles  and  policies 
of  the  Axis  "  A  few  days  later  an  American  cor- 
respondent was  expelled  from  the  country  on  the 
ground  that  the  Berlin  Government  had  complained 
about  his  dispatches  from  Budapest.  The  extraor- 
dinary powers  granted  the  government  by  Pailia- 
ment  at  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War  were 
extended  until  May  2,  1941,  by  a  decree  published 
December  29 

Debt  Payments.  Hungary  made  partial  pay- 
ments on  the  war  debt  installments  due  the  U.S. 
Government  on  June  15  and  December  15  (see 
REPARATIONS  AND  WAR  DEBTS),  but  on  October 
15  the  government  suspended  the  transfer  of  in- 
terest payments  on  its  other  foreign  debts. 

See  GERMANY,  ITALY,  RUMANIA,  under  His- 
tory; COMMUNISM;  INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY. 

HUNTING.  See  FISH  AND  WILDLIFE  SERVICF 

HUPEH.  See  CHINA  under  Area  and  Popula- 
tion. 

HURRICANES.  The  word  hurricane  has  two 
meanings,  one  refers  to  storms  of  tropical  origin 
(and  specifically  such  storms  in  the  North  Atlantic 
Ocean),  the  other  refers  to  any  wind  that  attains 
a  velocity  exceeding  75  miles  per  hour.  Not  every 
storm  of  tropical  origin  has  winds  associated  with 
it  which  exceed  a  speed  of  75  miles  per  hour ;  those 
storms  of  tropical  origin  which  do  have  winds  this 
strong  are  usually  referred  to  by  saying  that  they 
reached  full  hurricane  intensity.  The  hurricane  sea- 
son of  1940  was  normal  in  most  respects.  There 
were  eight  disturbances  of  tropical  origin  charted 


over  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean,  including  the  Car- 
ibbean Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  four  of  these 
reached  full  hurricane  intensity.  The  average  num- 
ber of  such  cyclones  observed  annually,  based  on 
records  for  the  past  54  years,  is  about  seven,  of 
which  three  or  four  usually  attain  full  hurricane 
force.  In  1940,  one  hurricane  was  observed  in  May, 
three  in  August,  and  two  each  in  September  and 
October.  Those  of  full  hurricane  intensity  were 
the  three  in  August  and  the  first  one  in  September. 

There  were  two  barometric  pressure  records  es- 
tablished, the  first  at  the  Weather  Bureau  Office, 
Port  Arthur,  Tex.,  during  the  hurricane  of  Au- 
gust 2-10  by  a  reading  of  2887  inches  which  is 
considerably  lower  than  the  previous  low  reading 
of  29.37  inches  on  Oct.  16,  1923 ;  the  second  at  the 
Savannah,  Ga.,  Weather  Bureau,  during  the  hur- 
ricane of  August  5-17  by  a  reading  of  28.78 
inches. 

The  most  destructive  of  the  hurricanes  was  the 
one  of  August  5-17.  The  weather  charts  on  the 
morning  of  August  5  showed  some  indications  of 
a  slight  distuibance  centered  between  St.  Martin 
and  St  Thomas  Islands  This  was  the  fiist  evi- 
dence of  the  storm  Severe  squalls  of  44  miles  an 
hour  were  recorded  later  that  morning  at  San  Juan. 
By  6  p  m.  this  depression  was  located  a  short  dis- 
tance north  of  Mona  Passage,  having  moved  rap- 
idly in  a  west-northwest  direction  during  the  pre- 
ceding ten  hours.  The  Dutch  motor  vessel  Pyg- 
malion, near  latitude  20°  and  longitude  66°  re- 
ported fresh  easterly  gales  and  a  barometer  reading 
2990  inches  at  5  pm.  On  August  6  the  center 
passed  a  short  distance  to  the  south  of  Turks  Is- 
land at  noon  with  a  barometer  reading  of  2963 
inches.  During  the  next  three  days  the  storm  showed 
little  tendency  to  increase  in  intensity  as  it  moved 
northward.  The  first  indications  that  this  storm 
had  reached  full  hurricane  intensity  were  received 
from  the  American  ship  Maine  which  gave  her 
position  at  noon  as  approximately  latitude  32°  and 
longitude  77°.  The  ship  met  east-southeast  winds 
of  force  ten  early  on  that  day,  and  the  wind  in- 
creased to  full  hurricane  force  at  4  p.m.  At  this 
time  there  was  a  very  high  and  rough  sea,  a  large 
heavy  swell  and  poor  visibility.  This  hurricane 
crossed  the  coast  at  4  p  m  on  August  11,  its  cen- 
ter passed  just  north  of  Savannah,  Ga ,  between 
5  and  6  p  m  on  this  day.  Winds  of  hurricane  force 
were  experienced  all  along  the  coast  between  Sa- 
vannah and  Charleston.  Tides  weie  very  high  north 
of  the  center,  Charleston,  S  C ,  recorded  10  7  feet 
above  mean  low  tide.  The  total  property  damage 
along  the  coast  resulting  fiom  this  hurricane  was 
estimated  at  $3,000,000,  perhaps  20  persons  lost 
their  lives  as  a  result  of  it  As  the  hurricane  passed 
inland  it  diminished  in  intensity,  though  it  con- 
tinued to  cause  very  heavy  rams  which  in  turn 
produced  record-breaking  floods.  The  storm  re- 
curved after  it  passed  inland  and  as  it  continued  to 
diminish  in  seventy  its  positive  identity  was  lost  on 
August  17. 

The  hurricane  of  August  5-17  was  the  second 
one  in  August.  The  first  one  in  August  also  caused 
damage  to  property  \\hen  it  crossed  the  coast  line 
near  the  Texas-Louisiana  boundary.  The  other  two 
storms  which  reached  full  hurricane  intensity  did 
not  cause  property  damage,  due  to  the  fact  that 
during  their  maximum  intensity  they  did  not  cross 
any  coast  lines. 

Storms  of  tropical  origin  also  occur  over  the 
(North  and  South)  Indian  Ocean  and  over  the 
(North  and  South)  Pacific  Ocean  During  1940 


HYDROPONICS 


344 


IDAHO 


there  were  25  typhoons,  or  storms  of  tropical  ori- 
gin, observed  over  the  North  Pacific  Ocean. 

RICHMOND  T.  ZOCH. 

HYDROPONICS  (Soil-less  Agriculture). 
See  BOTANY. 

ICC.  See  INTERSTATE  COMMERCE  COMMISSION. 

ICELAND.  An  island  state  situated  190  miles 
east  of  Greenland,  its  northernmost  shores  touch- 
ing the  Arctic  Circle.  Area,  39,709  square  miles ; 
population  (Jan.  1,  1939),  118,888.  Chief  towns: 
Reykjavik  (capital),  37,366  inhabitants  in  1939; 
Akureyri,  4930;  Hafnarfjordur,  3652;  Vestman- 
naeyjar,  3506.  Births  in  1938  numbered  2326; 
deaths,  1204;  marriages,  644.  Elementary  educa- 
tion is  compulsory  and  there  is  virtually  no  il- 
literacy. Reykjavik  has  a  university. 

Production  and  Trade.  Fishing  is  the  chief 
industry.  Potatoes,  turnips,  and  hay  are  the  princi- 
pal crops.  Sheep  raising  is  important  Imports  in 

1939  totaled  61,151,000  crowns  (kronur)  ;  exports, 
69,654,000  crowns,  including  142,000  tons  of  sea 
products  valued  at  53,000,000  crowns  (crown  aver- 
aged about  $0.20  in  1939).  Wool,  frozen  mutton 
and  sheepskins  are  other  exports.   Livestock   in 
1938:  592,000  sheep,  49,000  horses,  37,000  cattle. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  for  1940  were :  Rev- 
enues, 18,594,830  crowns,  expenditures,  17,857,448. 
The  public  debt  on  Dec.  31,  1938,  totaled  47,161,000 
crowns.  The  crown  was  devalued  by  18  per  cent 
on  Apr.  5,  1939,  and  again  by  11  per  cent  in  Sep- 
tember, 1939 ;  in  1940  it  equalled  15.5  United  States 
cents  at  par. 

Communications.  There  are  no  railways. 
Highways  extended  2984  miles  in  1939.  The  local 
air  line  carried  1100  passengers  and  5328  Ib  of 
mail  in  1938-39.  Including  fishing  boats,  the  mer- 
chant fleet  in  1939  comprised  638  ships  of  43,080 
gross  tons. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  May  18,  1920 
(amended  in  1934)  provides  for  a  constitutional 
monarchy.  The  King  exercises  executive  power 
through  a  responsible  cabinet  Legislative  power 
rests  conjointly  with  the  King  and  the  Althing, 
the  oldest  parliament  in  the  world,  established 
930  A.D.  The  Althing  consists  of  49  members 
elected  by  the  people.  One-third  of  its  members 
are  elected  to  the  upper  chamber  by  the  whole 
Althing;  the  other  two-thirds  form  the  lower 
chamber.  Ruler  in  1940,  King  Christian  X  of  Ice- 
land and  Denmark.  Prime  Minister,  Hermann  Jon- 
asson  (Progressive),  appointed  July  29,  1934.  In 

1940  his  government  represented  a  coalition  of  all 
parties  except  the  Communist  party,  which  had 
three  members  in  Parliament. 

Iceland  was  acknowledged  by  the  Act  of  Union 
of  Nov.  30,  1918,  to  be  an  independent,  sovereign 
state  having  a  personal  union  with  Denmark 
through  a  common  king.  This  treaty  expires  in 
1943,  when  it  may  be  denounced  by  either  Iceland 
or  Denmark  In  1938  the  Althing  voted  to  termi- 
nate the  union  with  Denmark  upon  expiration  of 
the  treaty,  and  a  popular  referendum  was  to  have 
been  held  on  this  issue  during  1940  (see  under 
History) 

History.  The  referendum  to  determine  Ice- 
land's future  relationship  with  Denmark  (see 
above)  was  interrupted  by  the  German  military 
occupation  of  Denmark  on  Apr.  9,  1940  On 
May  10  the  Althing  passed  two  resolutions  en- 
trusting the  Government  of  Iceland  with  the  Royal 
power  given  to  the  King  under  the  Constitution 
and  authorizing  the  government  to  assume  com- 


plete charge  of  Iceland's  foreign  affairs,  con- 
trolled by  Denmark  under  the  Act  of  Union. 

On  April  16  the  State  Department  at  Washing- 
ton announced  receipt  of  a  telegram  from  Ice- 
land's Prime  Minister  stating  that  his  government 
was  anxious  to  establish  direct  diplomatic  rela- 
tions with  the  United  States.  The  appointment  of 
a  consul  general  of  Iceland  in  New  York  and  of 
an  American  consul  in  Reykjavik  was  provision- 
ally recognized  by  an  exchange  of  telegrams  be- 
tween the  two  governments  on  April  23-24.  Mean- 
while the  Icelandic  Government  had  proposed  the 
establishment  of  direct  diplomatic  relations  with 
Great  Britain.  Britain  complied  by  recognizing  the 
Icelandic  secretary  at  the  Danish  Legation  in 
London  as  charge  d'affaires  and  agreeing  to  name 
Charles  Howard  Smith,  former  British  Minister 
at  Copenhagen,  as  Minister  to  Iceland 

The  British  Minister  arrived  in  Iceland  on 
May  10,  accompanied  by  a  British  armed  force 
of  unstated  size  which  occupied  the  island.  The 
British  Government  announced  that  the  military 
occupation  was  undertaken  to  forestall  "a  sudden 
German  descent  on  Iceland."  The  British  com- 
munique issued  May  10  stated  in  part : 

His  Majesty's  Government  have  given  explicit  guaran- 
tees to  the  Icelandic  Government  that  this  force  has  been 
landed  to  insure  the  security  of  Iceland  against  a  German 
invasion  and  that  any  further  measures  that  may  have  to 
be  taken  will  be  designed  for  that  purpose  This  force  will 
be  withdrawn  upon  the  conclusion  of  hostilities 

His  Majesty's  Government  have  made  it  plain  to  the 
Icelandic  Government  that  they  have  no  intention  or  de- 
sire to  interfere  with  the  existing  administration  of  the 
island,  further,  that  they  are  prepared  at  once  to  negotiate 
with  the  Icelandic  Government  an  agreement  on  tr.ide 
matters  which  it  anticipated  will  bring  material  advantages 
to  the  inhabitants 

British  officials  asserted  there  was  reason  to 
fear  a  German  seizure  of  Iceland  with  the  aid  of 
Nazis  planted  on  the  island  previous  to  the  Euro- 
pean War.  A  number  of  German  expeditions  had 
visited  Iceland  shortly  before  the  outbreak  of  the 
conflict,  ostensibly  for  scientific  investigations, 
and  the  British  contended  that  there  were  many 
more  than  the  normal  quota  of  Germans  in  the 
country  when  the  war  began.  Iceland  was  com- 
pletely defenseless  except  for  a  handful  of  police- 
men. Nevertheless  the  government  registered  a 
formal  protest  against  the  British  occupation.  Be- 
fore the  end  of  1940,  it  was  indicated  that  some 
60,000  British,  Canadian,  and  Norwegian  troops, 
with  accompanying  air  and  naval  units,  were  oc- 
cupying fortified  positions  in  strategic  points 
around  the  island.  Great  Britain  contracted  to 
purchase  the  entire  fish  catch  and  new  trade  chan- 
nels opened  with  the  United  States  enabled  the 
islanders  to  obtain  essential  supplies  of  food  and 
other  commodities.  The  United  States  Government 
advanced  Iceland  a  small  loan  for  the  further  de- 
velopment of  its  trade. 

Consult  Vilhjalmur  Stefansson,  Iceland:  The 
First  American  Republic  (New  York,  1939) ; 
P.  E.  Mosely,  "Iceland  and  Greenland :  An  Ameri- 
can Problem,"  Foreign  Affairs,  July  1940,  pp 
742-46.  See  CANADA,  DENMARK,  and  GREAT  BRIT- 
AIN, under  History. 

IDAHO.  Area,  83,888  square  miles  (includes 
water,  534  square  miles).  Population,  Apr.  1,  1940 
(census),  524,873;  1930,  445,032.  Boise  City,  the 
capital,  had  (1940)  26,130  inhabitants. 

Agriculture.  Idaho  harvested,  in  1940,  some 
2,724,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Tame  hay, 
covering  995,000  acres,  or  about  three-eighths  of 
the  harvested  area,  gave  2,287,000  tons;  in  value, 


ILLINOIS 


345 


ILLINOIS 


about  $14,637,000.  Wheat,  a  close  second,  on  957,- 
000  acres,  grew  24,383,000  bu.  ($13,898,000)  ;  po- 
tatoes, on  124,000  acres,  32,860,000  bu.  ($9,858,- 
000)  ;  dry  beans,  113,000  acres,  1,667,000  100-lb. 
bags  ($3,375,000) ;  sugar  beets,  72,000  acres, 
1,128,000  tons  (1939's  somewhat  smaller  crop  was 
valued  at  $4,147,000)  ;  barley,  170,000  acres,  5,950,- 
000  bu.  ($2,380,000);  dry  peas,  70,000  acres, 
1,120,000  bu.  ($2,016,000);  oats,  138,000  acres, 
5,106,000  bu.  ($1,481,000);  apples  for  market, 
2,160,000  bu  ($1,620,000). 

Mineral  Production.  Nevada's  approximate 
1940  production  (actual  1939  figures  in  parenthe- 
ses) of  silver,  lead,  zinc,  gold,  and  copper  was 
valued  at  $37,652,600  ($29,794,144),  of  which  sil- 
ver, 17,235,000  oz.  (17,222,370  oz.),  accounted  for 
$12,256,000  ($11,690,336);  lead,  207,600,000  Ib. 
(181,962,000  Ib.),  $10,380,000  ($8,552,214)  ;  zinc, 
141,300,000  Ib.  (95,098,000  Ib.),  $9,184,500  ($4,945,- 
096)  ;  gold,  145,000  oz.  (116,662  oz.),  $5,075,000 
($4,083,170) ;  copper,  6,700,000  Ib.  (5,032,000  Ib.), 
$757,100  ($523,328).  As  given  by  the  U.S.  Bu- 
reau of  Mines  in  1940,  Idaho's  production  of  na- 
tive minerals  totaled  $31,738,606  for  1938.  Fully 
nine-tenths  of  this  amount  was  ascribed  to  silver, 
lead,  zinc,  gold,  and  copper. 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40, 
Idaho's  inhabitants  of  school  age  (from  8  years  to 
18)  plus  38,432  others  admissible  to  public  schools 
were  reported  to  number  143,892  Enrollments  of 
pupils  in  the  public  schools  totaled,  for  that  year, 
120,987 :  this  comprised  86,739  in  elementary  study 
and  34,248  in  high  school  The  year's  expenditures 
for  public-school  education  amounted  to  $11,076,- 
151.  The  3107  teachers  in  elementary  positions  and 
the  1406  in  high  schools  averaged,  respectively, 
$939.35  and  $1273.35  in  yearly  pay. 

History.  At  the  general  election  on  November  5 
a  vacancy  left  in  the  U.S  Senate  by  the  death  of 
William  E  Borah  was  filled  by  the  choice  of  an- 
other Republican,  John  Thomas,  to  serve  the  re- 
maining four  years  of  the  unexpired  term ;  Thomas 
had  previously  become  Senator  by  the  Governor's 
temporary  appointment.  Chase  A  Clark  (Dem), 
Mayor  of  Idaho  Falls,  was  elected  Governor,  de- 
feating by  2303  plurality  C.  A.  Bottolfsen,  the 
Republican  incumbent,  who  ran  for  re-election. 

The  popular  vote  went  to  Roosevelt  (Dem  )  for 
President  and  against  Willkie  (Rep  ),  by  127,835 
to  106,555. 

Officers.  Idaho's  chief  officers,  serving  in  1940, 
were-  Governor,  C.  A  Bottolfsen  (Rep  )  ,  Lieu- 
tenant Governor,  Donald  S  Whitehead ;  Secretary 
of  State,  George  H.  Curtis;  Attorney  General, 
J.  W.  Taylor ;  Auditor,  Calvin  E.  Wright ;  Treas- 
urer, Myrtle  P.  Enking ;  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction  John  W.  Condie. 

ILLINOIS.  Area,  56,665  square  miles,  includ- 
ing 622  square  miles  of  water  but  excluding  the 
State's  part  of  Lake  Michigan.  Population,  April, 
1940  (census),  7,897,241;  1930,  7,630,654.  Popula- 
tion of  cities  (1940)  :  Chicago,  3,396,808;  Peoria, 
105,087;  Springfield,  the  capital,  75,503.  The  urban 
population— dwellers  in  places  of  2500  or  more- 
rose  (1930-40)  by  3.1  per  cent,  or  173,923  to  5,809,- 
650.  The  rural  group,  rising  by  4.6  per  cent  or  92,- 
664,  attained  2,087,591,  thus  more  than  making  up 
loss  sustained  during  the  decade  1920-30. 

Agriculture.  Farmers  in  Illinois  harvested  18,- 
532,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops  in  1940.  The 
acreage  of  corn  fell  below  the  under-average  total 
of  1939,  and  the  remarkably  high  yield  to  the  acre, 
attained  in  1939  was  not  repeated.  On  7,551,000 


acres  were  produced  332,244,000  bu.  of  corn,  esti- 
mated as  worth  $205,991,000  to  the  growers.  The 
soy  beans,  though  gathered  from  an  increased 
acreage,  did  not  maintain  the  huge  production  of 
1939-  soy  beans,  on  2,008,000  acres,  produced  in 
1940,  35,140,000  bu  (value  about  $24,958,000). 
Tame  hay,  oats,  and  wheat  thus  all  again  out- 
ranked soy  beans:  3.399,000  acres  of  tame  hay 
made  4,515,000  tons  (value,  $32,960,000).  Wheat, 
1,782,000  acres,  grew  40,155,000  bu.  ($28,108,000) ; 
oats,  3,177,000  acres,  yielded  an  unusual  crop  of 
152,496,000  bu.  ($45,749,000).  Also  important  were 
barley,  135,000  acres,  4,928,000  bu.  ($2,267,000) ; 
potatoes,  39,000  acres,  3,549,000  bu.  ($2,804,000). 
Farms  numbered  213,439  in  1940  and  averaged 
145.4  acres. 

Manufactures.  Yearly  production  of  manufac- 
tured goods  in  Illinois  totaled  $4,795,201,154  for 
1939;  $5,304,282,629  for  1937.  Other  totals  for 
1939  (each  with  that  for  1937  subjoined)  •  12,980 
(11,764)  establishments  employed  596,560  (668,- 
841)  persons  for  wages  of  $750,239,085  ($862,- 
793,453),  paid  for  material,  etc.,  and  contract  work 
$2,593,215,612  ($2,985,246,895),  and  added  to  ma- 
terial, by  manufacture,  $2,201,985,542  ($2,319,035,- 
734). 

Mineral  Production.  As  reckoned  by  the  U.S. 
Bureau  of  Mines  in  1940,  the  native  minerals  pro- 
duced in  Illinois  in  1938  had  a  total  value  of  $130,- 
155,803.  Coal  and  petroleum  furnished  somewhat 
less  than  four-fifths  of  the  whole.  A  trebling  of 
the  yearly  value  of  the  yield  of  petroleum  for 
1938,  as  against  1937,  offset  by  far  the  chief  part 
of  losses  in  the  production  of  coal  and  most  of  the 
other  native  minerals  The  rise  in  petroleum  yield 
went  still  faster  in  1939,  but  leveled  out  in  1940, 
into  fairly  stable  production  that  approximated 
146,000,000  bbl  a  year.  For  1939  the  output  of  pe- 
troleum attained  94,302,000  bbl.,  as  against  24,075,- 
000  for  1938  (value,  $30,100,000)  Among  two  doz- 
en new  fields  discovered  in  1939  several  were  in  so- 
called  old  territory  at  the  eastern  edge  of  the 
State ;  all  were  in  its  southern  half.  Deep  produc- 
tion in  the  Devonian  formation  started  in  the  Sa- 
lem field  in  November,  1939;  and  the  Salem  pool, 
source  of  more  than  half  the  State  total  for  the 
year,  took  rank  second  only  to  the  East  Texas 
field  among  the  Union's  producing  areas. 

The  production  of  coal  recovered  to  a  total  of 
some  46,450,000  net  tons  for  1939,  from  41,912,000 
tons  (value,  $71,838,000)  for  1938  Coke  (not  ac- 
counted a  native  mineral)  was  produced  to  the 
total  of  1,884,240  net  tons  (1939)  and  1,734,511 
tons  in  1938;  in  respective  values,  $11,963,932  and 
$11,706,788.  Coal  output  (1940)  :  49,495,000  tons. 

The  production  of  pig  iron,  a  great  non-native 
mineral  industry  of  Illinois,  rose  to  2,860,577  gross 
tons  for  1939,  from  1,519,572  for  1938;  by  value, 
to  $57,718,814,  from  $30,899,012.  The  production 
of  open-hearth  steel  rose  to  3,292,745  gross  tons 
(1939)  from  1,950,224  (1938) 

Education.  Inhabitants  of  school  age  in  Illinois 
(from  6  years  to  21)  were  stated  to  number  1,936,- 
806  in  1937.  For  the  academic  year  1938-39  (the 
latest  for  which  the  data  that  follow  had  ap- 
peared) enrollments  of  all  pupils  in  public  schools 
totaled  1,314,178:  this  comprised  941,707  in  ele- 
mentary study  and  372,471  in  high  school  The 
year's  expenditure  for  public-school  education 
amounted  to  $133,666,916,  current;  and  with  the 
addition  of  capital  outlay  and  debt-service,  $201,- 
362,473.  Teachers  numbered  48,919 ;  their  pay  for 
the  year  averaged  $1682.62. 


ILLINOIS 


346        IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRATION 


History.  Governor  Homer  died  on  October  6 
after  a  lingering  illness  that  had  kept  him  from 
his  desk  most  of  the  time  for  nearly  two  years ; 
he  had  nearly  finished  his  eighth  year  in  office. 
His  last  months  were  marked  by  persistent  efforts 
on  the  part  of  Lieutenant  Governor  Stelle  and  a 
clique  in  the  Legislature  to  supplant  him  on  the 
obvious  ground  of  his  physical  incapacity  and  thus 
to  effect  Stelle's  succession  Stelle  overplayed  his 
part  in  the  plan,  proclaiming  on  his  assumed  au- 
thority, on  the  eve  of  the  State  primary  and  at  the 
moment  of  Homer's  summoning  a  special  session 
of  the  Legislature,  his  own  assumption  of  the 
Governor's  office  (April  8).  Simultaneously  he  is- 
sued his  own  summons  for  the  meeting  of  the  Leg- 
islature, which  Horner  had  just  summoned. 
Stelle's  attempted  coup  did  not  help  him  at  the  pri- 
maries on  April  10.  Harry  B.  Hershey  won  from 
him  the  Democratic  nomination  to  be  candidate  for 
Governor.  Meeting  on  April  30,  the  houses  of  the 
Legislature  sent  committees  of  notification  to  the 
Governor's  mansion,  ignoring  Stelle's  claims,  and 
Stelle,  tacitly  dropping  his  pretension  to  the  high- 
er office,  took  his  place  as  presiding  officer  of  the 
Senate.  The  brief  Legislative  session  dealt  with 
several  matters  presented  in  Horncr's  summons, 
chiefly  the  liberalization  of  the  provisions  of  the 
State  for  old-age  assistance. 

The  Director  of  the  State's  Department  of  Pub- 
lic Works,  F.  L.  Smith,  died  in  a  bath  tub  on 
March  9.  He  was  at  the  time  a  defendant  in  a  suit 
for  an  accounting  of  a  sum  that  had  been  collected 
on  behalf  of  a  campaign,  then  being  planned,  for 
a  third  term  for  Horner.  Smith  had  reportedly 
wounded  himself  a  few  days  before  in  a  suicidal 
attempt;  the  coroner's  verdict  ascribed  his  death 
to  suicide  by  drowning  for  which,  however,  no 
sufficient  rational  motive  appeared 

New  efforts  on  behalf  of  the  Chicago  Drainage 
Canal  were  started  by  Illinois  in  the  U.S.  Supreme 
Court,  to  gain  permission  to  draw  more  water 
from  Lake  Michigan,  for  diversion  through  the 
canal  and  down  the  Illinois  River.  Six  other  of 
the  States  bordering  on  the  Great  Lakes — Minne- 
sota, Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania, 
and  New  York—took  steps  to  oppose  this  effort, 
and  the  increasing  prospect  of  agreement  on  the 
part  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  on  the  long- 
pending  plan  to  improve  the  Great  Lakes  and  the 
St  Lawrence  as  a  waterway  was  cited  in  the  press 
as  unfavorable  to  the  demands  put  forward  by  the 
State  of  Illinois. 

The  State  Supreme  Court  (October  11)  held 
unconstitutional  the  State's  act  of  1939  for  wages, 
on  public  works,  at  prevailing  rates. 

Chicago.  An  agreement  between  Chicago  and 
the  owners  and  creditors  of  transit  lines,  conclud- 
ed in  May,  subject  to  a  popular  vote  of  ratifica- 
tion, called  for  the  reorganization  of  the  several 
lines  as  a  united  system.  The  city  undertook  to 
give  the  projected  company  liberal  terms  as  to  the 
use  of  streets,  paving,  and  the  division  of  the  cost 
and  returns  of  the  unfinished  municipal  subway; 
the  new  transit  company  was  to  spend  $102,000,- 
000  in  the  course  of  eight  years,  for  cars,  struc- 
ture, and  other  renovation.  (See  RAPID  TRANSIT.) 
The  city  acquired  the  lands  needed  for  expanding 
the  Chicago  Air  Field  to  620  acres.^  County  Judge 
Jarecky,  the  usual  arbiter  of  taxes  in  Cook  Coun- 
ty under  its  system  of  court  review  in  advance  of 
tax-collection,  voided  $39,000,445,  or  about  one- 
fifth,  of  the  total  levy  for  1938,  so  called,  set  by 
Chicago  and  the  other  taxing  units  in  the  county. 


The  rate  of  the  year's  tax,  for  Chicago,  was  $9.12 
per  $100. 

A  man  alleged  to  hold  a  controlling  position  in 
commercialized  gambling  in  Chicago,  William  R. 
Johnson,  prosecuted  in  Federal  Court,  was  con- 
victed (October  12)  of  evading  $1,887,864  of  Fed- 
eral income  tax.  See  FOUNDATIONS;  PLANNING; 
RAPID  TRANSIT;  SEWERAGE  AND  SEWAGE  TREAT- 
MENT; TUNNELS;  WATER  WORKS. 

Elections.  The  popular  vote  at  the  general 
election,  November  5,  gave  Roosevelt  (Dem.) 
2,149,934  for  President,  a  moderate  plurality  of 
102,694  over  the  2,047,240  for  Willkie  (Rep.).  Re- 
publicans, none  the  less,  gained  the  two  chief  of- 
fices in  the  particular  bestowal  of  the  State: 
Dwight  H.  Green  (Rep.),  for  Governor,  with 
2,197,778,  defeated  Harry  B.  Hershey  (Dem.), 
who  had  1,940,833,  by  256,945;  C.  Wayland 
Brooks  (Rep.),  2,045,924,  for  U.S.  Senator,  beat 
the  incumbent,  James  M.  Slattery  (Dem.),  2,025,- 
097,  by  a  small  margin ;  while  16  Republicans  and 
11  Democrats  were  elected  US.  Representatives. 
Elections  to  the  Assembly  produced  Republican 
majorities  of  five  in  either  house 

Officers.  The  chief  officers  of  Illinois,  serving 
in  1940,  were*  Governor,  Henry  Horner  (Dem.), 
who  died  in  office  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Lieu- 
tenant Governor,  John  Stelle ;  Secretary  of  State, 
Edward  J.  Hughes;  Auditor,  Edward  J.  Barrett; 
Treasurer,  Louie  E  Lewis;  Attorney  General, 
John  E  Cassidy;  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction, John  A.  Wieland. 

ILLITERACY.  See  the  countries  under  Edu- 
cation 

IMMIGRATION  AND  NATURALIZA- 
TION SERVICE.  See  IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRA- 
TION, AND  NATURALIZATION 

IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRATION,  AND 
NATURALIZATION.  The  Immigration  and 
Naturalization  Service  of  the  U  S.  Department  of 
Justice  administers  the  Federal  immigration  and 
nationality  laws 

Immigration  and  Emigration.  During  the  fis- 
cal year  which  ended  June  30,  1940,  70,756  persons 
left  their  homes  in  foreign  countries  and  were 
admitted  to  the  United  States  for  the  first  time  for 
permanent  residence,  a  decrease  of  12,242  from  the 
1939  total.  Visitors,  transients,  and  resident  aliens 
returning  from  abroad  numbering  138,032  were  ad- 
mitted, a  decrease  of  47,301,  or  about  25  per  cent 
from  1939.  While  this  does  not  include  cruise  pas- 
sengers, travelers  between  continental  United  States 
and  outlying  possessions  and  persons  habitually 
crossing  and  recrossing  the  international  land 
boundaries,  it  is  thus  clear  that  the  number  of 
aliens  being  admitted  into  the  United  States  from 
abroad  is  relatively  small.  However,  unsettled  in- 
ternational conditions  have  made  it  imperative  that 
the  qualifications  and  credentials  of  all  aliens  com- 
ing to  the  United  States  be  examined  with  even 
more  thoroughness  than  heretofore. 

The  greatest  volume  of  movement  into  and  out 
of  the  United  States  takes  place  across  the  land 
boundaries.  During  fiscal  1940  there  were  50,102,- 
398  such  entries  (including  each  individual  cross- 
ing of  the  border  by  any  traveling  alien  or  United 
States  citizen),  of  which  28,121,041  were  by  aliens 
and  21,981,357  were  by  citizens.  The  total  number 
of  admissions  into  the  United  States,  after  inspec- 
tion by  officers  of  the  U.S.  Immigration  and  Natu- 
ralization Service,  was  51,822,280. 

The  admissions  of  aliens  who  commenced  their 
permanent  residence  in  the  United  States  and  the 


IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRATION        347        IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRATION 


departures  of  aliens  for  permanent  residence  in 
other  countries  are  shown  in  Table  I.  The  admis- 
sions for  permanent  residence  from  countries  which 
are  assigned  quotas  under  the  Quota  Act  of  1924 
are  shown  in  Table  II. 

TABLE  I— IMMIGRANT  ALIENS  ADMITTED  AND  EMI- 

GRANT  ALIENS  DEPARTED,  FISCAL  YEARS  1939  AND 

1940,  BY  COUNTRIES  O*  LAST  OR  INTENDED  FUTURE 

PERMANENT  RESIDENCE 


re-admitted  except  upon  the  approval  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  State  and  the  Attorney  General.  Under 
these  provisions,  1575  applications  were  received 
during  the  fiscal  year  1940.  Of  these  1475  were 
granted  and  1151  aliens  were  so  repatriated. 

TABLE  H— ANNUAL  QUOTAS  ALLOTTED  UNDER  1924 

ACT    AND  QUOTA  IMMIGRANTS  ADMITTED,  FISCAL 

YEARS  1939  AND  1940,  BY  COUNTRIES  OR  REGION  OF 

BIRTH  AND  SEX 


Immigrants               Emigrants 
Countries                     J939       1940           1939       1940 
All  countries.                        82,998    70,756       26,651    21,461 

Europe     63,138    50,454        13,770      9,143 
Albania           .                           229         152              31           21 
Belgium       .            .                  683      1,713            121           61 
Bulgaria                                     129          87              36          21 
Czechoslovakia                        2,896      1,074            145           39 
Denmark                                    306         250            199         140 
Estonia                                        93           75              17           17 
Finland                                       411         233             197         231 
France                               .       1,907      2,575             469         542 
Germany  and  Austria            33,515    21,520          4,211       1,978 
Great  Britain 
England                               2,739      5,850         1,639         998 
sScolland                                 277         263            651         312 
Wales                                       42          45              47           18 
Greece                                        907         811            470         261 
Hungary                                   1,348      1,902             124         136 
Ireland  (Eire)                            1,101          749             676         322 
Italy                                         6,570      5,302          1,829      1,534 
Latvia                                          168         288               18           13 
Lithuania                                    290         262              43           24 
Netherlands                              1,259      2,097             165          108 
Northern  Ireland     .                     88           90             158           75 
Norway     .                                 527         488            455         276 
Poland                                     3,072         702            315           81 
Portugal                                       422         448             283         448 
Rumania                                       421          333             126           83 
Soviet  Union                                  59           40             112          114 
Spam                                           257         259             133         447 
Sweden                                        342         518             557         437 
Swit/irland                               1,237      1,211             163         119 
\ugoslavia                               1,090        652            302         192 
Other  Europe                              753         465               78           95 

Asia                                            2,162      1,913          1,627      2,368 
China                                          642         643             524         998 
Japan                      .                     102         102             804      1,078 
Palestine                                   1,066         850              62           66 
Syria                    .                         207          111               42           29 
Other  Asia                                  145         207            195         197 

America  .                        .        17,139    17,822         8,954      8,163 
Canada                                   10,501     10,806            965         769 
Newfoundland                             312         272              69           35 
Mexico                                      2,640      2,313          5,117      4,584 
\Vest  Indies                       .       2,231      2,675          1,453      1,100 
Central  America                         530         639             425         470 
South  America                            915      1,115             922      1,004 
Other  America             .                 10            2                31 

Africa                                              218         202             101           93 
Australia                                         159         156              66         126 
New  Zealand              .                       54           51               21           36 
Philippine  Islands               .            119         137          2,090      1,516 
Pacific  Islands                                    9           21               20           16 

Quota  immigrants 
Nationality  or  country  of           Annual               admitttd  in  *—• 
birth                            quota              1939           1940 
All  countries       .   .                  153,774           62,402       51,997 
Albania                                                100                 97              88 
Belgium                                            1,304                307            441 
Bulgaria    .              ...                       100                105              92 
Czechoslovakia                         .        2,874             2,716          1,979 
Danzig,  Free  City  of  .                         100                177            100 
Denmark    .                                      1,181                282            255 
Estonia                     ....           116               107              98 
Finland       .                ...          .           569               461            282 
France                                                3,086                817             741 
Germany  and  Austria                      27,370           32,759        26,083 
Great  Britain  and  N  Ireland 
England                                                         2,096         1,974 
Northern  Ireland                      /-c  tt\                154             134 
Scotland                                   W'/Z1                506            488 
Wales                             .    .                                 72              42 
Greece                                                  307               3R1            346 
Hungary         .                                       869             1,087          1.432 
Ireland  (Eire)                                   17,853              1,418            966 
Italy  .                                     ..        5,802             4,155         3,905 
Latvia                         ...                 236                223             184 
Lithuania     .                             .386                365            294 
Luxemburg                               .           100                 24              24 
Netherlands            ..                        3,153                637         1,093 
Norway                                              2.377                465            456 
Poland                                               6,524             6,512         4,354 
Portugal                                                  440                 404            417 
Rumania                 .                              377                499            469 
Soviet  Union                              .         2,712              1,727          1,614 
Spam                                                    252                253            225 
Sweden                                       .         3,314                324            411 
Switzerland                        .       .        1,707                605            617 
Yugoslavia   .     .                                  845                850            651 
Other  Europe                                       500»              193            175 
Asia                          .                         1,649  *              835            797 
American  colonies                                 *                     419             374 
Other  quota  regions                            1,850»               370             396 
Sex  Male                                                            31,699        26,463 
Female    .                                                    30,703        25,534 

1  Includes  aliens  to  whom  visas  were  issued  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  preceding  year  which  were  charged  to  the  quota  for  that 
year 
*  Quota  for  colonies,  dependencies,  or  protectorates  included 
with  allotment  for  the  European  country  to  which  they  belong 

During  the  fiscal  year,  6954  aliens  were  deported 
under  warrants  of  deportation,  and  8594  deportable 
aliens  were  allowed  to  depart  at  their  own  expense 
without  warrants  of  deportation  The  total  of  en- 
forced departures  was  thus  15,548,  as  compared 
with  17,792  during  the  previous  year.  The  use  of 
more  effective  methods  in  preventing  illegal  entry 
and  the  present  impossibility  of  obtaining  trans- 
portation for  aliens  deportable  to  many  European 
countries  are  among  the  reasons  for  this  decrease. 
The  principal  classes  of  aliens  deported  under 
warrants  were,  in  order,  "entered  without  valid 
visa,"  "criminals,"  "previously  debarred  or  deport- 
ed," and  "remained  longer  than  authorized."  Over 
half  of  the  aliens  deported,  or  3902,  were  returned 
to  Mexico;  1503  were  returned  to  Canada;  228  to 
Italy;   and  202  to  Great  Britain  and   Northern 
Ireland. 
The   Border  Patrol.  Unsettled  international 
conditions  always  have  an  effect  upon  the  problems 
of  the  Border  Patrol  Consequently,  assisted  by  in- 
creased appropriations,  the  equipment  and  person- 
nel of  the  Border  Patrol  is  being  enlarged.  An  act 
of  Congress  on  June  27,  1940,  appropriated  $2,000,- 
000  to  provide  for  adding  769  persons  to  the  Bor- 
der Patrol  force,  increasing  the  number  of  patrol 
cars  from  309  to  500,  and  for  adding  a  number  of 

NOTE  1  —  The  number  of  immigrants  shown  above  as  admitted 
include  not  only  quota  immigrants  as  shown  in  Table  II  but  non- 
quota immigrants,  being  wives  of  citizens,  husbands  who  married 
citizen  wives  prior  to  luly  1,  1932,  children  of  citizens,  etc  It  will 
also  be  noted  that  this  table  is  based  on  the  country  of  last  resi- 
dence of  the  immigrant  These  figures  do  not,  therefore,  agree  ac- 
curately with  the  immigration  quota  figures  included  in  Table  II, 
because  the  quota  under  which  any  immigrant  is  admitted  is  that 
of  the  country  of  his  birth,  not  that  of  the  country  of  his  last  resi- 
dence NOTE  2  —Immigrants  admitted  from  the  "barred  zone"  of 
Asia  are  mainly  persons  of  the  white  race. 

The  number  of  aliens  debarred  at  ports  of  entry 
during  1940  was  5300.  Of  these  3127  were  not  per- 
mitted to  enter  because  they  were  without  valid 
consular  visas,  and  1296  were  refused  entry  be- 
cause they  were  likely  to  become  public  charges. 
Repatriations  and  Deportations.  The  Immi- 
gration and  Naturalization  Service  is  authorized  to 
remove  to  other  countries  at  government  expense 
aliens  who  have  fallen  into  distress  or  need  public 
aid  from  causes  arising  after  their  entry  and  who 
want  to  be  so  removed.  Such  aliens  may  not  be 

IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRATION        348        IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRATION 


autogiros,  more  radio  equipment,  water  craft, 
horses,  firearms,  and  other  accessories. 

During  the  fiscal  year,  officers  of  the  Border 
Patrol  patrolled  7,895,348  miles  and  questioned 
987,274  persons  Criminal  prosecutions  totalling 
2846  resulted  from  Border  Patrol  apprehensions 
of  persons  for  violation  of  the  immigration  laws. 
These  were  disposed  of  by  2766  convictions  and 
but  80  acquittals  and  dismissals. 

Naturalization.  The  desire  of  aliens  to  become 
citizens  of  the  United  States  continued  with  in- 
creasing intensity  In  the  fiscal  year  1940,  203,536 
declarations  of  intention  were  filed,  as  compared 
with  155,691  in  1939  and  150,673  in  1938  Petitions 
for  naturalization  numbered  278,028  (213,413  in 
1939  and  175,413  in  1938)  and  certificates  of  natu- 
ralization issued,  235,260  (188,813  and  162,078). 

The  nations  to  which  aliens  admitted  to  citizen- 
ship during  the  fiscal  year,  1940,  formerly  owed 
allegiance  were :  British  Empire,  59,680 ;  Italy,  37,- 
357;  Poland,  26,964;  Germany,  25,802;  Soviet 
Russia,  15,598 ;  Czechoslovakia,  9059 ;  Yugoslavia, 
6908 ;  Hungary,  6291 ;  Sweden,  5746 ;  Greece,  4378 ; 
all  other  countries,  37,477 

Among  the  causes  of  these  increases  were  the 
Congressional  barring  of  aliens  from  WPA  em- 
ployment and  the  refusal  of  some  States  to  grant 
them  old-age  benefits,  the  increasing  attractiveness 
of  United  States  citizenship  because  of  interna- 
tional conditions,  and  the  enactment  of  the  "Alien 
Registration  Act,  1940,"  which  requires  aliens  to 
register  and  be  fingerprinted 

New  Legislation.  Of  the  numerous  proposals 
advanced  in  Congress  affecting  aliens,  several  of 
importance  were  enacted  into  law. 

Under  the  Act  of  Mar  2,  1929,  an  alien  of  good 
moral  character  not  ineligible  to  citizenship  and 
not  subject  to  deportation  who  entered  the  United 
States  before  June  3,  1921,  hut  in  whose  case  there 
is  no  record  of  admission  for  permanent  residence, 
is  permitted  to  apply  to  the  Immigration  and  Natu- 
ralization Service  to  create  a  valid  record  of  entry 
for  immigration  and  naturalization  purposes.  By 
the  Act  of  Aug.  7,  1939,  Congress  extended  this 
privilege  to  aliens  who  had  entered  the  United 
States  before  July  1,  1924  The  result  was  that 
there  were  31,565  applications  for  the  creation  of 
such  records  during  1940,  more  than  double  the 
number  received  in  1939  Each  of  these  requires 
thorough  investigation  to  determine  whether  or 
not  the  alien  is  entitled  to  have  such  a  record 
created 

The  President's  Reorganization  Plan  No.  V,  ap- 
proved June  4,  1940,  transferred  the  Immigration 
and  Naturalization  Service  from  the  Department 
of  Labor  to  the  Department  of  Justice  Interna- 
tional conditions  had  emphasized  the  need  for 
closer  scrutiny  and  control  of  the  alien  population. 
It  was  thought  that  this  could  be  accomplished 
more  easily  if  the  Service  were  more  completely 
co-ordinated  with  the  police  functions  of  the  De- 
partment of  Justice. 

The  Alien  Registration  Act,  1940,  approved  on 
June  28,  1940,  requires  that  a  record  be  made  and 
kept  of  aliens  in  the  United  States  (including 
Alaska,  Hawaii,  Puerto  Rico,  and  the  Virgin  Is- 
lands) and  adds  to  the  classes  of  aliens  who  are 
subject  to  deportation.  Under  its  provisions,  aliens 
are  to  be  registered  and  fingerprinted  when  they 
apply  for  their  visas  at  the  offices  of  United  States 
consuls  abroad.  Those  aliens  who  were  in  the 
United  States  sixty  days  after  the  passage  of  the 
Act  were  required  to  be  registered  and  finger- 


printed before  Dec.  27,  1940.  Other  aliens  who  re- 
main in  the  United  States  thirty  days  or  longer 
must  apply  for  registration  and  fingerprinting  with- 
in such  period.  Alien  children  less  than  14  years 
of  age  are  to  be  registered  through  the  parent  or 
legal  guardian.  When  they  reach  the  age  of  14 
years,  they  themselves  must  within  thirty  days 
thereafter  apply  for  registration  and  fingerprint- 
ing. Foreign  government  officials  and  their  families 
are  exempt  from  the  requirements  to  be  registered 
and  fingerprinted. 

The  information  required  in  registration  includes 
data  relating  to  the  alien's  name,  address,  date  and 
place  of  birth,  citizenship,  personal  characteristics, 
date  and  other  facts  concerning  the  arrival  in  the 
United  States,  length  of  time  in  the  United  States, 
activities  in  which  engaged  including  those  of  a 
subversive  nature,  military  service,  naturalization 
status,  relatives  in  the  United  States,  and  criminal 
record,  if  any 

Aliens  must  also  report  changes  in  their  addres- 
ses. Every  alien  resident  who  changes  his  residence 
is  required  to  report  the  change  within  five  days  to 
the  Immigration  and  Naturalization  Service.  All 
other  aliens  not  permanently  residing  in  the  United 
States  who  have  been  registered  must  notify  the 
Service  of  their  addresses  at  the  end  of  Crich  three 
months  of  stay  in  the  United  States  Parents  or 
legal  guardians  are  to  give  notices  of  changes  of 
addresses  of  aliens  less  than  14  years  of  age. 

Registration  of  aliens  took  place  at  all  first  and 
second  class  post  offices  and  at  post  offices  in  all 
county  seats.  The  total  number  of  aliens  who  regis- 
tered, including  those  who  registered  in  the  Terri- 
tories and  consular  offices,  and  alien  seamen,  was 
approximately  4,900,000. 

The  Alien  Registration  Act  also  specifies  de- 
portation for  aliens  who  have  been  convicted  of 
unlawfully  possessing  or  carrying  automatic  weap- 
ons or  sawed-off  shotguns,  or  who  smuggle  other 
aliens  into  the  United  States  for  gain,  or  who  are 
convicted  of  subversive  activities  The  applicabil- 
ity, in  relation  to  the  deportation  of  all  alien 
violators,  of  the  Narcotic  Act  of  Feb  18,  1931,  and 
of  the  Act  of  Oct  16,  1918,  relating  to  anarchistic 
and  other  subversive  activities,  was  also  enlarged 

In  the  same  Act,  the  Attorney  General  was  given 
a  measure  of  discretion  in  suspending  deportation 
in  certain  classes  of  worthy  cases  where,  among 
other  things,  (1)  the  alien  is  of  good  moral  char- 
acter, (2)  he  is  not  ineligible  to  naturalization, 
and  (3)  such  deportation  would  result  in  serious 
economic  hardship  to  a  citizen  or  legally  resident 
alien  who  is  the  spouse,  parent,  or  minor  child  of 
the  alien.  If  the  Congress  does  not  disapprove  this 
suspension  of  deportation,  the  stay  may  be  made 
final,  the  proceedings  canceled,  and  if  no  record  of 
entry  for  permanent  admission  exists  one  may  be 
created  upon  the  payment  of  a  fee  of  $18. 

The  Act  of  July  1,  1940,  which  amended  the 
Quota  Act  of  1924,  removed  some  of  the  immuni- 
ties of  government  officials,  and  their  families,  at- 
tendants, servants,  and  employees  Such  an  official 
must  now  be  "an  accredited  official  of  a  foreign 
government  recognized  by  the  Government  of  the 
United  States."  Moreover,  he  and  his  family  are 
now  required  to  maintain  the  status  under  which 
they  were  admitted  However,  such  aliens  may  not 
be  required  to  depart  from  the  United  States  with- 
out the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  State 

A  significant  improvement  in  the  law  relating  to 
nationality  was  accomplished  through  the  enact- 
ment of  the  Nationality  Act  of  1940,  approved 


IMPORTS 


349 


INDIA 


Oct.  14,  1940.  This  act  repeals  other  acts  dealing 
with  naturalization,  citizenship,  and  expatriation 
and  substitutes  an  orderly  codification  of  their 
provisions,  plus  amendments  to  the  former  laws 
where  experience  had  shown  them  to  be  weak  or 
vague.  Among  the  changes  in  the  nationality  law 
which  were  brought  about  through  the  enactment 
of  this  code  are  the  following : 

1.  The  requirements  for  the  naturalization  of  persons 
who  have  served  with  the  military  forces  of  the  United 
States  have  been  simplified  and  the  necessary  proof  stand- 
ardized. 

2.  More  rigid  provisions  have  been  included  prohibiting 
the  naturalization  of  persons  who  are  or  have  been  mem- 
bers of  anarchistic  or  other  subversive  groups  or  who  have 
believed  in  or  advocated  subversive  doctrines  or  sabotage 
within  10  years  of  filing  a  petition  for  naturalization 

3.  More  than  100  criminal  offenses  against  the  nation- 
ahty  laws,  which  carry  with  them  penalties  up  to  a  maxi- 
mum of  $5000  or  five  years  in  prison  or  both,  have  been 
clearly  stated 

4  A  number  of  additional  ways  in  which  a  person  may 
lose  United  States  nationality  have  been  included 

5  Provision  has  been  made  for  the  termination  of  dual 
nationality,  unless  the  person  affected  returns  to  the  United 
States  and  takes  up  permanent  residence  within  two  years 
of  attaining  majority  as  a  demonstration  of  election  to  re- 
tain United  States  citizenship 

6  Children   !*>rn    in   a    foreign    country    must   be   less 
than  18  years  of  age  to  acquire  citizenship  through  parent- 
age,  and.  if  only  one  parent  is  a  citizen  at  the  time  of 
the  child's  birth,  the  citizen  parent  must  have  resided  in 
the  United  States  preceding  the  child's  birth  for  at  least 
10  years,  five  of  which  must  have  been  after  reaching  the 
age  of  16  years 

7.  The  practice  of  designating  naturalization  examiners 
to  conduct  preliminary  hearings  in  naturalization  cases  and 
to  make  recommendations  to  the  courts  has  been  extended 
to  the  State  courts,  having  been  confined  previously  to 
the  Federal  courts 

8  Authority  is  granted  to  the  head  of  the  Immigration 
and  Naturalization  Service  to  determine  the.  scope  and 
nature  of  the  examination  to  be  given  to  petitioners  for 
naturalization 

LEMUEL  B.  SCHOFIELD. 

IMPORTS.  See  TRADE,  FOREIGN  and  articles 
there  referred  to.  For  import  quotas,  see  CUS- 
TOMS, RURFMJ  OP 

INCINERATION.  See  GARBAGE  AND  REF- 
USE DISPOSAL 

INDIA.  A  dependency  of  the  British  Empire, 
consisting  of  British  India,  or  the  territories  sub- 
ject to  British  law,  and  the  Indian  States,  ruled  by 
native  princes  but  under  the  indirect  control  of  the 
British  Parliament  Capital,  New  Delhi.  Summer 
seat  of  government  (April  to  October),  Simla 

Area  and  Population.  The  total  population  of 
British  India  and  the  Indian  States  under  British 
control  (except  Burma)  was  officially  estimated  at 
365,900,000  on  Jan.  1,  1939  Tbe  area  and  popula- 
tion of  the  British  (governors')  provinces  and  of 
the  Indian  States  and  Agencies  at  the  1931  census 
are  shown  in  tbe  accompanying  table 

Registered  births  in  tbe  British  provinces  in  1938 
numbered  9,398,011  (34  1  per  1000) ,  deaths,  6,685,- 
120  (24  3  per  1000)  Populations  of  the  chief  cities 
at  the  1931  census  were-  Calcutta,  with  suburbs 
and  Howrah,  1,485,582,  Bombay,  1,161,383;  Ma- 
dras, 647,230;  Hyderabad,  466,894;  Delhi  (includ- 
ing Shahdara,  New  Delhi,  and  Cantonment),  447,- 
442;  Lahore,  429,747;  Ahmedabad,  313,789;  Ban- 
galore, 306,470 ;  Lucknow,  274,659 ;  Amritsar,  264,- 
840;  Karachi,  263.565;  Poona,  250,187;  Cawnpore, 
243,755;  Agra,  229,764;  Nagpur,  215,165;  Bena- 
res, 205,315 

Education  and  Religion.  The  number  of  per- 
sons able  to  read  and  write  is  about  30,000,000. 
The  number  of  pupils  reported  in  attendance  by 
226,331  educational  institutions  in  the  academic 
year  1937-38  was  13,831,707,  About  one-half  of 
the  elementary  schools  were  aided  or  maintained 


by  the  State.  Universities  numbered  15  in  British 
India.  The  1931  census  showed  229,195,140  Hin- 
dus; 77,677,545  Moslems;  12,786,806  Buddhists; 
8,280,347  followers  of  tribal  cults ;  6,296,763  Chris- 
tians; 4,335,771  Sikhs;  1,252,105  Jams;  109,752 
Zoroastrians ;  and  24,141  Jews. 

BRITISH  PROVINCES  AND  INDIAN  STATES- 
AREA  AND  POPULATION 


Area  in 

Population, 

British  Provinces 

sq  miles 

^931 

Ajmer-Merwara 
Andamans  and  Nicobars 
Assam 

2,711 
3,143 
67,334 

560,292 
29,463 
9,247,857 

Baluchistan 

134,638 

868,617 

Bengal 
Bihar  and  Orissa 

82,955 
111,702 

51,087.338 
42,329,583 

Bombay  (Presidency) 

151,673 

26,398,997 

Aden 

80 

51,478 

Burma 
Central  Provinces  and  Berar 

233,492 
H  1,095 

14,667,146 
17,990,937 

Coorg 

1,593 

163,327 

Delhi 

573 

636,246 

Madras 
Northwest  Frontier  Province 

143,870 
36,356 

47,193,602 
4,684,364 

Punjab 

105,020 

24,018,639 

United  Provinces. 

112,191 

49,614,833 

Total  Provinces 

1,318,346 

289,491,241 

Indian  States  and  Agencies 

Baroda  State 

8,164 

2,443,007 

Central  India  Agency 

51,597 

6,632,790 

Cochin  State 

1,480 

1,205,016 

Gwalior  State 

26,367 

3,523,070 

Hyderabad  State 
Jammu  and  Kashmir  States 

82,698 
84,516 

14,436,148 
3,646,243 

Mysore  State 

29,326 

6,557,302 

Punjab  States 

31,241 

4,472,218 

Rajputana  Agency 

129,059 

11,225,712 

Sikkim 

2,818 

109,808 

Travancore 

7,625 

5,095,973 

Western  India  Agency 

35,442 

3,999,250 

Total  States 

490,333 

63,346,537 

Total  Provinces 

1,318,346 

289,491,241 

Total  India 

1,808,679 

352,837  778 

India  without  Burma 

1,575,187 

338,170,632 

NOTE  — Figures  for  the  Provinces  include  those  of  the  States 
attached  to  them  except  in  the  case  of  Madras,  where  they  exclude 
Cochin  and  Travancore.  Aden  and  Burma  were  separated  from 
India,  Apr  1,1937 

Production.  About  71  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion is  engaged  in  agriculture  or  stock-raising  Re- 
cent harvests  in  metric  tons  (in  the  1939-40  season 
unless  otherwise  stated)  were:  Wheat,  10,093,400; 
rice,  38,532,000  (excluding  several  States) ;  cane 
sugar,  2,770,000 ;  tobacco,  495,800  (excluding  most 
Indian  States)  ;  cotton,  907,200;  barley  (excluding 
Indian  States),  2,119,500  (1938-39)  ;  corn  (ex- 
cluding Indian  States),  2,080,800  (1938-39)  ;  cof- 
fee (incomplete  returns),  16,000  (1938-39)  ;  tea, 
205,000  (1938-39). 

Mineral  production  (in  metric  tons)  in  1939  (ex- 
cept when  otherwise  specified)  was  Steel  (ingots 
and  castings),  1,035,000,  coal  (British  provinces 
only),  25,044,000;  crude  petroleum,  328,000;  cop- 
per (smelter),  6800;  iron  ore,  1,790,000  (1938); 
pig  iron,  1,785,000  (1938)  ;  manganese  ore,  492,000 
(1938)  ;  cement,  1,142,000  (1937)  Indian  mills 
produced  about  1,159,513,000  Ib.  of  cotton  yarn  in 
the  year  ending  Mar  31,  1938  Jute  production  in 
1939  totaled  1,748,100  metric  tons. 

Foreign  Trade.  Merchandise  imports  in  the 
calendar  year  1939  totaled  1,549,600,000  rupees; 
exports,  1,814,400,000  rupees.  In  1938,  imports  were 
1,502,100,000  rupees;  exports,  1,623,700,000  rupees. 
For  distribution  of  trade  see  1939  Y*AR  BOOK,  p. 
358.  Also  see  TRADF,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  endinu  Mar.  31, 
1941.  revenue  was  estimated  at  926,400,000  rupees ; 


INDIA 


350 


INDIA 


expenditures  at  925,900,000  rupees.  Actual  receipts 
in  1939-40  totaled  943,300,000  rupees;  expendi- 
tures, 877,600,000  rupees.  The  funded  debt  amount- 
ed to  4,502,300,000  rupees  and  £280,100,000  on 
Mar.  31,  1940,  as  compared  with  4,379,200,000  ru- 
pees and  £297,380,000  a  year  earlier.  The  average 
exchange  value  of  the  rupee  was  $0.3016  in  1940 
and  $03328  in  1939. 

Transportation.  On  Mar.  31,  1939,  railway 
mileage  totaled  41,172  The  State  railway  budget 
for  1940-41  estimated  receipts  at  1,030,000,000  ru- 
pees and  expenditures  at  954,600,000  rupees.  In 
1938-^39  the  tonnage  of  vessels  which  entered  and 
cleared  in  the  interportal  trade  was  16,444,179  and 
16,082,155  respectively.  Highways  in  1940  extended 
319,131  miles.  Under  construction  in  1940  was  a 
motor  highway  between  North-West  Frontier 
Province  and  Baluchistan,  to  link  Quetta  and  Pe- 
shawar. Its  course  runs  through  gorges  in  moun- 
tains that  stand  11,000  ft.  high.  The  principal  In- 
dian cities  are  connected  with  British,  Dutch,  and 
French  air  lines  to  the  Far  East  and,  via  Hong 
Kong,  with  the  American  trans-Pacific  service.  In 
August,  1939,  there  were  also  nine  internal  air 
routes  covering  5247  miles 

Government.  The  King  of  Great  Britain  and 
Northern  Ireland  also  hears  the  title  of  Emperor 
of  India.  The  Constitution,  known  as  the  Govern- 
ment of  India  Act,  1935,  provided  for  an  Indian 
federation  and  provincial  autonomy.  Provincial  au- 
tonomy went  into  effect  Apr  1,  1937,  when  elec- 
tive legislative  assemblies  with  responsible  min- 
istries were  established  in  the  11  Governors'  Prov- 
inces under  direct  British  rule.  In  October-Novem- 
ber, 1939,  the  All-India  Congress  ministries  in 
eight  of  the  11  provinces  resigned  and  on  Nov.  5, 
1939,  the  Governor  General  utilized  his  emergency 
powers  to  restore  all  governing  powers  in  these 
provinces  to  the  appointive  British  governors  (see 
1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  360).  Parliamentary  govern- 
ment was  retained  in  the  other  three  provinces 
throughout  1940. 

The  federation  scheme  provided  for  the  union 
under  a  central  government  of  the  11  Governors' 
Provinces  and  the  584  Native  States,  ruled  by 
Princes  owing  suzerainty  to  the  British  Crown. 
For  different  and  often  contradictory  reasons  fed- 
eration was  opposed  by  most  of  the  politically 
vocal  elements  in  India  (see  preceding  YEAR 
BOOKS).  Following  the  outbreak  of  the  European 
War,  the  Governor  General  announced  Sept.  11, 
1939.  that  no  further  steps  toward  federation 
would  be  taken  until  peace  was  concluded. 

In  the  meantime  executive  powers  were  concen- 
trated in  the  hands  of  the  Governor  General,  or 
Viceroy,  who  is  appointed  by  the  Crown,  usually 
for  five  years,  and  assisted  by  an  appointive  Coun- 
cil, composed  of  high  officials  responsible  for  the 
various  administrative  departments  The  Governor 
General  also  holds  the  separate  office  of  Crown 
Representative  (established  Apr.  1,  1937)  through 
which  he  performs  the  functions  of  the  Crown  in 
relation  to  the  Native  States.  Pending  the  federa- 
tion of  the  Governors1  Provinces  and  Native 
States,  the  Governor  General  remains  under  the 
direction  of  the  Secretary  of  State  for  India  in 
the  British  Cabinet,  and  the  Central  Legislature 
of  British  India,  established  in  ^1921,  continued  in 
existence.  The  Legislature  consisted  of  a  Council 
of  State  of  32  elected  and  26  nominated  members 
(serving  five  years)  and  a  Legislative  Assembly 
of  102  elected  and  39  nominated  members  (serving 
three  years).  The  Central  Legislature's  actions 


were  not  binding  on  the  Governor  General  and  his 
Cabinet 

The  All-India  Congress,  the  most  powerful  In- 
dian political  party,  captured  57  of  the  102  elective 
seats  in  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  the  1934  elec- 
tions. Due  to  delay  in  putting  the  federation 
scheme  into  effect,  the  Governor  General  extended 
the  life  of  the  1934  Legislative  Assembly  by  four 
successive  acts  to  Oct.  1,  1941  Governor  General 
and  Crown  Representative,  the  Marquess  of  Lin- 
lithgow,  who  assumed  office  Apr.  18,  1936,  and 
whose  term  was  extended  in  1940  for  an  additional 
year  from  April,  1941. 

HISTORY 

Political  Developments.  The  All-India  Con- 
gress continued  throughout  1940  its  efforts  of  1939 
(see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939)  to  obtain  a  pledge  of  im- 
mediate independence  from  Great  Britain  as  the 
price  of  its  co-operation  in  the  European  War 
This  demand  was  opposed  by  the  Princes  of  the 
Native  States,  by  the  All-India  Moslem  League, 
and  various  other  groups  While  making  concilia- 
tory offers,  the  British  held  to  their  demand  for 
an  accord  between  the  Indian  political  and  reli- 
gious groups  as  a  prerequisite  to  further  self-gov- 
ernment. When  this  stalemate  remained  unbroken, 
the  All-India  Congress,  under  the  leadership  of 
Mohandas  Karamchad  Gandhi,  resorted  to  passive 
"civil  disobedience"  during  the  last  quarter  of  the 
year. 

Speaking  at  Bombay  on  January  11,  the  Viceroy 
renewed  his  offer  of  eventual  Dominion  status, 
but  a  conference  between  him  and  Gandhi  on  Feb- 
ruary 5  proved  fruitless  and  on  March  1  the 
Working  Committee  of  the  All-India  Congress 
threatened  once  more  to  renew  civil  disobedience. 
Meanwhile  on  February  15  the  Congress  elected  a 
Moslem,  Maulana  Abul  Kalam  Azad,  as  its  presi- 
dent in  an  effort  to  heal  the  Hindu-Moslem  breach 
and  undermine  the  position  of  Ah  Jmnah,  leader 
of  the  All-India  Moslem  League 

Gandhi's  Leadership  Endorsed.  At  the  an- 
nual convention  of  the  All-India  Congress  held  at 
Ramgarh  in  March,  a  serious  revolt  against  Gan- 
dhi's moderate  policies  and  methods  was  staged  by 
the  radical  wing  of  the  movement  led  by  Subhas 
Chandra  Bose  Bose  demanded  immediate  violent 
steps  to  attain  complete  independence  and  the  adop- 
tion of  an  industrialization  policy  for  India  in 
place  of  Gandhi's  program  for  developing  handi- 
craft industries.  The  Bose  faction  was  decisively 
defeated  by  Gandhi,  supported  by  the  party's  "old 
guard,"  on  March  18,  and  Gandhi  thereafter  as- 
sumed unquestioned  control  of  the  Congress's  in- 
dependence campaign.  The  Ramgarh  convention 
voted  f  him  complete  authority  to  launch  non-vio- 
lent civil  disobedience  at  his  discretion.  On  March 
20  it  passed  a  resolution  rejecting  any  participa- 
tion in  the  European  War  and  demanding  the  im- 
mediate election  of  a  constituent  assembly  by  uni- 
versal adult  suffrage  to  determine  India's  future 
constitutional  status. 

While  Gandhi  began  preparations  for  a  civil  dis- 
obedience campaign,  the  All-India  Moslem  League 
held  its  annual  conference  at  Lahore.  On  March  23 
it  adopted  a  resolution  rejecting  an  all-India  fed- 
eration and  urging  the  union  of  the  predominantly 
Moslem  areas  in  a  group  of  autonomous  states. 
Jinnah  declared  that  the  All-India  Congress's  pro- 
gram meant  "the  complete  destruction  of  all  that 
is  most  precious  in  Islam"  and  would  lead  to  civil 
war.  He  said  Moslem  India  would  support  the 


INDIA 


351 


INDIA 


British  in  the  European  War  as  "our  practical  in* 
terests  are  to  have  Britain  win." 

The  Moslem  League's  position  was  denounced 
by  those  Moslems  affiliated  with  the  All-India 
Congress.  But  it  caused  Gandhi  to  delay  the  civil 
disobedience  campaign,  and  this  in  turn  precipitated 
more  violent  attacks  upon  Gandhi  and  his  follow- 
ers by  the  extremist  Bose  faction  of  the  Congress 
party.  The  Indian  Government  arrested  the  secre- 
tary-general of  the  Bose  faction  on  April  12,  and 
on  April  18  official  warning  was  given  that  Britain 
would  take  "full  measures"  to  repress  civil  dis- 
obedience. At  the  same  time  Lord  Zetland,  Secre- 
tary of  State  for  India,  called  for  a  resumption  of 
negotiations  among  all  of  the  interested  groups  on 
India's  future.  He  said  Britain  was  anxious  to  help 
India  attain  Dominion  status  at  the  earliest  pos- 
sible moment  and  recognized  that  the  people  of 
India  should  play  a  vital  part  in  shaping  their  fu- 
ture, but  that  it  could  not  permit  the  drafting  of  a 
new  Constitution  without  its  participation.  Lord 
Zetland  renewed  the  offer  "to  associate  the  politi- 
cal parties  in  India  with  the  Central  Government." 

Effect  of  European  Situation.  This  appeal 
evoked  little  response.  The  outbreak  of  the  threat- 
ened civil  disobedience  campaign  appeared  immi- 
nent when  the  German  invasion  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries on  May  10  caused  the  Congress  leaders  to  re- 
appiaise  the  situation.  Gandhi,  Pandit  Jawaharlal 
Nehru,  and  other  Congress  leaders  declared  they 
had  no  desire  to  embarrass  Britain  while  she  was 
fighting  a  life  and  death  struggle  with  Nazi  Ger- 
many, but  they  nevertheless  insisted  that  the  in- 
dependence issue  could  not  be  postponed  until  aft- 
er the  war. 

Germany's  success  in  over-running  the  Nether- 
lands, Belgium,  and  France  was  reflected  in  the 
decision  of  the  All-India  Congress  working  com- 
mittee on  June  21  to  discard  the  principle  of  non- 
violence in  dealing  with  internal  disorder  or  ex- 
ternal aggression.  This  decision  was  taken  in 
defiance  of  Gandhi's  views.  It  revealed  alarm  as 
to  India's  fate  if  Britain  was  defeated  On  June 
25  the  British  Government,  in  view  of  the  possible 
severance  of  communications  with  India,  author- 
ized the  Viceroy  and  his  officials  to  govern  India 
without  consulting  the  home  government. 

Another  conference  between  Gandhi  and  Lord 
Linhthgow  on  June  29  failed  to  break  the  stale- 
mate. On  July  2  Subhas  Chandra  Bose  was  ar- 
rested in  Calcutta  along  with  other  Congress  lead- 
ers following  the  launching  of  a  passive  resistance 
movement  in  Bengal  Province  to  secure  removal 
of  the  "Black  Hole"  monument  The  Bengal  Gov- 
ernment on  July  23  yielded  to  this  agitation  and 
agreed  to  destroy  the  monument.  Meanwhile  the 
All-India  Congress  working  committee  on  July  7 
and  the  executive  committee  on  July  28  adopted 
resolutions  offering  to  co-operate  in  Britain's  war 
effort  if  the  British  would  recognize  India's  right 
of  complete  independence  and  establish  an  Indian 
Government  commanding  the  support  of  a  major- 
ity of  the  elected  members  of  the  existing  Legis- 
lative Assembly. 

In  reply  the  Viceroy  and  the  new  British  Sec- 
retary of  State  for  India,  L  S.  Amery,  on  Au- 
gust 8  renewed  Britain's  pledge  of  a  "free  and 
equal  partnership  in  the  British  Commonwealth" 
after  the  war.  They  again  invited  representatives 
of  the  All-India  Congress  and  other  groups  to 
join  the  Viceroy's  Council  immediately.  In  addi- 
tion, they  advanced  the  new  proposal  that  a  war 
advisory  council  be  established  immediately,  com- 


posed of  representatives  of  all  Indian  interests, 
including  the  Native  States.  This  offer  was  re- 
jected as  inadequate  by  the  Congress  working  com- 
mittee on  August  22,  although  the  All-India  Mos- 
lem League  hailed  it  as  a  "progressive  advance" 
toward  its  objective. 

Civil  Disobedience.  Thereafter  the  breach  be- 
tween the  British  Government  and  the  All-India 
Congress  gradually  widened.  Gandhi  was  re-elected 
as  director  of  the  civil  disobedience  campaign  on 
September  17  with  only  the  seven  Communist  mem- 
bers opposing  him.  He  began  to  introduce  passive 
resistance  a  step  at  a  time,  while  insisting  that  no 
action  be  taken  that  would  hinder  Britain  in  the 
prosecution  of  the  war.  The  conditional  offer  to 
co-operate  in  Britain's  war  effort  was  withdrawn. 
Nehru  and  various  other  Congress  members  were 
selected  by  Gandhi  publicly  to  oppose  Indian  par- 
ticipation in  the  European  conflict  They  were  ar- 
rested by  the  authorities  for  violation  of  the  De- 
fense of  India  regulations.  The  government  mean- 
while proceeded  much  more  energetically  against 
Bose's  extremist  faction,  arresting  many  of  the 
leading  members.  The  Secretary  of  Stale  for  India 
stated  before  the  British  Parliament  on  November 
20  that  the  government  recognized  Gandhi's  right 
of  conscientious  objection,  but  could  not  grant  his 
followers  the  right  to  urge  the  Indian  people  not 
to  enlist,  co-operate  in  the  manufacture  of  muni- 
tions, or  contribute  to  war  funds. 

An  appeal  to  all  Indian  factions  to  formulate 
immediately  a  mutually  acceptable  plan  of  gov- 
ernment that  would  enable  India  to  join  in  the 
struggle  against  Hitler  was  issued  December  23 
by  a  group  of  British  members  of  Parliament  ac- 
quainted with  Indian  affairs.  They  asserted  that 
the  British  people  were  "irrevocably  resolved  to 
give  India  full  political  freedom."  On  the  same 
date  a  win-the-war  movement  was  launched  in 
Bombay,  in  opposition  to  the  All-India  Congress 
policy,  by  the  former  Congress  premier  of  the 
Central  Provinces,  Dr.  Narayan  Bhaskar  Kare, 
and  a  former  Indian  Communist  leader,  Mahen- 
dranath  Roy. 

India's  War  Contribution.  Despite  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  All-India  Congress,  the  Indian  Gov- 
ernment proceeded  to  mobilize  India's  economic 
and  military  resources  for  the  European  war  on 
an  increasing  scale.  Indian  troops,  mostly  Moslems, 
had  been  sent  to  Aden,  Singapore,  and  France  in 
1939.  During  1940  heavy  reinforcements  were  dis- 
patched to  Egypt  and  Great  Britain.  In  mid-No- 
vember 60,000  were  serving  overseas.  The  British 
Government  on  March  1  announced  that  it  would 
share  the  cost  of  maintaining  Indian  troops  over- 
seas It  advanced  £34,000,000,  one- fourth  as  a  loan, 
to  modernize  the  Indian  Army  and  agieed  to  meet 
a  large  share  of  the  cost  of  emergency  war  prepa- 
rations, while  India  was  expected  to  pay  the  re- 
mainder of  the  emergency  costs  and  all  of  the 
normal  defense  costs. 

Upon  the  German  break-through  on  the  West- 
ern Front,  Sir  Robert  Cassels,  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Indian  Army,  on  May  31  announced  that 
100,000  more  men  would  be  recruited  In  Novem- 
ber it  was  announced  that  an  army  of  500,000  men 
was  in  process  of  creation  The  air  force  was 
quadrupled.  The  land  force  was  partly  mechanized 
and  motorized.  The  increased  officer  corps  was  pro- 
vided largely  by  commissioning  Indians  from  the 
ranks  of  the  professional  army.  A  voluntary  Civic 
Guard  for  home  defense  duties  was  organized,  and 
an  air  training  scheme  inaugurated  for  air  force 


INDIA 


352 


INDIANA 


recruits.  Compulsory  military  service  for  Europe- 
an British  subjects  in  India  was  introduced  and 
the  Viceroy  was  authorized  to  conscript  British 
Indian  subjects  and  industries  for  war  purposes 
should  it  prove  necessary.  As  in  1914-18,  the  na- 
tive Princes  made  generous  offers  of  men  and 
money  toward  the  British  cause  and  some  units  of 
their  State  armies  were  incorporated  in  the  Indian 
Army.  The  Royal  Indian  Navy  was  doubled. 

Indian  industry  was  called  upon  not  only  to  sup- 
ply most  of  the  arms,  munitions,  and  supplies  for 
these  new  forces  but  also  to  supply  British  and 
Dominion  forces  in  Egypt,  Singapore,  and  other 
defense  centers  in  the  Near  and  Far  East.  A  De- 
partment of  Supply  was  established  in  the  Central 
Government  to  co-ordinate  war  production.  On 
October  25  representatives  of  British  colonies,  de- 
pendencies, and  Dominions  throughout  the  Near 
and  Far  East  met  in  New  Delhi  to  co-ordinate 
their  war  efforts  and  to  increase  the  flow  of  war 
materials  to  the  British  Isles  and  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean fronts. 

In  connection  with  the  mobilization  of  India's 
economic  resources,  the  Indian  Government  dur- 
ing the  year  imposed  import  and  export  licensing 
systems  covering  a  wide  range  of  products  On 
April  6  a  heavy  tax  was  placed  on  excess  business 
profits.  Plans  were  announced  for  the  construction 
of  airplane,  shipbuilding,  and  automobile  assembly 
plants.  War  orders  produced  a  boom  in  many  sec- 
tions of  Indian  industry,  but  rising  commodity 
prices  without  increased  wages  provoked  a  num- 
ber of  serious  strikes  and  riots  and  provided  mass 
support  for  the  Congress  party's  civil  disobedience 
campaign.  The  war  also  eliminated  markets  for 
about  20  per  cent  of  the  country's  normal  export 
trade  and  new  outlets  had  to  be  found. 

Other  Events.  There  were  also  a  number  of 
fatal  riots  between  hostile  religious  groups  during 
the  year.  A  fight  between  rival  Moslem  sects  at 
Lahore  on  March  19  cost  29  lives.  In  February 
and  August  there  were  new  outbreaks  of  guerrilla 
warfare  between  tribesmen  and  British  forces  in 
the  Waziristan  sector  of  the  Northwest-Frontier 
Province  (see  AFGHANISTAN).  On  March  13  Sir 
Michael  Francis  O'Dwyer,  former  Lieutenant  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Punjab,  was  assassinated  by  a  Sikh 
during  a  meeting  in  Caxton  Hall  in  London.  The 
prohibition  law  introduced  in  Bombay  Province  by 
the  provincial  legislature  in  1939  was  invalidated 
by  the  provincial  High  Court  on  July  3,  1940. 

See  BIRTH  CONTROL;  INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY; 
LABOR  CONDITIONS  ;  GREAT  BRITAIN  under  History 

Consult  James  Frederick  Green,  "India's  Strug- 
gle for  Independence,"  Foreign  Policy  Reports, 
June  1,  1940. 

INDIA,  Portuguese.  See  PORTUGAL  under 
Colonial  Empire. 

INDIANA.  Area,  36,354  square  miles,  includ- 
ing water  (but  not  the  State's  part  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan), 309,000  square  miles.  Population,  Apr.  1, 
1940  (census),  3,427,796  (1,887,712  urban  and 
1,540,084  rural)  ;  1930,  3.238,503.  Indianapolis,  the 
capital,  had  (1940)  386,972;  Fort  Wayne,  118,410; 
Gary,  111,719;  South  Bend,  101,268 

Agriculture.  Indiana  harvested,  in  1940,  10,- 
048,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops;  all  of  this 
but  about  half  a  million  acres  was  in  five  extensive 
crops— corn,  wheat,  hay,  oats,  and  soy  beans.  Corn, 
on  3,937,000  acres,  made  145,669,000  bu.  (estimated 
value  to  the  farmer,  $90,315,000).  Wheat,  on  1,546,- 
000  acres,  grew  30,147,000  bu.  ($21,706,000) ;  tame 
hay,  2,171,000  acres,  2,828,000  tons  ($21,776,000) ; 


oats,  1,110,000  acres,  49,950,000  bu.  ($15,484,000) ; 
soy  beans,  still  a  novel  and  rising  feature  of  farm- 
ing, 814,000  acres,  10,989,000  bu.  ($8,791,000)  A 
sixth  crop,  potatoes,  on  51,000  acres,  yielded  4,335,- 
000  bu.  ($3,425,000). 

Manufacturing.  Yearly  production  of  manu- 
factured goods  in  Indiana  totaled  $2,227,667,013 
for  1939;  $2,497,547,946  for  1937.  Other  totals  for 
1939  (each  with  that  for  1937  subjoined)  :  4338 
(3939)  establishments  employed  277,468  (313,342) 
persons  for  wages  of  $345,474,473  ($402,116,998), 
paid  for  materials,  etc.,  and  contract  work  $1,257,- 
438,203  ($1,478,567,753),  and  added  to  material,  by 
manufacture,  a  value  of  $970,228,810  ($1,018,980,- 
193). 

Mineral  Production.  Indiana's  production  of 
native  minerals,  for  1938  (as  published  by  the  U.S. 
Bureau  of  Mines  in  1940),  totaled  $47,892,364.  Coal 
furnished  half  of  this  total ;  cement,  stone,  and 
clay  products,  most  of  the  remainder.  Outside  of 
the  total  was  the  important  production  of  coke, 
iron,  and  steel,  not  included  among  the  native  min- 
erals. The  output  of  coal  was  18,565,000  tons  for 
1940,  16,650,000  for  1939,  and  14,758,484  (value, 
$23,968,000)  for  1938.  Indiana  quarried  3,782,410 
short  tons  of  stone  (value,  $6,486,996)  in  1938. 
Much  of  this  was  a  fine  dimension  stone,  oolitic 
limestone,  used  mainly  for  building;  the  yearly 
value  of  the  sales  of  such  stone  rose  to  $4,127,310 
for  1939,  from  $2,605,983  for  1938  The  output  of 
clay  products  (exclusive  of  pottery  and  refrac- 
tories) amounted  to  $4,088,658  for  1938  Emulation 
of  Illinois  and  Michigan,  which  were  developing 
deposits  of  petroleum  not  far  over  the  borders, 
inspired  much  drilling  in  Indiana;  thus  176  wells 
began  producing  in  1939;  they  helped  raise  the 
small  yield  of  petroleum  (995,000  bbl  for  1938) 
to  1,443,000  bbl.  for  1939  In  1940  the  output  of 
petroleum  amounted  to  4,843,000  bbl. 

Largely  or  wholly  apart  from  industry  in  na- 
tive minerals,  Indiana's  output  of  coke,  pig  iron, 
and  open-hearth  steel  rose,  for  1939,  well  above 
the  low  totals  of  1938 ;  coke,  to  4,878,033  net  tons, 
from  2,904,779,  and  by  value  to  $28,532,944,  from 
$18,278,201 ;  pig  iron,  to  2,621,268  gross  tons,  from 
2,023,269 ;  open-hearth  steel,  to  5,791,520  gross  tons, 
from  3,435,360. 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40  en- 
rollment of  pupils  in  all  public  schools  of  Indiana 
numbered  671,364:  this  comprised  461,730  in  ele- 
mentary study,  194,910  in  high  schools  and  14,724 
other.  The  year's  expenditure  for  public-school  ed- 
ucation totaled  $69,669,356.  The  teachers  numbered 
23,252;  they  averaged  $1293.69  yearly  pay. 

History.  The  Hoosier  Democratic  Club,  an  in- 
stitution that  had  flourished  since  the  days  of  Gov- 
ernor McNutt,  was  attacked  in  both  Federal  and 
State  proceedings.  As  a  successful  means  of  mar- 
shaling State  employees  and  others,  to  elicit  from 
them  contributions  toward  the  campaigning  ex- 
penses of  State  officers,  the  clut>— nicknamed  the 
Two  Percent  Club— had  attracted  wide  notice  and 
some  imitation  elsewhere.  The  club's  mission  did 
not  suit  the  popular  sentiment  behind  the  Federal 
Hatch  Act ;  the  State  itself  had  a  Corrupt  Prac- 
tises Act,  which  forbade,  among  other  things,  some 
proceedings  resembling  those  of  the  club ;  but  the 
Legislature  had,  in  1937,  specifically  exempted  it. 
Glenn  W.  Funk,  a  Republican  candidate  in  Marion 
County,  started  suit  in  April,  under  the  State's  act, 
to  restrain  the  club  from  further  activity,  and  he 
asked  a  declaratory  judgment  voiding  the  excep- 
tion that  the  Legislature  had  made  in  its  favor, 


INDIAN  AFFAIRS 


353 


INDIAN  AFFAIRS 


This  suit  brought  no  immediate  result  But  the 
Federal  Treasury,  holding  that  funds  raised  through 
the  club  in  a  series  of  years  should  have  paid  in- 
come taxes,  investigated  the  accounts  of  the  club's 
treasurers  and  called  upon  several  unnamed  lead- 
ing Democrats  to  make  good  the  failure  to  pay 
income  taxes  to  the  total  of  about  $250,000.  It  was 
reported  on  May  17,  in  the  press,  that  these  lead- 
ers had  undertaken  to  pay.  McNutt  himself  was 
said  not  to  have  been  among  those  thus  held  liable. 

A  political  group  in  the  State  supported  the  pro- 
posals of  the  Townsend  old-age  pension  plan ;  this 
group,  combined  with  the  adherents  of  Governor 
Townsend,  attempted  at  the  State  Democratic  con- 
vention (June  27)  to  name  its  own  candidate  for 
Governor,  but  failed  to  prevent  the  nomination  of 
Lieut  Gov.  Henry  F.  Schncker.  In  Indianapolis 
were  started  prosecutions  (similar  to  those  that 
had  produced  convictions  in  1939  in  Kokomo)  for 
conspiracy  to  divert  the  services  of  the  WPA  to 
the  alleged  conspirators'  own  purposes.  In  the 
course  of  a  dispute  among  labor  unions,  the  In- 
diana and  Michigan  Electric  Company's  lines  of 
transmission  were  dynamited  in  nine  places,  near 
South  Bend ;  the  police  were  reported  ( Febru- 
ary 7)  to  have  got  a  confession  from  the  suspected 
dynamiter  Sec  PORTS  AND  HARBORS 

Elections.  The  popular  vote  for  President,  at 
the  general  election,  November  5,  gave  Willkie 
(Rep  ),  a  native  of  the  State,  a  small  plurality 
ovei  Roosevelt  ( Dem  ) .  The  vote  was :  Willkie, 
899,466,  Roosevelt,  874,063 

For  United  States  Senator,  Raymond  E  Willis 
(Rep  ),  defeated  for  the  same  office  in  1938,  was 
elected  over  Sherman  Minton,  the  Democratic  in- 
cumbent, by  888,070  to  864,803.  For  Governor, 
Henry  F.  Schncker  (Dem  )  defeated  Glen  R.  Hil- 
hs  (Rep.),  by  889,620  to  885,657. 

The  State  Election  Board  excluded  from  the 
ballot  the  Communist  and  Greenback  candidates 

Officers.  Indiana's  chief  officers,  serving  in  1940, 
were:  Governor,  M.  Clifford  Townsend  (Dem  )  ; 
Lieutenant  Governor,  Henry  F.  Schricker;  Sec- 
retary of  State,  James  M.  Tucker ;  Auditor,  Frank 
G.  Thompson,  Treasurer,  Joseph  M.  Robertson; 
Attorney  General,  Omer  Stokes  Jackson  (died) 
and  Samuel  D.  Jackson  (successor)  ;  Superintend- 
ent of  Public  Instruction,  Floyd  I.  McMurray. 

INDIAN  AFFAIRS,  Office  of.  The  Office 
of  Indian  Affairs  (created  in  1824)  is  the  agency 
of  the  Federal  Government  which  administers 
matters  relating  to  Indians.  It  has  jurisdiction 
over  361,816  Indians  in  continental  ^United  States 
and  32,000  Indians,  Eskimos,  and  Aleuts  in  the 
Territory  of  Alaska.  The  Federal  Government 
does  not  provide  pensions  for  Indians  as  is  widely 
believed,  but  it  does  provide  certain  welfare  serv- 
ices and  exercises  certain  supervision  over  their 
resources. 

These  services  originated  as  protection  for  the 
white  man,  and  constituted  partial  compensation 
to  the  Indian  for  land  cessions.  They  have  con- 
tinued because  of  the  special  relationship  of  the 
Indian  to  the  Federal  Government,  and  the  conse- 
quent unwillingness  of  local  governments  to  pro- 
vide essential  public  services.  The  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  gives  to  the  Congress  the  power 
to  regulate  "commerce .  .  .  with  the  Indian  tribes," 
and  the  authority  to  raise  and  spend  money  "for 
the  general  welfare. '  In  addition  it  vests  in  the 
President  and  the  Senate  the  power  to  make  trea- 
ties and  in  the  Congress  the  power  to  implement 
such  treaties  by  legislation  and  appropriations.  It 


is  principally  from  these  sources  and  from  numer- 
ous court  decisions  based  upon  them  that  the  pe- 
culiar relationship  of  the  Federal  Government  to 
the  Indians  has  arisen.  Subject  to  certain  excep- 
tions Indians  are  considered  wards  of  the  Federal 
Government  and  it  exercises  extensive  powers  over 
matters  affecting  their  welfare. 

Until  1871  the  United  States  treated  the  Indian 
tribes  as  sovereign  but  dependent  nations  and  dealt 
with  them  through  treaties.  These  treaties  were 
negotiated  primarily  to  protect  the  white  man  and 
to  secure  land  for  him  from  the  Indians.  The  Unit- 
ed States  generally  offered  money  and  usually 
promised  to  provide  education  and  health  facilities, 
and  other  services.  The  money — of  little  use  to  the 
Indians — was  placed  in  trust  for  them  in  the  Treas- 
ury of  the  United  States,  and  expended  for  their 
welfare.  As  these  funds  became  depleted  Congress 
began  to  appropriate  funds  gratuitously  with  which 
to  continue  the  welfare  services  already  begun.  For 
the  fiscal  year  1940  these  gratuity  appropriations 
amounted  to  $34,755,777  and  were  designated  for 
education,  health,  agricultural  extension  work,  the 
construction  and  operation  of  irrigation  facilities, 
forestry  and  grazing,  land  purchases,  organization 
of  tribal  self-government,  and  similar  services. 

Livestock  farming  is  perhaps  the  major  occupa- 
tion of  Indians.  Here  the  co-operative  movement — 
nothing  new  to  Indian  tribes — is  making  rapid 
headway.  On  Jan.  1,  1940,  there  were  150  Indian 
livestock  associations.  Forestry  is  another  major 
occupation  of  Indians  In  the  northwest  states,  in 
portions  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  and  in  Min- 
nesota and  Wisconsin,  Indians  own  and  operate 
large  stands  of  commercial  timber  Other  Indians 
are  farmers.  The  Pimas  in  southern  Arizona  were 
doing  irrigated  farming  when  the  Spaniards  first 
found  them.  Others,  especially  in  the  Northwest 
and  in  Alaska,  derive  their  livelihood  from  fishing 
There  are  several  co-operative  salmon  canneries 
among  the  Indians  in  Alaskan  communities 

Sickness  and  disease  are  still  major  problems 
among  the  Indians,  especially  tuberculosis,  tracho- 
ma, and  children's  diseases.  The  Federal  Govern- 
ment provides  hospitals,  and  field  nursing  services 
to  Indians  under  its  jurisdiction.  An  outstanding 
piece  of  medical  research  in  trachoma  has  recently 
been  completed  on  the  Ft.  Apache  Reservation  in 
Arizona  with  the  discovery  that  trachoma  is  defi- 
nitely caused  by  a  filterable  virus  Sulfanilamide 
treatment  is  producing  amazing  results,  lending 
hope  that  in  the  near  future  the  Indians  may  be 
ridded  of  this  dread  disease  which  for  years  has 
produced  blindness  and  even  death  among  them  in 
many  sections  of  the  country. 

Through  the  Indian  Arts  and  Crafts  Board,  cre- 
ated by  statute  within  the  Indian  Service,  native 
arts  are  being  more  fully  developed.  Through  co- 
operative arrangements  with  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  through  the  Indian  branch  of  the 
CCC,  and  through  tribal  organizations,  the  conser- 
vation of  natural  resources,  particularly  of  soil, 
water,  and  forests  is  being  encouraged  in  all  In- 
dian areas. 

Indians  are  citizens  of  the  United  States,  but  are 
not,  as  a  rule,  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
states  in  which  they  live  Lands  held  in  trust  for 
them  by  the  United  States  are  not  subject  to  state 
and  local  taxation.  For  this  reason  states  do  not 
usually  provide  essential  public  services  for  Indi- 
ans. In  many  instances  the  Federal  Government 
secures  these  services  from  the  states  or  local  units 
of  government  by  paying  their  costs.  Consequently 


INDO-CHINA 


354 


INSURANCE 


more  than  half  of  all  Indian  children  attend  local 
public  schools,  their  tuition  being  paid  by  the  Fed- 
eral Government.  In  areas  where  there  are  only 
Indians  it  is  usually  necessary  for  the  Federal 
Government  itself  to  provide  these  services. 

The  Indian  population  is  increasing  at  a  more 
rapid  rate  than  the  general  population,  and  in  many 
areas  is  tending  toward  racial  purity  rather  than 
intermarriage. 

JOHN  COLLIER. 

INDO-CHINA.  The  southeastern  peninsula  of 
Asia,  consisting  of  Burma,  Federated  Malay 
States,  French  Indo-Chma,  Straits  Settlements, 
Thailand,  and  the  Unfederated  Malay  States.  See 
BRITISH  MALAYA;  BURMA;  FRENCH  INDO-CHI- 
NA; THAILAND. 

INDUSTRIAL  BUILDINGS.  See  ARCHI- 
TECTURE. 

INDUSTRIAL  SAFETY.  See  ACCIDENTS; 
LABOR  CONDITIONS  under  Health  and  Safety ;  LA- 
BOR LEGISLATION  under  Health  and  Safety. 

INDUSTRY.  See  BUSINESS  REVIEW;  MANU- 
FACTURES, CENSUS  OF. 

INFANTILE  PARALYSIS.  See  BENEFAC- 
TIONS under  Warm  Springs  foundation. 

INFANT  MORTALITY.  See  BIKTH  CON- 
TROL; CHILDREN'S  BUREAU,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

INFLATION.  See  BANKS  AND  BANKING  un- 
der Credit  Control  Policy.  BOLIVIA  and  ECUADOR 
under  History. 

INFLUENZA.  See  BIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY; 
PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE 

INHERITANCE.  See  LAW  under  Succes- 
sion 

ININI,  Territory  of.  See  FRENCH  GUIANA. 

INNER  MONGOLIA.  See  CHINA;  MONGO- 
LIA. 

INSECTS  AND  INSECT  CONTROL.  See 
ENTOMOLOGY,  ECONOMIC;  ZOOLOGY. 

INSTITUTE  FOR  ADVANCED  STUDY. 
See  ADVANCED  STUDY,  INSTITUTE  FOR 

INSURANCE.  General.  No  legitimate  com- 
plaint regarding  the  treatment  accorded  the  insur- 
ance industry  during  1940  was  heard  in  underwrit- 
ing circles,  nor  indeed  was  there  justification  for 
criticism,  for  companies  in  each  of  the  major  di- 
visions of  the  business — life,  fire,  casualty,  and 
marine — reported  increases  in  the  amount  of  new 
writings,  of  indemnity  in  force,  in  total  assets,  and 
in  net  surplus  accounts. 

Despite  the  decrease  in  the  market  value  of  cer- 
tain securities  carried  in  their  portfolios,  a  number 
of  the  fire  companies,  because  of  favorable  loss 
records  upon  their  writings,  were  able  to  declare 
extra  dividends  and  at  the  same  time  set  aside 
contingency  reserves  to  take  care  of  possible  fu- 
ture security  declines  or  excessive  loss  claims. 
While  managing  underwriters  continued  to  specu- 
late upon  the  possibility  of  regulation  of  the  insur- 
ance industry  by  the  Federal  government,  no  defi- 
nite move  to  that  end  emanated  from  Washington. 
The  supervision  of  insurance  interests  by  the  States 
was  never  more  efficient  than  at  present  and  com- 
pany^ officials  would  regret  any  change  from  the 
existing  status 

A  decision  of  great  importance  to  the  fire  and 
casualty  fraternity  was  that  rendered  by  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  in  April,  upholding  the  con- 
stitutionality of  the  Virginia  law  requiring  that 
50  per  cent  of  the  commission  allowed  upon  busi- 
ness in  the  State,  whether  written  by  outside  bro- 
kers or  agents,  be  paid  agents  domiciled  in  the 


commonwealth  for  countersigning  policies.  Even 
more  drastic  legislation  was  enacted  in  Montana, 
requiring  as  it  does  that  local  agents  of  the  State 
receive  full  commission  upon  risks  located  in  Mon- 
tana regardless  of  where  the  business  was  written. 
The  passage  of  these  laws  and  the  likelihood  that 
similar  statutes  would  be  advocated  in  other  States 
caused  lively  concern  to  company  officials  and  to 
many  agents  as  well,  and  resulted  in  a  series  of 
conferences  between  the  two  interests  in  an  effort 
to  agree  upon  a  uniform  resident-agency  law  that 
would  protect  business  producers  and  at  the  same 
time  not  add  to  the  operating  costs  of  the  carriers. 
Discussions  as  to  rates  of  commissions  upon  con- 
tract and  various  classes  of  fidelity  and  surety 
bonds  have  been  under  review  by  managers  and 
general  agents  for  some  time,  and  while  a  program 
has  not  yet  been  worked  out  distinct  progress  has 
been  attained  justifying  the  piediction  that  a  grad- 
uated scale  of  compensation  will  be  reached  in  the 
near  future.  The  contention  of  the  agents  is  that 
through  the  reduction  in  rates  upon  many  forms 
of  indemnity  effected  in  recent  years — a  practice 
that  continues — their  incomes  have  steadily  de- 
clined. The  counter  of  company  officials  is  that  by 
virtue  of  rate  reductions  and  broadening  of  cover- 
ages the  agents  can  offer  more  attractive  indemnity 
to  clients  and  prospective  assureds,  and  hence  are 
able  to  earn  a  greater  dollar  return. 

War-Time  Reorganizations.  As  is  true  in 
most  other  lines  of  endeavor  the  European  war  has 
had  a  dnect  effect  upon  the  insurance  industry 
here,  and  the  further  development  of  events  both 
in  this  country  and  abroad  will  be  closely  followed 
by  American  underwriters.  As  soon  as  the  low 
countries  of  Europe  were  invaded  by  Germany,  and 
later  when  Italy  entered  the  war,  the  assets  of  such 
insurance  companies  of  the  conquered  nations  as 
were  operating  in  the  United  States,  were  "f  ro/en" 
under  direction  of  the  Washington  authorities  To 
preserve  their  business  in  this  country  several  Scan- 
dinavian companies  transacting  fire  reinsurance,  re- 
organized their  United  States  branches  as  domestic 
corporations.  Other  companies  arranged  to  the  same 
end,  securing  New  York  charteis  prepared  to 
transfer  from  the  European  headquarters  to  these 
shores  promptly  should  such  procedure  be  deemed 
desirable.  The  large  percentage  of  foreign  institu- 
tions operating  in  this  country,  however,  are  Brit- 
ish, and  these,  so  far  as  their  business  here  is  con- 
cerned, are  practically  domestic  corporations ;  each 
having  deposit  capital  and  complying  with  regula- 
tions even  more  rigorous  in  some  respects  than 
those  applicable  to  home  organizations.  While  it  is 
inconceivable  that  any  of  the  British  companies 
would  want  to  deplete  their  American  funds  by  re- 
mitting to  home  offices  at  this  time,  those  operating 
in  New  York  would  be  barred  from  sending  in  ex- 
cess of  $50,000  from  free  funds  during  any  quarter 
under  the  laws  of  the  State.  No  question  as  to  the 
financial  strength  of  any  of  the  British  corpora- 
tions represented  here  has  been  raised,  and  the  in- 
surance department  of  the  Empire  State,  as  well 
as  that  of  several  other  States,  has  assured  proper- 
ty-owners of  that  fact. 

National  Defense  Operations.  The  associa- 
tions of  life,  fire,  casualty,  surety,  and  marine  com- 
panies have  each  assured  the  Federal  government 
of  their  complete  sympathy  with  and  willingness 
to  co-operate  to  the  utmost  in  making  the  National 
defense  plan  effective.  The  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters,  at  its  annual  meeting  in  May,  ten- 
dered the  full  service  of  its  engineering  staff  to 


INSURANCE 


355 


INSURANCE 


assist  In  designing  fire  protection  facilities  for  can- 
tonments, war  and  navy  construction  plants,  and 
in  such  other  direction  as  might  be  required.  En- 
gineers of  the  National  Board  were  in  Washington 
by  the  close  of  the  year  working  in  close  conjunc- 
tion with  Army  and  Navy  officers.  At  the  same 
time  field  men  of  the  fire  companies  were  checking 
with  unusual  care  potential  fire  hazards  in  manu- 
facturing plants,  particularly  those  engaged  in  war 
contracts,  while  safety  engineers  of  the  casualty 
companies  were  performing  similar  service  in  check- 
ing the  operations  of  machines,  and  in  recommend- 
ing use  of  the  most  efficient  safety  devices. 

Marine.  Naturally  the  first  impact  of  the  Eu- 
ropean war  felt  by  insurance  interests  here  con- 
cerned the  marine  companies.  Profiting  by  the  les- 
sons learned  during  the  World  War  marine  under- 
writers promptly  devised  an  effective  plan  for  meet- 
ing the  unusual  calls  certain  to  be  made  upon  them, 
and  at  their  weekly  and  ofttimes  daily  conferences, 
altered  the  original  program  to  conform  to  con- 
stantly changing  situations.  To  facilitate  handling 
business  the  underwriters  formed  the  American 
Cargo  Marine  Reinsurance  Clearing  House  in  June, 
through  which  a  distribution  of  risks  is  effected. 
The  Clearing  House  would  also  supply  an  avenue 
for  excess  cargo  reinsurance,  should  demand  there- 
for develop. 

With  the  extension  of  the  war  area  the  consid- 
erable volume  of  cargo  insurance  once  placed  with 
American  companies  was  largely  lost,  while  ship- 
ments to  Britain  in  the  main  consisted  of  war  ma- 
terial, coverage  of  which  is  carried  by  the  govern- 
ment of  that  country  This  loss  of  business  was 
offset  in  large  part,  however,  through  the  increased 
demand  for  indemnity  on  cargo  shipments  to  South 
American  countries.  The  increase  in  the  number  of 
vessels  lost  through  submarine  attacks,  induced  the 
entry  of  many  ships  of  an  obsolete  type  into  serv- 
ice, which  in  their  journeys  are  often  forced  to 
leave  direct  and  charted  lanes  in  order  to  avoid 
danger  zones,  thereby  prolonging  the  length  of 
voyages  and  increasing  the  general  marine  hazard 
The  heavy  demand  for  shipping  facilities  resulted 
in  a  substantial  increase  in  the  cost  of  vessel  re- 
pairs, which  are  estimated  at  from  5  to  10  per  cent 
greater  than  figures  ruling  in  peace  times  As  an 
offset,  the  marine-writing  companies  have  profited 
through  the  heavy  calls  for  additional  insurance 
and  from  increased  values  of  cargoes. 

Although  Congress  enacted  the  so-called  Bland 
bill,  authorizing  the  Maritime  Commission  to  set 
up  an  insurance  bureau  for  insuring  or  reinsuring 
war  risks  on  American  hulls  and  cargoes  in  the 
event  sufficient  coverage  could  not  be  secured  in 
home  companies,  no  call  has  yet  been  made  for 
Government  aid,  for  the  facilities  of  the  private 
companies  have  proved  adequate  to  meet  every  de- 
mand upon  them 

A  gratifying  gain  in  premiums  was  had  from 
inland  marine  insurance  during  1940,  and  was  ac- 
companied by  a  satisfactory  loss  ratio.  The  major 
claim  under  an  inland  marine  cover  was  caused 
through  the  collapse  of  the  Tacoma  Narrows 
Bridge  on  November  7.  The  loss  to  underwriters 
will  probably  be  determined  only  after  extended 
litigation,  but  it  will  doubtless  run  well  into  the 
millions  of  dollars,  and  go  upon  record  as  being 
the  worst  bridge  loss  ever  suffered  by  insurance 
companies. 

A  heavy  and  unusual  loss  sustained  under  inland 
marine  policies  was  the  death  of  thousands  of  tur- 
keys upon  mid-western  farms  as  the  result  of  the 


wind  and  snow  storm  that  swept  the  territory  on 
November  11.  When  all  claims  are  in,  it  is  ex- 
pected the  interested  companies  will  pay  close  to 
$2,000,000  on  this  account 

Fire.  Partly  because  of  increased  demand  for 
war  coverage  of  various  forms,  but  mainly  due  to 
increased  writings  in  their  automobile  and  inland 
marine  departments,  the  fire  companies  were  en- 
abled to  offset  the  loss  in  income  caused  by  numer- 
ous rate  reductions  on  properties,  and  at  the  same 
time  score  an  over -all  increase  in  premiums  for 
1940,  estimated  to  be  6  per  cent  greater  than  the 
returns  of  1939,  which  totaled  $1,019,715,911  for 
all  types  of  carriers— stock,  mutual,  reciprocal,  and 
Lloyds  Fire  losses  during  1940  totaled  $306,469,- 
520  ($313,498,840  in  1939),  according  to  the  tabu- 
lation of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwrit- 
ers. (See  FIRE  PROTECTION  ) 

The  arrangement  entered  into  by  the  Stock  Com- 
pany Association  with  the  Home  Owners  Loan 
Corporation  (q  v.),  under  which  pioperties  the  lat- 
ter are  compelled  to  take  over,  granted  insurance 
at  a  25  per  cent  reduction  in  rate,  failed  to  meet 
the  sanction  of  several  State  insurance  departments 
— including  New  York — which  prohibited  opera- 
tion of  the  plan  within  their  respective  borders,  on 
the  broad  theory  that  it  was  discriminatory  The 
allegation  of  the  parties  to  the  arrangement  was 
that  it  effected  a  marked  saving  in  accounting  prac- 
tice by  the  insurance  offices,  and  at  the  same  time 
guaranteed  the  prompt  and  full  payment  of  all 
earned  premiums.  The  merits  and  shortcomings  of 
the  proposition  have  been  debated  by  the  insurance 
commissioners  of  the  country.  The  contract  now 
in  force  will  expire  early  in  February,  1941.  Losses 
on  HOLC  business  from  1935  to  June,  1940,  in- 
clusive, totaled  $21,000,000,  of  which  $17,000,000 
represented  fire  losses  and  $4,000,000  was  due  to 
wind  or  hail  The  potential  premiums  on  the  busi- 
ness approximate  $6,000,000  annually. 

Anticipating  a  demand  for  bombardment  insur- 
ance might  develop  in  the  United  States,  fire  com- 
panies prepared  a  policy  of  such  character  and 
listed  rates  at  which  the  indemnity  would  be  issued. 
However,  the  interest  of  property-owners  is  con- 
fined thus  far  to  inquiring  whether,  if  called  for, 
protection  of  such  character  was  available,  and 
what  its  cost  would  be.  Company  executives,  fa- 
miliar with  the  frightful  damage  wrought  through 
bombing  activities  in  Britain  and  in  Continental 
Europe,  have  guardedly  consented  to  write  the  busi- 
ness in  order  to  meet  a  supposed  need 

As  a  direct  result  of  the  National  war  prepared- 
ness program  of  the  government,  goods  ordinarily 
turned  out  by  industrial  plants  are  being  shunted 
aside  altogether,  or  produced  in  limited  quantities 
and  after  extended  delay  This  condition  has  had 
a  disturbing  effect  upon  the  writing  of  use  and  oc- 
cupancy insurance,  or  as  it  is  often  called  "busi- 
ness interruption  insurance."  Indemnity  of  this  char- 
acter assumes  liability  for  loss  suffered  by  an  as- 
sured while  waiting  for  the  replacement  of  build- 
ing and  machinery  in  plants  destroyed  by  fire,  and 
obviously  the  longer  the  delay  in  securing  new 
equipment  the  greater  the  loss  to  the  insurance 
companies.  So  threatening  has  the  situation  become 
that  the  companies  are  now  limiting  closely  the 
liability  assumed  upon  any  one  risk,  and  may  be 
forced  to  increase  the  rates,  unless  there  is  early 
improvement  in  conditions.  Another  notable  devel- 
opment in  the  fire  field  was  the  creation  by  several 
of  the  leading  companies  of  service  offices  at  stra- 
tegic centers  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  the 


INSURANCE 


356 


INSURANCE 


purpose  being  to  supply  the  needs  of  agents  and 
assureds  more  promptly  and  efficiently,  particular- 
ly as  to  risks  calling  for  peculiar  types  of  cover- 
age with  which  local  representatives  as  a  rule  are 
not  fully  informed. 

In  point  of  premium  income  that  had  by  the  fire 
companies  from  their  automobile  business  is  sec- 
ond only  to  that  derived  from  the  long  established 
straight  fire  lines,  and  if  the  rate  of  increase  of 
the  past  few  years  continues  it  will  not  be  long 
before  the  automobile  division  will  surpass  as  to 
premium  volume  that  of  any  other  risk  classifica- 
tion. In  1939  the  total  premiums  from  automobile 
business  aggregated  $644,313,000 ;  greater  by  $48,- 
141,110  than  the  figures  of  the  preceding  year. 
That  the  record  of  1939  was  attained  in  1940  is 
generally  agreed,  though  the  exact  amount  had 
not  been  determined  at  the  close  of  the  year.  The 
loss  record  under  the  fire  and  theft  features  of  the 
automobile  policy  again  proved  satisfactory,  but 
losses  resulting  from  collision  still  proved  exces- 
sive, despite  the  increased  income  derived  from  the 
coverage  and  the  general  application  of  the  deduc- 
tible clause,  under  which  assured  in  consideration 
of  a  reduction  in  rate  assumes  liability  for  losses 
up  to  a  stipulated  amount.  The  comprehensive  type 
of  policy,  adopted  by  the  fire  companies  some  three 
years  ago  and  which  greatly  broadens  the  cover- 
age, has  proven  highly  popular  with  motorists,  and 
now  constitutes  at  least  85  per  cent  of  the  total 
indemnity  written. 

How  to  handle  insurance  placed  by  institutions 
financing  the  purchase  of  motor  cars,  has  long  been 
a  troublesome  problem  for  underwriters,  and  while 
efforts  to  outline  a  program  that  would  solve  the 
question  were  put  forth  several  times  during  1940, 
all  proved  futile  Meantime,  as  a  counter  to  the 
move  of  the  underwriters,  several  large  financing 
corporations  launched  insurance  companies  of  their 
own  through  which  indemnity  is  furnished  upon 
automobiles  in  which  they  have  a  mortgagee  in- 
terest. Banks  in  different  cities,  too,  were  active 
in  loaning  funds  with  which  to  purchase  cars, 
working  in  such  connection  with  local  insurance 
agents  who  place  the  indemnity. 

Casualty.  A  rough  calculation  of  the  income 
derived  in  1940  from  the  major  casualty  lines  in 
workmen's  compensation  and  public  liability  shows 
that  it  will  be  not  far  from  $350,000,000,  which 
will  be  a  two  point  gain  over  the  aggregate  of  the 
previous  year.  In  both  of  these  divisions  rate  re- 
ductions were  applied,  and  the  conditions  of  the 
liability  policies  were  materially  broadened,  em- 
bracing under  a  single  contract  forms  of  protec- 
tion either  not  previously  granted  at  all  or  written 
under  separate  instruments.  Rates  for  workmen's 
compensation  insurance  are  predicated  upon  the 
loss  experience  of  each  particular  State,  and,  of 
course,  upon  the  awards  provided  injured  workers 
or  their  beneficiaries  under  their  respective  stat- 
utes. 

That  the  loss  experience  for  the  year  1940,  taken 
as  a  whole,  has  been  rather  favorable  is  evidenced 
from  the  downward  trend  of  rates  This  policy 
naturally  has  worked  against  any  marked  gain  in 
premium  income  by  the  carriers.  Some  increase 
will  result  from  the  present  activity  of  industry 
engaged  in  turning  out  war  material,  but  insurance 
companies  will  not  profit  through  increased  pre- 
miums before  1941  A  new  method  of  rate-making 
for  compensation  risks,  determined  upon  early  in 
1940,  more  accurately  measures  the  loss  experience 
of  individual  risks,  and  has  found  considerable 


favor  with  plants  carrying  large  amounts  of  in- 
demnity. As  Arkansas  enacted  a  compensation  law 
in  November,  Mississippi  alone,  of  all  States  of 
the  United  States  is  now  without  any  such  legis- 
lation. 

Despite  aggressive  solicitation  and  the  broaden- 
ing of  policy  coverages,  it  yet  remains  true  that 
but  35  per  cent  of  the  motor  cars  of  the  United 
States  carry  personal  liability  or  property  damage 
insurance,  probably  because  many  motorists  feel 
they  cannot  afford  to  pay  the  premiums  demanded 
for  the  coverage.  If  the  volume  of  business  writ- 
ten were  increased  and  the  loss  percentage  kept 
within  bounds,  insurance  companies  would  be  able 
to  reduce  their  rates,  a  process  that  would  continue 
steadily  as  the  aggregate  insurance  in  force  was 
increased.  To  meet  the  non -insured  situation  a  com- 
pulsory automobile  liability  measure  was  intro- 
duced in  the  New  York  legislature  patterned  after 
the  law  in  force  in  Massachusetts  for  the  past  10 
years,  though  eliminating  certain  provisions  in  the 
Bay  State  statute  that  have  proved  to  be  highly 
objectionable. 

A  marked  increase  in  the  amount  of  fidelity  cov- 
erage was  scored  by  virtually  all  companies,  and 
with  satisfactory  profit  The  great  demand  for  in- 
demnity, so  far  as  surety  offices  were  concerned, 
was  for  bonds  covering  projects  of  varied  types 
ordered  by  the  Federal  Government  as  pai  t  of  its 
defense  program.  Corporations  given  contracts  for 
the  building  of  naval  and  freight  vessels  and  air- 
planes, especially,  were  required  to  furnish  com- 
pletion bonds,  and  these  aggregated  enormous 
amounts.  Although  rates  for  the  indemnity  were 
fixed  at  low  figures  as  a  patriotic  move  on  the  part 
of  underwriters,  the  premiums  still  totaled  large 
figures. 

Healthy  income  gains  were  made  in  the  personal 
accident  and  health  line,  and  the  same  holds  as  to 
machinery  and  steam  boiler  indemnity;  the  ma- 
terial gain  in  the  latter  division,  however,  was  due 
to  the  renewal  of  three-year  business  originally 
issued  in  1937. 

Life  Insurance.  Developments  in  the  life  field 
included  steady  progress  in  the  amount  of  insur- 
ance in  force,  which  gained  $3,500,000,000  to  reach 
a  year-end  total  of  $117,500,000,000,  or  an  average 
of  about  $4000  per  family.  Payments  to  policyhold- 
ers  and  beneficiaries  totaled  close  to  $2,700,000,000, 
an  increase  of  $59,000,000  over  1939  and  16  times 
the  amount  disbursed  in  1900  Policy  loans,  which 
reached  new  peaks  during  the  depression  period, 
stood  at  $2,767,000,000  at  the  close  of  1940,  a  drop 
of  $131,000,000  for  the  year.  Continued  low  inter- 
est kept  dividends  down.  Because  of  the  interest 
decline  a  number  of  companies  raised  their  annuity 
rates  and  still  others  are  expected  to  follow  suit 
early  in  1941.  Mortality  and  expenses,  the  other 
factors  affecting  dividends,  were  highly  favorable. 
With  a  view  to  protecting  policyholders  from  heavy 
mortality  resulting  from  the  unduly  large  pur- 
chases of  insurance  by  men  called  to  military  serv- 
ice, plans  were  studied  for  excluding  the  death 
benefit  from  policies  issued  in  future  to  those  en- 
rolled for  active  military  duty. 

See  CO-OPERATIVE  MOVEMENT  ;  LAW  under  Pri- 
vate Law. 

GEORGE  A.  WATSON. 

INSURANCE,  Government.  See  FEDERAL 
CROP  INSURANCE  CORPORATION;  FEDERAL  HOME 
LOAN  BOARD;  FEDERAL  HOUSING  ADMINISTRA- 
TION; SOCIAL  SECURITY  BOARD. 


INTER-AMERICAN  BANK 


357 


INTERNATIONAL  BANKING 


INTER-AMERICAN  BANK.  See  FINAN- 
CIAL REVIEW  under  Latin  America ;  INTERNATION- 
AL BANKING;  PAN  AMERICANISM. 

INTER-AMERICAN  UNION  OF  THE 
CARIBBEAN.  An  organization  composed  of  rep- 
resentatives of  governments  and  cultural  organiza- 
tions of  countries  and  possessions  bordering  on  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  with  headquarters  at  Havana,  Cuba. 
It  was  organized  for  the  purpose  of  convening 
meetings  "to  further  closer  relations  and  to  con- 
tribute toward  the  development  of  cultural  as  well 
as  economic  and  tourist  relations  among  the  nations 
in  this  portion  of  the  New  World  " 

The  Second  Conference  of  the  Caribbean  was 
held  at  Ciuclad  Trujillo,  Dominican  Republic,  May 
31-June  6,  1940,  with  official  representatives  of  the 
United  States  and  most  of  the  other  republics  of 
that  area  in  attendance.  The  conference  was  de- 
voted mainly  to  discussion  of  subjects  of  a  cultural 
and  economic  nature  listed  on  the  agenda.  However 
political  issues  were  raised  before  a  special  com- 
mittee formed  to  consider  matters  not  included  in 
the  agenda  The  head  of  the  Cuban  delegation, 
Secretary  of  State  Miguel  Angel  Campa,  intro- 
duced a  motion  calling  for  the  independence  of  all 
the  colonies  of  European  powers  in  this  hemisphere 
and  administration  of  those  unable  to  maintain 
their  independence  under  a  joint  mandate  of  the  21 
American  republics  The  motion  provided  that  the 
matter  be  brought  before  the  American  Foreign 
Ministers  when  they  met  in  Havana  in  July  It  was 
approved  by  the  committee,  with  the  United  States 
and  several  other  delegations  abstaining  from  vot- 
ing on  the  ground  thai  they  were  not  authorized  to 
consider  political  issues.  The  same  committee  ap- 
proved a  resolution  for  the  restriction  to  citizens 
of  the  American  republics  of  control  and  operation 
of  all  airlines  in  the  hemisphere. 

See  PAN  AMFRICANISM 

INTER-GOVERNMENTAL  COMMIT- 
TEE ON  REFUGEES.  See  DOMINICAN  RE- 
PUBLIC under  History;  REFUGEFS 

INTERIOR,  U.S.  Department  of  the.  See 
UNITED  STATES  under  Administration  and  separate 
articles  on  the  following  branches  of  the  Depart- 
ment •  FISH  AND  WILDLIFE  SERVICE;  GENERAL 
LAND  OFFICE;  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY;  INDIAN  AF- 
i-  AIRS,  OFFICE  OF  ,  LAND  UTILIZATION,  OFFICE  OF  , 
MINES,  BUREAU  OF;  NATIONAL  PARK  SERVICE; 
RECLAMATION,  BUREAU  OF 

INTERNAL  REVENUE.  See  PUBLIC  FI- 
NANCE 

INTERNATIONAL  BANKING  AND  FI- 
NANCE. The  nations  of  the  world  found  it  nec- 
essary to  adjust  their  monetary  and  financial  sys- 
tems to  wartime  conditions  during  1940.  The 
totalitarian  countries,  which  had  previously  estab- 
lished comprehensive  government  control  systems, 
needed  few  further  adjustments.  The  European 
countries  occupied  by  Germany,  no  longer  con- 
cerned with  their  own  armaments,  nevertheless  had 
to  defray  the  heavy  costs  of  military  occupation, 
largely  through  the  issuance  of  paper  money  by 
their  central  banks.  Public  finance  in  the  occupied 
countries  was  disrupted  through  the  difficulty  of 
collecting  taxes  under  the  abnormal  conditions  pre- 
vailing. This  was  particularly  true  in  the  case  of 
France,  which  was  divided  into  occupied  and  un- 
occupied portions  with  separate  government  au- 
thorities in  each,  and  virtually  no  intercourse  be- 
tween them 

Great  Britain  adopted  a  very  drastic  system  of 
foreign  exchange  control  which  went  far  beyond 


the  relatively  mild  restrictions  imposed  at  the  out- 
break of  the  war.  When  the  conflict  began,  pro- 
vision was  made  for  separate  official  and  free  ster- 
ling markets.  So  long  as  the  conflict  was  in  its 
initial  relatively  inactive  stages,  the  quotation  of 
free  sterling  was  not  much  different  from  the  offi- 
cial rate.  Early  in  1940,  it  was  quoted  above  $3.96. 
With  the  collapse  of  France,  however,  free  sterling 
broke  severely,  declining  below  $3.20  at  the  begin- 
ning of  June  On  June  7,  a  new  series  of  regula- 
tions went  into  effect  greatly  limiting  the  use  to 
which  free  sterling  balances  could  be  put,  while 
sharply  contracting  the  sources  of  free  exchange 
by  limiting  severely  transfers  of  such  balances 
owned  abroad  The  free  sterling  rate  rebounded, 
and  by  September  the  difference  in  quotation  be- 
tween official  sterling  of  $4.03%  and  free  sterling 
was  only  nominal,  although  transactions  in  the  lat- 
ter were  few 

By  the  end  of  the  year,  Great  Britain  uas  carry- 
ing on  her  financial  relations  with  the  rest  of  the 
world  on  three  different  bases  With  the  sterling 
area,  settlements  were  made  with  sterling  deposits  in 
London  or  resales  of  securities  held  by  Bi  itish  in- 
vestors. A  system  of  bilateral  exchange  agreements 
on  an  officialsterlmg  basis  were  effected  with  nearly 
all  other  countries  with  which  the  British  Empire 
maintained  trade  relations.  Only  in  the  case  of  the 
United  States  and  Switzerland  were  payments 
made  in  the  currencies  of  these  countries  In  effect, 
this  meant  that  gold  and  dollar  resources  still  held 
by  Great  Britain  were  freed  almost  entirely  for 
making  payments  in  the  United  States  As  a  result 
of  the  heavy  purchases  completed  in  America  dur- 
ing the  year  and  advance  payments  on  contracts 
calling  for  future  deliveries,  the  gold  reserves  of 
Great  Britain  were  largely  exhausted  by  the  end 
of  1940,  and  a  substantial  part  of  American  secu- 
rity holdings  and  dollar  balances  had  been  liqui- 
dated British  Empire  countries,  particularly  Cana- 
da and  South  Africa,  still  held  substantial  gold 
and  liquid  balances  of  their  own,  however 

The  extent  to  which  the  United  Kingdom's  liq- 
uid resources  were  depleted  during  the  year  is 
shown  by  the  following  table,  in  millions  of  dol- 
lars, which  was  released  in  Washington  shortly 
after  the  turn  of  the  year  by  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  Morgenthau : 

GOLD    AND    DOLLAR    EXCHANGE    ASSETS    OF    THE 
UNITED  KINGDOM  (000,000  OMITTED) 

Type  of  assets                 Aug  31,1939  Drc  31, 1940 

Gold  $2,038  *   292 

Official  dollar  balances  50  54 

Private  dollar  balances  545  305 

Marketable  United  States  secun I'M  950  616 
Direct  and  miscellaneous  investments  in 

United  States  900  900 


Total  gold  and  dollar  exchange  assets       $1,483  $2,167 

The  United  States  received  the  largest  volume 
of  gold  imports  that  any  country  has  yet  reported 
in  one  year,  as  a  result  of  enormous  shifts  of  yel- 
low metal  to  this  country  to  pay  for  armaments 
and  for  safekeeping  Foreign  exchange  transac- 
tions in  the  United  States  were  in  greatly  reduced 
volume,  however,  for  trading  was  suspended  in 
currencies  of  European  countries  occupied  by  Ger- 
many as  a  result  of  the  Treasury's  orders  to  freeze 
assets  in  this  country  of  Norway,  Denmark,  Bel- 
gium, Luxemburg,  the  Netherlands,  France,  Latvia, 
Estonia,  Lithuania,  and  Rumania,  and  their  na- 
tionals. Transactions  in  the  pound  sterling,  while 
effected  freely  by  American  banks,  were  mostly  at 


INTERNATIONAL  BANKING 


358 


INTERNATIONAL  BANKING 


the  official  rate,  the  domestic  institutions  acting 
merely  as  agents  of  the  Bank  of  England  in  the 
transactions.  The  quotation  of  the  yen  was  little 
changed  through  the  year,  because  of  the  severe 
foreign  exchange  restrictions  in  effect.  Approxi- 
mately $100,000,000  of  gold  was  shipped  by  Japan 
to  this  country. 

Changes  in  major  foreign  exchange  rates  during 
1940  were  as  follows : 


can  Bank,  plans  for  which  had  been  drafted  at  the 
Inter-American  Financial  and  Economic  Advisory 
Committee  meeting  in  Washington  on  Nov.  15, 
1939.  Secretary  Hull  on  May  9  signed  the  Inter- 
American  Bank  convention,  and  several  Latin 
American  countries  ratified  the  agreement  shortly 
thereafter.  This  bank,  with  an  authorized  capital 
of  $100,000,000,  is  to  promote  trade  between  Amer- 
ican countries,  help  to  stabilize  currencies  and  to 


FOREIGN  EXCHANGE  RATES,  1940 
[Average  of  noon  buying  rates  for  cable  transfers  in  New  York.  In  cents  per  unit  of  foreign  currency] 


Month 

Un  ted  Kingdom 
(free  pound) 

•      Italy           Germany 
(lira)         (reulismark) 

Sweden 
(krona) 

Spain 
(peseta) 

Switzerland 
(franc) 

Australia  * 
(pound  free) 

Canada  • 
(dollar  free) 

January 
February 

596.39 
39634 

50470 
50467 

40118 
40117 

23806 
23807 

9950 
9950 

22419 
22418 

31582 
31579 

88018 
86654 

March 

37591 

50470 

40114 

23816 

9814 

22417 

29950 

82883 

April  .  .  . 

...     352  59 

50452 

40115 

23691 

9144 

22418 

28090 

84238 

May 

32736 

50426 

40025 

23791 

9130 

22253 

26080 

80970 

June 

36016 

SOtel 

39965 

23804 

9.130 

22461 

28704 

80072 

July 

380  47 

50123 

39978 

23836 

9130 

22684 

30311 

86927 

August 

397  88 

50334 

39951 

23813 

9130 

22755 

31702 

86865 

September 

.     .      403  42 

50357 

39926 

23810 

9130 

22784 

32147 

85469 

October 

.     40326 

50389 

39975 

23814 

9130 

23  148 

32129 

86318 

November 

40356 

50396 

39983 

23818 

9131 

23202 

32157 

86922 

December 

40350 

50439 

39982 

23.824 

9132 

23.201 

32150 

86563 

British  India 

Hong  /Ton? 

China 

Japan 

Argentina 

Brazil 

Chile 

Mexico 

Month 

(rupee) 

(dollar) 

(yuan) 

(yen) 

(peso) 

(milreis  free) 

(peso,  official) 

(peso) 

January 

10140 

24629 

7833 

23438 

29772 

50132 

51670 

16663 

February 

30  163 

24572 

7012 

23438 

29773 

50237 

5  1655 

16654 

March  

30179 

23247 

6409 

23438 

29773 

50269 

5  1650 

16652 

AprU  .   . 

30198 

21834 

5992 

23438 

29773 

50291 

51649 

16656 

May  .       . 

30120 

20288 

5083 

23438 

29773 

50232 

51670 

16654 

June. 

30106 

22388 

5760 

23432 

29773 

5.0329 

5.1678 

IK  365 

July 

30  149 

23582 

6048 

23432 

29773 

50259 

5  1678 

19913 

August 

30132 

22510 

5476 

23431 

29773 

50219 

51680 

19988 

September 

30162 

22623 

5206 

23435 

29773 

50107 

5  1680 

19941 

October 

30170 

23077 

5682 

23439 

29773 

50153 

5  1680 

20331 

November 

30166 

23396 

5845 

23439 

29773 

50156 

5  1663 

20400 

December 

30178 

23585 

5690 

23.439 

29773 

50169 

5  1665 

20448 

Rates  for  French.  Norwegian.  Danish.  Netherlands,  and  Belgian  exchange  not  quoted  since  German  occupation.    •  Official  rate  (4  O^V$ 
»  Official  rate  $3  228     •  Official  rate  90  909* 


Gold  reserves  of  central  banks  and  governments 
were  reported  by  the  Board  of  Governors  of  the 
Federal  Reserve  System  as  follows  • 


facilitate  new  investment.  Some  time  will  have  to 
elapse,  however,  before  the  practical  potentialities 
of  this  new  international  agency  can  be  measured. 


GOLD  RESERVES  OF  CENTRAL  BANKS  AND  GOVERNMENTS 
[In  millions  of  dollars] 


End  of  month 

Total  i 

United  States 

Argentina 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

South  Africa 

Jaw 

Mexico 

1939  —  December      

25,776 

17,644 

466 

308 

549 

249 

90 

32 

1940—  January 

25,983 

17,931 

466 

258 

536 

253 

90 

27 

February  .  . 

26,274 

18,177 

472 

218 

527 

268 

90 

23 

March 

25,777 

18,433 

482 

173 

520 

272 

90 

25 

April 

26,020 

18,770 

•403 

179 

515 

279 

100 

27 

May 

26,269 

19,209 

403 

189 

501 

298 

100 

28 

June 

27,139 

19,963 

403 

199 

493 

302 

98 

31 

uly 

27,642 

20,463 

403 

173 

488 

305 

103 

33 

August 

28,068 

20,913 

402 

153 

490 

308 

103 

30 

September 

28,391 

21,244 

385 

152 

490 

314 

109 

25 

October 

28,676 

21,506 

369 

150 

500 

328 

109 

28 

November 

28,961 

21,801 

353 

157 

501 

351 

129 

32 

1  Total  includes  gold  holdings  last  reported  only  as  of  November,  1939  or  earlier  for  some  countries     *  Since  April,  1940,  reports  on 
certain  Argentine  gold  reserves  no  longer  available 

Latin  America.  Latin  American  countries  were 
confronted  with  peculiar  monetary  problems  of  their 
own  because  of  the  loss  of  European  markets  for 
their  products  and  the  tendency  of  British  Empire 
countries  to  curtail  purchases  there  to  conserve  ex- 
change for  war  implements  bought  in  the  United 
States.  Apart  from  limited  aid  obtained  from  the 
Export-Import  Bank  (q.v.)  and  the  Exchange 
Stabilization  Fund  in  the  United  States,  and  spe- 
cial sales  of  commodities  for  stock  piles  to  sub- 
sidiaries of  the  RFC  (q  v.)  and  the  War  Depart- 
ment, interest  centered  in  the  completion  of  nego- 
tiations for  the  establishment  of  an  Inter-Ameri- 


Ccntral  Banking  Policies.  Central  banking 
activity  in  the  normal  sense  was  virtually  suspend- 
ed all  over  the  world  because  of  the  very  abnormal 
economic  conditions  created  by  the  war.  The  rela- 
tively mild  financial  controls  provided  by  central 
banks  were  universally  regarded  as  altogether  in- 
adequate to  solve  the  problems  produced  by  the 
conflict,  and  far  more  drastic  measures,  especially 
price  fixing  and  direct  production  controls,  were 
resorted  to  in  greater  or  lesser  degree  by  nearly 
all  governments  Because  of  these  direct  controls, 
there  was  less  concern  about  the  expansion  of  cur- 
rency in  circulation  and  the  inflation  of  bank  de- 


INTERNATIONAL  LABOR 


359 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW 


posits  reported  by  most  countries.  In  Germany,  the 
rise  in  currency  circulation  was  less  marked  than 
in  the  year  before,  outstanding  Reichsbank  notes 
increasing  from  11,798,000,000  reichsmarks  on  Dec. 
30,  1939,  to  13,198,000,000  reichsmarks  on  Nov.  30, 
1940.  The  fact  that  countries  harboring  German 
armies  of  occupation  were  made  to  finance  their 
cost  helped  to  reduce  the  financial  burden  of  financ- 
ing the  war  to  the  Reich  government  to  some  ex- 
tent. 

The  Reichsbank  reduced  its  rediscount  rate  from 
4  to  3l/2  per  cent  on  April  9.  The  only  other  im- 
portant changes  in  discount  rates  of  leading  central 
banks  during  the  year  was  a  reduction  by  the  Na- 
tional Bank  of  Belgium  from  2^  to  2  per  cent  ear- 
ly in  January  and  a  rise  in  the  Swedish  central 
bank  rate  from  3  to  3}£  per  cent  on  May  17.  The 
paucity  of  central  bank  rate  changes  emphasizes 
the  minor  role  played  by  central  bank  policy  under 
wartime  conditions. 

JULES  I.  BOGEN. 

INTERNATIONAL  LABOR  ORGANI- 
ZATION. A  permanent  diplomatic  and  admin- 
istrative association,  having  in  its  membership  more 
than  40  nations  of  the  world,  including  the  United 
States.  Its  objective  is  the  improvement  of  labor 
conditions.  Its  machinery  consists  of  an  annual 
Conference  of  representatives  of  the  member  na- 
tions, and  an  International  Labor  Office  controlled 
by  a  Governing  Body,  the  latter  consisting  of  32 
persons,  16  of  whom  represent  the  governments, 
8  the  employers,  and  8  the  workers,  meeting  quar- 
terly 

The  annual  Conferences  draw  up  draft  conven- 
tions and  recommendations  affecting  industrial  con- 
ditions which  are  presented  to  the  competent  au- 
thorities in  each  member  nation  for  ratification  or 
adoption  Up  to  July,  1940,  the  Conference  had 
adopted  67  Draft  Conventions,  and  874  ratifica- 
tions had  been  registered  The  International  Labor 
Office,  which  is  situated  at  Geneva,  Switzerland, 
acts  as  a  secretariat  for  the  annual  Conference 
and  as  a  research  agency  for  the  collection  and 
dissemination  of  information  bearing  on  the  prob- 
lems of  labor  and  industry  throughout  the  world 

The  International  Labor  Organization  maintains 
offices  in  various  member  countries  to  provide  con- 
tact with  social,  labor,  and  industrial  trends  At  the 
present  time  there  are  branch  offices  in  Washing- 
ton, D  C  ,  London,  Shanghai,  Paris,  and  New  Del- 
hi In  November,  1940,  a  new  office  was  opened  in 
Montreal,  Canada,  through  the  co-operation  of  the 
Canadian  Government  and  on  the  invitation  of 
McGill  University  to  provide  service  for  the  mem- 
ber countries  in  the  Western  Hemisphere  during 
the  European  conflict. 

In  June,  1940,  President  Roosevelt  submitted  to 
Congress  the  Draft  Conventions  adopted  by  the 
International  Labor  Conference  in  1939.  These  re- 
late to  the  protection  of  native  laborers  in  the  mat- 
ter of  contracts  of  employment ;  arrangements  for 
the  eventual  abolition  of  penal  sanctions  for  breach- 
es of  contract  of  ^mployment  by  indigenous  labor- 
ers; the  protection  of  migratory  workers  with 
respect  to  recruiting,  placing,  and  conditions  of  la- 
bor ;  and  regulation  of  hours  of  work  and  rest  pe- 
riods in  road  transport.  The  last  mentioned  Con- 
vention establishes  a  basic  8-hour  day  and  48-hour 
week  for  persons  employed  in  commercial  motor 
transport. 

From  July,  J939,  to  July,  1940,  member  coun- 
tries registered  22  ratifications  of  I.L.O.  Conven- 


tions. In  the  United  States  two  bills  were  intro- 
duced in  Congress  in  1940  to  implement  the  I.L.O. 
Conventions  on  Minimum  Age  at  Sea  and  Ship- 
owners' Liability  for  Sick  and  Injured  Seamen. 
These  were  among  the  five  Maritime  Conventions 
ratified  by  the  United  States  in  1938.  Legislation 
to  implement  the  Convention  on  Officers'  Certifi- 
cates of  Competency  was  enacted  by  Congress  in 
1939. 

Since  the  United  States  joined  the  International 
Labor  Organization,  full  tri-partite  delegations — 
representing  government,  employers,  and  workers 
— have  been  sent  to  every  I.L  O  Conference.  The 
International  Labor  Organisation  joined  with  the 
Peruvian  Government  in  holding  an  Inter-Ameri- 
can Conference  on  Social  Security  in  Lima,  Peru, 
in  early  December,  1940  The  occasion  was  the 
dedication  by  the  President  of  Peru  of  the  largest 
hospital  for  workers  in  South  America 

A  citizen  of  the  United  States,  Hon  John  G. 
Wmant,  was  elected  Director  of  the  International 
Labor  Organization  in  1938,  taking  office  m  Janu- 
ary, 1939  Three  other  United  States'  citizens  are 
at  the  present  time  on  the  Governing  Body : — Hon. 
Carter  Goodrich,  United  States  Government  repre- 
sentative, Chairman;  Henry  I.  Harnman  and 
Robert  J.  Watt,  elected  by  the  employer  and  work- 
er delegates  respectively.  Director  of  the  Wash- 
ington Office  is  Ethel  M.  Johnson,  734  Jackson 
Place,  Washington,  D  C 

INTERNATIONAL  LAW.  Literature. 
Book?:  "The  Int.  Law  of  John  Marshall"  (1939, 
pp.  XIV,  386)  by  B.  M.  Ziegler;  reviewed,  34 
Am  Jnl.  of  Int.  Law,  542;  "Making  Int.  Law 
Work,"  (London,  1939;  pp  214)  by  Keeton  & 
Schwarzenberger ;  La  Notion  de  I'Abus  du  Droit 
dans  le  Droit  International  (Paris,  1940;  pp  VI, 
188),  Tnfu  Selea.  From  Moscow  on  May  15, 
came  the  announcement  of  a  work  by  F.  Koshevni- 
koff  which  is  expected  to  provide  the  first  chapter 
of  a  text  book  on  International  Law  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  Soviet  Union. 

Current  Articles:  "The  Reality  of  International 
Law,"  18  Foreign  Affairs,  244  (P.  C  Jessup)  , 
"In  Support  of  Int  Law,"  34  Am  Jnl  Int  Law, 
505  (id )  ;  "Changing  Conceptions  of,"  ib  503 
(P.  M.  Brown)  ;  "The  Needs  of,"  ib  699;  "Posi- 
tivism, Functionalism  and  Int -Law,"  ib.  260  (H 
J.  Morgenthau)  ;  "Status  of  the  British  Com- 
monwealth in  Int.  Law."  3  U  of  Toronto  L  Jnl 
348  (P.  E  Corbett). 

Radio  Conferences.  The  Third  South  Ameri- 
can Radio  Conference,  with  representatives  from 
10  countries,  met  at  Santiago,  Chile,  January  13-17, 
and  adopted  resolutions  to  modernize  broadcast- 
ing, secure  protection  of  authors  through  uniform 
practices,  and  for  short  wave  news  transmission. 
It  was  followed  by  the  Second  Inter-American 
Radio  Conference  on  January  18-27,  representing 
all  independent,  western  hemisphere  nations.  Sub- 
jects included :  Allocation  of  radio  frequencies  and 
need  of  additional  ones  for  aeronautical  services; 
uniform  time  and  signals;  short-wave  broadcast- 
ing^ frequency  tolerances;  suppression  of  non-es- 
sential radio ;  freedom  of  radio  communications ; 
aviation  aids,  and  international  radio  police  serv- 
ices for  law  enforcement  (See  also  PAN- AMERI- 
CAN UNION.) 

Nationality.  Dr.  Albert  Einstein,  famous  Ger- 
man scientist,  renounced  his  former  nationality 
and  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  as  an  American 
citizen  in  the  Federal  Court  at  Trenton,  N.J.,  on 
October  1.  By  the  U.S.  Act  of  Congress  of  June 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW 


360 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW 


28,  all  resident  aliens  were  required  to  be  regis- 
tered and  fingerprinted.  A  total  of  over  4,900,000 
responded. 

Current  articles 

"The  Nature  of  Nationalism,"  33  Am  Pol.  Science 
Rev,  1001  (H  Kohn);  "Expatriation  of  American  Mi- 
nors/' 38  Mich  L  Rev  585  (L.  B.  Orficld) ;  "Minimum 
Standard  of  the  Treatment  of  Aliens,"  tb  445  (E  M 
Borchard) ;  "Constitutionality  of  State  Legislation  Affect- 
ing Aliens,"  17  N.Y  U  L  Quar.  242  (P  Wciden) 

Territory.  Since  the  outbreak  of  the  second 
World  War  more  European  territory  has  changed 
masters  than  during  any  like  period  since  Napole- 
on's ascendancy.  (See  EUROPEAN  WAR.)  Terri- 
torial integrity  seems  to  have  been  repudiated  by 
the  totalitarian  states,  nor  did  their  aggressions 
affect  Europe  only.  Because  of  the  extensive  colo- 
nies held  by  Britain,  France,  and  Netherlands  in 
the  western  hemisphere,  the  independent  powers 
there  feared  that  the  invaders  might  extend  their 
activities  by  claiming  the  colonies.  To  avert  such 
changes  was  the  chief  purpose  of  the  Second 
American  Foreign  Ministers'  Meeting  which  pro- 
vided for  "a  regime  of  provisional  administration" 
of  such  colonies,  pending  their  acquisition  of  inde- 
pendence or  return  to  their  former  status. 

Antarctica.  Admiral  Byrd's  report  of  finding 
900  miles  of  Antarctic  coast,  previously  uncharted, 
following  Ellsworth's  air  survey  of  81,000  square 
miles,  caused  the  lower  South  American  states  to 
assert  claims  to  this  latest  of  the  continents  to  be 
explored  Chile  has  filed  a  demand  for  all  of  it  be- 
tween 53°  and  90°  W  longitude,  and  has  entered 
into  an  agreement  with  Argentina  as  regards  other 
portions.  But  the  United  States  claim  harks  back 
to  Lieutenant  Wilkes  who,  nearly  a  century  ago, 
explored  the  region  as  far  as  45°  W  longitude. 
See  POLAR  EXPLORATIONS. 

Boundaries.  The  truce  agreement  between 
Honduras  and  Nicaragua  in  their  boundary  dispute 
(1939  YEAR  BOOK,  372)  expired  early  in  the  year 
and  the  conciliation  commission  which  arranged  it 
was  not  reconvened,  but  each  power  had  signed  a 
non-aggression  pact  and  friendly  relations  have 
continued  "International  Boundaries  •  Functions 
and  Problems"  afforded  the  subject  of  a  work  by 
S  W  Boggs  (1940,  pp  XVII,  272) 

Waters.  "The  Hemisphere  Zone  of  Security 
and  the  Law,"  26  A.B  A.  Jnl  860  ( W  S.  Master- 
son)  ;  "Marginal  Seas  Around  the  States,"  2  La. 
L  Rev,  252  (G  Ireland).  The  opinion,  replete 
with  citations,  in  People  v  Stralla,  98  Cal  440,  34 
Am.  Jnl.  Int.  Law,  143,  recognizes  Santa  Monica 
Bay  as  a  "harbor,"  subject  to  State  police  jurisdic- 
tion. 

Extraterritoriality.  The  face-saving  "treaty" 
of  December  between  Japan  and  its  puppet  Presi- 
dent, Wang-Ching-wei,  provides  for  the  abolition 
of  extraterritoriality  in  China,  which  would  mean 
merely  the  substitution  of  Japanese  judges  in  the 
courts  for  Chinese  and  Whites 

See  the  general  subject  discussed  in  51  Jurid  Rev.  303 
(T.  Baty)  Cf  "Extraterritorial  Validity  of  Ex  Porte 
Divorces,"  28  Ky.  L  Jnl  247  (E.  Rosenbaum) ;  "Extra- 
territorial Application  of  Workmen's  Compensation  Acts," 
26  Va  L  Km  ,  95 ,  "Extraterritorial  Fffect  of  Foreign 
Decrees  and  Seizures,"  88  U.  of  Pa.  L  Rev ,  983;  "Ap- 
plication of  the  Anti-Trust  Laws  to  Extraterritorial  Con- 
spiracies," 49  Yale  L.  /.,  12  (R.  T.  Molloy). 

Treaties.  General  See  Vitta,  La  Validite  des 
Traitts  Intcrnationaux,  (Leiden,  1940;  pp.  X, 
247)  ;  Les  Clauses  de  Revision  dam  les  Trait 6 sin- 
ternationaux  multilateral** ,  de  I'apres  Guerre.  20 
Revue  de  Droit  International  et  de  Legislation 


Compared  529;  "Enforcement  of  Multipartite  Ad- 
ministrative Treaties  in  the  United  States,"  34  Am. 
Jnl.  of  Int.  Law,  661  (H.  Reiff) ;  "Extent  of  the 
Treaty  Making  Power,"  28  Georgetown  L  Jnl., 
184  (Feidler  &  Duran)  ;  "Retroactive  Effect  of 
Ratification,"  34  Am.  Jnl  of  Int.  Law,  51  (J.  M. 
Jones). 

Commercial  Pacts  January  5.  United  States-Canada  (sup- 
plementary); United  States-Chile  (provisional),  January 
8,  Anglo-French-Turkish,  January  17,  Spanish-Bulgarian, 
January  18,  Spanish-French;  January  23,  Brazil-Argentine; 
January  31,  France-Greece,  February  3,  Britain-Turkey, 
February  21,  Yugoslavia-Slovakia  (renewal).  February  23, 
France-Hungary;  February  12.  Germany-Soviet  Russia; 
February  15,  Britain-France,  March  I,  France-Belgium, 
Britain-Belgium,  March  18,  Britain-Spam,  March  20, 
Italy- Rumania;  March  25,  Soviet  Russia-Iran,  April  2, 
Britain-Denmark;  April  10,  Hungary- Yugoslavia,  April 
20-24,  Germany-Rumania;  April  26,  France- Switzerland; 
May  4,  Japan-Uruguay,  May  26,  Soviet  Rus«»ia-Yugo- 
slavia,  June  6,  Britain-Rumania;  June  8,  Germany-Greece, 
June  11,  Germany-Turkey,  June  20,  Britain-Brazil,  June 
21,  Italy-Japan  (Manchukuo) ,  June  28,  Soviet  Russia- 
Finland,  July  20,  Germany-Hungary;  October  6,  Argen- 
tina-Brazil ("the  most  important  commercial  accord  in 
South  American  history"),  October  11,  Italy-Finland 

Reciprocity  pacts  with  twenty  countries  had 
been  concluded  by  the  United  States,  when,  on 
April  12,  the  act  authorizing  them  was  extended 
for  another  three  years.  The  list  (See  1939  YEAR 
BOOK,  p  763)  includes  twelve  Latin-American 
states  and  negotiations  have  been  in  progress  with 
Argentina  (which  sent  a  trade  delegation  to  Wash- 
ington in  November),  Chile,  and  others;  but  the 
Second  World  War  has  seriously  retarded  the 
movement's  progress  and  on  July  11,  the  State  De- 
partment transferred  to  the  newly  created  "Divi- 
sion of  Commercial  Treaties  and  Agreements,"  the 
functions  of  the  former  "Division  of  Trade  Agree- 
ments." 

United  States-Dominican  Republic  In  Septem- 
ber, President  Roosevelt  announced  the  termina- 
tion of  the  Dominican  receivei  ship  by  which,  since 
1905,  the  former  had  supervised  the  collection  of 
the  latter's  revenues,  reserving  55  per  cent  for  the 
payment  of  certain  Dominican  bonds  Holders  of 
the  latter  now  complain  that  their  security  has 
been  impaired. 

Non-Aggression  Pacts  to  the  extent  of  nine  have 
now  been  ratified  by  most  of  the  American  nations 
See  34  Am.  Jnl  Int  Law  279  n  •  Stuyt,  "Survey 
of  International  Arbitrations,"  1794-1038  (The 
Hague,  1939;  pp  12,  479;  reviewed  ib  554,  where 
the  author's  409  arbitrations  are  contrasted  with 
the  540  of  Darby's,  "Modern  Pacific  Settlements," 
the  difference  being  due  to  the  lack  of  documents 
for  the  latter) ;  Wambaugh,  "The  Saar  Plebiscite," 
(1940;  pp.  xvi,  489)  On  February  13,  Japan  de- 
nounced its  arbitration  and  conciliation  treaty  of 
1933  with  Netherlands  Yugoslavia  and  Hungary 
signed  a  "perpetual  friendship"  pact  on  Decem- 
ber 12. 

War.  The  Japanese  invasion  of  China,  now 
nearing  the  end  of  its  fourth  year,  began  without 
a  declaration  of  war,  and  the  invader,  for  reasons 
of  technical  advantage,  has  never  acknowledged 
that  "war"  between  Japan  and  China  existed  In  a 
case  before  the  British  Court  of  Appeal,  the  um- 
pire's finding  that  operations  constituting  war  were 
in  progress  was  upheld  Kawasaki  Kisen  Kabwhiki 
v.  Bantam  SS  Co  .  55  L  Times  Rep  503,  34  Am. 
Jnl  of  Int  Law,  533 ;  discussed  in  26  Va.  L  Rev 
226.  See  Willoughby,  "Japan's  Case  Examined" 
(1940;  pp.  x,  237)  ;  "The  Enemy  Problem  in  the 
present  War,"  34  Am.  Jnl.  of  Int  Law,  443  (R 
M  W.  Kempner). 

Neutrality.  "Its  Present  Status,"  34  Am.  Jnl 


INTERSTATE  COMMERCE 


361 


INTERSTATE  COMMERCE 


Int.  Law,  391  (Q.  Wright) ;  "Scandinavia:  The 
Background  for"  (1940;  pp.  358  &  index;  A.  L. 
Olson;  reviewed  ib.  537) ;  "Neo-Neutrality"  (Co- 
lumbia  Univ.  Press,  1939,  G.  Cohn,  chiefly  valuable 
as  a  book  of  reference,  34  ///.  L.  Rev.  372)  ;  "Amer- 
ican Neutrality:  Trial  and  Failure"  (1940;  pp. 
xiv,  190;  C.  G.  Fenwick) ;  "The  300  Mile  Neutral 
Belt,"  26  A.BA.  Jnl.  237  (P.  S.  Wild);  "The 
Arms  Embargo  Repeal,"  28  Ky.  L.  Jnl.,  210  (A. 
Vandenbosch) ;  see  also  25  L.  Quar.  255  (H.  R. 
Wellman);  28  Georgetown  L.  Jnl,  82  (W.  J. 
Deem). 

Private.  See  Raape,  Deutsches  Internationales 
Pnvatrecht  (Berlin,  1938;  vol.  ii,  pp.  141-397), 
reviewed  34  Am.  Jnl  Int.  Law,  186  where  the  au- 
thor is  termed  "the  leading  writer  on  the  Conflict 
of  Laws  still  remaining  in  Germany" ;  Cock,  7  ra- 
tado  de  Derecho  Internacional  Prtvado  (2d  ed.f 
1940,  pp.275). 

Assimilation  (Conflict)  of  Laws.  "Public 
Policy  and  the  Conflict  of  Laws,"  49  Yale  L  Jnl , 
1027  (A.  Nussbaum)  ;  "India,  Burma  and  Far- 
eastern  Cases  on  the  Conflict  of  Laws,"  1935-39, 
22  Jnl.  Comparative  Legislation,  etc.,  53-73  ( S.  V. 
Fitzgerald)  ;  "El  Principio  Rebus  sic  Stantibus 
como  Causa  de  Extincwn  de  las  Obhgacwncs  In- 
ternacionales  Contractual" 36 Revista  de  Derecho 
International,  117  (A.  P.  Mendez). 

Contracts:  53  Harv  L.  Rev.,  792  (P.  W.  Thay- 
er)  ;  28  Georgetown  L.  Jnl ,  447  (Schmitthoff)  , 
18  Canadian  Bar  Rev.,  77  (J.  D.  Falconndge;  Bills 
of  Lading). 

Property:  28  Georgetown  L  Jnl.  739  (A.  H. 
Robertson). 

Succession '  in  Guatemala,  3  Revista  de  la  Facul- 
tad  de  Ciencias  Jundicas  y  Sociales  de  Guatemala, 
20  (M.  C.  Fiallos). 

Tort  *  on  the  high  seas,  18  Canadian  Bar  Rev  f 
308  (I.  D  Falconbndge). 

Enforcement.  "Jurisdiction  to  Determine  Prop- 
erty Rights  of  Foreign  Government,"  Lamont  v. 
Ins  Co.,  281  N.Y.  362,  discussed  in  25  Cornell  L 
Quar.  459;  14  St.  John's  L.  Rev.,  419;  26  Va  L. 
Rev.  824 ;  "Foreign  Corporations  and  Venue  in  the 
Federal  Courts,"  38  Mich.  L.  Rev.  1047  (T.  R. 
Vogt) ;  "Procuring  Evidence  Abroad,"  14  Tulane 
L.  Rev.  29  (T.  Helpern). 

Property.  The  Cardenas  policy  of  seizing  alien 
property  in  Mexico  (1939  YEAR  BOOK,  373)  con- 
tinued. See  MEXICO  under  History.  Under  date  of 
January  12,  the  Standard  Oil  Co.  of  N  J.,  issued 
an  80-page  pamphlet  reviewing  the  situation  since 
1934.  A  reply  entitled  "The  True  Facts  about  the 
Expropriation  of  the  Oil  Companies'  Properties" 
was  published  by  the  Mexican  government  Other 
publications  are  •  "Expropriation  in  Mexico"  (1940 , 
pp.  xii,  204,  (R.  B.  Gaither) ;  the  two  latter  are 
reviewed,  34  Am.  Jnl.  Int.  Law,  769) ;  "Mexican 
Supreme  Court  Decision  in  the  Expropriation 
Cases,"  ib.  297  (A.  K.  Kuhn)  ;  "The  Mexican  Ex- 
propriations," 17  N.Y.U.L.  Rev.  327  (Kunz). 

On  December  4,  the  Rumanian  premier  decreed 
the  expropriation  of  all  oil  properties,  including 
fixtures,  and  all  watercraft  owned  and  used  by 
companies  with  Jewish  stockholders 

See  also  LAW;  LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS;  WORID 
COURT,  and  the  various  nations. 

C.    SUMNER  LOBINGIKR 

INTERSTATE  COMMERCE  COMMIS- 
SION (ICC).  The  Interstate  Commerce  Com- 
mission, established  by  act  of  Congress  in  1887,  is 
the  oldest  regulatory  agency  of  the  Federal  Gov- 


ernment. The  carriers  subject  to  its  jurisdiction 
transport  the  greater  part  of  the  freight  and  com- 
mercial passenger  traffic  in  the  United  States.  Cre- 
ated originally  for  the  purpose  of  improving  con- 
ditions affecting  railroad  transportation,  it  has  also 
for  many  years  exercised  certain  powers  over  water 
carriers  engaged  in  rail -water  transportation  in 
connection  with  railroads  as  well  as  over  pipe  lines. 
Since  1935  it  has  been  charged  with  the  regulation 
of  motor  carriers,  and  in  1940  Congress  enacted 
the  Transportation  Act  of  1940  which  enlarged  its 
powers  over  water  carriers 

Under  this  new  legislation,  which  for  the  most 
part  will  become  effective  early  in  1941,  common 
carriers  engaged  in  transportation  by  water  be- 
tween a  place  in  one  State  and  a  place  in  another 
State  will  have  to  secure  certificates  of  conveni- 
ence and  necessity  from  the  Commission,  and  con- 
tract carriers  similarly  engaged  will  have  to  obtain 
permits.  If  such  carriers  were  in  bona  fide  opera- 
tion on  Jan.  1,  1940,  the  issuance  of  a  certificate  or 
permit  is  mandatory  upon  the  seasonable  filing  of 
an  application  therefor.  Provision  is  made  for 
exempting  certain  water  transportation  from  regu- 
lation under  this  law,  which  in  general  is  similar 
to  that  now  applied  to  rail  and  motor  carriers 
Common  carriers  will  be  required  to  publish  tariffs 
showing  their  rates  or  charges  to  be  filed  with  the 
Commission,  and  contract  carriers  will  have  to 
publish  and  file  schedules  of  minimum  rates  01 
charges.  The  Commission  is  empowered  to  require 
changes  in  such  rates  and  charges  after  a  full  hear- 
ing. Water  carriers  subject  to  the  law  may  be  re- 
quired to  file  reports  of  their  affairs  with  the  Com- 
mission. 

The  changed  conditions  which  have  almost  revo- 
lutionized land  transportation  in  the  past  quarter 
of  a  century  have  had  an  important  effect  on  the 
Commission's  work.  Railroad  mileage  in  the  United 
States  increased  steadily  until  1916  and  since  that 
year  has  slowly  declined.  The  figure  for  1938  was 
almost  exactly  the  same  as  that  for  1909  In  1940 
the  Commission  authorized  the  abandonment  of 
2278  miles  of  line,  offset  by  authorized  new  con- 
struction of  only  37  miles.  Since  1935  more  than 
100,000  motor-carrier  operators  have  sought  oper- 
ating authority  under  the  motor-carrier  act,  and 
the  Commission's  identification  plate  appears  on 
280,431  motor  vehicles.  Of  these  46,216  were  issued 
in  1940. 

A  considerable  part  of  the  Commission's  routine 
work  in  1940,  as  in  former  years,  had  to  dp  with 
the  regulation  of  railroad  rates,  the  authorization 
of  securities  issued  by  railroads,  the  collection  and 
publication  of  statistics  relating  to  railroads  and 
other  carriers,  enforcement  of  statutes  for  the  pro- 
motion of  safety  in  railroad  operation,  and  the  dis- 
covery of  violations  of  criminal  and  penal  statutes 
intended  to  prevent  illegal  practices  on  the  part  of 
shippers  and  carriers. 

The  extraordinary  number  of  bankrupt  railroads 
in  recent  years  has  added  to  the  work  of  the  Com- 
mission, which  under  the  bankruptcy  act  must  ap- 
prove plans  for  the  financial  reorganization  of  such 
railroads.  In  1940  the  Commission  approved  reor- 
ganization plans  for  seven  class  I  railroad  systems. 

The  Commission's  work  in  the  regulation  of 
motor  carriers  has  passed  beyond  the  initial  stage, 
which  was  occupied  chiefly  with  applications  for 
operating  rights.  The  emphasis  has  now  shifted  to 
safety,  enforcement,  and  rates.  Rules  have  been 
prescribed  concerning  safety  and  insurance,  and 
revised  tariff  rules  to  facilitate  ascertainment  of 


INTERSTATE  COMPACTS 


362 


IRAN 


applicable  rates  have  been  adopted.  Safety  inspec- 
tors have  been  added  to  the  field  staff,  who,  in  co- 
operation with  representatives  of  State  govern- 
ments, are  engaged  in  educating  motor  carriers  in 
methods  of  operation  designed  to  reduce  highway 
accidents  and  secure  compliance  with  the  Commis- 
sion's safety  regulations.  With  the  object  of  pro- 
moting safety  of  operation  the  Commission  has 
prescribed  qualifications  and  maximum  hours  of 
service  of  certain  classes  of  employees  of  motor 
carriers,  including  private  carriers  of  property  by 
motor  vehicle. 

See  RAILWAYS  ;  UNITED  STATES  under  Adminis- 
tration. 

INTERSTATE  COMPACTS.  See  LAW. 

INVESTIGATION,  Criminal.  See  FEDERAL 
BUREAU  OF  INVESTIGATION. 

INVESTMENT  COMPANIES.  See  FI- 
NANCIAL REVIEW. 

IOWA.  Area,  56,146  square  miles,  including 
water,  561  square  miles.  Population,  Apr.  1,  1940 
(census),  2,538,268;  1930,  2,470,939  Des  Moines, 
the  capital,  had  (1940)  159,819  inhabitants;  Sioux 
City,  82,364;  Davenport,  66,039;  Cedar  Rapids, 
62,120;  Waterloo,  51,743;  Dubuque,  43,892.  The 
State's  urban  population,  1,084,231  (1940)  exceed- 
ed that  of  1930  by  104,939 ;  the  rural  population, 
1,454,037  (1940),  while  still  predominant,  had  lost 
37,610  in  the  decade. 

Agriculture.  Farmers  in  Iowa  harvested  20,- 
961,000  acres,  approximately,  of  the  principal  crops 
in  1940;  eight  crops  accounted  for  all  but  some 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres.  Corn,  occupying 
9,031,000  acres,  made  460,581,000  bu.  (51  bu.  to  the 
acre),  and  was  estimated  as  worth  $267,137,000  to 
the  growers  Oats,  on  5,166,000  acres,  gave  206,- 
640,000  bu.  (about  $55,793,000) ;  tame  hay,  4,381,- 
000  acres,  6,572,000  tons  ($39,432,000)  ,  soy  beans, 
733,000  acres,  15,026,000  bu  ($10,518,000)  ;  barley, 
462,000  acres,  14,553,000  bu.  ($5,530,000) ,  potatoes, 
60,000  acres,  6,120,000  bu.  ($4,284,000)  ;  wheat, 
341,000  acres,  8,121,000  bu.  ($5,441,000)  ;  flaxseed, 
180,000  acres  (a  sharp  increase  over  lately  pre- 
ceding years),  2,520,000  bu.  ($3,301,000)  Farms, 
in  1940,  totaled  213,318;  their  area  averaged  160  1 
acres. 

Mineral  Production.  As  stated  in  1940  by  the 
U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  Iowa's  production  of  native 
minerals  totaled  $24,794,058  for  1938;  coal  con- 
tributed nearly  one-third  of  this  total,  cement  was 
a  close  second,  and  stone  and  clay  products  made 
up  most  of  the  remainder.  The  coal  output  was 
2,908,000  tons  for  1940,  3,050,000  tons  for  1939, 
and  3,103,187  tons  (value,  $7,963,000)  for  1938. 
Makers'  shipments  of  portland  cement,  fairly  close 
to  yearly  production,  fell  off  a  little,  to  4,717,- 
295  bbl.  (1939),  from  4,759,390  (1938) ;  but  their 
yearly  value  rose  somewhat,  to  $7,771,503,  from 
$7,327,048.  The  clay  products  (other  than  pottery 
and  refractories)  attained  $2,868,233  for  1938 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40, 
Iowa's  inhabitants  of  school  age  (from  5  years  to 
21)  were  reckoned  at  677,263.  Enrollments  of  pu- 
pils in  the  public  schools  numbered  505,862;  this 
comprised  364,071  elementary,  139,410  high-school, 
and  2381  junior  college  enrollments  The  year's 
expenditures  for  public-school  education  totaled 
$37,250,768,  plus  $7,202,358  of  capital  outlay  and 
$5,514,500  of  interest  or  principal  paid  on  debt. 
Salary  paid  in  the  year  to  25,151  teachers  in  pub- 
lic schools  averaged  $1007.03. 

History.  The  popular  vote  at  the  general  elec- 
tion on  November  5  was  prevailingly  Republican. 


It  gave  Willkie  (Rep.)  632,370  for  President,  a 
moderate  plurality  over  Roosevelt  (Dem.),  who 
obtained  578,800.  The  State's  Republican  Governor, 
George  A.  Wilson,  was  re-elected,  defeating  John 
K.  Valentine  (Dem.).  As  neither  Senator's  term 
was  to  expire  the  State's  two  Democratic  incum- 
bents remained  in  the  United  States  Senate.  Farm- 
ers' dissatisfaction  with  some  of  the  agricultural 
policies  of  the  Roosevelt  administration  accounted, 
in  prevalent  opinion,  for  the  strength  of  the  Re- 
publican vote. 

Officers.  Iowa's  chief  officers,  serving  in  1940, 
were-  Governor,  George  A.  Wilson  (Rep.)  ;  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor,  Bourke  B.  Hickenlooper ;  Secre- 
tary of  State,  Earl  G.  Miller;  Auditor,  C.  B. 
Akers ;  Treasurer,  Willis  G.  C  Bagley ;  Attorney- 
General,  Fred  D.  Everett,  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture, Mark  G.  Thornburg ;  Superintendent  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction,  Jessie  M.  Parker. 

I.R.A.  Irish  Republican  Army.  See  IRELAND, 
IRELAND,  NORTHERN,  and  GREAT  BRITAIN  under 
History. 

IRAN  (PERSIA).  A  kingdom  of  southwest- 
ern Asia.  Capital,  Tehran  (Teheran) ;  sovereign 
in  1940,  Riza  Shah  Pahlevi,  who  was  crowned 
Apr.  25,  1926. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  about  628,000 
square  miles;  population,  estimated  at  15,000,000, 
including  besides  the  dominant  Iranians  large  mi- 
norities of  Turks,  Kurds,  Leks,  Baluchis,  and 
Gipsies.  There  are  about  3,000,000  nomads.  Esti- 
mated populations  of  the  chief  cities  Tehran  and 
district,  360,000;  Tabriz,  219,000,  Meshed,  139,- 
000;  Shnaz,  119,000;  Isfahan,  100,000,  Hamadan, 
99,000. 

National  Defense.  Iran  in  1939  had  an  active 
army  of  3200  officers  and  116,800  men,  with  one 
mechanized  brigade  equipped  with  100  new  Skoda 
tanks  and  5  aviation  regiments  with  280  aircraft, 
mostly  of  British  construction.  The  navy  consisted 
of  2  sloops,  5  patrol  vessels,  and  several  smaller 
craft  in  the  Persian  Gulf  and  several  motor  patrol 
boats  in  the  Caspian  Sea  There  is  also  an  armed 
police  force  of  7  regiments  and  15  battalions. 

Education  and  Religion.  Despite  rapid  ex- 
tension of  educational  facilities  in  recent  years,  the 
population  remains  largely  illiterate  There  were 
4939  schools  with  273,680  pupils  in  1937,  and  some 
900  Iranians  were  studying  in  foreign  universities, 
mostly  at  government  expense.  The  people  are 
mainly  Moslems  of  the  Shiite  sect ;  there  are  also 
about  50,000  Armenians,  40,000  Jews,  30,000  Nes- 
torians,  and  some  native  Christians,  Bahaists,  and 
others. 

Production.  Agriculture  and  stock  raising  are 
the  main  occupations,  but  the  oil  industry  is  the 
chief  source  of  government  revenue.  Production 
of  the  chief  crops  in  1937-38  was  estimated  as  fol- 
lows (in  metric  tons)  •  Wheat,  1,942,300;  barley, 
706,900 ;  rice,  382,100;  beet  sugar,  25,200  (in  1939- 
40)  ;  tobacco,  15,900;  sesamum,  7500;  cotton,  32,- 
900.  The  1938  wool  clip  was  about  18,100  metric 
tons.  Dates,  raisins,  and  other  fruit  arc  widely 
grown.  The  output  of  crude  petroleum  in  1939  was 
78,151,332  bbl.  (78,320,840  in  1938),  giving  Iran 
fourth  rank  among  world  producers.  Carpet  mak- 
ing remains  the  leading  industry.  Cement,  matches, 
cotton  and  woolen  yarns  and  fabrics,  refined  sugar, 
silk  textiles,  and  iron  and  steel  are  new  industrial 
products  fabricated  with  government  backing. 
There  is  a  large  oil  refinery  at  Abadan. 

Foreign  Trade.  For  the  year  ended  Mar.  21, 
1939,  merchandise  imports  were  valued  at  1,072,- 


IRAN 


363 


IRAQ 


700,000  rials  (1,445,200,000  in  1937-38),  while  ex- 
ports were  2,501,300,000  rials  (2,394,600,000  in  1937- 
38).  Crude  petroleum  normally  accounts  for  about 
three-fourths  of  the  value  of  all  exports  (1,877,- 
262,000  rials  in  1937-38).  The  chief  imports  are 
cotton  piece  goods,  machinery  and  tools,  sugar, 
vehicles.  Normally,  trade  is  carried  on  mainly  with 
the  Soviet  Union,  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and 
the  United  States  (see  TRADE,  FOREIGN  for  com- 
merce with  United  States).  Foreign  trade  has  been 
a  government  monopoly  since  1931. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  for  the  year  ended 
Mar.  21,  1941,  placed  receipts  at  3,094,977,000  rials 
(1,930,096,700  in  1939-40)  and  expenditures  at  3,2 10,- 
973,000  (2,613,482,000).  Oil  royalties  (amounting 
to  £4,568,674  in  1938)  are  kept  in  a  reserve  fund 
and  omitted  from  the  budget.  In  addition  to  regu- 
lar budget  expenditures,  £2,000,000  from  the  re- 
serve fund  was  spent  on  the  army  in  1940-41.  The 
recognized  foreign  debt  on  May  15,  1939,  was 
£991,120  The  rial  was  pegged  at  17.1133  rials  to 
the  U.S.  dollar  (1  rial  =  $0.0585)  on  Dec.  21, 

1939,  instead  of  the  previous  official  fixed  rate  of 
80.50  to  the  pound  sterling. 

Transportation.  The  railways,  with  over  1000 
miles  of  line  in  1940,  are  of  recent  construction. 
The  866-mile  Trans-Iranian  line  from  Bandar 
Shahpur  on  the  Persian  Gulf  to  Bandar  Shah  on 
the  Caspian  Sea  was  completed  Aug.  26,  1938.  Un- 
der construction  in  1940  were  the  lines  Tehran- 
Tabriz,  of  which  the  Tehran-Zmjan  section  was 
completed  Oct.  4,  1940;  Tehran-Meshed,  opened 
from  Tehran  to  Semnan  in  September,  1939;  and 
Tehran-Yezd.  Highway  mileage  (1939),  15,043. 
The  important  Meshed-Bandar  Shah  highway,  126 
miles  long,  connecting  Eastern  Iran  with  the  Cas- 
pian Sea  was  opened  in  November,  1939  An  air 
line  connects  Tehran  and  Kermanshah  with  Bagh- 
dad in  Iraq  The  port-improvement  project  at 
Now-Shahr  on  the  Caspian  Sea  was  completed  in 

1940.  Improvements  on  the  Persian  Gulf  ports  of 
Bandar    Shahpur  and   Khorramshahr    (formerly 
Mohammerah)  were  under  way. 

Government.  Executive  power  is  exercised  by 
the  Shah,  acting  through  his  cabinet  appointees. 
The  parliament  (Medjliss)  of  136  members,  elect- 
ed for  two  years,  sanctions  measures  proposed  by 
the  Shah  and  his  cabinet.  Premier  in  1940,  Dr. 
Ahmed  Matine-Daftary,  appointed  Oct.  26,  1939. 
There  are  no  political  parties 

History.  During  1940  the  European  whirlpool 
of  war  threatened  repeatedly  to  suck  Iran  into  the 
conflagration  Russia,  Turkey,  Germany,  and  Great 
Britain  all  strove  to  draw  Riza  Shah  Pahlevi  into 
open  or  tacit  alliances  through  material  induce- 
ments or  threats.  Britain  signed  a  technical-finan- 
cial agreement  with  Iran  on  February  16  under 
which  the  British  were  reported  to  have  agreed  to 
supply  arms  to  the  Iranian  army.  Numerous  Ger- 
man army  officers  and  political  agents  were  said  to 
have  arrived  in  Tehran  early  in  the  year  and  to 
have  worked  against  British,  Turkish,  and,  to 
some  extent,  Russian  influence. 

Turkish  diplomacy  was  particularly  active  in  at- 
tempting to  strengthen  and  extend  the  Saadebad 
non-aggression  pact  signed  by  Turkey,  Iran,  Iraq, 
and  Afghanistan  on  July  8,  1937.  The  Moscow 
press  in  mid-February  reported  that  Turkey  was 
trying  to  align  Iran,  Iraq,  and  Afghanistan  behind 
its  anti -German  stand  About  the  same  time  it  was 
announced  in  Turkey  that  consultations  under  the 
Saadebad  accord  were  in  progress,  with  a  view  to 
converting  it  into  a  military  alliance.  The  result  of 


these  consultations  was  not  made  public  up  to  the 
end  of  1940. 

On  April  5  the  Medjliss  ratified  a  reciprocal 
trade  balancing  pact  with  the  Soviet  Union,  re- 
placing a  commercial  pact  that  expired  June  21, 
1938.  Soviet  commercial  representatives  in  Iran 
were  given  diplomatic  status  and  authorized  to 
side-step  the  Iranian  foreign  trade  monopoly  by 
dealing  directly  with  private  firms  as  well  as  with 
the  Iranian  Government.  Iran  also  granted  the 
U.S.S.R.  storage  and  retail  sales  facilities  for  pe- 
troleum products.  In  return  Moscow  was  reported 
to  have  granted  Iran  permission  to  ship  its  prod- 
ucts to  Germany  across  Soviet  territory.  This  ac- 
cord was  hailed  as  a  considerable  diplomatic  vic- 
tory in  Moscow.  Another  agreement  concluded 
September  22  authorized  Soviet  trains  to  enter  Iran 
and  vice  versa.  Relations  between  Moscow  and 
Tehran  remained  far  from  cordial,  however.  The 
Soviet  Government  on  various  occasions  assumed 
threatening  attitudes  and  early  in  July  was  re- 
ported to  have  demanded  the  cession  of  a  strip  of 
Iranian  territory  along  the  Soviet  frontier. 

In  accordance  with  the  decision  reached  in  1939 
for  the  resumption  of  diplomatic  relations  with  the 
United  States,  a  new  Iranian  Minister  presented 
his  credentials  to  President  Roosevelt  on  Feb  13, 
1940  Near  the  year's  end,  a  "friendly  agreement" 
was  reached  between  the  Iranian  Government  and 
the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  in 
New  York  for  the  termination  of  the  Board's  edu- 
cational work  of  more  than  a  century  in  Iran  The 
government,  which  was  taking  over  all  foreign 
educational  institutions,  agreed  to  pay  $1,200,000 
in  installments  for  the  Board's  properties 

Internal  conditions  were  adversely  affected  by 
the  European  War,  which  curtailed  Iran's  chief 
export  markets  and  cut  off  imports  of  machinery 
and  other  items  ordered  to  speed  the  Shah's  indus- 
trialization and  modernization  program  Neverthe- 
less construction  of  railways,  ports,  and  highways 
continued  (see  above  under  Transportation).  Leg- 
islation approved  during  the  year  authorized  a  tax 
in  foreign  currency  on  the  tonnage  of  foreign 
steamers  calling  at  Iranian  ports ;  provided  for  re- 
payment of  government  loans  from  the  Mellie 
Bank  in  seven  years ;  and  authorized  the  abolition 
of  corporations  and  monopolies  owned  exclusively 
by  the  government  and  the  transfer  of  their  func- 
tions and  assets  to  the  reorganized  Ministry  of 
Finance 

Settlement  of  a  dispute  over  oil  royalties  be- 
tween the  Iranian  Government  and  the  Anglo- 
Iranian  Oil  Co  was  announced  August  25.  To 
compensate  for  the  drop  in  the  value  of  the  pound 
sterling,  the  company  undertook  to  pay  the  gov- 
ernment £1,500,000  sterling  for  1938  and  1939,  in 
addition  to  royalties  already  paid  for  those  years, 
and  to  pay  £4,000,000  sterling  in  round  numbers 
for  each  of  the  years  1940  and  1941  The  company 
received  a  written  assurance  that  this  arrangement 
did  not  affect  the  terms  of  the  concession  The 
net  profit  of  the  company  declined  from  £6,109,- 
477  in  1938  to  £2,986,358  in  1939. 

See  AFGHANISTAN,  IRAQ,  TURKEY,  and  UNION 
OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS  under  History 

IRAQ  (IRAK).  An  Arab  kingdom  occupying 
the  basin  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  Rivers  in 
Mesopotamia.  Capital,  Baghdad.  Kinpr,  Feisal  II, 
who  succeeded  to  the  throne  Apr.  4,  1939 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  116,600  square 
miles;  population,  estimated  at  3,670,000  on  Jan. 
1,  1938.  Chief  cities,  with  estimated  populations 


IRAQ 


364 


IRAQ 


(1938) :  Baghdad,  340,000;  Mosul,  98,000;  Basra, 
the  chief  port,  62,000.  Language,  Arabic. 

Education  and  Religion.  Despite  free  primary 
education,  illiteracy  remains  high.  Latest  available 
education  statistics  show  777  state  and  private  ele- 
mentary schools,  with  110,106  pupils;  47  inter- 
mediate schools  (11,396  pupils)  ;  16  secondary 
schools  (2233  pupils)  ;  12  vocational  and  profes- 
sional schools  (2019  students)  ;  and  4  colleges  (905 
students).  In  1935  there  were  3,136,632  Moslems, 
101,375  Christians,  90,970  Jews. 

Defense.  Compulsory  military  service  for  men 
from  19  to  25  years  of  age  was  introduced  in  1936. 
The  standing  army  and  air  force  in  1938  was 
about  28,000  men,  with  a  war  strength  of  40,000, 
and  about  50  airplanes.  A  British  military  mission 
aids  in  training  the  army,  which  is  mainly  British- 
equipped.  There  was  a  police  force  of  10,339  offi- 
cers and  men  on  June  30,  1939 

Production.  The  principal  occupations  are 
agriculture,  stock  raising,  and  petroleum  mining. 
Most  of  the  petroleum  output  goes  from  Kirkuk, 
Iraq,  by  pipeline  to  Haifa,  Palestine.  The  other 
pipeline  to  Tripoli,  Syria,  was  closed  in  1940  (see 
History).  Petroleum  production  was  4,116,000 
metric  tons  in  1939  (4,363,000  in  1938)  The  chief 
crops  are  cotton  (about  16,500  bales  in  1939), 
dates,  wheat  (600,000  metric  tons  in  1938),  barley 
(1,138,400  metric  tons,  1938),  rough  rice  (360,000 
metric  tons,  1938),  tobacco  (4000  metric  tons, 
1938).  Several  large  irrigation  projects  are  ex- 
panding the  area  under  cultivation  1  he  1938  wool 
clip  was  8300  metric  tons 

Foreign  Trade.  Total  imports  in  1939  were 
valued  at  8,156,179  dinars  (9,361,002  in  1938)  ;  ex- 
ports, excluding  petroleum,  gold  bullion  and  cur- 
rency, 3,759,401  dinars  (3,688,835  in  1938).  During 
1939  oil  pumped  through  the  pipeline  from  Kirkuk 
to  Haifa  amounted  to  1,811,916  metric  tons.  Other 
leading  exports  were  dates,  barley,  wheat,  wool, 
hides  and  skins,  and  cotton.  The  United  Kingdom 
supplied  30.1  per  cent  of  the  1938  imports ;  Japan, 
14.8;  United  States,  9.1;  Germany,  74  Of  the 
1938  exports,  the  United  Kingdom  took  24.2  per 
cent;  United  States,  151;  Japan,  96;  India,  81; 
Syria,  8.1.  See  TRADE,  FOREIGN 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  Mar.  31, 
1941,  ordinary  budget  estimates  placed  receipts  at 
6,426,500  dinars  and  expenditures  at  6,666,780  di- 
nars. Actual  general  budget  receipts  for  1939-40 
were  5,993,712  dinars  ;  expenditures,  6,235,270  The 
deficit  of  241,558  dinars  was  cancelled  by  a  sur- 
plus of  957,356  dinars  in  the  capital  works  budget 
(receipts,  3,074,088;  expenditures,  2,116,732).  Cap- 
ital works  receipts  include  oil  royalties.  The  pub- 
lic debt  on  Dec.  31,  1939,  was  unofficially  estimated 
at  5,752,000  dinars.  The  dinar,  equal  to  the  pound 
sterling,  averaged  $4.44  in  1939  and  $4  89  in  1938. 

Transportation.  Completion  in  1940  of  the 
Baiji- Mosul  railway  link  gave  Basra  and  Baghdad 
direct  connections  with  Mosul,  and  with  Europe 
via  Syria  and  Turkey  Through  train  service  start- 
ed on  July  19.  The  mileage  of  main-line  railways 
in  1939  was  753  miles.  Highways  totaled  4065 
miles  in  1940.  The  Iraq  section  of  the  important 
new  Haifa-Baghdad  highway  was  being  asphalted. 
Of  the  seven  air  lines  serving  Iraq  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  European  War,  four  continued  in  op- 
eration in  1940,  including  the  international  serv- 
ices of  Imperial  Airways,  Royal  Dutch  Air  Lines, 
and  Air  France  The  Iranian  State  Air  Lines  op- 
erated a  weekly  service  between  Baghdad  and 
Tehran.  During  the  1938-39  fiscal  year  260  steam- 


ers of  1,328,324  gross  registered  tons  entered  the 
port  of  Basra.  With  the  spread  of  the  European 
War  to  the  Mediterranean  in  June,  1940,  much  of 
Iraq's  trade  was  diverted  to  Basra  from  Syrian 
and  Palestine  ports. 

Government.  Iraq  became  an  independent  State 
on  Oct  3,  1932,  when  the  mandate  for  Iraq  held 
by  Great  Britain  was  abolished  and  the  kingdom 
was  admitted  into  the  League  of  Nations.  An 
Anglo-Iraqi  alliance  was  concluded  June  30,  1930. 
The  constitution  of  Mar.  21,  1925,  made  Iraq  a 
constitutional,  hereditary  monarchy  with  a  parlia- 
mentary government.  There  is  a  Senate  of  20 
members  nominated  by  the  King  for  eight  years 
and  a  Chamber  of  150  elected  Deputies.  There  are 
no  stable  political  parties  Feisel  II,  born  May  2, 
1935,  became  King  Apr.  4,  1939,  when  his  father, 
Ghazi  I,  was  killed  in  an  automobile  accident. 
During  his  minority  power  is  exercised  by  the  Re- 
gent, Emir  Abdul  Ilah,  uncle  of  the  King. 

History.  Internal  political  difficulties  and  the 
growing  danger  of  direct  involvement  in  the  Eu- 
ropean War  beset  Iraq  during  1940  Nationalist 
elements  in  the  army,  inspired  either  by  the  desire 
for  personal  advancement  or  for  elimination  of 
British  influence  and  treaty  rights  in  Iraq,  made 
further  trouble  for  Premier  Nuri  es-Said  and 
other  pro-British  leaders  On  January  18  the 
Minister  of  Finance  in  General  Nun's  cabinet, 
Seyyid  Rustum  Haidar,  was  mortally  wounded  by 
a  dismissed  police  inspector.  There  was  suspicion 
that  the  assassination  was  inspired  by  military  and 
other  elements  seeking  to  overthrow  the  govern- 
ment. Premier  Nuri  inaugurated  a  strict  inquiry 
into  the  circumstances  of  the  crime  At  the  same 
time  he  announced  his  intention  of  proceeding  with 
electoral  reforms  designed  to  strengthen  repre- 
sentative government  in  Iraq. 

Opposition  to  these  policies  led  to  the  resigna- 
tion of  the  cabinet  on  February  20  and  the  forma- 
tion of  a  new  government,  headed  by  General  Nu- 
ri as  Premier  and  Foreign  Minister  on  February 
22.  Another  military  revolt  like  that  suppressed 
in  1939  was  narrowly  averted  during  the  cabinet 
crisis.  The  Chief  of  the  Iraqi  General  Staff  and 
other  high  army  officers  openly  objected  to  the  in- 
clusion of  Gen.  Nuri  es-Said  and  Gen  Taha  el- 
Hashimi,  the  Defense  Minister,  in  the  new  cabi- 
net. Firm  action  by  the  Regent,  supported  by  Gen- 
eral Nuri  and  his  colleagues  and  by  the  British, 
overcame  this  opposition  However  on  March  31 
another  reorganization  of  the  ministry  was  deemed 
advisable.  General  Nuri  surrendered  the  Premier- 
ship to  former  Premier  Rashid  Ali  Al-Gailani  but 
retained  control  of  the  Ministry  of  Foreign  Af- 
fairs 

The  anti-British  elements  were  placated  in  part 
by  the  restrictions  of  Feb.  28,  1940,  on  land  sales 
to  Jews  in  Palestine  (q  v.)  and  by  British  support 
of  the  Turkey-Iran-Iraq-Afghanistan  bloc  in  its  ef- 
forts to  stave  off  Soviet  and  German  control  Aft- 
er Italy's  entrance  into  the  European  War  and  the 
collapse  of  France,  Nuri  es-Said  and  the  Minister 
of  Justice  hastened  to  Ankara  on  a  "secret"  mis- 
sion. On  June  26  an  agreement  between  Turkey 
and  Iraq  for  the  joint  defense  of  French-man- 
dated Syria  in  collaboration  with  Great  Britain 
was  announced  at  Ankara.  Like  Turkey,  Iraq 
feared  that  Italy  would  seize  Syria  from  France 
and  use  it  as  a  base  for  further  expansion  in  the 
Near  East.  After  discussing  the  future  status  of 
Syria  with  Turkish  officials  in  Ankara  and  with 
Syrian  politicians  at  Aleppo,  Beirut,  and  Damas- 


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365 


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cus,  the  two  Ministers  returned  to  Baghdad  on 

July  5.  There  General  Nun  declared  that  both  the 
raq  and  Turkish  governments  favored  complete 
independence  of  Syria  from  France.  When  the 
French  forces  in  Syria  accepted  the  Franco-Ger- 
man armistice,  the  Iraqi  Government  approved  the 
decision  of  the  British-controlled  Iraq  Petroleum 
Co.  to  divert  to  Haifa,  Palestine,  the  oil  that  pre- 
viously flowed  through  the  pipeline  from  the  Kir- 
kuk,  Iraq,  fields  to  the  port  of  Tripoli,  Syria. 

See  AFGHANISTAN,  ARABIA,  IRAN,  PALESTINE, 
SYRIA  AND  LEBANON,  and  TURKEY  under  History. 

IRELAND  (EIRE).  A  sovereign,  independ- 
ent state,  affiliated  for  certain  purposes  with  the 
British  Commonwealth  of  Nations ;  comprising  the 
26  counties  of  Southern  Ireland  formerly  desig- 
nated the  Irish  Free  State.  The  name  was  officially 
changed  to  "Ireland"  in  English  and  to  "Eire"  in 
Gaelic  by  the  Constitution  effective  Dec.  29,  1937. 
As  used  in  the  official  sense,  Ireland  excludes  the 
six  counties  of  Northern  Ireland  (q.v.). 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  is  26,601 
square  miles  and  the  population  was  estimated  at 
2,934,000  on  June  30,  1939,  as  compared  with  2,965,- 
854  at  the  1936  census  The  decline  in  population 
was  attributed  chiefly  to  emigration  to  the  United 
Kingdom  and  elsewhere.  Living  births  in  1939 
numbered  56,097  (191  per  1000)  ;  deaths,  41,730 
(142  per  1000)  ;  marriages  totaled  14,934  in  1938 
(5.1  per  1000).  Populations  of  the  chief  cities  in 
1936  were  Dublin  with  suburbs,  467,691 ,  Cork, 
80,713,  Limerick,  41,395,  Waterford,  27,962. 

National  Defense.  See  History  below. 

Religion  and  Education.  School  attendance  is 
compulsory  and  there  is  practically  no  illiteracy 
Attendance  at  elementary  schools  averages  470,- 
000 ;  excluding  the  cost  of  administration,  the  esti- 
mated state  expenditure  on  elementary  education 
for  the  year  1939-40  was  £3,749,697  Secondary 
school  enrollment  (1937-38)  was  36,092  Universi- 
ty attendance  was  5326  in  1939-40  The  institutions 
of  higher  learning  are  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
and  the  University  of  Ireland,  the  latter  with  con- 
stituent colleges  at  Dublin,  Cork,  and  Galway 
According  to  the  1936  religious  census,  there  were 
2,773,920  Roman  Catholics,  145,030  Episcopalians, 
28,067  Presbyterians,  9649  Methodists,  and  11,754 
others. 

Production.  Agriculture,  stock  raising,  manu- 
facturing, and  fishing  are  the  principal  occupations 
Yield  of  the  chief  crops  in  1939  (in  metric  tons) 
except  where  otherwise  indicated  was  •  Wheat, 
259,400;  rye,  1300;  barley,  75,000;  oats,  548,300; 
potatoes,  3,046,600;  beet  sugar,  58,600,  scrutched 
flax  (excluding  tow),  900;  turnips,  2,506,000  long 
tons  (1938)  ;  mangels,  1,544,000  long  tons  (1938)  ; 
hay,  4,593,000  long  tons  (1938)  On  June  1,  1938, 
there  were  4,056.209  cattle;  3,196,601  sheep;  958,- 
805  swine;  441,970  horses;  19,630,230  poultry  The 
sea  fisheries  yielded  9500  metric  tons  of  fish  valued 
at  £230,000  in  1939.  Gross  value  of  output  of  elec- 
tricity undertakings  in  1938  was  £1,999,215;  out- 
put of  malting  and  brewing  establishments  was 
valued  at  £8,355,568. 

Foreign  Trade.  General  merchandise  imports 
in  1939  were  valued  at  £43,200,000  (£41,404,903  in 
1938)  ;  exports  of  Irish  products  were  valued  at 
£26,600,000  (£23,878,720  in  1938).  Livestock  and 
foodstuffs  accounted  for  90  per  cent  of  the  exports 
For  distribution  of  trade,  see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p. 
379  Also  see  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ending  Mar.  31, 
1940,  actual  revenues  were  £32,389,000  and  expend- 


itures £34,395,000,  leaving  a  deficit  of  £2,007,000. 
The  gross  public  debt  on  Mar.  31,  1939,  was  £61,- 
438,000 ,  net  debt,  £30,876,000.  The  Irish  pound  is 
convertible  into  the  pound  sterling.  The  average 
exchange  value  of  the  Irish  £  was  $4.9440  in  1937, 
$4.8894  in  1938,  $4.4354  in  1939,  $3.83  in  1940. 

Transportation.  The  total  length  of  railways, 
first  track,  on  Jan  1,  1939,  was  2511  miles  Re- 
ceipts aggregated  £5,473,500  in  1939.  Highways  ex- 
tended 48,550  miles  in  1940  Air  service  between 
Ireland  and  England  was  continued  throughout 
1940,  but  the  British  terminus  for  the  Irish  air 
line,  Aer  Lingus  Teoranta,  was  transferred  from 
the  Speke  Airport  (Liverpool)  to  an  airport  far- 
ther inland.  British  Airways,  Ltd ,  resumed  trans- 
atlantic air-mail  service  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  via  Foynes,  Ireland,  on  Aug. 
3,  1940 

Government.  Under  the  Constitution  proclaimed 
Dec.  29,  1937,  there  is  a  President  elected  by  popu- 
lar vote  for  seven  years  He  summons  and  dissolves 
Parliament  on  the  advice  of  the  Prime  Minister, 
signs  and  promulgates  laws,  appoints  judges,  ap- 
points a  Prime  Minister  nominated  by  the  Dail, 
approves  other  cabinet  ministers  nominated  by  the 
Prime  Minister,  and  commands  the  armed  forces 
The  Oireachtas  (Parliament)  includes  two  houses 
the  Dail  or  House  of  Representatives  of  138  mem- 
bers elected  by  popular  suffrage,  and  the  Senate  of 
60  members  (43  elected  on  a  vocational  basis,  6 
elected  directly  to  represent  the  two  universities, 
and  11  nominated  by  the  Prime  Minister)  Execu- 
tive power  is  exercised  by  the  government,  or  cabi- 
net, which  is  responsible  to  the  Dail.  For  further 
particulars,  see  1937  YEAR  BOOK.  President  in  1940, 
Dr  Douglas  Hyde  (assumed  office  June  25,  1938). 

The  composition  of  the  Dail  following  the  elec- 
tion of  June  17,  1938,  was :  Fianna  Fail,  77 ;  United 
Ireland  party,  45 ;  Labor,  9 ;  Independents,  5 ; 
Farmers,  2  Members  of  the  Fianna  Fail  govern- 
ment, as  reorganized  Sept  27,  1939,  were  Prime 
Minister,  External  Affairs,  Education,  Eamon  de 
Valera ,  Deputy  Prime  Minister  and  Finance.  Sean 
T.  O'Kelly ;  Local  Government  and  Public  Health, 
Patrick  J  Ruttlcdge ,  Supplies,  Scan  F  Lemass ; 
Industry  and  Commerce,  Sean  MacEntee ;  Agricul- 
ture, Dr.  James  Ryan ,  Co-ordination  of  Defensive 
Measures,  Frank  Aiken ,  Lands,  Thonris  Derng; 
Justice,  Gerald  Boland;  Defense,  Osc.ir  Traynor; 
Posts  and  Telegraphs,  Patrick  J  Little 

HISTORY 

The  de  Valera  Government  in  1940  continued  its 
efforts  to  avoid  involvement  in  the  European  War, 
while  striving  to  end  the  partition  of  1920  by  peace- 
fully establishing  its  jurisdiction  over  Northern 
Ireland  It  had  to  contend  with  the  growing  threat 
of  civil  war  from  the  illegal  Irish  Republican 
Army,  which  urged  the  subjugation  of  Ulster  by 
force  of  arms.  Following  German  occupation  of 
the  entire  French  Atlantic  coast  in  June,  there  de- 
veloped acute  danger  of  a  German  attempt,  with 
I  R  A.  collaboration,  to  seize  Ireland  as  a  base  for 
air  and  sea  warfare  against  Britain  and  its  vital 
overseas  trade.  Seeking  to  f orestalj  such  an  attack, 
the  British  Government  brought  increasing  pres- 
sure upon  Dublin  to  conclude  a  mutual  defense 
pact  or  to  permit  British  use  of  the  naval  bases  in 
southern  Ireland  that  Britain  had  turned  over  to 
Ireland  by  the  Anglo-Irish  accords  of  Apr.  25, 
1938,  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1938,  p.  351). 

Struggle  with  I.R.A.  Aroused  by  the  mount- 
ing violence  of  I.R.A.  activities  late  in  1939  (see 


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366 


IRELAND 


YEAR  BOOK,  1939),  the  government  took  vigorous 
steps  to  reassert  its  authority  early  in  1940.  On 
January  3  it  won  the  Bail's  approval,  82  to  9,  of 
amendments  to  the  Emergency  Powers  Act  and 
the  Offenses  Against  the  State  Act.  The  amend- 
ments authorized  the  government  to  intern  native- 
born  citizens  suspected  of  illegal  anti-government 
activities.  Both  Prime  Minister  de  Valera  and  Min- 
ister of  Jutice  Boland  told  the  Dail  that  the  gov- 
ernment's policy  of  conciliation  had  failed  and  that 
firm  measures  were  necessary.  The  Minister  of 
Justice  said  that  "a  highly  organized  body"  (the 
I.R.A.)  was  receiving  large  sums  of  money  from 
the  United  States  and  had  accumulated  stores  of 
explosives  and  arms  to  further  its  rebellion. 

Following  validation  of  the  amendments  by  the 
Supreme  Court  on  February  9,  soldiers  and  police 
carried  out  a  series  of  raids  that  netted  a  number 
of  I.R.  A.  leaders  and  uncovered  additional  arms, 
munitions,  and  supply  dumps  in  various  parts  01 
the  country.  The  Roman  Catholic  Primate  and 
Bishops  joined  in  the  effort  to  curb  the  I.R.A.  by 
issuing  pastoral  letters  condemning  its  terroristic 
activities  and  declaring  membership  in  the  organi- 
zation a  sin.  Nevertheless  there  were  demonstra- 
tions against  the  de  Valera  Government  on  the 
March  24th  anniversary  of  the  1916  Easter  rebel- 
lion, and  recurrent  terrorist  outbreaks. 

Six  I.R.A.  members,  arrested  in  a  Dublin  raid 
on  February  17  and  sentenced  by  a  military  tribu- 
nal, started  a  hunger  strike  on  February  25  to  force 
the  government  to  recognize  imprisoned  I  R.A. 
members  as  prisoners  of  war.  The  government 
stood  firm  against  this  maneuver  to  obtain  recog- 
nition of  the  I.RA.  activities  as  legitimate  war- 
fare. One  of  the  prisoners  died  on  April  16  and 
another  on  April  19.  The  four  survivors  then  aban- 
doned their  strike.  On  April  25  a  powerful  time 
bomb  exploded  alongside  detectives'  headquarters 
in  Dublin  Castle,  wrecking  the  lower  yard  of  the 
castle  and  shaking  the  entire  capital.  On  May  7 
two  motor-cycle  detectives  carrying  mail  bags  to 
the  British  High  Commissioner  in  Dublin  were 
fired  upon  and  seriously  wounded  by  six  gunmen  in 
the  center  of  Dublin 

While  German  armies  were  driving  steadily  ahead 
in  Belgium  and  Northern  France,  the  Dublin  po- 
lice during  a  raid  on  the  home  of  Stephen  Carroll 
Held  in  the  Templeogue  suburb  on  May  22  uncov- 
ered evidence  that  prominent  IRA.  members  were 
collaborating  with  German  agents  and  aiding  them 
to  collect  information  on  Ireland's  defenses  Held, 
who  was  of  German  extraction,  and  Mrs.  Iseult 
Stuart,  prominent  society  matron,  were  arrested 
along  with  a  number  of  other  IRA  members  sus- 
pected of  "fifth  column"  activities  on  behalf  of 
Germany  On  June  7  Held  was  charged  with  hav- 
ing a  used  parachute,  secret  codes,  radio  transmit- 
ting set  and  military  information  in  his  home,  and 
with  having  received  $20,000  in  United  States  cur- 
rency between  October,  1939,  and  May,  1940,  for 
use  by  the  I.R  A.  Two  other  I.R.A  members  were 
executed  on  September  6  for  killing  two  detectives 
during  a  raid  on  a  Dublin  hideout  on  August  17. 
The  I.RA.  meanwhile  was  carrying  on  an  even 
more  active  terrorist  campaign  in  Northern  Ire- 
land (q.v). 

Defense  Preparations.  To  meet  the  growing 
threat  from  within  and  without,  the  government  on 
May  27  placed  the  standing  army  and  reserves  on 
a  war  footing  and  called  for  volunteers  to  expand 
the  armed  forces  and  to  establish  home  defense 
units.  The  two  opposition  parties  pledged  their  full 


co-operation  with  the  government  in  resisting  ag- 
gression and  suppressing  treasonable  activities.  The 
Prime  Minister  on  May  27  appointed  a  National 
Defense  Council  of  eight  (3  government,  3  United 
Ireland,  and  2  Labor  members)  to  serve  as  a  su- 
preme war  commission. 

A  drastic  defense  bill,  giving  the  government 
sweeping  emergency  powers  and  imposing  the  death 
penalty  for  treachery,  was  rushed  through  Parlia- 
ment on  June  5-6  by  unanimous  vote.  The  Prime 
Minister  and  his  colleagues  addressed  repeated  ap- 
peals to  the  country  to  rally  for  its  defense.  Ex- 
tensive preparations  were  made  to  deal  with  an  in- 
vasion by  air.  Mine  fields  were  laid  at  strategic 
points  along  the  coast.  Air  raid  shelters  were  built 
in  Dublin.  Stocks  of  essential  supplies  were  ac- 
cumulated. The  censorship  regulations  were  drasti- 
cally tightened  on  August  24. 

The  Irish  army  with  its  reserves  had  totaled 
only  about  25,000  men  in  the  spring.  By  mid-Sep- 
tember about  100,000  men  were  ready  to  take  the 
field  and  another  100,000  were  enrolled  in  local  de- 
fense organizations.  The  army,  however,  had  vir- 
tually no  tanks,  aircraft,  and  other  modern  weap- 
ons. On  September  15  eight  regional  commissioners 
were  appointed  to  assume  governmental  powers  in 
their  districts  if  invading  forces  succeeded  in  cut- 
ting off  parts  of  the  country  from  Dublin. 

Neutrality  Violations.  The  danger  of  a  Ger- 
man invasion  was  emphasized  by  a  number  of  inci- 
dents that  brought  the  war  close  to  Ireland.  During 
August  German  planes  bombed  and  machine-gunned 
five  ships  along  the  Irish  coasts  On  August  20  a 
German  plane,  containing  an  air  map  of  Ireland 
with  routes  to  the  Fpynes  airport  marked  in  red, 
crashed  on  a  mountain  in  County  Kerry  Its  crew 
of  six  men  was  interned  On  August  26  German 
planes  bombed  four  villages  in  County  Wexford, 
killing  three  girls.  The  Berlin  Government  apolo- 
gized for  each  of  these  incidents,  and  the  de  Valera 
Government  did  no  more  than  register  formal  pro- 
tests. The  German  Minister  continued  his  activities 
in  Dublin,  although  the  British  complained  that  his 
Legation  served  as  headquarters  for  espionage  ac- 
tivities in  Great  Britain,  and  that  the  Reich  was 
financing  I.R. A.  activities  by  way  of  the  United 
States.  More  bombs  were  dropped  on  the  night  of 
December  20. 

Anglo-Irish  Relations.  The  I  R.A  campaign 
of  terroristic  bombings  in  Great  Britain  to  force 
the  withdrawal  of  British  authority  from  North- 
ern Ireland  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  380)  waned 
markedly  in  1940  following  the  hanging  in  Bir- 
mingham on  February  7  of  two  young  Irish  terror- 
ists convicted  of  a  bombing  outrage  that  cost  the 
lives  of  five  persons  in  Coventry.  The  executions 
aroused  deep  anger  in  Ireland,  where  many  anti- 
Republican  elements  had  joined  in  petitioning  the 
British  Government  to  reprieve  the  condemned  men. 

In  June  and  July,  when  a  German  invasion  of 
Ireland  appeared  imminent,  the  British  Govern- 
ment proposed  the  establishment  of  a  joint  defense 
committee,  including  representatives  of  Ireland, 
Northern  Ireland  and  Britain,  to  cope  with  this 
threat.  The  Northern  Ireland  Government  consent- 
ed to  these  negotiations  only  under  severe  pressure 
from  London  However  Prime  Minister  de  Valera 
declared  that  his  government  could  not  consider  the 
proposal  unless  Northern  Ireland  agreed  to  end  the 
partition  and  accepted  Dublin's  policy  of  strict 
neutrality  The  Northern  Ireland  Government  em- 
phatically rejected  this  course  and  the  discussions 
ended  in  mid-July.  It  was  unofficially  reported  that 


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367 


IRELAND 


Dublin  had  agreed  to  align  itself  with  Britain  in 
case  of  a  hostile  attack.  In  the  meantime  Irish 
officials  made  it  clear  that  they  would  resist  British 
as  well  as  German  attempts  to  infringe  upon  their 
neutrality. 

The  issue  of  Anglo-Irish  collaboration  was  re- 
vived by  Prime  Minister  Churchill  before  the 
House  of  Commons  on  November  5.  He  called  at- 
tention to  the  growing  danger  from  German  sub- 
marine warfare  and  pointed  out  the  great  handicap 
under  which  British  anti-submarine  units  in  the 
Atlantic  operated  as  the  result  of  the  British  with- 
drawal from  the  naval  bases  in  southern  Ireland  in 
1938.  The  British  press  and  spokesmen  of  the  three 
chief  British  political  parties  all  urged  the  Irish 
Government  to  permit  the  British  navy  to  use  the 
Irish  base  facilities.  Prime  Minister  de  Valera 
bluntly  rejected  these  appeals  in  a  speech  before 
the  Dail  on  November  7. 

Economic  Trends.  The  chief  economic  effects 
of  the  European  War  upon  Ireland  were  a  rapid 
increase  in  prices  and  in  the  general  cost  of  living, 
a  consequent  wave  of  serious  strikes  for  higher 
wages,  the  growing  difficulty  experienced  by  manu- 
facturing industries  in  obtaining  raw  materials,  and 
the  relatively  favorable  condition  of  agriculture  as 
a  result  of  the  rising  demand  for  Irish  foodstuffs 
in  Great  Britain.  A  strike  of  2200  municipal  em- 
ployees in  Dublin  left  the  city  virtually  without 
fire-fighting,  public  health,  and  street  cleaning  serv- 
ices from  February  29  to  March  18  There  were 
other  important  strikes  in  the  timber,  relief  works, 
textile,  and  highway  transport  industries  Unem- 
ployment, after  using  to  a  peak  of  118,000  in  Jan- 
uary, steadily  declined  as  a  result  of  enlistments 
in  the  armed  forces,  expansion  of  farming,  and 
an  improvement  in  business  during  the  summer 
months  The  autumn  and  winter  saw  a  reversal  of 
these  trends  due  to  the  increasing  effectiveness  of 
the  German  blockade 

The  vital  export  trade  to  Britain  was  carried  on 
at  prices  fixed  by  the  British  Ministry  of  Food 
Constant  negotiations  between  the  two  govern- 
ments were  required  to  adjust  the  British  scMc  of 
prices  to  rising  production  costs  in  Ireland  On 
June  25  the  British  Food  Ministry  agreed  to  dou- 
ble its  imports  of  Irish  bacon  and  to  take  the  en- 
tire surplus  of  Irish  cheese  Under  a  compulsory 
tillage  scheme  the  acreage  planted  to  tood  crops 
increased  by  410,000  acres,  or  10  per  cent,  in  1940. 
A  further  increase  was  required  for  1941  To  con- 
serve foreign  exchange,  restrictions  on  security 
transactions  were  imposed  on  July  31. 

In  a  Christmas  Day  broadcast  to  the  United 
States  Prime  Minister  de  Valera  said  that  stocks 
of  food  and  raw  materials  were  being  rapidly  ex- 
hausted and  appealed  for  aid  in  obtaining  both 
arms  and  foodstuffs.  He  pointed  out  that  "probably 
no  country  of  Europe  is  so  effectively  blockaded  as 
we  are."  The  growing  scarcity  of  shipping  led  the 
British  Government  on  December  27  to  place  re- 
strictions on  the  re-export  to  Ireland  of  cattle  feed, 
fertilizer,  tobacco,  oranges,  lemons,  and  certain 
tools,  all  important  to  the  Irish  economy  but  which 
had  to  be  imported  into  Britain  under  convoy. 

See  ANTHROPOLOGY;  NAVAL  PROGRESS. 

IRELAND,  Northern.  An  area,  largely  co- 
extensive with  the  region  of  Ulster,  in  the  north 
of  Ireland;  consisting  of  six  counties  and  two 
parliamentary  boroughs,  it  is  integrally  united  with 
Great  Britain.  Capital,  Belfast. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  is  5237  square 
miles  and  the  estimated  population  on  June  30, 


1939,  was  1,290,000  (1,279,753  at  the  Feb.  28, 1937, 
census).  Living  births  numbered  25,254  (19.5  per 
1000)  m  1939;  deaths,  17,549  (13.6  per  1000); 
marriages  totaled  8623  (6.7  per  1000)  in  1937.  The 
population  of  Belfast  (1937)  was  438,112;  that  of 
Londonderry,  47,804  The  census  of  1937  showed 
428,290  Roman  Catholics,  390,931  Presbyterians, 
345,474  Episcopalians,  55,135  Methodists,  and  59,- 
915  of  other  religious  faiths  Public  elementary 
schools  in  1938-39  numbered  1700  with  191,862 
pupils;  preparatory,  intermediate,  and  secondary 
schools  numbered  210  with  37,081  students.  Queens 
University  at  Belfast  had  1590  students. 

Production.  Stockraising  and  dairying  contrib- 
ute materially  to  the  proceeds  of  agriculture.  Live- 
stock, Jan  1,  1939,  included  700,564  cattle,  551,262 
sheep,  565,726  swine,  and  6,038,001  poultry.  The 
harvest  of  potatoes,  the  chief  food  crop,  yielded 
(1938)  711,369  tons.  The  crop  of  flax,  in  1938,  was 
4036  tons.  Other  agricultural  production  (1938), 
in  tons,  included  turnips,  320,497,  and  hay,  824,989. 
The  two  principal  manufacturing  industries,  linen- 
making,  and  shipbuilding,  employed  respectively 
about  70,000  and  15,000  persons.  Almost  all  the 
linen  (value,  1938,  £5,480,000)  exported  from  the 
United  Kingdom  originates  in  Northern  Ireland 
The  shipyards  of  Belfast  were  building  200,000 
tons  of  ships  a  year  before  the  war  broke  out  in 
September,  1939.  Statistics  for  the  foreign  trade 
of  Northern  Ireland  are  included  in  those  for  the 
United  Kingdom 

Finance.  The  budget,  as  estimated  for  the  fiscal 
year  that  ended  with  Mar.  31,  1940,  included  reve- 
nues of  £13,859,000  and  expenditures  of  £13,823,- 
000  The  greater  part  of  taxation  is  imposed  and 
collected  by  the  British  Imperial  authority,  but 
Northern  Ireland  exercises  certain  powers  of  tax- 
ation on  its  own  account.  Taxes  collected  in 
Northern  Ireland  contributed,  in  the  fiscal  year 
1939,  more  then  £1,000,000  to  the  expenses  of  de- 
fense and  other  Imperial  services 

Transportation.  The  total  length  of  railway 
line  is  741  miles.  Canals  extend  180  miles ,  high- 
ways, 13,043  miles.  Shipping  lines  operate  regu- 
larly between  ports  in  Great  Britain  and  those  of 
Belfast  and  Londonderry  Other  ports  afTordinc: 
communication  by  sea  are  Newry,  Larne,  and 
Coleraine. 

Government.  Although  an  integral  part  of  the 
United  Kingdom  and  represented  by  13  members 
in  the  British  House  of  Commons,  Northern  Ire- 
land exercises  a  degree  of  local  autonomy,  through 
a  Parliament  of  its  own  and  a  cabinet  responsible 
thereto.  The  Senate  of  this  Parliament  has  24 
elected  and  2  ex-officio  members ;  the  House  of 
Commons  has  52  members,  all  elected.  The  compo- 
sition of  the  House  of  Commons  elected  Feb  9, 
1938,  was:  Unionists,  39;  Nationalists,  8;  Inde- 
pendent Unionists,  2 ;  Labor,  2 ;  Independents,  1. 
The  chief  permanent  officer  is  a  Governor  (since 
1922,  the  Duke  of  Ahercorn).  The  head  of  the  cab- 
inet is  a  Prime  Minister ,  the  office  was  held  con- 
tinuously by  Viscount  Craigavon  from  the  estab- 
lishment of  Northern  Ireland  in  1921  until  his 
death  in  1940. 

History.  The  Irish  Republican  Army's  under- 
ground warfare  gamed  momentum  during  1940  and 
was  met  with  increasingly  severe  measures  of  re- 
pression. The  IRA  campaign  was  carried  on  si- 
multaneously in  Northern  Ireland,  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  (Eire)  with  the  announced  objective 
of  expelling  British  authority  from  Ulster  and 
establishing  a  republic  embracing  all  Ireland. 


IRELAND 


368 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


The  hanging  of  two  I.R.A.  terrorists  in  Bir- 
mingham, England,  on  February  7  was  followed 
on  February  11  by  serious  street  fighting  in  Bel- 
fast, when  police  charged  a  pro-Republican  demon- 
stration. Defying  the  Ulster  Government's  ban  on 
Easter  Week  demonstrations,  400  armed  I.R.A. 
members  paraded  through  Belfast  on  March  22, 
anniversary  of  the  1916  rebellion.  An  I.R.A.  mani- 
festo issued  the  same  day  stated  that  the  terrorist 
campaign  in  Britain  would  be  continued  until  every 
British  soldier  had  withdrawn  from  Ireland  (in- 
cluding Ulster)  and  Britain  recognized  the  I.R.A. 
underground  government  as  the  only  Irish  govern- 
ment. Two  days  later  a  railroad  bridge  near  Lon- 
donderry was  dynamited  and  there  was  a  clash  be- 
tween police  and  Irish  Nationalists  in  that  city. 
There  were  innumerable  minor  raids,  bank  rob- 
beries, bombings,  and  clashes  between  IRA.  mem- 
bers and  their  opponents  throughout  the  year.  The 
I.R.A.  campaign  was  directed  not  only  against  the 
Ulster  and  British  governments  and  their  support- 
ers, but  also  against  the  de  Valera  government  and 
its  adherents  in  Northern  Ireland 

The  Northern  Ireland  authorities  reacted  to  this 
campaign  by  harassing  members  and  suspected 
members  of  the  IRA.  with  constant  police  raids. 
When  apprehended  they  were  held  for  long  periods 
without  trial,  particularly  after  the  danger  of  a 
German  invasion  with  IRA.  assistance  became 
acute  in  May  On  May  24,  76  men  were  rounded  up 
in  overnight  raids  throughout  Ulster  Forty  more 
suspects  were  arrested  in  Belfast  July  1,  300  were 
interned  on  July  22,  18  on  July  28  In  many  in- 
stances the  police  raids  uncovered  stores  of  arms. 
As  a  result  of  these  measures,  there  was  a  notice- 
able decline  in  I  R  A  activities  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  year  On  the  other  hand  the  Catholic 
minority  in  Ulster  was  incensed  by  the  police  raids 
and  on  December  8  the  Bishop  of  Down  and  Con- 
nor voiced  a  sharp  protest 

The  Ulster  Government  was  concerned  not  only 
with  curbing  the  I.R  A.  but  also  with  contributing 
to  the  British  war  effort  and  with  preparations  to 
meet  a  German  invasion  through  Southern  Ireland. 
After  conferring  with  British  officials,  Prime  Min- 
ister Craigavon  on  May  23  inaugurated  an  intensi- 
fied recruiting  drive  and  also  authorized  expansion 
of  the  police  forces.  As  the  German  menace  de- 
veloped, the  Ulster  defense  program  was  expanded 
The  British  Government  also  strengthened  the  Ul- 
ster garrison  and  made  preparations  to  rush  rein- 
forcements across  the  Irish  Sea  if  a  German  attack 
was  launched  at  Ireland. 

British  efforts  to  reach  an  agreement  on  a  joint 
defense  program  with  both  Ireland  and  Northern 
Ireland  were  wrecked  on  the  partition  and  neutral- 
ity issues  (see  IRELAND  under  History}  Despite 
pressure  from  London  and  the  urgings  of  a  prow- 
ing  band  of  prominent  Ulster  residents,  Prime 
Minister  Craigavon  rejected  all  demands  for  a  co- 
ordinated military  defense  based  upon  the  termina- 
tion of  the  partition  and  acceptance  by  Ulster  of 
Prime  Minister  de  Valera's  neutrality  policy.  He 
said  Northern  Ireland  was  prepared  to  co-operate 
with  de  Valera  provided  Ireland  entered  the  war 
on  the  side  of  the  Allies  and  Dublin  undertook 
"not  to  raise  any  issues  of  a  constitutional  nature." 

In  October  the  Ulster  Government  decided  to 
merge  the  Northern  Ireland  Home  Guard  with  the 
Royal  Ulster  Constabulary.  This  produced  an  ap- 
peal to  Prime  Minister  Churchill  by  24  prominent 
Irishmen  headed  by  General  Sir  Hubert  Gough. 
They  asked  him  to  revoke  the  Ulster  decree  as  a 


conciliatory  gesture  toward  southern  Ireland.  They 
asserted  that  the  constabulary  had  "incurred  the 
odium  attached  to  a  political  police  force  of  the 
type  familiar  on  the  Continent  of  Europe"  and 
that  "clashes  on  the  border  may  result  from  the 
activities  of  this  large  force  directed  by  local  civil- 
ian or  police  officials  without  regard  to  considera- 
tion of  British  policy  as  to  external  affairs  or  to 
British  military  arrangements  designed  to  conform 
to  the  requirements  of  that  policy.1' 

Secret  inspections  of  Ulster  defenses  were  made 
by  the  British  War  Minister,  Anthony  Eden,  in 
July  and  by  the  Duke  of  Kent  in  October.  The  first 
German  air  raid  on  Ulster  territory  was  made  by 
a  single  plane  on  September  13.  In  connection  with 
its  war  preparations,  the  Ulster  Government  of- 
fered a  subsidy  of  £2  for  every  acre  of  new  land 
ploughed  and  planted  to  food  crops.  On  August  9 
it  banned  strikes  and  lockouts  in  Northern  Ireland 
for  the  duration  of  the  war. 

Viscount  Craigavon  (see  NECROLOGY)  died  on 
Nov.  24, 1940,  arousing  hopes  in  some  quarters  that 
a  compromise  agreement  could  now  be  worked  out 
on  the  partition  issue  that  would  permit  of  a  co- 
ordinated defense  program  for  all  Ireland.  His 
successor  as  Prime  Minister  and  leader  of  the 
Unionist  party  was  John  Miller  Andrews,  former 
Deputy  Prime  Minister.  He  announced  on  Decem- 
ber 8  that  there  would  be  no  change  in  his  govern- 
ment's attitude  toward  Eire.  "We  in  Ulster  are 
anxious  to  live  on  friendly  terms  with  the  people 
of  the  south,"  he  said,  "but  it  must  be  as  neighbors 
and  not  as  partners  in  an  all-Ireland  republic  .  .  . 
Under  no  circumstances  will  the  people  of  Ulster 
surrender  their  birthright  as  citizens  of  the  United 
Kingdom  and  the  empire  they  have  had  a  part  in 
building  up  " 

See  GREAT  BRITAIN  and  IRELAND  under  History 

IRISH  FREE  STATE.  See  IRELAND  (£IRE). 

IRON  AND  STEEL.  Production  of  steel  in 
the  United  States  during  1940  reached  the  highest 
level  ever  recorded,  according  to  the  American 
Iron  and  Steel  Institute.  The  volume  of  produc- 
tion reflected  the  influence  of  the  war  in  Europe 
and  the  defense  program  of  the  United  States 
Production  of  steel  ingots  amounted  to  66,500,000 
net  tons,  8  per  cent  above  the  previous  record  fig- 
ure of  61,400,000  tons  in  1929,  and  nearly  20  per 
cent  greater  than  the  1939  output  of  52,500,000 
tons.  About  18  per  cent  of  finished  and  semi-fin- 
ished steel  products  was  produced  for  export  trade, 
half  of  which  was  sold  to  Great  Britain.  There 
was  plenty  of  steel  to  meet  demands  in  1940 

In  producing  its  record-breaking  tonnage  the  in- 
dustry operated  at  the  following  average  rates  of 
ingot  capacity  for  the  four  quarters  of  the  year  • 
72  6,  72  7,  87.9,  and  95  All  existing  tonnage  rec- 
ords were  broken  in  the  fourth  quarter  The  "rated" 
capacity  of  the  industry  was  about  83,000,000  tons 
per  annum,  with  a  practical  working  capacity  of 
85,000,000  tons 

Employment  and  payrolls  rose  far  above  1929 
levels.  Employment  throughout  the  year  averaged 
about  550,000  men,  nearly  20  per  cent  more  than 
in  1929 ;  and  pay  rolls  of  $950,000,000  were  13  per 
cent  above  1929  despite  a  shorter  work  week 
Hourly  wages  of  steel  workers  were  at  the  highest 
level  in  history,  nearly  30  per  cent  higher  than 
1929. 

The  composite  price  of  various  kinds  of  finished 
steel  products  was  2.26tf  per  lb.,  40  per  cent  less 
than  the  average  price  for  1917-18,  although  hour- 
ly wages  are  65  per  cent  higher  than  in  those  years. 


IRON  ORE 


369 


ITALIAN  EAST  AFRICA 


Domestic  scrap  consumption  in  1940  was  esti- 
mated at  41,000,000  gross  tons,  breaking  all  previ- 
ous records,  even  rising  above  the  1937  figure  of 
38,006,272  tons. 

New  construction  of  furnaces — blast,  open- 
hearth,  and  electric — was  either  completed  or  un- 
der way  on  a  large  scale  in  an  effort  to  meet  the 
tremendous  demand  for  steel  in  1941  for  national 
defense 

Pig  iron  production  was  approximately  46,700,- 
000  net  tons,  compared  with  35,310,042  tons  in  1939 
No  data  are  available  on  world  production  of  steel, 
pig  iron,  and  ferro  alloys 

H  C.  PARMELEE. 

IRON  ORE.  Production  of  iron  ore  in  1940 
was  greatly  stimulated  to  meet  the  war  demands 
for  steel.  According  to  the  Lake  Superior  Iron 
Ore  Association,  shipments  from  upper  lake  ports 
in  1940  aggregated  63,712,982  gross  tons.  This  rep- 
resents an  increase  of  more  than  41  per  cent  over 
1939,  but  is  still  below  the  all-time  high  1929  pro- 
duction of  65,205,000  tons.  The  1939  Census  of 
Manufactures  records  100  companies  operating  174 
iron  ore  mines  in  the  United  States.  Average  num- 
ber of  wage  earners  was  20,126,  receiving  wages 
amounting  to  $27,199,913  Salaried  workers  num- 
bered 2178  and  they  received  $5,674,482  Produc- 
tion of  iron  ore  in  1939  was  51,641,055  long  tons, 
of  which  about  three-fifths  came  from  open  pits 
Average  iron  content  of  the  natural  ore  was  51  01 
per  cent 

Estimates  of  iron  ore  mined  in  the  United  States 
in  1940,  compared  with  actual  output  for  1939,  are 
given  by  the  Bureau  of  Mines  in  the  accompanying 
table 

IRON  ORE  MINED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
[Gross  tain] 


and  Italian  Somaliland  with  the  newly  conquered 
empire  of  Ethiopia.  Capital,  Addis  Ababa.  The 
area  and  population  of  Italian  East  Africa  by 
provinces,  according  to  official  Italian  estimates  of 
May,  1939,  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  table. 

ITALIAN  EAST  AFRICA.  AREA  AND  POPULATION 


1940  fi/ 

1939  actual 

Michigan 
Minnesota 
Wisconsin 
S  E  States 
NE  States 
Western  States 

lotal 

12,671,000 
47.S70.000 
1,267,000 
7,239,000 
3,547,000 
1,212,000 

9.15Q.222 
31,547,701 
972,685 
6,021,781 
3,112,893 
917,448 

73,806,000 

51,731,730 

The  average  value  of  ore  at  the  mines  in  1940 
was  estimated  at  $2  56  per  gross  ton ;  in  1939  it 
was  $2  89 

Imports  of  iron  ore  for  12  months  of  1940  were 
2,483,234  gross  tons  valued  at  $6,210,971,  compared 
with  2,412,515  tons  valued  at  $5,865,510  for  the 
entire  year  1939 

Exports  for  12  months  of  1940  were  reported 
at  1,386,304  tons  valued  at  $4,624,555,  compared 
with  1,057,304  tons  valued  at  $3,578,086  for  the 
entire  year  1939 

See  MICHIGAN  ,  MINNESOTA 

H.  C  PARMFIEE 

IRRIGATION.  See  AQUEDUCTS;  RICIAMA- 
TION,  BUREAU  OF,  SOIL  CONSERVATION  SERVICE, 
TUNNELS 

ISLE  OF  MAN.  See  GREAT  BRITAIN  under 
Area  and  Population 

ISOTOPES.  See  CHEMISTRY 

ITALIAN  AEGEAN  ISLANDS.  See  AE- 
GEAN ISLANDS,  ITALIAN. 

ITALIAN  EAST  AFRICA.  An  Italian  Col- 
ony in  East  Africa  established  by  the  decree  of 
June  1,  1936,  which  merged  the  colonies  of  Eritrea 


Province  (Capital) 

Sg  Miles 

Population 

Eritrea  •  (Asmara) 
Amhara  (Gondar) 

89,274 
76,235 

1,500,000 
2,000,000 

Shoa  (Addis  Ababa) 

24,125 

1,850,000 

Galla  and  Sidamo  (Jimma) 

124,369 

4,000,000 

Harar  (Harar) 

79,844 

1,600,000 

Somaliland  °  (Mogadiscio) 

270,972 

1,150,000 

Totals 

664,819 

12,100,000 

•  Eritrea  and  Somaliland  arc  not  co-termmous  with  the  former 
colonies,  they  include  parts  of  Ethiopia  (see  map  in  1936  YEAR 
BOOK,  p  240,  for  the  former  provincial  boundaries) 

Estimated  populations  of  the  chief  cities  •  Addis 
Ababa,  150,000;  Harar,  50,000;  Dire  Dawa,  30,- 
000;  Asmara,  23,000;  Mogadiscio,  21,000;  Mas- 
saua,  15,000;  Gondar,  6000;  Dessye,  5000.  The 
number  of  permanent  Italian  residents  was  200,000, 
according  to  census  results  announced  in  July,  1940. 
The  native  population  includes  some  2,000,000  Am- 
haras,  the  former  rulers  of  Ethiopia,  who  are  Cop- 
tic Christians ;  more  than  3,000,000  Gallas,  who  are 
part  Christian,  part  Mohammedan,  and  part  pa- 
gan ;  and  the  Danakil,  Somalis,  and  numerous  oth- 
er tribes,  mostly  Mohammedan  or  pagan  The  offi- 
cial languages  are  Italian,  Amharic,  Arabic,  and 
Tigrenish 

Religion  and  Education.  On  Dec  1,  1937,  the 
Viceroy  declared  the  Ethiopian  Coptic  Church  in- 
dependent of  the  Egyptian  Church  and  appointed 
the  Abuna  (patriarch)  and  bishops  for  all  of  Ital- 
ian East  Africa 

Education  was  entrusted  to  the  Italian  Fascist 
party,  which  established  primary  schools  in  the 
principal  occupied  cities  In  1938-39  there  were  157 
elementary  schools,  with  15,668  pupils  (11,623  na- 
tives, 3908  Italians,  137  others),  and  9  secondary 
schools,  with  1515  pupils  (1497  Italians). 

Production.  Stock  raising  and  primitive  agri- 
culture are  the  chief  occupations  Cultivated  and 
wild  coffee  (exports,  13,000  metric  tons  in  1937- 
38),  cotton,  sugar,  flax,  bananas,  dates,  grapes, 
cereals,  tobacco,  fruits,  and  vegetables  are  grown 
in  small  quantities.  Agricultural  produce  is  grown 
for  export  on  some  foreign  plantations  using  na- 
tive labor  Salt  exports  in  1939  were  about  250,000 
tons  Gold,  platinum,  iron,  and  potash  are  produced 
in  commercial  quantities  A  1939  census  showed 
4007  industrial  firms  in  Italian  East  Africa  with 
an  invested  capital  of  about  2,700,000,000  lire,  and 
4785  commercial  firms  (capital,  1,100,000,000  lire), 
most  of  them  in  Eritrea  A  new  hydro-electric 
power  station  was  opened  in  Addis  Ababa  in  De- 
cember, 1939. 

Trade  and  Finance.  Imports  in  1938  totaled 
2,447,057,000  lire  (2,062,038,000  from  Italy)  and 
exports  were  191,877,000  lire  (114,845,000  to  Ita- 
ly). The  lire  exchanged  at  $00526  in  1938  Reve- 
nue and  expenditure  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June 
30,  1940,  were  estimated  to  balance  at  2,183,000,000 
lire,  excluding  expenditures  from  the  special  fund 
of  12,000,000,000  lire  allocated  by  the  Italian  Gov- 
ernment in  1938  for  public  works  and  equipment 
A  substantial  part  of  the  regular  budget  receipts 
was  contributed  by  the  Italian  Treasury. 

Transportation.  A  railway  connects  Djibouti 
in^  French  Somaliland  with  Addis  Ababa  (486 
miles).  Another  line  extends  inland  from  Massaua 


ITALIAN  BAST  AFRICA 


370 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE 


on  the  Red  Sea  to  Asmara,  Cheren,  Agordat,  and 
Bisceia.  The  network  of  strategic  motor  highways, 
totaling  12,083  miles  m  1939,  was  extended  in  1940. 
A  shorter  motor  route  between  the  Red  Sea  and 
Addis  Ababa  (538  miles),  via  Assab,  the  Danakil 
desert  and  Dessye,  was  opened  late  in  1939.  This 
asphalted  road  cost  675,000,000  lire  and  was  built 
in  2^6  years  by  an  average  daily  labor  force  of  32,- 
000  workmen  Three  other  roads  from  Addis  Aba- 
ba to  the  port  of  Mogadiscio  on  the  Indian  Ocean 
were  under  construction — one  by  way  of  Lakes 
Soddu  and  Neghelli  (916  miles),  another  by  way 
of  Ghigner,  Imi,  and  Mustahil  (863  miles),  and 
the  third  by  way  of  Dire  Dawa,  Jijiga,  and  Gora- 
hai  (1086  miles).  Also  under  construction  was  the 
Imperial  Road  forming  the  main  traffic  artery  of 
Addis  Ababa.  A  network  of  military  airlines  linked 
the  chief  centers  and  military  posts  of  the  colony. 
Chief  ports,  Massaua  and  Assab  on  the  Red  Sea 
and  Mogadiscio,  Merca,  and  Chisimaio  on  the  In- 
dian Ocean 

Government.  The  Italian  Government  formally 
annexed  Ethiopia  and  proclaimed  the  King  of  Italy 
its  Emperor  on  May  9,  1936  On  June  1,  1936, 
Eritrea  and  Italian  Somaliland  were  merged  with 
Ethiopia  to  form  Italian  East  Africa  The  colony 
is  administered  by  a  Viceroy  and  Governor  General 
at  Addis  Ababa,  assisted  by  a  Vice  Governor  Gen- 
eral, a  Chief  of  Staff,  a  consultative  Council  of 
Government  composed  of  high  government  offi- 
cials, and  the  governors  of  the  six  provinces  (gov- 
ernments) There  is  also  a  Board  of  Consultors 
representing  the  while  colonists  and  native  chief- 
tains. Viceroy  in  1940,  the  Duke  of  Aosta  (ap- 
pointed Nov  20,  1937) 

History.  Italy's  entrance  into  the  European 
War  on  June  10,  1940,  interrupted  the  task  of  the 
Italian  conquerors  in  opening  up  Ethiopia  and  sub- 
jugating the  guerrilla  bands  operating  in  inaccessi- 
ble parts  of  the  colony  The  Italian  military  forces, 
estimated  at  60,000  to  80,000  white  troops  and  ad- 
ditional native  units,  were  cut  off  from  overseas 
sources  of  supply  and  confronted  with  enemy 
forces  on  all  sides 

The  collapse  of  France  ended  the  resistance  of 
French  military  units  in  French  Somaliland,  gave 
the  Italians  access  to  Djibouti,  and  enabled  them 
to  outflank  the  small  British  force  in  British  Soma- 
liland, which  was  conquered  in  August  (see  SO- 
MALILAND, BRITISH  ;  SOMALILAND,  FRENCH)  This 
gave  the  Italians  complete  control  of  the  African 
shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Aden  and  Strait  of  Bab  el 
Mandeb,  but  they  were  unable  to  prevent  British 
shipping  from  using  this  entrance  to  the  Red  Sea. 
From  Eritrea  and  Western  Ethiopia  the  Italian 
forces  invaded  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  (q  v.) 
and  Kenya  (q  v  )  but  made  relatively  little  prog- 
ress up  to  the  end  of  1940.  From  bases  in  Italian 
East  Africa  the  Italian  air  force  made  repeated 
raids  on  British  military  and  naval  bases  in  Aden, 
Kenya,  and  the  Sudan. 

Meanwhile  British  and  South  African  air  units 
continually  raided  Italian  military  and  air  bases 
and  railway  and  highway  communications  through- 
out the  colony,  while  British  naval  and  air  forces 
from  time  to  time  bombarded  the  ports.  Traffic  on 
the  Djibouti-Addis  Ababa  railway  was  reported  to 
have  been  disrupted  and  considerable  damage  done 
to  camps  and  public  works 

The  British  also  helped  Ethiopian  leaders  hos- 
tile to  the  Italian  occupation  to  reorganize  and 
strengthen  their  guerrilla  forces.  Even  before  Italy 
entered  the  war,  reports  from  neighboring  territo- 


ries indicated  that  there  was  growing  unrest  among 
the  Ethiopian  tribes.  A  Djibouti  report  of  June  11 
stated  that  the  Italians  had  executed  Ras  Hailu, 
a  prominent  chieftain  who  had  aided  them  during 
the  Ethiopian  War.  At  the  end  of  June  the  ex- 
Emperor  Haile  Selassie  left  London  by  air  for 
Khartoum  in  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  where  he 
made  preparations  to  reconquer  his  kingdom  with 
British  aid  In  October  he  moved  nearer  the  Ethi- 
opian border.  Meanwhile  on  July  12  the  British 
Government  informally  recognized  Haile  Selassie 
as  a  full  ally  in  the  struggle  against  the  Axis  pow- 
ers, thus  reversing  its  formal  recognition  of  Italian 
sovereignty  in  1938. 

At  Haile  Selassie's  order,  his  former  War  Min- 
ister, Ras  Birru,  flew  from  Jerusalem  to  the 
Anglo- Egyptian  Sudan  on  June  13  to  assume  com- 
mand of  Ethiopians  fighting  with  the  British.  Oth- 
er leading  Ethiopian  exiles  in  Palestine  also  left  to 
organize  Ethiopian  resistance  within  Italian  East 
Africa  or  on  its  frontiers.  As  a  result  of  their  ac- 
tivities and  the  gradual  exhaustion  of  supplies,  the 
Italian  position  at  the  year  end  was  said  to  be  dif- 
ficult 

See  EUROPEAN  WAR  under  Campaigns  m  Af- 
rica, ITALY  under  History 

ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  The  literary  ho- 
rizon in  Italy  in  the  past  few  years  has  had  vary- 
ing fortunes,  jolts,  and  indeed,  many  a  surprise 
Unfortunately  for  our  Italian  literati,  disturbances 
have  not  arisen  from  within  the  ranks,  for  if  it 
were  so,  then  one  would  term  them  "polemics,"  a 
preoccupation  quite  consonant  with  the  idea  of 
literature.  These  disturbing  factors,  however,  have 
absorbed  all  Italy  in  the  past  five  years  national 
crises  (Ethiopia,  Albania,  the  present  Cataclysm 
in  Europe)  have  forced  all  cultural  activities  into 
a  remote  background  The  1940  season,  as  the  one 
previous,  again  will  have  to  forfeit  its  major  prem- 
ise to  the  department  of  history 

An  event  that  stands  in  relief  was  the  admittance 
of  gracious  and  benign  Ada  Negn  to  the  Royal 
Italian  Academy  This  is  indeed  an  honor,  accen- 
tuated the  more  so  since  it  went  to  a  woman.  In 
this  connection,  Renzo  Rendi  said,  in  his  The  Lit- 
erary Scene  m  Italy  (See  The  New  York  Times 
Book  Review,  Jan  19,  1941)  •  "The  Royal  Italian 
Academy  for  the  first  time  opened  its  portals  to  a 
woman  The  fact  caused  a  certain  surprise,  as  in 
Italy  also  the  idea  that  academies  are  reserved  to 
men  is  widespread.  But,  as  it  was  explained  in  the 
press,  the  academy  wanted  to  renew  an  old  tradi- 
tion largely  adopted  by  the  ancient  Italian  acade- 
mies of  two  centuries  ago,  in  which  female  mem- 
bers were  often  elected  " 

Concurrently  with  Ada  Negri's  appointment  to 
the  Academy  came  the  news  that  her  recent  offer- 
ing, Erba  sul  sagrato  (Grass  on  Sacred  Ground, 
Mondadori),  was  a  best  seller.  And  in  this  con- 
nection also  could  be  recorded  a  list  of  some  popu- 
lar books  in  Italy  in  the  past  season  Heading  the 
list  was  Giovanni  Papini's  Italia  mia  (Vallecchi), 
then,  Mosca's  Ricordt  di  scuola,  (School  Memories, 
Rizzoh)  ;  Carlo  Linati's  A  vento  e  sole  (With 
Wind  and  Sun,  Soc  Subalpina)  ;  Lucio  D'Ambra's 
Passo  di  strada  (Step  Along  the  Way,  Monda- 
dori) ;  P.  Bargellini's  Ritratto  virile  (Virile  Por- 
trait, Morcelliana)  ;  F.  Tombari's  /  ghiottom 
(Gluttons,  Mondadori)  ;  Trilussa's  La  sincerita 
(Sincerity,  Mondadori)  ;  Emilio  Cecchi's  America 
amara  (Bitter  America,  Sansoni).  Among  other 
volumes  which  enjoyed  popularity  were  a  reprint- 
ing of  the  famous  novel  of  Giovanni  Verga  / 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE 


371 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE 


Malavoglia  (Mondadori)  and  G.  Mazzoni's  trans- 
lation of  Catullus,  Poesie  (Zanichelli).  An  anthol- 
ogy of  Italian  literature  which  reached  a  wide 
public  was  G.  Zoppi's  Antologia  delta  letteratura 
italiana.  An  exclusive  place,  if  lastly,  should  be 
given  to  the  ever  increasing  popularity  of  the  fa- 
mous Bompiani  Almanacco  letterario,  a  literary 
year  book,  unique  in  format  and  content,  which 
with  exhaustive  criticism  on  publications,  original 
contributions,  and  letters  of  famous  authors,  il- 
lustrations, sketches,  and  cartoons,  will  continue 
in  popularity  principally  for  its  vitality  and  fresh- 
ness. 

Fiction.  A  novel  of  clear  pattern  and  material 
continued  to  be  read  in  the  past  season  and,  because 
of  its  incisive  character  deserves  this  belated  dis- 
cussion Its  author,  A.  Frateili,  has  been  very  ac- 
tive in  literature  and  movements,  and  his  latest 
novel,  Clara  tra  i  lupi  (Clara  Among  the  Wolves, 
Bompiam),  may  well  lay  claim  to  an  artistic 
achievement  In  an  exhaustive  evaluation  of  this 
novel,  Angelo  Mele  has  stated  with  justification 
that  in  all  of  Frateili's  creations  there  is  a  groping 
for  some  conciliation  with  the  spiritual  restlessness 
of  pur  era,  accentuated  by  an  ardent  and  sincere 
desire  to  define  the  shadowy  vicissitudes  of  daily 
life  Likewise,  in  this  novel,  Arnaldo  Frateili  has 
sketched  out  a  cross  section  of  our  times  with  mas- 
terly delineations  of  characters  The  novel  is  per- 
suasive enough,  and  the  reader  cannot  escape  an 
interest  and  sympathy  for  the  creatures  of  the 
author's  imagination  Lorenzo  Ruggi,  better  known 
as  the  author  of  Madonna  del  gat  to  nero  (The 
Madonna  of  the  Black  Co/)  of  some  seasons  back, 
published  a  little  over  a  season  ago,  Romanzo  delta 
Neve  (The  Novel  of  the  Snow,  Cappelli) ;  its 
habitat  is  in  the  Dolomites  during  the  height  of 
the  winter  sport  season  But  for  a  serious  and  mys- 
tic undertone  the  novel  would  give  the  off-hand 
impression  of  levity  and  gayety,  of  the  type  des- 
tined for  the  "smart  set "  A  novel  with  this  cos- 
mopolitan formula  runs,  a  priori,  the  dangers  of 
numerous  pitfalls,  which  unfortunately  the  author 
has  not  fully  avoided  But  for  other  redeeming 
qualities,  the  novel  might  have  been  promptly  dis- 
carded This  judgment  on  the  novel  should  be  a 
source  of  encouragement  to  the  author :  "At  a  cer- 
tain point  in  the  book  something  akin  to  a  fable 
is  present  which  suggests  moral  attitudes  border- 
ing on  the  mystic  It  is  a  point  in  the  story  that 
rises  unexpectedly,  imparting  merit  to  the  whole. 
This  serious  undertone  appears  in  the  form  of  a 
conception  of  divine  providence  as  expressed  by  a 
nun  in  the  story  speaking  with  a  captivating  logic 
that  arrests  the  reader's  attention  and  forces  him 
to  contemplate.  This  is  the  persuasive  note  of  the 
author  whose  gaze  and  meditation  is  ever  on  crests 
of  the  Dolomites." 

Apparently  the  women  writers  of  Italy  had  a 
banner  year,  and  Alba  de  Cespedes  had  the  dis- 
tinction of  having  the  most  widely  read  novel  of 
the  season  Alba  de  Cespedes  is  a  recent  comer  in 
the  field  of  literature,  for  still  fresh  in  memory  is 
her  volume  of  short  stories  Concerto  (1937),  a 
volume  which  gave  promise  of  a  good  future. 
Though  the  present  volume,  Neswno  Torna  In- 
dietro  (No  One  Turns  Back,  Mondadori),  was  pub- 
lished a  little  over  a  season  ago,  its  success  continued 
rather  in  the  past  season.  The  work  seems  to  be 
detached  from  any  particular  formula  for  novel 
writing,  and,  in  the  main,  the  author  seems  to  pro- 
ceed simply  and  directly  with  the  story  of  eight 
young  ladies,  classmates,  whose  destiny  becomes 


as  varied  as  their  distinctive  characters.  The  highly 
introspective  mood,  so  much  overworked  in  Ital- 
ian novels,  is  eminently  absent  in  this  volume.  Al- 
though a  novel  of  some  460  pages,  it  does  not  "give 
the  impression  of  a  long  work,  for  Alba  de  Ces- 
pedes has  a  chatty,  narrative  style  which,  in  a 
sanely  descriptive  way,  grips  firmly  whatever  there 
is  to  be  gripped,  without  digressions."  The  novel 
has  already  been  translated  into  French,  German, 
and  Danish.  Fulvia  Giuliani  Barberi,  another  young 
woman  writer,  has  apparently  abandoned  her  ca- 
reer as  an  actress  to  enter  the  literary  field.  Her 
novel,  L'uomo  che  cammind  nella  luce  (The  Man 
Who  Walked  in  the  Light,  Casa  Editrice  Quaderni 
di  Poesia),  was  well  received  Fortunately  for  her, 
the  novel  had  other  qualities  to  make  up  for  an 
obviously  hackneyed  theme— that  of  the  brilliant 
young  doctor,  rich,  attractive,  who  in  the  end  sac- 
rifices his  life  in  quest  of  a  new  serum. 

In  the  short  stones,  Rafaele  Calzmi's  collection 
//  Taciturno  (The  Taciturn,  Mondadori)  may  be 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  list.  The  stories  for  the 
most  part  are  on  attractive  themes  and  take  us  all 
over  the  world.  Calzini,  of  course,  is  an  old  hand 
at  writing,  having  already  over  two  dozen  volumes 
to  his  credit.  His  novel,  Segantim,  Romanso  delta 
Montagna  received  the  Viareggio  Literary  Prize 
of  1934.  A  collection  of  stones  of  humility  and 
dignity  were  assembled  by  the  popular  novelist, 
Virgilio  Brocchi.  Those  in  this  volume,  called  La 
Gran  Vocc  (The  Great  Voice,  Mondadori),  have 
a  major  theme,  that  of  the  glorification  of  mother- 
hood The  story  Mater  Mirabilis,  is  indeed  touch- 
ing and  representative  of  the  rest  in  the  collection. 
Grazia  Deledda,  the  distinguished  Sardinian  woman 
writer  produced  a  series  of  stories,  //  cedro  del 
Libano  (Garzanti,  Milan),  dealing  for  the  most 
part  on  children's  themes  they  reveal  the  most  sa- 
lient characteristics  of  Grazia  Deledda's  art  •  "a 
penetrating,  intuitive  psychology  and  the  mania  of 
looking  deep  into  the  heart  of  man."  It  is  well  to 
mention  again  the  volume  of  short  stories  assem- 
bled by  the  Academician,  Angelo  Gatti,  La  Terra 
(The  Earth,  Mondadori).  Angelo  Gatti  is  known 
as  a  political  writer  as  well  as  literary,  and  he  will 
best  be  remembered  by  his  very  successful  novel, 
Ilia  ed  Alberto  published  not  many  seasons  ago  and 
well  in  its  seventh  printing.  The  stones  represented 
in  his  latest  volume  are  about  the  peasants  and  the 
country-side  of  Piedmont,  and  may  well  be  called 
tales  of  the  soil 

Criticism  and  Varia.  Pietro  Pancrazi  brought 
out  a  sort  of  anthology  of  the  short  story  of  the 
19th  century,  Racconti  e  Novelle  dcll'SOO,  published 
by  the  time-honored  house  of  Sansoni  in  a  revised 
edition  of  over  nine  hundi  ed  pages  The  same  house 
published  recently  Agostim  Savelli's  Stona  d'ltaha 
from  its  origin  to  the  present  day,  in  simple  though 
scholarly  presentation.  The  second  volume  on  the 
history  of  the  Italian  theater,  Storia  del  Teatro 
Italianof  dealing  with  the  Renaissance,  was  pre- 
pared by  Maio  Apolomo  and  published  also  by 
Sansoni.  The  same  publishers  put  out  Emilio  Cec- 
chi's  curious  but  scathing  invective  against  Ameri- 
can life,  America  Amara  (Bitter  America)  This 
book  was  read  extensively  in  Italy  in  the  past  sea- 
son, and  unfortunately,  the  author  does  not  refrain 
from  speaking  at  length  on  trivial,  if  not  weak 
themes.  Some  of  the  chapters  deal  with  "Father 
Divine/'  dowagers  of  the  metropolis,  students  of 
California,  etc.  The  book  can  hardly  bring  en- 
lightenment as  to  American  cultural  pursuits  of 
the  day.  Lin  Yutang's  popular  book,  The  Impor- 


ITALIAN  SOMALILAND 


372 


ITALY 


tance  of  Living  was  translated  and  published  by 
Bompiani  of  Florence.  The  book  was  popular  also 
in  Italy  in  the  past  season  and  a  half.  And  speak- 
ing of  translations,  equally  popular  were  Margaret 
Mitchell's  Gone  with  the  Wind  (Via  col  vento), 
Hervey  Allen's  Antonio  Adverse,  John  Galswor- 
thy's La  Saga  det  Forsyte;  Louis  Bromfield's  La 
Grande  Pioggia  All  these  volumes  were  published 
by  Collezione  Omnibus.  All  three  volumes  of  John 
Steinbeck  were  translated  and  the  Grapes  of  Wrath 
(Furore,  Bompiani)  went  into  a  third  printing 
Manlio  Lo  Vecchio  Musti  assembled  the  various 
essays  of  Pirandello,  Saggi  (Mondadori,  Milan), 
among  which  are  to  be  found  essays  on  Humor, 
the  Subjective  and  Objective  in  Literature,  the 
poetry  of  Dante,  Teatro  Nuovo  e  Teatro  Vecchio, 
etc.  In  addition  Musti  brought  out  a  monograph 
on  the  Sicilian  dramatist,  L'Opera  dt  Luigi  Piran- 
dello. The  house  of  Paravia  brought  out  the  third 
and  last  volume  of  Francesco  Luigi  Mannucci's 
Storia  delta  letteratura  italiana  (The  Eighteenth 
and  Nineteenth  Centuries).  The  first  volume,  Dalle 
origini  alia  fine  del  Quattrocento  (From  the  Ori- 
gin to  the  End  of  the  Fifteenth  Century)  and  the 
second  volume  dealing  with  the  16th  and  the  17th 
centuries,  comprise  the  series  The  sixth  volume  of 
Storia  Universale  dell'Arte,  18th  and  19th  centuries 
was  prepared  by  Anna  Maria  Brizio.  Along  with 
400  reproductions,  the  house  of  Editrice  Torinese 
(Unione  Tipografica)  is  to  be  congratulated  for 
the  numerous  expensive  series  it  undertakes  And 
now  mention  could  be  made  of  some  English  vol- 
umes on  Italian  themes.  First  in  order  should  be  re- 
corded Thomas  Caldecot  Cliubb's  Aretino  (Scourge 
of  Princes,  New  York),  an  entertaining  and  schol- 
arly work  with  profuse  information  on  the  life  and 
times  of  the  early  16th  century  Orestes  Ferrara 
wrote  the  biography  of  Alexander  VI,  The  Borgia 
Pope  (New  York).  James  Whitall  translated  Mar- 
cel Brion's  Michelangelo  (New  York)  Lastly  may 
be  recorded  Paul  Tabor's  translation  of  Zsolt  de 
Harsanyi's  study  on  the  dramatic  life  of  Galileo, 
The  Star  Gazer  (New  York) 

0.  A.  BONTEMPO. 

ITALIAN  SOMALILAND.  See  ITALIAN 
EAST  AFRICA 

ITALO-GREEK  WAR.  See  EUROPEAN 
WAR 

ITALY.  A  kingdom  of  southern  Europe,  upon 
which  a  Fascist  dictatorship  is  superimposed  Cap- 
ital, Rome  Sovereign  in  1940,  King  Victor  Em- 
manuel III,  who  ascended  the  throne  July  29,  1900. 

Area  and  Population.  Excluding  Libya  (q  v  ) , 
which  became  part  of  Italian  national  territory  in 

1938  and  Albania   (q.v.),  which  was  annexed  in 
1939,  Italy  has  an  area  of  119,714  square  miles  and 
a  population  estimated  at  44,109,000  on  June  30, 
1940   (42,444,588  at  the   1936  census,  which  did 
not  include  528,542  workers  and  soldiers  in  Af- 
rica). The  1936  census  showed  31,735,027  urban 
and  11,258,575  rural  residents    Living  births  in 

1939  numbered  1,040,413  (23.5  per  1000) ;  deaths, 
590,652  (134  per  1000) ;  marriages  totaled  324,843 
(7.4  per  1000)  in  1938   Emigrants  in  1938  num- 
bered 61,548;  emigrants  who  returned  to  Italy  to- 
taled 36,892.  Foreigners  in  Italy  at  the  1936  census 
numbered  108,597  as  compared  with  an  estimated 
9,600,000  Italians  living  m  other  countries 

The  city  of  Rome  had  an  estimated  population 
of  1,327,126  on  Dec  31,  1939.  Other  chief  cities 
with  the  estimated  populations  on  Jan  1,  1939 
(not  including  workmen  and  soldiers  absent  in 


Africa  and  the  Dodecanese),  were:  Milan  (Mi- 
lano),  1,205,542;  Naples  (Napoli),  920,460 ;  Turin 
(Torino),  690,015;  Genoa  (Geneva),  654,211;  Pa- 
lermo, 431,666;  Florence  (Firenze),  351,055;  Bo- 
logna, 315,158;  Venice  (Venezia),  283,926;  Tri- 
este, 258,612;  Catania,  251,978;  Bari,  210,777; 
Messina,  202,375;  Verona,  166,315;  Padua  (Pa- 
dova),  150,203;  Taranto,  151,150;  Leghorn  (Li- 
vorno),  134,545;  Brescia,  134,340;  Ferrara,  122,- 
913;  Reggio  di  Calabria,  121,876;  Cagliari,  119,- 
934;  La  Spezia,  119,067. 

National  Defense.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR  ;  NA- 
VAL PROGRESS,  also  History  below. 

Colonial  Empire.  The  total  area  of  Italy's  col- 
onies and  dependencies  (including  Albania  and  all 
of  Libya)  is  1,279,589  square  miles,  total  popula- 
tion (1939  estimate),  14,186,401  They  are  treated 
elsewhere  in  the  YFAR  BOOK  under  AEGEAN  IS- 
LANDS, ITALIAN  ;  ALBANIA  ,  ITALIAN  EAST  AFRI- 
CA; and  LIBYA. 

Education  and  Religion.  School  enrollment 
in  1937-38  was:  Elementary,  5,051,306;  secondary 
(including  technical  and  art),  613,588;  higher  edu- 
cation (1938-39),  77,429.  Illiteracy  is  about  20  per 
cent  According  to  the  census  of  1931  there  were 
41,014,096  Roman  Catholics  (99.6  per  cent),  83,- 
618  Protestants,  and  47,825  Jews 

Production.  About  46  3  per  cent  of  the  work- 
ing population  is  engaged  in  agriculture  and  fish- 
ing, 30  4  per  cent  in  mining,  quarrying,  and  indus- 
try, 8  3  per  cent  in  commerce,  and  4  6  per  cent  m 
transportation  The  total  number  of  industrial 
workers,  according  to  statistics  issued  by  the  Fas- 
cist Confederation  of  Industrialists  in  1940,  is 
3,825,542,  apportioned  mainly  as  follows :  Building 
enterprises,  623,000;  foodstuffs,  389,000;  mechani- 
cal and  metallurgical,  709,000 ;  building  materials, 
541,000;  textiles,  653,142;  chemicals,  155,192.  Ag- 
ricultural production  (in  metric  tons)  for  1939  ex- 
cept where  otherwise  specified  was :  Barley,  245,- 
400;  rye,  151,500,  oats,  586,800,  wheat,  8,000,000, 
corn,  2,939,700  (1938),  potatoes,  2,941,600;  beet 
sugar,  420,300;  olive  oil,  175,300  (1938)  ;  tobacco, 
42,100  (1938);  silk,  2800;  rice,  41,185,000  bu 
(1940);  wine,  41,780,000  hectoliters  (1938).  One 
hectoliter  equals  26  4  U.S.  gal. 

Mineral  and  metallurgical  production  in  metric 
tons  in  1938  (except  where  otherwise  specified) 
was:  Iron  ore,  520,000;  lead  (smelter),  38,000 
(1939);  zinc  (smelter),  33,600  (1939);  pyrites, 
437,000,  lignite,  1,322,000;  sulphur  (crude),  397,- 
000 ;  asphaltic  and  bituminous  rock,  258,047 ;  mar- 
ble, 457,222;  marine  salt,  883,420,  bauxite,  360,- 
800;  mercury,  195,523;  aluminum,  28,000  (1939)  ; 
tin  (smelter),  300,  pig  iron,  929,000;  steel  ingots 
and  castings,  2,307,000;  copper,  4700;  cement, 
4,587,000.  Rayon  production  in  1939  was  54,000 
metric  tons;  cotton  (1938),  7500  metric  tons 
Woolen  textiles,  chemicals,  sulphuric  acid,  super- 
phosphate, copper  sulphate,  cheese,  and  alimentary 
pastes  are  other  important  manufactures. 

Foreign  Trade.  According  to  the  annual  state- 
ment of  the  Bank  of  Italy,  published  in  1940,  total 
imports  during  1939  amounted  to  10,000,000,000 
lire  as  compared  with  10,900,000,000  in  1938 ;  ex- 
ports to  foreign  countries  (excluding  trade  with 
the  colonies)  were  valued  at  8,500,000,000  lire 
against  7,960,000,000  in  1938.  For  distribution  of 
trade,  see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  386.  Also  see  TRADE, 
FOREIGN. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 
1940,  ordinary  revenues  were  estimated  at  29,740,- 
000,000  lire  (according  to  a  statement  issued  by 


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373 


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the  Finance  Minister  on  May  17,  1940),  and  ex- 
penditures  at  56,140,000,000  lire,  leaving  a  deficit 
of  26,400,000,000  lire.  An  official  preliminary  draft 
of  the  1940-41  budget  (issued  in  February,  1940) 
estimated  ordinary  revenues  and  expenditures  at 
29,002,000,000  and  34,895,000,000  lire  respectively. 
The  total  deficit  for  the  year  ended  June  30,  1939, 
was  12,278,000,000  lire.  As  of  June  30,  1940,  the 
total  public  debt  was  said  by  the  Minister  of  Fi- 
nance to  be  somewhere  in  the  neighborhood  of 
200,000,000,000  lire.  The  last  official  statement  pub- 
lished on  the  subject  showed  the  debt  to  be  107,- 
185,000,000  lire  on  Aug.  31,  1935  The  average  ex- 
change value  of  the  lira  was  $00526  in  1938, 
$00520  in  1939,  and  $0.0504  (nominal)  in  1940 

Transportation.  On  June  30,  1939,  Italian  rail- 
ways extended  14,448  miles  (State,  10,551 ;  private, 
3897)  For  the  year  ending  on  that  date,  the  State 
railways  carried  107,800,000  passengers,  compared 
with  103,047,509  in  1937-38.  Total  revenues  in 
1938-39  were  4,366,100,000  lire,  total  expenses, 
4,153,252,000  lire  A  new  railway  connecting  the 
cities  of  Novara  and  Biella  was  opened  on  July 
20,  1940,  with  a  daily  service  in  each  direction  of 
three  trains  During  1940,  in  order  to  conserve 
fuel,  the  government  curtailed  railway  transporta- 
tion both  before  and  after  the  country  entered 
the  war.  Effective  Feb  24,  1940,  84  trams  were 
suppressed ,  56  more  went  out  of  operation  on  De- 
cember 14  and  96  on  December  19.  The  mileage  of 
roads  and  highways  in  1940  was  127,104.  Statistics 
of  civil  aviation  for  1938  (released  by  the  Italian 
Air  Traffic  Bureau  in  1940)  were-  Miles  flown, 
8,419,493;  passengers  earned,  140,815;  mail  car- 
ried, 1,054,670  Ib  ,  newspapers,  659,744  lb.;  bag- 
gage, 4,607,488  lb  In  August,  1939,  Italian  air  lines 
covered  25,373  route  miles  Transatlantic  service 
between  Rome  and  Rio  de  Janeiro,  inaugurated  on 
Dec.  21,  1939,  was  still  in  operation  during  1940 
The  Italian  merchant  marine  on  June  30,  1939, 
comprised  1350  vessels  of  1,979,482  tons.  Duiing 
1939,  12,119  vessels  of  22,816,000  net  registered 
tons  entered  Italian  ports  in  the  foreign  trade 

Government.  Italy's  Fascist  dictatorship  was 
superimposed  upon  the  constitutional  monarchy  es- 
tablished by  the  Constitution  of  Mar.  4,  1848  Un- 
der the  law  of  Dec  9,  1928,  the  Fascist  Grand 
Council,  consisting  of  (1)  life,  (2)  ex-officio,  and 
(3)  extraordinary  members,  acts  as  "the  supreme 
organ  co-ordinating  and  uniting  all  the  activities 
of  the  regime."  The  life  members  (three  in  1940) 
are  the  Quadrumvirs  of  the  March  on  Rome 
Members  in  the  other  two  categories  are  all  ap- 
pointed by  the  Head  of  the  Government  (Benito 
Mussolini). 

Parliament  consists  of  a  Senate  (535  members 
in  1940),  all  appointed  for  life  by  the  King  on 
nomination  by  the  Head  of  the  Government,  and 
a  Chamber  of  Fasci  and  Corporations,  which  on 
Mar.  23,  1939,  replaced  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
provided  for  in  the  1848  Constitution  The  Cham- 
ber of  Fasci  and  Corporations  is  composed  of 
about  700  National  Councillors,  who  hold  their 
seats  by  virtue  of  membership  in  the  Fascist 
Grand  Council,  the  National  Council  of  the  Fas- 
cist party,  and  the  National  Council  of  Corpora- 
tions. By  the  law  of  Oct.  7,  1938,  both  the  new 
Chamber  and  Senate  were  restricted  to  voting  by 
a  show  of  hands  or  by  acclamation,  instead  of  the 
former  secret  ballot,  on  measures  presented  to 
them  by  the  Head  of  the  Government  or  on  meas- 
ures the  discussion  of  which  had  been  previously 
authorized  by  him. 


The  cabinet  as  reorganized  Oct.  31,  1939,  con- 
sisted of  •  Premier,  Chief  of  the  Government,  and 
Minister  of  Interior,  War,  Navy,  Air,  and  Land 
Reclamation,  Benito  Mussolini;  Foreign  Affairs, 
Count  Galeazzo  Ciano ;  Italian  Africa,  Ottilio  Te- 
ruzzi ,  Corporations,  Renato  Ricci ;  National  Edu- 
cation, Giuseppe  Bottai ;  Agriculture  and  Forests, 
Giuseppe  Tassman ;  Finance,  Count  Paolo  Thaon 
di  Revel ;  Justice,  Count  Dino  Grandi ;  Communi- 
cations, Giovanni  Host  Venturi ;  Popular  Enlight- 
enment, Alessandro  Pavolmi ;  Public  Works,  Adel- 
chi  Serena;  Trade  and  International  Payments, 
Raffaello  Riccardi ;  Secretary-General  of  the  Fas- 
cist party,  Ettore  Muti.  For  changes  in  1940,  see 
History. 

HISTORY 

After  nine  months  of  "non-belligerency,"  marked 
by  close  diplomatic  and  economic  co-operation  with 
Germany  and  by  increasing  friction  with  Britain 
and  France,  Italy  seized  the  opportunity  presented 
by  the  French  military  debacle  to  declare  war  on 
the  Allied  powers  on  June  10,  1940,  effective  at 
one  minute  past  midnight.  Ignoring  peace  appeals 
from  the  Pope,  President  Roosevelt,  and  the  heads 
of  the  French  and  British  Governments,  Premier 
Mussolini  announced  his  decision  to  a  great  throng 
in  the  Piazza  Venezia  at  6  o'clock  in  the  evening. 
He  said  in  part  : 

We  are  taking  up  arms,  after  having  solved  the  problem 
of  our  continental  frontiers,  to  solve  our  maritime  fron- 
tiers We  want  to  break  the  territorial  and  military  chains 
that  confine  us  in  our  sea  because  a  country  of  45,000,000 
souls  is  not  trulj  free  if  it  has  not  free  access  to  the  ocean. 

This  gigantic  conflict  is  only  a  phase  of  the  logical  de- 
velopment of  our  revolution.  It  n  the  conflict  of  poor, 
numerous  peoples  who  labor  against  starvers  who  fero- 
ciously cling  to  a  monopoly  of  all  riches  and  all  gold  on 
earth 

It  is  a  conflict  of  fruitful,  useful  peoples  against  peoples 
who  are  in  a  decline.  It  is  a  conflict  between  two  ages, 
two  ideas 

Now  the  die  is  cast  and  our  will  has  burned  our  ships 
behind  us 

I  solemnly  declare  that  Italy  does  not  intend  to  drag 
other  peoples  bordering  on  her  by  sea  or  land  into  the 
conflict.  Switzerland,  Yugoslavia,  Greece,  Turkey,  and 
Egypt,  take  note  of  these  words  of  mine  It  depends  on 
them  and  only  on  them  if  these  words  are  rigorously  con- 
firmed or  not 

Prelude  to  War.  During  the  first  months  of 
1940  Italian  policy  continued  along  the  lines  laid 
down  following  the  outbreak  of  the  European 
War  in  1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p  387  f  ).  Al- 
though allied  to  Germany,  Italy  employed  its  non- 
belligerent status  to  extract  the  greatest  possible 
economic  and  political  concessions  from  all  three 
belligerents.  Italian  industries  and  shipping  were 
entering  markets  and  trade  routes  formerly  domi- 
nated by  the  warring  powers  Moreover  Italian 
factories  were  filling  war  orders  from  Britain  and 
France,  which  allowed  the  importation  of  the  nec- 
essary raw  materials  and  coal  through  their  block- 
ade. However  the  economic  gains  of  neutrality 
were  not  as  great  as  had  been  hoped.  The  Allied 
blockade  also  became  increasingly  onerous,  after 
Britain  in  February  and  March  tightened  its  con- 
traband control  and  cut  off  imports  of  German 
coal  into  Italy  in  Italian  ships. 

During  this  period  Rome  also  strove  to  strength- 
en its  influence  in  the  Balkans,  at  the  expense  of 
Germans,  British,  and  French  alike.  In  particular, 
Mussolini  sought  to  prevent  Soviet  penetration  in- 
to that  area  and  to  avoid  a  rupture  of  the  Balkan 
status  quo  under  conditions  unfavorable  to  Ital- 
ian ^ambitions.  Consequently  Mussolini  joined  Hit- 
ler in  restraining  Hungarian  revisionist  aspirations 


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374 


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and  appeared  to  support  the  peace  efforts  of  the 
other  Balkan  powers. 

Nevertheless  Fascist  spokesmen  and  the  Italian 
press  made  it  plain  that  "non-belligerency"  was  a 
temporary  policy  and  that  the  Fascist  regime's  ex- 
pansionist ambitions  would  be  pressed  as  soon  as 
the  time  was  opportune.  Mussolini's  newspaper 
Popolo  a"  Italia  declared  on  January  13  that  "three 
points  of  Fascist  policy  and  life  must  in  any  case 
remain  untouched,  the  struggle  against  democracy, 
against  bolshevism,  and  against  the  bourgeoisie." 
The  government  proceeded  step  by  step  to  strength- 
en the  military  forces,  tighten  discipline,  and  speed 
the  transformation  of  the  economic  system  to  a 
complete  war  basis.  The  cabinet  on  January  22  ap- 
proved 63  decrees  promoting  economic  self-suffi- 
ciency, extending  the  rationing  of  foodstuffs,  and 
curbing  profiteering  and  hoarding.  A  decree  ap- 
proved April  2  authorized  the  mobilization  for 
war  service  of  the  entire  civil  population  of  both 
sexes  above  12  years  of  age.  Another  created  a 
Supreme  Commission  of  Defense  to  govern  in 
war  time. 

All  war  preparations  were  speeded  up  after  the 
conference  between  Hitler  and  Mussolini  at  Brcn- 
nero  on  March  17.  There  an  agreement  was  worked 
out  for  joint  Italo-Gcrman  action  in  promoting 
Axis  interests  in  the  Balkans,  and  for  Italian  dip- 
lomatic support  of  the  forthcoming  German  mili- 
tary initiatives.  The  German  attack  upon  Denmark 
and  Norway  was  followed  by  the  intensification 
of  the  Italian  propaganda  campaign  against  the 
Allies.  Hostility  was  whipped  up  by  press  and 
radio  attacks  of  such  violence  as  to  bring  protests 
from  Paris  and  London  In  Milan,  Florence,  Rome, 
and  other  cities  Fascist-inspired  demonstrations 
against  Britain  and  France  occurred  with  increas- 
ing frequency. 

The  end  of  April  witnessed  demonstrations  and 
troop  concentrations  against  Yugoslavia,  which 
had  taken  strong  measures  against  Axis  "fifth 
column"  elements  and  resisted  Italo-German  de- 
mands for  closer  co-operation  Military  prepara- 
tions in  Albania,  Libya,  and  Italian  East  Africa 
were  made  on  the  basis  of  early  entry  into  the  war. 
A  series  of  warnings  that  Italy  would  soon  be  at 
war  was  issued  by  leading  members  of  the  gov- 
ernment. Mussolini,  however,  remained  silent  on 
this  issue  until  his  speech  of  June  10  On  May  9, 
at  the  celebration  of  the  founding  of  the  Empire 
four  years  earlier,  he  said-  "After  my  speeches, 
you  must  accustom  yourself  to  my  silence  Only 
facts  will  break  it" 

These  warlike  activities,  no  doubt  dcsignedjy, 
caused  the  Allies  to  reinforce  their  naval  and  mili- 
tary forces  in  the  Mediterranean  area  and  thus 
facilitated  the  German  triumphs  in  Norway  and, 
to  a  lesser  degree,  in  the  Low  Countries  The  Ger- 
man army  and  air  force  produced  the  "facts"  that 
Mussolini  was  awaiting  in  demonstrating  their 
overwhelming  superiority  in  Norway,  the  Low 
Countries,  and  France.  With  the  defeat  of  the 
French  and  British  in  the  Battle  of  Flanders  at 
the  end  of  May,  the  Italian  attitude  became  much 
more  threatening  Trade  negotiations  with  the 
British  were  broken  off  completely  on  May  31.  The 
semi-official  Relasione  Internasionale  on  June  1 
announced  that  Italy  would  intervene  with  arms. 
On  June  3  the  government  postponed  indefinitely 
the  great  Universal  Exposition  scheduled  to  be 
held  in  Rome  in  1942.  Italian  ships  at  sea  were 
ordered  to  take  refuge  in  neutral  ports  on  June  7. 
Mobilization  of  the  military  reserves  and  of  the 


civil  population  was  begun  on  a  gradual  scale. 

These  tactics  helped  to  immobilize  large  Allied 
defense  forces  on  the  Italian  frontier  with  France 
and  in  the  Mediterranean  during  the  final  German 
offensive,  beginning  June  5,  which  sealed  the  fate 
of  France.  This  battle  was  already  won  when 
Mussolini  declared  war,  although  it  was  June  25 
before  the  Franco-German  and  Franco-Italian  ar- 
mistice terms  were  agreed  upon  and  placed  in  ef- 
fect (see  EUROPEAN  WAR).  As  if  to  answer  the 
widely  made  charges  that  he  had  entered  the  con- 
flict without  provocation  when  the  issue  of  battle 
was  decided  in  order  to  claim  a  share  of  the  spoils, 
Mussolini  in  a  letter  published  July  2  declared  that 
Italian  troops  had  battled  the  French  on  a  120- 
mile  Alpine  front  during  June  21-24,  breaking 
through  fortified  defenses  against  stubborn  resist- 
ance to  depths  of  five  to  20  miles 

"New  Europe"  Planned.  With  France  out  of 
the  conflict,  Fascist  officials  anticipated  the  early 
capitulation  of  Britain  following  a  joint  German- 
Italian  offensive  against  the  British  Isles  and  the 
Mediterranean  outposts  of  the  Empire  As  an  equal 
partner  in  the  Axis,  Mussolini  would  then  be  in  a 
position  to  secure  Italian  claims,  which  included 
complete  control  of  the  Mediterranean,  North  Af- 
rica, the  Red  Sea,  and  a  part  of  Asia  Minor  While 
German  preparations  for  an  assault  on  England 
were  under  way,  Fascist  officials  and  writers  out- 
lined Italy's  role  as  a  much  more  extensive  and 
powerful  empire  in  the  new  European  order  to  be 
created  under  Axis  auspices.  The  program  called 
for  the  destruction  of  the  democratic  world  and 
its  reconstruction,  beginning  with  the  whole  of 
Europe,  along  Fascist  lines. 

Efforts  to  adjust  conflicting  Italian  and  German 
ideas  and  interests  with  respect  to  the  new  Euro- 
pean order  were  made  at  a  series  of  conferences 
between  Axis  officials  The  first  German  curb  on 
Italian  ambitions  was  imposed  by  Hitler  during 
his  conference  with  Mussolini  in  Munich  on  June 
18,  where  details  of  the  peace  terms  to  be  imposed 
on  France  were  discussed  The  Fuehrer  induced 
the  Italian  Premier  to  moderate  his  claims  so  that 
the  French  fleet  and  colonial  empire  would  not  be 
driven  into  the  arms  of  the  British  At  the  same 
time  Italian  and  German  economic  experts  were 
planning  the  co-ordination  of  Axis  economic  re- 
sources, with  the  objective  of  providing  continen- 
tal raw  materials  for  Italian  war  industries  in 
place  of  overseas  imports  cut  off  by  the  British 
blockade  and  increasing  Italian  food  shipments  to 
the  Reich. 

Further  conferences  were  held  between  Hitler 
and  Count  Ciano  in  Berlin  on  July  7;  by  Count 
Giuseppe  Volpe  di  Misurata,  head  of  the  Fascist 
Confederation  of  Industrialists,  and  German  eco- 
nomic experts,  in  Berlin  early  in  August ;  by  For- 
eign Minister  yon  Ribbentrop  of  Germany  and 
Fascist  leaders  in  Rome  on  September  19-21 ;  and 
by  Hitler  and  Mussolini  at  the  Brenner  Pass  on 
October  4  and  at  Florence  on  October  28.  Begin- 
ning in  August  some  20,000  Italian  industrial  work- 
ers were  sent  to  the  Reich  to  relieve  the  labor 
shortage  in  German  war  industries.  There  was  a 
progressive  extension  of  this  economic  co-opera- 
tion and  a  corresponding  increase  in  German  guid- 
ance of  Italian  policy  in  the  economic  as  well  as 
the  political  sphere  It  was  disclosed  on  Decem- 
ber 5  that^  Italy  had  agreed  to  accept  German  aid 
in  increasing  agricultural  production.  The  Reich 
undertook  to  purchase  the  increased  output  "at 
good  prices." 


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375 


ITALY 


Italy  at  War.  Italian  hopes  for  the  early  capit- 
ulation of  Britain  soon  faded.  The  problem  of 
forging  the  new  Europe  was  necessarily  subordi- 
nated to  the  task  of  defeating  Britain  and  of  keep- 
ing the  United  States  and  Russia  out  of  the  con- 
flict. A  warning  of  the  hard  road  ahead  came  on 
June  29  when  it  was  announced  that  Marshal  Italo 
Balbo,  Governor  General  and  commander-in-chief 
in  Libya  and  popular  air  heror  had  been  killed 
when  an  airplane  he  was  piloting  over  Tobruk, 
Libya,  "fell  in  flames  during  an  enemy  bombing 
raid."  The  London  Foreign  Office  denied  that  Brit- 
ish planes  were  in  the  Tobruk  area  when  the 
Marshal's  plane  crashed.  This  aroused  speculation 
as  to  whether  Balbo  had  been  shot  down  by  Ital- 
ian anti-aircraft  fire  in  the  mistaken  belief  that 
his  plane  was  a  British  raider.  There  were  also 
charges  that  the  Marshal,  whose  wide  popularity 
was  said  to  have  irked  Mussolini,  had  been  put 
out  of  the  way  because  of  his  opposition  to  Italy's 
entrance  into  the  war  on  the  side  of  Germany. 
Marshal  Rodolfo  Graziam,  Chief  of  Staff  of  the 
Italian  Army,  was  appointed  to  succeed  Marshal 
Balbo  in  Libya. 

Italy  received  another  blow  to  its  aspirations  on 
July  3,  when  the  British  seizure  or  destruction  of 
a  large  part  of  the  French  fleet  ended  Rome's  hope 
of  getting  control  of  the  French  warships  and 
thus  securing  naval  preponderance  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean At  the  end  of  July  Italian  air  and  land 
units  took  up  positions  in  Northern  France  to  join 
the  German  forces  in  an  assault  upon  Britain. 
However  the  Fascist  planes  suffered  a  severe 
mauling  at  the  hands  of  the  R.A.F.  during  the 
first  Italian  raids  on  Britain  and  no  further  reports 
of  Italian  participation  in  the  German  air  offensive 
were  forthcoming.  In  mid-August  the  British  be- 
gan long-range  air  raids  upon  cities  in  Northern 
Italy 

By  the  beginning  of  September,  when  the  Ger- 
man air  assault  on  Britain  failed  to  show  the  ex- 
pected results,  the  Fascist  press  began  to  prepare 
the  Italian  people  for  a  long,  hard  war.  The  stran- 
gulation of  Italian  overseas  trade  by  the  British 
blockade  at  Gibraltar  and  Suez  was  already  seri- 
ously affecting  Italy's  economy,  which  was  greatly 
dependent  upon  imports  of  raw  materials  Hitler 
and  Mussolini  therefore  arranged  to  co-ordinate 
their  strategy  and  forces.  II  Duce  undertook  to 
break  the  British  hold  on  the  Suez  Canal,  restore 
the  severed  communications  with  Italian  East  Af- 
rica, and  aid  Hitler  in  ousting  British  influence 
from  the  Balkans  Hitler  assumed  the  task  of 
pressing  the  assault  and  counter-blockade  of  the 
British  Isles,  while  bringing  Japan  into  the  Axis 
in  the  hope  of  forestalling  American  and  Russian 
intervention,  and  lining  up  France  and  Spain  be- 
hind the  Axis  (see  FRANCE,  GERMANY,  JAPAN,  and 
SPAIN  under  History  for  details  of  these  negotia- 
tions). 

In  August  the  Italian  forces  in  East  Africa 
registered  an  encouraging  victory  by  the  conquest 
of  British  Somaliland  and  in  mid-September  Fas- 
cist armies  in  Libya  and  Italian  East  Africa  be- 
gan a  gigantic  pincers  movement  designed  to  over- 
come the  British  defenses  in  Egypt  (see  EUROPEAN 
WAR  under  Campaigns  in  Africa).  When  the  Ital- 
ian drive  into  Egypt  from  Libya  became  stalled 
at  Sidi  Barrani,  Mussolini  on  October  28  launched 
his  invasion  of  Greece  from  bases  prepared  in 
Albania  (see  ALBANIA  and  GREECE  under  History}. 
This  offensive  was  apparently  designed  to  divert 
British  naval  and  military  forces  from  Egypt  and 


to  secure  Italian  air  and  sea  bases  on  the  Greek 

peninsula. 

Although  Mussolini  conferred  with  Hitler  in 
Florence  on  the  very  day  he  launched  the  Greek 
military  venture,  observers  were  uncertain  wheth- 
er or  not  it  was  undertaken  with  German  approval. 
There  was  known  to  be  resentment  in  Fascist  cir- 
cles over  the  rapid  spread  of  German  influence  in 
Hungary  and  the  Balkans,  and  in  some  quarters 
it  was  believed  that  Mussolini's  invasion  of  Greece 
was  intended  to  forestall  Hitler  and  assure  Italy 
of  a  voice  in  the  future  course  of  Balkan  events. 
The  Germans  displayed  no  great  concern  over  the 
disastrous  outcome  of  the  Italian  attack,  which 
was  undertaken  without  clue  preparation,  reported- 
ly on  advices  from  the  Italian  Minister  in  Athens 
that  the  Greeks  would  not  resist  See  EUROPEAN 
WAR  under  The  Italo-Greck  War 

The  Italian  debacle  in  Greece,  followed  by  Brit- 
ish naval  and  military  victories  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  Egypt,  rocked  the  Fascist  regime  in 
Italy  to  its  foundations.  Italian  prestige  was  shat- 
tered throughout  the  world  and  the  fruits  of  two 
decades  of  Fascist  diplomatic  activity  in  the  Bal- 
kans, the  Near  East,  and  Africa  were  swept  away. 
Contracts  of  Italian  military  missions  in  Ecuador 
and  Peru  were  cancelled  and  Bolivia  was  reported 
considering  similar  action.  The  drive  against  the 
Suez  Canal  was  rebuffed  and  turned  into  a  rout 
which  threatened  the  Italian  colonial  empire  in 
North  and  East  Africa.  To  prevent  a  complete 
military  collapse,  Mussolini  in  December  was 
obliged  to  ask  Hitler's  aid.  With  the  entrance  of 
German  land  and  air  forces  into  Italy  en  route  to 
the  Libyan  and  Albanian  fronts,  Mussolini  became 
a  distinctly  subordinate  member  of  the  Axis  direc- 
torate and  the  direction  of  Italian  policy  in  all 
fields  fell  increasingly  under  German  control 

Shake-up  of  Fascist  Officials.  Sweeping 
changes  among  the  Fascist  leaders  of  Italy's  war 
effort  were  made  by  Premier  Mussolini  in  an  ef- 
fort to  restore  morale  and  retrieve  his  regime's 
damaged  prestige.  Coincident  with  the  attack  on 
Greece,  Ettore  Muti  resigned  as  Secretary-Gen- 
eral of  the  Fascist  party  to  serve  in  the  air  force. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Minister  of  Public  Works 
Serena,  and  the  latter's  portfolio  was  taken  over 
by  Giuseppe  Goria,  Secretary  of  the  National  En- 
gineers Syndicate.  It  was  reported  from  London 
November  21  that  between  50  and  60  highly  placed 
Italian  officers  on  the  Greek  front  had  been  sum- 
marily dismissed  by  Mussolini 

Marshal  Pietro  Badoglio,  Chief  of  the  General 
Staff,  conqueror  of  Ethiopia  and  outstanding  Ital- 
ian military  leader,  resigned  on  December  6  He 
was  replaced  by  Gen.  Count  Ugo  Cavallero,  or- 
ganizer of  the  Blackshirt  Militia  and  a  close  as- 
sociate of  Mussolini  Gen  Caesare  Maria  de  Vec- 
chi,  quadrumvir  of  the  March  on  Rome  and  one 
of  the  most  influential  Fascist  officials,  was  re- 
placed as  military  and  civil  Governor  of  the  Do- 
decanese Islands  on  December  7  by  Gen  Ettorc 
Bastico.  The  following  day  Adm.  Domemco  Ca- 
vagnari  was  ousted  as  Chief  of  the  General  Staff 
and  Under-Secretary  of  State  for  the  Navy  in 
favor  of  a  relatively  unknown  naval  man,  Adm. 
Arturo  Riccardi.  New  men  were  appointed  as  As- 
sistant Chief  of  Staff  and  as  commander  of  the 
fleet  at  sea.  The  shake-up  extended  to  many  sub- 
ordinate ranks  of  the  army,  navy,  and  air  force. 
It  was  accompanied  by  a  meeting  of  the  national 
directorate  of  the  Fascist  party  on  December  5  at 
which,  according  to  the  official  communique^  "the 


ITALY 


376 


ITALY 


secretary  of  the  party  reported  on  the  provisions 
that  have  been  adopted  for  the  further  strengthen- 
ing of  the  activity  of  the  ...  party  with  particu- 
lar reference  to  the  problems  of  party  structure, 
discipline,  aid  to  the  families  of  combatants,  and 
development  of  the  basic  party  organizations." 

Repercussions  in  Italy.  The  effect  of  these 
changes  in  the  Italian  high  command,  following 
upon  a  series  of  military  reverses,  was  to  under- 
mine public  confidence  in  Mussolini  and  his  regime. 
The  Italian  people  had  never  displayed  enthusiasm 
for  the  war  against  Britain  and  they  were  left  in 
complete  ignorance  of  the  invasion  of  Greece  for 
several  days  after  the  attack  was  launched.  Fol- 
lowing the  British  attack  on  the  Italian  navy  at 
Taranto,  Mussolini  on  November  18  delivered  his 
first  public  speech  since  Italy's  entrance  into  the 
European  War.  Addressing  the  provincial  hier- 
archy of  the  Fascist  party,  he  gave  a  glowing 
picture  of  Italian  achievements  during  five  months 
of  warfare  and  asserted  that  victory  was  already 
within  the  grasp  of  the  Axis.  He  sought  to  calm 
Italian  misgivings  by  placing  complete  blame  for 
the  war  upon  Britain,  deriding  British  claims  of 
severe  damage  to  the  fleet  at  Taranto,  and  affirm- 
ing his  perfect  identity  of  views  with  Hitler.  He 
attributed  the  delays  experienced  by  the  Italian 
armies  in  Greece  to  mountainous  terrain  and  mud, 
but  gave  his  "absolute"  pledge  that  "we  shall  break 
Greece's  back."  He  ordered  the  party  to  initiate  a 
vigorous  drive  against  the  "small  bourgeois"  and 
"universahstic  pacifism." 

The  shake-up  in  December  gave  rise  to  a  new 
wave  of  criticism  and  uncertainty  in  Italy.  This 
was  answered  by  an  official  communique  of  De- 
cember 9  asserting  that  the  "uproar  that  has  fol- 
lowed changes  in  the  Italian  High  Command  .  .  . 
will  only  sharpen  the  will  to  victory  of  the  Italian 
people  and  their  reverent  and  absolute  faith  in  the 
Duce  and  in  the  commanders  who,  in  the  name  of 
the  King-Emperor,  have  the  responsibility  and 
honor  of  conducting  the  nation  toward  its  supreme 
military  and  historic  objectives."  The  statement 
went  on  to  say : 

Moreover,  Premier  Mussolini  and  the  Italian  people 
know  they  can  count  on  one  another  and  are  indissolubly 
bound  in  this  great  fight,  in  which  the  pilot  has  need  of 
the  greatest  liberty  of  action,  while  the  people  rrc  bound 
to  place  all  their  faith  in  the  man  who  incarnates  the 
virtues  of  the  race  and  its  capacity  and  will  to  power 

A  further  blow  to  Mussolini's  prestige  came  on 
December  22  in  the  form  of  a  detailed  report  by 
Marshal  Graziani  on  the  Italian  defeat  at  Sidi 
Barrani  in  Egypt.  This  gave  the  Italian  people  the 
first  account  of  the  extent  of  the  disaster  It  also 
attributed  the  inability  of  Graziani  to  continue  his 
offensive  to  the  government's  failure  to  send  him 
the  needed  motor  vehicles  from  Italy. 

Thus  the  year  ended  with  Italy  rife  with  criti- 
cism and  dissension.  There  was  dissension  within 
the  Fascist  party  over  the  conduct  of  the  war  and 
over  the  growth  of  German  control  in  Italy,  dis- 
sension between  Fascist  party  leaders  and  profes- 
sional military  and  naval  officers,  and  widespread 
grumbling  among  the  people  at  the  regime  The 
discontent,  however,  was  curbed  by  various  con- 
trol measures  that  had  been  introduced  since  the 
declaration  of  war.  Government  control  over  all 
news  sent  out  from  Italy  was  established  June  10. 
A  month  later  Italians  were  forbidden  by  decree 
to  listen  to  enemy  or  neutral  radio  broadcasts  or 
to  pass  on  news  from  such  sources.  Criticisms  of 
the  government  were  punished  with  increased  se- 


verity. On  September  10  it  was  announced  that 
the  head  of  a  princely  family  had  been  arrested 
for  an  anti-Fascist  remark. 

In  December  the  Fascist  press  intensified  its 
campaign  against  pacifists,  pessimists,  and  "scoun- 
drels" who  read  the  Swiss  press  to  get  news  of 
the  war  from  anti-Axis  sources.  Pitiless  venge- 
ance was  promised  fascism's  "open  and  hidden 
enemies"  within  Italy.  Appeals  were  made  for  the 
continued  support  of  the  Italian  masses  on  the 
ground  that  fascism  was  a  proletarian,  anti-capi- 
talist, and  anti-bourgeois  movement  that  was  fight- 
ing for  a  social  revolution.  The  execution  of  two 
Italian  spies  and  imprisonment  of  22  others  charged 
with  "acting  in  the  interest  of  a  foreign  power" 
was  announced  December  22. 

On  December  25  the  controlled  press  printed 
excerpts  from  Prime  Minister  Winston  Churchill's 
radio  appeal  to  the  Italian  people  to  get  rid  of 
Mussolini  and  make  peace  (see  GREAT  BRITAIN 
under  History).  But  the  important  passages  in 
which  Churchill  placed  the  sole  responsibility  for 
Italy's  entrance  into  the  war  upon  Mussolini  were 
deleted 

Economic  Pressures.  Rising  political  discon- 
tent was  spurred  by  the  progressive  lowering  of 
the  standard  of  living  and  the  spread  of  economic 
hardship  due  to  the  blockade,  a  short  wheat  crop, 
the  shipment  of  surplus  food  supplies  to  Germany, 
and  the  ever  increasing  financial  and  other  sacri- 
fices demanded  by  the  war.  The  working  week  was 
extended  from  40  to  48  hours  on  June  28.  Ration- 
ing of  bread,  meat,  and  a  few  other  staple  prod- 
ucts was  introduced  in  July  and  the  list  was  grad- 
ually extended  during  the  remainder  of  the  year. 
In  December  drastic  cuts  in  food  and  other  rations 
were  decreed.  On  December  7  heavy  penalties  were 
decreed  for  farmers  holding  back  products  from 
compulsory  storage  and  for  mine  owners  failing 
to  increase  their  output 

The  Minister  of  Agriculture  was  appointed  food 
dictator  on  December  29,  with  control  of  ration- 
ing and  over  the  distribution  of  all  foodstuffs  im- 
ported or  produced  at  home.  The  death  penalty  was 
authorized  for  serious  cases  of  hoarding  or  sabo- 
tage. Similar  powers  over  industry  and  over  the 
distribution  and  consumption  of  all  domestic  and 
imported  industrial  materials  were  vested  in  the 
Minister  of  Corporations  on  December  31. 

Church-State  Friction.  The  efforts  of  Pope 
Pius  XII  to  keep  Italy  out  of  the  war,  the  pacifist 
sentiments  expressed  by  some  of  the  clergy,  and 
the  publication  in  the  Vatican  organ  Osservatorc 
Romano  of  Allied  communiques  and  war  news 
deepened  the  hostility  toward  the  Church  latent  in 
Fascist  circles  (see  VATICAN  CITY  under  History). 
Under  pressure  from  the  government,  the  Pope  on 
July  5  stripped  the  Italian  Catholic  Action  organ- 
ization of  every  semblance  of  a  political  and  social 
character. 

Italo-American  Relations.  Following  the  visit 
of  Under-Secretary  of  State  Sumner  Welles  to 
Rome  on  his  diplomatic  tour  of  Europe  in  Febru- 
ary-March, 1940,  a  serious  effort  was  made  in 
Washington  to  end  the  coolness  that  had  developed 
in  Italo-Amcrican  relations  in  order  to  keep  Italy 
out  of  the  war  Early  m  May  interchanges  took 
place  between  President  Roosevelt  and  Premier 
Mussolini  in  which  the  President  pointed  out  the 
possibly  disastrous  political  and  economic  conse- 
quences of  Italian  participation  in  the  war.  He 
was  reported  to  have  suggested  the  development 
of  closer  economic  relations  if  Italy  would  remain 


IVORY  COAST 


377 


JAMAICA 


neutral.  Mr.  Roosevelt  made  at  least  two  additional 
appeals  to  Premier  Mussolini  to  stay  out  of  the 
war,  but  they  received  a  cool  reception.  On  June  6 
Mussolini's  spokesman,  Virginio  Gayda,  in  turn 
warned  the  United  States  to  keep  out  of  the  con- 
flict on  pain  of  "automatically  giving  the  European 
powers  the  right  to  retaliate  today  or  at  any  fu- 
ture time  in  American  history  and  on  American 
territory." 

When  Italy  declared  war,  President  Roosevelt 
on  June  11  at  Charlottesville,  Va.f  publicly  de- 
nounced the  move  as  a  stab  in  the  back  of  France. 
This  attack  was  bitterly  resented  by  the  Fascist 
press  and  was  followed  by  steadily  growing  re- 
criminations and  increasing  coolness  between  the 
two  countries  In  October  the  Rome  correspondent 
of  the  New  York  Times  was  temporarily  expelled 
from  the  country  for  reporting  that  Italian  prop- 
aganda was  directed  toward  securing  the  defeat  of 
President  Roosevelt  in  his  campaign  for  re-elec- 
tion Following  Roosevelt's  victory,  the  Fascist 
press  intensified  its  attacks  upon  Washington's 
foreign  policy  and  threatened  America  with  early 
involvement  in  the  war  if  the  program  of  aid  to 
Britain  was  extended 

See  ALBANIA,  BRAZIL,  CANADA,  COLOMBIA,  EC- 
UADOR, EGYPT,  FRANCE,  GERMANY,  GREAT  BRIT- 
AIN, GREECF,  IRAQ,  ITALIAN  EAST  AFRICA,  MEX- 
ICO, New  ZEALAND,  RUMANIA,  SWITZERLAND, 
SYRIA  AND  LEBANON,  TANGIER,  TURKEY,  and 
YUGOSLAVIA  under  History ,  ARCHAEOLOGY  ;  EU- 
ROPEAN WAR,  FASCISM  ,  INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY; 
LABOR  CONDITIONS  under  Union  Movements  \  and 
REPARATIONS  AND  WAR  DFTVTS. 

IVORY  COAST.  See  FRENCH  WEST  AFRICA 

JAMAICA.  A  British  West  Indian  crown  col- 
ony Area,  4450  square  miles;  population  (Jan.  1, 
1939  estimate),  1,173,645,  including  19,039  East 
Indians.  The  CAYMAN  ISLANDS  (see  below), 
TURKS  AND  CAICOS  ISLANDS  (see  below),  Morant 
Cays,  and  Pedro  Cays  are  dependencies  of  Ja- 
maica Chief  towns  (with  1921  census  figures) 
Kingston  (the  capital),  including  Port  Royal  (63,- 
711),  Spanish  Town  (8694),  Montego  Bay  (6580), 
Port  Antonio  (6272). 

Production  and  Trade.  Bananas,  sugar,  cof- 
fee, rum,  coconuts,  pimento,  grapefruit,  logwood 
extract,  ginger,  cacao,  oranges,  tobacco,  and  log- 
wood were  the  principal  products.  The  1939-40 
sugar  crop  totaled  99,329  tons  Trade  (1939)  :  im- 
ports, £6,506,689;  exports,  £4,764,746  (sugar, 
£989,563;  bananas,  £2,439,177).  There  were  6914 
miles  of  roads  in  1940.  Shipping  (1938)  •  1390  ves- 
sels aggregating  4,242,295  net  tons  cleared. 

Government.  Finance  (1938-39)  •  revenue, 
£2,841,887;  expenditure,  £2,872,440.  Budget  (1939- 
40)  •  revenue,  £2,737,940;  expenditure,  £2,851,942 
Public  debt  (Mar.  31,  1939)  •  £6,303,139.  The  gov- 
ernor is  assisted  by  a  privy  council.  There  is  a 
legislative  council  of  30  members  (the  governor 
as  president,  5  ex-officio,  10  nominated,  and  14 
elected).  Captain-General  and  Governor-in-Chief, 
Sir  Arthur  Richards  (appointed  June  15,  1938) 

Cayman  Islands.  Area,  104  square  miles ;  pop- 
ulation (1938),  6850.  Capital,  Georgetown.  Chief 
products:  coconuts,  green  turtle,  thatch  rope,  and 
turtle  shell.  Trade  (1938)  :  imports,  £29,555,  ex- 
ports, £12,744  Finance  (1938)  •  revenue,  £13.253, 
expenditure,  £11,854;  public  debt  (December  31), 
£3660.  Commissioner,  A.  W,  Cardinall. 

Turks  and  Caicos  Islands.  Area,  166  square 
miles;  population  (1938),  5300  Capital  Grand 
Turk.  Chief  products:  salt  (1,305,932  bu  exported 


during  1939),  conchs,  turtle  shell,  sponges,  and 
sisal.  Trade  (1938):  imports,  £25,974;  exports, 
£23,052  (salt  accounted  for  £18,451).  Finance 
(1938):  revenue,  £14,359;  expenditure,  £14,660. 
Commissioner,  H.  C.  N.  Hill. 

History.  Jamaica  was  one  of  the  British  pos- 
sessions in  which  the  United  States  acquired  the 
right  to  lease  naval  and  air  bases  under  the  Anglo- 
American  agreement  of  Sept  2,  1940  (see  GREAT 
BRITAIN  under  History).  The  areas  to  be  leased 
and  the  provisions  governing  their  administration 
were  announced  by  the  Navy  Department  in 
Washington  on  November  18,  as  follows : 

(a)  Fleet  anchorage  at  Portland  Bight. 

(b)  Land  area  to  include  Goat  Island  and  the  adjacent 
bays   of   approximately   thirty-three  square   miles   m   and 
east  of  Galleon  Harbor 

(c)  An  area  on  Portland  Bight  and  Portland  Island  for 
the  location  of  defense  batteries 

(d)  Approximately  100  acres  in  the  vicinity  of  Williams 
Field    Station    for    recreational    purposes    and    a   hospital 
mess 

(e)  An  area  of  about  one  square  mile  about  five  miles 
south   of    May    Pen   along   Bakers   Canal   for   use   as  an 
emergency  and  auxiliary  landing  ground 

(f)  The   right   to  develop  resources  and   facilities  for 
the   Port   Royal   Dockyard   under    British   control   for  the 
joint  use  of  United  States  and  British  forces 

(g)  Reciprocal  rights  to  be  granted  to  both  United  States 
and   British  military  aircraft  to  use  the  air  fields  estab- 
lished by  the  United  States  Government  and  His  Majesty's 
Government,  within  the  limits  of  capacity,  the  controlling 
authorities  to  have  the  first  call  on  the  available  accom- 
modation. 

President  Roosevelt  inspected  these  sites  on  De- 
cember 6  during  a  cruise  in  the  Caribbean  At  that 
time  the  Governor  said  that  the  increased  employ- 
ment and  tourist  trade  anticipated  in  connection 
with  the  development  of  the  bases  would  be  "most 
welcome"  and  of  immense  benefit  to  the  island 
The  depressed  economic  conditions  and  social  mal- 
adjustments that  had  previously  caused  concern 
(see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  390)  became  worse  dur- 
ing 1940  as  a  result  of  the  war  and  of  severe 
floods  in  November  that  drowned  more  than  80 
persons.  The  shipping  shortage  forced  the  British 
Government  in  November  to  end  all  British  im- 
ports of  bananas  from  Jamaica.  To  cushion  this 
shock  to  the  island's  economy,  Britain  guaranteed 
the  banana  producers  three  shillings  per  bunch  up 
to  a  maximum  of  12,000,000  stems  of  marketable 
fruit  annually.  Other  measures  were  taken  to  re- 
lieve unemployment  and  distress  among  dock 
workers  and  others  dependent  upon  the  banana  ex- 
port trade. 

The  tightening  of  the  economic  depression  was 
indicated  by  the  curtailment  of  United  States  ship- 
ping and  air  services  to  the  island,  and  by  the  re- 
vival of  the  agitation  for  political  and  economic 
reform  among  a  section  of  the  colored  population, 
represented  chiefly  by  the  People's  National  party. 
A  leader  of  this  movement,  named  Bustarnente, 
was  arrested  on  September  8  and  detained  without 
trial  under  the  Defense  Regulations  on  a  charge 
of  inciting  to  bloodshed,  racial  war,  and  revolution. 

The  People's  National  party  joined  with  unoffi- 
cial native  representatives  of  other  British  West 
Indian  colonies  and  a  group  of  British  West  Indi- 
ans in  New  York  City  to  form  the  West  Indies 
National  Council  for  the  protection  of  the  native 
populations.  W.  A.  Domingo,  elected  president  of 
the  Council,  was  a  Jamaican.  The  Council  sent  an 
unofficial  representative  to  the  Havana  Conference 
in  July  (see  PAN  AMERICANISM)  In  connection 
with  the  establishment  of  the  United  States  naval 
and  air  bases,  it  demanded  that  the  British  West 
Indian  governments  subject  foreign  (United 


JAPAN 


378 


JAPAN 


States)  nationals  to  local  law  and  custom  outside 
the  leased  area,  that  foreign  labor  be  barred  from 
unskilled  jobs  on  the  bases,  that  foreign  nationals 
be  forbidden  to  interfere  in  political  or  economic 
affairs,  and  that  no  racial  discrimination  or  seg- 
regation be  tolerated. 

The  British  Government  early  in  the  year  adopt- 
ed a  program  for  the  economic  and  social  rehabili- 
tation of  Jamaica  and  other  West  Indian  posses- 
sions (see  BRITISH  WEST  INDIES  under  History) 
but  this  was  modified  in  June  with  the  intensifica- 
tion of  the  European  conflict.  During  the  year  a 
considerable  number  of  British  evacuees  from 
Gibraltar  were  sent  to  Jamaica  for  the  duration  of 
the  war.  About  1000  German  prisoners  were  also 
sent  to  the  island  for  internment. 

JAPAN.  A  Far  Eastern  empire,  comprising 
(1)  Japan  proper,  or  the  five  main  islands  of 
Honshu,  Kyushu,  Shikoku,  Hokkaido,  and  Ryu- 
kyu,  with  some  600  smaller  islands ;  (2)  Formosa 
(Taiwan)  ;  (3)  Korea  (Chosen) ;  (4)  Karafuto 
(southern  Sakhalin)  ;  and  (5)  Pescadores  (Boko- 
to)  Islands.  In  addition  Japan  controlled  the  leased 
territory  of  Kwantung  and  the  South  Manchuria 
Railwav  Zone  in  Manchuria  and  mandated  terri- 
tories (Marianne,  Caroline,  and  Marshall  Islands) 
in  the  North  Pacific  During;  1931-33  it  established 
a  protectorate  over  three  Chinese  provinces  (Liao- 
ning,  Kirin,  and  Heilungkiang)  in  Manchuria  and 
Jehol  Province  in  Inner  Mongolia,  forming  them 
into  the  new  state  of  Manchoukuo  Capital  of  Ja- 
pan, Tokyo;  Emperor  in  1940,  Hirohito,  who  as- 
cended the  throne  Dec  25,  1926  See  separate  arti- 
cles on  FORMOSA,  KOREA,  KARAFUTO,  JAPANESE 
PACIFIC  ISLANDS,  KWANTUNG,  and  MANCHOU- 
KUO. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  and  popula- 
tion of  the  empire  at  the  censuses  of  1930  and 
1935  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  table. 

JAPANESE  EMPIRE    AREA  AND  POPULATION 


Area 

Population, 

Population, 

Island 

sg.  miles 

1930  census 

MS  census 

Japan  proper  .... 
Korea 

147,593 
85,228 

64,450,005 
21,058,305 

69,254,148 
22,899,038 

Formosa  •  .  .            .... 

13,889 

4,592,537 

5,212,426 

Karafuto  

13,934 

295,196 

331,943 

Japanese  Empire  . 
Kwantung* 
Mandated  Pacific  Is   .  . 

260,644 
1,438 
830 

90,396,043 
1,328,011 
69,626 

97,697,555 
1,6*6,726 
102,537 

•  Including  Pescadores  (Bokoto)  Islands,  area,  49  square  miles. 
» Including  South  Manchuria  Railway  Zone 

The  estimated  population  of  Japan  proper  on 
Jan.  1,  1940,  was  72,876,000.  The  number  of  Japa- 
nese residing  abroad  at  the  end  of  1938  was  1,059,- 
913,  while  the  number  of  foreigners  in  Japan  was 
28,857.  Living  births  in  1938  numbered  1,928,321 
(26.7  per  1000  as  against  the  pre-war  rate  of  about 
36  per  1000) ;  deaths,  1,259,805  (174  per  1000)  ; 
marriages,  538,831  (746  per  1000)  The  estimated 
populations  of  the  chief  cities  on  Oct.  1,  1938, 
were:  Tokyo,  6,457,600;  Osaka,  3,221,200;  Nago- 
ya,  1,224,100;  Kyoto,  1,159,800;  Kobe,  989,100; 
and  Yokohama,  777,500.  Populations  of  other  im- 
portant cities  on  Oct.  1,  1937,  were-  Hiroshima, 
326,600 ;  Fukuoka,  308,200 ;  Kure,  248,400 ;  Yawata, 
229,600;  Sendai,  229,400;  Nagasaki,  214,600;  Ha- 
kodate, 211,700;  Shizuoka,  211,600;  Sapporo,  205,- 
900;  Yokosuka,  203,800 

National  Defense.  Military  training  is  com- 
pulsory. Estimates  of  Japan's  land,  air,  and  sea 
strength  vary.  According  to  official  estimates,  the 
active  army  on  Nov.  1,  1940,  numbered  1,570,000 


men  and  the  trained  reserves  685,000.  The  air 
force  comprised  35,500  men  exclusive  of  16,000 
trained  reserves.  Naval  units  completed  at  the  end 
of  1939  were  reported  to  include  9  battleships,  5 
coast  defense  ships,  6  aircraft  carriers,  39  cruis- 
ers, 118  destroyers,  12  torpedo  boats,  and  64  sub- 
marines. 

Education  and  Religion.  Illiteracy  is  confined 
largely  to  people  over  50  years  of  age.  The  school 
enrollment  in  1937  was:  Kindergarten,  152,627; 
elementary,  11,566,912;  secondary,  842,792;  uni- 
versities and  colleges,  72,195;  special  and  technical 
schools,  531,807;  preparatory  technical  schools, 
1,964,599.  There  is  no  State  religion.  Shintoism, 
with  13  different  sects,  and  Buddhism,  with  12 
sects,  are  the  principal  religions  In  1940  all  reli- 
gious groups  were  brought  under  State  control  and 
the  Christian  denominations  were  merged  in  a 
single  Japanese  Christian  Church  (see  below  un- 
der History). 

Production.  Manufacturing  normally  accounts 
for  about  32  7  per  cent  of  the  national  income  (es- 
timated at  24,519,036,000  yen  in  1939),  commerce 
for  25  4  per  cent,  and  agriculture  for  17  7  per  cent 
Agriculture,  however,  supports  nearly  half  the 
population  of  Japan  proper.  The  Ministry  of  Agri- 
culture and  Forestry  estimated  the  value  of  agri- 
cultural products  in  1939  at  5,614,000,000  yen,  in- 
cluding rice,  2,874,000,000  yen ;  silk  cocoons,  883,- 
000,000  yen ;  wheat,  604,000,000  yen.  The  crop  of 
rough  rice  for  1940-41  was  estimated  at  549,968,- 
000  bu  The  output  of  other  leading  products  (in 
metric  tons  and  in  1939  unless  otherwise  stated) 
was:  Wheat,  1,662,500;  barley,  1,778,100;  oats, 
205,200  in  1938;  potatoes,  1,848,100  in  1938;  beet 
sugar,  28,100  in  1939-40;  cane  su?ar,  138,300  in 
1939-40;  tobacco,  82,000;  soybeans,  348,300  in 
1938;  raw  silk,  39,325  in  1938;  rayon,  108,569  The 
value  of  deep-sea  fisheries  products  in  1937-38 
was  89,877,000  yen;  of  coastwise  fisheries,  219,- 
600,000  yen  (including  sea-weed,  etc.). 

The  value  of  manufactures  produced  in  1937  by 
plants  employing  five  or  more  workers  was  16,412,- 
000,000  yen,  out  of  a  total  industrial  production  of 
21,349,000,000  yen  Textiles  accounted  for  25  per 
cent  of  the  value  of  manufacturing  output;  metals 
and  metal  products,  21  per  cent ,  machinery  and 
tools,  153;  chemicals,  18  9  per  cent.  The  world's 
leading  exporter  of  cotton  piece  goods,  Japan  in 
1939  shipped  abroad  2,445,537,000  sq  yd  valued  at 
403,946,000  yen.  The  approximate  mineral  and 
metallurgical  production  of  Japan  proper  (in  met- 
ric tons)  was :  Crude  petroleum,  380,000  in  1939 
(including  Formosa) ;  coal,  53,000,000  in  1938  (in- 
cluding Korea  and  Formosa)  ;  pyrites,  1,751,000 
in  1936;  manganese  ore  (metal  content),  34,000 
in  1936;  iron  ore,  470,000  in  1936;  pig  iron  and 
ferro-alloys,  2,635,000  in  1937;  steel  ingots  and 
castings,  5,811,000  in  1937  (including  Korea)  ; 
copper  ore  (metal  content),  77,000  in  1939;  alumi- 
num (smelter),  23,000  in  1939;  gold,  26,000  kilo- 
grams in  1939. 

Foreign  Trade.  Preliminary  estimates  of  Ja- 
pan's trade  in  1939  placed  imports  at  2,917,000,000 
yen  and  exports  at  3,576,000,000  yen.  (These  fig- 
ures include  commerce  of  Japan  with  other  parts 
of  the  Japanese  empire.)  As  compared  with  1939, 
imports  increased  19  per  cent  and  exports  1  per 
cent  in  1940.  In  1938  imports  were  valued  at  2,663,- 
337,000  yen;  exports  at  2,689,677,000  yen.  The 
principal  imports  (in  the  order  of  their  value) 
were  cotton,  beans,  wool,  coal,  oil  cake,  crude  rub- 
ber, and  wood  pulp.  Leading  exports  were  cotton 


JAPAN 


379 


JAPAN 


tissues,  raw  silk,  machinery,  rayon  cloth,  canned 
goods,  wheat  flour,  paper,  wrought  iron,  silk  tis- 
sues. The  value  of  imports  from  the  principal 
sources  of  supply  in  1938  were:  United  States, 
915,354,000  yen;  Manchoukuo,  339,117,000  yen; 
British  India,  172,231,000  yen;  Germany,  171,170,- 
000  yen;  China,  164,611,000  yen.  Of  the  1938  ex- 
ports, the  United  States  took  425,123,000  yen; 
Manchoukuo,  316,323,000  yen;  China,  312,900,000 
yen.  For  Japan's  trade  with  the  United  States  in 
1939  and  1940,  see  TRADE,  FOREIGN.  Also  see  His- 
tory below. 

Finance.  Expenditures  budgeted  for  the  fiscal 
years  1936-37  to  1941-42  are  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying table.  The  China  Incident  Account  refers 
to  expenditures  on  the  Chino-Japanese  War,  which 
began  in  July,  1937. 

EXPENDITURE  BUDGETS 

[Millions  of  yen] 


Expenditures 
General 

Account 

(original  and 

China 

Fiscal  year 

supplemen- 

Incident 

April  1-M  arch  31 

tary  budgets) 

Account 

Total* 

1936-37 

2,2821*     . 

2,282  1 

1917-38 

2,7091* 

2,5400 

5,249  1 

1918-39 

3,288  0 

4,850  0 

8,1380 

1919-40 
1940-41 

4,8045 
6,1738 

4,605  0 
5,4600- 

9,409.5 
11,6338 

1941-42 

7,9940 

4,880  0 

12,874  0 

0  This  total  overstates  expenditures  by  the  amount  transferred 
each  year  from  the  General  Account  to  the  China  Incident  Ac- 
count 1917-18,  1,100,01)0  yen,  1938-39,  317,100,000  yen,  1939- 
40,  515,100,000  yen,  1940-41,  600,000,000  yen,  1941-42,  not  yet 
disclosed  fc  Actual  expenditures,  e  Including  in  this  account  the 
1,000,000,000  yen  supplementary  budget  for  military  expenditures 
passed  in  January.  1941. 

Military  expenditures  constituted  35.2  per  cent 
of  the  total  expenditures  in  1932,  47.3  per  cent  in 
1936,  764  per  cent  in  1938-39,  and  61.6  per  cent  of 
the  budget  approved  for  1940-41.  Revenue  receipts 
(exclusive  of  loans)  increased  from  1,709,600,000 
yen  in  1936-37  to  an  estimated  4,902,000,000  yen 
in  1941-42.  However  the  revenue  receipts  repre- 
sented only  40  per  cent  of  total  estimated  net  ex- 
penditures for  1941-42  as  compared  with  77.2  per 
cent  of  actual  expenditures  in  1936-37.  Out  of  to- 
tal authorized  expenditures  of  22,335,000,000  yen 
under  the  China  Incident  Account  for  the  period 
1937-41,  18,399,400,000  yen,  or  82  per  cent,  was  to 
be  met  by  government  borrowing. 

The  total  funded  public  debt  rose  from  6,002,- 
800,000  yen  in  December,  1931,  to  9,854,000,000  in 
March,  1936,  and  to  27,750,000,000  in  December, 
1940.  Additional  bond  issues  totaling  7,574,000,000 
yen  were  projected  for  1941  The  outstanding 
short-term  debt  in  September,  1940,  was  557,873,- 
000  yen.  The  average  exchange  rate  of  the  yen 
was  $02596  in  1939  and  $0.2344  in  1940. 

Transportation.  In  1938  Japan  had  11,144 
miles  of  State  and  4240  miles  of  private  railway 
lines.  A  four-year  plan  to  improve  railway  com- 
munications was  launched  in  1939.  Freight  carried 
on  government  lines  increased  from  a  monthly  av- 
erage of  4,972,000  tons  for  1921-25  to  8,549,000 
tons  for  11  months  of  1939,  and  passenger  traffic 
showed  a  similar  increase,  due  mainly  to  the  war 
in  China.  Highways  extended  about  594,749  miles 
(see  ROADS  AND  STREETS).  Air  services,  covering 
9598  route  miles  in  August,  1939,  were  further 
extended  in  1940.  The  merchant  marine  in  1938 
comprised  2187  vessels  of  5,006,712  gross  tons. 

Government.  Under  the  Constitution  of  Feb. 
11,  1889,  executive  power  was  vested  in  the  em- 


peror, acting  with  the  advice  and  aid  of  a  minis- 
try appointed  by  and  responsible  to  him,  but  every 
law  normally  required  the  approval  of  the  Imperial 
Diet  of  two  chambers.  The  Upper  Chamber 
(House  of  Peers)  consisted  in  1940  of  422  mem- 
bers, of  whom  193  were  chosen  for  life  on  the 
basis  of  rank,  wealth,  and  other  qualifications  and 
the  remainder  were  elected  from  and  by  special 
groups  for  seven  years.  The  House  of  Represen- 
tatives consisted  of  466  members  elected  for  four 
years.  The  elections  of  Apr.  30,  1937,  divided  the 
House  into  two  major  parties  (Minseito,  with  175 
seats,  and  Seiyukai,  with  172),  three  minor  parties 
and  various  independents.  The  military-Fascist 
groups  gradually  extended  their  control  over  the 
government  after  the  invasion  of  Manchuria  in 
1931  and  in  1940  the  transformation  of  Japan  into 
a  completely  totalitarian  State  was  initiated.  See 
History  below. 

HISTORY 

Economic  Strain  of  War.  By  the  end  of  1940 
the  war  to  establish  Japanese  political  and  econom- 
ic control  over  China  had  dragged  on  for  three 
and  a  half  years,  with  no  sign  of  a  break  in  the 
military  stalemate  that  developed  toward  the  end 
of  1938.  The  year  1940,  like  1939,  was  one  of  al- 
most continuous  heavy  fighting  in  China  without 
decisive  military  gains  by  either  side  (see  CHINA 
under  History  for  a  full  account). 

The  drain  upon  Japan's  human  and  economic 
resources  by  this  war  of  attrition  became  more 
and  more  onerous.  Between  800,000  and  1,000,000 
soldiers  had  to  be  maintained  on  fronts  extending 
from  Inner  Mongolia  on  the  north  to  Hainan  and 
French  Indo-China  on  the  south  By  Dec.  31,  1940, 
Japanese  troops  had  suffered  more  than  1,000,000 
casualties  from  death,  wounds,  and  disease.  The 
conflict  had  cost  Japan  approximately  $3,680,000,- 
000,  in  U.S.  currency,  or  more  than  twice  the  total 
national  debt  in  1936  During  1940,  the  total  ex- 
penditure for  war  and  rearmament  was  estimated 
at  $1,750,000,000.  This  was  seven  times  greater 
than  national  defense  costs  in  1936-37,  the  year 
preceding  the  outbreak  of  the  so-called  ''China 
Incident,"  and  nearly  18  times  as  large  as  the  de- 
fense budget  preceding  the  attack  upon  Manchuria 
in  1931.  The  funded  debt  by  December,  1940, 
amounted  to  $6,500,000,000. 

There  were  many  evidences  of  the  growing  eco- 
nomic and  financial  strain.  Serious  shortages  of 
essential  commodities  and  materials,  labor,  and 
electric  power  developed.  Industrial  efficiency  con- 
tinued to  decline.  Prices  of  staple  foodstuffs  rose 
sharply  while  prices  of  such  export  products  as 
raw  silk  slumped.  The  rice  shortage,  which  devel- 
oped in  1939,  continued  through  1940.  By  the  end 
of  that  year  coal,  milk,  butter,  eggs,  potatoes,  and 
meat  were  almost  unobtainable,  while  charcoal, 
sugar,  matches,  and  gasoline  were  strictly  rationed. 
The  merchandise  import  balance  with  foreign  cur- 
rency countries  increased  from  U.S.  $93,150,000  in 
1939  to  $202,400,000  in  1940.  Trade  slumped  sharp- 
ly in  the  last  half  of  1940  and  there  was  a  growing 
shortage  of  foreign  exchange.  The  note  issue  in- 
creased from  2,968,887,000  yen  on  Jan.  11,  1940,  to 
4,030,694,000  on  Jan  11,  1941.  All  this  necessitated 
the  progressively  greater  regimentation  of  the  eco- 
nomic system  by  the  government. 

In  January  the  shortage  of  electric  power  be- 
came so  acute  that  all  industries  except  those  mak- 
ing armaments  and  munitions  were  partially  para- 
lyzed and  more  than  three  million  workers  were 


JAPAN 


380 


JAPAN 


rendered  temporarily  jobless.  The  manufacture 
and  sale  of  all  luxury  articles  was  prohibited  on 
July  6.  Rice,  the  staple  food  of  the  nation,  was 
placed  under  State  control  on  November  1  The 
largest  iron  and  steel  company  in  Japan  underwent 
forced  reorganization  in  December  as  a  result  of 
the  difficulty  experienced  in  obtaining  scrap  and 
pig  iron  from  the  United  States  and  the  British 
Empire.  As  of  Jan.  1,  1941,  the  Ministry  of  Fi- 
nance suspended  publication  of  foreign  trade  fig- 
ures. On  that  date  the  New  York  'litncs's  corre- 
spondent in  Tokyo  reported  that  while  Japan's 
economy  was  severely  strained,  it  appeared  able 
to  continue  to  function. 


ficient  to  justify  them  in  the  eyes  of  the  Japanese 
people. 

The  plan  for  seizing  Outer  Mongolia  and  all  of 
Eastern  Siberia,  long  advocated  by  an  influential 
section  of  the  Japanese  high  command,  had  been 
abandoned  in  1939  as  a  result  of  the  unexpected 
defeat  inflicted  upon  the  crack  Japanese  Kwantung 
Army  by  mechanized  Soviet  forces  in  the  fighting 
ol  August-September,  1939,  along  the  Manchou- 
kuoan-Outcr  Mongolian  frontier  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 
1939,  p.  457).  The  other  alternative  was  expan- 
sion southward  at  the  expense  of  the  French,  Brit- 
ish, Dutch,  and  American  possessions  in  south- 
eastern Asia  and  Malaya.  The  risks  of  such  a 


AT  JAPAN  /GET  THE 
'NEW  ORbERT  IN  EAfT  AHA 

Japan  and  invadad  eraar  oC  China 
Area/-  which  Japan  .racks  bo  dominabt 


RESOURCES  WHICH  JAPAN  I/  /TRJVING 
TO  OBTAIN  FROM 'GREATER  EAST  ASIA" 


Courtesy  of  New  York  Times 

PROGRESS  OF  JAPAN'S  EXPANSIONIST  CAMPAIGN  AS  OF  AUGUST,  19  iO 


Dilemma  of  the  Militarists.  Inability  to  end 
the  military  stalemate  in  China  or  to  relieve  the 
growing  economic  pressure  in  Japan  through  ex- 
ploitation of  their  Chinese  conquests  placed  the 
military-Fascist  clique  in  control  at  Tokyo  in  a 
dilemma.  To  avert  economic  collapse  at  home,  they 
had  either  to  liquidate  their  imperialistic  adventure 
in  China  and  confess  their  failure  or  to  hazard 
another  desperate  gamble  in  the  hope  of  gains  suf- 


course  appeared  too  formidable  as  long  as  the 
outcome  of  the  European  War  appeared  in  doubt 
But  with  the  collapse  of  France,  the  isolation  of 
Britain  and  the  entrance  of  Italy  into  the  conflict 
on  the  German  side  in  June,  1940,  the  military- 
Fascist  rulers  of  Japan  determined  to  stake  their 
future  upon  the  success  of  a  program  of  south- 
ward expansion. 
Speaking  on  May  3,  a  week  before  Hitler 


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381  JAPAN 


launched  his  successful  blow  at  the  Low  Countries 
and  France,  Foreign  Minister  Arita  of  Japan  de- 
nounced as  "sheer  stupid  blustering"  the  demands 
of  Japanese  extremists  for  war  with  Russia  or  the 
United  States.  He  declared  his  policy  aimed  at 
constructing  the  "new  order  in  East  Asia,"  pro- 
claimed as  Japan's  goal  in  1938  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 
1938,  p.  158  f  ),  and  avoiding  friction  with  other 
foreign  powers  But  on  June  29,  following  the 
Franco-German  armistice,  the  Foreign  Minister 
broadcast  an  address  to  the  Japanese  Empire  pic- 
turing it  as  the  dominant  military  power  and  "sta- 
bilizing force"  in  a  vast  area  comprising  not  only 
East  Asia  but  Southeastern  Asia  and  the  South 
Seas  This  expanded  program,  described  as  "a  new 
order  for  Greater  East  Asia,"  was  formally  pro- 
claimed by  Premier  Prince  Fumimaro  Konoye  on 
August  1. 

Progress  of  Southward  Drive.  Taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  Allied  disasters  in  Europe,  Japan 
exerted  increased  pressure  upon  the  British  and 
French  during  June,  July,  and  August  She  forced 
them  to  capitulate  in  the  Tientsin  concession  dis- 
pute, withdraw  British  troops  from  Shanghai,  cut 
off  shipments  of  virtually  all  supplies  from  Hong 
Kong  and  French  Indo-China  to  the  Chinese  Na- 
tionalists, and  close  the  Burma  Road  (see  CHINA 
under  History).  Japanese  pressure  took  the  cus- 
tomary form  of  military  threats  and  of  attacks 
upon  British  and  other  foreign  i  csidents  in  Shang- 
hai and  other  Japanese-occupied  parts  of  China. 

The  way  for  a  Japanese  advance  into  French 
Indo-Chma  was  cleared  in  mid-September  when 
Hitler  offered  to  give  Japan  a  free  hand  in  French 
Indo-China  and  the  Netherlands  Indies  in  return 
for  Japanese  adherence  to  the  Axis  military  al- 
liance Hitler  also  undertook  to  neutralize  Soviet 
Russia  while  Japan  was  occupied  in  Southeastern 
Asia,  and  to  force  the  Vichy  Government  to  per- 
mit a  peaceful  Japanese  occupation  of  French 
Indo-Chma  It  was  reported  that  Hitler's  offer 
was  accompanied  by  a  threat  to  isolate  Japan  dip- 
lomatically and  leave  her  exposed  to  attack  by 
Britain,  the  United  States,  and  Russia  unless  his 
proposal  was  accepted 

Japan  Joins  the  Axis.  Japanese  acceptance  of 
the  alliance  was  agreed  upon  at  an  Imperial  Con- 
ference— the  sixth  since  1900 — held  in  the  presence 
of  the  Emperor  on  September  19  An  advance  pay- 
ment was  obtained  from  Berlin  on  September  22 
in  the  form  of  the  Franco-Japanese  agreement  for 
the  establishment  of  Japanese  air  bases  and  a  gar- 
rison in  the  northern  part  of  French  Indo-China 
(see  FRENCH  INDO-CHTNA  under  History).  This 
opening  wedge  was  obtained  through  German  pres- 
sure upon  the  Vichy  Government  On  September 
27  Japan  fulfilled  her  part  of  the  bargain  by  sign- 
ing the  Axis  alliance  pact  at  a  ceremony  in  Berlin 
(see  GERMANY  under  History).  This  fateful  deci- 
sion, which  linked  Japan's  fate  inextricably  to  that 
of  the  Axis  and  carried  with  it  the  imminent  threat 
of  war  with  both  Britain  and  the  United  States, 
was  approved  in  a  rescript  issued  by  the  Emperor 
Hirohito  the  same  day. 

Once  entrenched  in  northeastern  French  Indo- 
China,  the  Japanese  were  able  to  extend  their  in- 
fluence southward  toward  Saigon,  metropolis  of 
the  southern  part  of  the  colony,  and  westward  into 
Thailand  This  advance  was  pushed  forward  grad- 
ually by  economic  and  diplomatic  pressures,  with 
the  threat  of  military  force  ever  present.  The  Jap- 
anese encouraged  the  Thai  Government  to  press 
its  territorial  claims  against  French  Indo-China, 


gave  it  arms  and  diplomatic  support,  obtained  Ger- 
man aid  in  paralyzing  French  resistance,  and  then 
offered  to  mediate  the  dispute.  As  a  further  step 
toward  securing  a  foothold  in  Thailand  for  a 
future  advance  toward  Singapore  and  the  Nether- 
lands Indies,  the  Japanese  Government  on  Decem- 
ber 6  signed  a  treaty  of  friendship  with  Thailand. 
In  it,  the  two  countries  agreed  to  respect  each  oth- 
er's territories,  to  maintain  contact  and  exchange 
information  on  matters  of  mutual  interest,  and  to 
remain  neutral  if  either  country  was  attacked  by 
a  third  power.  This  assured  Thailand  that  Japan 
would  not  give  military  aid  to  French  Indo-China 
in  connection  with  the  territorial  controversy.  See 
THAILAND  under  History 

Meanwhile  a  Japanese  economic  mission  in  Ba- 
tavia  and  Japanese  business  men,  consular  officials, 
and  agents  throughout  the  Netherlands  Indies  were 
laying  the  groundwork  for  a  Japanese  bid  for 
domination  as  soon  as  Anglo- Amen  can  resistance 
was  overcome.  For  details,  see  NETHERLANDS  IN- 
DIES under  History. 

Obstacles  to  Expansion.  Japan's  drive  south- 
ward was  unexpectedly  slowed  during  the  last 
quarter  of  1940  by  the  failure  of  the  German  of- 
fensive to  knock  out  Great  Britain,  the  firm  op- 
position offered  by  the  United  States,  and  Tokyo's 
inability  to  reach  an  understanding  with  Moscow. 
These  developments  induced  Tokyo  to  avoid  the 
open  use  of  armed  force  for  fear  of  precipitating 
a  war  with  a  major  power  at  a  time  when  Japan's 
national  resources  were  badly  strained  At  the 
same  time  these  obstacles  encouraged  the  Vichy 
Government,  the  French  authorities  at  Saigon,  and 
the  governments  of  Thailand  and  the  Netherlands 
Indies  to  resist  Japanese  diplomatic  and  economic 
pressure. 

American-Japanese  Relations.  It  was  the 
United  States  battle  fleet,  concentrated  at  Hawaii, 
and  the  increasingly  firm  opposition  offered  by 
Washington  to  Japan's  expansionist  drive  that 
caused  the  greatest  uneasiness  in  Tokyo  Ameri- 
can influence  adverse  to  Japan  was  encountered  in 
Japanese  dealings  with  China,  the  Soviet  Union, 
Great  Britain,  France,  French  Indo-China,  the 
Philippines,  and  the  Netherlands  Indies  (see  each 
country  under  History)  In  addition,  Washington 
took  successive  measures  of  both  a  military  and 
economic  nature  to  reinforce  the  numerous  strong 
diplomatic  representations  made  by  the  American 
Ambassador  in  the  Japanese  capital 

When  the  Japanese-American  commercial  trea- 
ty, denounced  by  Washington  on  July  26,  1939, 
expired  on  Jan.  26,  1940,  the  State  Department 
informed  Japan  that  commercial  relations  would 
continue  on  a  day-to-day  basis  and  be  regulated 
in  accordance  with  future  developments.  This  left 
Washington  free  to  exert  further  economic  pres- 
sure and  if  necessary  to  end  all  commercial  inter- 
change. The  attacks  upon  United  States  policy  in 
the  Japanese  Diet  and  press  occasioned  by  this 
economic  threat  became  increasingly  violent  later 
in  the  year  when  Japan's  espousal  of  the  "Greater 
East  Asia"  policy  and  entrance  into  the  Axis  was 
followed  by  the  progressive  restriction  of  Japa- 
nese purchases  of  war  materials  in  the  United 
States  by  Presidential  order  (see  UNITED  STATES 
under  Foreign  Affairs). 

The  Japanese  Government  on  August  3  formally 
protested  the  embargo  on  exports  of  American 
high-test  aviation  gasoline.  It  was  reported  with- 
out confirmation  or  denial  on  August  24  that 
Under-Secretary  of  State  Sumner  Welles  had 


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382  JAPAN 


warned  the  Japanese  Foreign  Minister  in  an  aide- 
memoire  that  a  show-down  between  the  United 
States  and  Japan  would  inevitably  come  if  Japan 
persisted  in  her  expansionist  course.  The  Japanese 
leaders  were  alarmed  by  the  American-Canadian 
defense  accord  in  August,  the  Anglo-American 
base-destroyer  deal  in  September,  and  negotiations 
between  the  United  States,  Britain,  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  and  the  Netherlands  for  collaboration  in 
the  Pacific. 

War  Threatened.  Japan's  adhesion  to  the  Axis 
alliance  on  September  27  was  designed  in  part  to 
force  a  reversal  of  American  policy  by  confront- 
ing Washington  with  the  threat  of  involvement  in 
war  on  two  oceans.  This  threat,  implicit  in  the 
alliance,  was  reaffirmed  in  numerous  blunt  warn- 
ings from  Japanese  leaders  and  the  press.  Premier 
Konoye's  statement  of  October  4  was  typical.  As- 
serting that  Japan  would  recognize  United  States 
leadership  in  the  Americas  if  Washington  recog- 
nized Japan's  leadership  in  East  Asia,  he  added: 

If  the  United  States  refuses  to  understand  the  real  in- 
tention of  Japan.  Germany,  and  Italy  in  concluding  an 
alliance  for  positive  co-operation  in  creating  a  new  world 
order  and  persists  in  challenging  those  powers  in  the  be- 
lief that  the  accord  is  a  hostile  action  there  will  be  no 
other  course  open  to  it  than  to  go  to  war. 

Limits  of  Axis  Obligations.  The  hope  that 
Washington  would  be  deterred  by  these  threats 
proved  unfounded.  Instead  the  United  States  added 
an  embargo  on  scrap  metal  exports  and  advanced 
another  loan  to  China  on  September  25-26  The 
violently  anti-American  attitude  of  the  Japanese 
press  and  individuals  led  the  State  Department  on 
October  8  to  urge  all  American  citizens  in  Japan 
and  Japanese-occupied  parts  of  China  to  return 
home.  This  action  and  Britain's  reopening  of  the 
Burma  Road  caused  a  change  of  tone  in  Tokyo. 
The  anti-American  press  campaign  was  moderated 
and  the  Foreign  Office  spokesman  declared  (Oc- 
tober 9)  that  "we  wish  Americans  would  under- 
stand that  there  is  nothing  to  be  alarmed  about." 
Two  days  later  another  official  declared  that  Japan 
was  the  judge  of  her  obligations  under  the  Axis 
alliance,  which  did  not  necessarily  bind  her  to 
enter  the  war  because  of  American  aid  to  Britain. 

Nevertheless  the  military-Fascist  leaders  in  the 
saddle  at  Tokyo  plainly  indicated  their  determina- 
tion to  proceed  on  their  course  even  at  the  risk  of 
war  with  the  United  States  On  October  23  Japan 
announced  the  abrogation,  effective  a  year  later, 
of  her  treaty  with  the  United  States,  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  Russia  for  the  protection  of  fur-bearing 
seals  in  the  North  Pacific  After  President  Roose- 
velt's re-ejection,  Adm  Kichisaburo  Nomura,  for- 
mer Foreign  Minister,  was  appointed  Ambassador 
to  the  United  States  in  another  effort  to  win  Amer- 
ican acceptance  of  the  Japanese  program  for 
"Greater  East  Asia  " 

Foreign  Minister  Matsuoka  gave  a  further  ex- 
planation of  Japan's  obligations  under  the  Axis 
alliance  in  a  press  interview  on  December  9  He 
stated  that  Japan  was  "honor  bound"  to  fight  the 
United  States  if  the  latter  attacked  Germany,  but 
only  provided  Tokyo  was  satisfied  that  the  United 
States  started  the  trouble  He  said  there  would  be 
no  serious  clash  between  the  United  States  and 
Japan  if  both  countries  kept  "cool"  and  minded 
their  own  business  But  in  a  speech  to  the  Japan- 
American  Society  in  Tokyo  on  December  19,  the 
Foreign  Minister  said :  "Japan  is  and  will  remain 
loyal  to  her  allies.  Japan's  foreign  policy  will  re- 
volve in  the  future  around  the  Three-Power  Pact, 


and  to  have  any  illusion  on  such  an  issue  would 
do  no  good  to  anyone."  He  again  urged  the  United 
States  to  keep  out  of  the  European  conflict.  Jus- 
tifying Japan's  "Greater  East  Asia"  policy,  he  said 
that  she  was  "not  waging  an  imperialist  war  of 
aggression"  but  was  "engaged  in  a  moral  crusade" 
in  fulfillment  of  her  "great  mission  as  a  civilizing 
and  stabilizing  force."  To  this  the  American  Am- 
bassador in  Tokyo  replied: 

Mr.  Matsuoka  lived  long  enough  in  the  United  States 
to  know  that  the  American  people  are  fundamentally 
peace-minded.  But  they  are  firmly  determined  on  certain 
matters — their  obligations  and  rights  He  also  knows  that 
the  only  thing  that  counts  is  the  concrete  evidence  of  facts 
and  actions  regardless  of  the  persuasive  garb  in  which 
•ucb  facts  and  actions  may  be  dressed.  Let  us  say  of  na- 
tions as  of  men:  "By  their  fruits  ye  shall  know  them" 

Japanese  activities  and  ambitions  in  the  Philip- 
pines were  another  source  of  irritation  to  Japa- 
nese-American relations  The  Tokyo  Government 
on  April  20  asked  Washington  to  prevent  the  cur- 
tailment of  Japanese  immigration  to  the  Philip- 
pines under  a  bill  before  the  Philippine  Assembly 
limiting  the  number  of  immigrants  from  any  one 
country  to  500  annually.  Also  see  PHILIPPINES 
under  History 

Negotiations  with  U.S.S.R.  In  the  negotia- 
tions carried  on  with  the  Soviet  Union  during  this 
period  of  growing  tension  with  Britain  and  the 
United  States,  the  Japanese  military  leaders  aban- 
doned their  former  haughty  and  intransigent  at- 
titude toward  the  Russians  and  announced  their 
readiness  to  pay  a  high  price  for  a  Soviet- Japanese 
understanding  that  would  assure  them  of  "Russian 
neutrality  ^  Without  concealing  their  deep  distrust 
of  Soviet  intentions,  the  Rightist  press  in  Tokyo 
nevertheless  declared  in  September  that  Japan's 
traditional  policy  of  "defending  the  south  and  ad- 
vancing in  the  north"  on  the  Asiatic  mainland  must 
now  be  reversed  and  that  "therein  lies  the  full  pos- 
sibility of  adjusting  Japanese-Soviet  relations  " 

Germany  acted  as  the  go-between  in  these  nego- 
tiations, but  the  terms  asked  by  Moscow  as  the 
price  of  a  Soviet- Japanese  non -aggression  pact 
were  so  high  as  to  preclude,  or  at  least  delay,  an 
agreement  In  October  Tokyo  sent  Lieut  Gen. 
Yoshitsugu  Tatekawa  to  Moscow  as  its  new  Am- 
bassador to  speed  the  conclusion  of  an  accord. 
Predictions  of  an  early  settlement  were  issued 
from  time  to  time  by  the  Japanese  press  Anti- 
Stalinist  circles  also  confidently  asserted  that  a 
"deal'^between  Moscow  and  Tokyo  at  the  expense 
of  China,  the  United  States,  and  Britain  was  in 
the  making  (see  letter  of  Alexander  Barmine  in 
New  York  Times,  Nov  10,  1940) 

However  on  December  5  Moscow  officially  an- 
nounced that  its  policy  of  aiding  Nationalist  China 
had  not  been  changed  by  Japan's  recognition  of 
Wang  Ching-wei's  regime  in  Nanking.  The  Japa- 
nese Foreign  Office  was  much  less  optimistic  about 
a  general  Soviet- Japanese  agreement  on  all  out- 
standing issues  at  the  end  of  the  year,  although 
negotiations  in  Moscow  were  still  continuing.  The 
temporary  arrangement  permitting  Japanese  fish- 
ing in  Soviet  waters  in  the  North  Pacific  expired 
on  December  31  without  agreement  having  been 
reached  either  for  its  extension  for  another  year 
or  for  a^  permanent  fisheries  treaty  that  would  re- 
move this  perennial  source  of  controversy  between 
the  two  governments.  Also  see  CHINA  under  His- 
tory. 

Internal  Affairs.  The  shift  in  Japanese  for- 
eign policy  to  one  of  accelerated  southward  ex- 
pansion during  1940  was  accompanied  by  the  trans- 


JAPAN 


383 


JAPAN 


formation  of  the  Japanese  political  system  to  full- 
fledged  totalitarianism.  The  government  formed 
Aug.  29,  1939,  by  Gen.  Nobuyuki  Abe  was  over- 
thrown Jan.  14,  1940,  mainly  as  a  result  of  popular 
discontent  with  economic  conditions  (see  YEAR 
BOOK,  1939,  p.  393  for  background  of  the  cabinet 
overturn).  A  new  cabinet  was  formed  on  January 
15  with  Adm.  Mitsumasa  Yonai  as  Premier.  Ad- 
miral Yonai  was  a  moderate  leader  who  had  op- 
posed the  army's  proposal  for  a  military  alliance 
with  Germany.  He  reappointed  the  War  and  Na- 
val Ministers  holding  office  under  Yonai  and  con- 
tinued the  Yonai  Government's  cautious  foreign 
and  domestic  policies. 

The  criticisms  that  the  Abe  Cabinet  had  avoided 
by  resigning  were  launched  against  the  Yonai  Gov- 
ernment when  the  Diet  reconvened  on  January  21. 
The  boldest  attack  upon  the  army's  policy  of  ex- 
pansion in  China  that  had  been  made  since  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  was  uttered  by  Takao  Saito, 
a  member  of  the  Minseito  party,  on  February  2. 
His  speech,  which  threw  the  Diet  into  an  uproar, 
cast  doubt  on  the  prospect  of  achieving  the  "new 
order  in  East  Asia,"  questioned  the  army's  as- 
surances of  the  impending  defeat  of  Chiang  Kai- 
shek,  and  declared  that  the  proposed  Wang  Ching- 
wei  puppet  regime  at  Nanking  could  not  unify 
China  or  fulfill  its  pledges  to  Japan  unless  sup- 
ported by  a  strong  Japanese  army.  He  asked  what 
the  Japanese  people  had  gained  in  return  for  their 
great  sacrifices  in  the  struggle  with  China,  which 
he  said  was  being  carried  on  "under  the  cloak  of 
a  holy  war."  The  army  demanded  Saitp's  expul- 
sion from  the  Diet  but  so  great  was  his  popular 
support  that  the  government  deemed  it  wise  to  wait 
several  months  before  carrying  out  this  demand. 
Meanwhile  other  members  attacked  the  govern- 
ment for  its  failure  to  maintain  production  of  con- 
sumers goods 

The  Konoye  Government.  When  the  Allied 
collapse  in  France  opened  the  way  for  the  achieve- 
ment of  the  army's  aims  at  home  and  abroad,  the 
military-Fascist  clique  decided  to  dispense  with  the 
Yonai  Government.  On  June  25  War  Minister 
Gen.  Shunroku  Hata  informed  his  staff  that  pos- 
terity would  never  forgive  them  if  they  failed  to 
seize  the  opportunities  presented  by  the  interna- 
tional situation.  Acting  on  behalf  of  the  military- 
Fascist  clique,  General  Hata  suddenly  offered  his 
resignation  as  War  Minister  on  July  16  and  on 
July  17  the  Yonai  Cabinet  was  forced  to  resign. 

The  political  parties  were  completely  ignored  in 
the  new  government  formed  on  July  22  by  Prince 
Fumimaro  Konoye,  who  had  been  Premier  from 
June;  1937,  to  January,  1939.  The  new  govern- 
ment's policies  were  framed  by  the  army  and  navy 
chiefs,  acting  through  an  Inner  Cabinet  comprising 
Prince  Konoye,  Lieut.  Gen.  Eiki  Tojo,  Minister 
of  War;  Adm.  Zengo  Yoshida,  Navy  Minister; 
and  Yosuke  Matsuoka,  Foreign  Minister.  In  his 
statement  issued  on  August  1,  Prince  Konoye 
linked  the  program  for  "a  new  order  in  Greater 
East  Asia"  with  a  policy  of  internal  reconstruction 
along  totalitarian  lines  and  closer  relations  with 
the  Axis  powers. 

Totalitarian  "Reforms."  During  subsequent 
months  the  Konoye  Government  carried  out  a 
series  of  sweeping  totalitarian  "reforms."  The 
Minseito  party,  last  and  largest  of  the  political 
parties,  "voluntarily"  dissolved  itself  on  August 
15  to  make  way  for  the  new  order.  The  Japanese 
diplomatic  corps^  stronghold  of  the  forces  opposed 
to  military-Fascist  domination  of  Japan's  govern- 


mental and  foreign  policies,  was  purged  beginning 
August  22  by  the  recall  of  more  than  40  Ambassa- 
dors, Ministers,  and  other  officials  in  foreign  dip- 
lomatic posts.  Many  of  those  removed  were  hostile 
to  the  government's  policy  of  closer  relations  with 
the  Axis  powers. 

All  organizations  tinged  with  liberalism  or  in- 
ternationalism, such  as  the  labor  unions  and  the 
Rotary  clubs,  were  forced  to  dissolve.  A  new  sys- 
tem for  the  organization  of  labor  was  decreed  on 
November  8,  providing  for  a  special  "co-operative 
body"  for  all  employees  in  each  enterprise,  under 
"the  leadership  of  the  operator."  These  local  labor 
units  were  to  be  federated  into  district  and  nation- 
al bodies.  Religious  organizations  were  forced  to 
adjust  themselves  to  Japan's  new  totalitarian  or- 
der. All  of  the  Christian  denominations  were  di- 
vested of  foreign  control  and  influence  and  merged 
in  a  single  Japanese  Christian  Church,  with  all  of 
their  properties  vested  in  Japanese  hands.  Foreign 
missionaries  and  church  officials  were  sent  home. 

Ail  forms  of  dictatorial  control  were  progres- 
sively tightened  Dr.  Toyohiko  Kagawa,  famous 
social  reformer  and  religious  leader,  was  arrested 
on  September  4  for  contributing  an  article  con- 
sidered disadvantageous  to  Japan  to  an  American 
magazine.  He  was  released  September  17  with  the 
understanding  that  he  would  retire  to  a  small  is- 
land in  the  Inland  Sea  and  devote  the  rest  of  his 
life  to  tuberculosis  work  Further  curbs  on  the 
reporting  of  news  were  imposed  December  14 
along  with  other  decrees  extending  government 
regulation  of  political  and  economic  activities. 

Government  Party  Formed.  The  Premier  on 
August  28  announced  that  the  precise  form  of  the 
new  totalitarian  State  would  be  fixed  by  a  com- 
mittee appointed  for  that  purpose  While  he  re- 
jected the  principle  of  the  one-party  State  as  not 
compatible  with  Japan's  national  policy  of  "one 
sovereign  over  all,"  he  fixed  the  ultimate  goal  as 
a  set  of  corporative  institutions  that  would  control 
every  political,  economic,  and  cultural  activity 

The  committee  undertook  not  only  to  formulate 
the  structure  of  the  new  State  but  also  to  estab- 
lish a  political  organization  through  which  it  could 
function.  This  new  political  agency,  known  as  the 
Imperial  Rule  Assistance  Association,  contained 
no  trace  of  democracy,  being  organized  strictly  on 
the  "leadership  principle"  in  vogue  in  other  Fas- 
cist States.  It  consisted  of  a  powerful  Executive 
Council,  created  to  "convey  the  will  and  ideas  of 
those  who  govern  to  those  who  are  governed"  and 
functioning  through  local  units  of  the  association 
in  every  city  and  village  in  the  country.  A  Co- 
operative Council  representing  the  local  units  was 
to  "convey  the  will  and  ideas  of  those  who  are 
governed  to  those  who  govern  "  The  Premier  of 
Japan  was  made  ex-officio  President  of  the  Im- 
perial Rule  Assistance  Association,  with  power  to 
appoint  its  officers.  This  association  was  still  in 
the  formative  stage  at  the  year's  end 

Structure  of  New  State.  In  creating  the  struc- 
ture of  the  new  State,  the  Premier's  committee 
first  of  all  established  a  Supreme  Economic  Coun- 
cil, charged  with  directing  and  co-ordinating  all 
economic  activities,  and  a  Supreme  Cultural  Coun- 
cil to  control  all  aspects  of  the  nation's  cultural 
life.  The  Konoye  Government  itself  undertook  the 
organization  of  agricultural,  vocational,  and  in- 
dustrial associations  to  control  their  respective 
branches  of  production  and  of  similar  agencies  to 
supervise  education,  sports,  religion,  means  of  com- 
munication, art,  etc 


JAPANESE  BEETLE 


This  new  State  system  gave  the  military-Fascist 
group  operating  through  the  government  an  ef- 
fective means  of  squelching  opposition  to  its  do- 
mestic and  foreign  policies.  Nevertheless  Japanese 
big  business,  which  still  remained  influential,  was 
alarmed  at  extremist  demands  for  the  introduction 
of  complete  State  socialism  and  forced  the  gov- 
ernment to  curtail  its  program.  The  moderates  ob- 
tained formal  assurance  from  the  Cabinet  that 
Japanese  industry  would,  in  general,  remain  under 
private  direction  and  control.  Big  business  and 
other  opposition  elements  also  fought  a  military- 
Fascist  move  to  reduce  the  membership  of  the 
Lower  Chamber  of  the  Diet  and  restrict  manhood 
suffrage.  The  military-Fascists,  in  turn,  were  un- 
willing to  permit  the  holding  of  elections  to  the 
Lower  Chamber  due  in  1941.  Consequently  a  bar- 
gain was  struck  uncler  which  the  military-Fascists 
agreed  to  drop  their  plans  regarding  the  Lower 
Chamber  in  return  for  the  opposition's  assent  to 
the  postponement  of  the  elections  for  one  year  and 
a  pledge  to  support  the  government's  program  in 
the  meantime. 

Other  Ultra-Nationalist  Trends.  Sympto- 
matic of  the  new  ultra-nationalist  policy  in  Tokyo 
was  the  amnesty  extended  on  November  4  to  130 
prisoners  convicted  of  political  crimes,  including 
the  fanatical  nationalists  who  on  Fcb  26,  1936,  as- 
sassinated a  number  of  leading  governmental  offi- 
cials during  an  unsuccessful  military  revolt  (see 
YEAR  BOOK,  1936).  On  December  4  former  Pre- 
mier Baron  Kiichiro  Hiranuma,  ultra-nationalist 
leader,  joined  the  cabinet  as  Minister  without 
Portfolio.  In  an  effort  to  relieve  growing  com- 
plaints at  economic  difficulties  and  violations  of 
government  price  restrictions,  Premier  Konoye  on 
December  21  appointed  new  Ministers  of  Justice 
and  Home  Affairs. 

The  death  of  Prince  Kimmochi  Saionji  on  No- 
vember 25  eliminated  the  last  of  the  Genro  or  Eld- 
er Statesmen,  who  guided  Japan's  transition  from 
feudal  hermit  kingdom  to  a  modern,  quasi-demo- 
cratic State  (see  NECROLOGY).  For  the  preceding 
10  years  his  liberal  influence  had  been  ineffective 
in  stemming  the  mounting  anti-democratic  and  mil- 
itarist tide  in  Japanese  affairs 

See  also  ARGENTINA,  AUSTRALIA,  CANADA, 
GREAT  BRITAIN,  KOREA,  MEXICO,  ana  UNION  OF 
SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS,  under  History;  IN- 
DUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY;  RUBBER 

JAPANESE  BEETLE.  See  ENTOMOLOGY, 
ECONOMIC. 

JAPANESE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS  (NAN- 
YO).  The  former  German  possessions,  mandated 
to  Japan  at  the  close  of  the  World  War.  There  are 
three  mam  groups'  (1)  MARIANA  (14  islands), 
including  Saipan,  Tinian,  Rota;  (2)  CAROLINE 
(577  islands),  including  Yap,  Palau,  Korror, 
Spring,  Wednesday,  Ponape,  Kusaie,  (3)  MAR- 
SHALL (60  islands),  including  Jaluit  Total  area, 
830  square  miles ,  population  (June  30, 1938),  121,- 
128,  including  70,141  Japanese  Chief  products: 
Sugar,  maize,  phosphates,  tapioca,  bananas,  coffee, 
yams,  alcohol,  and  copra.  Trade  (1937)  .  Imports, 
¥23,265,000,  exports,  ¥38,252,000  (yen  averaged 
$0.2879  for  1937).  Budget  (1939-40);  revenue, 
¥10,941,000;  expenditure,  ¥10,839,000  (yen  aver- 
aged $0.2845  for  1939).  Governor,  Kenjiro  Kita- 
jima  (headquarters  at  Korror  in  the  Caroline 


JXRVIS  ISLAND.  See  UNITED  STATES. 
JAVA.  See  NETHERLANDS  INDIES  under  Area 
and  Population. 


384  JEWS 

JEBEL  DRUZB.  Same  as  Djebel  Druse 
(q.v.)  under  SYRIA  AND  LEBANON. 

JEHOL.  See  CHINA  tinder  Area  and  Popula- 
tion. 

JEHOVAH'S  WITNESSES.  See  CONNECT- 
ICUT, MAINE,  and  NEW  ZEALAND  under  History ; 
SUPREME  COURT. 

JEWISH  WELFARE  BOARD.  The  Board 
has  a  twofold  purpose.  It  is  the  parent  body  for 
Y.M.H.A.'s,  Y.W.H.A  's  and  Jewish  Community 
Centers  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  It  also 
provides  for  the  religious  and  welfare  needs  of 
men  in  the  service  of  the  U.S.  Army,  Navy,  Ma- 
rine Corps,  disabled  veterans,  young  men  in  CCC 
camps,  and  C.M.T.C.  The  Board  is  composed  of 
317  constituent  societies  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  which  have  400,000  members,  and  own  238 
buildings.  Seven  regional  organizations  are  affili- 
ated in  the  work  of  the  Board. 

The  Board  works  in  the  fields  of  Jewish  Centei 
problems  relating  to  programs  of  activities  and  ad- 
ministration, vocational  guidance,  educational  and 
recreational  activities,  cultural  and  social  adjust- 
ment of  immigrants,  community  surveys  and  insti- 
tutional studies,  club  leadership  training,  summer 
and  day  camps,  health  and  physical  education,  ex- 
tension education,  forums  and  lectures,  and  main- 
tains a  field  service  in  contact  with  its  affiliate  or- 
ganizations 

The  Army  and  Navy  Committee,  John  M.  Schiff, 
Chairman,  serves  men  of  the  Jewish  faith  in  the 
Army,  Navy,  and  Marine  Corps,  government  hos- 
pitals and  soldiers'  homes,  Civilian  Conservation 
Corps,  and  Citizens'  Military  Training  Camps  The 
Board  is  in  contact  with  270  army  posts,  naval  sta- 
tions, and  veterans'  institutions  in  the  United 
States  and  outlying  territories.  The  Board  was  or- 
ganized Apr.  9,  1917. 

The  officers  of  the  Board  are  Irving  Lehman, 
Honorary  President;  Frank  L  Weil,  President, 
Lloyd  W  Dinkelspiel  and  Mrs.  Felix  M.  Warburg, 
Vice-Presidents ;  Frederick  L.  Ehrman,  Treasurer ; 
Joseph  Rosenzweig,  Secretary;  and  Louis  Kraft, 
Executive  Director  The  headquarters  are  at  220 
Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City. 

JEWS.  In  1940  as  so  often  in  the  past,  Ger- 
many and  her  ally  Italy  reaffirmed  their  total  war 
against  the  Jews.  After  the  capitulation  of  France 
when  an  Axis  victory  seemed  assured,  the  German 
Minister  of  Labor,  Robert  Ley,  declared  "the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Jews  to  be  the  prime  necessity  of 
the  new  Europe"  (June  26).  As  a  faithful  Italian 
echo,  La  Stampa,  leading  newspaper  of  Turin,  an- 
nounced that  "a  preliminary  necessary  condition 
[of  peace]  is  the  total  and  definitive  elimination 
of  the  Jews  from  Europe"  (July  18)  A  few  weeks 
later,  the  Schwarze  Korps,  organ  of  the  Nazi  Elite 
Guard  and  a  frequent  mouthpiece  for  Germany's 
policy  toward  the  Jewish  people,  proclaimed  that 
"a  European  continent  without  Jews,  who  will  be 
banished  to  some  remote  quarter  of  the  globe,  will 
be  one  of  the  prerequisites  of  a  German  peace" 
(August  7)  German  conquests  and  the  extension 
of  Nazi  and  Fascist  spheres  of  influence  have 
brought,  for  the  time  being  at  least,  about  3,700,- 
000  European  and  380,000  North  African  Jews  to 
a  position  where  these  threats  can  be  executed. 
We^t  of  the  Russian  frontier,  the  overwhelming 
majority  of  European  Jews  live  either  under  the 
menace  or  in  the  actual  process  of  extermination. 
The  table  on  page  385  will  indicate  the  gravity 
of  their  plight. 

In  sum,  a  third  of  the  world's  Jewish  population 


Wide  \\  arid 


J  \P\\1  sl     1  ROOFS  *,\IER  HAIPHONd,  FRENCH  INDOCHINA 


Wtde  World 


PRINCE  KONOYE  (LEFT)  AND  THE  POWERFUL  MEMBERS  OF  HIS  CABINEf    FOREIGN  MINISTER 
MATSUOKA,  ADMIRAL  YOSHIDA,  AND  (RIGHT)  GENERAL  TOJO 


JEWISH  REFUGEES  BEGIN  LI*E  ANEW  IN  PALFSTINE 

Above  Ne\v  arrivals,  with  their  meager  belongings,  at  the  port  of  Haifa  Center  A  group  of  German,  Austrian,  and  Czech 
scientists  and  professional  men  learning  to  speak  Hebrew  in  an  outdoor  class  Below  Children  forgetting  the  horrors  of  Europe 

[at  play  in  the  colony  of  Tel  Joseph 


JEWS 


385 


JEWS 


Country 

Number* 

Country           Number* 

Jews  under  Antfeemitic  Rule 

Jews  under  Soviet  Rule 

Austria  

50,000 

U.S.S  R  5,500,000 

Belgium. 

85,000 

Bohemia-Moravia 

8S.OOO 

Jews  elsewhere  in  Europe 

Bulgaria  . 
Denmark    
France 
Germany         .  . 
Holland  

50,000 
8,000 
450,000 
185,000 
200,000 
750,000 
60,000 

Great  Britain                400,000 
Greece  100,000 
Portugal  .     ...             13,000 
SwedSi                          12,000 
Switzerland  .                  26,000 
Turkey  (European)  .       56,000 

Hungary.     .  . 
Italy    

Norway  

3,500 

Other  Important  Jewries 

Poland  (  German  oc- 

cupied) 
Rumania 
Slovakia   .  .  . 

1,250,000 
375,000 
80,000 

Canada   .                .      160,000 
Egypt.    ..       .              75,000 
Irak     -                           75,000 

Spain 

4,000 

Latin  America  ..   .     460,000 

\  ugoslavia 

70,000 

Palestine                       500,000 

North  Africa 

Union      of      South 

(French     colonies 

Africa         .  .  .           100,000 

and  Libya) 

380,000 

United  States      .      4,500,000 

*  The  figures  are  perforce  estimates  and  include  refugee  as  well 
as  long  established  populations 


(estimated  at  sixteen  million)  lives  incomunicadp 
in  the  Soviet  dominions,  their  religion  and  tradi- 
tions on  the  way  to  extinction ;  another  quarter  and 
more  have  passed  into  the  hands  of  an  enemy 
vowed  to  their  destruction;  well  over  another  mil- 
lion in  Great  Britain  and  her  Empire  know  that 
their  existence  depends  on  a  British  victory;  while 
m  the  Americas  and  the  lemainder  of  the  world, 
the  maintenance  of  democracy  is  their  surest  bul- 
wark. 

France  and  the  Lowlands.  In  these  countries, 
where  native  Antisemitism  is  negligible,  the  poli- 
cies introduced  by  the  German  conquerors  follow 
substantially  a  single  pattern  Either  with  or  against 
the  will  of  the  defeated  governments,  political  and 
economic  measures  have  separated  the  Jews  from 
their  tellow  nationals  and  set  them  on  the  road  to 
starvation.  Mass  deportations  from  Germany  and 
the  confinement  of  refugees  m  internment  camps 
have  not  only  added  to  the  hardships  of  the  victims 
but  placed  a  strain  on  the  resources  of  the  con- 
quered peoples.  Agitation  by  the  press  and  radio 
has  sought  to  arouse  popular  feeling  against  the 
outcast  minority  with  the  purpose  of  diverting 
hatred  from  the  Germans  and  at  the  same  time 
creating  a  common  bond  between  the  conquerors 
and  conquered  as  a  step  toward  future  "collabora- 
tion "  The  latter  point  is  crucial  in  German  strat- 
egy Just  as  Antisemitism  helped  to  disrupt  the 
morale  of  a  country  before  its  conquest,  so  the 
Nazis  bank  on  it  to  help  make  allies  of  their  for- 
mer foes.  Hitler  put  the  point  clearly  in  his  speech 
of  Jan.  30,  1941  "We  already  see  how  our  racial 
ideology  spreads  from  nation  to  nation,  and  I  hope 
that  the  peoples  who  now  stand  in  enmity  to  us 
will  one  day  recognize  their  greater  domestic  en- 
emy and  enter  a  great  common  front  with  us,  which 
will  be  a  front  of  Aryan  humanity  against  inter- 
national Jewish  destroyers  and  exploiters  "  As  a 
result  of  these  tactics,  however  great  has  been  the 
suffering  of  the  conquered  peoples,  the  Jews  among 
them— as  the  Nazis'  arch-victims—have  suffered 
worse,  and  with  no  hope  of  armistice,  appeasement, 
"collaboration/  or  peace. 

In  occupied  France,  where  the  Germans  are  in 
complete  control,  no  Jew  among  the  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  French  who  fled  south  to  escape  the 
German  armies  has  been  allowed  to  return  home. 
Jews  have  been  banned  from  the  liberal  profes- 
sions All  places  of  business  owned  in  whole  or  in 
part  by  Jews  must  post  a  sign  in  French  and  Ger- 


man indicating  they  are  Jewish  enterprises.  The 
authorities  decreed  the  registration  of  all  native 
and  foreign  Jews  (October  2) — the  usual  prelimi- 
nary to  confiscation  of  property.  According  to  Ger- 
man reports,  the  registration  totalled  150,000  Jews 
and  11,000  Jewish  businesses  in  Paris.  By  the  end 
of  the  year  4500  of  the  latter  were  "Aryanized." 
Dr.  Blankel,  war  councillor  in  the  occupied  region, 
stated  that  "the  occupation  authorities  aim  at  the 
definitive  exclusion  of  the  Jews  from  French  eco- 
nomic life,"  and  added  that  he  hoped  the  French 
population  would  co-operate. 

Meanwhile  in  so-called  France  Libre  or  unoc- 
cupied France,  the  government  has  given  extensive 
co-operation.  Wealthy  and  prominent  Jews  who 
had  left  the  country  were  deprived  of  citizenship 
and  property.  On  October  18,  as  its  contribution 
toward  collaboration  in  the  "new  order"  of  Europe, 
the  Vichy  government  decreed  a  body  of  racial 
legislation  which  echoed  the  Nuremberg  Laws  of 
Germany.  Jews  were  defined  not  by  religion  but 
by  race;  they  were  barred  from  the  police,  the 
army,  the  teaching  profession,  practically  every 
branch  of  the  government,  all  executive  or  edi- 
torial posts  in  connection  with  the  press,  cinema, 
theater,  and  radio,  and  all  administrative  posts  in 
any  enterprise  subventioned  or  controlled  by  the 
government.  They  were  made  liable  to  a  immcrus 
clausus  in  all  the  liberal  professions,  and  were 
barred  from  membership  in  any  organization  of- 
ficially representing  these  professions.  The  provi- 
sions of  this  legislation  were  extended  to  Algeria 
(where,  in  addition,  the  Jews  lost  their  citizen- 
ship), and  all  French  colonies,  protectorates,  and 
mandated  areas.  Furthermore,  the  statutes  empow- 
ered the  government  to  establish  internment  camps 
for  Jewish  aliens  or  assign  them  a  compulsory 
place  of  residence.  This  directly  affects  at  least  60,- 
000  refugees,  20,000  of  whom  are  already  confined 
in  such  camps,  and  unknown  thousands  of  non- 
naturalized  residents.  To  date  hundreds  of  natu- 
ralized Frenchmen,  about  half  of  whom  are  Jews, 
have  been  deprived  of  their  citizenship  and  become 
candidates  for  internment. 

Although  little  news  has  seeped  out  of  the  Low- 
lands, the  procedure  there  is  apparently  much  the 
same.  In  Holland  dismissals,  arrests,  and  seizures 
of  property  were  widespread.  Large  numbers  of 
refugees  were  sent  back  to  the  Reich  charged  with 
evading  taxes  and  indulging  in  anti-Nazi  propa- 
ganda. On  October  3  a  decree  excluded  all  Jews 
and  half -Jews,  as  well  as  persons  married  to  them, 
from  all  government  and  educational  posts — an  or- 
der which  was  publicly  protested  by  the  Protestant 
clergy.  On  October  21  another  decree  prescribed 
the  registration  of  Jewish  business  enterprises — 
doubtless  a  prelude  to  confiscation  or  forced  sale 
for  worthless  money  Finally  Jewish  children  were 
barred  from  the  puhhc  schools.  In  Belgium  simi- 
lar decrees  were  issued  in  November,  with  the  fur- 
ther provisions  that  Jews  were  excluded  from  any 
employment  in  public  utilities  or  news  services  Ac- 
cording to  a  report  from  Brussels  (Jan  20,  1941), 
the  Jews  of  Flanders,  numbering  more  than  40,000, 
have  been  sent  to  concentration  camps,  in  order  to 
eliminate  them  from  a  res  ion  where  the  Flemish, 
that  is  Germanic,  nationalist  movement  has  its 
greatest  strength. 

Poland.  Conditions  in  German-occupied  Poland 
are  typified  by  the  ghetto  wall  of  Warsaw.  The 
500,000  Jews  of  this  city,  a  third  of  its  total  popu- 
lation, have  been  crowded  into  100  blocks  sur- 
rounded by  a  concrete  wall  8  feet  high.  Eighteen 


JEWS 


386 


JEWS 


exits  arc  provided,  and  no  Jew  may  leave  or  Gen- 
tile enter  the  confines  without  a  special  pass.  Once 
out,  every  Jew,  male  or  female,  must  wear  a  white 
arm  band  bearing  the  Star  of  David.  Within  the 
wall,  gas  and  electricity  cannot  be  used  after  8 
p.m.  Similar  ghettos  have  been  established  in  Ra- 
dom,  Lodz,  and  other  cities.  Next  to  Warsaw,  the 
largest  is  in  Lodz,  where  166,000  Jews,  including 
55,000  children,  are  huddled  together  in  a  small 
area  enclosed  by  barbed  wire.  Within  these  me- 
dieval monstrosities  disease  is  rampant  and  starva- 
tion imminent.  In  Lodz,  for  example,  only  40,000 
still  possess  means  to  buy  food,  and  the  average 
death  rate  for  over  the  year  was  50  daily.  Through- 
out occupied  Poland  all  able-bodied  Jews  are  com- 
pelled to  undergo  two  years'  compulsory  labor  at 
pay  which  barely  sustains  life.  German  censorship 
and  restrictions  do  not  permit  a  comprehensive  pic- 
ture of  the  situation ;  but,  without  claiming  to  meet 
more  than  part  of  the  needs,  the  American  Jewish 
Joint  Distribution  Committee  is  rendering  daily 
assistance  to  250,000  Polish  Jews  who  would  oth- 
erwise perish. 

Germany  (including  Austria  and  Czecho-Slo- 
vakia).  In  Germany  and  its  incorporated  territo- 
ries, restrictions  against  the  Jews  have  progres- 
sively tightened  under  pressure  of  both  the  war 
and  of  Antiscmitic  policy,  and  hardships  have  in- 
creased. Milk,  cheese,  chocolate,  new  clothing  of 
any  kind,  and  even  thread  to  mend  the  old,  are 
denied  the  Jews.  Food  may  be  bought  only  during 
one  hour  late  in  the  afternoon;  fuel  is  doled  out 
in  driblets.  The  possession  of  a  telephone  or  radio 
is  forbidden.  It  is  reported  that  25,000  Jews  are 
still  in  concentration  camps.  For  the  remainder  the 
only  occupation  allowed,  or  rather  prescribed,  is 
compulsory  hard  labor,  for  which  it  is  estimated 
50,000  are  drafted.  In  Austria,  Jewish  women  must 
work  in  the  fields.  City  after  city  has  banished  its 
Jews  by  shipping  them  to  Berlin.  And  the  Reich, 
in  turn,  shipped  on  one  day's  notice  the  entire  Jew- 
ish population  of  Baden  and  the  Palatinate,  some 
10,000  souls,  to  unoccupied  France.  In  Prague,  the 
Jews  were  consigned  to  a  ghetto  ( May  5) .  Through- 
out Bohemia  and  Moravia,  Jewish  children  have 
been  excluded  from  the  public  schools.  However, 
the  Czechs,  alone  among  the  populations  of  Cen- 
tral Europe,  show  manifest  sympathy  for  their 
Jewish  fellow  victims.  Slovakia,  according  to  its 
premier,  Dr.  V.  Tuka,  "is  systematically  carrying 
through  measures  to  solve  the  Jewish  problem." 
That  is  to  say.  a  bureau  has  been  set  up  "to  liqui- 
date all  Jewish  businesses."  According  to  the  de- 
cree passed  in  February,  this  process  should  have 
been  completed  by  June.  In  the  capital,  Bratislava, 
the  Jewish  population  was  instructed,  on  Novem- 
ber 29,  to  prepare  for  mass  transfer  to  concentra- 
tion camps ;  and  Berlin  reports  that  similar  evacu- 
ations will  take  place  in  other  Slovak  towns. 

Elsewhere  in  Europe.  Rumania  has  been  the 
scene  of  the  most  brutal  events  of  the  year.  Ac- 
cording to  Leigh  White  (Overseas  News  Agency 
correspondent  in  the  Balkans),  "Rumania's  Jew- 
ish problem'  no  longer  exists.  All  but  a  few  scat- 
tered hundreds  of  Rumanian  Jews  have  been  re- 
duced to  pauperism."  The  cession  of  Bessarabia  in 
June  and  later  of  Transylvania  were  the  signal  for 
virulent  pogroms.  In  between  these  pogroms  the 
government  passed  a  series  of  laws  "far  harsher 
than  the  Nuremberg  laws  of  Germany."  Finally, 
under  circumstances  too  revolting  to  describe,  the 
Iron  Guard  uprising  of  January,  1941,  added  hun- 
dreds of  further  victims.  Between  July  and  mid- 


January  it  has  been  estimated  that  5000  Jews  were 
massacred,  and  thousands  more  maimed  and  tor- 
tured. All  the  synagogues  and  a  great  portion  of 
the  Jewish  business  quarter  in  Bucharest  were  de- 
stroyed. 

Hungary's  Jewish  population  was  increased  by 
150,000  through  its  acquisition  of  Transylvania; 
and  while  the  chances  of  the  newcomers  to  earn  a 
livelihood  under  Hungarian  law  are  meager,  they 
were  probably  fortunate  to  escape  Rumanian  bar- 
barism. Among  the  other  600,000  Jews  of  Hungary 
40  per  cent  were  reported  destitute  and  jobless. 

Bulgaria  has  joined  the  "new  order"  in  Europe, 
at  least  in  its  Jewish  policy.  On  October  7  a  series 
of  decrees  deprived  its  50,000  Jews  of  their  citizen- 
ship and  prohibited  them  from  occupying  State, 
municipal,  or  public  posts.  They  cannot  serve  in 
the  army  or  own  agricultural  land.  They  are  barred 
from  banking,  publishing,  and  the  cinema  and  the- 
ater business.  Yugoslavia  introduced  Antisemitic 
legislation  (September  20)  by  excluding  Jews  from 
the  foodstuff  trades.  A  week  later  a  numerus  clou- 
sus  was  decreed  for  high  schools  and  universities. 
In  October  it  was  reported  that  legislation  was  in 
preparation  to  ban  Jews  from  all  fields  influencing 
public  opinion,  such  as  press,  theater,  and  radio. 

The  Soviet  Union  continued  to  be  chary  with 
information  concerning  its  Jews  as  well  as  its  other 
internal  affairs.  Its  Jewish  population  has  been 
enormously  increased  by  the  acquisition  of  the  Bal- 
tic States,  Eastern  Poland,  and  Bessarabia.  Since 
the  number  of  merchants  and  traders,  however 
poor,  were  proportionally  higher  among  the  Jews 
than  the  general  population  of  the  newly  acquired 
territories,  the  problems  following  their  "declass- 
ment"  were  correspondingly  graver.  No  outside 
relief  agencies,  however,  are  permitted  to  allevi- 
ate their  plight  According  to  Jacob  Lestchinsky 
Contemporary  Jewish  Record,  III,  607-621),  re- 
ligion is  declining  among  the  Russian  Jews,  Yid- 
dish is  slowly  vanishing,  and  "as  a  result  of  Soviet 
policies,  the  eventual  disappearance  of  Jews  as  a 
distinct  people  in  the  Soviet  Union  seems  inevitable." 

Palestine.  Despite  the  hardships  of  war,  Pales- 
tine (q.v.)  continues  to  be  one  of  the  few  bright 
spots  in  the  Old  World.  It  is  the  only  country,  in 
the  Old  World  or  New,  where  a  newcomer  is  not 
a  refugee  but  an  immigrant.  Eight  new  settlements 
were  added  to  the  272  Jewish  towns  and  villages. 
The  Jewish  population  was  increased  by  about  25,- 
000  immigrants,  and  10,000  acres  were  acquired. 
About  137,000  persons,  or  25  per  cent  of  the  Jew- 
ish population,  derived  their  living  from  the  land. 
Sixty-three  new  industrial  enterprises  were  estab- 
lished. According  to  Dr.  Bernard  Joseph,  legal  ad- 
visor to  the  Jewish  Agency  for  Palestine.  8000 
Jews  have  enlisted  with  the  British  fighting  forces, 
of  which  15  per  cent  are  in  the  R.A.F. ;  900  have 
been  recruited  in  four  Jewish  infantry  companies ; 
and  a  total  of  136,000  men  and  women  have  volun- 
teered for  various  war  services.  A  common  enemy 
and  common  danger  have  appreciably  lessened  the 
tension  between  Arabs  and  Jews.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Jews  expressed  universal  dissatisfaction, 
going  to  the  extent  of  violent  demonstrations  on 
several  occasions  against  the  British  restrictions  on 
the  purchase  of  land.  On  the  economic  front,  the 
citrus  industry  and  allied  agricultural  export  enter- 
prises have  suffered  a  severe  depression  owing  to 
the  curtailment  of  overseas  trade.  But  industrial 
enterprises  necessary  to  the  war  have  flourished, 
particularly  in  drugs  and  medicaments  supplied  to 
the  Near  East  and  India.  Nearly  100,000  persons 


JOHNSTON  ISLAND 


387 


JUVENILE  DELINQUENCY 


have  required  economic  relief,  in  large  part  fur- 
nished by  the  United  Palestine  Appeal,  the  Gov- 
ernment, and  the  Joint  Distribution  Committee. 
See  BOLIVIA,  BULGARIA,  FRANCE,  SLOVAKIA  under 
History;  REFUGEES;  WAR  RELIEF.  For  Jewish 
Congregations,  see  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS. 
MARVIN  Lo  WENT  HAL, 

JOHNSTON  ISLAND.  An  island  in  the  cen- 
tral Pacific  (16°  13'  N.  and  169°  SO'  W.),  south- 
west of  Hawaii,  belonging  to  the  United  States. 
In  accordance  with  the  naval  appropriations  bill 
passed  by  Congress  in  1939,  the  island  was  to  be 
converted  into  an  advance  U.S.  naval  base,  with 
facilities  for  air,  submarine,  destroyer,  and  mine 
operations. 

JOHORE.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

JOURNALISM.  See  NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAG- 
AZINES. 

JUGOSLAVIA.  See  YUGOSLAVIA. 

JUILLIARD  MUSICAL  FOUNDA- 
TION. See  BENEFACTIONS. 

JURORS,  Woman.  See  COURTS. 

JUSTICE,  U.S.  Department  of.  See  FEDER- 
AL BUREAU  OF  INVESTIGATION  ;  UNITED  STATES 
under  Administration  For  Bureau  of  Prisons,  see 
PRISONS  For  Immigration  and  Naturalization 
Service,  see  IMMIGRATION. 

JUVENILE  BOOKS.  See  LITERATURE,  ENG- 
LISH AND  AMERICAN  under  Juvenile. 

JUVENILE  DELINQUENCY.  Recent  ef- 
forts in  the  field  of  juvenile  delinquency  have  been 
directed  largely  to  prevention  through  dealing  with 
individual  and  community  problems  that  lead  to 
juvenile  delinquency  The  provision  for  preventive 
services  has  been  steadily  extended  through  the 
development  of  child-welfare  services,  child-guid- 
ance clinics,  and  group-work  activities. 

The  Children's  Bureau  (q  v  )  of  the  U  S  De- 
partment of  Labor  with  local  co-operation  is  con- 
ducting in  St.  Paul,  Minn ,  a  neighborhood  project 
known  as  Community  Service  for  Children.  Its 
major  objectives  are  to  determine  the  types  of  be- 
havior and  delinquency  cases  that  can  be  handled 
on  an  administrative  basis  without  juvenile-court 
participation;  the  methods  and  types  of  communi- 
ty organization  best  suited  to  this  purpose ;  and  the 
means  of  informing  parents,  teachers,  social  work- 
ers, and  the  community  of  factors  in  the  causation, 
prevention,  and  treatment  of  behavior  problems. 

Co-ordinating  councils  on  a  neighborhood  or 
community  basis,  established  first  in  California, 
seek  through  the  joint  effort  of  lay  and  profession- 
al groups  to  co-ordinate  the  social  forces  of  the 
community  in  behalf  of  all  children.  Started  origi- 
nally because  of  interest  in  the  prevention  of  juve- 
nile delinquency,  these  councils  tend  to  broaden 
their  programs  to  include  other  problems  of  child 
welfare,  because  they  recognize  the  interdcpend- 
ency  of  juvenile  delinquency  and  other  social  prob- 
lems. 

Since  1936  the  widespread  development  of  coun- 
ty welfare  departments  and  of  child-welfare  serv- 
ices in  such  departments  as  a  result  of  Federal  aid 
to  the  States  under  the  Social  Security  Act  has 
provided  in  many  rural  areas  child-welfare  work- 
ers who  are  in  a  position  to  give  case-work  services 
to  children  in  danger  of  becoming  delinquent  In 
approximately  500  counties  or  local  areas  where 
such  workers  are  now  employed,  they  are  increas- 
ingly called  upon  by  the  parents,  the  schools,  and 
the  juvenile  courts  to  assist  in  working  out  the 
problems  of  individual  children.  As  a  result  of  such 


experience  they  bring  to  the  attention  of  communi- 
ty leaders  the  need  for  recreation  and  other  facili- 
ties in  the  community  that  will  benefit  all  children. 
Consultation  service  from  the  State  welfare  de- 
partments and  the  Children's  Bureau  tends  to 
strengthen  and  extend  this  type  of  protective  serv- 
ice for  children.  The  National  Council  of  State 
Public  Assistance  and  Welfare  Administrators  and 
the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  American  Public 
Welfare  Association  in  December,  1940,  expressed 
their  appreciation  of  the  value  of  child-welfare- 
servicc  programs  in  local  communities  and  urged 
the  extension  of  local  child-welfare  services  with 
Federal  and  State  co-operation. 

Recreational  and  other  group  activities  have  long 
been  recognized  as  an  important  community  meth- 
od of  preventing  juvenile  delinquency.  Group  ex- 
perience is  being  used  increasingly  in  the  treatment 
of  behavior  difficulties  by  agencies  dealing  with 
children  on  a  therapeutic  case-work  basis. 

The  child-guidance  clinic  employs  the  psychia- 
trist, the  psychologist,  and  the  psychiatric  social 
worker  to  deal  with  the  behavior  problems  of  chil- 
dren of  a  fairly  normal  range  of  intelligence. 
These  clinics  for  children  exist  mainly  in  urban 
centers,  but  there  is  growing  effort  on  the  part  of 
State  welfare  and  mental-hygiene  departments  to 
provide  traveling  units  to  serve  smaller  communi- 
ties. Experience  in  these  clinics  is  resulting  m  in- 
creased attention,  on  the  part  of  physicians  who 
take  care  of  young  children  in  their  homes  and  in 
child-health  conferences,  to  the  early  training  that 
will  prevent  behavior  difficulties. 

During  its  early  years  the  juvenile  court  was  the 
only  agency  widely  available  in  local  communities 
to  deal  with  child  dependency,  neglect,  and  delin- 
quency. The  problems  that  it  brought  to  light  led 
to  the  establishment  of  child-welfare  services  in 
public- welfare  agencies  and  to  the  provision  of 
public  aid  to  dependent  children.  The  White  House 
Conference  on  Children  in  a  Democracy  (Jan.  18- 
20,  1940),  in  recognizing  the  changing  position  of 
the  juvenile  court,  pointed  out  that  it  is  the  func- 
tion of  the  juvenile  court  to  provide  legal  action 
based  on  social  study  with  a  view  to  social  treat- 
ment in  cases  of  delinquency  requiring  court  action 
and  in  cases  involving  adjudication  of  custody  and 
guardianship  or  enforcement  of  responsibilities  of 
adults  toward  children.  The  Conference  also  rec- 
ommended that  as  local  public-welfare  departments 
become  equipped  for  adequate  child -welfare  serv- 
ice, juvenile  courts  should  be  relieved  of  cases  not 
coming  within  these  classifications.  In  many  States 
the  juvenile  courts  have  already  been  relieved  of 
much  of  their  administrative  responsibility  for 
dependent  children  The  juvenile-probation  officer 
attached  to  the  juvenile  court  was  in  many  com- 
munities the  first  child-welfare  worker  publicly 
employed.  Today  the  juvenile  courts  in  the  smaller 
counties  are  calling  on  the  trained  child-welfare 
workers  in  local  welfare  departments  for  social 
study  and  treatment  in  cases  of  juvenile  delinquen- 
cy. The  courts  have  increased  opportunity  for  co- 
ordination of  service  with  the  newly  developed 
community  child-welfare  agencies. 

At  present  46  States,  Alaska,  the  District  of 
Columbia,  Hawaii,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and 
Puerto  Rico  either  have  separate  courts  for  juve- 
nile offenders  or  have  provided  specialized  juris- 
diction and  procedure  for  children's  cases  Maine 
and  Wyoming  have  embodied  certain  aspects  of 
juvenile-court  legislation  in  laws  relating  to  the 
protection  of  children  and  to  procedure  in  chil- 


JUVENILE  DELINQUENCY 


388 


KANSAS 


dren's  cases.  In  26  States  and  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia the  age  limit  for  juvenile-court  jurisdiction 
is  now  set  at  18  years  or  higher  for  some  or  all 
cases  of  delinquent  children.  Juvenile-court  law  is 
based  on  the  concept  that  the  child  who  breaks  the 
law  should  be  regarded  not  as  a  criminal  but  as  a 
ward  of  the  State  to  be  given  parental  care  and 
treatment.  Juvenile  Court  Standards,  adopted  by 
the  Children's  Bureau  and  the  National  Probation 
Association,  have  guided  much  of  the  juvenile- 
court  legislation.  In  1938  Congress  passed  a  Feder- 
al Juvenile  Delinquency  Act  and  a  new  juvenile- 
court  act  for  the  District  of  Columbia  based  on 
the  principles  embodied  in  the  standards  recom- 
mended. Mississippi  passed  a  new  juvenile-court 
act  in  1940. 

The  Children's  Bureau  received  reports  on  juve- 
nile-court statistics  for  the  year  1938  (the  latest 
year  for  which  summary  statistics  are  available) 
from  476  courts  in  28  States  and  the  District  of 
Columbia,  90  of  which  served  areas  of  100,000  or 
more  population.  During  1938  these  courts  disposed 
of  77,289  delinquency  cases :  84  per  cent  boys'  cases 
and  16  per  cent  girls'  cases.  White  children  were 
involved  in  79  per  cent  of  the  cases ;  Negro  chil- 
dren in  20  per  cent ;  and  children  of  other  races  in 
1  per  cent.  In  63  per  cent  of  the  boys'  cases  and  in 
72  per  cent  of  the  girls'  cases  the  children  had  had 
no  previous  court  experience  In  one-half  of  the 
boys'  cases  the  referral  was  for  some  type  of  steal- 
ing, and  in  more  than  one-fourth  (28  per  cent)  of 
the  cases  it  was  for  acts  of  carelessness,  mischief, 
or  traffic  violation  In  62  per  cent  of  the  girls'  cases 
the  referrals  were  for  running  away,  for  being 
ungovernable,  or  for  sex  offenses.  Forty-five  per 
cent  of  the  boys'  cases  and  35  per  cent  of  the  girls' 
cases  were  dismissed,  adjusted,  or  held  open  pend- 
ing further  developments.  Approximately  one-third 
of  all  cases  were  referred  to  a  probation  officer  for 
supervision.  In  10  per  cent  of  the  boys'  cases  and 
16  per  cent  of  the  girls'  cases  the  children  were 
committed  or  referred  to  an  institution. 

As  a  result  of  a  study  of  crime  among  the  youth 
between  16  and  21  years  of  age  the  Criminal 
Justice- Youth  Committee  of  the  American  Law 
Institute  drafted  two  model  acts  designed  to  im- 
prove State  methods  of  dealing  with  youthful  of- 
fenders under  21  years  of  age  who  are  not  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  juvenile  court.  The  first  of 
these,  the  Youth  Correction  Authority  Act,  was 
approved  by  the  American  Law  Institute  in  1940 
The  second,  the  Youth  Court  Act,  which  would 
set  up  a  court  organization  with  an  improved  pro- 
cedure, is  still  under  consideration 

Since  1937  an  Advisory  Committee  on  Training 
Schools  for  Socially  Maladjusted  Children  has 
been  working  with  the  Children's  Bureau  on  the 
evaluation  of  institutional  methods  in  State  train- 
ing schools  for  boys  and  girls  and  on  the  develop- 
ment of  more  effective  treatment  programs.  A  Di- 
rectory of  State,  County,  and  Municipal  Training 
Schools  caring  for  children  in  the  United  States 
was  issued  by  the  Children's  Bureau  in  1940.  The 
total  number  of  children  in  the  115  State  training 
schools  on  June  30,  1939,  was  28,652,  of  whom  71 
per  cent  were  boys  and  29  per  cent  were  girls.  In 
the  43  county  and  municipal  institutions  from 
which  it  was  possible  to  obtain  information  there 
were  3945  children.  The  increasing  availability  of 
child-welfare  workers  in  local  communities  is  af- 
fecting commitments  to  the  training  school  both  by 
keeping  at  home  children  whose  behavior  problems 
can  be  handled  through  local  resources  and  by 


sending  to  the  schools  the  children  who  need  the 
training-school  service. 

Recently  some  of  the  State  training  schools  have 
been  providing  social  workers  to  consider  the  in- 
dividual problems  of  boys  and  girls  entering  and 
leaving  the  schools.  In  several  States  on  request  the 
State  welfare  departments  have  made  the  services 
of  social  workers  available  on  a  demonstration  ba- 
sis. Supervision,  after  the  training-school  experi- 
ence, has  been  limited  in  most  States  by  the  small 
number  of  workers  assigned  to  this  service  and 
the  consequent  heavy  case  loads  and  extensive  ter- 
ritories to  be  covered.  To  some  extent  this  condi- 
tion is  being  improved  as  local  child-welfare  serv- 
ices are  established  and  close  working  relationships 
are  developed  with  the  training  schools. 

See  CHILDREN'S  BUREAU;  PRISONS,  PAROLE, 
AND  CRIME  CONTROL;  PSYCHOLOGY. 

KATHARINE  F.  LENROOT. 

KANSAS.  Area,  82,158  square  miles,  including 
water,  384  square  miles.  Population,  Apr.  1,  1940 
(census),  1,801,028;  1930,  1,880,999  Kansas  City 
had  (1940)  121,458;  Wichita,  114,966,  Topeka 
(the  capital),  67,833.  The  rural  population,  1,047,- 
087  (1940),  lacked  104,078  of  its  total  of  1930  but 
still  predominated.  The  urban  population  (inhabit- 
ing places  of  2500  or  more),  753,941  (1940),  had 
risen  in  the  same  interval  by  24,107. 

Agriculture.  Kansas  harvested,  in  1940,  about 
20,324,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops — about  10 
per  cent  more  than  the  year  before.  Occupying 
about  44  per  cent  of  this  total,  or  8,857,000  acres, 
wheat  yielded  123,848,000  bu ,  estimated  as  having 
a  value  of  $78,024,000  to  the  farmer.  Corn,  on 
2,647,000  acres,  made  41,028,000  bu  (about  $24,- 
617,000) ;  oats.  1,557,000  acres,  43,596,000  bu  ($12,- 
643,000) ;  grain  sorghums,  2,211,000  acres,  27,638,- 
000  bu  ($10,779,000)  ;  tame  hay,  1,005,000  acres, 
1,580,000  tons  ($8,690,000)  ;  barley,  1,136,000  acres, 
18,176,000  bu.  ($6,180,000).  There  were  156,327 
farms  in  1940 ;  in  area  they  averaged  308  2  acres. 

Mineral  Production.  As  reckoned  by  the  U.S. 
Bureau  of  Mines  in  1940,  Kansan  production  of 
native  minerals  totaled  $129,675,438  for  1938.  The 
chief  component,  petroleum,  gave  five-ninths  of 
this  figure;  the  next,  natural  gas,  over  one-fifth; 
zinc,  coal,  and  cement  made  up  most  of  the  re- 
mainder. In  1939  the  great  flow  of  petroleum  in 
Illinois,  hurting  the  market  for  the  Kansan  prod- 
uct, led  operators  to  drill  fewer  new  wells.  None 
the  less,  the  production  of  petroleum  rose  a  little, 
to  some  60,723,000  bbl.  (1939),  from  60,064,000 
bbl.,  in  value  $72,100,000  (1938)  Rising  demand 
brought  a  higher  production  (1939)  of  natural  gas 
for  consumption,  largely  outside  the  State ;  the  to- 
tal of  such  production  of  natural  gas  for  1938  had 
been  75,203  million  cu.  ft.,  in  value  at  points 
of  consumption,  $27,485,000.  Mines'  production  of 
zinc  diminished  to  68,971  short  tons  for  1939,  from 
73,024  tons  (value,  $7,010,304)  for  1938 

Coal  mines'  output  of  1938  totaled  2,654,141  net 
tons  (value,  $5,263,000).  Makers'  shipments  of 
Portland  cement,  fairly  close  to  yearly  production, 
increased  to  3,746,370  bbl.  for  1939,  from  3,217,497 
bbl.  for  1938 ;  by  value,  to  $5,614,112,  from  $4,949,- 
018.  Producers  of  salt  sold  or  used  641,752  short 
tons  of  divers  types  of  salt  (value,  $2,591,934)  in 
1939. 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1938-39  (the 
latest  covered  by  all  data  that  follow)  the  number 
of  persons  of  school  age  in  Kansas — from  5  years 
to  21— -was  reported  as  500,846.  The  year's  enroll- 


KANSAS 


KENTUCKY 


ments  in  public  schools  totaled  372,493 :  this  com- 
prised 263,227  in  elementary  and  109,266  in  high 
school.  Outside  these  figures  were  a  considerable 
enrollment  in  kindergartens  and  4923  in  junior  col- 
leges. ^The  year's  expenditures  for  public-school 
education  (capital  outlay  excepted)  to  $26,552,397. 
The  teachers  numbered  19,454. 

History.  The  competition  between  the  contigu- 
ous communities  of  Kansas  City,  Kansas,  and 
Kansas  City,  Missouri,  took  a  striking  form.  The 
Kansas  municipality  had  opened  for  occupancy,  in 
December,  1939,  an  extensive  food  terminal  in 
which  a  number  of  firms  from  across  the  Missouri 
line  had  become  tenants  The  Missourian  Kansas 
City  felt  the  neighboring  enterprise  to  be  an  un- 
fair blow  at  its  own  commerce  A  Federal  suit  was 
brought  against  Kansas  City,  Kansas,  and  against 
the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  Company,  by  the  Inter- 
state Commerce  Commission,  with  a  view  to  re- 
straining the  practices  of  the  terminal;  the  rail- 
road was  sued  as  having  taken  an  important  part 
in  the  municipal  enterprise.  Kansas  City,  in  Mis- 
souri, and  several  railroads  competing  with  the 
Union  Pacific  entered  the  suit  A  Federal  District 
Court,  after  six  weeks  of  preliminary  hearings, 
held  that,  because  of  the  railroad's  relation  to  the 
enterprise,  concessions  made  to  merchants  to  rent 
quarters  in  the  terminal  were  rebates  in  interstate 
commerce;  a  temporary  injunction  issued  on  May 
25  forbade  letting  such  quarters  below  a  specified 
rate  and  undertook  to  try  the  case  at  a  later  date. 
The  market  was  leased  to  a  private  company  in 
September. 

Success  in  drilling  for  petroleum  raised  the  po- 
tential production  of  wells  in  Kansas  to  the  highest 
figure  recorded,  but  lack  of  a  market  kept  the  ac- 
tual output  from  advancing  to  the  extent  of  the 
producers'  hopes  This  raised  apprehension  lest 
leading  companies  should  keep  purchases  of  the 
commodity  down  and  thus  at  length  acquire  wells 
in  Kansas  at  bargain  prices.  Public  sentiment  in 
the  State  was  directed  also  to  another  feature  of 
the  Kansan  economy,  the  lack  of  a  satisfactory 
market  for  wheat  and  some  of  the  other  main 
crops  With  dissatisfaction  over  markets  for  agri- 
cultural products  and  petroleum  went  a  certain 
amount  of  resentment  at  the  admittance  of  com- 
peting foreign  products,  as  provided  in  the  recipro- 
cal trade  treaties  These  considerations  had  a  bear- 
ing on  the  loss,  in  the  year's  election,  of  about 
one-fourth  of  the  State's  Democratic  vote  of  1936 
Among  Federal  efforts  in  1940  to  extend  the  bene- 
fits of  the  New  Deal  more  palpably  to  Kansas  was 
the  Bureau  of  Reclamation's  commencement  of 
preliminary  work  on  an  enterprise  to  dam  the  Re- 
publican River  and  supply  water  for  the  irrigation 
of  100,000  or  more  acres  in  western  Kansas. 

A  feature  of  the  lack  of  a  sufficient  outside  mar- 
ket for  petroleum  was  the  encouragement  that  the 
situation  gave  to  the  idea  of  refining  petroleum  in 
the  State,  for  the  home  market;  the  Consumers' 
Co-operative  Association  of  Kansas  City,  Kansas, 
built  with  this  aim  a  refinery  at  PhilHpsburg,  com- 
pleted in  May,  at  a  cost  of  $800,000  See  LABOR 
LEGISLATION. 

Elections.  The  State's  popular  vote  for  Presi- 
dent at  the  general  election  on  November  5  gave 
Willkie  (Rep.)  489,160;  Roosevelt  (Dem)  364,- 
725.  For  Governor,  Payne  H.  Ratner  (Rep  ),  run- 
ning for  re-election,  defeated  W.  H  Burke, 
(Dem)  by  a  margin  of  427  votes,  on  a  complete 
unofficial  count,  including  absentees'  ballots 

Officers.  The  chief  officers  of  Kansas,  serving 


in  1940,  were:  Governor,  Payne  H.  Ratner; 
(Rep.);  Lieutenant  Governor,  Carl  E.  Friend; 
Secretary  of  State,  Frank  J.  Ryan-  Auditor, 
George  Robb ;  Treasurer,  Walter  E.  Wilson ;  At- 
torney General,  Jay  S.  Parker ;  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  George  L.  McClenny. 

KANSU.  See  CHINA  under  Area  and  Population. 

KARAFUTO.  The  Japanese  part  (south  of 
50°  N.)  of  Sakhalin.  Area,  13,935  square  miles; 
population  (1937),  326,946.  Chief  towns:  Toyo- 
hara  (capital),  37,365  inhabitants;  Esutoru,  31.- 
959;  Shikka,  24,399;  Otomari,  24,269.  Chief  prod- 
ucts: Timber,  paper,  fish,  coal,  and  petroleum. 
Trade  (1937):  Imports,  ¥59,403,628;  exports, 
Y121, 372,966  (yen  averaged  $0.2879  for  1937; 
$02596  for  1939).  Budget  (1939-40):  Y48,734,- 
000  Governor,  Shun-ichi  Munesue 

KARELO-FINNISH  SOVIET  SOCIAL- 
IST REPUBLIC.  See  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIAL- 
IST REPUBLICS  under  Area  and  Population  and 
History. 

KAZAKH  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  RE- 
PUBLIC. See  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  RE- 
PUBLICS under  Area  and  Population. 

KEDAH.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

KEEWATIN.  See  NORTHWEST  TERRITORIES. 

KELANTAN.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA 

KELLOGG  FOUNDATION.  See  BENE- 
FACTIONS :  DENTISTRY 

KENTUCKY.  Area,  40,598  square  miles,  in- 
cluding water,  417  square  miles  Population, 
Apr.  1,  1940  (census),  2,845,627;  1930,  2,614,589 
Louisville  had  (1940)  319,077;  Frankfort  (the 
capital),  11,492.  The  rural  population,  rising  to 
1,996,300  (1940),  exceeded  by  180,737  its  total  of 
1930,  having  gained  10  per  cent.  The  urban  dwell- 
ers (those  in  places  of  2500  or  more),  numbering 
849,327  (1940),  gained  6.3  per  cent,  but  became 
proportionately  fewer 

Agriculture.  Kentucky  harvested,  in  1940, 
about  5,330,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops  Most 
of  the  return  for  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  came 
in  nearly  equal  shares  from  corn  and  tobacco 
Corn  apparently  surpassed  tobacco  in  1940:  2,816,- 
000  acres  of  corn  produced  70,400,000  bu ,  estimat- 
ed as  worth  $50,688,000  to  the  grower;  tobacco, 
on  343,200  acres,  gave  295,890,000  Ib,  similarly 
worth  $47,948,000.  Tame  hay,  1,424,000  acres,  made 
1,629,000  tons  ($17,756,000)  ;  wheat,  375,000  acres, 
5,625,000  bu.  ($4,388,000) ;  potatoes,  46,000  acres, 
4,140,000  bu.  ($3,146,000)  ;  sweet  potatoes,  23,000 
acres,  1,955,000  bu.  ($1,760,000) 

Mineral  Production.  Kentucky  (as  reckoned 
by  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines  in  1940)  produced 
native  minerals  to  the  total  value  of  $106,654,903 
in  1938.  To  this  total  coal  contributed  almost  two- 
thirds,  natural  gas  more  than  one  sixth  and  pe- 
troleum and  stone  most  of  the  rest.  The  yearly 
production  of  bituminous  coal,  as  usual  around  11 
per  cent  of  that  for  the  entire  Union,  rose  to  42,- 
805,000  net  tons,  approximately,  for  1939,  from 
38,545,218  tons  (value,  $70,094,000)  for  1938.  For 
1940  the  output  of  coal  totaled  44,477,000  tons 

The  quantity  of  natural  gas  produced  and  de- 
livered to  consumers  attained  46,163  million  cu. 
feet  for  1938 ;  the  value  of  such  gas  at  points  of 
consumption  totaled  $19,539,000  A  considerable 
increase  in  the  consumers'  demand  for  Kentucky's 
natural  gas,  appearing  late  in  1939,  offered  en- 
couragement to  further  development  and  explora- 
tion of  the  fields  in  1940.  The  output  of  petroleum 
declined  to  5,581,000  bbl.  approximately,  for  1939, 
from  5,821,000  bbl.  (value  $7,570,000)  for  1938. 


KENTUCKY 


390 


KENYA 


The  clay  products  of  1938  (except  pottery  and  re- 
fractories) amounted  to  $1,266,284.  Fluorspar 
shipped  from  mines,  responding  to  the  resumed 
demand  from  steelmakers,  jumped  to  89,563  short 
tons  for  1939,  from  34,803  tons  for  1938 ;  in  value, 
to  $1,773,063,  from  $678,094;  almost  half  of  the 
domestic  fluorspar  of  1939  originated  in  Kentucky. 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40 
Kentucky's  inhabitants  of  school  age  were  esti- 
mated to  number  778,429.  The  year's  enrollments 
of  all  pupils  in  the  public  schools  totaled  608,621, 
including  472,544  in  elementary  schools  and  136,- 
077  in  high  schools.  The  year's  expenditure  for 
public-school  education  amounted  to  $22,563,115. 
There  were  18,417  teachers  in  the  public  schools. 
The  median  salary  of  the  teachers  for  1940-41 
was  $717. 

History.  The  Legislature  met  in  regular  bien- 
nial session  at  the  beginning  of  January  and  ad- 
journed on  March  4.  It  ratified  the  compact  of  the 
States  having  territory  in  the  basin  of  the  Ohio 
River,  for  the  sanitation  of  the  river's  water; 
West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  New  York,  had 
previously  ratified. 

A  $52,000,000  general  appropriation  bill  was 
voted.  A  system  of  retirement,  with  pension,  for 
teachers  in  the  public  schools,  was  created ;  it  re- 
quired both  teachers  and  the  State  to  make  period- 
ical contributions  to  a  fund  for  such  pensions  and 
set  the  beginning  of  the  payment  of  pensions  for 
July  1,  1942.  A  soil-conservation  act,  to  allow  the 
operation  of  the  system  of  soil-conservation  pre- 
viously set  up  by  the  Federal  Government  with 
provisions  for  subvention  to  conforming  farmers, 
was  passed;  it  contained  a  requirement  that  the 
owners  of  not  less  than  80  per  cent  of  the  land  in 
a  proposed  district  must  concur,  to  permit  of  its 
creation  Another  act  required  second-class  cities 
having  systems  of  civil  service  for  their  employees 
to  match  the  latter's  contributions  to  pension  funds. 
Judicial  procedure  was  changed,  to  allow  a  wife 
to  testify  on  behalf  of  her  husband.  A  religious 
denomination  originally  active  in  Harlan  County 
and  known  as  the  Church  of  God  had  made  a 
practise  of  handling  venomous  snakes  as  a  demon- 
stration of  the  power  of  faith;  this  practice  was 
prohibited  by  law.  Taxes  on  chain  stores,  previous- 
ly invalidated,  were  set  up  on  a  new  plan. 

An  act  of  the  Legislature  establishing  pensions 
for  retired  members  of  the  State  Court  of  Appeals 
was  challenged  as  to  validity,  and  a  special  court 
of  seven  selected  members  was  created  in  Septem- 
ber to  handle  the  subject.  The  Court  of  Appeals 
removed  Circuit  Court  Judge  Sam  M.  Ward  in 
May,  after  hearing  testimony  on  a  charge  that  he 
had  bribed  voters  at  his  re-election  in  November, 
1939.  His  opponent  in  the  election  moved  to  be  de- 
clared holder  of  the  judgeship.  as  the  qualified 
candidate  who  had  received  the  highest  vote.  This 
was  refused  and  the  vacancy  was  left  to  be  filled 
by  appointment. 

Kentucky  strictly  enforced  its  limit  of  18,000  Ib. 
on  the  loads  of  trucks  using  its  highways — a  figure 
far  below  allowables  in  adjacent  States ;  it  arrest- 
ed in  1940,  up  to  October,  1904  outsiders  charged 
with  exceeding  its  limit.  At  Bowman  Field,  Louis- 
ville, the  U.S  Army  started  building  a  post  for  a 
bombing  squadron  of  airplanes. 

Elections.  At  the  general  election  on  Novem- 
ber 5,  beside  giving  a  substantial  plurality  to  Roo- 
sevelt for  President — vote:  Roosevelt  (Dem.), 
557,222 ;  Willkie  (Rep.),  410,384— the  voters  elect- 
ed former  Gov.  Albert  B.  Chandler  (Dem.)  to  a 


full  term  in  the  U.S.  Senate,  which  he  had  entered 
in  1939  as  temporary  appointee  at  the  death  of 
Senator  Logan.  The  Republican  candidate  for 
Senator  was  Walter  B.  Smith. 

Officers.  Kentucky's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  Keen  Johnson  (Dem.); 
Secretary  of  State,  Charles  D.  Arnett  (d.  Decem- 
ber 3)  and  George  G.  Hatcher  (successor) ; 
Treasurer,  John  E.  Buckingham;  Attorney  Gen- 
eral, Hubert  Meredith ;  Auditor,  Ernest  E.  Shan- 
non; Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Labor,  and 
Statistics,  Garth  Ferguson*  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  Harry  W.  Peters. 

KENYA.  A  British  colony  and  protectorate  in 
East  Africa.  Area,  224,960  square  miles ;  popula- 
tion (Jan.  1,  1939),  3,365,888  (3,280,774  natives, 
44,635  East  Indians,  20,894  Europeans,  14,077 
Arabs,  3734  Goans,  and  1774  others).  Chief  towns : 
Nairobi  (capital),  61,000  inhabitants;  Mombasa, 
50,000;  Nakuru;  Kisumu.  Education  (1938)  :  1977 
schools  (exclusive  of  some  Koran  schools  on  the 
coast)  and  141,417  students. 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  products:  cot- 
ton, maize,  sugar,  coffee,  pyrethrum,  sisal,  tea, 
timber,  sodium  carbonate,  wattle,  and  gold.  Live- 
stock in  European  areas  (1938):  497,478  cattle, 
563,949  sheep,  13,192  pigs,  and  1689  goats.  Gold 
exported  during  1939  amounted  to  101,149  troy  oz. 
Kenya  and  Uganda  are  considered  a  single  unit 
for  customs  purposes.  Trade  (1939)  :  imports 
(Kenya  and  Uganda  combined),  £8,942,436;  ex- 
ports (Kenya  only),  £4,176,476.  In  addition  to  the 
foregoing  external  trade  there  is  an  interchange 
of  goods  among  Kenya,  Tanganyika,  and  Uganda. 

Communications.  The  State-owned  Kenya  and 
Uganda  railways  carried  1,026,229  tons  of  freight 
during  1939.  There  is  a  network  of  airways  (to- 
taling 3093  miles  in  1940)  linking  the  important 
centers  of  the  colony.  Shipping  entered  and  cleared 
the  ports  during  1938  totaled  4,697,252  tons. 

Government.  In  the  1940  budget,  expenditure 
was  expected  to  exceed  revenue  by  £53.000.  On 
Dec.  31,  1938,  the  total  public  debt  was  £17,580,600 
and  of  this  amount  £13,251,808  represented  the 
capital  debt  of  Kenya  and  Uganda  railways  and 
harbors.  The  executive  power  rests  with  the  gov- 
ernor who  is  advised  by  an  executive  council. 
There  is  a  legislative  council  of  41  members  (the 
governor  as  president.  11  ex-officio,  12  nominated, 
and  17  elected).  By  the  Kenya  Annexation  Order 
in  Council,  1920,  the  territories  of  the  mainland, 
excluding  the  mainland  dominions  of  the  Sultan 
of  Zanzibar,  were  recognized  as  a  colony;  the 
coastal  belt  rented  from  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar 
remains  a  protectorate.  Governor  and  Commander- 
in-Chief,  Sir  Henry  Moore  (appointed  Oct.  26, 
1939). 

History.  Northern  Kenya  became  one  of  the 
fronts  in  the  struggle  between  British  and  Italian 
forces  in  Africa  that  began  with  Italy's  entrance 
into  the  European  War  on  June  10,  1940.  The 
Italians  occupied  the  sector  of  Kenya  between 
southwestern  Ethiopia  and  Italian  Somaliland  and 
advanced  to  Moyale,  Buna,  and  Wajir.  See  EURO- 
PEAN WAR  under  Campaigns  in  Africa.  To  meet 
this  offensive,  the  British  concentrated  troops  in 
Kenya  from  South  Africa,  Rhodesia,  the  Gold 
Coast  and  many  of  the  other  African  colonies. 
Kenya  was  placed  upon  a  war  basis,  with  con- 
scription for  Europeans,  and  steps  were  taken  to 
co-ordinate  economic  and  commercial  policies  with 
other  British  East  African  colonies  for  war  pur- 
poses. See  SOUTH  AFRICA  under  History. 


KIANGSI 


391 


LABELING 


KIANGSI.  See  CHINA  under  Area  and  Popu- 
lation 

KIANGSU.  See  CHINA  under  Area  and  Popu- 
lation. 

KIDNAPING.  See  FEDERAL  BUREAU  OF  IN- 
VESTIGATION. 

KINDERGARTENS.  See  SCHOOLS. 

KIRGHIZ  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  RE- 
PUBLIC.  See  UNION  or  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  RE- 
PUBLICS under  Area  and  Population. 

KIRIN.  See  CHINA  under  Area  and  Popula- 
tion 

KOREA  (CHOSEN).  A  former  empire  of 
eastern  Asia,  annexed  by  Japan  on  Aug.  22,  1910, 
and  incorporated  as  an  integral  part  of  the  Japa- 
nese Empire  by  an  Imperial  Rescript  of  1919. 
Capital,  Keijo  (Seoul). 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  85,246  square 
miles.  Estimated  population  on  Dec.  31,  1938,  22,- 
633,851  (Koreans,  21,950,716;  Japanese,  633,320; 
Chinese  and  other  foreigners,  94,815).  Populations 
of  the  chief  cities  on  Dec.  31,  1937,  were-  Keijo 
(Seoul),  705,395;  Fusan,  213,142;  Heijo  (Pyong- 
yang), 185,419;  Taikyu,  110,866;  Jinsen  (Che- 
mulpo), 102,473.  The  Koreans  have  their^  own 
spoken  and  written  language,  but  Japanese  is  the 
language  of  the  government 

Education  and  Religion.  About  60  per  cent 
of  all  adults  are  illiterate.  In  May,  1938,  there 
were  3033  elementary  schools  with  1,0 SI ,070  pu- 
pils, 43  middle  schools  with  23,407  pupils,  51  girls' 
high  schools  with  19,072  pupils,  203  vocational  and 
professional  schools  with  30,406  students,  and  the 
University  of  Kefjo  with  542  students.  Inculcation 
of  Japanese  ethics  and  loyalty  to  the  Emperor  is 
strongly  emphasized.  On  Jan  1,  1937,  there  were 
489,626  Christians  (499,300  on  Jan.  1,  1939),  285,- 
640  Buddhists,  andjl  04,602  adherents  of  Shintoism, 
the  principal  religion  of  Japan.  Confucianism  is 
spreading  among  the  upper  classes.  Shintoism  re- 
ceives government  support.  On  Oct.  7, 1940,  Chris- 
tian denominations  with  about  60,000  Korean 
members  were  dissolved  by  the  government  and 
merged  in  a  new  association  pledged  to  eliminate 
foreign  influence  and  condemn  communism,  indi- 
vidualism, democracy,  and  doctrines  at  variance 
with  Japanese  national  policy.  The  schools  main- 
tained by  these  denominations  were  reorganized 
and  military  drill  introduced. 

Production.  Over  three-fourths  of  the  popu- 
lation is  engaged  in  agriculture  and  forestry  Pro- 
duction of  rice  in  1939  was  about  137,200,000  bu. 
Yields  of  other  cereals  was  (in  metric  tons)  * 
Wheat.  334,400;  barley,  1,329,700,  oats,  39,600 
O938);  corn,  98,600  (1938).  Millet^  cotton,  _  raw 
silk,  soybeans,  hemp,  tobacco,  and  fruit  are  widely 
grown.  Livestock  in  1938  included  1,713,000  cat- 
tle, 1,620,000  swine,  51,000  horses,  and  20,000 
sheep.  Fisheries  production  (1938)  was  valued  at 
89,920,000  yen.  Mineral  production  in  1936  was 
valued  at  110,429,655  yen  (gold,  59,353,700;  coal, 
13,310,000;  pig  iron,  7,866,600;  steel,  6,533,000). 
Copper,  silver,  lead,  tungsten,  and  graphite  are 
also  mined.  Manufacturing  has  undergone  marked 
development,  the  value  of  output  reaching  959,308,- 
000  yen  in  1937. 

Foreign  Trade.  Korean  merchandise  imports 
from  the  rest  of  the  Japanese  Empire  in  1939 
totaled  1,229,400,000  yen  (921,300,000  in  1938) 
and  from  foreign  countries  159,000,000  yen  (134,- 
600,000  in  1938).  Exports  to  the  Japanese  Empire 
were  736,900,000  yen  in  1939  (710,500,000  in  1938) 
and  to  foreign  countries  269,900,000  yen  (169,100,- 


000  in  1938).  Rice,  fertilizers,  heavy  iron,  and 
other  minerals  were  the  chief  exports. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  for  the  fiscal  year 
ended  Mar.  31,  1940,  placed  both  receipts  and  ex- 
penditures at  656,099,928  yen.  On  Mar.  31,  1938, 
the  public  debt  was  593,546,214  yen  (549,731,000 
on  Mar.  31,  1937).  The  yen  exchanged  at  $0.2344 
in  1940,  $02596  in  1939. 

Communications.  With  2320  miles  of  line,  the 
State  railways  in  1937-38  carried  35,906,000  pas- 
sengers and  11,370,000  metric  tons  of  freight. 
About  310  miles  of  new  line  were  opened  in  1939. 
Highways  covered  19,043  miles  in  1939.  Airlines 
connected  Keijo  with  the  other  chief  cities  of 
Korea,  Japan,  Manchoukuo,  and  North  China. 
Shipping  tonnage  entered  at  the  ports  in  1938 
totaled  14,677,742. 

Government.  Korea  is  ruled  by  a  governor- 
general  appointed  by  the  Emperor  of  Japan  He  is 
assisted  by  a  Privy  Council  of  82  Koreans.  Gov- 
ernor-General in  1940,  Gen.  J.  Minami  (appointed 
December,  1937). 

History.  The  difficulties  encountered  by  Japan 
in  China  and  in  its  relations  with  the  Western 
democracies  during  1940  encouraged  the  under- 
ground Korean  independence  movement.  The  press 
agency  of  the  Chinese  Nationalist  Government  an- 
nounced Sept.  19,  1940,  that  headquarters  of  a 
"Korean  restoration  army"  had  been  established 
the  previous  day  at  Chungking,  with  members  of 
the  "Korean  provisional  government"  in  attend- 
ance. The  Japanese  in  July  rounded  up  a  number 
of  foreigners  in  Korea  in  connection  with  an  anti- 
espionage  drive.  During  November  51  American 
missionaries  stationed  in  Korea  left  for  the  United 
States  on  the  advice  of  the  U  S.  State  Department. 
Construction  proceeded  during  1940  on  the  first  of 
seven  huge  dams  projected  by  the  Japanese  author- 
ities in  connection  with  the  gigantic  Yalu  hydro- 
electric development  program.  It  was  said  that  the 
first  dam  would  be  the  largest  storage  dam  in  the 
world. 

KUOMINTANQ.  See  CHINA  under  History 

KUWAIT.  See  under  ARABIA 

KWANGCHOWAN  (KWANOCHOW). 
See  FRENCH  INDO-CHINA. 

KWANGSI.  See  CHINA  under  Area  aud  Popu- 
lation. 

KWANGTUNG.  See  CHINA  under  Area  and 
Population 

KWANTUNG.  The  territory  occupying  the 
southern  part  of  the  Liaotung  Peninsula,  Man- 
churia, leased  from  China  by  Japan.  Area,  includ- 
ing 40  adjacent  islands,  1337  square  miles ;  popula- 
tion (1937),  1,190,004,  including  1,009,870  Man- 
churians  and  174,587  Japanese  (exclusive  of  the 
armed  forces) .  Chief  towns :  Dairen  (capital) ,  515,- 
743  inhabitants  in  1938;  Port  Arthur  (Ryojun), 
145,286:  Pulantien;  Chinchow.  Trade  (1937)  :  Im- 
ports, Y680,061,785;  exports,  ¥451,798,860  (yen 
averaged  $0.2879  for  1937).  Budget  (1939-40): 
Revenue,  ¥34,341,000;  expenditure,  ¥34,191,000 
(yen  averaged  $0.2596  for  1939).  In  December, 
1934,  the  Kwantung  Government  was  replaced  by 
the  Kwantungr  Bureau  and  subordinated  to  the  Jap- 
anese Ambassador  in  Hsinking,  Manchoukuo.  Di- 
rector General  of  Kwantung  Bureau,  Toshio  Otsti. 
See  JAPAN  and  MANCHOUKUO. 

KWEICHOW.  See  CHINA  under  Area  and 
Population. 

LABELING.  See  AGRICULTURAL  MARKETING 
SERVICE;  CO-OPERATIVE  MOVEMENT;  FEDERAL 
TRADE  COMMISSION  ;  FOOD  AND  DRUG  ADMINIS- 


LABOR 


392 


LABOR  CONDITIONS 


TRATION;  SOCIETIES  under  Consumer-Retailer 
Council. 

LABOR.  See  AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LA- 
BOR ;  CHILDREN'S  BUREAU  ;  CONCILIATION  SERVICE, 
U.S.;  CONGRESS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ORGANIZATIONS, 
COMMUNISM  ;  DEFENSIVE  PREPARATIONS,  U.S. ;  IN- 
TERNATIONAL LABOR  OFFICE;  LABOR  CONDITIONS; 
LABOR  LEGISLATION  ;  Music ;  NATIONAL  DEFENSE 
ADVISORY  COMMISSION;  NATIONAL  LABOR  RELA- 
TIONS BOARD;  RAILWAYS;  SHIPPING;  SOCIAL  SE- 
CURITY BOARD;  WAGE  AND  HOUR  ADMINISTRA- 
TION ;  WOMEN'S  BUREAU.  See  also  the  articles  on 
the  States  of  the  United  States;  AUSTRALIA, 
CANADA,  GERMANY,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  NEW  ZEA- 
LAND and  the  other  principal  countries  under  His- 
tory. 

LABOR,  American  Federation  of.  See 
AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR. 

LABOR,  U.S.  Department  of.  See  LABOR 
CONDITIONS;  UNITED  STATES  under  Administra- 
tion ;  and  separate  articles  on  the  following  branch- 
es of  the  Department :  CHILDREN'S  BUREAU  ;  CON- 
CILIATION SERVICE,  U.S. ;  WAGE  AND  HOUR  DIVI- 
SION ;  WOMEN'S  BUREAU. 

LABOR  CONDITIONS.  War-time  labor 
policies  demanding  maximum  production  with  min- 
imum protection  for  workers  prevailed  in  many 
countries  during  1940  Governmental  regulations 
were  imposed  where  workers  did  not  voluntarily 
sacrifice  some  of  the  standards  built  up  since  the 
last  war.  Freedom  of  organization  suffered  severe 
set-backs.  Longer  hours,  lower  real  wages,  and 
less  opportunity  for  movement  from  one  job  to  an- 
other were  common  throughout  the  world.  Stern 
measures  for  protection  of  industry  against  sus- 
pected saboteurs  to  some  extent  curtailed  the  lib- 
erty of  all  workers. 

The  experience  of  Germany  may  not  be  typical, 
but  perhaps  it  provides  some  indication  of  develop- 
ments which  may  occur  if  they  have  not  yet  oc- 
curred elsewhere.  With  the  invasion  of  Poland  in 
September,  1939,  Germany  established  what  their 
officials  called  "Kriegsverpflichteten  Wirtschaft," 
meaning  something  like  compulsory  or  forced  war 
economy.  Wage  rates  were  lowered  by  official  de- 
cree. Overtime,  Sunday,  and  holiday  earnings  were 
conscripted  by  the  government  to  help  finance  the 
war.  Paid  vacations  were  prohibited  Workers 
were  barred  from  leaving  their  jobs  and  employers 
from  dismissing  them  without  permission  of  the 
State  authorities.  Working  hours  were  increased 
in  some  cases  to  as  many  as  16  a  day 

Within  a  short  time,  however,  production  began 
to  fall  off  rapidly,  and  there  was  an  alarming  in- 
crease of  industrial  accidents  and  stoppages  The 
government  very  soon  began  to  lighten  somewhat 
the  labor  conditions  prescribed  by  decree.  Vaca- 
tions were  restored  to  workers  for  certain  periods 
and  under  certain  limitations  Where  wages  ap- 
peared to  be  too  low  for  proper  nourishment  and 
decent  living  conditions,  the  workers'  incomes  were 
supplemented  by  relief  payments.  New  regulations 
defined  working  hours  so  that  the  10-hour  day  was 
most  usual,  and  overtime  earnings  were  paid  to 
the  workers  themselves.  (See  "Labor  Policy  in 
Germany,"  Monthly  Labor  Review,  June,  1940,  pp. 
1374^1376.) 

It  is  not  clear  that  intensified  efforts  for  greater 
production  have  led  other  countries  through  similar 
cycles.  The  experience  may  still  lie  ahead  for  some. 
In  most  countries,  however,  it  appears  that  gov- 
ernment authorities  recognize  that  there  are  limits 
to  the  extent  to  which  good  labor  conditions  can 


be  sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  national  defense  or 
offense. 

Employment  and  Unemployment.  Unem- 
ployment was  markedly  reduced  m  several  coun- 
tries during  1940,  but  on  the  basis  of  the  limited 
statistics  available  it  is  not  clear  that  unemploy- 
ment was  greatly  reduced  throughout  the  world  as 
a  whole.  The  accelerated  production  of  airplanes, 
munitions,  and  other  war  supplies  created  more 
jobs  m  the  belligerent  nations  and  some  of  the  neu- 
trals preparing  for  defense.  Simultaneously,  how- 
ever, some  neutral  countries  experienced  a  trend 
toward  more  unemployment  because  of  transport 
problems,  the  disorganization  of  their  foreign  mar- 
kets, and  the  difficulties  in  obtaining  necessary  raw 
materials.  It  also  appears  that  instead  of  drawing 
substantially  on  the  reservoirs  of  the  unemployed, 
some  countries  met  their  increased  labor  needs  by 
lengthening  the  work  week  and  employing  house- 
wives and  others  who  normally  would  not  be 
counted  as  unemployed 

Conscription  of  workers  for  military  service 
caused  a  serious  dislocation  of  labor  and  also  cre- 
ated a  variety  of  other  employment  problems. 
There  was  need  for  protecting  the  future  of  men 
called  to  arms.  Most  countries  faced  with  this 
problem  adopted  the  rule  that  while  a  worker's  re- 
lations with  his  employer  are  interrupted,  the  con- 
tract of  employment  is  not  broken  and  the  worker 
is  entitled  to  claim  reinstatement  in  his  former 
employment  when  he  finishes  his  military  service 
More  urgent  was  the  need  for  assisting  the  fami- 
lies of  mobilized  workers  Some  governments  pro- 
vided subsistence  allowances  for  the  families. 
Some  provided  that  the  employer  must  continue  to 
pay  part  of  the  mobili/ed  worker's  wages  to  his 
family.  Other  plans  involve  collaboration  on  a 
wider  scale  by  distributing  costs  over  all  employ- 
ers concerned  and  requiring  contributions  from 
workers  who  have  not  been  called  up  (See  "Na- 
tional Service  and  Contracts  of  Employment"  by 
E.  Herz  and  I.  Besslmg,  International  Labour  Re- 
view, July,  1940,  pp.  1-28.) 

Several  countries  in  1940  made  legislative  pro- 
vision for  the  requisitioning  of  labor  if  emergen- 
cies should  arise,  and  Norway  followed  a  German 
practice  by  decreeing  that  nobody  may  leave  his 
occupation  without  permission  of  the  Ministry  of 
Social  Welfare.  Germany,  Bulgaria,  and  Rumania 
continued  their  systems  of  compulsory  labor  serv- 
ice to  which  young  people  are  liable  for  a  specified 
period. 

Official  data  published  in  Germany  indicated  that 
the  number  of  unemployed  persons  dropped  from 
257,000  at  the  end  of  January,  1940,  to  39,000  by 
the  end  of  June;  and  it  was  claimed  that  of  the 
39,000  only  3500  were  employable. 

Unemployment  in  Great  Britain  rose  from  about 
1,200,000  in  August,  1939,  before  the  war  began, 
to  more  than  1,500,000  in  January  and  February, 
1940,  and  then  dropped  to  less  than  800,000  by  Au- 
gust, 1940.  There  was  relatively  little  change  in 
the  unemployment  situation  m  Sweden.  Of  a  total 
of  approximately  700,000  members  covered  by  the 
returns  of  the  reporting  trade  unions,  10.8  per  cent 
were  unemployed  at  the  end  of  April,  1940,  as  com- 
pared with  9.0  per  cent  at  the  end  of  April,  1939. 
In  Denmark,  however,  unemployment  rose  from 
11.5  per  cent  in  May,  1939,  to  31  2  per  cent  in  May, 
1940,  according  to  returns  received  by  the  Danish 
Statistical  Department  from  approved  unemploy- 
ment funds  with  a  total  membership  of  approxi- 
mately 497,000.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Switzerland 


LABOR  CONDITIONS 


393 


LABOR  CONDITIONS 


EMPLOYMENT,  PAY  ROLLS.  AND  EARNINGS  IN 
UNITED  STAGES  INDUSTRIES  DURING  1940* 


Average 

Average 

Average 

Employ- 

weekly 

hours 

hourly 

ment 

Pay-roll 

earnings 

worked 

earnings 

index 

index 

(dollars) 

per  week 

(cents) 

Tan 
Feb 

105.0 
105.0 

998 
993 

2551 
2520 

37.4 
373 

66.3 
663 

Mar. 

104.4 

998 

2546 

375 

665 

103.2 

979 

2533 

372 

665 

May 

102.5 

978 

2543 

372 

669 

June 

1031 

995 

2579 

375 

672 

July 

1032 

982 

2525 

373 

667 

Aug. 

107.4 

1055 

2610 

38.4 

667 

Sept 

111.4 

1116 

2654 

388 

671 

Oct 

1138 

1162 

2713 

393 

673 

Nov. 

114.7 

1164 

2693 

386 

678 

Dec. 

116.2 

122.4 

2789 

39.8 

683 

*  Condensed  from  tables  of  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  U  S 
Department  of  Labor  Indexes  are  based  on  3-year  average, 
1923-25  -  100,  and  has  been  adjusted  to  preliminary  1939  census 
figures 

only  about  9000  applicants  for  employment  were 
registered  at  employment  exchanges  at  the  end  of 
June,  1940,  as  compared  with  more  than  35,000  the 
previous  year.  In  Canada  the  estimated  number  of 
wage  earners  unemployed  was  367,000  in  April, 
1940,  compared  with  473,000  in  April,  1939. 

Unemployment  was  reduced  in  the  United 
States  The  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  does  not 
publish  estimates  of  unemployment,  but  its  esti- 
mates of  the  level  of  total  non-agricultural  em- 
ployment give  some  indication  of  the  trend.  The 
employment  level  was  at  its  lowest  for  the  year  in 
February,  when  approximately  34,381,000  workers 
were  employed  in  non-agricultural  industries,  but 
in  February,  1939,  only  33,265,000  were  employed. 
By  November,  1940,  the  level  of  employment  had 
risen  to  36,535,000,  compared  with  35,418,000  in 
November,  1939. 

American  Federation  of  Labor  estimates  placed 
the  number  of  unemployed  at  10,656,000  in  Janu- 
ary, 1940,  compared  with  11,369,000  in  January, 
1939.  By  December,  1940,  the  estimates  dropped  to 
less  than  7,906,000  compared  with  9,248,452  in  De- 
cember, 1939.  The  Congress  of  Industrial  Organ- 
izations launched  a  new  series  of  unemployment 
estimates  during  the  year.  Its  figure  for  January 
was  11,936,000.  By  December  the  estimate  had 
dropped  to  9,034,000. 

Hours  of  Work.  Governmental  resti  ictions  on 
hours  of  work  were  relaxed  or  discarded  in  many 
neutral  as  well  as  belligerent  countries  during  1940 
under  the  pressure  of  intensified  production  for 
war.  In  some  countries  the  movement  toward  the 
shorter  working  week  was  merely  slowed  down 
The  only  important  steps  toward  shorter  hours 
were  in  Australia,  where  the  Commonwealth 
Court  recognized  the  44-hour  week  which  already 
existed  in  many  industries  as  the  standard  hours, 
and  in  the  United  States,  where  the  Fair  Labor 
Standards  Act  cut  maximum  hours  from  42  to  40  a 
week  and  collective  agreements  providing  a  40- 
hour  week  continued  to  be  signed.  A  long-range 
study  by  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  published 
in  the  September  issue  of  the  Monthly  Labor  Re- 
view, showed  a  drop  in  average  hours  actually 
worked  in  United  States  Industry  from  51.7  a 
week  in  1909  to  37.8  in  1939. 

Statistics  of  working  hours  throughout  the 
world  are  too  incomplete  to  permit  generalization, 
but  changes  in  governmental  regulations  give  some 
indication  of  the  trend.  Modifications  usually  took 
the  form  of  removal  of  limitations  on  overtime 
and  the  adjustment  of  overtime  rates.  In  Finland, 


for  example,  the  usual  limit  of  overtime  was  ex- 
tended to  40  hours  in  any  fortnight.  In  Great  Brit- 
ain, where  collective  agreements  usually  fix  no 
limit  to  overtime  provided  that  prescribed  rates  are 
paid,  modifications  dealt  mainly  with  changes  in 
the  time-table  due  to  the  black-put  and  payment 
for  time  lost  on  account  of  air  raid  warnings.  Bel- 
gium, Bulgaria,  India,  New  Zealand,  and  Rumania 
authorized  extensions  of  hours  of  work  under  cer- 
tain conditions. 

Wages.  Despite  war-time  price  controls  in  many 
countries,  the  cost  of  living  increased  throughout 
the  world  in  1940.  Every  one  of  the  forty  countries 
from  which  the  International  Labour  Office  has 
reports  experienced  a  rise  in  the  index  during  the 
year,  in  some  cases  as  much  as  15  points.  Informa- 
tion on  actual  wage  rates  is  less  complete,  but  there 
appear  to  be  few  important  rises  in  money  wages. 
Chiefly  because  of  the  increase  in  the  cost  of  liv- 
ing, therefore,  it  can  be  inferred  that  real  wages 
declined  in  most  countries  during  the  year.  In 
other  words,  while  their  income  was  changed  very 
little,  workers  in  most  countries  were  unable  to 
get  as  much  or  as  good  food,  clothing,  shelter,  and 
other  necessities  with  their  earnings  as  they  got  in 
previous  years 

The  exceptions  were  essentially  in  those  coun- 
tries where  organized  workers  had  adjusted  wage 
rates  to  cost  of  living.  In  Belgium,  for  example, 
the  leading  organizations  of  employers  and  work- 
ers determined  late  in  1939  that  the  various  col- 
lective agreements  should  be  applied  on  the  basis 
of  the  cost  of  living  index,  that  wages  should  re- 
main stable  until  the  end  of  February,  1940,  and 
thereafter  should  vary  according  to  the  arithme- 
tic mean  of  the  indices  for  the  three  preceding 
months.  Sweden  continued  its  previously  estab- 
lished policy  of  annual  wage  adjustments  by  which 
a  six-point  rise  in  cost  of  living  necessitates  up- 
ward adjustments  in  wages  provided  in  contracts 
between  the  Swedish  Employers  Confederation 
and  the  Swedish  Confederation  of  Trade  Unions 
In  Denmark  the  Employers'  Confederation  and  the 
Danish  Confederation  of  Trade  Unions  in  Novem- 
ber, 1939,  agreed  to  extend  to  March,  1941,  all 
agreements  due  to  expire  in  March,  1940,  subject 
to  quarterly  adjustment  of  wages  according  to 
changes  in  the  official  cost  of  living  index ;  it  was 
provided  that  all  wage  increases  resulting  from  the 
agreement  should  be  regarded  as  cost  of  living 
bonuses  and  should  be  at  flat  rates  so  that  the  low- 
est-paid workers  accordingly  receive  proportion- 
ately the  highest  bonuses  (See  "Remuneration  of 
Labour,"  The  I.L.O.  Year-Book  1939-40,  Geneva, 
1940;  pp.  183-196.) 

An  8  per  cent  increase  of  wage  rates  occurred 
in  Great  Britain  from  August,  1939,  to  March, 
1940.  This  was  in  contrast  to  conditions  in  the  last 
war  when  the  level  of  wages  showed  little  change 
during  the  7-month  period  following  the  outbreak 
of  hostilities.  Even  with  the  increases  during  the 
present  war,  however,  wage  rates  have  not  kept 
apace  with  cost  of  living,  which  showed  a  rise  of 
14  points  from  August,  1939,  to  March,  1940. 

In  the  United  States  the  average  hourly  earnings 
of  manufacturing  workers  changed  from  663  in 
February,  1940,  to  673  cents  in  October.  Corre- 
sponding figures  for  1939  were  64.3  cents  in  Feb- 
ruary and  64.6  cents  in  October.  Average  weekly 
earnings  were  $25.20  in  February,  1940,  compared 
with  $24.01  in  February,  1939,  and  $27  13  in  Oc- 
tober, 1940,  compared  with  $25.81  in  October,  1939. 
The  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics*  new  index  of  cost 


LABOR  CONDITIONS 


394 


LABOR  CONDITIONS 


of  living  meanwhile  showed  a  change  from  99.1  on 
Mar.  IS,  1939,  to  99.8  on  Mar.  15,  1940,  to  100.5 
on  June  15,  1940,  to  100.1  on  Nov.  15,  1940.  See 
LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS. 

A  long-range  study  by  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Sta- 
tistics, published  in  the  September  issue  of  the 
Monthly  Labor  Review,  showed  a  rise  of  average 
hourly  earnings  from  20.7  cents  in  1909  to  66.1 
cents  in  1939.  Even  when  changes  in  cost  of  living 
are  taken  into  account,  the  figures  show  a  rise  in 
real  hourly  earnings  of  101.5  per  cent  during  the 
30-year  period.  Because  of  a  reduction  in  weekly 
hours,  weekly  or  annual  earnings  did  not  rise  as 
much  as  hourly  earnings,  but  the  Bureau  estimates 
a  gain  of  47  per  cent  in  real  weekly  earnings  dur- 
ing the  30-year  period. 

Union  Movements.  Throughout  the  world  in 
1940  organized  labor  faced  these  alternatives :  col- 
laboration with  the  government  or  domination  if 
not  elimination  by  the  government. 

The  most  notable  example  of  collaboration  with 
the  government  appeared  in  Great  Britain,  where 
the  Trades  Union  Congress  took  on  substantial  re- 
sponsibilities of  the  war  program.  Ernest  Bevin, 
secretary  of  the  Transport  and  General  Workers 
Union  and  leader  in  the  Trades  Union  Congress, 
became  Minister  of  Labour  and  National  Service 
when  Churchill  replaced  Chamberlain  as  Prime 
Minister.  Sir  Walter  Citrine,  secretary  of  the 
Trades  Union  Congress,  and  other  labor  leaders 
also  acquired  duties  in  support  of  the  government. 

Besides  appointment  of  trade  union  officers  to 
administrative  positions  in  the  government,  govern- 
ment-labor co-operation  appeared  in  the  National 
Joint  Advisory  Council,  created  in  October,  1939, 
which  included  representatives  of  the  Trades  Union 
Congress  and  the  British  Employers'  Confedera- 
tion. The  Council  has  important  policy-making  func- 
tions in  connection  with  production  and  labor  prob- 
lems arising  out  of  the  war. 

In  addition  to  this  main  Council,  a  whole  series 
of  joint  advisory  groups,  consisting  of  employer 
and  employee  representatives,  have  been  attached 
to  the  various  Ministries — the  National  Trade  Un- 
ion Advisory  Committee  attached  to  the  Ministry 
of  Supply,  which  is  assisted  in  its  work  by  district 
committees  acting  as  advisory  bodies  to  the  Minis- 
try's area  boards;  the  Advisory  Committee  at- 
tached to  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  Fish- 
eries ;  the  Advisory  Committee  to  the  Ministry  of 
Food ;  the  central  and  local  price  regulation  com- 
mittees attached  to  the  Board  of  Trade,  etc 

In  Germany  and  Italy  official  control  of  the  de- 
termination of  conditions  of  employment  and  wages 
has  been  intensified  so  that  very  little  scope  is  left 
to  the  initiative  of  the  parties  concerned.  The  Ger- 
man-speaking trade  unions  in  Czecho-Slovakia  have 
been  absorbed  by  the  German  Labor  Front,  and  the 
Czech-speaking  organizations  disappeared  soon  aft- 
er the  establishment  of  the  German  protectorate 
in  Bohemia -Mora  via.  Trade  unions  also  disap- 
peared in  Poland  with  the  occupation  by  German 
and  Soviet  troops  In  Spain  the  government  pro- 
mulgated a  Trade  Union  Unity  Act  which  makes 
the  Trade  Union  Organization  of  the  Spanish  Tra- 
ditionalist Phalanx  the  only  organization  recog- 
nized by  the  State;  all  workers'  associations  and 
employers'  associations  must  be  incorporated  in  the 
Phalanx  and  subject  to  its  discipline 

Organized  labor  in  the  United  States  experi- 
enced no  fundamental  change,  although  several  im- 
portant developments  appeared.  Machinery  for  col- 
laboration with  the  government  was  established  by 


appointment  of  Sidney  Hillman,  president  of  the 
Amalgamated  Clothing  Workers  and  vice-president 
of  the  Congress  of  Industrial  Organizations,  as  la- 
bor member  of  the  Advisory  Commission  to  the 
Council  of  National  Defense.  Hillman  then  ap- 
pointed an  advisory  group  consisting  of  represen- 
tatives of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  the 
Congress  of  Industrial  Organizations,  and  the  rail- 
way brotherhoods.  See  NATIONAL  DEFENSE  ADVI- 
SORY COMMISSION. 

Political  issues  threatening  to  disrupt  unions  be- 
came a  paramount  problem  during  the  year.  Pres. 
John  L.  Lewis  of  the  C  I.O.  endorsed  Republican 
Candidate  Wendell  Willkie  for  President  of  the 
United  States  and  announced  he  would  resign  from 
the  C.I.O.  presidency  if  Willkie  were  not  elected. 
Many  high-ranking  C.I.O.  officials  meanwhile  cam- 
paigned actively  in  behalf  of  the  re-election  of 
President  Roosevelt.  Following  the  re-election  of 
President  Roosevelt,  Mr.  Lewis  resigned  from  the 
C.I.O  presidency  during  the  third  constitutional 
convention  at  Atlantic  City  in  November  and  was 
succeeded  by  Phillip  Murray,  who  had  been  C.I.O. 
vice-president  and  chairman  of  the  Steel  Workers 
Organizing  Committee.  Rivalry  between  alleged 
Communist  and  anti -Communist  factions  also 
brought  a  variety  of  political  differences  in  unions 
to  the  foreground  during  the  year. 

Government  proceedings  against  labor  racketeer- 
ing in  a  few  unions  were  intensified  Ben  Gold, 
president  of  International  Fur  Workers  Union, 
C.I.O.,  and  ten  other  defendants  were  found  puilty 
in  New  York  Federal  Court  of  having  violated  the 
Sherman  Anti-Trust  Act  by  employing  terrorism 
to  control  jobs  in  New  York's  fur  industry.  George 
Scalise,  president  of  Building  Service  Employees 
International  Union,  A  F  L.,  was  convicted  of  steal- 
ing union  funds  Several  other  indictments  and 
convictions  of  a  similar  character  occurred  during 
the  year.  The  A  F.L.  in  its  Sixtieth  Annual  Con- 
vention at  New  Orleans  in  November  authorized 
the  A.F.L.  Executive  Council  to  "use  all  its  influ- 
ence" to  bring  about  the  removal  of  dishonest  union 
leaders  and  urged  A  F.L.  affiliates  to  amend  their 
constitutions  so  as  to  provide  for  discipline  of  such 
officials.  See  AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR; 
CONGRESS  or  INDUSTRIAL  ORGANIZATIONS. 

Collective  Bargaining.  Two  somewhat  con- 
flicting trends  in  connection  with  collective  bar- 
gaining appeared  to  develop  further  than  ever  be- 
fore during  1940.  Both  trends  led  away  from 
employer  dictation  of  labor  conditions  and  toward 
greater  government  participation  in  determination 
of  labor  conditions;  but  simultaneously  they  en- 
couraged and  discouraged  negotiation  between  man- 
agement and  worker  representatives  on  matters  of 
wages,  hours,  and  working  conditions  On  the  one 
hand,  governments  throughout  the  world  appeared 
to  be  facilitating  collective  bargaining  processes 
by  providing  more  mediation  and  arbitration  ma- 
chinery. On  the  other  hand,  in  many  countries  there 
were  growing  tendencies  to  regulate  wages,  hours, 
and  working  conditions  by  statute  or  governmental 
order  rather  than  by  collective  bargaining. 

In  most  of  the  countries  which  had  highly  de- 
veloped systems  of  collective  bargaining,  such  as 
Great  Britain,  Switzerland,  and  Sweden,  the  col- 
lective contracts  were  preserved  with  modifications 
necessary  for  adjustment  to  war-time  economies 
Switzerland  not  only  maintained  the  agreements 
almost  intact  but  required  that  all  agreements  should 
be  registered  with  the  government  and  provided 
machinery  for  settlement  of  labor  disputes. 


LABOR  CONDITIONS 


395 


LABOR  CONDITIONS 


Great  Britain  maintained  its  network  of  agree- 
ments but  simultaneously  introduced  governmental 
auxiliaries  into  collective  bargaining  processes.  Fol- 
lowing a  recommendation  of  the  National  Joint 
Advisory  Council,  the  Minister  of  Labour  promul- 
gated an  order  to  prevent  work  from  being  inter- 
rupted during  the  war  by  trade  disputes  Known 
as  the  Conditions  of  Employment  and  National 
Arbitration  Order,  it  came  into  effect  in  July,  1940, 
establishing  a  National  Arbitration  Tribunal  and 
outlawing  strikes  and  lock-outs  under  certain  con- 
ditions. It  provided  first  that  all  conciliation  ma- 
chinery should  be  used  to  handle  disputes ;  but  if 
settlement  appeared  to  be  unduly  delayed  or  if  no 
machinery  for  conciliation  was  available  in  the 
trade  or  industry  concerned,  the  Minister  of  La- 
bour was  empowered  to  refer  the  dispute  to  the 
Tribunal,  which  had  authority  to  make  binding 
awards.  Strikes  and  lock-outs  were  prohibited  un- 
less disputes  were  reported  to  the  Minister  and 
not  referred  by  him  for  settlement  within  three 
weeks  from  the  day  on  which  reported. 

In  countries  with  less  mature  systems  of  collec- 
tive bargaining — the  United  States,  Canada,  and 
some  of  the  South  American  nations — conciliation 
devices  were  expanded  The  Conciliation  Service 
(qv.)  of  the  US  Department  of  Labor  was  en- 
larged, and  simultaneously  mediation  activities  were 
carried  on  by  the  staff  of  Mr  Sidney  Hillman,  la- 
bor member  of  the  National  Defense  Commission. 
In  Canada  an  order  in  council  approved  June  19 
provided  that  where  any  controversy  arises  which 
cannot  be  adjusted  between  the  parties,  resort  should 
be  had  to  government  conciliation  agencies ;  it  was 
further  provided  that  if  settlement  could  not  be 
effected  by  direct  negotiation,  the  differences  should 
be  dealt  with  under  terms  of  the  Industrial  Dis- 
putes Investigation  Act,  which  under  the  War 
Measures  Act  was  made  applicable  to  all  war  work. 

Strikes.  Accelerated  production  and  the  rising 
cost  of  living  tended  to  create  more  disputes  in 
1940  than  usual,  but  on  the  basis  of  the  incomplete 
statistics  available  it  does  not  appear  that  these 
disputes  resulted  in  any  increase  in  strikes  through- 
out the  world.  No  doubt  improved  conciliation  ma- 
chinery and  patriotic  sacrifices  by  working  people 
for  national  defense  were  important  factors  in 
keeping  strikes  at  a  minimum. 

Great  Britain  in  June,  1940,  had  only  30  strikes, 
the  lowest  number  in  any  month  since  September, 
1934,  and  only  about  a  third  of  the  number  in  June, 
1939  The  total  of  strikes  in  the  first  five  months 
of  1940,  however,  was  larger  than  the  total  for  the 
corresponding  period  in  1939  But  after  the  Con- 
ditions of  Employment  and  National  Arbitration 
Order  went  into  effect  there  was  a  definite  decline 
in  strikes. 

Strikes  in  Canada  increased  in  frequency  and 
intensity  during  1940,  but  the  increase  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  be  considered  significant.  An  unusually 
long  strike  occurred  in  India.  It  was  reported  that 
on  March  5  about  150,000  of  Bombay's  textile 
workers  walked  out  following  a  demand  for  a  15 
per  cent  increase  in  wage  rates  to  offset  increases 
in  the  cost  of  living  The  strike  ended  April  12 
with  the  workers  getting  raises  amounting  to 
roughly  10  per  cent. 

Another  severe  strike  occurred  in  Australia 
March  11  when  about  25,000  employees  of  more 
than  200  mines  walked  out,  demanding  a  44-hour 
week  for  surface  workers,  with  wage  adjustments 
to  avert  reduction  of  earnings.  They  also  asked 
for  an  annual  holiday  of  two  weeks.  It  was  re- 


ported that  the  employers  refused  to  confer  with 
the  Miners'  Federation  until  the  latter  obeyed  a 
ruling  of  an  arbitration  court.  The  strike  ended 
May  15  when  it  was  agreed  that  th;  chief  judge 
of  the  arbitration  court  would  call  a  conference  to 
determine  all  outstanding  differences. 

Strikes  in  the  United  States  were  substantially 
reduced  in  1940  Measured  by  man-days  idle,  they 
amounted  to  less  than  half  the  strikes  in  1939. 
There  were  fewer  strikes  than  in  any  other  year 
since  1935  and  fewer  workers  involved  in  strikes 
than  in  any  year  since  1930. 

The  most  publici7ed  strike  of  the  year  was  the 
12-day  tie-up  in  November  of  the  Downey,  Cali- 
fornia, plant  of  the  Vultee  Aircraft  Company  by 
the  United  Automobile  Workers,  C.I  O.  About 
5200  employees  were  involved  The  company  was 
reported  to  have  military  contracts  totaling  $84,- 
000,000  and  to  be  the  sole  source  of  basic  training 
planes  for  the  Army  Air  Corps  Originally  the 
strikers'  demand  was  for  a  minimum  wage  of  75 
cents  an  hour  instead  of  the  50  cents  which  had 
been  paid.  As  negotiations  developed  there  was  also 
disagreement  concerning  provisions  for  adjusting 
disputes  under  the  proposed  agreement  The  strike 
was  settled  November  26  with  the  signing  of  a  16- 
mpnths  contract  providing  that  begmninp  workers 
without  experience  shall  receive  a  minimum  of  55 
cents  an  hour,  57%  cents  in  30  days,  and  62!4  cents 
in  60  more  days  The  agreement  contains  a  no- 
strike  clause  and  provides  a  set-up  for  handling 
grievances,  with  disagreements  going  to  an  arbitra- 
tion board 

Another  prominent  strike  was  that  at  the  New 
Kensington,  Pennsylvania,  works  of  the  Aluminum 
Company  of  America  in  November.  About  7500 

TREND  OF  STRIKES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES* 


No  of  strikes 

Workers  involved 

beginning  in 

in  strikes  be- 

Man-day i  idle 

Year  or 

year  or 

ginning  in  year 

durtnx  year 

month 

month 

or  month 

or  month 

1933 

1,695 

1,168,272 

16,872,128 

1914 

1,856 

1,466,695 

19.5Q1.949 

1915 

2,014 

1,117.213 

15.4S6.117 

1916 

2,172 

788,648 

11,901,956 

1937 
1918 

4,740 
2,772 

1,860,621 
688,176 

28,424,857 
9,148,271 

1939 
1940 

2,613 
2,450 

1,170,962 
575,000 

17,812,219 
6,500,000 

1939: 

Feb'. 

203 
204 

51,159 
68,2*2 

511,460 

553,118 

Mar. 

210 

43,317 

618,147 

Apr. 

281 

396,166 

4,902,238 

Afay 

258 

9S.129 

3,547,868 

June 
July 

245 
251 

62.514 
17S.542 

958,127 
1,168,388 

Aug. 

275 

79,670 

1,101,419 

Sept. 

197 

36,846 

892,485 

Oct. 

205 

106,628 

1,508,120 

Nov. 

178 

41,219 

1,664,574 

Dec. 

106 

12,350 

384,261 

1940: 

Jan. 

119 

26,714 

241.917 

Feb. 

153 

28,613 

284.966 

Mar. 

162 

22,127 

381.664 

209 

38,809 

414.089 

May 

220 

51,884 

651,797 

fcs? 

185 
206 

35,809 
61,120 

460,218 
554,225 

Aug. 

201 

60,031 

681,405 

Sept. 

211 

66,086 

771,218 

Oct. 

218 

67,692 

886,594 

Nov. 

200 

61,000 

660,000 

Dec. 

160 

40,000 

400,000 

*  Condensed  from  table*  of  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  US. 
Department  of  Labor  All  figures  for  1940  are  preliminary  Strikes 
involving  fewer  than  6  workeri  or  lasting  less  than  1  day  arc  not 
included in  this  table 


LABOR  CONDITIONS 


396 


LABOR  CONDITIONS 


MAJOR  ISSUES  INVOLVED  IN  STRIKES  DURING  1940* 
[Figures  represent  per  cent  of  total  strikes  betinning  in  month  \ 


Jan. 

Feb. 

Uor. 

A» 

May 

June 

July 

Aui 

Sept 

Oct. 

Wages  and  hours                  ... 

32.7 

29.5 

29.0 

31.4 

360 

41.1 

35.7 

26.0 

338 

32.1 

Wageincrease  

18.8 

18.9 

22.9 

24.0 

295 

315 

253 

203 

266 

229 

Wage  decrease 

50 

5.3 

46 

4.8 

15 

2.4 

49 

21 

29 

9 

Wage  increase,  hour  decrease     .  . 
Wage  decrease,  hour  increase      .  .  . 

69 
1.0 

3.8 

15 

21 

2.5 

4.2 

44 

36 

33 
.5 

64 

Hour  increase 

1.0 

6 

.5 

.5 

Hour  decrease      

1.0 

1.5 

1.5 

2.4 

1.1 

1.4 

Union  organization 

425 

538 

49.6 

49.5 

462 

44.6 

500 

526 

49.5 

528 

Recognition       .                 ... 

99 

121 

130 

10.1 

61 

42 

71 

11.5 

8.6 

101 

Recognition  and  wages      

128 

83 

152 

12.3 

107 

95 

9.3 

94 

129 

11.0 

Recognition  and  hours 
Recognition,  wages,  and  hours    .  . 
Closed  or  union  shop 

79 
89 

76 
166 

76 

84 

69 
11.8 

8il 
147 

17 
107 
107 

93 
150 

.5 
73 
176 

11.4 
81 

87 
119 

Discrimination 

30 

76 

46 

74 

51 

4.2 

49 

42 

5.2 

6.0 

Strengthening  bargaining  position.  .  . 

.8 

1.0 

3.0 

3.3 

2.1 

1.4 

2.3 

Other. 

.8 

8 

.5 

.6 

1  1 

1.9 

2.8 

Miscellaneous    .... 

248 

167 

214 

191 

17.8 

143 

14.3 

214 

167 

15.1 

Sympathy.                               .   . 
Rival  unions  or  factions 

30 

30 

23 
3.8 

1.1 
2.1 

36 

6 
3.0 

5 
22 

26 
31 

14 
29 

14 
50 

Jurisdiction.                   

50 

30 

21 

30 

12 

27 

16 

14 

14 

Other             

168 

10.7 

14.5 

138 

112 

9.5 

78 

136 

105 

7.3 

Not  reported              .     . 

8 

11 

*  From  tables  of  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  U  S  Department  of  Labor 


workers  were  involved.  Officials  of  the  company 
and  two  locals  of  the  Aluminum  Workers  Union, 
C.I.O.,  were  deadlocked  on  the  strikers'  only  an- 
nounced demand—that  the  company  discharge  an 
employee  who  was  alleged  to  have  threatened  a 
union  official  when  he  asked  the  worker  to  pay 
about  $12  in  back  dues.  Settlement  was  reached 
when  the  company  agreed  to  transfer  the  worker 
in  question  to  another  plant. 

Health  and  Safety.  The  hazards  of  war  and 
accelerated  production  undoubtedly  affected  health 
and  safety  records  in  industry  adversely  during  the 
year,  but  statistics  from  only  a  few  countries  are 
available. 

Canada's  records  show  that  by  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember a  total  of  56,907  accidents  was  reported  for 
the  year,  compared  with  42,946  during  the  same 
period  in  1939  Commenting  on  the  increase,  the 
Industrial  Accident  Prevention  Association  of  On- 
tario pointed  out  that  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  there  are  many  more  men  employed,  quite  a 
percentage  of  whom  are  working  on  new  opera- 
tions, and  the  tendency,  under  pressure  of  war  de- 
mands, to  increase  the  hours  of  work,  increases  the 
proneness  to  accident  Canada's  report  is  typical 
of  the  experience  of  the  other  countries  that  made 
reports. 

The  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  of  the  U.S.  De- 
partment of  Labor  in  July  published  its  annual  sta- 
tistics of  accidents,  showing  that  about  1,600,000 
persons  in  industry  were  killed  or  injured  during 
1939.  Of  these  about  16,400  were  fatalities  or  per- 
manent disabilities.  About  109,400  persons  suffered 
some  partial  but  permanent  impairment,  and  an- 
other 1,477,700  were  temporarily  but  totally  dis- 
abled. These  figures  represent  increases  over  those 
for  1938  for  all  types  of  disability  except  death 
and  permanent  total  disability,  for  which  there  was 
no  difference  between  the  1939  and  1938  experi- 
ences. 

Another  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  survey  pub- 
lished during  the  year  dealt  with  the  relation  of 
age  to  industrial  injuries.  The  study  grew  out  of 
workers'  objections  to  discrimination  against  older 
workers  in  management's  hiring  policies;  one  of 
the  reasons  cited  in  justification  for  this  policy  has 
been  that  the  older  worker  is  more  of  an  accident 
risk  than  the  younger  worker.  The  study  evaluat- 


ing this  contention  shows  that  older  workers  are 
injured  less  frequently  than  younger  workers ;  luit 
once  injured,  they  experience  proportionately  more 
deaths  and  permanent  impairments  than  younger 
workers.  Similarly,  the  healing  periods  of  older 
workers  in  temporary  disability  on  the  average  are 
longer  (See  "Relation  of  Age  to  Industrial  In- 
juries," Monthly  Labor  Review,  October,  1940,  pp 
789-804.) 

Women  in  Industry.  Several  phenomena  in 
connection  with  the  employment  of  women  in  busi- 
ness and  industry  appeared  during  the  year.  In 
many  countries  affected  by  war  or  mobilization 
there  were  increases  in  the  numbers  of  women  em- 
ployed and  simultaneously  increases  in  the  num- 
bers of  women  unemployed.  The  International  La- 
bour Office  reports  that  in  Great  Britain,  for 
example,  unemployment  of  women  increased  by 
174,981  in  one  month  near  the  end  of  1939  when  the 
hostilities  began  At  the  same  time,  however,  wom- 
en were  replacing  male  workers  drawn  from  in- 
dustry into  military  service. 

This  curious  circumstance  can  be  explained  in 
part  at  least  by  the  following  considerations.  Evac- 
uation of  large  cities  and  war-time  economies  re- 
sulted in  a  decline  of  businesses  which  happened 
to  employ  large  numbers  of  women — the  luxury 
industries,  hairdressing,  retail  trade,  hotels,  and 
domestic  service.  In  addition  to  women  laid  off 
from  such  employments,  the  ranks  of  unemployed 
women  were  swelled  by  the  wives  of  mobilized 
men  in  search  of  a  living  for  themselves  and  their 
families.  Development  of  war  industries  mean- 
while called  for  large  labor  forces  at  a  time  when 
men  were  needed  for  military  service,  and  although 
statistics  are  not  available  it  is  likely  that  by  the 
end  of  the  year  the  numbers  of  employed  women 
were  higher  than  ever  before.  If  at  the  end  of  the 
year  the  numbers  of  unemployed  women  also  were 
higher  than  ever  before  it  was  only  because  of  the 
greater  numbers  of  women  entering  the  employ- 
ment market 

Throughout  the  world  it  appears  that  employ- 
ment of  women  in  branches  of  business  and  indus- 
try where  they  had  seldom  worked  before  was 
common.  On  the  basis  of  data  from  the  American 
consul  general  at  Leipzig,  the  U.S.  Department  of 
Labor  reported: 


LABOR  LEGISLATION 


397 


LABOR  LEGISLATION 


Man?  wives  or  daughters  of  tradesmen — butchers,  bak- 
ers, tailors,  barbers,  and  hairdressers — have  assumed 
charge  of  their  husband's  or  father's  business  while  the  lat- 
ter is  away  on  military  service  ... 

Other  professions  usually  earned  on  by  men  but  not  in 
the  hands  of  women  are  those  of  the  postmen  and  local  rail* 
way  and  streetcar  conductors  .  .  . 

One  unusual  change  of  vocation  reported  was  that  of  a 
mannequin  who  lost  her  position  on  account  of  the  curtail* 
ment  of  textile  fashion  trades  and  became  the  driver  of  a 
farm  tractor.  (Monthly  Labor  Review,  May,  1940,  pp. 
1147,  1148.) 

At  the  same  time  that  women  were  entering  new 
fields  of  employment,  the  trend  toward  greater 
protection  of  women  workers  was  retarded  Al- 
though the  full  facts  are  not  available  it  appears 
that  where  women  replace  men  on  jobs  they  work 
under  conditions  practically  the  same  as  those  un- 
der which  the  men  worked  While  the  protective 
laws  for  women  workers  adopted  in  most  countries 
have  not  been  completely  abandoned,  enforcement 
of  the  laws  has  been  deliberately  relaxed. 

Child  Labor.  Young  persons  and  children  en- 
tered industry  in  increasing  numbers  under  the  war- 
time pressures  While  it  appears  that  circumstances 
have  not  yet  produced  serious  problems  in  connec- 
tion with  their  employment,  the  normal  develop- 
ment of  protective  legislation  for  young  workers 
has  nevertheless  been  impeded  by  the  war,  and  in 
some  countries  special  exceptions  to  the  existing 
legislation  have  been  authorized.  Switzerland,  how- 
ever, raised  the  minimum  age  of  employment  from 
14  to  15  years  despite  the  general  pressure  in  Eu- 
rope for  change  in  the  opposite  direction. 

In  the  United  States  the  youth  labor  problem 
in  recent  years  has  not  been  so  much  a  problem  of 
children  working  prematurely  or  under  unfavor- 
able conditions  but  a  problem  of  idleness  among 
young  people  unable  to  find  jobs  The  helpfulness 
of  the  National  Youth  Administration  and  Civilian 
Conservation  Corps  in  coping  with  this  latter  prob- 
lem continued  during  1940,  unemployment  among 
young  people  was  fuither  relieved  by  the  large- 
scale  army  and  navy  recruiting 

See  also  articles  listed  under  LABOR. 

WILLIAM  M.  LEISERSON. 

LABOR  LEGISLATION.  The  annual  grist 
of  new  labor  laws  was  less  in  1940  than  during 
almost  any  other  year  during  the  past  quarter  of 
a  century.  This  meagerness  of  legislation  is  ac- 
counted for  only  in  part  by  the  comparatively  few 
States  regularly  holding  legislative  sessions  during 
the  even-numbered  years,  which  legislatively  are 
always  the  "off  years."  In  addition,  there  was  a 
slowing  up  of  the  positive  drive  for  new  kinds  of 
legislation — perhaps  because  it  was  general  elec- 
tion year  and  on  the  assumption  that  unprecedented 
rapid  advance  had  recently  been  made  requiring  an 
interval  for  assimilation.  Finally,  as  always  in  a 
period  of  "national  emergency,"  the  opposition  to 
further  legislation  not  only  used  the  occasion  for 
insistent  pleas  to  be  unhampered  in  speeding  up 
production,  but  they  also  intensified  their  attacks 
upon  existing  labor  laws  and  particularly  upon 
their  administration. 

Eight  States  (Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Mississippi, 
New  Jersey,  New  York,  Rhode  Island,  South  Car- 
olina, and  Virginia)  held  regular  sessions  in  1940. 
There  were  also  special  sessions  in  twelve  States 
(Arizona,  California,  Illinois,  Louisiana,  Maine, 
Missouri,  Nebraska,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Vermont, 
New  York,  New  Mexico)  but  these  resulted  in 
little  that  could  be  classed  as  new  labor  laws.  In 
fact,  the  special  sessions  added  little  except  the 


amendment  of  unemployment  compensation  laws 
in  Illinois,  Louisiana,  Maine,  Nebraska,  and  Penn- 
sylvania. Moreover,  the  only  notable  advance  made 
in  those  States  which  in  November  submitted  pro- 
posals for  ratification  by  vote  of  the  people  were 
the  final  approval  of  the  1939  workmen's  compen- 
sation law  in  Arkansas  and  the  substitution  of  a 
new  old-age  pension  law  in  Washington.  The  third 
session  of  the  76th  Congress  which  met  through- 
out the  year  contributed  much  less  than  usual. 

Of  the  States,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  Ken- 
tucky was  the  most  productive,  while  the  most  im- 
portant single  piece  of  social  security  legislation 
was  enacted  by  Congress— a  very  substantial  liber- 
alization of  unemployment  compensation  for  rail- 
way workers. 

Of  importance,  too,  was  the  only  child  labor 
amendment  of  the  year — a  unique  New  Jersey  sys- 
tem for  the  certification  of  children  employed  in 
agriculture  outside  school  hours  and  within  vaca- 
tions Further  possibilities  of  State  co-operation 
in  administration  of  the  Federal  Fair  Labor  Stand- 
ards Act  was  provided  by  new  laws  in  Kentucky 
and  Rhode  Island,  making  a  total  of  nine  States 
and  Hawaii  now  having  such  enabling  acts 

Rather  than  substantive  changes,  the  new  State 
labor  legislation  this  year  put  special  and  encour- 
aging emphasis  upon  improving  the  administration 
of  existing  laws.  Administrative  changes  made  in 
Kentucky  and  Virginia  as  well  as  in  Illinois  and 
New  York,  it  is  hoped,  will  bring  better  law  en- 
forcement But  Mississippi — the  most  backward  of 
all  States — not  only  preserved  her  unenviable  dis- 
tinction of  being  the  only  State  without  a  work- 
man's compensation  law  but  also  killed  a  bill  which 
would  have  provided  for  the  first  time  a  State 
Labor  Department  for  the  enforcement  of  her 
existing  meager  beginnings  of  protective  laws 

Social  Security.  Repealing  all  other  acts  in 
conflict  therewith,  the  voters  of  the  State  of  Wash- 
ington by  an  initiative  measure  provided  for  a  min- 
imum old-age  pension  of  $40  monthly  to  citizens 
over  65,  conformed  State  and  Federal  matching 
funds  and  age  limit,  abolished  liens  on  property, 
and  strengthened  administration  By  congressional 
amendment  Federal  annuity  benefits  under  the  Rail- 
way Retirement  Act  are  to  be  determined  with 
reference  to  military  pensions  based  on  such  com- 
pulsory service  prior  to  Jan.  1,  1937,  but  duplica- 
tion of  pensions  is  avoided 

State  unemployment  compensation  laws  in  Ken- 
tucky, Louisiana,  Maine,  Nebraska,  Pennsylvania, 
Virginia,  Illinois,  New  York,  and  South  Carolina 
were  amended  to  conform  with  the  1939  revisions 
of  the  Social  Security  Act  Especially  changes  in 
definitions  to  widen  exemption  of  "agricultural 
labor,"  to  exclude  student  part-time  workers,  golf 
caddies,  newspaper  carriers  under  18,  and  non- 
profit associations,  as  well  as  to  exclude  wages  in 
excess  of  $3000  per  year,  were  enacted  The  wait- 
ing period  in  Rhode  Island  was  reduced.  Missis- 
sippi and  Virginia  increased  benefit  amounts  and 
strengthened  eligibility  provisions.  New  Jersey  pro- 
tected benefit  rights  of  those  inducted  into  military 
service,  and  Virginia  joined  the  vast  majority  hav- 
ing experience  rating  provisions  under  unemploy- 
ment compensation  Very  substantial  liberalization 
of  the  Railroad  Unemployment  Insurance  Act  was 
provided  by  Congress  (See  RAILWAYS) 

Workmen's  Compensation.  Kentucky  increased 
the^  duration  and  the  maximum  amount  limits  of 
accident  compensation  in  cases  of  death  and  total 
disability.  Benefits  to  totally  disabled  silicosis  vie- 


LABOR  LEGISLATION 


398 


LACROSSE 


tims  were  increased  in  New  York  from  a  $3000  to 
a  $5000  maximum  by  December,  1943,  and  medical 
care  was  extended  to  360  days  instead  of  180  days 
beyond  the  first  90  days  of  continuous  treatment 
Alabama  lowered  her  strikingly  excessive  numeri- 
cal exemption  of  16  to  "employers  of  eight  or 
more/'  reduced  the  waiting  period  from  two  weeks 
to  seven  days,  and  required  bond  or  proof  of  finan- 
cial ability  from  non-insuring  employers.  By  ref- 
erendum Arkansas  approved  her  suspended  work- 
men's compensation  law  of  1939. 

Labor  Relations.  The  National  Labor  Rela- 
tions Act  continued  to  weather  the  storm  of  pro- 
posed amendments.  In  the  States  the  trend  was  in 
the  direction  of  widening  the  mediation  powers  of 
industrial  commissioners  and  labor  boards.  The 
New  York  law  as  amended  permits  the  State  Labor 
Relations  Board  to  engage  in  efforts  to  obtain  vol- 
untary adjustments.  Kentucky  enacted  a  declara- 
tion of  public  policy  in  favor  of  peaceful  picketing 
and  the  right  to  strike  as  well  as  self -organization 
and  collective  bargaining  free  from  employer  coer- 
cion. Where  both  parties  to  the  dispute  agree  the 
labor  commissioner  may  mediate  with  strike  and 
lockout  prohibited  for  15  days. 

Child  Labor.  New  Jersey  enacted  the  only  new 
child  labor  law.  It  provides  a  16  year  minimum 
(formerly  14)  for  full  time  employment  and  for 
work  in  a  factory,  and  minors  from  12  to  16  may 
work  after  school  hours  and  during  school  vaca- 
tion depending  on  type  of  work  as  defined  in  the 
Act,  which  also  designates  the  type  of  certificate 
that  must  be  issued  to  minors  under  18  years  of 
age  before  they  may  be  employed.  For  all  minors 
under  16,  except  those  engaged  in  agriculture  pur- 
suits, domestic,  and  messenger  services,  the  com- 
bined hours  of  work  and  school  should  not  exceed 
eight  hours  per  day.  Work  in  agriculture  is  per- 
mitted at  12  years  for  10  hours  per  day.  Minors 
under  16  years  of  age  must  attend  schools  when 
schools  are  in  session  in  the  district  where  they  are 
employed. 

Federal  Child  Labor  Amendment  ratification 
resolutions  were  defeated  in  Louisiana,  New  York, 
Rhode  Island,  and  South  Carolina,  with  eight  State 
ratifications  short  of  the  required  36. 

Health  and  Safety.  Kentucky  provided  for 
study  of  the  causes  of  occupational  injuries,  the 
promotion  of  safety  measures,  the  tagging  of  dan- 
gerous machines,  inspection  of  work  places  in  co- 
operation with  Federal  agencies,  improvement  of 
labor  statistics,  and  the  promulgation  of  safety  rules. 
Employers  are  required  to  make  the  work  places 
safe,  and  to  furnish  safety  devices.  Failure  of  the 
worker  to  use  such  devices  is  to  be  regarded  as 
prima  facie  evidence  that  his  injury  was  self -caused. 
Virginia  excluded  machinery  for  production,  har- 
vesting or  processing  agricultural  products  from 
the  provisions  relative  to  safety  appliances  of  her 
safety  law. 

Wages  and  Hours.  Aside  from  a  Kentucky  law 
for  prevailing  rate  of  pay  and  the  8-hour  day  and 
40-hour  week  in  contracts  for  public  work,  the 
legislation  under  this  head  looked  to  increased  Fed- 
eral action  and  co-operation.  Both  Kentucky  and 
Rhode  Island  authorized  joint  administration  of 
the  Federal  Fair  Labor  Standards  Act,  bringing 
such  enabling  acts  to  a  total  of  nine  States  and 
Hawaii.  Meanwhile,  Congress  changed  the  Fed- 
eral law,  permitting  its  administrators  to  recom- 
mend for  Puerto  Rico  and  the  Virgin  Islands  hour- 
ly wage  rates  below  the  statutory  minimum.  Owing 
to  the  national  defense  emergency,  Congress  modi- 


fied hour  restrictions  from  time  to  time  and  gave 
to  the  President  special  power  to  suspend  the  Pub- 
lic Contract  law  when  such  course  is  in  the  public 
interest. 

Miscellaneous.  Industrial  homework  laws  were 
clarified  and  strengthened  in  New  Jersey  and  New 
York.  Kentucky  prohibited  wage  "kick  backs/' 
Virginia  safeguarded  her  semi-monthly  pay  law. 
Rhode  Island  required  employers  soliciting  labor 
during  a  strike  or  lockout  to  announce  the  exist- 
ence of  the  labor  dispute.  New  York  abolished  the 
right  of  a  prospective  employer  to  waive  employ- 
ment agency  investigation  of  references  of  appli- 
cants for  work  in  private  families  or  in  a  fiduciary 
capacity.  Alabama  and  Illinois  requested  review  of 
their  merit  rating  programs  under  unemployment 
compensation,  and  Kentucky  authorized  a  study  of 
civil  service  in  relation  to  unemployment  compen- 
sation administration. 

Administration.  Kentucky  took  an  important 
step  toward  unification  of  labor  law  administration 
by  greatly  extending  the  functions  of  her  Depart- 
ment of  Industrial  Relations.  This  includes  rule- 
making  authority  through  a  representative  indus- 
trial safety  board.  Virginia  transferred  authority 
to  appoint  the  chief  mine  inspector  from  the  Com- 
missioner of  Labor  to  the  Governor,  and  trans- 
ferred the  employment  office  system  to  the  Unem- 
ployment Compensation  Board.  Louisiana  reorgan- 
ized her  Department  of  Labor  under  a  4-year  term 
director  with  a  3-member  board  appointed  for  9- 
year  staggered  terms.  Also  provided  are  a  5-mem- 
ber  board  of  review,  and  special  divisions  of  em- 
ployment security  and  of  women  and  children  in 
industry.  Rule-making  authority  is  included.  In 
New  York  the  old  mediation  facilities  in  the  De- 
partment of  Labor  were  transferred  to  the  newer 
Mediation  Board,  which  like  the  Industrial  Rela- 
tions Board,  is  within  the  Labor  Department. 

The  Advisory  Commission  to  the  Council  of  Na- 
tional Defense  (q.v.),  includes  a  Labor  Division 
headed  by  a  representative  of  labor  with  16  other 
labor  representatives  drawn  from  the  outstanding 
groups  of  labor  organizations. 

See  OREGON. 

JOHN  B.  ANDREWS. 

LABOR  UNIONS.  See  AMERICAN  FEDERA- 
TION OF  LABOR;  CONGRESS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ORGAN- 
IZATIONS; LABOR  CONDITIONS. 

LABRADOR.  See  under  NEWFOUNDLAND. 

LABUAN.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

LACROSSE.  The  1940  season  in  lacrosse  was 
marked  by  three  indelible  factors— the  consistent 
power  of  the  University  of  Maryland,  the  reap- 
pearance of  Johns  Hopkins  in  the  ranks  of  strong 
contenders,  and  the  collapse  of  Navy  after  two 
years  at  the  top  of  the  game. 

Maryland  remained  unbeaten  throughout  the 
year  and  administered  to  Johns  Hopkins  the  lat- 
ter's  only  defeat.  Navy,  bereft  of  all  its  recent 
champion  players,  encountered  its  most  dishearten- 
ing season  and  was  even  humiliated  by  its  tradi- 
tional rival,  Army.  Princeton  ranked  third  among 
the  teams. 

An  all-star  Northern  team  defeated  an  all-star 
Southern  combination,  6-5,  in  what  was  regarded 
by  some  as  a  substitute  attraction  for  the  regular 
international  competition.  The  Northerners  were 
piloted  by  King  and  Turner  of  Princeton,  the 
Southerners  by  Brown  of  Duke  and  Litz  of  Loyo- 
la. Players  from  18  colleges  participated  in  the 
event 


LADIES'  GARMENT  WORKERS        399 


LATTER-DAY  SAINTS 


LADIES'  GARMENT  WORKERS  UN- 
ION,  International.  See  AMERICAN  FEDERATION 
OF  LABOR. 

LANDS,  Public.  See  GENERAL  LAND  OF- 
FICE; GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY;  LAND  UTILIZATION, 
OFFICE  OF. 

LAND  UTILIZATION,  Office  of.  Co-ordi- 
nation of  forestry  conservation  and  soil  erosion 
control  activities  on  285,000,000  acres  of  public  do- 
main was  advanced  in  1940  with  the  establishment 
on  October  2  in  the  U.S.  Department  of  the  In- 
terior of  the  Office  of  Land  Utilization.  Made  pos- 
sible by  the  President's  Reorganization  Plan  IV, 
the  new  agency  resulted  from  the  transfer  from 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  soil  erosion  and 
moisture  control  operations  on  the  public  domain, 
and  a  strengthening  of  the  organization  under 
which  forestry  activities  in  the  Department  of  the 
Interior  were  administered  by  the  Office  of  Direc- 
tor of  Forests.  Lee  Muck,  Director  of  Forests, 
was  named  Assistant  to  the  Secretary  in  Charge 
of  Land  Utilization,  to  supervise  the  new  conserva- 
tion agency. 

Although  the  co-ordination  was  set  under  way 
too  late  for  the  assembly  of  detailed  statistical  in- 
formation concerning  the  1940  fiscal  year,  the  soil 
and  moisture  conservation  activities  on  the  public 
lands  do  not  impose  a  new  responsibility  or  present 
new  technical  problems  to  the  Department  of  the 
Interior,  since  hitherto  the  bureaus  and  agencies 
under  its  jurisdiction  have  formulated  and  carried 
out  such  soil  conservation  programs  as  available 
funds  would  permit. 

In  general,  the  task  confronting  the  new  Office 
involves  soil  and  moisture  conservation  on  large 
tracts  of  public  domain,  principally  in  the  West, 
where  a  complex  ownership  pattern,  also  embrac- 
ing lands  in  State  and  private  ownership,  presents 
an  extremely  difficult  management  problem  requir- 
ing a  high  degree  of  co-operation  for  its  solution. 

In  the  field  of  forestry  conservation,  the  Office 
of  Director  of  Forests  registered  notable  progress 
during  the  1940  fiscal  year  Ever  since  1850,  forest 
administration  has  been  one  of  the  principal  func- 
tions of  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  and  be- 
cause of  the  highly  diversified  conditions  existing 
on  the  public  domain,  the  National  Parks  and  on 
Indian  Lands,  the  Department  carries  on  a  wider 
range  of  forestry  functions  than  any  other  Federal 
Department  It  is  also  highly  significant  that  under 
its  jurisdiction  at  the  present  time  is  almost  two- 
thirds  of  the  area  of  all  Federal  lands  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  proper,  and,  if  Alaska  is  included,  its 
jurisdiction  extends  over  almost  three-fourths  of 
all  Federal  lands. 

It  is  the  policy  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior 
to  make  the  management  of  its  industrial  forests 
a  model  of  economy  and  good  business.  In  fact,  the 
administration  of  Indian  forests  and  the  2,500,000 
acres  of  revested  and  reconveyed  Oregon  and  Cali- 
fornia Railroad  and  Coos  Bay  Wagon  Road  grant 
lands  in  Oregon  has  always  been  conducted  well 
within  income.  ^ 

A  consideration  of  the  results  of  operations  on 
Indian  forests  for  the  period  from  1910  to  1939, 
inclusive,  discloses  a  gross  income  of  $46,142,780. 
The  cost  of  administration  and  protection  during 
the  same  period  totaled  $7,542,900,  reflecting  an 
average  ratio  of  cost  to  income  of  approximately 
16  per  cent.  The  total  income  from  Indian  forest 
and  range  lands  during  the  fiscal  year  ended  June 
30, 1940,  was  $2,718,397,  and  the  cost  of  administra- 
tion and  protection  was  $501,500,  reflecting  an  op- 


erating coefficient  of  approximately  18  per  cent. 

The  income  from  the  sale  of  timber  on  the  O 
and  C  grant  lands  for  the  period  1918  to  1939,  in- 
clusive, was  $10,350,150  and  the  cost  of  administra- 
tion and  protection  during  this  same  period  aver- 
aged less  than  3  per  cent  thereof.  Subsequent  to 
the  enactment  of  the  act  of  Aug  28,  1937,  admin- 
istrative costs  have  increased  materially  by  reason 
of  the  application  of  a  policy  of  sustained-yield 
forest  management.  However,  there  has  been  an 
increase  in  revenues  and  costs  are  constrained  by 
law  to  25  per  cent  of  the  income. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  Chief  Forester, 
receipts  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1940, 
totaled  $852,647  and  the  cost  of  Administration  and 
protection  was  $160,000,  thereby  reflecting  a  ratio 
of  cost  to  income  of  approximately  18  per  cent  or 
less  than  the  operating  coefficient  provided  by  the 
1937  act. 

For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  Depart- 
ment funds  were  provided  for  the  protection  of  the 
Interior  forests  of  Alaska  during  1940  and  an  ef- 
ficient protection  unit,  supplemented  by  the  CCC 
was  organized  and  marked  progress  made  in  fire 
prevention  and  suppression. 

LEE  MUCK. 

LAOS.  See  FRENCH  INDO-CHTNA. 

LATAKIA.  See  SYRIA  AND  LEBANON. 

LATIN  AMERICA.  See  articles  on  the  vari- 
ous countries  of  the  Caribbean,  Central  America, 
and  South  America ;  also  COMMUNISM  ;  FASCISM  ; 
PAN  AMERICANISM;  PAN  AMERICAN  UNION; 
SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES 

LATIN  STUDIES.  See  PHILOLOGY,  CLASSI- 
CAL. 

LATTER-DAY  SAINTS  (Mormons).  A 
religious  connection  founded  in  1830  at  Fayette, 
N  Y.,  by  Joseph  Smith  After  his  death  in  1844 
several  factions  developed,  one  of  which  became  the 
Reorganized  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-day 
Saints  or  Josephites  (headquarters  at  Independ- 
ence, Mo  ).  See  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS. 

Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-day 
Saints,  the  oldest  group  of  Latter-day  Saints, 
has  its  membership  largely  in  the  mountain  States 
As  of  Dec.  31,  1939,  the  organization  included  126 
stakes,  1055  wards,  and  133  branches  with  a  total 
population  of  803,528  There  are  16  missions  in  the 
two  Americas  with  488  branches  and  a  membership 
of  106,108  In  Europe  there  were  315  branches  and 
the  membership  31,745.  Those  in  the  Pacific  Is- 
lands 199  branches  and  a  membership  of  19,957. 
Of  the  2083  missionaries,  1049  were  at  work  out- 
side of  the  United  States. 

The  administrative  affairs  of  the  Church  and  the 
performance  of  all  Church  ordinances  are  attended 
to  by  the  Priesthood,  consisting  of  the  Melchizedek 
Priesthood,  a  senior  order,  with  105,355  male  mem- 
bers, and  the  Aaronic  Priesthood,  a  junior  order, 
with  101,979  male  members  The  Church  maintains 
seven  temples  devoted  to  sacred  ordinances  for  the 
living  and  the  dead,  such  as  baptisms,  endowments, 
and  marriages.  It  also  maintains  the  Brigham 
Young  University,  Ricks  Junior  College,  Latter- 
day  Saints  Business  College,  12  collegiate  Insti- 
tutes, 2  high  schools,  103  senior  seminaries  (schools 
adjoining  high  schools  that  provide  special  reli- 
gious instruction),  118  junior  seminaries  (schools 
for  the  religious  training  of  junior  high  school  stu- 
dents), and  6  elementary  schools.  Enrollment  in 
senior  seminaries  is  20,211 ;  in  junior  seminaries, 
5418. 


LATVIA 


400 


LATVIA 


The  auxiliary  bodies  include  a  Women's  Relief 
Society,  numbering  in  1939,  86,142  members  who 
care  for  the  sick  and  the  poor.  The  Sunday  Schools 
in  1939  had  an  enrollment  of  370,965.  The  two  Mu- 
tual Improvement  Associations  composed  of  young 
people  had  an  enrollment  of  142,737.  The  Primary 
Association  for  those  under  twelve,  125,202  mem- 
bers. 

The  Church  holds  in  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  two 
General  Conferences  each  year,  one  during  the  first 
week  in  April  and  the  other  the  first  week  in  Oc- 
tober. On  Jan.  1,  1939,  the  General  Authorities 
were:  First  Presidency — Heber  J.  Grant,  Presi- 
dent ;  J.  Reuben  Clark,  Jr.,  first  counselor ;  David 
O.  McKay,  second  counselor. 

LATVIA.  A  former  Baltic  State,  which  pro- 
claimed its  independence  from  Soviet  Russia  Nov. 
18,  1918.  and  was  reannexed  to  the  U.S  S.R.  as  a 
constituent  republic  Aug.  5,  1940.  Capital,  Riga. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  25,402  square 
miles ;  estimated  population  on  Dec.  31, 1939, 1,951,- 
000.  About  35  per  cent  of  the  population  lives  in 
communities  of  2000  or  more.  Living  births  in  1939 
numbered  36,932  (18.5  per  1000)  ;  deaths,  27,827 
(13.9  per  1000).  The  population  of  Riga  in  1939 
was  393,211;  of  other  towns  at  the  1935  census: 
Liepaja  (Libau),  57,098;  Daugavpils  (Dvinsk), 
45,160;  Jelgava  (Mitau),  34,099. 

Education  and  Religion.  At  the  1930  census, 
13.6  per  cent  of  the  population  10  years  of  age  and 
over  were  illiterate.  In  1938-39  there  were  1895 
elementary  schools,  with  229,825  pupils;  114  sec- 
ondary schools,  with  25,225  pupils,  135  technical 
and  vocational  schools,  with  11,442  students;  and 
one  university  (at  Riga),  with  7281  students  At 
the  1935  census,  56  13  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants 
were  Protestants,  24  45  Roman  Catholics,  14  4  per 
cent  Greek  Catholics  and  members  of  the  Ortho- 
dox Church,  and  4.79  per  cent  Jews. 

Production.  Agriculture,  stock  raising,  lum- 
bering, and  manufacturing  are  the  principal  occu- 
pations. Yields  of  the  chief  crops  in  1939  were  (in 
metric  tons):  Wheat,  198,700;  barley,  209,000; 
rye,  429,700;  oats,  450,300;  potatoes,  1,640,100; 
beet  sugar,  36,000  in  1939-40 ;  linseed,  25,000.  Live- 
stock in  1939  included  1,271,720  cattle,  1,469,570 
sheep,  891,470  swine,  and  414,470  horses.  State  and 
private  forests  covered  4,317,482  acres  and  pro- 
duced 3,439,250  cubic  meters  of  timber  in  1937-38 
There  were  5977  industrial  enterprises  with  98,497 
employees  on  Dec  31,  1938  Metallurgy,  textiles, 
wood- working,  foodstuffs,  and  chemicals  were  the 
principal  manufacturing  lines 

Foreign  Trade.  Merchandise  imports  in  1939 
were  224,600,000  lats  (227,400,000  in  1938)  ;  ex- 
ports, 228,100,000  lats  (227,200,000  in  1938).  Pre- 
war trade  was  mainly  with  Germany  and  the  Unit- 
ed Kingdom.  See  TRADE,  FOREIGN  for  commerce 
with  United  States. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  Mar.  31, 
1940,  revenue  was  estimated  at  198,852,000  lats; 
expenditure,  198,696,000  lats.  For  1938-39,  actual 
receipts  were  204,807,000  lats  and  expenditures 
186,471,000  lats.  As  of  Mar.  31,  1940,  the  public 
debt  totaled  197,200,000  lats  (internal,  51,900,000; 
external,  145,300,000).  Average  exchange  value  of 
the  lat,  $0.1938  in  1938  and  $0.1852  in  1939. 

Transportation.  At  the  beginning  of  1940  there 
were  about  2075  miles  of  railway  lines,  58,730  miles 
of  roads,  2775  miles  of  inland  waterways,  and  air 
connections  from  Riga  to  Liepaja,  Kaunas,  Tal- 
linn, Stockholm,  and  Moscow.  The  Latvian  mer- 
chant marine  in  1939  comprised  194,000  gross  tons 


(see  GREAT  BRITAIN  under  History  for  detention 
of  Latvian  ships  in  British  ports  in  1940). 

Government.  The  democratic  Constitution 
adopted  by  a  Constituent  Assembly  on  Feb.  15, 
1922,  was  suspended  May  15,  1934,  when  a  de  facto 
anti-Communist  dictatorship  was  established  by  the 
government  headed  by  Premier  Karlis  Ulmanis. 
Parliament  was  dissolved,  political  parties  abol- 
ished, and  legislative  functions  were  assumed  by 
the  Ulmanis  Cabinet.  When  the  term  of  President 
Kviesis  expired  Apr.  11,  1936,  Dr.  Ulmanis  as- 
sumed the  Presidency  in  addition  to  the  Premier- 
ship. See  History  for  1940  developments. 

HISTORY 

After  22  years  of  independent  existence,  the  re- 
public of  Latvia  was  annexed  by  the  Soviet  Union 
on  Aug.  5,  1940  It  was  expunged  from  the  list  of 
sovereign  States  by  exactly  the  same  methods  that 
brought  simultaneous  doom  to  the  neighboring 
States  of  Estonia  and  Lithuania.  The  mutual  as- 
sistance pact  signed  with  the  U.S.S.R.  Oct.  5,  1939, 
under  threat  of  invasion  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p. 
418),  permitted  the  establishment  of  Soviet  mili- 
tary, naval,  and  air  bases  on  Latvian  soil  and  gave 
the  Russians  a  stranglehold  which  they  later  used 
to  destroy  Latvian  independence. 

In  February  of  1940  the  Latvian  Government  in- 
dicated fear  that  Moscow  had  further  designs  up- 
on the  republic.  The  Latvian  and  Estonian  army 
chiefs  conferred  on  mutual  defense  measures  On 
February  13  President  Ulmanis  warned  his  coun- 
trymen to  be  "ready  to  make  great  sacrifices  in  the 
near  future."  The  Foreign  Ministers  of  Estonia, 
Latvia,  and  Lithuania,  meeting  in  Riga  in  mid- 
March,  again  proclaimed  that  the  Baltic  Entente 
would  follow  a  neutrality  policy  as  "the  best  as- 
surance of  maintaining  their  independence." 

The  futility  of  these  efforts  was  demonstrated 
on  June  16  when  Moscow,  alarmed  by  the  French 
capitulation  to  Germany,  accused  Latvia  and  Es- 
tonia of  forming  a  secret  military  alliance  against 
Russia  and  presented  another  ultimatum.  It  de- 
manded the  establishment  of  a  pro-Soviet  govern- 
ment that  would  assure  fulfillment  of  the  mutual 
assistance  pact  and  the  passage  of  additional  Soviet 
troops  into  Latvia  The  Ulmanis  Government  hast- 
ily assented,  but  without  waiting  for  the  ratifica- 
tion or  proclamation  of  the  new  agreement  Soviet 
troops  poured  across  the  frontiers  on  June  17  and 
occupied  the  capital.  While  the  Russians  continued 
to  occupy  the  other  principal  cities  and  towns,  a 
representative  of  the  Soviet  Foreign  Office  super- 
vised the  establishment  on  June  20  of  a  pro-Soviet 
government  headed  by  Prof.  August  Kirchenstein 
as  Premier  and  Foreign  Minister. 

The  new  government  on  July  5  called  parlia- 
mentary elections  for  July  14-15.  It  legalized  the 
Communist  party,  purged  the  Latvian  army  of  "re- 
actionary elements,"  introduced  the  Soviet  system 
of  political  commissars  in  the  army  with  a  Latvian 
Communist  as  chief  commissar,  dissolved  the  anti- 
Communist  National  Guard,  introduced  the  death 
penalty  for  sabotage,  and  inaugurated  the  sovieti- 
zation  of  the  republic  in  the  economic  and  social 
as  well  as  in  the  political  fields. 

As  in  Estonia  and  Lithuania,  only  candidates  of 
the  Communist-controlled  Working  Peoples'  Bloc, 
representing  a  small  fraction  of  the  population, 
were  given  places  on  the  ballot.  According  to  the 
Latvian  Minister  to  the  United  States,  all  voters 
were  obliged  to  go  to  the  polls  under  the  threat  of 
being  treated  as  "enemies  of  the  people"  if  they 


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failed  to  have  balloting  stamps  on  their  passports. 
The  press,  radio,  and  all  other  instruments  of  prop- 
aganda were  placed  under  Communist  control  in 
advance  of  the  elections.  There  were  numerous  ar- 
rests. The  government  announced  that  94.7  per  cent 
of  the  voters  went  to  the  polls  in  the  July  elections 
and  that  97.6  per  cent  voted  for  the  one-party  pro- 
Soviet  ticket.  This  contrasted  with  reports  that  in 
some  rural  districts  only  about  25  per  cent  of  those 
registered  actually  voted 

Immediately  after  the  elections  a  government- 
sponsored  campaign  for  union  with  Russia  was  in- 
tensified The  new  parliament  met  on  July  21  and 
voted  to  establish  a  soviet  government,  and  to  peti- 
tion the  Supreme  Soviet  of  the  U  S  S.R.  for  Lat- 
via's admission  into  the  Soviet  Union  On  the  same 
day  President  Ulmanis  was  removed  from  office 
and  Premier  Kirchenstein  took  over  his  functions. 
On  August  4  it  was  reported  that  Ulmanis  had 
died  of  wounds  in  a  Riga  hospital.  The  follow- 
ing day  Latvia's  independence  was  formally  ended 
when  the  Supreme  Soviet  in  Moscow  voted  to  ad- 
mit it  as  a  constituent  republic  of  the  U.S. S.R.  The 
newly  elected  Latvian  parliament,  called  into  spe- 
cial session  on  August  24-25,  completed  these  for- 
malities by  voting  unammoubly  to  enter  the  Soviet 
Union  and  adopt  a  soviet  constitution.  Professor 
Kirchenstein  was  supplanted  as  Premier  by  the 
Communist  leader,  Latsis,  who  formed  a  new  gov- 
ernment. 

Even  before  this,  a  campaign  for  complete  co- 
ordination of  Latvia  with  the  Russian  political, 
economic,  and  social  system  had  gotten  under  way. 
A  decree  of  July  25  nationali/ed  all  banks  and 
credit  institutions,  insurance  companies,  pawnshops, 
safe  deposit  boxes  of  private  persons,  and  804 
specified  commercial  and  industrial  enterprises  All 
precious  metals  in  ingots  and  finished  articles,  pre- 
cious stones,  etc.,  in  jewelry  shops  were  ordered 
deposited  with  banks  On  July  28  the  merchant 
marine  was  nationalized,  on  September  28  all  re- 
tail stores  with  a  turnover  of  100,000  lats  or  more 
annually.  The  other  sovietization  measures  taken, 
the  methods  employed,  and  the  internal  and  ex- 
ternal repercussions  were  much  the  same  as  in  Es- 
tonia and  Lithuania. 

See  ESTONIA,  LITHUANIA,  and  UNION  OF  SO- 
VIET SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS  under  History ,  LEAGUE 
OF  NATIONS  ;  REPARATIONS  AND  WAR  DFBTS 

LAW.  Jurisprudence  and  Legal  Philosophy. 
Current  articles  "Cardozo's  Philosophy  of  Law," 
88  U  of  Pa  L  Rev ,  71,  156  (E  W.  Patterson)  ; 
"The  Valuation  of  Legal  Science,"  40  Columbia 
L  Rev.,  1  (H.  Cairns)  ;  "On  Reading  and  Using 
the  Newer  Jurisprudence,"  ib  381  (K  L  Llewel- 
lyn) ;  "A  Required  Course  in  Jurisprudence,"  (A 
Symposium),  9  Am.  L  School  Rev  582. 

Historical:  Primitive.  "Some  Extinct  Legal  Systems," 
2  La  L  Rev.  1  (Wipmore);  "Codex  Chalco"  (in  Aztec, 
describing  incidents  of  the  Spanish  conquest;  exhibited  at 


Brim"  (1243),  exhibited  at  the  San  Francisco  Exposition; 
"Legal  Antiquities,"  3  Jno.  Marshall  L.  Quar.  423  (G  C. 
Bunge) ;  "Origins  of  Commercial  Law,"  52  L.  Quar  Rev 
30  (Justice  Mackinnon). 

Hebrew.  "Law  in  the  Scriptures;  with  explanations  of 
legal  references"  (St  Louis,  19^5;  E  T.  White) 

Tfcoman  and  Romanesque.  "Emphytcusis  A  Roman  Per- 
petual Tenure,  3  U  of  Toronto  L.  Jnl.,  323  (W.  R 
Johnston),  "The  Origin  and  Development  of  Quo  Minus" 
49  L  Rrr  39;  "Remission  and  the  Civil  Law,"  2  La.  L 
Rev  365  (MM  Harrison) ;  "On  Chapter  til  of  Lex 
Aquiha,"  L  Quar  Rev  April,  1936;  "The  Historical 
Background  of  Administrative  Law,"  15  Notre  Dame  Law- 
yer, 29  (C.  S  Lobingier).  . 

French.  "The  Injunction  in  French  Jurisprudence,"  14 


Tulane  L.  Rev.  211  (J.  Brodeur);  "Dation  en  Paiment,  in 
Louisiana,"  ib  263  (J.  J.  Piccione) ;  "The  French  Su- 
perior Court  of  Arbitration,"  9  Brooklyn  L.  Rev  33  (H 
J.  Heneman);  "Codification  of  the  French  Customs,"  38 
Mich.  L  Rev.  765  (J.  P.  Dawion):  "Preliminary  Inves- 
tigation of  Crime  in  France,"  88  U.  of  Pa.  L.  Rev.  915 
(E.  R.  Keedy) 

Anglican.  "Lawyers  and  Litigants  in  Stuart  England," 
24  Cornell  L  Quar ,  533  (W.  B.  Wilcox) ;  "Catholics  and 
the  Courts  in  England  Since  the  Protestant  Revolt,"  9 
Fordham  L  Rev  38  (C  F.  Mullett) ;  Note  on  Statham's 
Abridgment,  46  W  Va  L.  Quar.  233  (C.  C.  Williams, 
Jr  ) 

United  States.  "Three  Centuries  of  American  Litiga- 
tion," 3  Temple  U  L  Quar ,  488  (A.  S.  Faught) ;  "The 
Philosophical  Background  of  American  Democracy,"  15 
Notre  Dame  Lawyer,  183  (C.  C.  Miltner);  "Fifty  Years 
of  Crime  in  America,"  16  Tenn  L.  Rev.  171  (J.  E. 
Hoover),  "Origin  and  Early  Development  of  American 
Dividend  Law'7  53  Harv  L  Rev.,  36  (D.  Kehl);  "James 
Madison  and  Judicial  Review,"  28  Cat.  L  Rev.  22  (C.  P. 
Patterson);  "John  Marshall:  Hero  or  Villain."  6  0.  St. 
U  L  Jnl..  42  (F  R.  Strong);  "Trial  of  Aaron  Burr," 
11  Rocky  Mt.  L.  Rev.,  233,  "Lincoln  and  Nevada  State- 
hood," 26  A.B.A.  Jnl.,  210,  313  (F.  L.  Bullard). 

Analytical.  Among  the  articles  of  special  im- 
portance during  the  year  were  "Legal  Classifica- 
tion and  Administrative  Law,"  24  Jnl  Am.  Jud. 
Soc.  87  (C.  S.  Lobingier)  ;  "Origin  of  Human 
Rights,"  24  Marquette  L  Rev.,  1  (W.  Sternberg)  ; 
"Natural  Law,"  15  Notre  Dame  Lawyer,  175  (J. 
F.  O'Hara)  ;  "Same;  in  the  United  States,"  ib. 
195 ;  6  U.  of  Pittsburgh  L.  Rev.  143  ( J  A.  Crane) ; 
"Approach  to  the  Study  of  Law,"  S  U  of  Detroit 
L.  Jnl  7  (W.  F.  Clarke) ;  "Judicial  Decision  Sta- 
tus and  Limits,"  24  Cornell  L  Quar.  611  (S.  H 
Hirshman)  ,  "Stare  Decists:"  in  American  and 
Scots'  Law,"  26  A.B.A.  Jnl,  774  ( J.  C  Gardner) ; 
"Survey  of  Conference  Problems  on,"  14  U.  of 
Cincinnati  L  Rev.  324  (R  Pound)  ;  cf.  ib  208, 
"Effect  of  an  Overruling  Decision,  18  N.  Car  L. 
Rev.  199  (J  A.  Sprull,  Jr.)  ;  cf.  ///.  L.  Rev  121, 


Jr.); 

You  b< 


7  Cur.  Lcqal  Tho't.  19,  "You  be  the  Judge,"  (1940 ; 
pp  451 ;  E   Mortensen). 

Comparative.  "Civil  Procedure"  (German  and 
U.S.)  1940  Wis.  L.  Rev.  234  (E.  H.  Schopflocher) ; 
"Federal  and  Missouri  Practice,"  25  Wash.  U.  L 
Quar.  505  (C.  C.  Wheaton)  ;  "Illinois  Law,  Black- 
stone  and  Justinian,"  5  Jno  Marshall  L  Quar. 
53  (H  G.  Fins). 

PUBLIC 

Constitutional  Law.  Argentina.  Early  in  the 
year,  the  provincial  supreme  court  of  Tucuman  de- 
clared unconstitutional  a  provision  requiring  me- 
dicinal advertising  to  be  approved  by  the  Bd  of 
Health 

British  Commonwealth  and  Empire.  "Its 
Status  in  International  Law,"  3  U  of  Toronto  L 
Jnl  348  (P.  E  Corbett)  "Hansard's  Debates," 
Parliament's  official  journal  since  1803,  contained 
in  1940  for  the  first  time,  advertisements  of  gov- 
ernment bonds. 

Canada.  "The  Judicial  Process  and  Canadian 
Legislative  Powers,"  25  Wash.  U.  L.  Quar.  215 
( W.  P.  M.  Kennedy)  ;  "Wartime  Civil  Liberties  in 
Canada  "  8  Int.  Jurid.  Ass'n.  Bull.  127. 

India  "The  New  Constitution"  is  discussed  in 
3  U.  of  Toronto  L  Jnl.,  281  (D.  G.  Karve)  ;  "The 
Indian  States  in  the  Indian  Federation,"  ib  301 
(M.  Ramaswamy) 

Palestine.  "The  Mandate  in  Practice,"  25  la.  L. 
Rev.  32  (B  Akzin). 

Legislative.  In  general.  "Interpretation,"  25 
Wash.  U.  L.  Quar,  2  (H.  W.  Jones);  Guggen- 
heim v.  Rasquin,  61  5*  Ct.  Rep.  507,  reviewed,  14 
Tulane  L.  Rev.,  141 ;  "Time  of  Taking  Effect," 
Cuthbert  v  Smuts,  N.Dak.  reviewed,  ib 

Proportional  Representation  was  retained  in  New 


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York  City  (788,640  to  567,165).  In  an  Opinion  to 
the  Governor,  (R.I.)  6  Atl.  (2d.)  147  (following 
21  R.I.  579)  the  Supreme  Court,  one  judge  dis- 
senting, advised  that  the  system  would  infringe  the 
State  constitution's  grant  of  the  "right  to  vote  in 
the  election  of  all  civil  officers."  Constitutionality 
of  the  system  had  been  upheld  in  several  States; 
(e.g.  Johnson  v.  State,  274  N.Y.  411).  See  88  U. 
of  Pa.  L.  Rev.  112. 

Federal.  Congress  convened  Jan.  3,  1940,  and 
adjourned  Jan.  2,  1941.  In  this,  its  longest  single 
session,  it,  especially  in  the  later  months,  gave 
most  attention  to  defensive  measures ;  but  enacted 
much  important  legislation,  including  over  500  pub- 
lic acts  and  the  first  recodi  neat  ion,  since  1874,  of 
the  internal  revenue  laws.  (See  UNITED  STATES.) 
In  22  Minn.  L  Rev.  165,  Dwan  and  Feidler  de- 
scribe compilations  of  U.S.  laws  and  how  to  use 
them ;  "Constitutionality  of  Private  Acts  of  Con- 
gress," 49  Yale  L.  J.  712. 

State.  Only  nine  legislatures  held  sessions  in 
1940  Their  work  is  discussed  in  the  law  journals 
as  follows :  California ;  13  So  Col.  L.  Rev.  1  ; 
"Recent  Social  Legislation,"  28  Cal.  L.  Rev.  442 
(B  N.  Armstrong)  Illinois;  18  Chicago-Kent  L. 
Rev.,  1.  Kansas;  &  U  of  Kansas  City  L.  Rev. 
240.  Kentucky;  "The  New  Statutes,"  2  Ky  St. 
Bar  Jnl.  19.  Minnesota,  24  Minn.  L  Rev  240 
North  Carolina;  17  N.  Car.  L  Rev.  327.  Pennsyl- 
vania ;  44  Dickinson  L.  Rev.  84.  This  is  one  of  the 
States  in  which  a  school  for  "Freshmen"  legisla- 
tors was  held.  (See  also  the  different  States  )  Oth- 
er current  articles  are :  "Need  of  Simpler  Legisla- 
tion," 2  Tex.  Bar  Jnl.  7;  "Constitutionality  of 
State  Legislation  Affecting  Aliens,"  17  N  Y  U.L 
Quar.  Rev.f  242;  "Retroactive  Application,"  38 
Mich.  L.  Rev  30  (E.  S  Stimson)  ;  "Statutory 
Validation  of  Public  Bonds,"  7  U.  of  Chicago  L. 
Rev.  281  (Horack  &  Button).  "State  Tax  Bar- 
riers to  Interstate  Trade,"  53  Harv  L.  Rev  1253 
(W.  B.  Lockhart)  touches  one  phase  of  interstate 
competition  which  has  received  much  attention  in 
the  press 

Interstate  Compacts.  The  four  "middle"  States 
(N.Y.,  N  J.,  Pa.,  and  Del )  have  agreed  to  act  in 
common  to  abate  and  prevent  excessive  pollution  of 
the  Delaware  River.  An  act  of  Congress  of  August 
31,  approves  compacts  between  Atlantic  States  to 
regulate  fishing  in  territorial  and  connecting  wa- 
ters. In  Del.  etc.  COm.  v.  Colburn,  310  (U  S  )  419, 
a  State  court's  judgment,  construing  such  a  con- 
tract, was  reviewed  (overruling  People  v.  R  Co., 
12  Wall  455)  and  it  was  held  that  neither  the  com- 
pact in  question  (for  construction  of  Pa-NJ. 
bridges)  nor  the  N.J.  statute  to  which  it  referred, 
authorized  consequential  damages  for  land  so  ex- 
propriated. 

Judicial.  (See  COURTS;  SUPREME  COURT; 
WORLD  COURT.) 

Penal  Law.  (See  also  FEDERAL  BUREAU  OF  IN- 
VESTIGATION; LYNCHING:  PRISONS,  PAROLE,  AND 
CRIME  CONTROL).  Current  articles  in  this  field  in- 
clude: 

"Criminal  Attempts:  A  Study  of  Liability  Foundations," 
49  Yoli  L.  Jnl.  789  (J.  Hall):  "Prevent! vc  Justice" 
(Bonds  to  Keep  the  Peace,  etc.),  88  U  of  Pa  L  Rev  331; 
"Ignorance  and  Mistake  in  Criminal  Law,"  tb  35  (R.  M. 
Perkins) ;  "Restitution  and  the  Criminal  Law,"  39  Colum- 
bia L.  Rev..  1185;  "Political  Crimes,"  5  Mo  L.  Rev  293 
(E.  M.  Million) ;  "The  Modern  Felony  Murder  Doctrine," 
28  ffy.  L.  Jnl.  215  (T.  G.  Clark);  id.  "Distinguished  from 
Criminal  Negligence1'  tft  218  (J.  W.  Turner),  "Negligent 
Murder,"  ib.  53  (M  Tincher):  id.  "Contributory  JJejrii- 
gence  of  the  Victim."  74  N.Y.L  Rtv.  88;  'The  Engflsh 
Criminal  Justice  Bill,"  40  Columbia  I.  Rev.  105;  "The 


Federal  Juvenile  Delinquency  Act,"  14  St.  Johu't  L.  Rev. 
214   (B.  M.  Bienstock). 

Criminal  Procedure.  On  June  29  the  President 
signed  the  bill  authorizing  the  Supreme  Court  "to 
prescribe  .  .  .  rules  of  ...  procedure  in  criminal 
cases  in  district  courts."  including  those  oversea. 
(See  24  Jnl.  Am.  Jud.  $oc.  81  (G.  Dean)  ;  "Prac- 
tical Advantage  of  Rules,"  25  A.B.A.  Jnl.  825 
(R.  Pound)  Successive  steps  in  procedure  are  dis- 
cussed as  follows  : 

"Arrest  without  Warrant,"  (U.S.  Y.  Clark  29  Fed.  Supp. 
138  reviewed)  8  U.  of  Kansas  City  L.  Rev.  121;  "Stream- 
lining the  Indictment,"  53  Harvard  L.  Rev.  122;  "Joinder 
of  Conspiracy  and  Attempt,"  28  Georgetown  L.  Jnl.,  608 
(D.  Kauffman);  "Presumptions  in  Criminal  Law"  (Pa.), 
13  Temple  U  L  Quar.  523;  "Public  Defenders."  26  V*. 
L  Rev.  273  (M.  C.  Goldman);  "Directing  Verdict  of 
Guilty,"  25  la  L  Rev  128;  "Factors  to  be  Considered  in 
Recommendation  of  Gemency,"  (State  v.  Caldwell  135. 
0  424),  reviewed  6  O.  St.  U.  L.  Jnl.  73;  "Criminal  Ap- 
peal on  the  Facts;  The  Federal  System,"  34  ///.  L  Rev. 
312  (L.  J  Shaniro);  "Criminal  Appeals  in  America" 
(Lester  B  Oldficld),  reviewed  26  A  B  A  Jnl.,  398  (Mason 
Ladd),  "Statutory  Presumptions  in  Criminal  Cases,  38 
Mich  L.  Rev.  366  (E.  M.  Watson). 

Penology.  Dr.  Warner  Brown,  Univ.  of  Cali- 
fornia, finds  from  experiments  on  rats,  that  "pun- 
ishment itself,  quite  apart  from  failure  to  receive 
reward,  has  positive  and  potent  effect  in  altering 
all  subsequent  behaviour."  So,  while  psychiatrists 
deplore  severe  and  afflictive  penalties,  it  is  not  be- 
cause they  are  considered  ineffectual.  (Jnl  of  Com- 
parative Psychology.)  See  PRISONS,  PAROLE,  and 
CRIME  CONTROL. 

Pardons.  On  May  17  President  Roosevelt  grant- 
ed an  unconditional  pardon,  restoring  civil  rights, 
to  Dr.  Frederick  A  Cook  (74)  arctic  explorer, 
who  had  been  paroled  after  serving  about  one  half 
of  a  sentence  for  "using  the  mails  to  defraud  "  He 
died  soon  afterward  William  P.  Buckner,  serving 
a  sentence  of  two  years  for  the  same  offence,  and 
Felipe  Buencamino,  serving  one  of  18  months  for 
conspiracy,  were  both  pardoned  after  about  one 
third  of  the  time  in  Lewisburg  (Pa.)  Federal  Pris- 
on. But  the  application  of  Ex- Judge  Manton  (1939 
YEAR  BOOK,  420)  for  a  parole  was  denied  In  dis- 
cussing "The  Effect  of  a  Pardon,"  88  U.  of  Pa.  L. 
Rev.  177,  Henry  Weihoften  urges  that  every  par- 
don state  on  its  face  the  reasons  for  granting  it 
and,  if  on  the  ground  of  innocence,  reparation 
should  be  granted 

Administrative  Law.  (See  also  FEDERAL  COM- 
MUNICATIONS COMMISSION;  FEDERAL  TRADE  COM- 
MISSION; INTERSTATE  COMMERCE  COMMISSION; 
NATIONAL  LABOR  RELATIONS  BOARD,  ETC.)  As  usu- 
al of  late,  this  is  among  the  most  popular  themes 
in  the  legal  periodicals  The  George  Washington 
Law  Review  for  Jan  -Feb  was  devoted  almost  en- 
tirely to  the  work  of  the  Federal  Trade  Commis- 
sion (which  had  just  passed  its  quarter  centennial) 
and  contained  15  articles.  The  Iowa  Law  Review 
for  March  published  seven  articles,  mainly  on  ad- 
ministrative procedure.  Other  current  articles  are : 

"Comparative  Administrative  Law  (Economic  Improvisa- 
tion by  Public  Authorities),"  88  U.  of  Pa.  L.  Rev.  425 
(F.  M.  Mirx) ;  "Administrative  Law  and  the  British  North 
America  Act*  53  Harv.  L  Rev.  251  (T  Willis):  "Crucial 
Issues  In  Administrative  Law,"  53  Harv.  L.  Rev  1077; 
7  Cur.  Leg.  Tho't  110  (J  M.  Landis):  "An  Approach 
to  Administrative  Law,"  18  N  Car.  L.  Rev  183  (R.  F. 
Fuchs):  "Administrative  Legislation,"  34  ///.  L.  Rev.,  651 
(J.  F.  Davison) :  "Delegation  of  Legislative  Power,"  State 
v  Maitrejean,  193  La  824  (reviewed,  8  G.W.L  Rev.  1102; 
9  Fordham  L.  Rev  275):  Miller  v.  Schuster.  227  la.  1005 
(reviewed  25  la.  La.  Rev  812);  "Administrative  Con- 
tempt  Powers,"  25  A.B.A.  Jnl.,  954  (E.  F.  Alberts  worth). 

Police  Power.  Trade:  Intrastate.  Sec.  1033  of 
the  Pa.  Vehicle  Code,  regulating  the  size  and 


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403 


LAW 


weight  of  vehicles,  is  not  displaced  by  the  Federal 
Motor  Carrier  Act  of  1935  (Maurer  v.  Hamilton, 

309  U.S.  598)  and  it  is  those  employes  only  "whose 
activities  affect  the  safety  of  operation"  of  such 
vehicles  whose  qualifications  and  hours  of  labor 
may  be  regulated  by  the  ICC.  (US.  v.  Am.  Truck- 
ing As  Jns.  310  U.S.  534.)  ".  .  .  where  there  is  no 
claim  of  confiscation,  the  State  authority  is  compe- 
tent to  establish  mtrastate  rates,"  etc.  and  due  proc- 
ess of  law,  under  amendments  VI  and  XIV  of  the 
U.S.  Const,  is  followed  where  a  State  court,  "on 
an  appropriate  hearing,  .  .  .  determines  that  there 
is  evidence  to  sustain  a  finding  of  the  violation  of 
State  law."  (Bell  'lei.  Co.  v.  Penn.  P.  U.  Com.  309 
U.S.    30)    Prohibition   of    peddling.    Goodhwnor 
Corp.  v.  Long  Beach,  22  N.Y.  S.  (2d)  282  (com- 
ment, 5  U.  of  Newark  L.  Rev.  299) ;  "Police  Pow- 
er and  Interstate  Commerce   (in  Michigan),"  3 
U.  of  Detroit  L.  Jnl  24,  98 

Health  and  Safety.  Amendment  XIV,  1,  to  the 
U.S.  Constitution,  is  not  infringed  as  to  the  "equal 
protection"  clause,  by  a  State  statute  authorizing 
segregation  of  those  with  a  "psycopathic  personal- 
ity." Minnesota  v.  Probate  Court,  309  U.S.  270. 
On  Nov.  5,  1940,  Oklahoma  voted  to  restrict  the 
powers  of  the  State  Medical  Examining  Board; 
Michigan,  "to  regulate  the  practice  of  dentistry," 
while  Arizona  voted  not  to  prohibit  certain  forms 
of  dental  advertising. 

Morals.  Measures  to  legalize  gambling  were  re- 
jected in  Arizona  and  Colorado  (pan-mutuel  bet- 
ting) and  Oregon. 

Liquor  control,  by  prohibition,  was  continued  in 
Oklahoma  (374,911  to  290,752)  and  Prince  Ed- 
ward Island  ( 10,426  to  8,861 ) ;  restriction  was  re- 
jected (102,186  to  79,563)  in  Idaho  (which  also 
rejected  county  option,  112,972  to  70,544)  and  Ore- 
gon (235,128  to  158,004)  which  also  rejected  pri- 
vate sale  (309,183  to  90,681).  Johnston  County, 
N.C  (7579  to  3956)  and  Talbot  County,  Md  (3672 
to  705)  each  rejected  dispensaries;  the  South  Caro- 
lina advisory  party  referendum  resulted  in  189,361 
to  130,366  in  favor  of  prohibition.  In  Ziffnn  Inc. 
v  Reeves,  308  U.S.  132,  an  order  of  the  district 
court  was  affirmed,  dismissing  a  bill  by  an  Indiana 
distiller  to  enjoin  the  enforcement  of  a  Kentucky 
statute  penalizing  the  unlicensed  importation  of  in- 
toxicating liquors  into  the  latter  State. 

Policy.  Prohibition  of  contraceptives:  State  v. 
Nelson,  126  Conn.  412  (reviewed,  3  U.  of  Detroit 
L.  Jnl.  216). 

Administrative  Procedure.  "Reform  in,"  26  A.B.A. 
Jnl,  465  (W  Gellhorn):  "And  the  Public  Interest,"  25 
Wash.  U.  L.  Quar  308  (A.  H.  Feller),  "Removal  of  Board 
Members,"  Morgan  v.  TV  A,  28  Fed.  Suppl  732  (reviewed 
in  88  U.  of  Pa.  L.  Rev.  357;  2  La  L.  Rev.  183) 

'  Parties  in  Interest"  (Transportation  and  Communica- 
tions Acts)  13  So.  Cal.  L  Rev.  450  (E.  A.  Mosk),  "In- 
dividual  s  Right  to  Initiate  Administrative  Process,"  25 
la.  L.  Rev.  485  (L  L.  Jaffe).  "A  special  administrative 
procedure  for  determination  of  the  status  of  persons  or 
companies  under  a  regulatory  act.  and  which  meets  all 
requirements  of  due  process  ...  is  exclusive."  Sunshine 
etc.  Coal  Co.  v.  Adkins,  310  U.S  381,  404  (reviewed  24 
Minn.  L.  Rev  854).  The  ICC.  may  act  on  its  own  motion, 
without  complaint  from  shippers.  17.5  v.  Chicago  etc  Co , 

310  U.S.  44:   Necessity  of  Joining  Departmental  Heads. 
Eastman  v.   US.,  28  Fed.  Suppl.  807  (comment  26  Va. 
L.  Rev.  370). 

"Notice  and  Hearing,"  25  la.  L.  Rev.  457  (R  B. 
Hankms);  12  Miss.  L.  Jnl  295.  393  (E  S.  Magaw), 
"^  fi'£tV  **'  C°'  Vr  M»r,ra2.  105  Fed  (2d)  212  (re- 
viewed 2*  Georgetown  L.  Jnl.  261);  Carroll  v  Cal  Horse 
Racing  Bet..  (Cal.)  105  Pac.  (2d)  110  (comment,  28 
Georgetown  L.  Jnl.,  839). 

''Process  (Compulsory),"  25  la.  L.  Rev.  646;  53  Har- 
vard L.  Rev.  842  (Subpoenas). 

Appearance  (by  attorney) *"Morgentha*  v.  Barrett," 
71  D.C.  148  (reviewed  8  G.  W.  L.  Rev.  974). 


Proof.  "Int.  Alt'*,  of  Machinist,  v.  NLRB,"  110  Fed. 
(2d)  29  (reviewed  15  Ind,  L.  Jnl.  228) ;  "Practical  Prob- 
lems," 26  A.Bui.  Jnl.  491  (J.  W.  Norwood);  "Uie  of 
Public  Documents."  25  la.  L.  Rev.  555  (J.  F.  Davison); 
"Consolidated  Edison  Co.  v.  NLRB/'  305  U.S.  197  (re- 
viewed 24  Cornell  L.  Q.  583):  "NLRB  v.  Columbian  etc. 
Co.t"  306  U.S.  292  (reviewed  8  G.  W.  L.  Rev.  108  (suffi- 
ciency of  evidence);  "Who  must  Read  the  Evidence" 
State  v.  Wrabet*,  231  Ww.  147,  (com.  1940  W\*.  L.  Rev. 
125). 

findings  of  the  ICC  that  rates  under  the  Motor  Car- 
rier Act  are  discriminatory,  will  be  preferred  to  those  of  m 
three  ;udge  court,  where  the  evidence  is  undisputed.  17.5". 
v.  Chicago  etc.  Trucking  Co .  310  U.S.  44.  (Cf.  NLRB  vs. 
Waterman  SS.  Co.,  309  U.S.  206;  Perkins  v.  Lukens 
Steel  Co.,  310  U.S  113  ) 

Effect  (res  adiudicata),  49  Yale  L.  Jnl.  1278;  28  Minn. 
L.  Rev.  854  Judicial  Review  "An  Approach."  28  George- 
town L.  Jnl  1042  (H.  P  Warner) ,  34  ///.  L.  Rev.,  680 
(B  P.  McAllister);  17  Chicago-Kent  L.  Rev.  342  (M.  A. 
Kallis),  24  Marquette  L.  Rev  61  (G  H.  Seefield);  3 
U.  of  Detroit  L.  Jnl.  53  (F.  E  Cooper);  "Method  and 
scope,"  27  Cal.  L.  Rev.  738,  12  Rocky  Mt.  L.  Rev  173. 

Mandamus,  25  la,  L.  Rev.  638,  Drummey  v.  State  Board, 
97  Cal.  Dec,  272  (reviewed  13  So.  Cal.  L.  Rev.  500); 
"Statutory  Roads,"  28  Cal.  L.  Rev  129  (B.  P.  McAl 
lister);  "The  Morgan  Cases,"  53  Harv  L  Rev.  105:  25 
la  L.  Rev  622:  25  Wash.  U.  L  Quar  608;  "F.  C.  C.  v. 
Pottfvillc  Broadcasting  Co ,"  309  U.S.  134  (reviewed  40 
Columbia  L.  Rev.  513),  8  G.  W.  L.  Rev  849,  28  George- 
town L  Jnl.  929;  25  la.  L.  Rev.  658.  1  Wash.  6-  Leg  L. 
Rev  253;  "Negative  Orders,"  "Rochester  Tel  Corp  v. 
U.S ,"  307  U.S.  125,  83  L  ed  1147;  59  S.  Ct  Rep.  754 
(reviewed.  53  Harv.  L.  Rev  98,  28  Georgetown  L  Jnl. 
392  (H  B.  Merican);  24  Minn  L.  Rev  379,  19  Boston 
U.  L  Rev.  645;  15  Ind.  L  Jnl  151;  28  Ky  L  Jnl  492; 
38  Mich.  L  Rev  682  (R  J.  Miller),  18  Chicago-Kent 
L.  Rev.  74  (R.  W.  Bergstrom) ,  "The  Logan  Walter 
Bill,"  after  passing  the  Senate  by  a  majority  of  two,  pro- 
viding, inter  alia,  for  full  judicial  review  was  vetoed  by 
the  President  on  December  18,  and  an  attempt  to  override 
the  veto,  failed  in  the  House  The  measure  is  discussed  in 
8  Int  Jurid.  Ass'n.  Bull  101,  2  La  L  Rev  294  (A. 


Taret/ki),  27  A.  B.  Jnl.  52:  34  ///.  L  Rev  727  (Rule- 
Making  Provisions).  Cf  "Saks  v.  Higgins"  29  Fed.  Su  " 
996  (comment,  28  Georgetown  L.  Jnl.  996). 


PRIVATE 

Contracts.  Samuel  Williston,  who  taught  for 
50  years  in  Harvard  Law  School,  gave  a  course  of 
four  public  lectures  at  the  Catholic  University  in 
Washington,  during  May,  on  "Progress  of  the 
Law  of  Contracts."  His  new  work  on  the  subject 
has  been  favorably  reviewed.  See  18  N.Car.  L. 
Rev.  1  (L.  L.  Fuller) ;  3  U.  of  Toronto  L.  Jnl. 
387  (J.  Fmkelman). 

Form.  See  "Present  Status  of  the  Sealed  Obli- 
gation," 34  ///.  L.  Rev.  457 ;  "Louisiana  Contracts 
Involving  Property  Rights,"  14  Tulanc  L.  Rev.  16 
(L.  Sarpy). 

Consideration.  Professor  Rodell  "falls  vicious- 
ly upon  the  doctrine  of  consideration,"  says  Max 
Radin  (38  Mich.  L.  Rev.  504)  reviewing  Rodell's 
"Woe  Unto  You  Lawyers"  (1939)  and  pronounc- 
ing his  illustration  thereof,  "a  pure  abstraction." 

Partiet.  Privity  of  contract,  McGuire  v.  Dalton,  191  So. 
La.  168  (reviewed  14  Tulane  L  Rev.  295);  "Third  Party 
Beneficiaries  (m  Michigan)/'  3  U.  of  Detroit  L.  Jnl.  135 
(F.  J.  Chmielmcki). 

Legality.  "In  pan  dcltcto,"  26  Va.  L.  Rev.  326. 

Insurance.  "Group  Insurance,"  26  Va.  L  Rev  377;  28 
Georgetown  L.  Jnl.  273,  25  la.  L.  Rev.  169;  "Suicide  and 
Incontestable  Clauses,"  26  Va.  L.  Rev.  380;  16  Tenn.  L. 
Rev.  472;  Effect  of  Aeronautical  Employment,  1  Wash. 
6*  Lee  L.  Rev.  127;  "Is  a  'trailer'  a  'building'  in  accident 
insurance?"  (ib.  284):  Insured's  duty  to  undergo  medical 
treatment,  88  U.  of  Pa  L  Rev.  749;  16  Tenn.  L.  Rev. 

Special  Forms. — Agency.  "Imputation  of 
Agent's  Knowledge  to  Principal,"  26  Va.  L.  Rev. 
949 ;  "Agent's  Liability  to  Third  Parties,"  53  Harv. 
L.  Rev.  1047 ;  "Relief  Worker's  Principal  in  Work- 
men's Compensation,"  39  Columbia  L.  Rev.  1411. 

Bailment.  "Burden  of  Proof  and  Presumptions."  14 
Temple  U.  L.  Quar  261 ,  "A  Re-examination  of  the  Wink- 
field  Case,"  9  Fordham  L.  Rev.  247;  "Effect  of  Bailee1! 
Misdelivery,"  18  Tex.  L.  Rev.  330. 


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404 


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L.c$^-1o?5rra^^^^J-^' 

St.  Jokn't  L.  Rtv.  396;  "E*  

14  Jno.  Marshall  L.  Quar.  464 :  "Development  of  Railway 
Corporate  Structures,"  7  L.  ft  Contemporary  Problems  367 
(J.  W.  Barnger). 

Mortgage*  and  Pledges.  "Mortgagor's  Right  of  Posses- 
sion." 24  Minn.  L.  Rev.  434;  "Suits  for  Interest  under 
the  N.Y.  Moratorium  "  25  Cornell  L.  Quar.  401;  "Guaran. 
teed  Mortgages."  9  Brooklyn  L.  Rev.  288  (H.  Weiner) ; 
"Deficiency  JuoWnts  "  53  Harv.  L.  Rev.  1400;  "Fore- 
closure Reform/7  88  if.  of  Pa.  L.  Rev.  957;  "Application 
of  Collateral  to  Other  Debts"  36  Mich.  L.  Rev.  921. 

Negotiable  Instruments.  In  Ohio.  6  O.  St.  U.  L.  Jnl. 
140;  "Acceleration  Clauses,"  88  U.  of  Pa.  L.  Rev.  94; 
"The  Argentine  Bill  of  Exchange."  14  U.  of  Cincinnati 
L.  Rev.  357  (H.  P.  Crawford) ;  ^The  Imposter  Payee," 
1940  Wit.  L.  Rev.  161,  362  (A.  S.  Abel);  Sec.  1st  Nat. 
Bank  v.  U.S.  103  Fed.  (2d)  188  (Comment,  13  So.  Cal. 
L.  Rev.,  112;  25  /a.  L.  Rev.  154). 

Salts:  "In  Legal  Theory  and  in  Practice,"  26  Va.  L. 
Rev.  651  (N.  Isaacs);  Conditional:  In  Louisiana,  2  La.  L. 
Rev.  338:  In  Maine,  4  Peabody  L.  Rev.  52  (M.  Green- 
berg)  ;  "The  Proposed  Federal  Sales  Act  "  9  Fordham  L. 
Rev.  233  (G.  W.  Bacon);  26  Va.  L  Rev.  638  (G.  G. 
Bogert);  ib.  537  (H.  Thomas);  ib.  558  (K.  N.  Llewellyn); 
ib.  572  (W.  E.  McCurdy);  "Warranty  of  Quality  (A 
Comparative  Study),"  14  Tulane  L.  Rev.  327,  529  (C.  J. 
Morrow);  25  Cornell  L.  Quar.  625;  14  Tulane  L.  Rev. 
470. 

Suretyship.  "Effect  of  Principal's  Bankruptcy  on  Sure- 
ty's Right  to  Indemnity."  5  Jno.  Marshall  L  Quar.  469; 
''Of  Married  Women  (in  Pennsylvania),"  6  U.  of  Pitts- 
burgh  L.  Rev.  29  (P.  F.  Cooney);  "Premature  Payments 
as  Discharge  of  Surety,"  Corp.  of  (Mormon)  Pres.  v. 
Hartford  etc.  Co.,  95  Pac  (2d)  (Utah)  736  (Comment.  26 
Va.  L  Rev.  521). 

Corporations.  "Constitutional  Genesis  of  the 
Private  Corporation,"  28  Georgetown  L.  Jnl.  165 
(J.  J.  Robbins) ;  "Origin  and  Early  Development 
of  American  Dividend  Law,"  53  Harv.  L.  Rev.  36 
(D.  Kehl)  ;  "Abrogating  Accrued  Dividends,"  (by 
Charter  Amendment),  40  Columbia  L.  Rev.  633 
(A.  C.  Becht) ;  (by  Merger),  88  U.  of  Pa.  L.  Rev. 
(524;  "Improper  Purposes  of  Non-Profit  Corpora- 
tions," 44  Dickinson  L.  Rev.  264  (W.  H.  Wood) ; 
"Disregard  of  Corporate  Entity,"  14  Wash.  L. 
Rev.  285  (C.  Horowitz)  ;  "Statutory  Revival  of 
Corporate  Existence,"  28  Cal  L.  Rev.  195  (L.  A. 
Schei) ;  "Infants  as  Corporators,"  28  Georgetown 
L.  Jnl.  320  (W.  Q  de  Funiak) ;  "Federal  Gov't. 
Corporations,"  27  Cal  L.  Rev.  712  (H.  Pinney) ; 
"The  SEC  Proxy  Rules  and  Shareholder  Partici- 
pation," 53  Harv.  L  Rev.  1165;  "Voting  Trusts," 
24  Minn.  L.  Rev.  347  (C.  Burke)  ;  28  Georgetown 
L.  Jnl.  1121  (Dougherty  &  Berry)  ;  "The  Louisi- 
ana Business  Corporation  Act,"  2  La.  L.  Rev.  597 
(D.  E.  Bennett) ;  "The  1939  Amendments  in  Ohio," 
6  O.  St.  U.  L.  Jnl.  123  (N.  M.  Lattin). 

ReorganiMatton  (and  the  SEC),  2  La.  L.  Rev.  693  (B. 
B.  Taylor,  Jr  ) ;  (and  the  Supreme  Court),  28  George- 
town L  Jnl.  24  (L.  D.  Swanstrom);  53  Har.  L.  Rev.  713 
(E.  M.  Dodd,  Tr  );  (and  the  Rights  of  Labor,  53  Harv. 
L  Rev.  1360)  (Technique  of),  17  N.  Y.  U.  L.  Quar.  Rev. 
23  (Cohen  &  Simpson),  ib.  254;  24  Marquette  L.  Rev.  12 
(H.  M.  KnoellerVTS  Jno.  Marshall  L.  Quar.  180  (B. 
Wham);  "Stockholders'  Participation"  28  Georgetown  L. 
Jnl.  24  (L.  D.  Swanstrom):  26  Va.  L.  Rev.  504;  8  G.  W. 
L.  Rev.  1054  (E.  M.  Cage) ;  "Recent  Developments,"  26 
Va.  L.  Rev.  999  (T.  Gerdes). 

Dissolution,  40  Columbia  L.  Rev.  220;  28  Cal.  L.  Rev. 
219  (recent  legislation,  14  Tulane  L.  Rev.  124)  Oklahoma 
adopted  a  constitutional  amendment  forbidding  public  serv- 
ice corporations  to  merge  with  competitors. 

Foreign.  "In  Latin  America,"  14  Tulane  L. 
Rev.  42  (G.  H.  Voelkel) ;  "The  Argentine  Limited 
Liability  Company,"  ib.  232  (H.  P.  Crawford)  ; 
"May  an  Ohio  Corporation  enter  an  Argentine 
Partnership?"  13  U.  of  Cincinnati  L.  Rev.  559 
(id.)  ;  "Service  on  a  Domestic  Affiliate,"  3  U.  of 
Detroit  L.  Jnl.  194  (R.  E.  Bine). 

Delicts  (Torts).  The  latest  (1939-40)  Current 
Legal  Thought  Index  contains  more  than  six  col- 
umns of  titles  of  legal  articles  on  this  topic.  Its 


April  number  is  devoted  entirely  thereto  with  a 
leader  by  former  Dean  Pound  on  "The  Economic 
Interpretation/1  reprinted  from  53  Harv.  L.  Rev. 
365.  Among  the  important  articles  of  the  year  are : 

"Rationale  of  the  Last  Clear  Chance'  "  ib.  1225  (M.  M. 
Mclntyre;  based  mainly  on  English  and  Canadian  deci- 


A.B.A.  Jnl.  828  (A.  Holtzoff):  14T*lone  L  Rev.  407 
(E.  E.  Naylor).  On  February  17  Attorney  General  Jack- 
son urged  passage  of  the  bill  providing  liability  for  such 
claims,  on  the  analogy  of  governmental  suability  on  con- 
tracts; "Right  of  Privacy.*  13  So.  Cal.  L.  Rev.  81  (T. 
M.  Leovy);  (Recent  Developments)  44  Dickinson  L.  Rev. 

39  (E.  Handler);   (Radio  Broadcasts)   12  Rocky  Mt.  L. 
Rev    127  (R.  De  Mott),  38  Mich   L.  Rev.  748;  24  Mar- 
quette  L.  Rev.  171,  18  Tex.  L.  Rev.  356;  "Joint  Tort- 
feasors,"    (ib.    354):    (Contribution),    14    Temple    U.   L. 
Quar.  125;  44  Dickinson  L.  Rev.  49  (A.  S    Hollister). 

Special  Forms-  Defamation  (by  radio)  Summit  Hotel 
Co  v.  Nat.  Broadcasting  Co.,  8  Atl  (2d)  (Pa.)  302  (this 
case  has  been  the  subject  of  comment  in  15  or  more  legal 
periodicals.  See  6  Current  Legal  Thought,  546);  "Im- 
munity for,"  24  Minn.  L.  Rev.  607;  38  Mich.  L.  Rev. 
732.  While  a  wife  may  not  sue  her  husband  for  false  im- 
putation of  unchastity,  those  who  induced  him  to  make  it 
are  liable.  Ewald  v.  Lane,  104  Fed  (2d)  89,  70  App.  D. 
C.  89,  (Comment,  25  Cornell  L  Quar,  312) 

Fraud:  "Constructive  (in  Virginia),"  1  Wash.  &  Lee 
L.  Rev.  98  (W.  S  Burns):  "Civil  Imprisonment  for 
Fraud  or  Malice."  7  U.  of  Chicago  L.  Rev  137. 

Negligence:  "Wilful  and  Wanton,"  (in  Minnesota)  24 
Minn.  L.  Rev.  81;  As  Conduct,  28  Ky.  L.  Jnl  237  (M. 
M.  Tincher);  "Original  Tortfeasor's  Liability  for  Inter- 
vening  Criminal  Act,"  24  Minn.  L.  Rev.  666;  "Limits  of 
Objectivity  in,"  ib.  242  (E.  P.  Young);  "The  Humani- 
tarian Doctrine"  (Bases  Re-examined),  5  Mo.  L.  Rev.  56 
(G.  A.  MacCleary);  (Restrictions)  (4  Mo.  L.  Rev.  472), 
"Causation,"  (Failure  to  sign  license)  (38  Mich.  L.  Rev. 
558). 

Domestic  Relations.  "Recent  Statutory 
Changes  in  Washington,"  14  Wash.  L.  Rev.  271 
(W.  L.  Shattuck)  ;  "Confusing  Maryland  Proce- 
dures," 4  Md.  L.  Rev.  275. 

Marriage.  "Pre-Marital  Health  Tests  for,"  53 
Harv.  L.  Rev.  309.  Eighteen  States  now  have 
such  tests;  30  require  a  waiting  period  between 
notice  of  intent  and  issue  of  license,  as  in  Rhode 
Island  (6  days)  or  between  the  latter  and  the  wed- 
ding as  in  Delaware  (24  hours). 

"Consequences  of  Evading  Test,"  18  Chicago-Kent  L. 
Rev.  206;  "Validity  of  Child  Marriages"  (in  Louisiana), 
14  Tulane  L.  Rev.  106  (A.  B.  K  upper  man) ;  "Conditions 
in  Restraint  of,"  14  St  John's  L.  Rev.  89  (R.  M. 
Trapani):  "Breach  of  Promise,"  18  Chicago-Kent  L.  Rev 
98;  "The  Canon  Law  of  Marriage,"  26  Va  L.  Rev  70 
(B.  F.  Brown);  "Same;  Procedure  in,  compared  with  Civil 
Law,"  15  Notre  Dame  Lawyer,  232  (J.  C.  O'Connor), 
"Common  Law"  (informal),  6  U.  of  Pittsburgh  L.  Rev. 
104;  3  U.  of  Detroit  L.  Rev.  34;  14  Ind.  L.  Jnl.  539. 

Support  (of  wife  by  husband),  24  Marquette  L.  Rev. 
52;  (separate  maintenance),  5  Newark  L  Rev  56:  16 
Tenn.  L.  Rev.  246;  Contractual  Liquidation  of  Liability, 

40  Columbia  L.  Rev.  677.  Of  husband  by  wife,  25  Cornel} 
L.  Quar.  300.  O.  W.  Nygren  of  Nassau  Co.,  N.Y.,  aged 
40  and  unemployed  4  years,  committed  suicide  two  days 
after   the   county   court   had    ordered    his   employed   but 
estranged  wife  to  pay  him  $8.50  per  week. 

Community  Property.  "The  Oklahoma  Act:  A  Compara- 
tive Study,"  2  La.  L.  Rev.  575  (H.  S.  Oaggett)  (Gifts), 
McDonald  v.  Lambert,  43  N.M.  27  (Comment.  18  Tex. 
L.  Rev.  227);  (Life  Insurance),  ib.  121;  Occidental  L. 
Int.  Co.  v.  rowers,  192  Wash.  475  (Comment,  19  Or  eg. 
L.  Rev.  384);  (Succession)  Estate  of  Rattray.  13  Cal. 
(2d)  702  (Comment,  13  So  Cal.  L.  Rev.  115);  ^7  Cal.  L. 
Rev.  748  (Survivorship),  McDonnell  v.  Miller.  (Tex.)  133 
S.W.  (2d)  142  (Comment,  18  Te*.  L.  Rev.  339);  Fidelity 
Union  Ins.  Co.  v.  Hutchins,  134  Tex.  268  (Comment,  ib. 
338). 

Parentage.  Custody  of  child  (surviving  par- 
ent). 2  La.  L.  Rev.  Mch.:  (mother's  release),  9 
Fordham  L.  Rev  130;  "Jurisdictional  Bases  of 
Custody  Decrees,"  53  Harv.  L.  Rev.  1024. 

Adoption  "Intestate  Succession  as  Affected  by,"  13  So. 
Cal.  L.  Rev.  369.  The  California  Department  of  Social 


LAW 


405 


LEAD 


Welfare  issues  a  folder  (No.  6)  giving  a  brief  history  of 
adoption  in  that  State,  with  information  as  to  the  proce- 
dure and  •tatutici.diaelotinr  921  adoption!  there  in  1938. 
(In  Texas),  18  W  L.  Ttev.  523;  "Adopted  Child's 
Right  to  Sue  Parent/'  (1  Wash.  &  Let  L.  Rev.  136;  14 


L.  Rev.  468). 

Divorce.  "Cruelty  as  Ground  for,"  19  Ore.  L. 
Rev.  341  (D.  Fain)  ;  28  Georgetown  L.  Jnl.  694; 
"Support  Orders  for  Infants  in,"  26  Va.  L.  Rev. 
401;  "Recognition  of  Foreign  Divorces  in  New 
York,"  9  Fordham  L.  Rev.  342  (F.  L.  Kane)  ; 
"Connivance  in  Procuring,"  28  Cal.  L.  Rev.  99. 
On  March  22  the  U.S.  P.O.  Department  issued  a 
mail  fraud  order  against  Mexican  "divorce  bu- 
reaus." In  Canada,  where  the  Dominion  Parliament 
is  the  sole  authority  for  divorces  in  Quebec  and 
Prince  Edward  Island,  protests  were  registered  in 
the  Commons  on  July  15  when  the  House  was 
asked  to  accept  without  question  the  approved  re- 
port of  a  Senate  Committee  upon  some  30  such 
divorce  bills  and  to  dispose  of  them  in  about  12 
minutes.  Prime  Minister  Mackenzie  King  hoped 
that  this  would  hasten  the  establishment  of  divorce 
courts  in  the  two  provinces  In  Denmark,  divorce 
petitions  require  approval  of  the  King,  who  re- 
cently passed  on  that  of  Barbara  Hutton  Haug- 
witz-Reventlow,  granddaughter  of  F.  W.  Wool- 
worth. 

Annulment  and  Divorce  (in  Mississippi),  12 
Miss.  L.  Jnl  1264  (D.  H.  Shell)  ;  "Fraud  in  the 
N  Y.  Law  of  Annulment,"  9  Brooklyn  L.  Rev.  51 
(M.  Gershenson).  On  March  22  Governor  Lehman 
signed  the  bill  providing  for  alimony  in  annulment 
proceedings  as  in  those  for  divorce.  (See  COURTS.) 

Property  "The  Law  of.  and  Recent  Juristic  Thought, " 
25  A  B  A  Jnl.  993  (R.  Pound) ;  "Sociological  Implica- 
tions of  Private  Property,"  3  u.  of  Detroit  L.  Jnl  110 
(B.  F.  Brown) :  "The  Changing  Doctrine  of  Lateral  Sup- 
port," 14  Temple  U.  L  Quar  243;  "Intangible  Property: 
Execution  Against  in  Pa.,"  tb  368;  "Tenants  in  Common 
Inter  Se,"  24  Marquette  L  Rev.  148  (E  R.  Mietus); 
"The  Shelley's  Case  Rule  in  Washington,"  13  TV  ash.  L 
Rev  99  (H.  M.  Cross);  "Tax  Sales  m  Kentucky,"  28 
Ky  L  Jnl  105  (E.  S  Wilson);  "Proposed  Maryland 
Uniform  Property  Act."  4  Md.  L.  Rev.  1;  "Easements" 

mplied),  »&.  88:  "Statutory  Ways  of  Necessity,"  19 
eg  L.  Rev  171  (D.  S.  Richardson);  "The  Maryland 


uuiiunii    xjupciiy    ACI.       *r    JKII*.    z«>.    A\t?v.    *.       i^aaciudiia 

(Implied),  »&.  88:  "Statutory  Ways  of  Necessity,"  19 
Oreo  L.  /fav  171  (D.  S.  Richardson);  "The  Maryland 
Doctrine  of  Worthier  Title,"  4  Md  L.  Rev.  SO.  "Improve- 
ments in  Recording,"  28  Georgetown  L.  Jnl.  307  (W 

T?a<*>nVt<lf1\  *     'T'm+imtA     n.t     9sMW«11     AM     *Vi»    TAWMne     Cvafom    " 


,  .        . 

Fairchild):  "Critique  of  Powell  on  the  Torrens  System," 
24  Cornell  L.  Quar.  557  (Fairchild  &  Springer),  "Title 
Research  in  Virginia,"  26  Va  L.  Rev.  385. 

Succession.  Intestate.  "Interpretation  of  Stat- 
utes Relating  to,"  1940  Wis.  L.  Rev.  590  (J.  W. 
Wilkus)  ;  "Proposed  Changes  in  New  Jersey,"  5 
Newark  L.  Rev.  1  (A.  D.  Markle)  ;  "Per  Capita 
and  Per  Stirpes  in  Illinois,"  35  ///.  L.  Rev.  1  (H. 
F.  Carey). 

Testamentary.  "Limitations  on  Testamentary  Freedom 
in  England."  25  Cornell  L.  Quar.  337  (J.  Damow) ;  "The 
English  Inheritance  Act  of  1938,"  (requiring  provision 
for  dependents),  53  Harv.  342;  "Forced  Heirship  in 
French  Law,"  2  La.  L.  Rev.  669  (J.  Damow);  "Forced 
Portions,"  Jarel  v.  Moon's  Succession,  (La  )  190  So.  Rep 
86  (Comment.  14  Tulane  L.  Rev.  313).  "History  of 
Ademption,"  25  la.  L  Rev.  290  (J.  Warren);  "Testa- 
mentary  Capacity"  (in  Michigan),  15  Notre  Dame  Lawyer, 
79  (E.  R.  Goggin);  (and  the  Burden  of  Proof).  «fr.  349 
( F.  Mee) ;  "Supernumerary  Witnesses  and  Evasions,"  53 
Harv  L.  Rev  858;  "Foreign  Beneficiaries  under  New 
York  Law,"  14  St  John's  L.  Rev.  353  (R.  B.  F.  Gil- 
lespie) :  'Tcreign  Wills,"  4  Md.  L.  Rev.  400;  "Joint  and 
Mutual  Wills,'r24  Marquettf  L.  Rev.  42  (H  J.  Ghnski), 
26  Va.  L.  /??*._  .203; J'b_evi_s_e  to  One  and  his  Children,** 


fe  fr  ti"'/i/22Z   fit  "SbftS !  r^S?  P*  ?^t; 
Code,     34  III.  L.  Rev.  405    (H.  G.  Fins)  •   "Inventories 

and  Xporabal.  in  Maine,"  S  P**bodyL?%w. I? IN    M! 
Haskeu);   "Unreal  Apprsisements  in  Louisiana,"  2  la. 


L.  Rev:  426  (L.  Sarpy). 


Legal  Education.  Of  the  180  American  law 
schools,  106  have  now  received  at  least  provisional 
approval  by  the  A.B.A.'s  legal  education  section ; 
but  some  13,000  students  were  reported  at  unap- 
proved  schools.  The  latest  total  enrollment  figures 
are  34,539  as  against  37,406  in  the  preceding  year. 
The  eight  states  without  the  two  year  college  re- 
quirement (1939  YEAR  BOOK  422)  were  reduced  to 
six  in  1940,  Kentucky  and  Oklahoma  having  adopt- 
ed it  and  also  Hawaii  Territory.  But  in  the  District 
of  Columbia  the  movement  received  a  setback  by 
the  passage  of  an  act,  quietly  worked  through  Con- 
gress, substituting  the  Washington  School  Board 
(which  is  not  concerned  with  higher  education) 
for  the  regional  organ  of  the  Association  of  Amer- 
ican Universities,  as  the  body  to  pass  on  schools 
giving  the  "college  work."  Significant  of  the  high- 
er standard's  results,  was  the  N.Y.  Law  Examin- 
ers' announcement  that  out  of  1057  who  took  the 
March  examinations,  only  398  passed,  and  these 
were  subject  to  further  tests  as  to  character  and 
fitness  in  their  respective  judicial  districts. 

Curriculum.  An  experiment  which  would  short- 
en the  terms  of  study  by  a  year,  was  announced 
in  June  by  Dean  Landis  of  the  Harvard  school.  A 
group  of  25  freshmen  were  to  be  selected  who 
would  study  the  social  sciences  for  three  years  in 
the  academic  departments;  then  take  an  "intensi- 
fied" course  in  the  law  school  for  two  years ;  final- 
ly returning  to  the  academic  field  for  a  combined 
two  year  course  in  the  advanced  social  sciences,  in- 
cluding law,  the  object  being  to  visualize  law,  "not 
as  a  collection  of  abstract  facts  and  opinions  but 
as  a  vital  part  of  our  everyday  life."  Dean  Landis, 
while  hopeful  of  a  successful  outcome,  expects  the 
experimental  stage  to  last  several  years  (See  26 
A  B.A.  Jnl.  814.)  Dean  A.  T.  Martin  of  the  Ohio 
State  University  Law  School,  who  recently  suc- 
ceeded Dean  Arant,  also  announces  a  drastic  revi- 
sion of  the  curriculum,  with  "emphasis  on  voca- 
tional competency  and  the  training  of  socially 
minded  lawyers."  "The  Proposed  Four- Year  Law 
Curriculum*  is  criticized  in  38  Mich.  L.  Rev.  945 
(P.  Mechem)  ;  "The  Yale  Legal  Aptitude  Test," 
49  Yale  L.  Jnl.  1237  (Crawford  &  Gorham)  ;  "A 
Generation  of  Law  Teaching,"  ib  16  (R.  Pound)  ; 
"Legal  Education  in  Philosophical  Perspective," 
3  U.  of  Detroit  L.  Jnl.  181  (B.  F  Brown) ;  "The 
Teaching  of  Legal  Cause,"  39  Columbia  L.  Rev. 
1087.  Consult  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES. 

See  COURTS;  INTERNATIONAL  LAW;  PRISONS; 
SUPREME  COURT. 

C.  SUMNER  LOBINGIER. 

LEAD.  In  common  with  other  metals,  interna- 
tional trade  in  lead  was  considerably  disturbed  in 
1940,  although  probably  less  than  for  copper  and 
zinc.  War  cut  off  the  normal  European  market  for 
lead  and  caused  producers  to  seek  an  outlet  in  the 
United  States.  Foreign  metal  exerted  a  controlling 
influence  on  the  domestic  market,  practically  put- 
ting a  ceiling  on  the  domestic  price.  Imports  of 
both  lead  concentrates  and  pig  lead  and  bullion 
were  heavy,  as  shown  in  Table  1  on  page  406,  from 
Engineering  and  Mining  Journal. 

Changes  in  United  States  production,  shipments, 
and  stocks  of  lead,  are  shown  in  Table  2  on  page 
406. 

The  price  of  lead  at  New  York,  according  to 
Engineering  and  Mining  Journal  opened  in  January 
at  5.504,  declined  to  4  75  in  August,  rose  to  5.80  in 
November,  and  closed  the  year  at  5.50*  The  aver- 
age was  5.179  compared  with  5.053*  for  1939. 


LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS 


LEAGUE  OP  NATIONS 


TABLE  I— UNITED  STATES  LEAD  IMPORTS 

[Short  tons] 


1939 

Leftd  concentrates 
(lead  contest) 
Newfoundland          .................. 

Mexico  ...........      3,847 

Argentina    ................      3,362 

Pe"u  ....................      7.176 

Australia  ............      7613 


Base  Bullion 

Mexico      ....................    47.914 

fin  and  Bart 

Peru     .....................      3,976 

Australia  ..................      1,118 

Mexico.   .   .  ... 


1940 

•SB 

16,469 
18,384 
17,473 
8,666 
7,539 

19,623 

18,335 

2,800 

128,678 


TABLE  2— CHANGE  IN  DOMESTIC  PRODUCTION, 
SHIPMENTS,  AND  STOCKS  OF  LEAD* 

[In  short  tons] 

_  — 

Mine  Production 462,200  480,894 

Secondary  and  Foreign  Production  . .  35,800  104,586 

Domestic  Shipments 555,100  603,143 

Refined  Pig  Load  Stocks  (December 

31) .   .  58,800  40,926 

Total  Stock-all  forms  (December  31)  146.800  140.600 

•  American  Bureau  of  Metal  Statistics 

Lead  has  not  been  quoted  in  the  London  market 
since  September,  1939,  when  the  London  Metal 
Exchange  was  closed  and  the  Ministry  of  Supply 
fixed  the  price  for  consumers. 

According  to  the  census  of  manufactures,  1939, 
for  primary  smelting  and  refining  of  lead,  com- 
pared with  1937,  there  was  a  striking  decrease  in 
number  of  establishments,  salaried  personnel,  and 
salaries ;  wage  earners  and  wages ;  cost  of  materi- 
als and  energy ;  value  of  products,  and  value  added 
by  manufacture. 

Estimates  of  production  in  1940  by  the  Bureau 
of  Mines  totaled  458,000  tons  of  refined  lead  from 
domestic  ores,  compared  with  420,967  tons  in  1939. 
The  output  of  lead  smelted  and  refined  from  for- 
eign ore  and  bullion  was  about  77,000  tons,  com- 
pared with  63,068  tons  in  1939.  Total  primary  lead 
smelted  or  refined  in  the  United  States  in  1940  was 
thus  535,000  tons,  an  increase  of  11  per  cent  over 
1939.  The  new  supply  of  lead  made  available  for 
consumption  in  1940  is  calculated  at  about  655,000 
tons,  an  increase  of  58  per  cent  over  that  of 
1939. 

See  MISSOURI. 

H.  C.  PARMELEE. 

LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS.  The  normal  dip- 
lomatic work  of  the  League  of  Nations  was  almost 
completely  interrupted  by  the  war  during  1940 
though  its  technical  activities  continued  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  The  wide-spread  system  of  con- 
ference, negotiation,  and  co-operation  built  up  since 
the  first  World  War  could  not  function  in  a  world 
in  flames.  The  spread  of  violence  had  led  to  the 
occupation  by  Germany  of  seven  Member  States, 
Poland,  Holland,  Belgium,  Luxemburg,  Denmark. 
Norway,  and  France,  the  absorption  by  Russia  ot 
three  other  Member  States,  Lithuania,  Latvia,  and 
Estonia,  the  mutilation  of  two  others,  Finland  and 
Rumania,  the  fighting  of  a  desperate  war  by  the 
British  Empire  Members  and  Greece,  and  the 
threat  of  war  to  many  others.  By  the  end  of  the 
year,  meetings  had  become  almost  impossible ;  the 
seat  of  the  League  at  Geneva  was  largely  cut  off ; 
and  the  seats  of  two  associated  agencies,  the  World 


Court  (q.v.)  at  The  Hague  and  the  Institute  of 
Intellectual  Co-operation  at  Paris,  had  been  occu- 
pied. AH  this  led  to  serious  reductions  in  member- 
ship, budget,  and  staff,  and  a  change  in  the  Secre- 
tary-Generalship. Despite  this,  however,  the  League 
remained  in  being  and  in  full  constitutional  emer- 
gency operation ;  a  reduced  staff  continued  on  duty 
in  Geneva ;  and  a  group  of  economic  and  financial 
and  several  opium  officials  were  transferred  to 
Princeton  and  Washington  respectively  in  response 
to  warm  American  invitations.  Similarly  some  60 
officials  of  the  International  Labor  Office  (q.v.) 
were  transferred  to  Montreal  and  the  officers  of 
the  World  Court  to  Switzerland. 

Barely  half  a  dozen  meetings  were  held  in  1940. 
Early  in  February  the  Experts'  Committee  on  Eco- 
nomic, Financial,  and  Social  Questions  met  at  The 
Hague  to  give  new  and  promising  form  to  the 
League's  technical  and  non-political  work.  In  May 
the  Opium  Advisory  Committee,  Central  Board, 
and  Supervisory  Committee  met  in  Geneva  to  con- 
sider the  world  drug  situation.  In  February  and 
October  the  Supervisory  Commission  met  at  The 
Hague  and  Lisbon  respectively,  to  take  the  steps 
necessary  for  the  League's  administration  in  war- 
time and  to  fix  the  budget  for  1941  at  10,659,711 
Swiss  francs,  one-third  the  pre-war  figure.  The 
Fiscal  Committee  also  held  two  sessions,  one  of 
them  of  experts  from  the  States  of  the  Americas 
in  Mexico  City.  For  the  first  time  in  20  years  no 
meeting  was  held  of  either  Assembly  or  Council. 

The  membership  of  the  League  continued  to  feel 
the  effects  of  the  world  crisis.  On  July  11  Rumania 
notified  her  withdrawal;  on  June  1  and  Tuly  11 
Chile  and  Venezuela  respectively  completed  theirs. 
Lithuania,  Latvia,  and  Estonia  had  been  taken  over 
by  Russia,  herself  expelled  from  the  League  in 
December,  1939,  on  account  of  the  Finnish  inva- 
sion. 

^  The  permanent  staff  in  the  Secretariat  was  also 
vitally  affected.  Mobilization,  suspension  of  meet- 
ings, and  reduced  funds  led  to  progressive  reduc- 
tions totalling  599  officials  out  of  around  700  with- 
in a  year  On  July  25,  M  Joseph  Avenol,  Secre- 
tary-General for  the  previous  seven  years,  sub- 
mitted his  resignation,  which  was  accepted  as  of 
August  31  by  Mr.  Costa  du  Rels  of  Bolivia,  Acting 
President  of  the  Council,  and  Mr.  Carl  J.  Hambro 
of  Norway,  Acting  President  of  the  Assembly. 
Mr,  Sean  Lester  succeeded  as  Acting  Secretary- 
General,  after  years  of  service  as  Irish  Free  State 
Delegate  in  Geneva,  League  High  Commissioner 
in  Danzig,  and  Deputy  Secretary-General. 

Parts  of  the  technical  staff  were  sent  on  mis- 
sions to  the  United  States.  On  June  1  a  nation-wide 
committee  of  eminent  Americans  had  been  formed 
under  the  chairmanship  of  President-Emeritus 
Mary  E.  Woolley  of  Mt.  Holyoke  "to  help  pre- 
serve the  non-political  activities  of  the  League  .  .  . 
which  must  go  on,  even  in  time  of  war,  if  the  ex- 
tremity of  human  suffering  is  to  be  averted."  Pres- 
ident Roosevelt  greeted  the  committee  warmly, 
pointing  out  that  "it  has  been  the  continuous  policy 
of  this  government  for  many  years  to  co-operate 
in  the  world-wide  technical  and  humanitarian  ac- 
tivities of  the  League,"  which  he  described  as  "not 
only  worthy  but  definitely  essential." 

On  June  11,  three  educational  institutions- 
Princeton  University,  the  Institute  of  Advanced 
Study  (q-v.),  and  the  Rockefeller  Institute  for 
Medical  Research— anxious  that  the  work  of  the 
Economic  and  Financial  Section  be  not  interrupted 
or  its  personnel  dispersed  in  the  war,  invited  the 


LttATRBR 


407 


LEWIS,  JOHN  L. 


Section  to  Princeton  "for  such  period  as  may 
prove  to  be  desirable."  The  group  of  experts  ar- 
rived in  the  summer  and  by  the  year's  end  were 
actively  engaged  in  maintaining  the  League's  eco- 
nomic and  financial  service,  continuing  certain  spe- 
cial studies,  and  preparing  for  the  postwar  situa- 
tion. Shortly  after,  several  other  officials  associated 
with  the  League's  highly  successful  anti-drug  work 
arrived  in  Washington. 

The  scientific  and  analytical  publications  con- 
tinued to  appear,  despite  the  war.  Particularly  in 
the  economic  and  financial  field  with  the  issue  of 
the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  Statistics,  Monetary  Re- 
view, Statistical  Year-Book,  and  a  special  volume 
on  Raw  Materials.  The  Epidemiological  reports 
were  issued  as  usual,  as  also  the  Armaments  Year- 
Book,  which  has  appeared  regularly  for  many 
years. 

For  Opium  Advisory  Committee,  see  NARCOTIC 
DRUG  CONTROL.  See  INTERNATIONAL  LABOR  OR- 
GANIZATION. 

ARTHUR  SWEETSER. 

LEATHER.  The  movement  of  hides  and  skins 
was  considerably  curtailed  in  international  trade 
during  1940.  Leather  is  a  critical  material  that  is 
essential  in  national  defense.  Studies  on  the  use 
of  leather  in  modern  warfare  show  that  more  than 
500  articles  of  military  equipment  are  made  entire- 
ly or  partly  of  leather.  Many  nations  involved  in 
war  in  1940  reported  difficulty  in  getting  the  heavy 
leathers  necessary  for  army  usage,  and  many  na- 
tions at  peace  could  not  afford  to  import  leather  or 
relied  on  domestic  supplies.  Export  of  heavy  hides 
from  Argentina  to  Europe  was  restricted  by  the 
blockade,  but,  to  the  United  States,  was  not  re- 
duced in  spite  of  increased  shipping  costs. 

While  prices  in  United  States  leather  markets 
opened  the  year  in  a  steady  position  at  sound  price 
levels,  the  markets  dropped  precipitously  late  in 
May  when  the  world  situation  caused  widespread 
pessimism.  Demand  for  leather  and  shoes  lagged, 
inventories  were  cut,  and  cautious  policies  were  the 
rule  among  manufacturers  and  retailers.  Late  in 
August,  price  trends  and  activity  in  the  leather 
markets  advanced  sharply.  Domestic  hide  prices 
advanced,  and  by  December  were  4  to  5  cents  higher 
than  those  prevailing  during  the  summer.  An  even 
sharper  advance  occurred  in  the  Argentina  market, 
with  steers  quoting  at  14.7  cents  in  December,  1940, 
a  rise  from  8  cents  in  August.  Argentina  hides 
have  not  glutted  United  States  markets  as  the  Eu- 
ropean blockade  has  curtailed  the  killing  of  Ar- 
gentina cattle—leather  being  a  by-product  of  beef 
cattle.  American  imports  of  calf  and  kid  skins  from 
Europe  have  been  largely  cut  off;  goat,  kid,  and 
reptile  skins  from  China  and  India,  curtailed ;  and 
sheep  and  lamb  skins  from  New  Zealand,  restricted. 
An  increased  amount  of  sheep,  calf,  kid,  and  lamb 
skins  has  been  coming  to  the  United  States  from 
Latin  America,  but  most  of  it  is  not  top-grade. 
United  States  imports  during  1940  were  valued  at 
$50,188,383  ($47,056,066  in  1939).  United  States 
production  of  hides  was  slightly  over  the  25  million 
cattle  hides  tanned  in  1939  and  prices  closed  a  cent 
to  a  cent  and  a  half  below  the  January,  1940,  price 
of  15  cents  per  square  foot. 

The  armament  programs  stimulated  the  demand 
for  leather,  both  directly  because  of  increased  gov- 
ernment orders  and  indirectly  because  of  increased 
consumer  requirements.  Increased  demand  for  foot- 
wear may  not  result  in  a  proportionate  increase  in 
the  demand  for  leather  if  substitutes  are  used. 


Blockades  may  force  some  European  countries  to 
develop  substitutes,  higher  leather  prices  may  en- 
courage others.  In  the  United  States  every  5,000,- 
000  pairs  of  army  service  shoes  require  a  million 
hides  of  the  best  selection  available.  Large  govern- 
ment orders  of  army  shoes  in  the  last  few  months 
of  1940  shortened  the  supply  and  increased  the 
price  of  army  shoe  leathers.  Reports  are  that  leath- 
er prices  in  1941  will  probably  level  off  slightly 
above  present  prices,  but  the  industry  is  well  able 
to  provide  the  20  to  25  million  hides  necessary  for 
civilian  usage  plus  approximately  2  million  hides 
needed  for  the  defense  program. 

Technological  developments  of  the  year  include 
additional  flexibility  in  heavier  weight  leathers  and 
increased  durability  in  lighter  weights ;  new  grains 
for  calfskin,  better  grain  finishes  in  kidskin,  and  a 
more  flexible  and  "less  crackable"  patent  leather. 
But  the  greatest  strides  have  probably  been  made 
in  color — "faster,"  more  varied,  richer,  more  even 
colors  in  leather  are  being  developed. 

See  SHOE  INDUSTRY. 

JOHN  F.  W.  ANDERSON. 

LEBANON,  Republic  of.  See  SYRTA  AND 
LEBANON. 

LEEWARD  ISLANDS,  British.  A  British 
West  Indian  federation  consisting  of  the  four 
presidencies  shown  in  the  accompanying  table. 


Presidency  (Capital) 
Antigua  (St.  John)      

Barbuda  and  Redonda    

Montserrat  (Plymouth)         

St.  Kitts-Nevii  (Basseterre) 

Nevis        

Anguilla      .  

Virgin  Islands  *  (Road  Town) 


Sq  mi    Population' 

171  35,123 

63  1,000 

32K  13,670 

152  37,569 

50  13,966 

34  5,777 

67  6,364 


Leeward  Islands  (St.  John) 422H       92,726 

•  Estimate  of  December  31. 1938.    *  Includes  Sombrero. 

The  approximate  populations  of  the  principal 
towns  on  Dec.  31,  1938,  were  as  follows :  St.  John, 
10,000 ;  Basseterre,  8000 ;  Plymouth,  2000 ;  Charles- 
town,  1200 ;  Road  Town,  400 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  products :  sugar, 
limes,  oranges,  lemons,  grapefruit,  bananas,  cocoa, 
and  tomatoes.  Trade  (1938)  •  imports,  £733,645; 
exports,  £576,886  (sugar,  £376,348;  cotton,  £81,- 
723;  limes  and  lime  products,  £26,678;  molasses, 
£16,955).  Shipping  entered  and  cleared  the  ports 
in  1938  totaled  6,478,040  tons.  The  foregoing  fig- 
ures of  trade  include  those  of  Dominica  which  was 
transferred  from  the  Leeward  Islands  to  the 
Windward  Islands  on  Jan.  I,  1940. 

Government.  Finance,  including  Dominica 
(1938)  :  revenue,  £337,547;  expenditure,  £331,891; 
public  debt  (net),  £304,751.  There  is  one  governor, 
an  executive  council,  and  a  general  legislative 
council  for  the  whole  colony.  Antigua,  Montserrat, 
and  St.  Kitts-Nevis  have  their  own  local  executive 
and  legislative  councils;  the  Virgin  Islands  has  a 
local  executive  council.  Governor  and  Commander- 
in-Chief ,  Sir  G.  J.  Lethem  (appointed  December, 
1935).  See  ANTIGUA,  BRITISH  WEST  INDIES 
t  LEGISLATION.  See  UNITED  STATES  ;  the  ar- 
ticles on  the  States  and  foreign  countries;  LABOR 
LEGISLATION;  TAXATION,  ETC. 

LEOPOLD  III.  See  BELGIUM  under  History. 

LEPROSY.  See  BIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY. 

LEWIS,  JOHN  L.  See  CONGRESS  OF  INDUS- 
TRIAL ORGANIZATIONS;  ELECTIONS.  U.S.  NATION- 
AL; LABOR  CONDITIONS  under  Umon  Movements. 


LIAONINQ 


408 


LIBRARY  PROGRESS 


LIAONING.  See  CHINA  under  Ar€a  and  Pop- 
ulation. 

LIBERIA*  A  Negro  republic  on  the  west  coast 
of  Africa.  Area,  about  43,000  square  miles :  popu- 
lation, estimated  at  from  1,000,000  to  2,500,000. 
Only  about  60,000,  including  some  12,000  Afro- 
Americans,  residing  mainly  along  the  coast,  may 
be  considered  civilized.  There  were  about  289  Amer- 
ican citizens  in  Liberia  on  Jan.  1,  1940.  Capital, 
Monrovia  (pop.  about  10,000).  English  is  the  of- 
ficial language.  Afro-Americans  are  Protestant 
Christians.  The  indigenous  tribes  are  mainly  pa- 
gans or  Mohammedans,  with  some  Christian  con- 
verts. There  are  two  colleges  at  Monrovia  (one 
government  and  one  Methodist) ,  a  vocational  school 
at  Kakata,  and  70  government  and  80  mission  grade 
schools,  with  about  10,000  pupils. 

Production.  Rubber,  produced  on  the  Firestone 
Company's  1,000,000 -acre  concession,  is  the  chief 
export  crop.  Output  in  1939,  about  4/50  long  tons 
from  67,000  acres.  Native  coffee,  cacao,  cotton, 
piassava  fiber,  palm  oil  and  kernels,  kola  nuts,  rice, 
oil  seeds,  iron,  copper,  and  gold  are  produced  in 
small  quantities.  There  are  rich  undeveloped  for- 
est, mineral,  and  agricultural  resources. 

Foreign  Trade.  Merchandise  imports  in  1939 
totaled  2,003,000  Liberian  dollars ;  exports,  $L2,714,- 
000.  Trade  is  mainly  with  the  United  States  and 
United  Kingdom.  The  chief  exports  are  rubber, 
palm  kernels,  piassava,  and  coffee;  chief  imports, 
textiles,  metal  goods,  machinery,  chemicals,  and 
petroleum  products. 

Finance.  Estimated  budget  receipts  and  expendi- 
tures for  the  calendar  year  1940  balanced  at  675,- 
000  Liberian  dollars,  with  operating  expenses  put 
at  $L525,000  and  amortization  of  the  American 
loan  at  $L150,200.  For  the  year  ended  Sept.  30, 
1939,  revenue,  including  the  balance  carried  for- 
ward, was  $L1,069,701 ;  expenditures,  $L1,081,142. 
Public  debt  on  Sept.  30, 1939:  $L1,793,936  (funded, 
$L1,512,000;  unfunded,  $L281,936).  The  Liberian 
dollar  ($L)  was  pegged  at  $L4.80  to  the  pound 
sterling. 

Communications.  There  are  no  railways ;  234 
miles  of  roads  (1940),  with  one  bus  line  from 
Monrovia  to  the  interior;  a  number  of  navigable 
rivers ;  and  air  connections  at  Monrovia  to  Dakar, 
Senegal,  and  Pointe-Noire,  French  Equatorial  Af- 
rica. During  1939,  536  ships  of  1,390,535  registered 
tons  entered  Liberian  ports. 

Government.  The  Constitution  is  modeled  on 
that  of  the  United  States.  Suffrage  is  restricted 
to  Negroes  owning  land.  The  True  Whig  party, 
dominated  by  a  small  oligarchy  of  Afro-American 
families  at  Monrovia,  has  controlled  all  branches 
of  the  government  since  1878.  President  in  1940, 
Edwin  Barclay,  inaugurated  Jan.  6,  1936,  for  an 
eight-year  term. 

History.  Carrying  out  its  budget-balancing  pol- 
icy, the  government  reduced  all  appropriations  ex- 
cept those  for  the  war  department  in  the  1940 
budget.  All  salaries  over  $L300  per  annum  were 
reduced  from  10  to  20  per  cent.  To  permit  con- 
tinuance of  the  road  construction  program,  de- 
signed to  open  up  remote  sections  of  the  interior 
for  the  first  time,  the  corvee  labor  system  was  re- 
sumed. It  had  been  abandoned  following  charges 
of  slavery  and  forced  labor  lodged  against  the 
Liberian  Government  by  an  international  commis- 
sion and  by  the  U.S.  State  Department  in  1931  (see 
YEAR  BOOK,  1931,  p.  463).  In  January  the  govern- 
ment leased  200  acres  of  land  on  the  Farmington 
River  for  construction  and  operation  of  a  hydro- 


electric plant  by  the  Firestone  Company,  the  lease 
running  for  86  years.  Power  from  the  plant  was 
to  be  used  in  processing  latex  and  for  the  com- 
pany's plantation  transportation  system.  The  U.S. 
Senate  on  Nov.  26,  1940,  ratified  the  conciliation 
treaty  signed  with  Liberia  on  Aug.  21,  1939. 

LIBRARY  PROGRESS.  In  a  year  which 
witnessed  the  destruction  of  political  and  intellec- 
tual freedom  in  Europe,  librarians  with  others  in 
educational  fields  turned  their  thoughts  to  the  de- 
fense of  freedom  in  America  and  library  implica- 
tions of  the  national  emergency,  while  at  the  same 
time  not  neglecting  regular  library  activities  and 
long-time  goals.  In  numerous  ways  librarians,  be- 
lieving that  it  is  more  important  now  than  ever 
before  to  make  democracy  work  as  well  as  to  over- 
come the  habit  of  taking  inherited  rights  and  privi- 
leges for  granted,  have  given  impetus  and  assist- 
ance to  library  activity  to  increase  the  general  un- 
derstanding and  appreciation  of  democracy.  After 
discussions  with  representatives  of  the  Advisory 
Commission  to  the  Council  of  National  Defense 
and  other  officials,  a  committee  was  created  by  the 
Library  of  Congress,  the  Library  Service  Division 
of  the  United  States  Office  of  Education,  the 
American  Library  Association,  and  the  Special  Li- 
braries Association  to  make  a  survey  of  the  re- 
search resources  of  libraries  on  subjects  directly 
related  to  national  defense. 

A  study  of  statistics  for  libraries  in  cities  of  25,- 
000  to  70,000  population  from  1929  to  1939,  termed 
"the  most  turbulent  decade  of  our  history,"  showed 
that  the  highest  library  expenditure  per  capita  in 
1929  was  $1.66,  as  compared  with  $1.44  for  1939, 
and  the  lowest  was  42  cents  in  1929,  compared  with 
46  cents  for  1939.  Of  the  libraries  included,  all  but 
six  report  a  larger  operating  expense  in  1939  than 
1929,  and  all  but  four  report  an  increase  in  the  total 
amount  expended  for  salaries  of  the  library  staff. 
Circulation  figures  indicate  an  even  greater  in- 
crease. One  library  reports  a  circulation  in  1939 
over  three  times  as  large  as  that  for  1929.  Others 
show  gams  of  lesser  volume,  but  all  indicate  a  sub- 
stantial increase  in  the  use  of  public  library  re- 
sources. Complete  statistics  for  United  States  li- 
braries were  published  during  the  year  in  the 
A.L.A.  Bulletin:  For  high  school,  college,  teachers 
college,  and  university  libraries  (February)  and 
for  public  libraries  (April).  For  additional  library 
statistics  see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  Library  Progress, 
which  gives  the  latest  compilations  available. 

After  exploratory  visits  to  Washington  by  its 
representatives,  the  A.L.A.  Federal  Relations  Com- 
mittee was  forced  to  conclude,  as  were  the  officers 
of  the  National  Education  Association,  that  no 
progress  could  be  made  on  the  Harrison- Thomas 
bill  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  Library  Progress)  for 
federal  aid  to  education  and  libraries  in  the  1940 
congressional  session  due  to  economy  measures. 
The  outlook  for  the  future  is  still  thought  to  be 
encouraging. 

Due  to  the  establishment  of  some  150  large  re- 
gional and  county  libraries  during  the  past  two 
years  public  library  service  has  greatly  increased. 
This  number  is  significant  compared  to  only  300 
such  units  established  during  the  38  preceding 
years.  Present-day  organized  citizen  support  of 
programs  for  complete,  state-wide  library  service 
with  local,  State,  and  Federal  funds,  promise  much 
for  the  future.  There  are  more  than  30,000  mem- 
bers of  public  library  boards  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  most  of  whom  are  enthusiastic  pro- 
ponents of  the  library  idea.  Fourteen  States  now 


LIBRARY  PROGRESS 


409 


LIBRARY  PROGRESS 


have  State  library  trustee  organizations.  There  are 
150  Friends  of  the  Library  groups  in  38  States, 
District  of  Columbia,  Hawaii,  and  three  Canadian 
provinces.  In  many  citizen  organizations  such  as 
the  General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs,  the  Na- 
tional Congress  of  Parents  and  Teachers,  and  the 
American  Legion  Auxiliary,  library  improvement 
is  a  part  of  the  regular  program.  There  are  numer- 
ous other  groups  which  give  important,  if  not  con- 
tinuous, support  to  libraries.  Definite  library  rec- 
ommendations were  also  made  at  the  White  House 
Conference  on  Children  in  Democracy  held  in 
Washington,  D.C.  in  January. 

State  Aid.  During  the  year  the  movement  in 
behalf  of  State  aid  for  libraries  continued  to  pro- 
gress with  the  following  results :  Arkansas,  Loui- 
siana, Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  Vermont  made  or 
renewed  appropriations  ranging  from  $25,000  to 
$200,760  a  biennium.  New  Hampshire  received  the 
continuation  of  funds  for  one  regional  book  auto- 
mobile service,  which  was  begun  on  an  experimen- 
tal basis.  Michigan  continued  work  begun  under  a 
$500,000  grant  which  was  repealed  in  1939.  Pro- 
vincial grants  in  British  Columbia  were  increased 
in  1939  from  $1000  to  $5000,  and  Nova  Scotia  pro- 
vided $1  for  every  $3  appropriated  by  local  agen- 
cies for  regional  libraries.  Legislative  action  to- 
ward providing  or  strengthening  official  State  lead- 
ership was  taken  in  Alabama,  Florida,  Idaho,  Ken- 
tucky, Mississippi,  Pennsylvania,  South  Dakota, 
Texas,  Alaska,  and  Nova  Scotia.  Several  States, 
including  Colorado,  Kansas,  New  Mexico,  and 
Tennessee,  have  organized  campaigns  under  way 
and  others  were  planned  for  legislative  action  in 
1941  when  43  State  legislatures  will  be  in  session. 
During  the  past  year,  49  counties  in  16  States  were 
added  to  the  list  of  451  counties  appropriating  at 
least  $1000  for  rural  service.  This  is  slow  but 
definite  progress  compared  to  the  total  of  more 
than  3000  counties  in  the  United  States.  Georgia, 
Tennessee,  and  Virginia  appropriated  amounts 
from  $60,000  to  $150,000  (proportionate  amounts 
to  be  raised  locally)  for  the  purchase  of  school 
library  books  during  the  biennium. 

Special  Services  and  Activities.  Many  li- 
braries are  using  or  experimenting  with  some  of 
the  new  developments  of  audio-visual  materials 
and  scientific  aids  to  learning — as  dioramas,  slides, 
film  slides,  theatrical  slides,  documentary  films, 
microfilms,  radio  transcriptions,  talking  books, 
radio-visual  devices,  and  facsimile  broadcasting. 
A  film,  emphasizing  the  social  value  of  the  library, 
is  also  being  produced  by  the  American  Film  Cen- 
ter with  the  co-operation  of  an  A.L.A.  committee. 

A  list  of  some  50  studies  and  surveys  were  noted 
during  the  year  by  the  A.L.A.  in  a  list  of  "Studies 
and  Experiments  Outside  the  Library  Field  Which 
Have  Implications  for  Libraries."  Surveys  were 
made  of  the  University  of  Florida  Library,  Uni- 
versity of  Indiana  Library,  Texas  State  Library, 
and  of  library  personnel  and  training  agencies  m 
Michigan  and  Tennessee. 

There  are  many  examples  of  special  library 
services  during  the  present  emergency.  Eastern  li- 
braries have  given  pleasure  and  aid  to  European 
refugee  children  through  books  which  assist  in 
adjusting  them  to  new  situations  and  environments. 
Canadian  libraries,  especially,  are  assisting  with 
the  gathering  of  books  and  magazines  for  those  in 
war  service,  with  the  establishing  of  special  rooms 
for  service  men,  and  with  the  aiding  of  refugee 
and  patriotic  services.  Several  Eastern  libraries 
joined  in  compiling  a  list  and  furnishing  the  books 


for  the  use  of  the  Western  Hemisphere  Encamp- 
ment of  Girl  Scouts,  attended  by  scouts  from  Can- 
ada, Newfoundland,  the  United  States,  Central 
and  South  America.  Libraries  also  aided  The 
American  Merchant  Marine  Library  Association 
in  the  collecting  of  books  and  magazines  for  the 
recreation  and  education  of  seamen,  coastguards- 
men,  and  lighthouse  keepers.  The  collecting  of 
books  for  replenishment  of  libraries  which  were 
destroyed  in  the  war  areas  of  China  was  continued 
by  libraries. 

With  the  world-wide  celebration  during  the  year 
of  the  500th  anniversary  of  Gutenberg's  invention 
of  movable  type,  libraries  throughout  the  country 
illustrated  historical,  literary,  and  mechanical  as- 
pects of  printing,  displayed  special  book  collections 
and  rare  treasures,  held  meetings  and  lectures,  and 
gave  radio  broadcasts. 

Adult  Education.  The  A.L.A.  Adult  Educa- 
tion Board  has  begun  studies  and  research  regard- 
ing a  broader  and  better  implemented  concept  of 
adult  education  in  respect  to :  The  qualitative  value 
of  the  library's  educational  services  to  users ;  ap- 
plication of  psychology  to  certain  problems  of  serv- 
ice ;  new  emphasis  on  the  educational  function  of 
libraries  in  the  curricula  of  library  schools  and 
in  "in-service"  training  programs;  simpler  read- 
ing materials,  audio-visual  materials,  particularly 
educational  films ;  and  the  library  as  a  community 
center  for  many  kinds  of  informal  education.  The 
Board  sponsored  the  publication  of  several  articles 
in  professional  periodicals,  books,  and  pamphlets, 
among  which  were  Books  for  Adults,  Experiments 
in  Educational  Service  for  Adults,  and  Education 
for  the  Asking. 

Library  Training  and  Personnel.  An  in- 
creasing number  of  library  schools,  libraries,  State 
library  extension  agencies,  and  groups  of  librar- 
ians held  "in-service"  training  institutes,  confer- 
ences, and  clinics.  This  was  due  in  part  to  the 
mounting  demand  for  opportunities  of  improving 
the  professional  competence  of  librarians  already 
in  service.  Since  1935  the  program  of  the  A.L.A. 
Board  of  Education  for  Librarianship  has  been 
materially  aided  by  the  Carnegie  Corporation  of 
New  York.  Most  of  the  grants  have  been  made 
for  special  work,  studies,  surveys,  publications, 
and  conferences  now  completed.  During  the  year 
the  A  L.  A.  Committee  on  Fellowships  and  Scholar- 
ships awarded  six  grants-in-aid  for  advanced  study 
in  librarianship  from  a  fund  allocated  to  it  by  the 
Corporation.  Striving  to  increase  the  opportunities 
for  preparation  for  library  service,  the  Board  se- 
cured permission  to  include  a  number  of  organiza- 
tions in  a  revised  list  of  fellowships,  scholarships, 
grants-in-aid,  and  loan  funds  open  to  librarians 
and  prospective  librarians.  Twenty-four  education- 
al foundations  or  associations,  or  agencies  admin- 
istering grants-in-aid;  15  local  library  clubs  or 
State  library  associations  and  15  accredited  library 
schools  or  their  alumni  organizations  are  included. 
During  the  year,  the  A.L.A.  Board  on  Salaries, 
Staff,  and  Tenure  and  its  sub-committees  worked 
on  several  projects.  One  of  these — the  preparation 
of  a  model  scheme  of  service — was  completed,  and 
another— classification  and  pay  plans  for  institu- 
tions of  higher  education — has  received  consider- 
able attention  jointly  from  the  Board  and  its  sub- 
committee on  Budgets,  Compensation,  and  Schemes 
of  Service,  which  was  appointed  by  the  Associa- 
tion of  College  and  Reference  Libraries. 

Gifts,  Grants,  and  Buildings.  Many  gifts  and 
grants  from  individuals  and  foundations,  which 


LIBRARY  PROGRESS 


410 


LIBRARY  PROGRESS 


received  during  the  year,  have  materially 
aided  libraries  and  their  services.  Material  for  re- 
search will  be  made  available  as  a  result  of  Rocke- 
feller Foundation  grants  to  Brown  University, 
Providence,  Rhode  Island  and  the  New  York  Pub- 
lic Library  for  modern  facilities  for  microfilm 
copying.  The  Foundation  is  subsidizing  the  film- 
ing of  35  foreign  newspapers  currently  received 
at  Harvard  University.  The  recently  opened  His- 
panic Foundation  at  the  Library  of  Congress  was 
the  recipient  of  a  grant  to  aid  in  the  preparation 
of  a  catalogue  and  the  development  of  bibliograph- 
ical services.  An  appropriation  of  $30,000  was  also 
made  to  the  American  Library  Association  by  the 
Foundation  for  studies  covering  the  general  fields 
of  relations  with  Latin  American  countries. 

In  1940-41  the  Carnegie  Corporation  of  New 
York  completes  its  three-year  grants  to  a  number 
of  Teachers  College  libraries  for  the  development 
of  their  book  collections.  Grants  for  special  proj- 
ects were  also  made  by  the  Corporation  to  the 
American  Library  Association,  the  Library  of  Con- 
gress, and  several  other  libraries,  and  a  grant  of 
$17,000  was  provided  to  care  for  Emergency  Li- 
brary Activities  dealing  with  National  Defense. 
An  endowment  grant  of  $100,000  was  also  made 
to  Emory  University  Library  School. 

During  the  year  gifts  of  unusually  valuable  pri- 
vate book  collections  were  made.  The  W.  T.  H. 
Howe  collection  of  over  3000  rare  books  of  Eng- 
lish and  American  literature  was  presented  to  the 
New  York  Public  Library  by  Dr.  Albert  A.  Berg. 
Harvard  University  received  from  the  heirs  of  the 
late  William  Augustus  White  an  important  col- 
lection of  rare  books,  and  from  Philip  Hofer  a 
collection  of  illustrated  or  finely  printed  books 
dating  from  the  15th  to  the  20th  century.  The  late 
Governor,  Henry  Horner  of  Illinois,  gave  his  Lin- 
coln library  to  the  Illinois  State  Historical  Li- 
brary. The  College  of  the  City  of  New  York  re- 
ceived from  the  widow  of  Prof.  Israel  Davidson 
7500  volumes  of  Hebrew  medieval  literature,  re- 
girded  as  the  finest  existing  collection  in  that  field. 
The  Wagner  College  Library  has  received  the  li- 
brary of  the  poet,  Edwin  Markham.  Dr.  Archi- 
bald Henderson's  collection  of  materials  dealing 
with  the  life  and  works  of  George  Bernard  Shaw 
is  to  go  to  the  University  of  North  Carolina  Li- 
brary. 

Among  the  gifts  received  for  library  buildings 
were  a  $250,000  bequest  from  the  will  of  the  late 
Mrs.  Norman  Mayer  to  the  City  of  New  Orleans 
for  a  public  library;  $150,000  anonymous  gift  to 
Davidson  College;  $150,000  for  a  memorial  li- 
brary for  Manhattanville  College  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  from  the  late  Mrs.  Brady-Maca  llay ;  a 
trust  fund  of  approximately  $125,000  for  a  new 
branch  library  and  an  additional  sum  of  at  least 
$50,000  to  the  Denver  Public  Library  from  the 
late  Frederick  R.  Ross. 

Libraries  in  all  parts  of  the  country  were  pre- 
sented with  gifts  and  bequests  of  money  for  the 
purchase  of  books  and  other  purposes.  Among 
those  receiving  large  gifts  were  Marshfield,  Wis- 
consin, Public  Library;  Shelton,  Washington,  Pub- 
lic Library ;  Houston,  Texas,  Public  Library ;  Har- 
vard University;  Monticello  College;  John  Car- 
ter Brown  Library,  Brown  University;  George 
Washington  University. 

The  construction  and  repair  of  libraries  and 
additions  to  buildings  were  numerous.  The  Central 
Building  of  the  Brooklyn  Public  Library,  begun 
in  1912  and  rebuilt  in  1938-39  at  a  total  cost  of 


about  $5.000.000,  is  now  in  use;  the  $2,000,000 
Toledo  Public  Library,  constructed  with  the  aid 
of  the  Public  Works  Administration,  was  opened 
to  the  public  in  the  fall  of  1940;  and  a  16-story 
building  has  been  constructed  with  PWA  aid  for 
Hunter  College  in  New  York  City,  two  floors  of 
which  house  the  library  with  facilities  for  325,000 
books  and  1600  readers. 

During  the  year  work  was  begun  on  three  large 
libraries— the  District  of  Columbia  Public  Library, 
of  which  the  first  unit  will  cost  approximately 
$1,000,000:  the  Virginia  State  Library  at  Rich- 
mond, which  will  cost  nearly  $2,000,000,  and  the 
$800,000  building  for  the  Joint  University  Librar- 
ies (Vanderbilt,  Peabody,  and  Scarritt)  at  Nash- 
ville, Tennessee. 

Under  construction  is  a  $500,000  building  in  New 
Orleans  to  house  the  libraries  of  Tulane  Univer- 
sity, Newcomb  College,  and  Howard  Memorial 
Library,  which  have  been  merged  under  one  direc- 
tor. 

Among  the  libraries  completed  in  the  fall  of 
1939  and  in  1940  are  Rockford  College  Library, 
Rpckford,  Illinois;  Southwestern  Louisiana  In- 
stitute Library,  Lafayette ;  Northeast  Center,  Lou- 
isiana State  University,  Monroe;  Skidmore  Col- 
lege, Saratoga  Springs,  New  York;  University 
of  Wichita  Library,  Wichita,  Kansas;  Montana 
School  of  Mines  Library,  Butte;  Concord,  New 
Hampshire,  Public  Library;  Kirkwood  and  Uni- 
versity City,  Missouri,  Public  libraries;  Toms 
River,  New  Jersey,  Public  Library;  Twin  Falls, 
Idaho,  Public  Library;  Palp  Alto,  California, 
Children's  Library;  Newtonville  Branch  Library, 
Newton,  Massachusetts;  Park  Place  Branch  Li- 
brary, Houston,  Texas ;  Southwestern  Branch  Li- 
brary, Washington,  D.C. ;  a  wing  of  the  Thomas 
Jefferson  Memorial  Junior  High  School;  the  re- 
building and  furnishing  of  the  second  floor  of  the 
Reis  Library,  Allegheny  College,  which  houses 
several  fine  collections,  the  latest  gift  being  Ida 
M.  Tarbell's  Lincoln  collection;  and  the  addition 
of  the  David  A.  Howe  Reference  Halls  to  the 
James  V.  Brown  Library,  Williamsport,  Pa. 

Publications.  The  A  L.A.  publishes  the  follow- 
ing professional  periodicals :  The  A.L.A.  Bulletin, 
a  monthly  which  includes  news  issues,  annual  re- 
ports, conference  proceedings,  and  the  yearly  hand- 
book; the  Booklist,  a  semi-monthly  guide  to  the 
selection  and  purchase  of  current  books ;  the  Sub- 
scription Books  Bulletin,  a  quarterly  which  pre- 
sents critical  estimates  of  subscription  books  and 
sets  sold  currently  by  canvassing  agents ;  the  Jour- 
nal of  Documentary  Reproduction,  a  quarterly  re- 
view of  the  application  of  photography  and  allied 
techniques  to  library,  museum,  and  archival  serv- 
ice; the  new  quarterly  journal,  College  and  Re- 
search Libraries,  the  official  organ  of  the  Associa- 
tion of  College  and  Reference  Libraries ;  and  the 
new  Hospital  Book  Guide,  a  quarterly  sponsored 
jointly  by  the  American  Hospital  Association  and 
the  American  Library  Association. 

Among  the  various  books  and  pamphlets  pub- 
lished by  the  A.L.A.  during  the  year  for  libraries 
and  in  the  interest  of  library  progress  and  educa- 
tion generally  are :  Adams'  The  Junior  College  Li- 
brary Program;  a  Sjudy  of  Library  Services  m 
Relation  to  Instructional  Procedures,  Catalogers 
and  Classifiers  Yearbook,  No.  8,  McDiarmid's  The 
Library  Survey,  Rue's  Subject  Index  to  Books 
for  Intermediate  Grades,  Subject  Index  to  Chil- 
dren's Plays,  Horton's  Buying  List  of  Books  for 
Small  Libraries,  6tfe  ed.,  Replacement  List  of  Pic- 


LIBYA 


tion.  Books  for  Tired  Eyes,  3d  ed.,  Booklist 
Books,  1939,  Books  for  Adult  Beginners,  Brans- 
comb's  Teaching  with  Books  (published  Jointly 
with  the  Association  of  American  Colleges), 
Shaw's  List  of  Books  for  College  Libraries,  1931- 
38,  Manual  on  the  Use  of  State  Publications,  Ar- 
chives and  Libraries  1940,  Floor  and  Floor  Cov- 
erings, Swain's  Notes  Used  on  Catalog  Cards, 
and  Eastman's  Portrait  of  a  Librarian,  William 
Howard  Brett,  4th  in  the  series  on  American 
Library  Pioneers. 

Among  the  pamphlets  and  book  lists  published 
by  the  A.L.A.  to  assist  libraries  in  meeting  the 
needs  of  students  and  schools  participating  in  the 
government  training  program  for  defense  occupa- 
tions are:  Industrial  Training  for  National  De- 
fense, Aeronautic  Traininp  for  National  Defense, 
Engineering  Defense  Training,  Elementary  Books 
for  Industrial  Training,  Our  American  Democ- 
racy, and  Democracy:  a  Reading  List. 

Additional  1940  publications  in  the  library  field, 
other  than  those  issued  by  the  A.L.A.,  include: 
Thomas  R.  Adam,  The  Worker's  Road  to  Learn- 
ing (American  Association  for  Adult  Education)  ; 
Anne  Thaxter  Eaton,  Reading  With  Children 
(Viking  Press)  ;  Carleton  Brims  Joeckel  and  Leon 
Carnovsky,  A  Metropolitan  Library  in  Action ;  a 
Survey  of  the  Chicago  Public  Library  (Univ.  of 
Chicago  Press)  ;  Frank  Kingdon,  John  Cotton 
Dana  (Newark,  N  J.,  The  Public  Library  and 
Museum)  ;  Elbert  Enrow,  Reader's  Guide  to  Prose 
Fiction  (Appleton-Century) ;  Louis  R.  Wilson, 
The  Practice  of  Book  Selection  (Univ.  of  Chicago 
Press)  ;  Paul  Lazarsfeld,  Radio  and  the  Printed 
Page  (Duell). 

See  EDUCATION,  U.S.  OFFICE  OF  ;  PHOTOGRAPHY 
under  Microphotography.  For  statistics  on  college 
and  university  libraries,  see  table  of  UNIVERSITIES 
AND  COLLEGES. 

MILDRED  OTHMER  PETERSON. 

LIBYA.  An  Italian  colony  in  North  Africa. 
Area,  679,358  square  miles;  population  (Tan.  1, 
1939),  888,401,  including  793,225  natives  (763,179 
Moslems  and  30,046  Jews),  89,098  Italians,  and 
6078  other  Europeans.  Chief  towns  (with  Jan.  1. 
1939,  populations):  Tripoli  (108,240),  Bengasi 
(64,641).  Misurata  (45,097),  Horns  (34,940),  and 
Derna  (21  547).  Ghadames,  Sinauen,  Mizda,  Mur- 
zuk,  and  Ghat  are  important  caravan  stations  in 
the  interior.  Capital,  Tripoli. 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  products :  Bar- 
ley, dates,  olives,  oranges,  lemons,  almonds,  vege- 
tables, salt,  sponges,  fish,  and  tobacco.  Livestock 
(1938)  :  820,323  sheep,  726,006  goats,  69,670  cat- 
tle, 91,782  camels,  55,676  donkeys,  mules,  and 
horses.  Trade  (1938):  Imports,  882,057,532  lire; 
exports,  108,961,545  lire  (lira  averaged  $0.0526 
for  1938;  $0.0520  for  1939).  During  1938,  5545 
ships  entered  Libyan  ports,  landing  696,890  tons 
of  freight  and  127.458  passengers. 

Government.  Budget  estimates  (1939-40): 
Revenue  and  expenditure  balanced  at  600,115,000 
lire.  The  colony  consists  of  four  provinces  (Trip- 
oli, Misurata,  Bengasi,  and  Derna)  and  the  mili- 
tary territory  in  the  south  with  the  capital  at  Hun, 
having  jurisdiction  over  the  regions  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  four  provinces.  On  Jan.  9,  1939, 
by  a  decree,  the  four  provinces  were  incorporated 
in  the  national  territory  of  Italy ;  the  territory  of 
Libyan  Sahara  was  not  included  in  the  decree. 
Governor  General,  Marshal  Rodolfo  Graziani  (ap- 
pointed on  July  6,  1940,  to  succeed  Marshal  Italo 


411  LITERATURE 

Balbo  who  was  killed  in  an  airplane  accident  dur- 
ing June,  1940). 

History.  Following  Italy's  entrance  into  the 
European  War  on  June  10.  1940,  Libya  became 
the  base  of  the  attempted  Italian  invasion  of 
Egypt.  Many  of  the  Libyan  cities  and  ports  were 
devastated  by  British  naval  and  air  attacks,  par- 
ticularly during  the  successful  Allied  offensive  in 
December  which  drove  the  Italians  back  upon 
their  base  at  Tobruk.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR  ;  ITALY 
under  History. 

LIECHTENSTEIN.  An  independent  princi- 
pality. Area,  65  square  miles;  population  (1938 
estimate),  12,000.  Capital,  Vaduz.  Corn,  wine, 
fruit,  wood,  marble  are  the  chief  products.  Main 
industries:  Cotton  spinning  and  weaving,  leather 
goods,  pottery,  and  livestock  raising.  Liechtenstein 
belongs  to  the  Swiss  Customs  Union;  Swiss  cur- 
rency is  used.  Budget  estimates  (1940)  :  Balanced 
at  2,500,000  francs.  Public  debt  (Dec.  31,  1939)  : 
5,600,000  francs  (franc  averaged  $0.2253  for  1939). 
Reigning  Prince,  Francis  Joseph  II  (succeeded 
Aug.  25,  1938)  ;  Administrator,  Dr.  Joseph  Hoop 
(appointed  Aug.  4,  1928). 

LIE  DETECTORS.  See  COURTS  under  Ad- 
missibility. 

LIFE  SAVING.  See  COAST  GUARD,  U.S.; 
RED  CROSS. 

LIGHTHOUSES.  See  COAST  GUARD,  U.S. 

LIGHTING.  See  ELECTRICAL  ILLUMINATION. 

LIPPE.  See  GERMANY  under  Area  and  Popu- 
lation. 

LIQUOR  PRODUCTION.  See  ALCOHOLIC 
LIQUORS. 

LITERATURE,  English  and  American. 
Book  production  in  the  United  States  increased 
during  1940  to  a  total  of  11,328  titles,  as  com- 
pared with  10,640  in  1939,  both  figures  including 
new  editions.  New  books  numbered  9515  in  1940, 
9015  in  1939.  The  increase  was  well  distributed 
among  the  classifications,  with  notable  increases 
occurring  in  Technical  Books,  in  Religion,  and  in 
Poetry  and  Drama.  History  showed  a  marked  in- 
crease in  new  books,  oddly  accompanied  by  a  de- 
crease in  new  editions.  Fiction  still  leads  all  classi- 
fications, and  showed  an  increase  in  1940,  revers- 
ing a  recent  trend. 

Book  production  in  England  was  maintained 
surprisingly  well,  though  distribution  was  greatly 
hampered.  Bookbuying  in  the  cities  decreased, 
but  was  made  up  for  by  increased  buying  in  the 
provinces.  Cheap  reprints  and  new  books  sold 
well,  as  did  books  on  politics  and  war. 

Biography.  The  autobiographies  were  unusual 
in  number  and  interest,  as:  Hans  Zinsser's  As  I 
Remember  Him;  John  Buchan's  Pilgrim's  Way\ 
Abraham  Flexner's  /  Remember ;  vol.  ii  of  Nich- 
olas Murray  Butler's  Across  the  Busy  Years] 
Hugh  Youna:  H.  L.  Mencken's  Happy  Days; 
Benjamin  Gitlow's  /  Confess,  as  an  ex-commu- 
nist; George  B.  Gilbert's  Forty  Years  a  Country 
Preacher;  Katherine  Brush's  This  Is  on  Me; 
Ely  Culbertson's  The  Strange  Lives  of  One  Man , 
W.  E.  B,  Du  Bois'  Dusk  of  Dawn;  Wanda  Gag's 
Growing  Pains;  E.  F.  Benson's  Final  Edition; 
Langston  Hughes'  The  Big  Sea;  Ernest  Poole's 
The  Bridge:  My  Own  Story;  Guy  Pene  du  Bois' 
Artists  Say  the  Silliest  Things. 

Biographies  of  literary  figures  included:  Shel- 
ley, by  Newman  Ivey  White ;  Trelawney,  by  Mar- 
garet Armstrong;  Horace  Walpole,  by  R.  W. 
Ketton-Cremer ;  Christopher  Marlowe  t  by  F.  S. 
Boas;  Margaret  Fuller,  by  Mason  Wade;  James 


LITERATURE 


412 


LITERATURE 


Joyce,  by  Herbert  Gorman;  The  Spanish  Adven- 
tures of  Washington  Irving,  by  Claude  G.  Bowers ; 
Elbert  Hubbard,  by  David  Arnold  Balch;  Roger 
Fry,  by  Virginia  Woolf ;  Jonathan  Edwards,  by 
Ola  Elizabeth  Winslow ;  Here  Lies  Richard  Brins- 
ley  Sheridan,  by  Kenelm  Foss ;  Period  Piece,  about 
Ella  Wheeler  Wilcox,  by  Jenny  Ballou;  Testa- 
ment of  Friendship,  about  Winifred  Holtby,  by 
Vera  Brittain;  Letters  to  Mary,  about  Helen 
Hayes,  by  Catherine  Hayes  Brown;  Romantic 
Rebel,  about  George  Sand,  by  Felizia  Seyd ;  Are- 
tino,  by  Thomas  Caldecott  Chubb. 

About  political  figures  were:  Calvin  Coolidge, 
by  Claude  M.  Fuess;  Benjamin  N.  Cardoso,  by 
George  S.  Hellman ;  Ethan  Allen,  by  Stewart  H. 
Holbrook;  A  Spanish  Tudor  (Mary  I),  by  Ed- 
ward B.  Hitchcock;  George  Villiers,  by  Hugh 
Ross  Williamson;  Archbishop  Laud,  by  H.  R. 
Trevor-Roper ;  John  Pym,  by  S.  Reed  Brett ;  The 
Stranger  in  the  House  (George  IV's  wife),  by 
Howard  Coxe;  Allenby,  by  Gen.  Sir  Archibald 
Wavell;  Grand  Inquisitor  (Cardinal  Ximinez), 
by  Walter  Starkie;  Stalin,  by  Eugene  Lyons; 
Masaryk,  by  Paul  Selver ;  /  Built  a  Temple  for 
Peace,  about  Benes,  by  Edward  B.  Hitchcock ;  A 
Man  Named  Grant,  by  Helen  Todd. 

Other  biographies  were :  Allan  Nevins'  John  D. 
Rockefeller]  Willard  Connelly's  The  Reign  of 
Beau  Brummell ;  Parker  Morell's  Lillian  Russell. 
See  Music  under  Bibliography. 

Criticism  and  the  History  of  Literature. 
Historical  works  included:  Van  Wyck  Brooks1 
New  England:  Indian  Summer;  Basil  Willey's 
The  Eighteenth  Century  Background;  Frances 
Win  wars  Oscar  Wilde  and  the  Yellow  Nineties; 
E.  Allison  Peers'  A  History  of  the  Romantic 
Movement  in  Spain;  Oliver  Gramling's  AP:  the 
Story  of  News. 

Among  general  works:  How  to  Read  a  Book, 
bjr  Mortimer  J.  Adler;  What  is  Literature?  by 
Charles  du  Bos;  Of  Sacred  and  Profane  Love, 
by  Sacheverell  Sitwell ;  The  Arts  and  the  Art  of 
Criticism,  by  Theodore  Meyer  Greene;  Pleasures 
and  Speculations,  by  Walter  de  la  Mare;  Essays 
and  Addresses,  by  Herbert  Grierson. 

About  poetry :  Arthur  H.  Nethercot's  The  Road 
to  Tryermaine  (Coleridge's  Christabel)  ;  Letters 
on  Poetry  from  W.  B.  Yeats  to  Dorothy  Welles- 
ley  ;  Robert  Lathrop  Sharp's  From  Donne  to  Dry- 
den  ;  C.  B.  Tinker  and  H.  F.  Lowry's  The  Poetry 
of  Matthew  Arnold ;  B.  If  or  Evans'  Tradition  and 
Romanticism. 

About  drama :  Hazelton  Spencer's  The  Art  and 
Life  of  William  Shakespeare;  Gilbert  Murray's 
Aeschylus;  Maurice  Colbourne's  The  Real  Ber- 
nard Shaw;  John  Mason  Brown's  Broadway  in 
Review;  Douglas  Gilbert's  American  Vaudeville. 

About  fiction :  Carl  van  Doren's  The  American 
Novel;  Ernest  J.  Simmons'  Dostoevski. 

Drama.  Robert  E.  Sherwood's  powerful  There 
Shall  Be  No  Night  and  Clare  Boothe's  who-dun- 
it  ?  Margin  for  Error  were  anti-Nazi  The  Ameri- 
can Robert  Ardrey's  Thunder  Rock  was  a  sen- 
sation in  England.  Maxwell  Anderson's  Eleven 
Verse  Plays  covered  11  years'  work.  He  also  pub- 
lished Journey  to  Jerusalem.  Three  Plays,  by  Wil- 
lian  Saroyan,  included  My  Heart's  in  the  High- 
lands, The  Time  of  Your  Life,  and  Love's  Old 
Sweet  Song.  Sean  O'Casey  published  the  anti- 
bourgeois  The  Star  Turns  Ked  and  a  comedy. 
Purple  Dust.  Others  were :  Howard  Lindsay  ana 
Russel  Crouse's  Life  with  Father  from  the  books 
by  Clarence  Day ;  James  Thurbcr  and  Elliott  Nu- 


gent's  The  Male  Animal;  Elmer  Rice's  Two  on 
an  Island;  Clifford  Odets'  Night  Music;  Tames 
Bridie's  Susannah  and  the  Elders  and  Other  Plays. 
See  also  article  on  DRAMA. 

Economics.  Thurman  W.  Arnold's  The  Bot- 
tlenecks of  Business  advocated  trust-busting.  A 
Program  for  Progress,  by  John  Strachey,  told 
how  to  solve  unemployment.  Harry  Scherman  ad- 
vocated return  to  the  gold  standard  in  The  Real 
Danger  in  Our  Gold.  Stuart  Chase's  Idle  Money 
— Idle  Men  showed  need  of  balancing  investment 
and  savings.  John  Maynard  Keynes  told  How  to 
Pay  for  the  War.  Morris  L.  Ernst  thought  cor- 
porations Too  Big.  Robert  Hunter's  Revolution: 
Why,  How,  When?  ascribed  it  to  monetary  causes. 
Henry  Pratt  Fairchild's  Economics  for  the  Mil- 
lions was  anti -capitalistic,  while  Carl  Snyder 
thought  Capitalism  the  Creator.  A  left-wing  his- 
tory was  Louis  M.  Hacker's  The  Triumph  of 
American  Capitalism.  Others  included:  Robert  R. 
Brooks'  As  Steel  Goes  .  .  .  ,  about  labor  develop- 
ments; Elsbeth  E.  Freudenthal's  The  Aviation 
Business;  Joseph  Rosenfarb's  The  National  La- 
bor  Policy;  Elmer  C.  Bratt's  The  Unbalanced 
World. 

Essays.  Arising  from  war  experience  were. 
Janet  Planner's  An  American  in  Pans:  Mollie 
Panter-Downes'  Letter  from  England ;  E.  M.  Del- 
afield's  The  Prorincial  Lady  in  War  Time ;  Elmer 
Davis'  Not  to  Mention  the  War  Mark  Tivain  in 
Eruption  was  edited  by  Bernard  de  Voto,  who 
also  published  Minority  Report.  Stuart  Cloete's 
Yesterday  Is  Dead  was  largely  political,  as  was 
Lancelot  Hogben's  Dangerous  Thoughts  Harvey 
Gushing  wrote  about  The  Medical  Career,  and 
Harold  J.  Laski  about  The  Danger  of  Being  a 
Gentleman.  T.  E.  Lawrence's  last  work  was  called 
Oriental  Assembly.  Alan  Devoe's  Down  to  Earth 
was  nature  studies. 

History.  In  colonial  and  early  American  history 
appeared :  Vol.  iv,  Zones  of  International  Friction 
1748-1754,  of  The  British  Empire  before  the  Amer- 
ican Revolution,  by  Lawrence  Henry  Gipson ;  Com- 
petition for  Empire  1740-1763,  by  Walter  L.  Dorn ; 
Our  Rising  Empire  1763-1803,  by  Arthur  Burr 
Darling.  Other  works  in  American  history  in- 
cluded: /  Rode  with  Stonewall,  by  Henry  Kyd 
Douglas;  The  New  England  Mind  (the  17th  cen- 
tury), by  Perry  Miller;  Such  Was  Saratoga,  by 
Hugh  Bradley ;  Perish  by  the  Sword,  about  Amer- 
ican fighting  in  Russia  1918-20,  by  R  Ernest 
Dupuy ;  Entertaining  a  Nation,  about  Long  Branch, 
N.J.,  by  Reynolds  A.  Sweetland  and  Joseph  Sugar- 
man,  Jr.;  Since  Yesterday,  about  the  1930's,  by 
Frederick  Lewis  Allen ;  Torchbearer  of  the  Rev- 
olution, about  Nathaniel  Bacon,  by  Thomas  Jef- 
ferson Wertenbaker ;  The  President  Makers  1896- 
1919,  by  Matthew  Josephson ;  The  American  Im- 
pact on  Great  Britain  1898-1914,  by  Richard 
Heathcote  Heindel;  The  Course  of  American 
Democratic  Thought,  since  1815,  by  Ralph  Henry 
Gabriel;  The  Delaware,  by  Harry  Emerson 
Wildes;  The  Illinois,  by  James  Gray;  The  Ar- 
kansas, by  Clyde  Brion  Davis ;  The  Bloody  Mo- 
hawk, by  T.  Wood  Clarke;  The  Wabash,  by  Wil- 
liam E.  Wilson ;  the  last  five  about  rivers,  and  not 
least,  The  Dictionary  of  American  History,  in  five 
volumes,  of  which  James  Truslow  Adams  was 
editor  in  chief,  and  R.  V.  Colcman  the  managing 
editor. 

About  non- American  countries :  James  Truslow 
Adams'  Empire  on  the  Seven  Seas,  the  British 
Empire  since  1784;  Agnes  Mure  Mackenzie's  The 


LITERATURE 


413 


LITERATURE 


Kingdom  of  Scotland;  Milton  Waldman's  Some 
English  Dictators;  D.  W.  Brogan's  Franc*  under 
the  Republic  1870-1939;  Frank  Herbert  Brabant's 
The  Beginning  of  the  Third  Republic  in  France; 
Frederick  T.  Birchall's  The  Storm  Breaks,  events 
between  the  wars ;  Stuart  Ramsay  Tompkins'  Rus- 
sia through  the  Ages ;  Hendrik  Willem  van  Loon's 
The  Story  of  the  Pacific;  J.  F.  C.  Fuller's  De- 
cisive Battles;  J.  Hampden  Jackson's  Finland; 
Harold  Lamb's  The  March  of  the  Barbarians, 
about  the  Mongols;  Alma  Luise  Olsen's  Scandi- 
navia; Sir  Percy  Sykes'  A  History  of  Afghani- 
stan ;  Edmund  Wilson's  To  the  Finland  Station,  a 
history  of  Communism  to  the  Russian  Revolution. 

Juvenile.  Samples  from  the  numberless  juve- 
niles were:  Elizabeth  Enright's  The  Sea  Is  All 
Around;  Laura  Ingalls  Wilder's  The  Long  Win- 
ter; Josephine  Daskam  Bacon's  The  Door  in  the 
Closet;  Armine  von  Tempski's  Pamela's  Para- 
dise Ranch ;  Elizabeth  Janet  Gray's  The  Fair  Ad- 
venture; Noel  Streatfield's  thriller  The  Secret  of 
the  Lodge;  Enys  Tregarthen's  Piskey  Folk,  Corn- 
wall fairies;  Dorothy  Cottrell's  Wilderness  Or- 
phan, a  kangaroo;  Isabel  Proudfit's  River  Boy, 
about  Mark  Twain;  Douglas  C.  McMurtrie's 
Wings  for  Words;  Mildred  Cram's  Kingdom  of 
Innocents;  Kathleen  Coyle's  Brittany  Summer. 

Novels.  Ernest  Hemingway's  For  Whom  the 
Bell  Tolls  was  about  the  Spanish  Civil  War,  and 
sold  extraordinarily,  as  did  Jan  Struther's  Mrs. 
Miniver,  much  lighter  stuff.  Present  and  recent 
troubles  made  their  mark  on  R.  C.  Hutchinson's 
The  Fire  and  the  Wood,  about  the  Nazis ;  H.  G. 
Wells'  Babes  in  the  Darkling  Wood,  us;  Rose 
Macaulay's  And  No  Man's  Wit,  again  Spain; 
Storm  Jameson's  Europe  To  Let ;  Peter  Fleming's 
The  Flying  Visit,  of  Hitler  to  England.  Hendrik 
Willem  van  Loon  described  Nazi  invasion  of 
America,  writing  in  1960,  in  Invasion.  Albert  Hal- 
per  advocated  American  isolationism  in  Sons  of 
the  Fathers. 

The  usual  fine  crop  of  historical  novels  in- 
cluded :  Kenneth  Roberts'  Oliver  Wiswell,  a  Tory 
in  the  American  Revolution,  which  was  also  the 
time  of  Robert  Graves'  Sergeant  Lamb's  Amer- 
ica; F.  Van  Wyck  Mason's  Stars  on  the  Sea,  and 
Inglis  Fletcher's  Raleigh's  Eden.  Willa  Gather's 
Sapphira  and  the  Slave  Girl  studied  pre-Civil  War 
society.  Hugh  Walpole's  The  Bright  Pavilions 
told  of  the  Herries  family  in  Elizabeth's  days. 
John  Masefield's  Basilissa  was  about  the  Empress 
Theodora.  The  Power  and  the  Glory,  by  Phyllis 
Bentley,  was  about  the  English  Civil  War ;  Quietly 
My  Captain  Waits,  by  Evelyn  Eaton,  was  about 
the  French  in  Acadia,  and  Maurice  Hindus'  Sons 
and  Fathers  about  the  Russian  Revolution. 

//  It  Prove  Fair  Weather,  by  Isabel  Patterson, 
and  The  Voyage,  by  Charles  Morgan,  dissected 
love.  L.  H.  Myers'  The  Pool  of  Vishnu  preached 
high  ethics.  Sinclair  Lewis'  Bethel  Merriday  was 
an  actress.  Charles  Nordhoff  and  James  Norman 
Hall's  No  More  Gas  described  a  Tahitian  family. 
Pearl  Buck's  Other  Gods  showed  the  troubles  of 
a  "hero."  Richard  Wright's  Native  Son  exposed 
a  Negro  murderer.  Angela  Thirkell's  Before  Lunch 
and  Elizabeth's  Mr.  Skeffington  were  popular  light 
novels.  Ralph  Bates'  The  Fields  of  Paradise  were 
found  in  Mexico.  C.  S.  Forester's  To  the  Indies 
was  based  on  Columbus'  third  voyage. 

Fantasies  included :  T.  H.  White's  The  Ill-Made 
Knight,  about  Lancelot;  Helen  Simpson's  Maid 
No  More;  Lord  Dunsany's  The  Story  of  Nora 
Sheehy ;  Robert  Nathan's  Portrait  of  Jenny  Hu- 


morous novels  included  But  Who  Wakes  the  Bug- 
ler? by  Peter  de  Vries,  and  Let  the  People  Sing, 
by  J.  B.  Priestley.  Regional  works :  The  Hamlet, 
by  William  Faulkner,  poor  whites  in  Mississippi ; 
Erskine  Caldwell's  Trouble  in  July,  a  Georgia 
lynching;  Walter  D.  Edmonds'  Chad  Hanna,  New 
York  State;  Trees  of  Heaven,  by  Jesse  Stuart, 
Kentucky  mountaineers. 

Among  notable  first  novels :  Carson  Meddlers' 
The  Heart  Is  a  Lonely  Hunter;  Walter  Van  Til- 
burg  Clark's  The  Ox-Bow  Incident;  Stephen 
Longstreet's  Decade ;  Joy  Davidman's  Anya.  Also 
important  were:  You  Can't  Go  Home  Again,  by 
Thomas  Wolfe;  Love  in  the  Sun,  by  Leo  Walms- 
ley;  The  Pilgrim  Hawk,  by  Glenway  Wescott; 
Harlow  Estes'  prize  Hildreth;  Branch  CabeH's 
Hamlet  Had  an  Uncle;  Upton  Sinclair's  World's 
End,  the  first  Great  War;  William  McFee's 
Watch  Below,  a  tramp  steamer ;  Dan  Wickenden's 
Walk  Like  a  Mortal,  an  adolescent  boy. 

Poetry.  The  Collected  Poems  of  A.  E.  Hous- 
man  included  a  few  new  things.  Louis  MacNeice 
published  Autumn  Journal  and  The  Last  Ditch, 
the  latter  among  the  English  books  showing  the 
marks  of  the  war,  such  as:  Kensington  Gardens 
in  Wartime,  by  Humbert  Wolfe;  The  Sober  War, 
by  G.  Rostrevor  Hamilton ;  Lament  and  Triumph, 
by  George  Barker,  and  the  anonymous  anthology 
Fear  No  More.  Edna  St.  Vincent  Millay's  Make 
Bright  the  Arrows  was  also  topical.  T.  S.  Eliot 
despaired  in  East  Coker,  and  Raymond  E.  F. 
Larsson  bade  the  world  Weep  and  Prepare.  Note- 
worthy were:  W.  B.  Yeats'  Last  Poems ;  Edith 
Sitwell's  Poems  New  and  Old;  W.  H.  Auden's 
Another  Time;  Kimball  Flaccus'  The  White 
Stranger;  F.  R.  Higgins'  The  Gap  of  Brightness; 
Edward  Davison's  Collected  Poems  1917-1939; 
William  Rose  Benet's  With  Wings  as  Eagles, 
about  fliers;  Alice  Duer  Miller's  The  White 
Cliffs;  Robert  Nathan's  A  Winter  Tide;  George 
Abbe's  Wait  for  These  Things;  Eugene  Jolas' 
Planets  and  Angels.  Notable  anthologies  were 
John  Hayward's  Love's  Helicon  and  Lord  David 
Cecil's  Oxford  Book  of  Christian  Verse. 

Politics.  The  after- war  world  was  frequently 
discussed,  as  in:  W.  If  or  Jennings'  A  Federation 
for  Western  Europe,  including  a  constitution; 
Lord  Davies'  A  Federated  Europe;  R.  W.  G. 
Mackay's  Federal  Europe ;  Leonard  Woolf's  The 
War  for  Peace,  for  revival  of  the  League  of  Na- 
tions; Alfred  Bingham's  The  United  States  of 
Europe.  Charles  A.  Beard,  in  A  Foreign  Policy 
for  America,  and  Anne  Morrow  Lindbergh,  in 
The  Wave  of  the  Future,  advocated  isolationism 
for  the  United  States,  while  Raymond  Leslie 
Buell,  in  Isolated  America,  and  John  Chamberlain, 
in  The  American  Stakes,  opposed  that  policy. 
Presidential  powers  were  discussed  in  Harold  J. 
Laski's  The  American  Presidency;  Edward  S. 
Corwin's  The  President,  and  Pendleton  Herring's 
Presidential  Leadership.  Mr.  Herring  also  pub- 
lished Politics  of  Democracy,  similar  in  subject- 
matter  to  Eleanor  Roosevelt's  The  Moral  Basis  of 
Democracy ;  J.  T.  Salter's  The  Pattern  of  Politics, 
and  Ralph  Barton  Perry's  Shall  Not  Perish  from 
the  Earth,  all  concerned  with  the  means  of  pre- 
serving democracy. 

About  American  relations  in  our  hemisphere 
were:  Canada:  America's  Problem,  by  John  Mac- 
Corrnac,  and  The  All-American  Front,  by  Duncan 
Aikman.  H.  G.  Wells,  in  The  Rights  of  Man,  and 
Norman  Angell,  in  For  What  Do  We  Fight?  dis- 
cussed war  aims.  War  causes  occupied  Walter 


LITERATURE 


414 


LITERATURE 


Mtllls,  in  Why  Europe  Fights;  Geoffrey  T,  Gar- 
ratt  in  What  Has  Happened  to  Europe}  Arthur 
Berriedftle  Keith  in  The  Causes  of  the  War; 
Nevile  Henderson  in  Failure  of  a  Mission ;  E.  H. 
Carr  in  The  Twenty  Years'  Crisis;  Bernard  O. 
Mosley  in  Europe  Downstream. 

About  Germany  were :  Otto  D.  Tolischus'  They 
Wanted  War;  William  D.  Bayles'  Caesars  in 
Goose  Step ;  the  anonymous  Letters  from  the  Cor- 
sican  (to  Hitler}  ;  while  Oswald  Garrison  Vil- 
lard's  Within  Germany  and  Erika  and  Klaus 
Mann's  The  Other  Germany  emphasized  anti-Nazi 
elements.  James  T.  Shotwell's  What  Germany 
Forgot  defended  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  and, 
with  Francis  Deak,  Mr.  Shotwcll  published  Tur- 
key at  the  Straits.  Stephen  Leacock,  in  The  Brit- 
ish Empire,  and  Albert  Viton,  in  Great  Britain, 
defended,  while  Malcolm  Muggeridge,  in  The  Sun 
Never  Sets,  and  Robert  Westerby,  in  Voice  from 
England,  attacked  the  empire.  John  F.  Kennedy's 
Why  England  Slept  explained  her  delays.  Few 
good  words  for  Russia  could  be  found  in  Max 
Eastman's  Stalin's  Russia  and  the  Crisis  in  Social- 
ism, or  Freda  Utley's  The  Dream  We  Lost,  or 
Henry  C.  Wolfe's  The  Imperial  Soviets.  Donal 
O'Sullivan  attacked  De  Valera  in  The  Irish  Free 
State  and  Its  Senate.  A.  J.  Barnouw  explained 
The  Dutch.  John  Corbin  advocated  republicanism 
instead  of  democracy  in  Two  Frontiers  of  Free- 
dom. Martin  Moore's  Fourth  Shore  told  about 
Italy  in  Libya.  Robert  A.  Smith  discussed  Our 
Future  in  Asia.  Jay  Franklin's  1940  was  concerned 
with  party  politics  in  an  election  year. 

Religion.  Influenced  by  contemporary  events 
were:  William  Ralph  Inge's  The  Fall  of  the 
Idols;  Reinhold  Niebuhr's  Why  the  Christian 
Church  is  Not  Pacifist ;  and  J.  Middleton  Murry's 
The  Betrayal  of  Christ  by  the  Churches  Histori- 
cal were :  Anno  Domini,  by  Kenneth  Scott  Latou- 
rette:  The  Search  for  the  Real  Jesus,  by  Chester 
Charlton  McCown;  vol.  iii  of  Zeus,  by  Arthur 
Bernard  Cook;  Stoic,  Christian,  and  Humanist, 
by  Gilbert  Murray.  William  Ernest  Hocking  dis- 
cussed reconciliation  in  Living  Religions  and  a 
World  Faith.  Harris  Franklin  Rail's  Christianity: 
an  Inquiry  into  Its  Nature  and  Truth  won  a  prize. 
Others  were :  A.  C.  Bradley 's  Ideals  of  Religion ; 
D.  R.  Davies'  The  Two  Humanities ;  and  A  Com- 
panion to  the  Bible,  edited  by  T.  W.  Manson. 

Short  Stories.  Important  volumes  of  short 
stories  included :  The  Mixture  as  Before,  by  W. 
Somerset  Maugham;  Pal  Joey,  by  John  O'Hara; 
Fables  for  Our  Time,  by  James  Thurber ;  Doctor 
Dogbody's  Leg,  by  James  Norman  Hall;  When 
the  Whippoorwill,  by  Marjorie  Kinnan  Rawlings ; 
The  Crazy  Hunter,  by  Kay  Boyle;  Figures  in  a 
Landscape,  by  Paul  Horgan ;  Country  Growth,  by 
August  Derleth. 

Sociology.  A  number  of  books  were  concerned 
with  the  crisis.  Waldo  Frank's  Chart  for  Rough 
Waters  preached  the  necessity  of  religion,  and 
Lewis  Mumford's  Faith  for  Living  would  derive  it 
from  family,  land,  and  discipline.  T.  S.  Eliot  wrote 
about  The  Idea  of  a  Christian  Society  somewhat 
evasively,  but  H.  G.  Wells  offered  a  program  for 
the  future  in  The  New  World  Order.  Ernest 
Sutherland  Bates'  American  Faith  surveyed  reli- 
gion, politics,  and  economics  historically.  Graham 
Wallas'  Men  and  Ideas  was  hitherto  uncollected 
papers.  Emil  Lederer's  State  of  the  Masses  showed 
what  makes  fascism.  Robert  Graves  and  Alan 
Hodge's  The  Long  Week-End  studied  England 
between  wars.  J.  Russell  Smith  and  M.  Ogden 


Philh'ps'  North  America  revealed  the  weight  of 
the  continent  in  the  world.  Roger  Burlingame's 
Engines  of  Democracy  was  about  technics. 

Field  studies  included:  Charles  Morrow  Wil- 
son's Corn  Bread  and  Creek  Water,  about  rural 
poverty;  Katharine  du  Pre  Lumpkin's  The  South 
in  Progress;  the  Federal  Writers'  Project's  The 
Negro  in  Virginia ;  Phil  Stong's  Hawkey es,  about 
lowans;  Leslie  A.  Gould's  American  Youth  To- 
day ;  Benjamin  Appel's  The  People  Talk,  based 
on  interviews  all  over  America. 

Louis  Adamic  discussed  immigrants  in  From 
Many  Lands.  D.  V.  Glass  wrote  about  Population. 
Modern  Marriage  was  edited  by  Moses  Jung.  Oli- 
ver La  Farge  described  and  defended  American 
Indians  in  As  Long  as  the  Grass  Shall  Grow. 
Martin  Gumpert's  HeU  Hunger  t  Health  under 
Hitler  was  based  on  German  official  reports.  Paul 
de  Kruif  preached  Health  is  Wealth.  Emory  S. 
Bogardus'  The  Development  of  Social  Thought 
was  historical,  and  Charles  Hart  Page's  Class  and 
American  Sociology  surveyed  the  concept  of  class 
among  sociologists.  Cecil  Roth  wrote  about  The 
Jewish  Contribution  to  Civilisation.  David  L.  Cohn 
wrote  an  American  social  history,  The  Good  Old 
Days,  from  Sears,  Roebuck  catalogues.  Hughes 
Mearns  wrote  about  The  Creative  Adult.  Grace 
G.  Leybourne  and  Kenneth  White's  Education  and 
the  Birth-Rate  showed  the  effects  of  the  decrease 
in  England. 

Travel.  Around-the-world  travelers  included: 
Jerome  Weidman  with  Letter  of  Credit ;  Lancelot 
Hogben  as  Author  in  Transit,  and  Jerome  Beatty, 
who  found  Americans  All  Over.  About  Asia  were : 
Hassoldt  Davis'  The  Land  of  the  Eye;  Nicol 
Smith's  Burma  Road;  Suydam  Cutting's  The  Fire 
Ox  and  Other  Years;  Osbert  SitwelPs  Escape 
with  Me;  Graham  Peck's  Through  China's  Wall; 
Philip  Steegman's  India  Ink.  Freya  Stark  told  of 
one  Winter  in  Arabia.  About  Africa :  Osa  John- 
son's /  Married  Adventure ;  Sacheverell  Sitwell's 
Mauretania.  Carleton  Beals'  The  Great  Circle  in- 
cluded Africa,  Europe,  and  Mexico.  Edna  Moser 
published  The  Mexican  Touch;  Erna  Fergusson 
Our  Southwest;  Barrett  Willoughby  Alaska  Holi- 
day. 

About  the  United  States :  Jonathan  Daniels'  A 
Southerner  Discovers  New  England;  Wyndham 
Lewis'  America,  I  Presume ;  Ben  Lucien  Burman's 
Big  River  to  Cross,  the  Mississippi ;  Federal  Writ- 
ers' Project  guides  to  Arizona;  Florida;  Georgia; 
The  Mississippi  Gulf  Coast ;  Virginia ;  Maryland ; 
New  Mexico ;  Ohio ;  Oregon ;  Texas ;  New  York ; 
Puerto  Rico. 

Gertrude  Stein  published  Paris  France,  and  Sean 
O'Faolain  An  Irish  Journey. 

War.  Reports  upon  events  included:  Hamilton 
Fish  Armstrong's  Chronology  of  Failure  (France)  ; 
Alexander  Werth's  The  Last  Days  of  Paris;  Gor- 
don Waterfield's  What  Happened  to  France;  W. 
Somerset  Maugham's  France  at  War ;  John  Lang- 
don-Daviesf  Finland:  the  First  Total  War;  H.  5. 
Elliston's  Finland  Fights;  Julien  Bryan's  Siege 
(of  Warsaw)  ;  My  Name  is  Million,  by  an  anony- 
mous Englishwoman  in  Poland;  Europe  in  the 
Spring,  by  Clare  Boothe;  Twin  Stars  of  China, 
by  Evans  Fordyce  Carlson;  The  Battle  of  the 
River  Plate,  by  Lord  Strabolgi ;  In  the  Wake  of 
the  Raiders,  by  A.  D.  Divine.  Technical  were: 
Dynamic  Defence,  by  Liddell  Hart,  reviewing  war 
methods  so  far;  Air  Power,  by  Al  Williams; 
Fighting  Planes  of  the  World,  by  Bernard  A. 
Law;  The  German  Army,  by  Herbert  Rosinski; 


LITHOGRAPHY 


415 


LITHUANIA 


Armies  with  Wing*,  by  Jam*  L.  H.  Peck;  New 
Ways  of  War,  by  Tom  Wintringham ;  M-Day 
and  What  It  Means  to  You,  by  Leo  M.  Cherne; 
An  Atlas  History  of  the  Second  Great  War,  by 
J.  F.  Horrabin.  Edward  Taylor's  The  Strategy  of 
Terror  described  the  psychological  front 

For  Bibliography  of  special  subjects  see  AGRI- 
CULTURE. See  NEGROES  ;  PULITZER  PRIZES. 

BENFIELD  PRESSEY. 

LITHOGRAPHY.  See  PRINTS. 

LITHUANIA.  A  former  Baltic  republic,  which 
proclaimed  its  independence  from  Russia  on  Feb. 
16,  1918,  and  was  reannexed  by  the  Soviet  Union 
Aug.  3, 1940,  as  a  constituent  republic.  Kaunas  was 
the  provisional  capital  of  Lithuania  prior  to  Aug. 
15,  1940,  when  Vilna  was  proclaimed  capital  of  the 
Lithuanian  Soviet  Republic.  Actual  transfer  of  the 
government  was  scheduled  to  take  place  before 
May  1,  1941. 

Area  and  Population.  Including  the  Vilna  ter- 
ritory acquired  from  the  Soviet  Union  OcL  10, 
1939,  and  excluding  Memel  Territory,  ceded  to 
Germany  Mar.  22,  1939,  Lithuania  had  an  area  of 
22,964  square  miles  and  an  estimated  population  of 
2,879,070  on  Dec.  31,  1939.  The  newly  annexed 
Vilna  territory  comprised  2570  square  miles  with 
457,500  inhabitants.  The  lost  Memel  Territory  had 
an  area  of  1099  square  miles  and  a  population  of 
153,793,  including  38,927  in  the  port  city  of  Memel. 
Excluding  both  Memel  and  Vilna  territories,  births 
in  1939  numbered  54,184  and  deaths  32,983.  Esti- 
mated populations  of  the  chief  cities  on  Jan.  1, 
1939,  were:  Vilna  (Vilnius),  208,900;  Kaunas, 
152,365;  Siauliai  (Shavli),31,299;  Panevezys  (Po- 
neviej),  26,508. 

Education  and  Religion.  About  15  per  cent  of 
the  adult  population  was  illiterate  in  1939.  Educa- 
tional statistics  for  1938-39  were:  Primary,  2335 
schools  with  298,429  pupils ;  secondary,  83  schools 
with  19,539  pupils;  normal,  5  schools  with  605 
students;  special,  147  schools  with  11,198  students; 
university,  1  (at  Kaunas)  with  3041  students  in 
1938.  In  January,  1940,  the  University  of  Vilna 
was  established ;  it  included  certain  faculties  trans- 
ferred from  Kaunas.  Roman  Catholics  formed  80.5 
per  cent  of  the  population  at  the  1923  census; 
Protestants,  9.5 ;  Jews,  7.3 ;  Greek  Orthodox,  2.5. 

Production.  About  77  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion in  1939  was  engaged  in  agriculture  and  10  per 
cent  in  commerce,  industry,  and  transportation. 
Yields  of  the  chief  crops  in  1939  were  (in  metric 
tons)  :  Wheat,  251,200;  barley,  246,700;  rye,  653,- 
400;  oats,  401,700;  potatoes  (1938),  2,118,231 ;  flax 
fiber  (1938),  25,784.  Livestock  on  June  30,  1939, 
included  1,103,550  cattle,  1,223,600  sheep,  1,117,080 
swine,  and  520,710  horses.  Forests,  mostly  pine, 
cover  2,645,000  acres.  Industrial  establishments 
(1938)  numbered  1441,  with  40,818  employees  and 
an  output  valued  at  480,000,000  lits,  chiefly  derived 
from  foodstuffs,  textiles,  lumber,  paper  and  pulp, 
footwear  and  clothing,  metals,  chemicals,  and 
leather. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1939  declined  to 
169,400,000  lits  (223,700,000  in  1938)  and  exports 
to  203,200,000  lits  (233,200,000  in  1938).  Germany 
furnished  34  per  cent  of  the  1939  imports ;  Great 
Britain,  22  per  cent ;  the  Netherlands,  5.3  per  cent 
Of  the  1939  exports,  Great  Britain  took  40.5  per 
cent ;  Germany,  33.5  per  cent.  Butter,  grain,  bacon, 
lard,  and  other  cured  and  salted  meats  were  the 
chief  exports. 

Finance.  Actual  1939  budget  returns  were :  Rev* 


eauei,  361,780,000  lits;  expenditures,  356,550,000 
lits.  The  public  debt  on  Tan.  1.  1940,  totaled  134,- 
146,600  lits  (domestic,  65,231,200;  foreign,  68,915,- 
400).  The  lit  exchanged  practically  at  par  ($0.1693) 
during  1936-38  and  at  $0.1674  in  1939. 

Transportation.  Lithuania  at  the  beginning  of 
1940  had  about  1680  miles  of  railway  line;  20,272 
miles  of  roads  and  highways;  and  nearly  1600 
miles  of  waterways.  Effective  Jan.  21,  1940,  inter- 
nal and  foreign  schedules  and  routes  of  the  rail- 
ways were  drastically  revised  in  accordance  with 
an  agreement  reached  at  Kaunas  late  in  1939  by 
Lithuanian,  Estonian,  German,  Latvian,  and  Rus- 
sian delegates.  Motor  busses  in  1939  carried  3,019,- 
400  passengers.  Memel  was  Lithuania's  only  port 
After  its  cession  to  the  Reich,  Germany  on  May 
20,  1939,  agreed  to  grant  Lithuania  a  free  port  zone 
in  Memel  harbor. 

Government.  The  democratic  system  estab- 
lished by  the  Constitution  of  Aug.  6,  1922,  col- 
lapsed on  Dec.  17, 1926,  when  the  conservative  Na- 
tionalist Union  party  established  a  single-party 
dictatorship,  headed  by  President  Antanas  Smetona, 
who  was  elected  by  parliament  in  emergency  ses- 
sion Dec.  19,  1926,  following  the  coup  d'etat.  He 
was  re-elected  by  a  board  of  electors  Dec.  11, 1932 
and  Nov.  14,  1938.  The  Nationalist  Union  adopted 
fascism  as  its  ruling  principle  Dec.  16, 1933.  A  new 
Constitution  promulgated  Feb.  12, 1938,  was  drawn 
up  by  a  parliament  (Sennas)  chosen  entirely  from 
members  of  the  Nationalist  Union.  It  vested  wide 
executive  powers  in  a  President,  elected  by  parlia- 
ment for  seven  years,  and  his  Council  of  Ministers. 
Members  of  parliament  were  elected  for  five  years 
from  a  one-party  list  by  universal,  secret  suffrage. 
Representatives  of  two  outlawed  opposition  par- 
ties, the  Christian  Democrats  and  Agrarian  So- 
cialists, gained  representation  in  the  new  cabinet 
formed  by  Premier  Antanas  Merkys  (Nationalist 
Union)  on  Nov.  21,  1939,  as  a  result  of  the  crisis 
precipitated  by  the  conclusion  of  the  Soviet-Lith- 
uanian mutual  assistance  pact  of  Oct.  10, 1939  (see 
YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  443). 

HISTORY 

The  Soviet-Lithuanian  mutual  assistance  pact  of 
Oct.  10,  1939,  under  which  Soviet  garrisons  and 
air  bases  were  established  in  Lithuania  covering 
the  German  frontier,  paved  the  way  for  the  blood- 
less annihilation  of  Lithuanian  independence  and 
for  the  republic's  incorporation  in  the  Soviet  Un- 
ion on  Aug.  3,  1940.  This  program  was  carried  out 
by  the  same  methods  and  at  the  same  time  as  the 
extinction  of  the  other  two  Baltic  States,  Estonia 
and  Latvia. 

Soviet-Lithuanian  Tension.  On  February  26, 
the  22d  anniversary  of  Lithuania's  independence, 
President  Smetona  expressed  anxiety  over  the  re- 
public's future  and  affirmed  its  determination  to 
remain  free  and  independent  Despite  the  obliga- 
tions imposed  by  the  Soviet-Lithuanian  mutual  as- 
sistance pact,  Lithuania  joined  Estonia  and  Latvia 
in  affirming  its  "absolute  neutrality"  at  the  Baltic 
Entente  conference  held  in  Riga,  Latvia,  March  16. 
At  the  end  of  May,  when  the  collapse  of  French 
resistance  to  German  arms  was  imminent,  Moscow 
indicated  its  desire  to  strengthen  its  position  in  the 
Baltic  States.  On  May  29  the  Soviet  Government 
charged  that  "persons  enjoying  the  protection  of 
Lithuanian  Government  organs"  had  kidnapped  a 
number  of  Red  Army  soldiers  from  units  stationed 
in  Lithuania  and  sought  to  obtain  military  infor- 
mation from  them. 


LITHUANIA 


416 


LITHUANIA 


The  Russian  Ultimatum.  The  Lithuanian  au- 
thorities early  in  June  arrested  64  persons  in  Vilna 
in  connection  with  these  charges.  They  also  forced 
the  evacuation  to  other  districts  of  various  persons 
living  near  the  newly  established  Soviet  bases. 
These  steps  failed  to  satisfy  the  Soviet  Government 
On  June  7  Premier  Merkys  was  summoned  to  Mos- 
cow and  on  June  10  he  was  joined  by  Foreign  Min- 
ister Juozas  Urbsys.  Apparently  they  balked  at  the 
Soviet  demands  for  on  June  14  an  ultimatum  was 
served  upon  Lithuania  demanding  the  admittance 
of  additional  Soviet  troops,  the  establishment  of  a 
new  government  in  Kaunas  that  would  co-operate 
with  the  Soviet  Union,  and  the  arrest  and  trial  of 
the  Lithuanian  Minister  of  Interior  and  a  subordi- 
nate official  in  connection  with  the  alleged  shooting 
of  a  Russian  soldier  by  Lithuanian  police.  The  ul- 
timatum charged  Lithuania  with  concluding  a  secret 
military  treaty  with  Estonia  and  Latvia  in  violation 
of  the  spirit  of  the  Soviet-Lithuanian  mutual  as- 
sistance pact. 

On  the  night  of  June  14  the  Merkys  Government 
resigned,  planning  to  turn  over  its  authority  to  a 
cabinet  headed  by  Gen.  Stasys  Rastikis,  former 
commander  of  the  Lithuanian  army  However  the 
Soviet  Government  rejected  General  Rastikis  With 
the  Soviet  ultimatum  due  to  expire  at  10  a.m.  on 
June  15,  no  time  was  left  for  the  formation  of  a 
new  government.  One  hour  before  the  time  limit 
expired,  Juozas  Urbsys,  Foreign  Minister  in  the 
Merkys  Cabinet,  announced  Lithuania's  acceptance 
of  Moscow's  terms.  At  3  pm.  the  same  day  four 
Soviet  columns  crossed  the  Lithuanian  frontier  and 
before  night  fall  occupied  the  cities  of  Vilna,  Kaunas, 
Siauliai,  PanevSzys,  and  Rossieny.  Previous  to  their 
arrival  in  Kaunas  President  Smetona  and  various 
officials  of  the  deposed  Merkys  Government  fled 
across  the  German-Lithuanian  border  into  East 
Prussia.  The  President's  functions  were  taken  over 
by  ex-Premier  Merkys  pending  the  completion  of 
a  new  government 

Leftist  Government  Formed.  While  Soviet 
tanks  and  troops  poured  into  the  country  and  So- 
viet bombing  planes  circled  over  the  capital,  V  G. 
Dekanozov  of  the  Soviet  Foreign  Office  supervised 
the  selection  of  a  pro-Soviet  government  in  Kaunas. 
Justas  Paleckis,  journalist  and  member  of  the  Peo- 
ple's Socialist  party,  was  named  Acting  President 
and  Premier  on  June  17.  His  cabinet  included  Prof. 
Vincas  Kreve-Mickievicius  as  Deputy  Premier, 
Foreign  Minister  and  Acting  Minister  of  Educa- 
tion ;  Gen.  Vincas  Vitkaukas,  army  commander-in- 
chief,  as  Minister  of  War;  and  Mates  Mickis  as 
Minister  of  Interior  and  Agriculture.  The  former 
Minister  of  Finance,  Ernestas  Galvanauskas,  was 
retained  in  office.  All  the  Ministers  were  either 
Leftists  or  non-partisan. 

The  composition  of  the  Paleckis  Government  and 
a  radio  statement  by  ex-Foreign  Minister  Merkys 
on  June  17  served  to  allay  some  of  the  apprehen- 
sion aroused  by  these  events.  Merkys  declared  that 
the  Soviet  reinforcements  should  be  welcomed  as 
an  additional  protection  inasmuch  as  they  would 
leave  the  cultural,  economic,  and  political  status  of 
the  republic  unchanged.  It  soon  became  obvious, 
however,  that  this  provision  of  the  Soviet-Lithu- 
anian mutual  assistance  pact  was  to  be  disregarded. 
Under  the  guidance  of  the  Soviet  Foreign  Office 
representative  in  Kaunas,  the  government  and  some 
workers  organizations  launched  a  propaganda  cam- 
paign for  union  with  the  U.S.S.R.  All  Communist 
prisoners  were  freed  and  many  Lithuanians  who 
had  been  in  exile  in  the  Soviet  Union  for  years  re- 


turned to  direct  pro-Soviet  demonstrations.  The 
government  announced  plans  to  confiscate  large 
estates  without  compensation.  On  July  5  it  de- 
nounced the  concordat  with  the  Vatican  and  con- 
fiscated the  properties  of  all  politicians  who  fled 
when  the  Russians  took  over. 

The  Elections.  At  the  same  time  elections  for 
a  new  parliament  were  fixed  for  July  14-15.  As  in 
Estonia  and  Latvia,  a  Working  Peoples'  Bloc  under 
Communist  control  was  formed  to  nominate  candi- 
dates, and  no  other  nominees  were  allowed  to  ap- 
pear on  the  ballot.  The  platform  of  the  Working 
Peoples'  Bloc  called  for  permanent  alliance  with 
the  Soviet  Union,  social  and  economic  reforms,  and 
freedom  of  the  workers  in  "thought,  press,  and 
conscience."  On  the  eve  of  the  election,  more  than 
a  hundred  persons  suspected  of  sympathizing  with 
the  former  regime  were  arrested.  They  included 
former  Ministers,  high  state  officials,  party  leaders, 
army  officers,  writers,  and  clergymen.  The  voting 
was  orderly  under  the  watchful  eyes  of  the  Red 
Army,  except  for  anti-Jewish  riots  in  Vilna,  but 
many  blank  ballots  scattered  about  the  polling 
places  in  Kaunas  indicated  opposition  to  the  one- 
party  pro-Soviet  ticket.  Nevertheless  the  official 
election  figures  purported  to  show  that  1,386,569 
persons,  or  95.51  per  cent  of  all  registered  voters, 
cast  ballots  and  that  99.19  per  cent  of  these  favored 
the  ticket  of  the  Working  Peoples'  Bloc 

Union  with  Russia.  The  elections  were  fol- 
lowed immediately  by  organized  demonstrations  and 
a  press  campaign  for  union  with  Russia.  When  the 
newly  elected  parliament  assembled  on  July  21,  it 
adopted  unanimously  resolutions  for  union  with 
the  U.S.S.R.  and  for  the  establishment  of  a  soviet 
regime  and  constitution  Soon  afterward  a  delega- 
tion departed  for  Moscow  with  a  formal  petition 
for  incorporation.  This  was  accepted  by  the  Soviet 
Supreme  Council  on  August  3,  when  Lithuania  be- 
came the  14th  constituent  republic  of  the  Soviet 
Union.  The  newly  elected  parliament,  called  into 
special  session  on  August  24-25,  unanimously  ap- 
proved incorporation  in  the  U.S.S.R.  and  adopted 
a  soviet  constitution.  Premier  Paleckis  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  Praesidium  of  the  Lithu- 
anian Supreme  Soviet  Deputy  Gedvilas  became 
president  of  the  Council  of  People's  Commissars 
(Premier). 

Sovietization.  The  sovietization  of  Lithuania 
was  well  under  way  before  formal  incorporation 
in  the  U.S.S.R.  took  place.  On  July  22  the  Lithu- 
anian parliament  adopted  legislation  for  the  nation- 
alization of  land,  banks,  industries,  waterways,  and 
all  large  enterprises.  All  farms  and  estates  of  more 
than  74  acres  were  placed  in  a  pool  from  which 
plots  of  land  were  allotted  to  landless  peasants  and 
farm  laborers.  One-eighth  of  Lithuania's  arable 
lands  were  slated  for  redistribution  in  this  manner 
in  time  for  the  fall  plantings.  It  was  indicated  that 
this  was  a  temporary  measure  and  that  collectivi- 
zation of  agriculture  on  the  Russian  model  would 
follow.  The  process  of  communization  was  sys- 
tematically extended  from  the  political  and  eco- 
nomic to  the  cultural  field.  On  August  13  the  legal- 
ity of  religious  marriages  was  abolished  in  favor 
of  civil  ceremonies  and  a  system  of  divorce  through 
the  courts  was  introduced  in  overwhelmingly  Ro- 
man Catholic  Lithuania. 

By  the  end  of  July  the  Stalinist  form  of  Com- 
munism produced  in  Lithuania,  Estonia,  and  Latvia 
the  familiar  characteristics  of  the  Russian  system. 
Under  the  direction  of  the  Ogpu  (Russian  secret 
police)  the  drive  against  anti-Soviet  elements  was 


LIVESTOCK 


417 


LIVESTOCK 


intensified  and  extended.  Ex-Premier  Merkys  and 
ex-Foreign  Minister  Urbsys  were  among  the  prom- 
inent Lithuanians  reported  imprisoned  or  deported 
to  Russia.  The  controlled  press  was  filled  with 
warnings  and  denunciations  of  sabotage,  "capitalist 
wrecking/'  the  slaughter  of  livestock  by  "kulaks" 
and  widespread  hoarding  of  foodstuffs  and  goods. 

Drastic  punishment  was  imposed  to  check  the 
deterioration  of  discipline  among  the  workers,  eco- 
nomic disorganization  and  decline  of  production, 
a  growing  goods  scarcity  and  a  declining  standard 
of  living.  Severe  measures  were  taken  against 
workers  who  drove  "specialists"  from  the  factories 
and  against  farm  laborers  who  crowded  to  the 
cities  in  search  of  an  easier  life  under  the  new 
regime.  Anti-Soviet  officers  were  weeded  out  of 
the  Lithuanian  armed  forces,  which  were  then  in- 
corporated in  the  Red  Army.  The  properties  of 
Lithuanian  diplomatic  representatives  abroad  who 
refused  to  return  on  orders  from  Kaunas  were 
confiscated. 

Repercussions  Abroad.  In  Berlin,  Rome,  and 
other  capitals  under  Axis  influence,  the  protesting 
Lithuanian  diplomatic  and  consular  representatives 
were  forced  to  turn  over  their  buildings  and  office 
records  to  Soviet  officials  through  the  intervention 
of  the  Axis  governments.  However  the  United 
States  Government  announced  on  July  23  that  it 
would  refuse  to  recognize  the  legality  of  Russia's 
absorption  of  Estonia,  Latvia,  and  Lithuania  and 
would  continue  to  recognize  the  Ministers  appointed 
by  the  ousted  anti-Soviet  governments.  Great  Brit- 
am  followed  a  similar  policy  without  formally 
stating  her  position.  In  October  the  British  Govern- 
ment requisitioned  a  number  of  merchant  ships 
owned  by  citizens  of  the  Baltic  States  and  claimed 
by  the  Soviet  Government.  The  Polish  Government- 
in-Exile,  which  had  protested  Russia's  transfer  of 
the  Vilna  territory  to  Lithuania  in  1939,  again  re- 
iterated its  claim  to  this  region  when  Lithuania 
was  absorbed  by  Russia. 

Germany  professed  disinterest  in  the  Soviet  oc- 
cupation of  the  Baltic  States,  but  speeded  the  re- 
settlement in  the  Reich  of  some  31,000  German 
"co-racials"  living  in  Lithuania. 

See  ESTONIA,  LATVIA,  and  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SO- 
CIALIST REPUBLICS  under  History ;  LEAGUE  OF  NA- 
TIONS; REPARATIONS  AND  WAR  DEBTS. 

LIVESTOCK.  Reports  on  the  feedcrops  and 
livestock  situation  in  the  United  States  at  the  close 
of  1940  indicated  abundant  supplies  of  feed  stuffs 
despite  a  reduction  in  the  total  acreage  of  the  four 
principal  grain  crops  harvested  by  about  10  per 
cent  below  the  1928-32  average.  The  total  supply 
of  feed  grains  was  about  2  per  cent  above  that  of 
1939  and  12  per  cent  above  the  1928-32  average 
while  the  number  of  grain  consuming  animal  units 
was  estimated  to  be  5  per  cent  below  this  average 
and  over  3  per  cent  less  than  during  the  preceding 
year.  Supplies  of  wheat  millfeeds  and  related  by- 
products were  similiar  to  1939  levels  while  stocks 
of  high  protein  feeds  were  some  5  per  cent  higher 
in  1940  due  mainly  to  increased  production  of  cot- 
tonseed and  linseed  cake.  Total  hay  production  was 
about  3  per  cent  above  the  1939  level.  The  condi- 
tion of  fall  pastures  was  considerably  better  than 
a  year  earlier  with  only  the  Western  Corn  Belt 
showing  a  generally  low  condition. 

The  ratios  of  feed  prices  to  livestock  prices 
which  were  generally  unfavorable  for  livestock 
producers  during  most  of  1940  showed  considerable 
improvement  in  the  closing  months  of  the  year. 
With  increasing  domestic  demand  for  meat  ani- 


mals, the  outlook,  according  to  the  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  pointed  to  further  improve- 
ment along  this  line  in  1941  unless  feed  production 
should  be  unusually  low. 

The  numbers  of  hogs  and  sheep  in  the  United 
States  at  the  beginning  of  1940  were  essentially 
the  same  as  in  1934  preceding  the  severe  drought, 
while  cattle  numbers  were  still  somewhat  below 
the  pre-drought  level.  However  striking  shifts  in 
livestock  population  have  occurred  in  recent  years 
partially  due  to  natural  phenomena,  particularly 
drought,  but  also  to  the  reaction  of  economic  forces. 
Hogs  have  increased  generally  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River  and  in  all  of  the  Southern  and  far 
Western  States  while  numbers  in  the  Western 
Corn  Belt  States  have  materially  declined.  The 
Range  States  show  a  marked  decrease  in  numbers 
of  cattle  and  sheep.  Greatest  increases  in  cattle 
numbers  have  occurred  in  Iowa  and  the  Eastern 
Corn  Belt  States,  with  gains  registered  through- 
out the  East  and  in  the  Pacific  Coast  States.  Iowa, 
Missouri,  Kentucky,  Texas,  Oklahoma,  and  Cali- 
fornia, show  greatest  gains  in  sheep  numbers.  The 
stimulus  to  livestock  production  in  certain  areas 
through  use  of  acres  taken  out  of  crops  promises 
to  have  a  far  reaching  effect  on  the  agricultural 
enterprise  of  many  States. 

The  pronounced  upswing  in  swine  production  of 
1938  and  1939  was  halted  in  1940.  The  downswing 
began  with  a  decline  of  8  per  cent  in  the  spring  pig 
crop  followed  by  a  12  per  cent  reduction  in  the  fall 
crop,  bringing  the  1940  total  to  approximately  77,- 
000,000  head,  10  per  cent  below  the  record  crop  of 

1939.  Estimates  by  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture further  indicated  that  the  number  of  sows 
to  farrow  in  the  spring  of  1941  would  be  some  14 
per  cent  below  that  of  1940.  Marketings  of  hogs 
in  the  last  quarter  of  1940  were  considerably  larger 
than  a  year  earlier  despite  the  smaller  spring  crop 
with  prices  holding  quite  steady  in  the  face  of  ex- 
tremely heavy  receipts.  Slaughter  of  hogs  during: 
October  and  November  was  the  largest  on  record 
for  those  months.  Total  Federal  inspected  slaughter 
of  hogs  in  1940  was  50,397,861  head,  nearly  22  per 
cent  greater  than  in  1939.  Indications  were  that  the 
hog  supplies  throughout  1941  would  be  materially 
smaller  than  in  1940.  On  Jan.  1,  1941,  cold  storage 
stocks  of  pork  totaled  655,517,000  lb ,  about  200 
million  pounds  above  the  1936-40  average  for  that 
date.  Holdings  of  lard  and  rendered  pork  fat  totaled 
293,777,000  lb.  compared  with  the  1936-40  average 
of  104,349,000  lb.  Hog  prices,  which  were  extreme- 
ly low  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  remained  be- 
low the  1939  level  except  for  a  brief  period  in  mid- 
summer and  during  the  closing  weeks  of  the  year. 
Prices  received  by  farmers  in  mid-December  aver- 
aged $5.59  per  100  lb.  compared  with  $5  03  a  year 
earlier. 

The  total  number  of  cattle  in  the  United  States 
on  Jan.  1,  1940,  was  slightly  over  68,000,000  head,  a 
gain  of  about  2  million  head  over  the  previous 
year,  with  indications  of  a  similar  gain  during 

1940.  Marketings  of  cattle  and  calves  during  the 
year  were  generally  above  1938  and  1939  levels. 
Cattle  and  calves  slaughtered  under  Federal  inspec- 
tion totaled  9,756,130  and  5,358,695  head  respec- 
tively, about  3  and  2  per  cent  larger  than  in  1939 
The  Jan.  1,  1941,  stocks  of  frozen  and  cured  beef 
totaled  about  106  million  pounds,  some  7  million 
pounds  above  the  1936-40  average. 

The  July-November  movement  of  stocker  and 
feeder  cattle  into  the  Corn  Belt  exceeded  the  1939 
level  in  every  month  except  November.  Indications 


LIVESTOCK 


418 


LIVESTOCK 


at  the  dose  of  the  year  were  that  the  number  fed 
in  the  Corn  Belt  would  be  11  per  cent  higher 
than  a  year  earlier,  and  that  the  total  number  of 
cattle  on  feed  during  the  1940-41  season  would  be 
somewhat  above  the  1939-40  level  with  increased 
feeding  operations  in  several  of  the  western  States. 
Late  reports  from  the  Range  States  showed  gen- 
erally good  supplies  of  winter  grass  and  forage 
with  cattle  going  into  the  winter  in  the  best  condi- 
tion in  several  years.  Market  prices  for  slaughter 
cattle  showed  a  marked  upward  trend  throughout 
1940.  Prices  received  by  farmers  for  beef  cattle 
in  mid-December  were  the  highest  for  that  season 
since  1929  and  10  per  cent  higher  than  a  year 
earlier. 

The  1940  lamb  crop  of  about  32,700,000  head 
was  the  largest  on  record  and  3  per  cent  larger 
than  that  of  1939,  with  Texas  accounting  for  the 
major  part  of  the  increase.  Total  Federal  inspected 
slaughter  of  sheep  and  lambs  in  1940  was  17,351,- 
157  head,  less  than  1  per  cent  above  that  of  1939. 
Movements  of  feeder  lambs  into  the  Corn  Belt 
from  July  through  November  were  of  record  pro- 
portions with  evidence  that  the  total  numbers  of 
lambs  fed  during  the  1940-41  season  would  be 
6  per  cent  larger  than  a  year  earlier.  Feeding  op- 
erations outside  the  Corn  Belt  were  about  3  per 
cent  higher.  Prices  of  slaughter  lambs  in  1940  were 
generally  above  the  1939  level  with  mid-December 
prices  on  the  farm  averaging  $7.88  per  100  Ib.  or 
50  cents  higher  than  a  year  earlier.  Improvement 
in  the  domestic  demand  for  meat  during  the  last 
half  of  the  year  gave  less  support  to  lamb  prices 
than  to  prices  of  other  livestock.  December  stocks 
of  frozen  lamb  and  mutton  exceeded  5  million 
pounds,  about  4  per  cent  above  the  preceding  5 
year  average. 

Meat  consumption  in  the  United  States  during 
1939  totaled  172  billion  pounds,  equivalent  to  131 
Ib.  per  capita,  while  that  of  1940  was  nearly  17 
per  cent  above  this  previous  record  high.  Com- 
mensurate with  this  increase  in  consumption,  the 
meat-packing  industry  paid  about  $100,000,000  more 
for  livestock  in  1940  than  in  1939. 


marked  stimulus  to  horse  and  mule  production  in 
this  country* 

International  Conditions.  Fragmentary  infor- 
mation from  Europe  permits  only  a  general  ap- 
praisal of  the  livestock  and  meat  situation  there 
during  1940.  In  27  European  Countries,  exclusive 
of  the  Soviet  Union,  at  the  beginning  of  the  pres- 
ent war,  total  numbers  of  hogs,  cattle,  and  sheep 
reached  82,300,000;  110,768,000,  and  128,751,000  re- 
spectively, increases  of  3,  7,  and  8  per  cent  over 
1931-35  averages.  During  the  World  War  (1914- 
1918)  numbers  of  hogs,  cattle,  and  sheep,  respec- 
tively, declined  approximately  8,  2,  and  2  per  cent 
during  the  first  year  of  the  conflict  and  29.3,  7.5, 
and  13.1  per  cent  for  the  entire  period  which  sug- 
gests the  possible  effect  of  the  present  war  on 
European  livestock  populations.  Data  on  livestock 
numbers  during  1940  were  not  generally  available 
but  known  shortage  of  feed  supplies  pointed  to 
heavier-than-normal  slaughter  in  most  areas. 

Except  in  Belgium  and  France,  pork  supplies  in 
Continental  Europe  at  the  end  of  1940  appeared  to 
be  above  normal.  Rationing  of  meat  at  that  time 
was  fairly  common  in  most  of  the  countries.  Both 
Germany  and  Italy  were  obtaining  substantial  quan- 
tities of  live  hogs,  pork,  and  lard  from  countries 
in  the  Danube  Basin  under  1940  agreements.  All 
meat  and  livestock  exports  of  Denmark  and  neigh- 
boring countries,  much,  of  which  formerly  went  to 
Great  Britain,  were  going  to  Germany.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1940,  the  Italian  Government  placed  the 
buying  and  selling  of  beef  cattle  for  civilian  con- 
sumption under  government  control  and  indicated 
that  hogs  would  be  handled  similarly.  All  meats 
were  strictly  rationed. 

With  imports  from  Continental  Europe  cut  off, 
the  United  Kingdom  was  rationing  bacon  and  hams 
at  about  one-half  normal  consumption,  consistent 
with  domestic  supplies  plus  imports  of  Empire 
products.  Domestic  production  of  hogs  along  with 
poultry  was  sharply  curtailed  as  the  volume  of  im- 
ported f eedstuffs  declined.  Production  of  cattle  and 
sheep  was  less  affected  because  of  fairly  abundant 
forage  supplies.  Since  January,  1940,  all  livestock 


MEAT  SLAUGHTERED  UNDER  FEDERAL  INSPECTION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


Number  Slaughtered: 
1940  

CattU 
9,756,150 

Calves 
5,358,695 

nogs 

50,397,861 

Sheep,  lambs 
17,351,157 

1939  .                  ...     . 
5-year  average  •          .                                
Total  Dressed  Weight  of  Slaughtered  Animals 
1940-lbs                .... 
1939—lbs.               

9446303 
9,985,848 

4,971,070,000 
4,803,161,448 

5,264,058 
5,757,192 

568,045,000 
559,354,6% 

41,367,825 
34,261,739 

8,709,524,000 
7,296,299,659 

17,241,037 
17,486,281 

702,120,000 
693,945,331 

4,836,243,992 

614,387,358 

5,881,847,928 

695,579,318 

Exports* 
1940—  Ibs  
1939  jjjg 

16,654,000k 
15  163,000  * 

295,148,000  • 
406,815000* 

615,000 
486000 

13*764,000  * 

254,639  000  • 

522*000 

Per  Capita  Consumption 
1940—  Ibs 

42.15* 

61.37  • 

5.32 

1939—  Ibs                

41.31* 
42  84* 

...      . 

52.09* 
4408* 

5.28 
5  38 

•  Average  for  1935-36-37-38-39.    *  Beef  and  Veal.    •  Pork  and  Lard. 


The  downward  trend  in  numbers  of  horses  and 
mules  on  farms  and  the  low  price  of  work  stock 
in  relation  to  that  of  all  farm  products  persisted, 
while  the  number  of  tractors  on  farms  continued  to 
increase.  Horses  and  mules  on  farms  in  1920, 1930. 
and  1940  numbered  approximately  26,  19,  and  15 
millions  respectively.  There  was  little  evidence 
that  European  War  conditions  would  provide  any 


marketed  in  the  United  Kingdom  must  be  sold  to 
the  Government  at  fixed  prices,  consistent  with 
farm  costs.  A  British-Canadian  agreement  of  Jan- 
uary, 1940,  providing  for  the  export  to  Great  Brit- 
ain of  4,480,000  Ib.  of  Canadian  bacon  and  ham 
weekly  was  replaced  by  a  new  agreement  of  No- 
vember, 1940.  which  provided  for  British  purchases 
of  not  less  than  8,185,000  Ib.  weekly.  The  stimulus 


LIVING  CO8T8  AND  STANDARDS    419    LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS 


of  exports  plus  corn-hog  price  ratios  favorable  to 
hog  production  resulted  in  a  40  per  cent  increase 
in  hog  marketing  during  1940  over  1939.  Other 
classes  of  Canadian  livestock  showed  slight  gains 
during  the  year. 

Argentine  beef  exports  were  up  sharply  during 
the  first  four  months  of  1940.  Shipments  were  cur- 
tailed later,  however,  so  that  the  year's  total  was 
estimated  to  be  30  per  cent  below  1939.  Large 
quantities  of  beef  purchased  by  Great  Britain  re- 
mained undelivered  at  the  close  of  the  year  due  to 
inadequate  shipping  facilities.  Other  meat-surplus 
producing  countries  of  South  America  were  con- 
fronted with  similar  export  conditions.  General 
efforts  to  further  trade  relations  between  the  United 
States  and  the  South  American  Republics  did  not 
materially  affect  livestock  products  during  1940. 

Foreign  Trade.  Total  imports  of  animals  and 
animal  products  by  the  United  States  continued  to 
exceed  exports  by  a  wide  margin.  According  to 
data  released  by  the  U.S.  Department  of  Com- 
merce both  imports  and  exports  for  1940  were 
below  the  1939  level.  During  1940  the  total  value 
of  export  items,  both  edible  and  inedible,  not  in- 
cluding fish,  fur,  and  wool  was  $84,202,664  as  com- 
pared with  $94,351,467  for  1939  The  value  of  im- 
port items  was  $134,696,186  in  1940  and  $157,299,- 
067  in  1939.  Exports  of  meat  products,  including 
edible  fats  and  oils,  were  valued  at  $34,810,979 
against  imports  of  $17,950,387.  The  largest  single 
export  item,  lard,  was  in  limited  demand  in  the 
late  months  of  1940  with  Cuba  and  Mexico  the 
principal  buyers.  Exports  during  the  year  totaled 
201,313,796  lb.,  about  13  per  cent  of  the  total  lard 
production  in  inspected  plants  This  quantity  was 
27  per  cent  below  the  1939  level  and  a  troublesome 
surplus  continued  to  mount.  Other  pork  exports 
were  28  per  cent  lower  in  volume  and  41  per  cent 
lower  in  value  than  a  year  earlier.  Hides  and  skins 
led  all  other  items  in  import  value  accounting  for 
over  one-third  of  the  total.  Cattle  imported  for 
slaughter,  mainly  from  Canada  and  Mexico,  had 
a  total  value  of  $16,588,676,  nearly  4  million  dol- 
lars below  that  of  the  previous  year.  Imports  of 
canned  beef,  mainly  from  Argentina,  Uruguay, 
and  Brazil,  dropped  20  per  cent  below  the  1939 
level  of  8%  million  dollars.  Pork  imports  which 
exceeded  10  million  dollars  in  1939  were  of  neg- 
ligible proportions  in  1940.  See  also  DAIRYING; 
LEATHER;  VETERINARY  MEDICINE. 

E.  C.  ELTINC. 

LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS.  Ac- 
cording to  year-end  comment  by  Isador  Lubin, 
U.S.  Commissioner  of  Labor  Statistics  (Associ- 
ated Press,  Dec.  28,  1940),  the  cost  of  living  in  the 
United  States  has  not  yet  been  seriously  affected 
by  those  events  of  the  past  year  which  might  be 
expected  to  disturb  American  economy— the  Euro- 
pean war,  increased  production  for  export,  and  the 
large  volume  of  orders  placed  for  national  defense. 
Comparing  the  index  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Sta- 
tistics for  Nov.  15, 1940,  with  the  level  for  August. 
1939,  Commissioner  Lubin  reported  an  increase 
over  the  16-month  period  of  only  1.5  per  cent 
Wholesale  prices  rose  more  sharply,  averaging 
(for  almost  900  products)  6  per  cent  more  than  in 
August,  1939.  The  fact  that  living  costs  have  not 
kept  pace  with  the  rise  in  wholesale  prices  was  at- 
tributed partly  to  "the  natural  lag  in  the  movement 
of  goods  from  wholesale  to  retail  markets/'  but 
also  to  "the  vigorous  resistance  with  which  retail- 
ers have  been  opposing  price  advances."  Taking  all 


factors  into  account,  he  said,  "It  seems  probable 
that  living  costs,  as  a  whole,  will  advance  slightly 
during  the  next  few  months,  but  there  is  nothing 
in  the  current  market  situation  to  suggest  that  this 
increase  will  amount  to  more  than  2  or  3  per  cent 
in  the  spring  of  1941." 

These  conclusions  were  borne  out  by  those  of 
independent  fact-finding  groups.  The  National  In- 
dustrial Conference  Board,  comparing  November, 
1939,  with  November,  1940,  reported  an  increase  of 
only  one-half  of  one  per  cent.  A  survey  made  by 
the  United  Press,  covering  the  first  year  of  the 
war,  indicated  that  the  cost  of  living  in  the  United 
States  rose  "less  than  5  per  cent"  during  that  peri- 
od. The  International  Labor  Organization  reported 
that  every  one  of  the  40  countries  for  which  it  has 
official  reports,  experienced  a  rise  in  living  costs 
during  the  year,  the  rise  in  many  cases  being  sub- 
stantial despite  war-time  efforts  at  price  controls. 

A  rise  in  the  cost  of  living  may,  of  course,  be 
sustained  without  impairment  of  the  standard  of 
living,  provided  it  is  accompanied  by  a  rise  in 
wages  and  family  income.  In  1939,  for  example,  the 
average  wage  or  salary  received  by  employees  in 
the  united  States  was  $1329,  as  compared  with 
$1294  in  1938  and  $1472  in  1929.  While  the  income 
in  1939  was  thus  well  below  that  of  1929,  when  the 
reduction  in  the  cost  of  living  is  considered  the 
worker  was  able  to  buy  considerably  more  with  his 
earnings  than  in  the  earlier  year.  For  the  trend  in 
earnings  in  1940,  see  LABOR  CONDITIONS,  under 
Wages. 

Table  1  on  page  420  shows  the  Cost  of  Liv- 
ing index,  as  compiled  quarterly  by  the  Bureau  of 
Labor  Statistics,  through  the  year  1940.  It  will  be 
noted  that  the  index  is  based  on  the  years  1935-^39 
instead  of  1923-25  as  formerly  (see  previous  YEAR 
BOOKS).  The  list  of  items  has  been  revised  also  to 
represent  more  adequately  the  changed  consump- 
tion habits  of  the  Nation.  The  new  list  includes  198 
goods  and  services,  in  addition  to  rents,  the  most 
important  additions  being  automobiles,  gasoline, 
fuel  oil,  electric  refrigerators,  radios,  dry  cleaning, 
and  beauty-shop  services.  Much  larger  weight  was 
given  to  electrical  appliances  than  in  the  old  list 
because  of  their  increased  use.  The  survey  now 
covers  33  cities.  (For  prices  of  essentials,  see 
BUSINESS  REVIEW  under  Commodity  Prices  and 
articles  on  various  products.) 

Some  indication  of  the  variations  in  the  cost  of 
living  for  different  sections  of  the  country  may  be 
had  from  Table  2,  which  presents  a  dollar-and- 
cents  estimate  of  the  amount  required  to  maintain  a 
four-person  manual  worker's  family  in  each  of  31 
larpe  cities.  The  estimates  make  use  of  the  "basic 
maintenance"  budget  devised  by  the  Division  of  So- 
cial Research  of  the  Works  Progress  Administra- 
tion in  1935  and  revised  in  part  in  1939.  They  were 
prepared  by  applying  to  the  maintenance  budget 
the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  indexes  of  living 
costs  (see  Table  1)  for  all  items  other  than  food. 
The  food-cost  budget  was  computed  in  terms  of  the 
"adequate  diet  at  minimum  cost"  of  the  U.S.  Bu- 
reau of  Home  Economics,  a  somewhat  more  varied 
diet  than  that  originally  used  in  the  maintenance 
budget.  The  figures  in  the  "total"  column  include 
fuel,  light,  furniture,  household  equipment,  and 
miscellaneous  items,  in  addition  to  the  three  major 
items  detailed. 

The  Citizens  Bureau  of  Governmental  Research 
with  eleven  collaborating  agencies  made  a  special 
study  of  costs  in  New  York  State,  pricing  580 
items  in  each  of  14  localities.  Comparing  the  re- 


LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS     420    LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS 


TABLE  ^ 


[Average  1935-39  ~  100\i 


Year 

Att  items 

food* 

Clothing 

Rent 

Fuel,  elec- 
tricity, 
and  ice 

House 
furnish- 
ings 

Miscel- 
laneous 

1913  

707 

799 

693 

922 

619 

59.1 

509 

1914.   ... 

718 

81.8 

698 

92.2 

623 

60.7 

519 

1915          

72.5 

809 

71.4 

929 

62.5 

636 

536 

1916.        . 

77.9 

90.8 

783 

940 

650 

70.9 

56.3 

1917.. 

91.6 

116.9 

941 

93.2 

72.4 

828 

65.1 

1918          

107.5 

1344 

1275 

94.9 

84.2 

1064 

778 

1919. 

124.5 

1521 

1687 

1027 

911 

1341 

876 

1920      .          ... 

1432 

1685 

2010 

1207 

1069 

1646 

1005 

1921 

127.7 

1286 

1548 

1386 

1140 

1385 

1043 

1922... 

1197 

1203 

1256 

142.7 

1131 

1175 

101.2 

1923     

1219 

1240 

1259 

1464 

1152 

1261 

1008 

1924     

122.2 

1228 

1249 

1516 

113.7 

1240 

1014 

1925  

1254 

1329 

1224 

1522 

1154 

1215 

1022 

1926     .        ... 

1264 

1374 

1206 

1507 

1172 

1188 

1026 

1927. 

1240 

1323 

1183 

1483 

1154 

1159 

1032 

1928  

1226 

1308 

1165 

1448 

1134 

1131 

1038 

1929  ... 

1225 

1325 

1153 

1414 

1125 

1117 

104.6 

1930 

1194 

1260 

1127 

1375 

1114 

1089 

1051 

1931. 

1087 

1039 

1026 

1303 

1089 

980 

1041 

1932  

976 

86.5 

908 

1169 

1034 

854 

1017 

1933   .       .   . 

924 

84.1 

879 

1007 

1000 

842 

984 

1934  . 

957 

937 

961 

944 

1014 

928 

979 

1935. 

981 

1004 

968 

94.2 

1007 

948 

981 

1936 

991 

101  3 

976 

964 

1002 

963 

987 

1937     

1027 

1053 

1028 

1009 

1002 

1043 

1010 

1938  

1008 

97.8 

1022 

1041 

999 

1033 

101  5 

1939. 

994 

952 

1005 

104.3 

990 

1013 

1007 

1940  

1001 

96.5 

1017 

1046 

998 

1005 

101  1 

March  15.. 

998 

<?56 

1020 

1045 

1006 

1005 

1008 

Member  15 
December  15... 

1005 
1004 
100.7 

983 
972 
97.3 

1017 
1016 
101.6 

1046 
1047 
104.9 

986 
993 
1007 

1001 
1003 
1004 

1006 
1014 
1018 

i  For  previous  index,  based  on  1923-25,  see  YEA*  BOOK,  1939.    *  Covers  51  cities  since  June,  1920. 


TABLE  2— INTERCITY  DIFFERENCES  IN  COST  OF 
LIVING 

[June  15, 1940} 


City 

Total 

Pood 

Clothing 

Housing 

Atlanta  

$1,324  71 

$47471 

$16088 

$285  37 

Baltimore  . 

1,320  67 

46835 

16664 

24877 

Birmingham 
Boston 

1,280  74 
1,43491 

47523 
48780 

17178 
16994 

23022 
26043 

Buffalo  .  . 

1,307  61 

47018 

16925 

24055 

Chicago 

1,45470 

47982 

15971 

29098 

Cincinnati  .     . 

1,325  15 

44485 

17774 

26887 

Cleveland  . 

1,38896 

4S276 

17706 

28502 

Denver 

1,29668 

45033 

16353 

23783 

Detroit.  .. 

1,427  87 

46622 

16876 

30596 

Houston    . 

1,297  86 

44741 

16092 

24461 

Indianapolis 

1,289  87 

45012 

160% 

24182 

Jacksonville 

1,29981 

48905 

14893 

21933 

Kansas  City 

1,25190 

45008 

17383 

208.75 

Los  Angeles 

1,31685 

43695 

16990 

242.58 

Memphis 

1,294  82 

44001 

17239 

26194 

Minneapolis 

1,40852 

47232 

16239 

30563 

Mobile 

1,172.77 

46265 

15553 

17802 

New  Orleans 

1,265  50 

46510 

16172 

20719 

New  York 

l|506  52 

52252 

16577 

30935 

Norfolk  ..     .. 

1,32794 

48124 

17152 

24615 

Philadelphia      . 

1,335  85 

47783 

16929 

256.14 

Pittsburgh 

1  373  23 

47718 

167.90 

28725 

Portland,  Maine 

1,35791 

50446 

16265 

20122 

Portland,  Ore  . 

1,313.29 

47411 

160.92 

191.24 

Richmond  . 

1,33092 

45361 

16714 

252.12 

St.  Louis  .... 

1,383  93 

47703 

16284 

28380 

San  Francisco  . 

1,449.18 

482.91 

17287 

285.82 

Scranton  ,  . 

1,367  44 

48464 

16068 

26550 

Seattle  .   . 

1,375  87 

49062 

17237 

19589 

Washington,  D  C 

1,488  97 

48729 

172.32 

350.57 

suits  with  those  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics 
for  other  parts  of  the  country,  it  was  concluded 


that  city  living  costs  in  New  York  State  were  1  5 
per  cent  above  the  average  in  other  parts  of  the 
country. 

Family  Expenditures.  The  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics  released  during  the  year  a  series  of  re- 
ports analyzing  the  findings  of  a  comprehensive 
survey  of  money  disbursements  by  14,469  families 
in  42  cities  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  for  summary). 
It  will  be  recalled  that  the  average  income  of  these 
families  was  approximately  $1500  and  the  results 
were  tabulated  for  ten  income  levels,  ranging  from 
$500-$600  for  the  lowest  group  to  $3000-and-over. 

Although  food  was  the  largest  item,  accounting 
for  33.5  per  cent  of  total  current  expense,  more 
than  a  quarter  of  these  14,469  families  did  not 
spend  enough  to  secure  the  "low-cost  good  diet" 
described  by  the  Bureau  of  Home  Economics.  The 
amount  spent  per  adult-male  equivalent  rose  from 
$94  at  the  lowest  income  level  to  $229  at  the  high- 
est. It  is  of  interest  that,  although  few  families 
budget  their  expenditures  in  advance,  most  families 
have  a  weekly  food  budget.  Weekly  expenditures 
remain  remarkably  constant  between  seasons  de- 
spite the  plenty  of  cheap  fresh  foods  at  certain 
seasons. 

Housing,  including  fuel,  light,  and  refrigeration, 
accounted  for  one-fourth  of  the  annual  expendi- 
ture. Two-fifths  of  the  families  lived  in  one-family 
detached  houses,  a  fourth  in  apartments,  and  the 
rest  in  semi-detached,  row,  or  two-family  houses. 
Most  of  them  had  a  bathroom,  hot  water,  electric 
lights,  and  gas  or  electricity  for  cooking.  Two- 
thirds  had  central  heating  and  ice,  but  less  than 
one-third  had  telephones.  Thirty  per  cent  were 
home  owners.  The  total  money  expense  of  home 
owners  was  less  than  that  of  renters  of  heated 


LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS    421    LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS 


apartments  unless  return  from  investment  is  in- 
cluded. The  home  owners  had  almost  twice  as  much 
space  for  the  same  expenditure. 

Clothing  expense,  the  third  main  item  on  the 
budget,  averaged  10.6  per  cent  of  the  total,  ranging 
from  $49  for  the  lowest  income  to  $471  for  the 
highest  (7.5  to  14  per  cent).  High  points  on  the 
curves  for  women  s  clothing  were  almost  half 
again  as  high  as  those  for  men's.  Women  at  home 
spent  much  less  for  clothing  than  employed  women, 
even  less  than  employed  men.  For  both  men  and 
women  the  peaks  in  expenditure  are  in  the  early 
years  of  maturity. 

After  the  three  main  requirements— food,  shel- 
ter, and  clothing— have  been  paid  for,  less  than 
one-third  of  the  income  is  left.  Travel  and  trans- 
portation, which  falls  variously  into  the  luxury  or 
the  essential  category,  consumed  almost  as  much 
money  as  clothing,  largely  as  a  result  of  automo- 
bile ownership.  Two  out  of  every  five  families 
studied  owned  cars,  the  majority  having  been  pur- 
chased second-hand.  The  proportion  of  car  owners 
is  greater  in  the  West  than  in  the  East  and  is 
relatively  small  in  metropolitan  areas  like  New 
York  and  Chicago. 

Housef urnishing  and  operations  varied  from  $30 
to  $90  per  year  according  to  income.  Full-time  do- 
mestic service  was  found  to  be  very  rare  even  at 
the  highest  consumption  levels;  such  as  was  re- 
ported occurred  largely  in  Southern  cities  and  not 
necessarily  for  the  entire  year  Part-time  service 
was  a  rapidly  expanding  item  reported  by  as  many 
as  a  fourth  of  the  families  in  the  highest  consump- 
tion level,  average  payments  being  about  $6  per 
month.  Even  at  the  lowest  level,  laundry  was  sent 
out  by  15  per  cent  of  the  families.  From  expendi- 
tures on  furniture  it  was  concluded  that  once  in  20 
years  is  the  average  frequency  for  these  families 
to  make  replacements  or  additions  to  their  furnish- 
ings, once  the  household  has  been  established. 

Expenditures  for  medical  care  ranged  from  $7 
to  $25  per  person  according  to  income,  but  the  per- 
centage of  income  so  spent  was  close  to  4  per  cent 
for  all  levels.  These  actually  reported  expenditures 
were  far  below  all  estimates  as  to  the  amount  of 
service  needed  to  meet  real  needs,  even  on  a  basis 
of  group  care.  Personal  care  took  2  per  cent  of 
income  and  gifts  1 6  per  cent. 

Despite  such  obvious  inadequacies,  Americans 
now  have  a  higher  standard  of  living  than  ever  be- 
fore, according  to  a  study  made  by  Dr.  Bernhard 
Ostrolenk,  economist  at  New  York  City  College. 
In  the  decade  between  1929  and  1939,  when  popu- 
lation increased  7  per  cent,  he  found  that  consump- 
tion increased  as  follows  for  important  items: 
Milk,  9  per  cent ;  fruits  and  vegetables,  33 ;  butter, 
46 ;  canned  corn,  51 ;  overcoats,  22 ;  suits,  33 ;  resi- 
dential electrical  power,  120 ;  electric  refrigerators, 
114;  vacuum  cleaners,  13,  and  washing  machines, 
26.  Out  of  50  items,  decreases  were  found  only  for 
sugar,  wheat,  and  silk  consumption,  railroad  travel, 
and  residential  construction. 

Budget  Studies.  The  following  table  presents 
an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  a  "health  and  decency" 
standard  of  living  for  families  at  different  income 
levels,  as  prepared  by  the  Heller  Committee  for 
Research  in  Social  Economics,  University  of  Cali- 
fornia. Costs  were  computed  on  the  basis  of  San 
Francisco  price  levels  for  March,  1940.  The  Cali- 
fornia State  sales  tax  has  been  omitted. 

Against  this  estimated  cost  of  "health  and  de- 
cency" it  is  of  interest  to  weigh  the  actual  income 
of  American  families.  According  to  a  Study  of 


TABLE  3— ESTIMATES  OF  ANNUAL  BUDGET 

Executive       Clerk    Wait  Earner 
(Family      (Family     (family 


Total  Cost 
Payroll  taxes  

16,45340    I 
161.20 

2,860.53    1 
57.22 

2,184.25 
43.68 

Food  
Clothing 
Shelter    .. 
Miscellaneous. 
Automobile 
Leisure-tune  Activities 
Insurance 
Medical  Care      .    . 

83276 
856.22 
2,06054 
2,54268 
47905 
53695 
67760- 
27500 

680.12 
38019 
871.41 
871.59 
223.14 
18175 
19276* 
75.00 

62244 
23398 
59533 
68882 
22314 
132.55 
114  03  » 
75.00 

•  And  Savings.   *  Life 

Consumer  Purchases  recently  made  by  the  National 
Resources  Committee,  4  million  families  have  an 
average  income  of  only  $312  Another  8  million 
have  an  average  income  of  $758,  and  another  7 
million  receive  an  average  of  $1224.  The  families 
in  the  two  lower  groups,  earning  under  $800  a  year, 
constitute  41.7  per  cent  of  all  American  families. 
Wartime  Living  Standards.  The  two  major 
factors  determining  a  people's  living  standard  in 
normal  times — average  family  income  measured 
against  prices  of  essential  goods—is  complicated 
in  wartime  by  a  third— the  curtailment  of  avail- 
able supplies  of  essential  goods.  The  extent  to 
which  the  well-being  of  the  peoples  in  Europe  has 
been  reduced  by  lack  of  supplies  may  be  judged 
from  the  following  rationing  table,  quoted  from 
the  London  Times  of  Sept  25,  1940. 

TABLE  4— RATIONING  IN  EUROPE 
[In  ounces  per  person  per  week] 


Germany  .  . 


Bread 
80 


Meat        Sugar       Fats       Coffee 


Protectorate. .  44  17W 

Poland  35  9 
France             Restricted  Restricted 

Denmark  "  " 

Norway*  " 

Netherlands  •.  71 

Belgium  56  " 


itute) 


Restricted 


*  Supplies  usually  not  equal  to  official  rations 

Not  shown  in  the  above  table  are  Great  Britain 
and  Italy.  In  the  former  country  bread  was  un- 
rationed  (according  to  the  New  York  Times,  Oct. 
20,  1940)  but  butter  and  fats  were  limited  to  8  oz. 
per  week,  sugar  to  8  oz.,  meat  to  32,  tea  to  2, 
bacon  and  ham  to  4.  Coffee  was  unrationed.  In 
Italy,  coffee  was  available  only  for  army  and  hos- 
pital use  and  meat  was  eaten  only  three  days  a 
week.  Bread  was  limited  to  24%  oz.  (the  lowest 
ration  in  Europe),  butter  and  fats  to  7,  sugar  to 
4%.  In  the  Soviet  Union  an  acute  shortage  of  food- 
stuffs  was  reported  early  in  the  year.  Meat,  pota- 
toes, dairy  products,  and  sugar  were  among  a  num- 
ber of  products  sold  only  in  limited  quantity.  Food 
shortages  in  Spain  resulted  in  a  decree  (effective 
December  1)  by  which  the  population  was  divided 
into  three  classes.  Consumption  of  bread  was  cut 
down  among  the  more  well-to-do  in  order  to  pro- 
vide greater  quantities  for  the  poor. 

W.  L.  White  reported  for  the  North  American 
Newspaper  Alliance  (Jan.  7,  1941)  his  findings 
with  regard  to  the  food  situation  in  Britain  and 
Germany.  He  reported,  for  example,  that  while 
sugar  was  rationed  in  both  countries,  in  England 
cakes,  tarts,  and  candy  were  plentiful ,  in  Germany 
cakes  and  tarts  were  non-existent  and  candy  was 
limited  to  a  quarter  of  a  Ib.  a  month  per  person. 


LOANS 


422 


LOUISIANA 


Butter  and  bacon  also  were  rationed  in  both  coun- 
tries. Britain,  however,  had  other  fats  in  abun- 
dance, whereas  in  Germany  the  absence  of  fats 
constitutes  a  serious  dietary  deficiency.  Fish,  un- 
rationed  in  both  countries,  is  plentiful  in  Britain 
but  is  limited  by  lack  of  supply  to  about  two  meals 
per  month  in  Germany.  Of  vegetables,  Germany 
has  only  potatoes,  cabbages,  and  turnips  in  plenty. 
This  correspondent  concluded  that  the  standard  of 
living  in  Germany  was  barely  adequate  to  sustain 
reasonable  health,  whereas  that  in  Britain  had  far 
to  go  before  reaching  so  low  a  level. 

Accounts  of  food  shortages  in  Europe  focused 
attention  on  the  availability  of  food  supplies  in  the 
United  States.  The  Bureau  of  Agricultural  Eco- 
nomics made  a  survey  on  the  basis  of  the  July  crop 
report,  and  concluded  that  supplies  would  be  com- 
parable with  those  of  recent  favorable  years  and 
were,  therefore,  completely  adequate  for  domestic 
consumption.  Larger  amounts  of  some  commodi- 
ties were  expected  to  be  available  for  export  See 
DAIRYING;  LIVESTOCK. 

Steps  were  actively  taken  by  the  Government  to 
forestall  any  adverse  war  effect  on  American  liv- 
ing standards.  The  National  Defense  Advisory 
Commission  (q.v.)  included  a  "representative  of 
consumers/1  whose  duties  were  to  watch  price 
trends  in  consumer  goods,  to  take  action  if  prices 
tended  to  skyrocket,  to  protect  standards  of  living, 
and  work  toward  their  general  improvement.  Miss 
Harriet  Elliott  of  the  University  of  North  Caro- 
lina was  appointed  to  the  post  and  immediately 
sought  the  co-operation  of  consumer  and  other 
groups.  She  announced  that,  in  case  of  unduly 
rising  prices,  her  first  attack  would  be  through 
publicity  and,  if  that  failed,  legal  action  would  be 
taken  through  the  Department  of  Justice. 

One  effort  made  in  Europe  to  offset  the  effect  of 
a  belligerent  status  on  living  standards  was  the  ex- 
tension of  family  allowance  systems  to  families  of 
mobilized  men.  Allowances  to  the  families  of  Brit- 
ish soldiers  were  considerably  higher  in  1940  than 
in  1914,  having  been  increased  to  39  shillings  per 
week  for  the  lowest  paid  soldier  with  four  chil- 
dren. Additional  allowances  up  to  2  Ib.  per  week 
were  available  in  cases  of  hardship.  Many  British 
employers  voluntarily  provided  supplements  to  fam- 
ily allowances,  equal  usually  (in  the  case  of  men 
with  dependents)  to  the  excess  of  previous  earn- 
ings over  the  service  pay  and  allowances. 

See  articles  listed  under  HOUSING. 

LOANS,  Commercial.  See  BANKS  AND 
BANKING. 

LOME  OK.  See  NETHERLANDS  INDIES  under 
Arta  and  Population. 

LONDON.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR;  GREAT  BRIT- 
AIN under  Area  and  Population. 

LOTTERIES.  See  NEW  MEXICO. 

LOUISIANA.  Area,  48,506  square  miles,  in- 
cluding 3097  square  miles  of  water.  Population, 
Apr.  I,  1940  (census),  2,363,880,  1930,  2,101,593. 
New  Orleans,  the  chief  city  ( 1940) ,  494,537 ;  Baton 
Rouge,  the  capital,  34,719.  The  State's  urban  popu- 
lation (dwellers  in  places  of  2500  or  more)  rising 
to  980,439  (1940),  became  41.5  per  cent  of  all  the 
inhabitants. 

Agriculture.  Louisiana  harvested,  in  1940,  about 
4,155,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Cotton,  the 
leading  crop,  occupied  1,126,000  acres  and  produced 
455,000  bales,  estimated  as  worth  $21,612,000  to 
the  growers.  Corn,  on  1,508,000  acres,  yielded  24,- 
128,000  bu.  (about  $15,924,000) ;  rice,  451,000  acres. 
18,040,000  bu.  ($12,989,000) ;  sugar  cane,  259,000 


acres,  3^35,000  tons  ($9,171,000) ;  sweet  potatoes, 
86,000  acres,  4,988,000  bu.  ($3,741,000) ;  tame  hay, 
354,000  acres,  438,000  tons  ($4,073,000) ;  potatoes, 
40,000  acres,  2,280,000  bu.  ($1.824.000). 

Mineral  Production.  Louisiana's  annual  pro- 
duction of  native  minerals,  as  reckoned  in  1940  by 
the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  totaled  $172,306,761 
for  1938.  Petroleum  made  up  more  than  five-eighths 
of  this;  natural  gas  and  gasoline  derived  there- 
from, three-tenths ;  sulphur,  much  of  the  remain- 
der. The  output  of  petroleum  declined  to  some  93,- 
869,000  bbl.  for  1939,  from  95,208,000  bbl.  (value, 
$110,100,000)  for  1938;  but  the  output  of  1940  ex- 
ceeded that  of  either  of  the  two  years  previous. 
The  decrease  of  production  had  been,  essentially, 
in  the  Rodessa  Meld  where  the  output  of  1939  de- 
clined by  some  3,000,000  bbl.;  a  rise  of  about 
1,800,000  bbl.  in  the  yearly  production  of  the  coastal 
district  largely  offset  this  and  was  followed  in 
1940  by  a  rise  of  more  than  10,000,000  bbl.  in  the 
same  area.  The  Eola  field  and  about  a  dozen  others 
of  less  prominence  were  discovered  in  the  coastal 
district  during  1939.  The  "gross"  production  of 
natural  gas  was  reported,  for  1939,  as  402,751  mil- 
lion cubic  feet.  The  less  inclusive  total  of  gas  pro- 
duced and  consumed  attained  283,899  million  cubic 
feet,  for  1938 ;  this  total's  value  at  points  of  con- 
sumption was  $47,991,000.  Gasoline  taken  from  nat- 
ural gas  totaled  about  92,100,000  gal  (1939),  as 
against  95,634,000  gal.  (value,  $3,026,000),  for  1938. 
The  production  of  sulphur  attained  422,600  long 
tons  (value,  about  $6,750,000)  for  1939,  as  against 
294,235  tons  for  1938. 

Education.  Louisiana's  inhabitants  of  school  age 
(from  6  years  to  18)  were  stated  for  the  academic 
year  1939-40  as  382,711  whites  and  236,764  Ne- 
groes. The  year's  enrollments  in  public  schools 
totaled  294,457  white  and  172,279  Negro ;  they  in- 
cluded 212,022  white  and  157,522  Negro  in  ele- 
mentary, and  82,435  white  and  14,757  Negro  in  high 
school.  The  year's  expenditure  for  public-school 
education  totaled  $14,137,113.  There  were  10,714 
white  and  4120  Negro  teachers. 

History.  The  inauguration,  as  Governor,  of 
Sam  Houston  Jones,  a  lawyer  of  Lake  Charles, 
marked  the  close  of  12  years  of  the  rule  of  Huey 
Long  and  his  political  heirs.  The  Federal  and 
State  courts  had  convicted  some  of  the  conspicuous 
members  of  the  Long  succession  and  were  to  con- 
vict yet  others.  But  until  the  election  of  1940  it  re- 
mained to  be  seen  whether  the  people  of  the  State 
would  stand  by  the  discredited  political  system. 
Jones,  elected  on  his  declared  intention  to  hunt 
down  and  clear  out  every  trace  of  predecessors1 
corruption,  deprived  Long's  successors  of  their  last 
hopes  that  the  popular  infatuation  strikingly  evi- 
dent at  the  time  of  Huey  Long's  assassination 
might  still  work  in  their  favor. 

Gov.  Earl  K.  Long,  brother  of  the  gifted  and 
invincible  Huey.  fought  hard  to  be  re-elected.  He 
had  succeeded  Governor  Leche  on  the  latter's  res- 
ignation in  June,  1939,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
regime's  breakdown.  He  had  not  been  involved  in 
the  conspicuous  revelations  that  followed.  He  had 
not  had  time,  however,  to  win  the  people's  trust, 
and  he  lacked  the  persuasiveness  and  fighting  abil- 
ity of  his  brother ;  yet  he  bore  the  magic  name  and 
was  familiar  with  the  political  technique.  Owing 
to  the  lack  of  any  opposition  to  the  Democratic 
party,  the  Democratic  primary,  held  in  January, 
virtually  bestowed  election,  in  the  choice  of  the 
State  officers.  Long,  the  keynote  of  whose  cam- 
paign was  the  declaration  of  his  own  unquestioned 


LOUVRE 


423 


LUTHERAN  CHURCH 


honesty,  was  but  one  of  five  candidates  among 
whom  the  voters  were  called  to  choose  on  January 
16.  He  obtained  the  highest  vote,  but  he  did  not 
get  a  sufficient  total  under  the  State's  election  laws. 
It  thus  became  necessary  to  hold  a  second,  or  run- 
off primary.  In  the  original  primary  Jones  had 
run  second,  by  a  small  plurality  over  James  A. 
Noe,  a  wealthy  oil  man  who  had  formerly  held 
office  under  the  Long  machine.  Noe's  candidacy 
had  cut  into  the  vote  that  Earl  K.  Long  had  hoped 
to  obtain ;  and  now  Noe  called  upon  his  own  fol- 
lowing to  vote  for  Jones  in  the  run-off.  On  Febru- 
ary 20,  despite  a  big  vote  for  Long  in  New  Or- 
leans, still  under  the  domination  of  Mayor  Maestri, 
Jones  won  by  a  majority  of  about  20,000.  A  gen- 
eral election  some  weeks  later  gave  effect  to  the 
result  of  the  primaries;  Jones  became  Governor 
(May  14).  Another  primary  (September  10),  mak- 
ing nominations  for  Congress,  did  away  with  the 
majority  of  the  old  regime's  United  States  Repre- 
sentatives. 

A  special  session  of  the  Legislature,  summoned 
by  Long,  met  shortly  before  the  February  primary 
and  complied  with  Long's  wishes  by  enacting  sev- 
eral vote-getting  appropriations — $1,000,000  for  as- 
sistance to  the  needy  aged,  another  $1,000,000  for 
free  lunches  in  schools,  and  a  sum  to  reimburse 
beekeepers  for  their  losses  through  operations  to 
exterminate  the  white-winged  beetle.  Later  efforts 
of  Long,  to  call  another  special  session  after  his 
defeat,  failed,  due  to  the  fact  that  many  of  the 
Senators  absented  themselves,  preventing  a  quo- 
rum. 

Ex-Governor  Leche,  whose  income  was  reported 
to  have  soared  to  about  $282,000  for  1939,  was  con- 
victed (June  1)  in  a  Federal  District  Court  at  New 
Orleans,  on  two  counts  of  using  the  mails  to  de- 
fraud; he  was  sentenced  to  prison  for  ten  years, 
five  for  each  count.  He  was  held  to  have,  while 
Governor,  ordered  the  Highway  Department  to 
buy  trucks  at  excessive  prices  and  to  have  received 
$31.000  from  the  seller.  The  seller  of  the  trucks 
and  former  Chairman  Abernathy  of  the  Highway 
Commission,  both  brought  to  trial  with  Leche, 
pleaded  guilty.  James  A.  Noe,  former  Longite  and 
recent  supporter  of  Jones  in  the  campaign  for  Gov- 
ernor, was  indicted  (October  3)  on  a  charge  of 
evasion  of  Federal  taxation  of  income  derived  in 
1935  from  an  oil  company. 

Election.  In  the  National  election  (Novem- 
ber 5)  Louisiana,  despite  some  antagonism  to  fea- 
tures of  the  Federal  agricultural  policy,  gave  about 
the  usual  overwhelming  Democratic  vote  for  Pres- 
ident—Roosevelt (Dem.)  319,751,  Willkie  (Rep ) 
52,446;  a  delegation  of  8  Democrats  was  as  usual 
elected  to  the  U.S.  House  of  Representatives,  but 
the  substitution  of  new  nominees  for  survivors  of 
the  Long  regime  left  only  three  incumbents  among 
the  eight 

Officeri.  Louisiana's  chief  officers,  serving  aft- 
er May  14,  1940,  were:  Governor,  Sam  Houston 
Jones  (Dem.);  Lieutenant  Governor,  Marc  M. 
Mouton ;  Secretary  of  State,  James  A.  Gremillion ; 
Treasurer,  A.  P  Tugwell;  Auditor,  L.  B.  Bay- 
nard;  Attorney  General,  Eugene  Stanley;  Super- 
intendent of  Education,  John  E.  Coxe 

See  LABOR  LEGISLATION. 

LOUVRE,  The.  See  ART. 

LOYALTY  ISLANDS.  See  NEW  CALEDO- 
NIA... 

LUBECK.  See  GERMANY  under  Area  and 
Population. 

LUMBER.  See  FORESTRY. 


LUTHERAN  CHURCH.  Events  of  the  year 
1940  served  to  make  the  Lutheran  Church  more 
conscious  than  ever  of  its  world-wide  scope.  With 
the  Lutheran  Churches  of  Europe  engulfed  in  the 
disasters  of  war,  American  Lutherans  have  had  to 
assume  tremendous  responsibility.  The  American 
Section  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Lu- 
theran World  Convention  had  hardly  closed  a 
campaign  to  raise  funds  for  relief  in  Finland  and 
France  for  help  to  German  and  Finnish  missions 
cut  off  from  home  support  and  for  aid  to  refugees 
from  Europe  to  this  country,  when  subsequent  de- 
velopments of  the  war  in  Europe  made  necessary 
another  appeal  for  funds  to  maintain  47  foreign 
mission  fields  that  have  been  "orphaned"  by  the 
war.  These  are  fields  of  Danish,  Dutch,  Finnish. 
German,  Norwegian,  and  Swedish  Lutherans  and 
are  found  in  Africa,  China,  India,  Japan,  New 
Guinea,  and  the  Near  East.  In  Canada,  current 
conditions  brought  about  the  formation  of  the 
Canadian  Lutheran  Commission,  composed  of  rep- 
resentatives from  the  Canadian  portions  of  the 
American  Lutheran  Church,  the  Augustana  Synod, 
the  Norwegian  Lutheran  Church,  and  the  United 
Lutheran  Church.  At  its  biennial  convention  in 
1940,  the  American  Lutheran  Conference  (a  feder- 
ation of  five  bodies)  took  action  to  call  all  Amer- 
ican Lutherans  to  a  conference  to  consider  their 
responsibility  to  world  Lutheranism;  plans  for 
this  are  now  in  process. 

As  a  link  between  Lutherans  in  different  coun- 
tries, the  Lutheran  World  Convention  (American 
Section)  sponsored  for  the  first  time  in  1940  a 
regular  series  of  Lutheran  broadcasts  by  short 
wave  to  Denmark,  Finland,  Germany,  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  South  America.  These  programs  car- 
ried not  only  a  religious  service  but  a  message  of 
courage  from  American  Lutherans  to  their  dis- 
tressed brothers  in  the  faith.  Another  potent  agent 
in  international  Lutheran  good  will  is  the  Lutheran 
Hour  of  the  Missouri  Lutheran  Synod  which  in 
1940  went  out  over  177  stations  in  the  western 
hemisphere;  15  of  these  are  in  Spanish  American 
countries  and  use  Spanish  language  transcriptions. 

Many  of  the  American  Lutheran  bodies  held 
general  conventions  in  1940.  In  addition  to  the 
annual  meetings  of  many  smaller  bodies,  three 
large  ones  (American  Lutheran  Church,  Norwe- 
gian Lutheran  Church,  United  Lutheran  Church) 
and  two  federations  (American  Lutheran  Confer- 
ence and  Synodical  Conference)  held  biennial  con- 
ventions. Important  actions  taken  include :  Approval 
of  an  agreement  on  the  doctrine  of  inspiration  by 
the  American  Lutheran  Church  and  the  United 
Lutheran  Church ;  recognition  of  certain  rights  of 
the  conscientious  objector  by  the  Augustana  Synod 
and  by  the  United  Lutheran  Church;  acceptance 
of  the  Lutheran  Icelandic  Synod  into  membership 
of  the  United  Lutheran  Church;  approval  by 
many  bodies  of  the  protest  made  by  the  presidents 
of  the  American  Lutheran  Church  and  the  United 
Lutheran  Church  against  President  Roosevelt's 
appointment  of  an  ambassador  to  the  Vatican; 
disapproval  by  some  bodies  of  the  practice  of 
holding  "novcnas"  in  Lutheran  congregations; 
action  by  the  Augustana  Synod  to  join  the  World 
Council  of  Churches. 

The  National  Lutheran  Council,  a  common  serv- 
ice agency  for  two-thirds  of  the  Lutherans  of 
America,  is  leading  in  various  fields  of  welfare 
work.  It  has  a  commission  working  on  the  selec- 
tion of  suitable  men  for  recommendation  to  chap- 
laincies in  the  U.S.  Army  and  training  camps.  Its 


LUXEMBURG 


424 


LUXEMBURG 


ever  growing  refugee  service  now  has  divisional 
bureaus  in  24  different  cities  and  has  dealt  with 
nearly  1100  cases.  Its  department  of  welfare,  or- 
ganized in  1939,  expanded  and  entered  upon  a  pro- 
gram of  co-ordination  of  welfare  activities  in  all 
Lutheran  bodies.  In  keeping  with  the  trend  to- 
ward better  trained  social  workers  and  toward 
higher  standards  of  work,  the  department  inaugu- 
rated a  placement  service  for  qualified  Lutheran 
welfare  workers. 

Summarized  statistically,  the  various  Lutheran 
bodies  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  have  12,- 
863  ministers,  15,836  organized  congregations, 
4,910,300  baptized  and  3,433,765  confirmed  mem- 
bers, 21,920  congregational  schools  with  1,852,226 
pupils.  Expenditures  in  1939  for  local  congrega- 
tional purposes  amounted  to  $41,254,657  and  for 
the  work  of  the  church  at  large,  $10,277,803. 

LUXEMBURG.  A  grand  duchy  bounded  by 
Germany,  France,  and  Belgium  and  occupied  by 
German  troops  on  May  10,  1940.  Area,  999  square 
miles;  population  (1938  estimate),  301,000,  most 
of  whom  profess  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  The 
inhabitants  speak  a  Germanic  dialect;  French  is 
their  secondary  language.  Chief  towns:  Luxem- 
burg (capital),  57,740  inhabitants;  Esch-Alzette, 
chief  mining  center,  27,517;  Differdange,  15,945; 
Dudelange,  13,572.  Births  in  1938  numbered  4490 ; 
deaths,  3811.  There  is  no  illiteracy. 

Production,  Trade,  etc.  Agriculture  supports 
some  32  per  cent  of  the  population.  Yields  of  the 
chief  crops  in  1939  were  (in  metric  tons)  :  Wheat, 
27,000;  barley,  3400;  rye,  12,400;  oats,  45,000;  po- 
tatoes, 285,600  (1938).  Mining  and  metallurgical 
industries  are  important,  production  figures  for 
1939  (in  metric  tons)  being:  Pig  iron  and  ferro- 
alloys, 1,776,000 ;  steel  ingots  and  castings,  1,824,- 
000;  iron  ore,  5,140,632  (1938).  Statistics  of  trade 
are  included  in  those  of  Belgium  as  a  result  of  the 
Bel  go-Luxemburg  customs  union  established  May 
1,  1922.  In  1939  there  were  2558  miles  of  highway; 
the  318  miles  of  railway  line  open  to  traffic  re- 
ported receipts  of  128,400,000  Luxemburg  francs 
(about  $5,400,000). 

Government.  Budget  revenue  for  1939  was  esti- 
mated at  355,229,716  francs ;  expenditure,  353,439,- 
719;  public  debt,  on  Nov.  15,  1938,  762,535,122 
francs  (Luxemburg  franc  equalled  1.25  Belgian 
francs).  Previous  to  the  German  invasion,  execu- 
tive power  and  the  right  to  organize  the  govern- 
ment rested  with  the  Grand  Duchess  Charlotte, 
who  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  Jan.  9,  1919  Legis- 
lative power  was  vested  jointly  in  the  Grand  Duch- 
ess and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  (lower  chamber) 
of  55  members  (comprising  in  1940,  25  Catholic- 
Conservatives,  18  Socialists,  6  Radical-Liberals, 
and  6  others),  elected  for  a  term  of  six  years  by 
universal  suffrage.  The  Council  of  State  (upper 
house)  of  15  members  was  appointed  for  life  by 
the  sovereign.  Premier  in  1940,  Pierre  Dupong 
(  Catholic-Conservative) . 

History.  Luxemburg  was  occupied  by  German 
troops  on  May  10,  1940,  in  connection  with  the  of- 
fensive launched  against  the  Allied  forces  on  the 
Western  Front  through  Belgium  and  the  Nether- 
lands (see  EUROPEAN  WAR). 

The  invasion  was  not  unexpected,  despite  the 
repeated  assurances  of  the  German  Government 
that  it  would  respect  Luxemburg's  neutrality.  On 
April  3  the  Luxemburg  Government  announced 
plans  for  the  evacuation  of  the  capital  in  case  of  an 
emergency.  When  it  came,  Grand  Duchess  Char- 
lotte, the  Prince  Consort,  and  their  children  fled  to 


Paris,  as  did  members  of  the  Luxemburg  Govern- 
ment. No  resistance  was  offered  by  the  small  de- 
fense force,  consisting  of  only  300  regulars,  250 
gendarmes,  and  about  125  members  of  the  volun- 
tary militia.  The  invaders  were  aided  in  establish- 
ing rapid  control  by  some  30,000  Germans  living 
in  the  Grand  Duchy,  who  had  been  organized  in 
Nazi  groups. 

On  the  day  of  the  invasion,  the  Berlin  Govern- 
ment gave  an  official  explanation  of  its  action  in  a 
memorandum  submitted  to  Luxemburg  authorities. 
It  declared  that  Britain  and  France  were  prepared 
to  attack  the  Reich  through  Belgium  and  the  Neth- 
erlands with  the  aid  of  the  latter  countries  and  that 
"the  offensive  .  .  .  will  also  include  the  territory 
of  the  State  of  Luxemburg."  It  continued : 

The  German  Government,  therefore,  is  obliged  also  to 
extend  the  military  operations  they  nave  undertaken  to 
ward  off  this  attack  to  the  territory  of  Luxemburg. 

The  German  Government  expects  the  government  of  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg  will  appreciate  the  situation 
created  by  the  sole  fault  of  Germany  s  opponents  and  will 
take  the  necessary  measures  for  insuring  that  the  popula- 
tion of  Luxemburg  will  put  no  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
German  action. 

The  German  Government  for  their  part  desire  to  assure 
the  government  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg  that 
Germany  does  not  intend,  either  now  or  in  the  future,  by 
these  measures  to  impair  the  integrity  and  political  inde- 
pendence of  the  Grand  Duchy. 

On  May  30  the  Luxemburg  Legation  in  Paris 
announced  the  formation  of  a  Luxemburg  legion 
to  fight  with  the  Allied  armies  All  subjects  of  the 
duchy  of  military  age  residing  in  France  were 
called  to  the  colors.  With  the  collapse  of  French 
resistance,  the  Grand  Duchess  and  members  of  her 
government  fled  to  Lisbon.  From  Portugal  the 
Grand  Duchess  went  to  London  late  in  August  and 
on  October  4  arrived  in  New  York  With  her  fam- 
ily, which  had  preceded  her  to  the  United  States, 
she  moved  in  mid-November  to  an  estate  near 
Montreal,  Canada,  where  a  provisional  government 
was  established.  The  U.S.  Government  as  welt  as 
the  Allied  governments  continued  to  recognize  this 
provisional  regime  as  the  legal  government  of  Lux- 
emburg. Credentials  of  a  new  Luxemburg  Minister 
to  Washington  were  accepted  by  President  Roose- 
velt Nov.  8,  1940. 

Of  some  80,000  Luxemburgers  who  fled  to 
France  upon  the  German  invasion,  practically  all 
were  reported  to  have  returned  by  mid-August.  On 
July  25  the  German  military  commander  in  control 
of  Luxemburg  since  May  10  was  replaced  by  a 
civil  administrator  responsible  to  the  military  com- 
mander of  occupied  Belgium  and  Northern  France. 
The  civil  administrator  was  Dr.  Gustav  Simon, 
former  provincial  governor  and  Nazi  gauleiter  of 
the  neighboring  Coblenz-Trier  district  in  Germany. 
He  undertook  the  incorporation  and  permanent  as- 
similation of  Luxemburg  in  the  Reich. 

On  August  6  German  police  marched  into  the 
Grand  Duchy  to  take  over  all  police  functions,  and 
on  the  same  day  Dr.  Simon  made  German  the  offi- 
cial language  of  the  government  and  the  schools 
and  ruled  that  the  press  and  all  publications  must 
use  German  exclusively.  All  French  schools  were 
closed.  The  Constitution  of  Luxemburg  was  de- 
clared void  by  Dr.  Simon  on  August  14,  the  terms 
"Grand  Duchy"  and  "State  of  Luxemburg"  were 
prohibited  in  official  documents,  and  all  Luxem- 
burg officials  were  declared  obligated  to  render  loy- 
alty to  the  government  appointed  by  the  German 
civil  administration.  This  provoked  a  formal  pro- 
test from  Grand  Duchess  Charlotte.  On  August  15 
Luxemburg  was  incorporated  within  the  German 


LYNCHING 


425 


MACHINE  DEVELOPMENT 


customs  area,  thus  terminating  the  Belgian-Lux* 
emburg  customs  union  of  1922.  The  reichsmark 
currency  was  introduced  August  26,  replacing  mili- 
tary scrip,  and  on  the  following  day  German  for- 
eign-exchange control  and  related  legislation  was 
made  effective. 

Dr.  Simon  proclaimed  a  "new  order"  for  Lux- 
emburg within  the  framework  of  the  Great  Ger- 
man Reich  at  the  first  public  mass  meeting  of  the 
"folk  German  movement  of  Luxemburg"  on  Sep- 
tember 29.  The  anti-Jewish  legislation  in  effect  in 
the  Reich  was  introduced  into  Luxemburg  by  de- 
cree September  7.  On  October  23  Dr.  Simon  de- 
creed the  dissolution  of  the  Luxemburg  Parliament 
and  Council  of  State.  Despite  these  measures, 
backed  by  an  active  propaganda  and  police  drive, 
the  bulk  of  the  Luxemburgers  were  reported  un- 
reconciled to  German  rule. 

See  GERMANY  under  History ;  LEAGUE  OF  NA- 
TIONS. 

LYNCHING.  The  National  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Colored  People  announced,  in 
a  press  release  dated  Dec.  31,  1940,  that  five  per- 
sons were  lynched  during  the  year  1940,  as  com- 
pared with  a  total  of  four  in  1939.  Two  of  the 
lynchings  took  place  in  Georgia,  two  in  Alabama, 
and  one  in  Tennessee.  The  cases  were  described  as 
follows. 

Ike  Gaston,  a  barber  shop  proprietor  and  the 
only  white  man  on  the  list,  was  beaten  to  death  by 
a  vigilante  mob  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  on  March  7;  he 
was  said  to  have  been  drunk  and  to  have  beaten  his 
wife  on  numerous  occasions  O'Dee  Henderson,  a 
24-year-old  steel  worker  who  had  been  arrested 
following  an  altercation  with  a  white  man,  was 
shot  inside  a  police  station  at  Fairfield,  Ala-,  May  8. 
Elbert  Williams  of  Brownsville,  Tenn.,  was  found 
in  a  river  swamp  (June  20)  the  day  after  he  had 
gone  with  a  group  of  Negro  citizens  to  the  City 
Hall  to  secure  information  about  registering  to 
vote.  Jesse  Thornton  was  shot  to  death  in  Luverne, 
Ala.,  June  22,  by  a  mob  led  by  police  officials,  one 
of  whom  he  had  failed  to  address  as  "Mister." 
Austin  Callaway,  a  16-year-old  boy  charged  with 
attempting  to  attack  a  white  woman,  was  taken 
from  jail  in  La  Grange,  Ga.,  by  several  masked 
men,  carried  about  8  miles  from  town,  and  shot, 
September  8. 

The  total  of  five  cases  was  cited  also  in  the  re- 
port issued  by  the  Tuskegee  Institute.  A  confer- 
ence was  held  late  in  the  year  by  officials  of  the 
Tuskegee  Institute,  the  National  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Colored  People,  and  the  As- 
sociation of  Southern  Women  for  the  Prevention 
of  Lynching  to  compare  methods  of  investigation. 
A  basic  method  of  co-operation  was  worked  out 
to  prevent  the  issuance  of  different  sets  of  lynching 
figures  in  the  future. 

Anti-Lynching  Bill.  The  Gavagan  Anti-Lynch- 
ing  Bill  was  approved  by  the  House  of  Represent- 
atives in  January,  1940,  by  a  vote  of  252  to  131. 
The  measure  was  also  voted  out  by  the  Senate  Ju- 
diciary Committee  on  April  8  (12  to  4),  but  it  was 
not  called  for  consideration  by  the  Senate  prior  to 
the  close  of  the  year.  The  measure  sought  to  penal- 
ize any  State  or  local  official  who  failed  to  make 
"all  diligent  effort"  to  protect  persons  in  his  cus- 
tody or  who  failed  to  apprehend  or  prosecute  mem- 
bers of  a  mob  guilty  of  lynching.  The  penalty  pro- 
posed was  a  fine  up  to  $5000,  imprisonment  up  to 
five  years,  or  both.  The  State  subdivision  in  which 
a  lynching  occurred  would  also  be  made  liable  to 
damages  of  $2000  to  $10,000  for  each  victim. 


The  House  considered  the  measure  for  three 
days,  during  which  time  a  provision  excluding  vio- 
lence in  connection  with  labor  disputes  was  struck 
out.  Passage  in  the  House  was  attributed  by  some 
commentators  to  the  desire  of  both  Democrats  and 
Republicans  to  win  Negro  votes  in  the  national 
election.  The  Senate's  failure  to  consider  the  bill 
(announced  by  Senator  Barkley  on  October  8)  re- 
sulted from  the  threat  of  a  filibuster  by  Southern 
senators  under  the  leadership  of  Senator  Connally 
of  Texas.  Opponents  of  the  measure  argued  that 
the  bill  was  an  invasion  of  State  rights  and  that 
passage  would  merely  serve  to  stir  racial  issues. 
Senator  Wagner,  a  proponent,  argued  that  73 
lynchings  had  occurred  in  the  United  States  in  the 
past  six  years.  See  MISSISSIPPI. 

MACAO.  A  Portuguese  colony  in  South  China. 
Total  area,  including  the  nearby  islands  of  Taipa 
and  Coloane,  eight  square  miles;  population  (1936 
census),  200,000,  including  4000  Portuguese.  Trade 
(chiefly  transit)  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese. 
Budget  estimates  for  1939  balanced  at  44,937,126 
escudos  (escudo  averaged  $0.0404  for  1939).  Gov- 
ernor, Dr.  A.  T.  Barbosa. 

MACHINE  DEVELOPMENT.  Engineer- 
ing changes  during  1940  were  largely  influenced 
by  the  war  conditions  abroad.  Much  of  the  ma- 
chinery and  other  equipment  was  designed,  or 
modified,  to  meet  conditions  as  they  arose 

Automobiles  for  example,  were  changed  but 
little.  Outward  appearance  was  altered  to  some 
extent  to  meet  demands  of  sales  departments  for 
something  new  to  talk  about,  but  real  changes 
were  few.  Neither  the  fluid  fly-wheel  nor  the  more 
or  less  automatic  transmissions,  used  to  a  some- 
what larger  extent,  are  entirely  new.  An  attempt 
was  made  to  put  the  fluid  fly-wheel  on  the  Ameri- 
can market  about  20  years  ago,  without  success; 
it  did  however,  make  headway  in  England  and  was 
then  imported  into  this  country. 

Machine  tools  and  similar  equipment  were  but 
slightly  affected  by  war  conditions.  The  demand, 
both  for  regular  types  of  machines,  and  for  ma- 
chines which  are  solely  used  in  making  arms  and 
munitions,  greatly  increased,  but  there  have  been 
few  fundamental  changes  in  the  special  machines 
since  the  last  war.  Some  machines  have  been  re- 
designed, and  a  few  entirely  new  machines  have 
been  designed  and  built,  but  simple  machines  play 
an  important  part  in  any  emergency  of  this  kind. 
They  have  the  advantage  of  being  easier  to  han- 
dle by  partly  trained,  or  semi-skilled  men  and 
women ;  they  are  more  easily  built  and  cost  less  to 
produce,  and  being  more  easily  built,  they  can  be 
produced  in  shops  that  are  not  normally  in  the 
machine  tool  field. 

The  ability  to  scatter  work  into  many  small 
shops  is  one  of  the  engineering  changes  of  the  pe- 
riod which  began  as  a  link  in  the  National  De- 
fense program,  probably  from  a  survey  made  by 
the  Ordnance  Departments  of  both  Army  and 
Navy  which,  divided  into  defense  districts,  listed 
plants  and  plant  capacities  for  many  kinds  of 
munitions  and  supplies.  The  experience  of  the  last 
war,  with  huge  plant  expansions  that  became  mill- 
stones in  the  postwar  days,  led  to  the  engineering 
methods  that  have  now  been  admirably  developed. 

One  of  the  best  examples  of  this  development  is 
seen  in  the  way  in  which  the  Sperry  Gyroscope 
Company  increased  its  output  many  fold.  Realiz- 
ing that  the  decentralization  of  manufacture,  the 
utilization  of  other  plants,  could  not  be  accom- 
plished at  short  notice,  this  company  began  the 


MACKENZIE 


426 


1CAONBUUM 


expansion  of  facilities  before  war  cane  or  huge 
orders  began  to  pour  in.  Selecting  parts  that  could 
be  made  by  outside  plants  they  picked  shops  with 
proper  facilities  for  making  them,  even  while  they 
still  had  ample  facilities  in  their  own  plant  These 
selected  shops  were  supplied  with  drawings  of  the 
best  tools  and  fixtures  for  the  purpose,  and  were 
then  taught  by  experienced  Sperry  men  just  how 
the  work  should  be  done.  These  shops  together 
had  facilities  for  producing  the  intricate  castings 
and  for  machining  them  ready  for  assembly.  The 
complete  unit,  or  the  parts  that  go  to  make  up  the 
unit,  can  then  be  shipped  to  the  parent  factory  for 
final  inspection,  assembly,  and  shipment.  At  a  time 
when  new  machine  equipment  cannot  be  obtained 
for  months  or  even  years  ahead,  this  method  of 
utilizing  idle  equipment  is  an  invaluable  asset  to 
the  machine  capacity  of  the  country. 

Only  those  engineers  whose  duty  it  is  cither  to 
procure  new  machine  equipment  or  to  increase 
greatly  the  output  of  war  material,  can  appreciate 
what  this  development  in  engineering  management 
means.  The  methods  also  make  it  possible  for  new 
machine  tools  to  be  secured  in  the  same  way. 
Lathes,  milling  machines,  automatic  screw  ma- 
chines, and  machines  of  other  important  types  can 
be  built  in  shops  whose  regular  product  is  of  a 
far  different  nature;  but  with  co-operation  their 
facilities  may  be  utilized  to  build  much  needed  ma- 
chine tool  equipment. 

Some  of  the  recent  developments  are  of  especial 
interest  Builders  of  printing  presses  are  now 
building  machine  tools  and  recoil  mechanisms. 
Makers  of  typesetting  machines  are  building  small 
machine  tools,  within  their  capacity.  Manufactur- 
ers of  sewing  machines  also  are  adapting  parts  of 
their  plants  to  make  needed  machinery,  far  differ- 
ent from  their  usual  output,  for  other  manufac- 
turers. All  of  which  means  a  much  better  utiliza- 
tion of  capacity  already  in  existence,  production 
with  much  less  delay,  and  with  little  or  no  increase 
in  plant  capacity. 

See  ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES;  ELECTRIC  LIGHT 
AND  POWER  ;  FARM  MACHINERY  AND  EQUIPMENT  ; 
POWER  PLANTS. 

FRED  H.  COLVIN. 

MACKENZIE,  District  of.  See  NORTHWEST 
TERRITORIES. 

MACY  FOUNDATION.  See  BENEFACTIONS. 

MADAGASCAR.  A  French  colony  in  the  In- 
dian Ocean.  Area,  241,094  square  miles ;  population 
(1936  census),  3,797,936,  including  that  of  the 
Comoro  Islands.  Chief  towns  (1936  populations) : 
Tananarive,  the  capital  (126,515),  Majunga  (23,- 
684),  Tamatave  (21,421),  Antsirabe  (18,215),  Tu- 
Icar  (15,180);  Fianarantsoa  (14,740).  Education 
(Jan.  1,  1939) :  1717  schools  of  all  kinds  and  221,- 
179  students. 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  products :  maize, 
rice,  coffee,  sugar,  copra,  potatoes,  manioc,  ground- 
nuts, vanilla,  cacao,  graphite,  mica,  phosphates, 
gold,  precious  stones,  and  hides.  Cattle  breeding  is 
an  important  industry.  The  forests  contain  many 
valuable  woods.  Trade  (1938)  :  imports,  602,710,- 
000  francs;  exports,  819,397,000  francs  (franc  av- 
eraged $0.0288  for  1938;  $0.0251  for  1939).  Ship- 
ping (1938) :  7364  ships  aggregating  4,306,309  tons 
entered  the  ports. 

Government.  The  budget  estimates  for  1939 
were  balanced  at  343,660,000  francs.  A  governor 
general,  assisted  by  a  consultative  council,  admin- 
isters the  government 


Comoro  Islaadft,  The  islands  of  Mayotte,  An* 
jouan,  Grande  Comore,  and  Moh£li,  forming  a  re- 
gion under  the  general  government  of  Madagascar. 
Area,  800  square  miles;  population  (1936),  128,- 
608.  Capital,  ZandzL  Chief  products :  sugar,  copra, 
sisal,  and  vanilla. 

History.  Resisting  both  "Free  French"  and 
British  efforts  to  change  their  allegiance,  Governor 
General  Leon  Cayla  and  his  administration  re- 
mained loyal  to  Marshal  Pe*tain's  regime  at  Vichy 
following  the  collapse  of  the  French  Republic.  Ex- 
cept for  radio  communication  with  France,  the  is- 
land was  cut  off  from  virtually  all  intercourse  with 
the  world  by  the  extension  of  the  British  blockade 
to  Madagascar  in  July.  According  to  statements  of 
the  Vichy  Government,  British  troops  attempted 
to  land  in  Madagascar  late  in  July  but  were  barred 
by  the  island  authorities.  Another  Vichy  statement 
of  September  29  asserted  that  Governor  General 
Cayla  had  rejected  a  British  ultimatum  calling  for 
repudiation  of  the  Pe*tain  Government  and  adhe- 
sion to  General  Charles  de  Gaulle's  "Free  French" 
movement.  See  FRANCE  under  History. 

MADEIRA.  An  administrative  district  (Fun- 
chal)  of  Portugal  consisting  of  a  group  of  islands 
(Madeira,  Porto  Santo,  and  three  uninhabited  is- 
lands) in  the  Atlantic,  west  of  Morocco.  Area,  314 
square  miles;  population  (1930  census),  211,601. 
Capital,  Funchal  (31,352  inhabitants).  Chief  prod- 
ucts: wine,  sugar,  bananas.  Tourists  visiting  the 
islands  in  1939  totaled  6595  while  tourists  in  transit 
(on  cruise  ships,  etc.)  totaled  98,170.  Highways 
extended  160  miles.  See  PORTUGAL. 

MADOERA.  See  NETHERLANDS  INDIES  under 
Area  and  Population. 

MAGAZINES.  See  NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAGA- 
ZINES. 

MAGNESltJM.  The  aircraft  industry  was  re- 
sponsible for  a  greatly  increased  demand  for  this 
metal  in  1940.  Its  use  as  a  war  metal  was  empha- 
sized by  the  rapid  expansion  of  production  facili- 
ties. Light  alloys  of  magnesium  and  other  metals 
are  used  in  aircraft  in  the  form  of  sand  castings, 
rolled  sheet,  extruded  shapes,  tubing,  and  forgings. 
Production  from  brine  at  Midland,  Mich.,  was  aug- 
mented by  production  from  sea  water  in  a  new 
plant  at  Freeport,  Texas.  The  latter  went  into  op- 
eration in  December,  1940.  As  a  result  of  this,  and 
increased  production  at  Midland,  the  output  for 
1941  was  expected  to  be  30  million  lb.,  compared 
with  7  million  in  1939.  The  price  was  27  cents  per 
lb.  in  car  lots  for  metal  99.8  per  cent  pure. 

Owing  to  the  war  and  the  consequent  exclusion 
from  the  United  States  of  imports  from  Central 
Europe  there  was  increased  production  of  do- 
mestic magnesite,  the  chief  mineral  of  magne- 
sium. The  chief  producer  was  the  Northwest  Mag- 
nesite Co.  in  the  State  of  Washington.  A  new  300- 
ton  beneficiation  plant  using  the  flotation  process 
was  under  construction  in  1940  and  was  expected 
to  be  in  operation  about  the  middle  of  1941. 

Controversy  over  patent  control  of  magnesium 
production  and  fabrication  arose  in  September, 
1940,  as  a  result  of  assertions  by  the  Department 
of  Justice  that  German  control  of  patents  was  re- 
stricting domestic  production  for  national  defense. 
This  was  denied  by  the  industry,  which  stated  that 
domestic  production  is  under  American  patents.  Li- 
censes granted  by  patent  holders  to  some  30  com- 
panies fabricating  magnesium  in  this  country  are 
wholly  unrestricted. 

According  to  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  pro- 
duction of  primary  magnesium  in  1940  was  0,250 


427 


MALTA 


short  tons,  the  largest  output  in  the  history  of  the 
domestic  industry.  Domestic  sales  of  new  mag- 
nesium equalled  production.  Official  data  on  world 
production  of  magnesium  for  1940  were  not  avail- 
able, but  it  is  believed  that  output  did  not  exceed 
45,000  short  tons,  with  Germany  producing  be- 
tween 18,000  and  21,000  tons.  See  FERTILIZERS. 

H.  C.  PARMELEE. 

MAH&  See  FRENCH  INDIA. 

MAINE.  Area,  33,040  square  miles;  includes 
water,  3145  square  miles.  Population  by  census  of 
April,  1940,  847,226;  in  1930,  797,423.  Portland 
had  (1940),  73,643;  Augusta,  the  capital,  19,360. 
Of  Maine's  1940  population,  343,057  were  urban 
and  504,169  were  rural. 

Agriculture.  Maine  harvested,  in  1940,  about 
1,343,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Three- 
fourths  of  this  area  was  in  hay,  but  the  greater 
part  of  the  return  from  cultivation  came  from  po- 
tatoes. Occupying  165,000  acres  (largely  in  Aroos- 
took  County),  potatoes  made  44,055,000  bu.,  the 
highest  production  of  any  State  in  the  Union,  and 
brought  the  growers  an  estimated  return  of  $17,- 
622,000.  This  sum  fell  nearly  $10,000,000  below  the 
reported  return  for  the  less  abundant  potato  crop 
of  1939.  Tame  hay,  on  1,006,000  acres,  gave  877,000 
tons  (about  $7,893,000)  ;  oats,  on  113,000  acres, 
4,520,000  bu.  ($1,808,000);  apples,  752,000  bu. 
($714,000). 

History.  Irregularity  in  the  State's  accounts 
came  to  light  early  in  April  through  an  audit  made 
by  a  private  agency;  three  high  officials  were 
forced  to  resign,  and  the  position  of  the  Republi- 
cans controlling  the  State  government  was  imper- 
iled for  a  time.  The  original  disclosure  involved  the 
State's  comptroller,  William  A.  Runnells,  whose 
office  had  handled  $35,000  of  missing  cash.  At  Gov- 
ernor Barrows'  demand  Runnells  immediately  re- 
signed and  paid  back  $26,420  to  the  State.  Facing 
prosecution  he  shot  himself  twice  with  a  pistol, 
allegedly  by  accident,  inflicting  serious  wounds. 
The  progress  of  the  private  audit  next  showed  that 
the  State's  Auditor  Elbert  D.  Hayford,  and  the 
Deputy  Treasurer,  Louis  H.  Winship,  had  neglect- 
ed to  prevent  Runnells  from  obtaining  money  by 
irregular  means  from  the  funds  of  the  Highway 
Department,  and  these  two  also  resigned  at  the 
Governor's  demand.  The  resignation  of  the  State 
Purchasing  Agent  and  Chairman  of  Finance,  Wil- 
liam S.  Owen,  who  had  employed  Runnells  in  the 
financial  department  in  1932,  promptly  followed. 
These  three  were  not  accused  of  having  gained  by 
the  operations  of  Runnells.  A  fifth  State  officer, 
Treasurer  Belmont  A.  Smith  summoned  to  resign, 
pleaded  ignorance  of  the  transactions  and  refused ; 
he  declared  that  changes  made  in  the  State's  finan- 
cial organization  in  1932  had  deprived  his  office  of 
the  means  to  keep  the  accounts  of  the  State  of 
Maine  in  order. 

The  Legislature  had  been  summoned,  just  be- 
fore  the  disclosure,  to  meet  shortly  in  special  ses- 
sion in  order  to  consider  legislation  as  to  unem- 
ployment. Barrows  took  the  unusual  course  of 
postponing  the  session,  in  which  the  State's  Su- 
preme Court  sustained  his  procedure.  Thus  he  was 
able  on  May  27  to  give  the  Legislature  a  more 
thorough  view  of  the  situation :  further  investiga- 
tion had  raised  the  total  of  vanished  money  to 
some  $157.000,  and  search  had  brought  to  view 
considerable  sums  in  safe  deposit  under  the  names 
of  members  of  the  Runnells  family;  the  irregular- 
ities were  found  to  have  extended  through  many 


years.  The  Legislature  held  a  hearing  as  to  Treas- 
urer Smith's  responsibility  in  the  shortages. 

The  legislative  session  authorized  the  State's 
expenditure  for  its  own  defense  and  State  bonds 
were  later  issued  therefor. 

A  review  of  the  State  government's  whole  fi- 
nancial condition  was  made  by  an  outside  agency 
soon  after  discovery  of  the  Runnells'  irregulari- 
ties. It  produced  the  unexpected  information  that 
the  assets  of  the  sinking  fund's  reserve,  $1,817,- 
847,  much  exceeded  the  total  by  the  figures  of 
Runnells,  but  nothing  was  found  to  show  looting 
beyond  the  $157,000  that  had  been  taken  from  time 
to  time  in  relatively  small  amounts. 

At  the  State  primary  elections  (June  17),  Gov- 
ernor Barrows,  despite  his  vigorous  handling  of 
the  financial  scandal,  was  defeated  by  former  Gov. 
Ralph  O.  Brewster  for  the  Republican  nomination 
to  the  U.S.  Senate ;  the  Democrats  nominated  for- 
mer Gov.  Louis  J.  Brann. 

Members  of  Jehovah's  Witnesses  were  roughly 
handled  in  Sanford  for  not  letting  their  children 
salute  the  flag.  Fearing  further  attack,  several  of 
the  sect  at  its  headquarters  in  Kennebunk  soon 
afterward  opened  fire  with  shotguns  and  seriously 
wounded  two  men  who  had  approached  in  the 
night  (June  9).  After  police  had  taken  away  the 
shooting  Witnesses  a  mob  burned  down  their 
building ;  in  October  their  leader  was  found  guilty 
of  assault  with  intent  to  kill.  Governor  Barrows 
issued  (June  15)  a  proclamation  ordering  all  al- 
iens in  the  State  to  be  registered  for  identification 
as  precaution  against  foreign  agents'  activities. 

Elections.  At  the  State's  general  election  (Sep- 
tember 9)  the  Republicans  prevailed,  electing  Sum- 
ner  Sewall  Governor,  by  162,719  votes  to  92,003 
for  Fulton  J.  Redman  (Dem.)  ;  Ralph  O.  Brew- 
ster (Rep.)  was  elected  to  the  U.S.  Senate,  by 
150,149,  as  against  105,740  for  Louis  J  Brann 
(Dem.),  and  three  Republicans  were  chosen  Unit- 
ed States  Representatives.  On  November  5  the 
State  gave  its  popular  vote  to  Willkie  (Rep.), 
163,951,  for  President,  over  Roosevelt  (Dem.) 
who  received  156,478. 

Officers.  Maine's  chief  officers,  serving  in  1940, 
were:  Governor,  Lewis  O.  Barrows  (Rep.)  ;  Sec- 
retary of  State,  Frederick  Robie ;  Treasurer,  Bel- 
mont A.  Smith;  Auditor,  Elbert  D.  Hayford  (see 
History,  above) ;  Attorney  General,  Franz  U. 
Burkett ;  Commissioner  of  Education,  Bertram  E. 
Packard. 

MALACCA.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

MALARIA.  See  BIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY. 

MALAY  STATES.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

MALDIVB  ARCHIPELAGO.  See  under 
CEYLON. 

MALTA.  A  British  colony  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, consisting  of  the  islands  of  Malta  (95  sq. 
mi.),  Gozo  (26  sq.  mi.),  and  Comino  (1  sq.  mi.). 
Civil  population  (Jan.  1,  1939),  268,668.  Capital, 
Valletta.  Vital  statistics  (1938) :  8704  births,  5399 
deaths,  and  1778  marriages.  Education  (1938-39) : 
168  schools  of  all  kinds  and  34,846  students.  Malta 
is  an  important  naval  base  for  the  British  Medi- 
terranean Fleet. 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  products :  bar- 
ley, wheat,  potatoes,  maize,  oranges,  figs,  honey, 
grapes,  and  cotton.  Livestock  (1939)-  34,470 
goats,  15,936  sheep,  6707  swine,  4540  cattle,  and 
8799  horses,  mules,  and  asses.  Trade  (1939) :  Im- 
ports, £4,167,465;  exports,  £659,812,  including  re- 
exports of  £433,756.  Shipping  (1938)  :  2512  ships 
aggregating  4,488,153  tons  entered  the  ports. 


MAMMALS 


428 


MANCHOUKUO 


Government.  Budget  (1939-40)  :  revenue, 
£1,499311;  expenditure,  £1,420,699.  The  estimates 
for  1940-41  indicate  a  deficit  of  £750,000.  Malta 
is  governed  by  Letters  Patent  of  Feb.  14,  1939, 
which  provided  for  a  new  constitution.  There  is  a 
council  of  government  consisting  of  5  ex-officio 
members,  3  official  members,  2  unofficial  members 
nominated  by  the  governor,  and  10  elected  mem- 
bers. The  governor  presides  over  the  council  and 
has  a  casting  vote  but  no  original  vote.  English 
and  Maltese  are  the  official  languages  of  Malta. 
Governor  (acting)  and  Commander-in-Chief, 
Maj.-Gen.  W.  G.  S.  Dobbie;  Lieutenant  Gover- 
nor, Sir  Edward  Jackson  (appointed  Jan.  12, 
1940). 

History.  The  day  after  Italy  declared  war  up- 
on Britain  and  France  (June  10,  1940),  the  Italian 
air  force  began  incessant  attacks  upon  the  strong- 
ly fortified  British  naval  base  at  Valletta.  By  the 
end  of  the  year  203  raids  had  been  made  upon 
Malta's  capital,  with  relatively  little  damage  to 
either  civilian  or  military-naval  establishments, 
according  to  neutral  correspondents.  However  the 
arrival  of  numerous  German  bombing  planes  and 
pilots  at  the  Italian  air  base  at  Catania  in  near-by 
Sicily  at  the  year-end  presaged  more  difficult  times 
for  Malta  in  1941.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR. 

Preceding  or  immediately  following  June  10  the 
British  authorities  interned  Enrico  Mizzi,  leader 
of  the  pro-Italian  faction  of  the  Nationalist  party 
in  the  Council  of  Government,  and  various  other 
potential  fifth  columnists.  Sir  Arturo  Mercieca, 
Chief  Justice  and  President  of  the  Court  of  Ap- 
peal, was  requested  to  resign  because  of  his  pro- 
Italian  leanings.  The  bulk  of  the  Maltese  people 
were  reported  to  have  enthusiastically  supported 
the  British  cause.  Lord  Strickland,  an  elected 
member  of  the  Council  of  Government  and  for- 
mer Governor  during  the  Church- State  controver- 
sy of  the  early  1930's,  died  Aug.  22,  1940  (see  NE- 
CROLOGY). 

MAMMALS.  See  ZOOLOGY. 

MAN  ADO.  See  NETHERLANDS  INDIES  under 
Area  and  Population. 

MANCHOUKUO.  An  empire  in  northeastern 
Asia  established  under  Japanese  protection  Mar.  1. 
1932 ;  comprising  the  former  Chinese  provinces  of 
Fengtien,  Kirin,  and  Heilungkiang  in  Manchuria, 
and  Jehol  in  Inner  Mongolia.  Capital,  Hsinking 
(formerly  Chang-chun).  Ruler  in  1940,  Emperor 
Kangte,  who  was  enthroned  Mar.  1,  1934. 

Area  and  Population.  Including  the  South 
Manchuria  Railway  Zone  under  direct  Japanese 
jurisdiction  but  excluding  Kwantung  (q.v.),  the 
area  of  Manchoukuo  is  estimated  by  Japanese 
sources  at  503,013  square  miles.  The  population 
on  Dec.  31,  1937  was  estimated  at  36,949,975,  in- 
cluding 35,533,729  Manchoukuoans  (predominantly 
Chinese,  with  Manchu  and  Mongol  minorities), 
931,300  Koreans,  418,300  Japanese,  and  66,326  oth- 
ers, mainly  Russians.  The  population  of  Mukden 
on  Dec  31,  1938,  was  810,465,  and  of  the  other 
chief  cities  on  June  30,  1938:  Harbin,  467,483; 
Hsinking,  360,294;  Antung,  210,759;  Kirin,  132,- 
272;  Yingkow,  159,470.  The  net  immigration  of 
Chinese  laborers  in  1938  was  291,097 ;  of  Korean 
peasants,  15,850. 

Defense.  The  National  Mobilization  Law  of 
Feb.  26,  1938,  empowered  the  government  to  draft 
"man-power  and  material  resources  in  wartime  or 
in  an  emergency."  On  Apr.  6,  1940,  it  was  an- 
nounced that  compulsory  military  service  would 
be  introduced  one  year  later  (see  History).  The 


regular  Manchoukuoan  army,  organized  and  of- 
ficered mainly  by  Japanese,  numbered  about  80,000 
in  1939.  The  navy  included  1  destroyer,  15  gun- 
boats. 6  patrol  ships,  and  various  smaller  craft. 
In  addition,  nearly  500,000  picked  Japanese  troops 
and  a  strong  air  force  were  concentrated  in  Man- 
choukuo. 

Education  and  Religion.  Education  statistics 
for  June,  1939,  showed  15,877  primary  schools  with 
1,579,169  pupils;  254  secondary  schools,  with 
60,368  pupils ;  14  colleges,  with  4372  students ;  16 
normal  schools,  with  4045  students;  and  65  voca- 
tional schools,  with  5043  students.  According  to  a 
Japanese  source,  there  were  on  Dec.  31,  1937, 
1,770,692  Buddhists,  377,337  Taoists,  153,844  Ro- 
man Catholics,  132,636  Mohammedans,  and  51,393 
Protestants.  Lamaism  was  believed  to  have  far 
more  adherents  than  Buddhism,  but  no  statistics 
as  to  their  number  were  available. 

Production.  Agriculture  supports  about  85  per 
cent  of  the  population.  Yields  of  the  chief  crops 
in  1938  were  (in  metric  tons) :  Soybeans,  4,612,- 
000;  rice,  4,750,000;  kaoliang,  4,680,000;  millet, 
3,134,000;  corn,  2,306,000;  wheat,  979,000;  other 
cereals,  1,114,000.  Livestock  in  September,  1937, 
included  1,683,200  cattle,  1,965,900  sheep,  5,335,800 
swine,  1,243,000  goats,  and  12,800  camels.  The 
wool  clip  in  1937  was  about  7,000,000  Ib.  Coal  and 
lignite  ouput  in  1937  was  about  14,100,000  metric 
tons;  iron  ore,  pig  iron,  steel,  magnesite,  gold, 
lead,  and  oil  shale  are  the  other  chief  minerals  and 
metals  (for  latest  available  figures,  1936,  see 
YEAR  BOOK,  1938).  On  Dec.  31,  1938,  there  were 
3900  industrial  establishments  and  business  con- 
cerns, including  712  manufacturing  plants,  186 
mining  and  ceramics  concerns,  28  electric  and  gas 
industries,  and  2062  banking  and  commercial  enter- 
prises. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1939  totaled  1,783,- 
366,000  yuan  (1,274,748,000  in  1938);  exports, 
826,190,000  yuan  (725,454,000).  Of  the  1939  im- 
ports, Japan  supplied  1,505,011,000  yuan;  United 
States,  87,739,000;  China,  64,226,000;  Germany, 
51,786,000.  Japan  took  516,792,000  yuan  worth  of 
exports  in  1939,  China,  165,207,000;  Germany, 
50,358,000.  Leading  1939  exports :  Soybeans,  206> 
378,000  yuan ;  bean  cakes,  123,958,000  yuan ;  coal, 
24,059,000  yuan. 

Finance.  Excluding  transfers  and  duplications 
between  different  accounts,  expenditures  in  the 
budget  for  1940  were  estimated  at  1,639,862,000 
yuan  (1,044,810,000  in  1939).  Net  revenues  for 
1940  were  estimated  at  1,144,962,687  yuan  and  an 
additional  506,880,313  yuan  were  to  be  borrowed, 
as  compared  with  net  revenues  of  634,262,000  yuan 
and  loans  of  396,262,000  yuan  in  the  1939  budget. 

The  public  debt  on  Dec.  31,  1938,  totaled  858,- 
918,000  yuan  of  which  346,750,000  yuan  were  bor- 
rowed in  Japan.  The  Manchoukuo  yuan  was  pegged 
to  the  Japanese  yen  (1  yuan  equals  1  yen)  on 
Oct.  28,  1935.  The  yen  exchanged  at  $0.2596  in 
1939  and  $0.2344  in  1940. 

Transportation.  The  railway  mileage  of  Man- 
choukuo on  Jan.  1,  1940,  totaled  6600  miles,  of 
which  3500  miles  were  constructed  during  the  pre- 
ceding seven  years  with  Japanese  capital.  All  lines 
are  owned  or  operated  by  the  South  Manchuria 
Railway  Co.,  which  is  controlled  by  the  Japanese 
Government.  During  1939  the  railways  carried 
62,160,000  passengers  (including  troops).  Freight 
carried  for  the  year  ended  Mar.  31,  1939,  totaled 
about  50,732,000  metric  tons.  The  Tailing-Nancha- 
Tangyuan  connecting  link  of  the  railway  from 


MANCHOUKUO 


429 


MANCHOUKUO 


Suihua  to  the  new  Japanese  city  and  military  base 
of  Chiamussu  (Kiamusze)  on  the  Sungari  River 
was  opened  to  traffic  May  1, 1940.  Roads  and  high- 
ways extended  18,527  miles  at  the  end  of  1939; 
motor  highways  totaled  2503  miles,  or  about  dou- 
ble the  figure  for  the  end  of  1938.  A  network  of 
airlines  connects  all  of  the  principal  Manchurian 
cities  with  those  of  Korea,  Japan,  and  North 
China. 

Normally  three-fourths  of  the  foreign  trade  of 
Manchoukuo  passes  through  Dairen,  chief  ocean 
terminus  of  the  South  Manchuria  Railway  Co. 
Construction  of  a  great  new  port  at  Tatung  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Yalu  River  was  begun  in  1940.  A 
third  rail-sea  route  between  Japan  and  Manchou- 
kuo via  Niigata,  Japan,  and  Rashin,  Korea,  was 
opened  Feb.  11,  1940,  providing  a  shorter  rail  serv- 
ice to  H  sinking  and  Chiamussu.  Steamer  services 
were  maintained  over  4222  miles  of  inland  water- 
ways. 

Government.  Under  the  Constitution  of  Mar. 
1,  1934,  as  amended  July  L  1937,  Manchoukuo  is 
a  monarchy  in  which  the  Emperor  exercises  both 
executive  and  legislative  powers,  the  latter  being 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Legislative  Council, 
an  advisory  body  appointed  by  the  Emperor.  There 
is  also  a  Privy  Council  of  five  members ;  a  State 
Council,  or  cabinet,  of  six  departments;  and  a 
General  Affairs  Board,  attached  to  the  State 
Council,  which  supervises  budgets  and  national 
policies. 

Under  a  protocol  signed  Sept.  15,  1932,  Man- 
choukuo and  Japan  agreed  "to  co-operate  in  the 
maintenance  of  their  national  security;  it  being 
understood  that  such  Japanese  forces  as  may  be 
necessary  for  this  purpose  shall  be  stationed  in 
Manchoukuo."  Actually,  the  government  is  con- 
trolled by  the  Japanese  Ambassador  to  Manchou- 
kuo, who  is  also  commander-in-chief  of  the  Jap- 
anese and  Manchoukuoan  troops  in  Manchoukuo 
and  Kwantung  (q.v.).  Japanese  Ambassador  and 
commander-in-chief  in  1940,  Lieut.  Gen.  Yoshikiro 
Umezu  (appointed,  September,  1939).  Prime  Min- 
ister, Marshal  Chang  Ching-hui  (appointed  Mar. 
21,  1935). 

History.  The  Japanese-Manchoukuoan  and  So- 
viet-Outer Mongolian  boundary  commission  that 
met  at  Harbin  Dec.  9,  1939,  to  delimit  the  dis- 
puted Manchoukuoan-Outer  Mongolian  frontier 
in  the  Nomonhan  district  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939, 
p.  457)  broke  off  the  negotiations  at  the  end  of 
January,  1940.  A  series  of  minor  frontier  clashes 
ensued  during  March,  April,  and  Mav.  However 
the  parleys  were  resumed  at  Chita  on  August  3 
and  on  August  26  the  commission  announced  an 
agreement  for  the  delimitation  of  the  frontier. 
This  lessened  danger  of  the  renewal  of  the  san- 
guinary fighting  of  1939  in  the  Khalka  River  sec- 
tor, but  various  other  parts  of  the  Manchoukuoan- 
Siberjan  and  Manchoukuoan-Outer  Mongolian 
frontiers  remained  in  controversy.  Another  source 
of  friction  was  removed  when  the  Hsinking  Gov- 
ernment on  Jan.  3,  1940,  paid  the  Soviet  Govern- 
ment the  final  installment  for  its  share  of  the 
Chinese  Eastern  Railway,  transferred  in  March, 
1935. 

The  truce  enabled  Japan  to  proceed  with  the 
strengthening  of  its  military-economic  base  in 
Manchuria  while  simultaneously  expanding  into 
French  Indo-China  and  the  South  Seas.  More 
Japanese  and  Manchoukuoan  funds  were  poured 
into  Manchurian  strategic  railways,  highways,  air 
bases,  and  frontier  defense  systems,  all  designed 


for  an  eventual  struggle  with  the  Soviet  Union. 
On  April  6  the  Hsinking  Government  announced 
that  the  establishment  of  a  Manchoukuoan  con- 
script army  for  service  under  the  Japanese  com- 
mander-in-chief in  Manchuria  would  begin  a  year 
later,  following  an  intensive  propaganda  campaign 
to  prepare  the  people  for  this  innovation.  Youths 
were  to  be  called  for  three  years'  service  at  the 
age  of  19,  with  the  annual  contingent  restricted  to 
about  33,000.  Japanese  officials  also  continued  re- 
cruiting White  Russians  in  Manchoukuo,  Inner 
Mongolia,  and  China  proper  for  eventual  service 
against  the  Soviet  armies. 

Japanese  investments  in  Manchoukuo,  mainly 
for  industrial  developments,  amounted  to  1,103,- 
713,000  yen  in  1939  or  an  increase  of  664,000,000 
yen  over  1938.  In  1940  the  rate  of  development 
was  curtailed  by  the  tightness  of  the  Japanese 
money  market,  reflected  in  the  failure  of  efforts 
by  the  South  Manchuria  Railway  Co.  to  raise  the 
equivalent  of  $7,500,000  by  debenture  flotations. 
A  new  arrangement  between  the  railway  company 
and  the  Manchoukuo  Government  in  December, 
1939,  exempted  the  company  from  its  obligation 
to  render  an  account  of  its  returns  from  the  State 
Railways  to  the  government.  The  company,  in 
turn,  agreed  to  make  an  annual  payment  of  15,000,- 
000  yen  to  the  government.  An  acute  shortage  of 
foreign  exchange  was  reported  at  the  year  end  to 
be  curtailing  imports  of  vitally  needed  articles 
from  countries  outside  of  the  yen  bloc. 

The  Manchoukuoan  budget  for  1940  (see  Fi- 
nance} bore  an  increasing  share  of  the  burden  of 
Japan's  expansionist  policy  in  northeastern  Asia. 
There  were  substantial  increases  in  appropriations 
for  the  Tatung  Institute  and  the  State  Founda- 
tion University,  founded  to  train  administrators 
and  other  officials  (mostly  Japanese)  for  East 
Asia;  for  the  Concordia  Society,  established  to 
promote  good  will  toward  Japan  and  its  policies 
among  the  Manchurian  peoples ;  and  for  the  De- 
partment of  Public  Peace,  which  was  charged 
with  an  increasing  share  of  Japan's  local  defense 
problems.  Further  large  sums  were  appropriated 
for  the  settlement  in  Manchoukuo  of  Japanese 
colonists. 

Meanwhile  the  Japanese  continued  to  tighten 
their  grip  on  the  Manchurian  economic  system. 
All  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  country's  economic 
enterprises  were  placed  under  Japanese  control 
through  government  ownership  and  management 
or  a  licensing  system.  The  government  monopoly 
system,  covering  opium,  petroleum  products,  salt, 
and  matches  was  extended  on  Nov.  1,  1939,  to  in- 
clude soybeans,  the  chief  agricultural  product. 
Private  monopolies  controlling  the  import  and  sale 
of  books,  newspapers,  other  periodicals,  sheet 
music,  and  plywood  were  established.  Prices  of- 
fered farmers  and  dealers  for  soybeans  by  the 
Staple  Products  Monopoly  were  so  low  that  a 
sellers'  strike  was  instituted  early  in  1940.  More 
foreign  and  native  traders  and  merchants  were 
squeezed  out  by  manipulation  of  the  Trade  Con- 
trol and  Exchange  Control  laws  on  behalf  of  Jap- 
anese interests.  Only  two  American  firms  retained 
branch  offices  in  Manchoukuo  in  May,  1940.  Divi- 
dends and  profits  remitted  to  Japan  from  Man- 
churian enterprises  in  1939  were  estimated  at  300,- 
000,000  yen. 

During  June  and  July  Emperor  Kangte  paid  a 
state  visit  to  Emperor  Hirohito  in  Japan.  Wang 
Ching-wei,  head  of  the  new  Japanese-controlled 
Nanking  regime,  agreed  to  recognize  Japan's  pro- 


MANDATED  TERRITORIES 


430 


MANUFACTURES 


tectorate  over  Manchoukuo.  Early  in  February 
it  was  reported  that  200  Japanese  had  been  killed 
by  Chinese  guerrillas  in  attacks  northeast  of  Kirin. 

See  CHINA  and  MONGOLIA  under  History. 

MANDATED  TERRITORIES.  Following 
is  a  list  (as  of  Dec.  31,  1940)  of  territories  con- 
quered from  the  German  and  Ottoman  empires 
during  the  World  War  and  mandated  by  the 
League  of  Nations  to  various  of  the  Allied  Pow- 
ers under  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles. 


Mandated  Territory* 

Mandatory  Powtf 

Form*  Own* 

Cameroon,  French 
Cameroons,  British 
Japanese  Pacific  Iglftcdi 
Nauru 

France 
Great  Britain 

BrffiSi  Empire 

Germany 
Germany 
Germany 
Germany 

New  Guinea,  Territory 

of 

Australia 

Germany 

Palestine 

Great  Britain 

Ottoman  Empire 

Ruanda-Urundi 

Belgium 

Germany 

Samoa.  Western 
South-West  Africa 

New  Zealand 
Union  of  South 

Germany 

Africa 

Germany 

Syria  and  Lebanon 

France 

Ottoman  Empire 

Tanganyika  Territory 

Great  Britain 

Germany 

Togo.  French 
Togoland 

France 
Great  Britain 

Germany 
Germany 

•  Iraq,  a  territory  mandated  to  Great  Britain,  became  an  in- 
dependent State  by  treaty  with  the  mandatory  power  on  June 
30, 1930. 

See  the  separate  article  on  each  mandated  terri- 
tory. 

MANGANESE.  Satisfactory  progress  was 
made  during  1940  in  providing  the  United  States 
with  an  adequate  supply  of  ores  and  concentrates, 
with  the  result  that  no  apprehension  was  felt  about 
a  shortage  that  might  affect  production  of  muni- 
tions. The  Metals  Reserve  Company,  a  subsidiary 
of  the  Reconstruction  Finance  Corporation,  organ- 
ized to  buy  strategic  metals  and  minerals,  award- 
ed several  contracts.  One  with  the  Anaconda  Cop- 
per Mining  Company  was  for  240,000  long  tons  of 
high-grade  concentrates  to  be  delivered  at  the  rate 
of  80,000  tons  per  annum.  Anaconda  expended  one 
and  one-half  million  dollars  in  preparation  for 
this  production  at  the  Emma  mine  in  the  Butte 
district  Another  contract  was  made  with  the  New- 
al-Pitt  Corporation  for  an  estimated  180,000  long 
tons  of  high-grade  material  from  deposits  in  New 
Mexico.  All  of  this  was  supplemented  by  the  pros- 
pect of  obtaining  135,000  tons  a  year  from  Cuba. 
Intermediate  grades  were  available  in  Brazil  and 
Chile.  Electrolytic  manganese  was  made  in  small 
quantity  at  Knoxville,  Term. 

The  Census  of  Manufactures,  1939,  shows  the 
substantial  progress  made  in  the  manganese  indus- 
try of  the  United  States  in  the  preceding  decade. 
Compared  with  1929  the  number  of  mines  was  in- 
creased from  21  to  34;  wage  earners  from  354  to 
494.  Wages  rose  from  $392,362  to  $480,120.  Pro- 
duction of  merchantable  ore  rose  from  40,762  tons 
to  47,672  tons,  the  average  manganese  content  of 
the  natural  ore  was  36.34  per  cent.  Of  the  1939 
production  only  7900  tons  was  of  f  erro-grade  con- 
taining a  minimum  of  48  per  cent  manganese. 

See  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL. 

H.  C.  PARMELEE. 

MANITOBA.  A  prairie  province  of  Canada. 
Area,  246,512  square  miles;  population  (June  1, 
1939,  estimate),  727,000,  compared  with  711,216 
(1936  census).  Vital  statistics  (1939) :  13,563  liv- 
ing births,  6157  deaths,  7676  marriages.  Chief 
towns  (with  1936  populations)  :  Winnipeg,  the 
capital  (215,814),  Brandon  (16,461),  St.  Boniface 
(16\275),  Portage  la  Prairie  (6538).  Education 


(1938) :  166,276  student!  in  schools  of  all  kinds. 
Production.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural 
production  in  1939  was  $95,052,000.  Chief  field 
crops  (1939)  :  wheat  63,000,000  bu.,  oats  34,500,000 
bu.,  barley  28,000,000  bu.,  rye  2,000,000  bu.,  flax- 
seed  525,000  bu.,  potatoes  100,800  tons,  roots  31,- 
850  tons,  hay  and  clover  706,000  tons,  alfalfa  132,- 
000  tons,  fodder  corn  270,000  tons.  In  1940  the 
value  of  field  crops  was  $61,957,000  ($61,358,000 
for  1939).  Livestock  (1939) :  787,000  cattle,  315,- 
000  horses,  230,000  sheep,  311,000  swine,  5,951,- 
000  poultry.  Fur  production  (1938-39)  was  valued 
at  $1,267,700  ($989,975  in  1937-38).  Forestry  out- 
put (1939)  equaled  65,380  M  cu.  ft  valued  at 
$2,299,214.  In  1938  the  fish  catch  was  worth 
$1,811,124. 

Mineral  production  (1939)  was  valued  at  $17,- 
137,930  of  which  copper  (70,458,890  Ib.)  accounted 
for  $7,110,711,  gold  (180,875  fine  oz.)  $6,537,003. 
zinc  (40,302,747  Ib.)  $1,236,891,  silver  (1,028,48^ 
fine  oz.)  $416,413.  Manufacturing  (1938)  :  1072 
factories,  23,507  employees,  $48,308,248  net  value 
of  products. 

Government.  Finance  (1938-39) :  Revenue  and 
expenditure  were  estimated  to  balance  at  $16,960,- 
854.  The  King  is  represented  by  a  lieutenant  gov- 
ernor (appointed  by  the  governor  general  in  coun- 
cil) who  is  advised  by  a  ministry  whose  members 
belong  to  the  legislative  assembly  of  55  members 
elected  for  a  five-year  term  by  popular  vote  of  the 
people.  Six  senators  (appointed  for  life)  and  17 
elected  commoners  represent  Manitoba  in  the  Do- 
minion parliament  at  Ottawa.  Lt.  Gov.  R.  F. 
Me  Williams  (assumed  office  Nov.  1, 1940) ;  Prem- 
ier, John  Bracken  (Liberal -Progressive). 

History.  On  Nov.  4,  1940,  Manitoba  was  placed 
under  the  legislative  guidance  of  a  coalition  gov- 
ernment with  Premier  John  Bracken  at  its  head. 
The  cabinet  included  Conservative.  Co-operative 
Commonwealth  Federation,  Social  Credit,  and 
Liberal-Progressive  members.  The  voters  of  the 
province  were  expected  to  approve  or  reject  the 
new  government  at  a  provincial  general  election  to 
be  held  early  in  1941. 

MANNERHEIM  LINE.  See  EUROPEAN 
WAR  under  Finnish  Campaign. 
MANUAL  TRAINING.  See  EDUCATION. 
MANUFACTURES,  Census  of.  The  Bureau 
of  the  Census  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Com- 
merce released  on  Dec.  29,  1940,  the  latest  of  its 
biennial  reports  on  manufactures  in  the  United 
States.  According  to  the  Bureau's  summary,  the 
manufacturing  industries  of  the  United  States,  in- 
cluding the  printing  and  publishing  industries,  man- 
ufactured products  in  1939  whose  combined  value 
totaled  $56,828,807,223.  This  was  64  per  cent  less 
than  the  value  of  products  of  these  industries  for 
1937  and  16.6  per  cent  less  than  for  1929.  The  wage 
earners,  both  full-time  and  part-time,  who  were 
engaged  in  manufacturing  these  products  totaled 
7,887,242  which  was  8  per  cent  less  than  in  1937 
and  5.9  per  cent  less  than  in  1929.  Although  the 
manufacturing  activities  of  the  country  did  not 
reach  the  1937  or  the  1929  levels  in  1939,  the  latter 
year  did  rank  next  to  these  two  years  during  the 
past  decade.  In  terms  of  actual  goods  produced, 
1939  was  probably  closer  to  these  earlier  years  than 
is  indicated  by  the  total  value  of  products  manu- 
factured or  the  employment  figures,  since  the  level 
of  prices  was  lower  in  1939  than  in  either  of  the 
other  two  years  and  technological  developments 
undoubtedly  affected  to  some  extent  the  productiv- 
ity of  labor. 


MANUFACTURES 


431 


MANUFACTURES 


TABLE  1— SUMMARY,  BY  GROUPS  OF  INDUSTRIES,  FOR  1939 


Number  of                   W  ate  earners 

establish- 

Salaried    (average  for 

Value  of 

Group 

ments 

personnel** 

the  year)  M 

Salaries  M 

Wages* 

products** 

All  groups,  total    
1.  Food  and  kindred  products  
2.  Tobacco  manufactures 

184,244 
51,454 
765 

1,049,468 
113,232 
4,757 

7,887,242 
824,009 
87,525 

$2,542,040,011 
262,187,331 
11,355,748 

19,089,927,984 
913  981  553 
68)439,717 

$56,828,807,223 
10,603,950,671 
1,322,189,139 

3.  Textile-mill  products  and  other  fiber 

manufactures. 

6,293 

61,997 

1,075,702 

149,762,645 

902,171,863 

3,897,437,872 

4.  Apparel  and  other  finished  products 

made  from  fabrics  and  similar  ma- 

terials 
5.  Lumber  and  timber  basic  products 

20,365 
11,520 

53,472 
24,607 

758,302 
360,613 

132,455,695 
51,908,720 

660,609,295 
310,381,443 

3,358,255,400 
1,122,057,978 

6    Furniture  and  finished  lumber  products 
7.  Paper  and  allied  products 
8    Printing,  publishing  and  allied  indus- 

8,457 
3,279 

32,349 
31,069 

293,820 
264,715 

73,403,617 
84,868,716 

274,733,251 
309,856,579 

1,267,724.013 
2,019,568,217 

tries 
9.   Chemicals  and  allied  products 
10.   Products  of  petroleum  and  coal    .  . 

24,879 
9,203 
989 

142,912 
63,109 
18,547 

324,615 
287,136 
105,428 

331,673,493 
165,144,382 
48,106,292 

493,643,339 
356,184,902 
173,710,817 

2,578,494,382 
3,733,657,723 
2,953,973,409 

1  1    Rubber  products 

595 

18,636 

120,740 

44,436,839 

161,409,811 

902,328,802 

12    Leather  and  leather  products 
13.   Stone,  clay,  and  glass  products 

3,508 
7,024 

23,865 
32;%1 

327,663 
287,522 

55,195,641 
78,817,363 

294,289,718 
329,589,927 

1,389,513,718 
1,440,151,489 

14    Iron  and  steel  and  their  products,  ex- 

cept machinery 
15.   No  n  ferrous  metals  and  their  products 

8,993 
5,600 

117,116 
34,562 

966,371 
228,753 

297,527,758 
86,081,442 

l,3n,633,202 
299,219,667 

6,591,530,456 
2,572,854,496 

16    Electrical  machinery 
17    Machinery  (except  electrical) 
18    Automobiles  and  automobile  equipment 

2,014 
9,506 
1,133 

57,528 
106,686 
46,211 

256,467 
522,975 
398,963 

139,614,726 
258,327,232 
115,208,037 

335,819,534 
748,268,262 
646,405,891 

1,727,217,631 
3,254,173,950 
4,047,872,729 

19    Transportation  equipment  except  auto- 

mobiles 

968 

28,211 

157,096 

63,652,023 

239,253,940 

882,896,840 

20    Miscellaneous  industries 

7,699 

37,641 

238,827 

92,312,311 

258,325,273 

1,162,958,308 

1  No  data  for  employees  of  central  administrative  office";  are  included 

>  The  1939  Census  of  Manufactures  Questionnaire,  for  the  first  time,  called  for  personnel  employed  in  distribution,  construction,  etc 
separately  from  the  manufacturing  employees  of  the  plants,  and  therefore,  the  data  probably  are  not  strictly  comparable   Employees  of 
the  plants  reported  as  engaged  in  distribution  and  construction  activities  in  1939  are  not  included  in  this  preliminary  report  but  will  be 
included  in  the  final  report 

1  This  is  an  average  of  the  numbers  reported  for  the  several  months  of  the  year  In  calculating  it,  equal  weight  must  be  given  to  full- 
time  and  part-time  wage  earners  (not  reported  separately  by  the  manufacturers),  and  for  this  reason  it  exceeds  the  number  that  would 
have  been  required  to  perform  the  work  done  in  the  industries  if  all  wage  earners  had  been  continuously  employed  throughout  the  year 
The  quotient  obtained  by  dividing  the  amount  of  wages  by  the  average  number  of  wage  earners  should  not,  therefore,  be  accepted  as  repre- 
senting the  average  wage  received  by  full-time  wage  earners  In  making  comparisons  between  the  figures  for  1939  and  those  for  earlier 
years,  the  likelihood  that  the  proportion  of  part-time  employment  varied  from  year  to  year  should  be  taken  into  account  Also  see  footnote 
2,  above 

«  Profits  or  losses  cannot  be  calculated  from  the  census  figures  because  no  data  are  collected  for  certain  expense  items,  such  as  interest, 
rent,  depreciation,  taxes,  insurance,  and  advertising 

6  The  aggregates  for  cost  of  materials  and  value  of  products  include  large  but  indeterminable  amounts  of  duplication  due  to  the  use  of 
the  products  of  some  industries  as  material  by  others  This  duplication  occurs,  as  a  rule,  between  different  industries,  and  is  not  found  to 
any  great  extent  in  individual  industries 


TABLE  2— SUMMARY  FOR  1939,  BY  INDUSTRIES 
(For  combined  totals  for  all  industries,  see  table  1] 


Group 
No 


Industry 
13    Abrasive  wheels,  stones,  paper,  cloth,  and  related 

products  ..   . 

17    Agricultural  machinery  (except  tractors) 
19    Aircraft  and  parts,  including  aircraft  engines 
15    Alloying,  and  rolling  and  drawing  of  nonferrous 

metals  (except  aluminum) 
15    Aluminum  ware,  kitchen,  hospital,  and  household 

(except  electrical  appliances) 


Number 

of  eslab- 

hsh- 


124 
317 
125 

188 
32 


Wage 

Salaried  earners 
per-  (average 
sonnel  for  the  year)  Salaries 

1,851  7.734  $5,443,620 
5,587  27,806  11,051,197 
13,771  48,637  27,976,663 


5,363 


38,816 
6,297 


13,235,301 
2,192,950 


Wages 

$10,681,071 
35,228,807 
77,488,188 

56,282,378 
7,774,778 


Value  of 
products 

$71,271,168 
167.89S.292 
279,496,844 

445,060,017 
37,124,898 


15    Aluminum  products  (including  rolling  and  drawing 
and  extruding),  not  elsewhere  classified  .   .  . 
9    Ammunition                           
3    Artificial  leather  and  oilcloth  
20    Artists'  materials  .  .            

162 
13 
36 
42 

2.983 
687 
634 
137 

17,249 

W 

397 

6,476,896 
1,395,058 
1,673,592 
321,625 

25,539,148 
4,952,610 
5,391,326 
464,389 

169,819,269 
29,091,475 
43,434,067 
4,070,141 

13    Asbestos  products  (except  steam  packing  and  pipe 
and  boiler  covering)  

79 

1,276 

9,979 

2,960,053 

11,578,739 

60,774,252 

14    Automobile  stampings  . 
18    Automobile  trailers  (for  attachment  to  passenger 

90 

1,242 

8,597 

3,283,252 

11,970,203 

47,833,155 

cars)     
16    Automotive  electrical  equipment 

79 
84 

177 
2,855 

1,426 
17,495 

367,493 
6,509,312 

1,501,270 
24.896,474 

7,941,996 
109,761,620 

1    Baking  powder,  yeast,  and  other  leavening  com- 

pounds     
6    Baskets  for  fruits  and  vegetables  ... 

47 
153 

505 
451 

S$ 

1,706,273 
816,117 

3,654,208 
4,470,188 

31,774,637 
14,286,273 

16    Batteries,  storage  and  primary  (dry  and  wet) 
3    Batting,  padding,  and  wadding;  upholstery  filling  . 
20    Beauty-shop  and  barber-shop  equipment 
10    Beehive  coke  

221 
124 
72 
29 

2,365 
548 
420 
69 

•aa 

1986 
685 

5,361,603 
1561,789 
1,163,672 
73,101 

19,209,426 
4,120,350 
1,817,595 
701,108 

117,410,394 
30,213,085 
13,006,333 
4,781,094 

1    Beet  sugar  .                  

85 

1,477 

10,410 

2,941,734 

12,361,317 

134,396,017 

MANUFACTURES 


432 


MANUFACTURES 


TABLE  2— SUMMARY  FOR  1939,  BY  INDUSTRIES 


Grout 

> 

Number 
of  estab- 
lish- 

Salaried 
per- 

Wag* 

earners 
(average 

Value  of 

No. 

Industry 

for  the  year} 

i      Salaries 

Wages 

products 

4 

Belts  (apparel),  regardless  of  material  
Biscuit,  crackers,  and  pretzels    

245 
356 

453  ' 
2,388 

4,222 
29,173 

$1,079,482 
5,695,122 

$4,066,591 
28.549  620 

$19,076,348 
200.792.878 

14 

Blast  furnace  products 

81 

1,911 

19,537 

5,387,999 

28,312,336 

550,802,313 

1 

Blended  and  prepared  flour  made  from  purchased 

flour  .... 

78 

176 

706 

407,261 

593,196 

17,894,332 

17 

Blowers;  exhaust  and  ventilating  fans  . 

77 

734 

3,885 

1,781,270 

5,371,111 

28,606,349 

9 

Bluing  ... 

13 

30 

55 

87,800 

55925 

1,142  341 

19 

Boat  building  and  boat  repairing  

202 

316 

2,630 

770,348 

2,897,445 

10,884',542 

14 
9 

Bolts,  nuts,  washers,  and  rivets—  made  in  plants  not 
operated  in  connection  with  rolling  mills 
Bone  black,  carbon  black,  and  lampblack  . 
Bookbinding  and  related  industries 

155 
53 
1,133 

2,040 
208 
3,936 

14,331 
1,574 
25,773 

s« 

9,729,733 

18,332,950 
2,001097 
29,062,627 

84,117,969 
14,626,876 
102,591,313 

8 
8 
8 
12 

Books  •  printing  without  publishing 
Books:  publishing  and  printing 
Books-  publishing  without  printing 
Boot  and  shoe  cut  stock  and  findings 

690 
150 

556 
520 

3,165 
1,657 
6,862 
1,955 

16,547 
6,091 
135 
18,845 

10,106,634 
4,060,474 
14,127,081 
4,546,390 

25,037,639 
8,404,779 
195,671 
17,195,728 

87,686,088 
39,517,202 
109,579,001 
129,399,406 

1 

Bread  and  other  bakery  products  (except  biscuit, 

crackers,  and  pretzels) 

18,049 

16,719 

201,537 

36,993,955 

262,000,268 

1,211,395,278 

13 

Brick  and  hollow  structural  tile  

800 

2,479 

29,069 

$5,557,905 

$26,349,346 

$78,153,227 

20 

Brooms    ... 

320 

346 

3,787 

537,930 

2,756,770 

11,842,422 

20 

Brushes  

245 

1,258 

7,891 

3,004,394 

7,988,974 

48,466,966 

20 

Buttons     

316 

958 

10,972 

2,288,501 

8,622,711 

29,817,188 

9 

Candles  

28 

142 

840 

514,310 

816,811 

6,329,179 

1 

1 
1 

Candy  and  other  confectionery  products 
Cane  sugar  —  (except  refineries) 
Cane-sugar  refining 
Canned  and  dried  fruits  and  vegetables  (including 

1,252 
78 
27 

4,676 
687 
1,706 

49,740 
4,217 
14,133 

11,795,526 
826,974 
3.820,757 

41,084,966 
2,573,319 
16,196,690 

297,761,813 
33,526,898 
384,412,492 

1 

canned  soups)     .  . 
Canned  fish,  Crustacea,  and  mollusks 

2,007 
214 

7,585 
828 

98,022 
15,735 

11,805,535 
1,685,631 

65,234,801 
7,228,083 

587,341,024 
65,455,696 

20 

Canvas  products  (except  bags) 
Carbon  paper  and  inked  ribbons 

334 
58 

907 
440 

3,869 
1,741 

2,116,050 
1,359,481 

3,620,832 
2,132,172 

24,408,030 
20,776,745 

16 

Carbon  products  for  the  electrical  industry,  and 

3 

manufactures  of  carbon  or  artificial  graphite 
Carpets  and  rugs,  wool 
Carpets,  rugs,  and  mats  made  from  such  materials  as 
paper  fiber,  grass,  jute,  flax,  sisal,  cotton,  cocoa 

31 
43 

692 
2,375 

3,189 
25,591 

1,825,174 
5,797,694 

4,483,609 
30,143,651 

18,375,580 
140,337,725 

fiber,  and  rags     .   . 

84 

317 

3,137 

684,887 

2,116,087 

9,758,261 

3 

Carpet  yarn,  woolen  and  worsted 

18 

225 

3,137 

722,788 

3,499,528 

19,982,522 

19 

Cars  and  car  equipment  —  railroad,  street,  and  rapid- 

transit 

143 

3,964 

24,521 

8,879,313 

34,614,506 

168,381,877 

17 

Cars  and  trucks,  industrial   . 

55 

609 

2,732 

1,330,932 

3,149,298 

17,319,579 

6 

Caskets,  coffins,  burial  cases,  and  other  morticians' 

goods 

599 

2,108 

12,447 

5,212,149 

13,392,154 

70,353,117 

14 

Cast-iron  pipe  and  fittings 

74 

1,221 

16,488 

2,991,244 

17,483,095 

65,079,052 

13 

Cement         .                                  . 

160 

2,768 

23,801 

7,408,199 

31,588,404 

192,611,304 

1 

Cereal  preparations 

70 

1,011 

7,458 

2,779,590 

9,856,757 

119,391,055 

1 

Cheese             .                                         ... 

2,682 

742 

5,009 

1,173,927 

5,154,695 

108,207,060 

9 

Chemicals  not  elsewhere  classified 

543 

14,076 

60,268 

38,221,310 

94,883,557 

839,750,366 

1 

Chewing  gum     ...                    . 

27 

354 

2,627 

1,036,287 

3,285,748 

60,783,246 

4 

Children's  and  infants'  coats  —  made  in  contract 

factories 

45 

34 

1,181 

66,515 

1,325,388 

1,946,728 

4 

Children's  and  infants'  coats—  made  in  inside  fac- 

4 

tories  or  by  jobbers  engaging  contractors 
Children's  and  infants'  dresses  (including  house 

108 

343 

2,130 

909,159 

3,007,718 

24,970,797 

coats  and  sportswear*  middies,  slacks,  beach  wear, 

etc  )  —  made  in  inside  factories  or  by  jobbers  en- 

gaging contractors 

182 

771 

10,646 

2,067,690 

8,063,761 

46,742,013 

4 

Children's  and  infants'  dresses  (including  house 

coats  and  sportswear  middies,  slacks,  beach  wear, 

etc  )—  made  in  contract  factories 

114 

106 

4,487 

157,529 

2,598,719 

3,841,533 

4 

Children's  and  infants'  wear  not  elsewhere  classified 

—  made  in  contract  factories    . 

22 

26 

995 

49,041 

677,566 

1,040,894 

4 

Children's  and  infants'  wear  not  elsewhere  classified 

—made  in  inside  factories  or  by  jobbers  engaging 

contractors         

103 

297 

4,365 

710,301 

3,502,811 

17941909 

20 

Children's  vehicles            ....              .... 

44 

448 

4,319 

1,109,759 

4,712,998 

19,117,410 

13 

China  firing  and  decorating  (for  the  trade) 
Chocolate  and  cocoa  products  

24 
39 

783 

421 
6,464 

125,557 
2,108,825 

425,644 
7,711,129 

2,334,161 
99,018,203 

6 
2 

Cigar  boxes,  wooden,  part  wooden  
Cigarettes 

59 
35 

170 
1,385 

3,101 
27,426 

517,408 
3,729,394 

2,017,076 
26,067,632 

6,330,768 
1,037,747,517 

2 

Cigars 

598 

2,398 

50,897 

5,075,463 

34,179,556 

160,754,424 

13 

Clay   products   (except   pottery),   not   elsewhere 

99 

160 

1,651 

335,828 

1,493,937 

4,450,202 

13 
9 

Clay  refractories,  including  refractory  cement  (clay) 
Cleaning  and  polishing  preparations,  blackings,  and 
dressings                   .           .... 

165 
637 

1,053 
1,981 

12,211 
5,128 

2,406,212 
5,390,114 

12,324,290 
5,676,266 

42,191,454 
89,766,752 

15 

Clocks,  watches,  and  materials  and  parts  (except 

watchcases)                   

74 

1,726 

17,878 

4,130,252 

20,467,333 

84,846,136 

4 

Clothing,  leather  and  sheep-lined  .. 
Cloth  sponging  and  miscellaneous  special  finishing  . 

97 
112 

$ 

4,672 
2,811 

971,712 
1,241,240 

4,578,002 
3,851,672 

22,142,238 
23,682,404 

MANUFACTURES 


433 


MANUFACTURES 


TABLE  2— SUMMARY  FOR  1939,  BY  INDUSTRIES 


< 

dumber 
tfutab- 

Salaried 

Wage 
'     earners 

Group 

Msh- 

per- 

(average 

Value  of 

No. 

Industry 

mints 

sonnel 

for  the  year) 

Salaries 

Wages 

products 

9 

Coal-tar  products,  crude  and  intermediate  

49 

447 

2,338 

$1.029.267 

$3,598,411 

$42,917,034 

4 

Coated  and  glazed  paper          .                
Coats,  suits,  and  skirts  (except  fur  coats)—  made  in 

140 

1,241 

7,449 

3,701,443 

84,386,593 

contract  factories 

846 

647 

21,405 

1,220,990 

22,856,164 

32,851,413 

4 
14 

Coats,  suits,  and  skirts  (except  fur  coats)—  made  in 
inside  factories  or  by  jobbers  engaging  contractors 
C  old-rolled  steel  sheets  and  strip  and  cold-finished 

1,120 

3,025 

24,048 

8,723,756 

33,560,567 

281,145,798 

steel  bars  made  in  plants  not  operated  in  connec- 
tion with  hot-rolling  mills      

43 

775 

5,644 

2,362,987 

8,177,807 

70,401,099 

15 

9 

Collapsible  tubes    
Colors  and  pigments 

14 
89 

202 
1,480 

1,933 
5,839 

645,015 
3,924,319 

1,903,311 
8,114,349 

9,471,816 
83,885,847 

17 

Commercial  laundry,  dry-cleaning,  and  pressing 

82 

677 

2,705 

1,742,731 

3,476,555 

21,838,863 

16 
9 

Communication  equipment 
Compressed  and  liquified  gases—  not  made  in  petro- 
leum refineries  or  in  natural  gasoline  plants 

227 
379 

9,300 
793 

32,119 
3,960 

25,325,092 
2,171,646 

44,444,379 
5,853,935 

191,326,489 
53,364,936 

13 

Concrete  products  .  . 

2,040 

2,759 

17,363 

6,601,037 

18,799,873 

130,393,396 

Condensed  and  evaporated  milk 

562 

1,608 

9,705 

3,129,038 

11,233,725 

209,755,891 

17 

Construction  and  similar  machinery  (except  mining 

7 

1 

and  oil-field  machinery  and  tools)   .  . 
Converted  paper  products  not  elsewhere  classified 
Cooking  and  other  edible  fats  and  oils,  not  elsewhere 

199 
384 

4,146 
3,330 

17,259 
21,775 

9,434,266 
8,713,637 

25,198,311 
22,184,555 

140,137,586 
161,305,558 

classified 

56 

1,000 

4,673 

2,337,688 

5,396,788 

186,252,453 

6 

Cooperage                      .     •                     . 
Cordage  and  twine         .     . 

350 
116 

678 
1,153 

7,193 
12.096 

1.644,766 
3,086,404 

6,560,047 
10,184,862 

38,261,442 
56,68S,817 

6 

Cork  products 

35 

392 

2,923 

1,003,577 

3,301,627 

17.723.S84 

Corn  sirup,  com  sugar,  corn  oil,  and  starch 

35 

1,170 

6.764 

3,214,357 

10,585,599 

119,408,253 

4 

Corsets  and  allied  garments 

272 

1,949 

18,765 

5,325,931 

15,734,491 

84,417,950 

20 

Costume  jewelry  and  costume  novelties  (jewelry 

other  than  fine  jewelry) 

289 

1,227 

10,808 

2,686,909 

8,754,638 

33,921,990 

3 

Cotton  broad  woven  goods 

661 

10,754 

312,249 

23,095,871 

225,175,272 

869,354,285 

3 

Cotton  narrow  fabrics 

163 

1,260 

13,318 

3,144,181 

11,776,206 

48,500,589 

9 

Cottonseed  oil,  cake,  meal,  and  hnters 

447 

2,530 

15,191 

4,897,471 

8,939,334 

171,476,253 

3 

Cotton  thread        .     . 

75 

1,190 

13,298 

2,328,494 

10,529,271 

51,376,151 

3 

Cotton  yarn 

349 

2,534 

70.452 

5,379,506 

45,055,469 

198,940,444 

1 

Creamery  butter   

3,506 

5,652 

17,953 

8,430,365 

18,378,961 

492,221,462 

1 

Cured  fish 

'114 

249 

1,893 

610,186 

1,669,604 

15,614,728 

4 

Curtains,    draperies,    and     bedspreads  —  contract 

factories 

75 

68 

1,109 

93,708 

797,803 

1,678,806 

4 

Curtains,  draperies,  and  bedspreads  —  made  in  reg- 

ular factories  or  by  jobbers  engaging  contractors 

370 

1,179 

15,798 

2,646,797 

9,471,636 

70,232,983 

1 

Custom  slaughtering,  wholesale 

40 

90 

641 

198,801 

688,864 

1,932,722 

14 

Cutlery  (except  aluminum,  silver,  and  plated  cut- 

20 

lery)  and  edge  tools 
Dental  equipment  and  supplies 

266 
131 

1,811 
827 

15,399 
4,245 

4,966,557 
2,440,963 

16,797,297 
4,825,367 

59,924,396 
31,546.707 

7 

Die-cut  paper  and  paperboard,  and  converted  card- 

20 

board                      .     . 
Dolls  (except  rubber)    

121 
84 

716 
289 

4,354 
3,052 

2,146,109 
676,961 

5,453,990 
2,836,614 

33,263,907 
12,132,373 

14 

Doors,  window  sash,  frames,  molding,  and  trim 

(made  of  metal)  

205 

1,462 

7,740 

3,821,877 

10,531,328 

48,219,102 

4 

9 

3 

Dress  and  semidress  gloves  and  mittens*  cloth,  cloth 
and  leather  combined 
Drugs  and  medicines  (including  drug  grinding) 
Dyeing  and  finishing  cotton,  rayon,  silk,  and  linen 
textiles 

49 
1,094 

468 

207 
7,012 

6,864 

3,396 
22,386 

60,237 

373,940 
20,148,737 

17,740,876 

2,297,627 
23,897,990 

61,744,518 

7,703,088 
364,985,404 

271,167.139 

3 

Dyeing  and  finishing  woolen  and  worsted 

63 

575 

3,821 

1,655,921 

3,944,885 

37,437,032 

16 
16 
16 
16 
15 

Electric  lamps                     
Electrical  appliances  . 
Electrical  measuring  instruments 
Electrical  products  not  elsewhere  classified 
Electroplating,  plating,  and  polishing    .     . 

55 

138 
59 
175 
643 

1,413 
2,950 
1.805 
1,493 
997 

9,622 
19,890 
6976 
6,014 
8,206 

3,490,230 
7,034,840 
4,322,125 
3,790,409 
2,517,782 

10,689,019 
25,408,770 
9,881,124 
7,409,584 
9,382,801 

84,827,985 
145,696,194 
41,797,495 
39,048,906 
28,168,051 

8 

Electrotyping  and  stereotyping,  not  done  in  printing 

234 

1,155 

4,409 

3,817,973 

8,919,769 

29,045,159 

17 

Elevators,  escalators,  and  conveyors  
Embroideries,  other  than  Schifiu-machine  products 
—contract  factories 

183 
357 

2,390 
222 

8,915 
4,189 

5,548,273 
451,408 

131357,937 
3,323,654 

64,128,051 
8,220,437 

4 

Embroideries,  other  than  Schiffli-machine  prod- 

ucts—made in  regular  factories  or  by  jobbers  engag- 
ing contractors         ....          

54 

66 

608 

139,412 

504,561 

1,686,181 

14 

14 
15 

Embroideries:  Schiffli-machine  products  . 
EouneJed-Iron  sanitary  ware  and  other  plumbers' 
supplies  (not  including  pipe  and  vitreous  and  semi- 
vitreous  china  sanitary  ware) 
Enameling,  japanning,  and  lacquering    .   . 
Engraving  on  metal  (except  for  printing  purposes) 

398 

259 
80 
94 

284 

2,651 
210 
203 

3,750 

24,605 
1,821 
1,419 

832,262 

6,827,206 
589,177 
574,059 

3,247,549 

30,768,552 
2,062,275 
1,866,457 

14,121,853 

125,578,189 
6,935,646 
5,863,670 

8 

Engraving  (steel,  copperplate,  and  wood);  plate 

436 

1,085 

5  353 

2,562,203 

7,156,404 

22,163,638 

7 

Envelopes  

169 

1083 

8689 

3398231 

9596844 

50118,134 

9 

Essential  oils  

14 

54 

255 

262,681 

357346 

9,813,799 

9 

Explosives  

80 

801 

7242 

2,324,138 

10,964,498 

71,053,206 

6 

Excelsior     ,             

53 

84 

'925 

172129 

700,246 

2,987,285 

MANUFACTURES 


434 


MANUFACTURES 


TABLE  2— SUMMARY  FOR  1939,  BY  INDUSTRIES  (Continued) 


Grout 

1 

4 

» 

^estab- 
lish- 

Salaried 
per- 

Wage 
tamers 
(average 

Value  of 

No. 

Industry 

ments 

sonnel  j 

or  the  year) 

Salaries 

Waits 

products 

20 

Fabricated  plastic  products,  not  elsewhere  classified 

216 

2,081 

15,094 

$4,936,817 

$17,688,104 

$71,904,067 

14 

Fabricated  structural  steel  and  ornamental  metal 

20 

work,  made  in  plants  not  operated  in  connection 
with  rolling  mills                                     ...   . 
Feathers,  plumes,  and  artificial  flowers 

1,138 
314 

6,601 
530 

35,477 
6,650 

16,504,392 
1,156,757 

47,549,506 
4,582,411 

284,669,659 
18,503,971 

3 

Felt  goods,  wool,  hair,  and  jute  (except  woven  felts 
and  hat  bodies  and  hats)              .  .   . 

37 

354 

3,346 

850,737 

3,856,988 

23,573,823 

9 

Fertilizers       .                   

764 

2,666 

18,744 

5,251,099 

13,678,397 

185,684.328 

14 

Fiber  cans,  tubes,  and  similar  products  . 
Files                    ...            ... 

116 
22 

764 
370 

6,637 
3,205 

1,819,906 
832,615 

6,962,529 
3,838,520 

33,345,334 
11,293,946 

4 

Finishing  of  men's  and  boys'  hats  of  fur  felt,  wool 
felt,  and  straw          

151 

698 

6,909 

1,625,612 

6,207,422 

33,240,221 

14 

Firearms  .... 

23 

781 

5,001 

1,503.622 

6,846.317 

17,711,651 

20 

Fire  extinguishers,  chemical 

28 

311 

995 

702,274 

1,273,055 

9,228,416 

9 

Fireworks 

59 

190 

1,158 

454,757 

987,446 

4,628,181 

9 
13 

Fish  and  other  marine  oils,  cake,  and  meal    . 
Flat  glass 

76 
37 

230 
1,519 

1,523 
16,738 

749,804 
3,711,843 

1,307,934 
24,008,619 

11,622,312 
102,389,012 

1 

Flavoring  extracts  and  flavoring  sirups,  not  else- 
where classified  ... 

477 

1,344 

3,589 

4,480,541 

3,764,360 

139,901,840 

1 
17 
13 

12 

Food  preparations,  not  elsewhere  classified 
Food-products  machinery 
Floor  and  wall  tile  (except  quarry  tile) 
Flour  and  other  grain-mill  products 
Footwear  (except  rubber)                     .     .   . 

1,007 
379 
49 
2,143 
1,070 

2,314 
3,500 
492 
5,548 
14,082 

13,120 
13,979 
5,681 
24,771 
218,028 

6,102,670 
8,873,586 
1,022,424 
12,517.968 
29,416,005 

11,179,273 
18,936,642 
5,931,149 
28,369,7% 
183,657,529 

172,459,397 
90,840,544 
17,658,885 
649,943.088 
734,673,111 

14 
10 

Forging*,  iron  and  steel  —  made  in  plants  not  oper- 
ated in  connection  with  rolling  mills 
Fuel  briquets                                              .   .. 

207 
32 

2,018 
73 

15,372 
410 

6,223,167 
140.449 

22,652,054 
484,719 

104,883,196 
5,287,282 

4 

Fur  coats  and  other  fur  garments,  accessories,  and 
trimmings                                            .     . 

2,175 

2,812 

13,094 

7,644,694 

23,403,321 

168,031,656 

20 

Furs,  dressed  and  dyed 

145 

550 

5,115 

2,153,029 

9,065,676 

22,395,325 

14 

Galvanizing  and  other  coating  —  carried  on  in  plants 
not  operated  in  connection  with  rolling  nulls  .   .  . 

83 

197 

1,212 

752,859 

1,342,647 

6,195,640 

20 

8 

Games  and  toys  (except  dolls  and  children's  vehicles) 
General  commercial  (job)  printing 

341 
9,595 

1,736 
20,298 

15,610 
96,019 

4,086,597 
48,795,502 

12,656,729 
132,957,236 

55,400,894 
515,435,609 

16 

13 

Generating,  distribution,  and  industrial  apparatus, 
and  apparatus  for  incorporation  in  manufactured 
products,  not  elsewhere  classified                 .  .     . 
Glass  containers                  ..                       .... 

491 
77 

21,354 
2,917 

70,401 
25,753 

50,074.952 
7,064,560 

104,083,541 
34,181,498 

470,462,442 
158,271,647 

9 

80 

595 

3,039 

1,807,407 

3,941.588 

34,331,639 

15 

Gold  and  silver  leaf  and  foil       .              

26 

64 

563 

201,590 

469,577 

2.108,990 

8 

14 
9 
8 

Gravure,  rotogravure,  and  rotary  photogravure  (in- 
cluding preparation  of  plates) 
Gray-iron  and  scmisteel  castings 
Grease  and  tallow  (except  lubricating  greases)  . 
Greeting  cards  (except  hand-painted) 

24 
1,161 
310 
109 

403 
5,839 
842 
1,542 

2,623 
58,430 
5,201 
7,522 

1,442,202 
15,343,487 
2,176,287 
3,348,337 

5,436,278 
70,757,944 
6,508,509 
7,264,165 

18,614,837 
209,719,754 
58,226,218 
39,715,439 

9 

Gum  naval  stores  (processing  but  not  gathering  or 
warehousing)    ... 

755 

879 

971 

491,346 

333,833 

17,361,933 

13 

Gypsum  products  

68 

692 

4,936 

1,466,119 

6,665,759 

46,241,980 

20 

Hair  work          .               ..                          . 

42 

47 

322 

128,527 

260,723 

1,401,105 

Handkerchiefs  —  made  in  contract  factories 

20 

27 

1,105 

72,960 

693,182 

1,182,047 

4 

Handkerchiefs—  made  in  inside  factories  or  by  job- 
bers engaging  contractors  .                         ... 

60 

245 

3,734 

718,258 

2,627,303 

20,419,116 

20 
14 

Hand  stamps,  stencils,  and  brands 
Hardware  not  elsewhere  classified 

289 
434 

548 
4,965 

2,211 
35,645 

1,340,830 
11,945,424 

2,615,029 
40,220,860 

10,811,835 
154,475,928 

9 

Hardwood  distillation  and  charcoal  manufacture  . 

43 

245 

1,770 

452,858 

1,530,675 

6,841,172 

4 

Hat  and  cap  materials,  trimmings,  etc       

55 

99 

796 

246,749 

743,134 

4,687,304 

Hat  bodies  and  hats,  fur  felt  

43 

830 

9,928 

2,184,024 

11,837,057 

39,500,929 

3 

Hat  bodies  and  hats,  wool  felt  

12 

280 

4,421 

569,358 

4,210,354 

16,009,816 

3 

11 

32 

488 

81,718 

438,470 

1,549,107 

Hatters'  fur                    ... 

37 

163 

1,893 

509,524 

1,579,033 

10,956,246 

14 

Heating  and  cooking  apparatus,  except  electric,  not 

138 

612 

2,919 

1,450,883 

3,507,970 

20,329,879 

3 

Hosiery  —  full-fashioned  

499 

4,479 

97,200 

11,634,319 

100,774,988 

277,170.371 

3 

433 

2,971 

61,852 

6,214,807 

41,862,208 

138,665,487 

13 

Hotel  china                ... 

17 

316 

4,350 

781.133 

4,639,398 

9,359,660 

House  dresses,  uniforms,  and  Aprons  —  made  in  con- 
tract factories 

255 

274 

10,961 

419,515 

6,368,350 

9,251,940 

4 

House  dresses,  uniforms,  and  aprons—  made  in  inside 
factories  or  by  jobbers  engaging  contractors  .   .   . 

487 

1,977 

27,833 

4,332,325 

17,637,610 

104,446,282 

4 

Housefurnishings  (except  curtains,  draperies,  and 

472 

1,192 

10,623 

2,840,286 

8,059,340 

67,521,325 

6 

1,592 

8,915 

95,010 

20,519.927 

83,998,671 

328,629,913 

1 

2,734 

4739 

15,708 

10,662,066 

17,344,036 

285,806,781 

12 

Ice,  manufactured                .... 
Industrial  leather  belting  and  packing  leather  

3,975 
190 

5149 
489 

16,009 
2,337 

10,816,261 
1,342,410 

17,691,894 
2,860,652 

130,166,112 
24,410,104 

17 

Industrial  machinery,  not  elsewhere  classified    .... 

579 

5,863 

21,936 

15,078,243 

31,178,421 

140,628,049 

9 

Insecticides,  fungicides,  and  related  industrial  and 
household  chemical  compound*  

774 

2,103 

5,017 

6,088,709 

5,393,213 

93,443,777 

MANUFACTURES 


435 


MANUFACTURES 


TABLE  2-SUMMARY  FOR  19)9,  BY  INDUSTRIES 


ofestab- 

Salaried 

Wage 
earners 

Grout 

t 

Usk- 

per- 

(average 

Value  of 

No. 

Industry 

mentt 

tonntl 

for  the  year) 

Salariu 

Waga 

product! 

16 

Insulated  wire  and  cable    ...               

79 

2,598 

15,696 

$6,428,107 

$18,637,729 

$120,390,050 

17 
20 

Internal-combustion  engines  .  .         

74 
132 

3,689 
578 

14,752 
5,127 

8,863,156 
1,545,944 

21503252 
4>1,283 

110,357.964 
16,670,434 

15 
15 

3 

82 
886 
22 
229 

400 
3,195 
370 
1,189 

2,813 
11,358 
3,586 
10,917 

1,410,107 
5,823,681 
907,971 
3,313247 

2,974,875 
14243142 
3118291 
10,165,641 

22,488,960 
71,418,667 
16,897,414 
68662,722 

Jute  good's  (except  felt)     

knitted  cloth  

3 

Knitted  gloves                          

20 

184 

5,574 

423.497 

3,839,330 

12,385,831 

3 

Knitted  outerwear  (except  knit  gloves)—  contract 
factories 

233 

165 

4,109 

297.945 

3,197,994 

6,549,610 

3 
3 

Knitted  outerwear   (except  knit  gloves)—  regular 
factories  or  jobbers  engaging  contractors.  .  . 
Knitted  underwear     .                                 .     . 

476 
199 

1,910 
2,505 

18,440 
38,536 

4,669,279 
6,099,817 

15,518,406 
27,404,769 

97,641,147 
113.353,402 

6 
3 

Laboratory,  hospital,  and  other  professional  furni- 
ture        ...               ..              .          

82 
63 

497 
799 

2,982 
7,254 

1,324,627 
1,943,266 

3,350,765 
8,106,909 

14,655,180 
24,137,550 

20 

Lamp  shades      .  .                               

128 

250 

2,671 

530,034 

1,715,155 

8,375,706 

15 

Lapidary  work    ...            .     .       .         

90 

38 

267 

76,278 

390,556 

5,128,926 

6 
17 
12 

48 
42 
233 

233 
1,184 
765 

1,519 
7,466 
9,995 

608,690 
2,575,500 
1,475|659 

1,995,127 
9,277,024 
7,408,682 

6,672,100 
61,601,221 
26,830,856 

Laundry  equipment  domestic                 •   ........ 

12 

160 

231 

2,462 

617,849 

2,087,363 

8,911,482 

12 

Leather    tanned,  curried,  and  finished—  contract 

factories 

111 

467 

5,457 

1,346,032 

6,212,934 

16,709,502 

12 

15 
13 

Leather  tanned,  curried,  and  finished  —  regular  fac- 
m  tones  or  jobbers  engaging  contractors      .   . 
Lighting  fixtures    . 

335 
568 
269 

3,247 
3,066 
938 

41,795 
20,477 
9,458 

9,867,469 
8,313,801 
2,046,625 

50,570,248 
23,238,474 
9,068,627 

329,728,052 
124,581,725 
36,971,171 

3 

Linen  goods 

9 

125 

1,735 

308,314 

1,496,185 

6,297,642 

3 

Linoleum,  asphalted-felt-base  and  other  hard-sur- 

9 

face  floor  coverings,  not  elsewhere  classified  .  . 
Linseed  oil  cake  and  meal         .              

17 
25 

666 
244 

7,028 
2,120 

1,660,575 
529,613 

10,405,841 
3.193,158 

69,874,978 
68,011,767 

1 
1 

Liquors,  distilled                                         .  .     . 
Liquors,  rectified  or  blended 

135 
148 

1,031 
992 

4,091 
2,819 

2,307,246 
2,172.276 

4,884,598 
3,215,970 

56,080,195 
49,143,605 

8 
19 

Lithographing  and  photo-lithographing  (including 
preparation  of  stones  or  plates  and  dry  transfers) 
Locomotives  (including  frames)  and  parts,  railroad, 
mining,  and  industrial 

749 
15 

5,148 
1,489 

26,000 
6,470 

15,328.775 
3,394,602 

37,929,201 
9,656,650 

154,394,787 
47,425,590 

5 

Logging  camps  and  logging  contractors  (not  operat- 
ing sawmills) 

967 

927 

22,785 

2,109,609 

22,703,068 

69,620,906 

9 

Lubricating  oils  and  greases  —  not  made  in  petroleum 
refineries    .  . 

232 

950 

2,128 

2,691,225 

2,713,225 

49,056,857 

1 

Macaroni,  spaghetti,  vermicelli,  and  noodles        .   . 

328 

805 

6,013 

1,996,566 

5,383,421 

46,153,471 

8 

17 
17 

Machine  and  hand  typesetting  (including  advertise- 
ment typesetting) 
Machme-bhop  products,  not  elsewhere  classified  .    .  . 
Machine-shop  repairs 

641 
2,125 
1,459 

1,371 
12,667 
1,470 

6,244 
60,717 
9,176 

3,639,855 
31,655,905 
2,888,503 

10,424,914 
81,639,539 
12,273,448 

25,096,497 
360,334,229 
38,166,267 

17 

Machine-tool  and  other  metalworking  machinery 

accessories,  metal-cut  tinst  and  shaping  tools,  and 
machinists  precision  tools  

954 

4,257 

25,161 

12,989,143 

41,346,606 

125,630,124 

17 

200 

8,220 

36,624 

21,645,706 

62,333,150 

218,044,728 

14 

Malleable-iron  castings            .   . 
Malt             .                                  .   . 

83 
52 

1,828 
281 

18,041 
1,459 

4,190.316 
1,265,603 

21,555,489 
2,593,142 

53,450,770 
58,478,581 

6 

Malt  liquors  

605 
28 

5,823 
418 

36,089 
5,426 

20,098.523 
886,632 

62,211,236 
5,597,503 

526,076,938 
25,577,201 

Matches         .       ... 

6 
17 

Mattresses  and  bedspnngs          
Measuring  and  dispensing  pumps 

947 
38 

2,645 
1,116 

18,342 
5,054 

6,205.591 
2,539.987 

19,493,113 
6,750,717 

113,114,633 
44,286,332 

17 
17 

Measuring  instruments,  mechanical  (except  elec- 
trical measuring  instruments,  watches,  and  clocks) 
Meat  packing,  wholesale                           .... 
Mechanical  power-transmission  equipment 

68 
1,478 
218 

1,324 
17,074 
4,732 

6,692 
119,853 
30,268 

3,109,168 
40,111,363 
12,465,834 

8,873,656 
161,523,772 
43,751,830 

39,684,434 
2,648,325,552 
170,291,472 

4 

Men's  and  boys1  hats  and  caps  (except  felt  and 
straw)       .... 

270 

328 

3,382 

654,507 

2,876,566 

11,605,495 

4 

4 

Men's  and  boys'  shirts  (except  work  shirts),  collars, 
and  nightwear—  made  in  contract  factories 
Men's  and  boys'  shirts  (except  work  shirts),  collars, 
and  night  wear—  made  in  inside  factories  or  by 
jobbers  engaging  contractors  

141 
449 

346 
2,633 

13.371 
57,082 

626,068 
5,419,783 

7,619,301 
37,322,688 

11,191,950 
181,174,168 

4 
4 

Men's  and  boys'  suits,  coats,  and  overcoats  (except 
work  clothing)—  made  in  contract  factories 
Men's  and  boys'  suits,  coats,  and  overcoats  (except 
work  clothing)  —  made  in  inside  factories  or  by 

1,078 

1,355 

48,487 

2,694,991 

43,684,136 

61,660,487 

4 

jobbers  engaging  contractors 
Men's  and  boys'  underwear—  made  in  contract  fac- 
tories 

1,371 
10 

6,496 
27 

89,031 
1,211 

17,639,442 
40,354 

96,044,275 
696,558 

536,612,780 
1,094,784 

4 

Men's  and  boys'  underwear—  made  in  inside  fac- 

tories or  by  jobbers  engaging  contractors. 

44 

234 

5,333 

422,135 

3,031,901 

15,598,176 

MANUFACTURES 


436 


MANUFACTURES 


TABLE  2-SUMMARY  FOR  1939,  BY  INDUSTRIES  (Continued) 


Number 
of  utab- 

Salaried 
ter- 

Wage 
earners 
(average 

Value  of 

No. 

Industry                                   • 

ments      sonnel  /or  the  year) 

Salaries 

Wages 

products 

4 

Men's  neckwear  —  made  in  contract  factories 

34 

23 

917 

$54,275 

$549,831 

$987,713 

4 

Men's  neckwear  —  made  in  inside  factories  or  by 
jobbers  engaging  contractors 

347 

759 

8,686 

1,894,426 

6,796,109 

45,404,814 

17 
13 

Metalworking  machinery  and  equipment,  not  else- 
where classified.  .     .              .... 
Millinery               .     .                . 
Minerals  and  earths,  ground  or  otherwise  treated 

178 
1,050 
237 

4,036 
2,757 
851 

15,899 
24,298 
5,858 

10,071,719 
6,967,965 
2,082,160 

25,089,052 
26,059,759 
5,749,781 

98,975,454 
105,600,643 
38,903,146 

13 

Mineral  wool    .        .                         .... 

58 

264 

1,885 

582,230 

1,820,727 

8,237,553 

17 
6 

Mining  machinery  and  equipment     . 

65 
182 

1,207 
423 

4,940 
3,220 

2,927,295 
1,052,066 

6,276,899 
3,064,776 

33,558,909 
13,249,507 

Mirror  frames  and  Diet  u  re  frames..  .          ..     . 

13 
20 

Mirrors  and  other  glass  products  made  of  purchased 
glass            .                         ... 
Miscellaneous  fabricated  products  not  elsewhere 
classified 

557 
582 

1,402 
1,772 

10,012 
13,608 

3,314,625 
4,132,753 

10,615,452 
11,251,780 

49,886,406 
51,849,418 

4 

Miscellaneous  fabricated  textile  products  not  else- 
where classified 

300 

839 

5,852 

2,119,238 

4,789,063 

31,640,283 

20 
13 

19 
18 

Models  and  patterns  (except  paper  patterns) 
Monuments,  tombstones,  cut-stone,  and  stone  prod- 
ucts not  elsewhere  classified 
Motorcycles,  bicycles,  and  parts 
Motor  vehicles,  motor-vehicle  bodies,  parts,  and  ac- 
cessories. 

683 

1,244 
36 

1,054 

810 

2,739 
805 

46,034 

5,566 

18,516 
6,973 

397,537 

2,351,736 

5,635,563 
1,993,462 

114,840,544 

9,036,886 

21,999,696 
8,973,875 

644,904,621 

22,329,056 

75,811,785 
43,052,278 

4,039,930,733 

9 

Mucilage,  paste,  and  other  adhesives  except  glue  and 
rubber  cement 

64 

162 

285 

398,298 

289,857 

4,168,855 

20 

Musical  instruments,  parts,  and  materials  not  else- 
where classified 

101 

518 

3,191 

1,139,102 

3,917,243 

11,552,380 

14 
13 

Nails,  spikes,  etc  ,  not  made  in  wire  mills  or  in  plants 
operated  in  connection  with  rolling  mills 
Natural  graphite,  ground  and  refined 

36 
6 

328 
18 

2.5,5 

823,173 
70,173 

2,730,275 
65,530 

12,907,854 
1,251,206 

20 

Needles,  pins,  hooks  and  eyes,  and  slide  and  snap 
fasteners                                     

58 

1,718 

10,403 

3,796,022 

11,804,341 

38,155,126 

8 
8 

13 
15 

Newspapers  publishing  and  printing.  .  . 
Newspapers  publishing  without  printing 
Nonalcoholic  coverages              

600 

66.550 
1,849 
7,571 
415 
1,411 

96,991 
260 
21,317 
4,792 
9,699 

147,529,764 
2,362,178 
19,314,670 
1,039,422 
3,778,132 

164,355,744 
363,455 
20,344,719 
5,316,179 
12,210,365 

898,225,000 
11,963,611 
365,778,930 
26,906,439 
55,636,898 

Nonclay  refractories 
Nonferrous  metal  foundries  (except  aluminum) 

15 
17 
6 

Nonferrous  metal  products  not  elsewhere  classified 
Office  and  store  machines,  not  elsewhere  classified 
Office  furniture 

438 
123 
152 

3,858 
6,008 
1,622 

24,834 
36,204 
11,776 

10,547,907 
13,774,135 
3,644,594 

34,751,402 
49,981,728 
13,674,150 

141,765,939 
150,170,237 
54,750,091 

14 
17 

Oil  burners,  domestic  and  industrial           .   . 
Oil-field  machinery  and  tools 

130 
223 

714 
2,538 

1,498 
12,519 

1,654,287 
6,644,051 

1,893,283 
18,740,996 

18,468,017 
88,977,327 

1 

Oleomargarine  —  not  made  in  meat-packing  estab- 
lishments 

18 

260 

984 

766,318 

1,294,512 

34,101,757 

20 
20 

Ophthalmic  goods  lenses  and  fittings              .  . 
Optical  instruments  and  lenses                        .   .   . 

91 
30 

2,106 
240 

10,252 
1,372 

4,692,686 
633,398 

12,246,003 
1,847,767 

44,954,653 
4,745,579 

20 

Organs 

34 

139 

989 

301,467 

1,054,067 

3,420,893 

10 

Oven  coke  and  coke-oven  byproducts 

83 

2,092 

21,008 

5,771,766 

31,779,615 

342,197,303 

9 
7 

Paints,  varnishes,  and  lacquers 
Paper  and  paper  board  mills 
Paper  bags,  except  those  made  in  paper  mills 

1,166 
638 
119 

7,265 
12,318 
1,036 

22,334 
110,575 
11,081 

21,006,952 
32,980,602 
3,006,039 

31,701,798 
142,600,328 
10,628,601 

434,960,890 
933,015,664 
85,776,374 

7 

Paperboard  containers  and  boxes  not  elsewhere 
classified 

1,338 

7,610 

62,530 

21,564,680 

63,806,013 

382,709,595 

17 

Paper-mill,  pulp-mill,  and  paper-products  machinery 

99 

1,398 

5,409 

4,043,242 

7,775,242 

32,419,924 

6 

Partitions,  shelving,  cabinet  work,  and  office  and 
store  fixtures 

716 

2,324 

13,826 

5,774,712 

17,735,228 

70,718,293 

10 

20 
20 

Paving  blocks  and  paving  mixtures  asphalt,  creo- 
soted  wood,  and  composition         .   . 
Pencils  (except  mechanical)  and  crayons 
Pens,  mechanical  pencils,  and  pen  points 

231 
40 
70 

498 
550 
598 

2,437 
3779 
4,463 

1,283,673 
1,448,956 
1,572,366 

2,681,421 
3,434,391 
4,328,516 

32,754,308 
15,859,756 
24,880,890 

9 
8 
8 
10 

Perfumes,  cosmetics,  and  other  toilet  preparations 
Periodicals  publishing  and  printing 
Periodicals:  publishing  without  printing 
Petroleum  refining        ; 

539 
600 
1,958 
485 

2,240 
8,094 
16,994 
14,746 

10,363 
20,985 
436 
72,840 

6.947,461 
18,047,843 
38,765,489 
38,194,786 

9,643,540 
33,002,502 
564797 
128,214,054 

147,465,585 
202,015,136 
266,831,618 
2,461,126,549 

8 

Photoengraving,  not  done  in  printing  establishments 
(including  preparation  of  plates)  .. 

694 

2,603 

9,207 

8,009,450 

22,568,156 

55,619,445 

20 

20 
20 

Photographic  apparatus  and  materials  and  projec- 
tion equipment  (except  lenses) 
Piano  and  organ  parts  and  materials  
Pianos 

160 
23 
35 

512 

17,271 
1315 
5,311 

11,098,065 
456,875 
1,111,252 

25,286,669 
1,430,642 
6,123,348 

133,899,429 
4,771,563 
20,493,110 

Pickled  fruits  and  vegetables  and  vegetable  sauces 
and  seasonings 

377 

1,119 

9,908 

2,579,644 

7,393,306 

72,637,388 

5 

Planing  mills  not  operated  in  conjunction  with  saw- 
mills                ... 

3,076 

8,041 

62,838 

17,579,828 

62,815,065 

320,613,516 

9 

13 
13 

38 
86 
42 
151 
765 

2,061 

£ 

611 
1,413 

6,966 
9,805 
6,018 
6,054 
14,500 

4,757,869 
1,650,801 
1,817,789 
1,575,793 
2400,792 

9,839,935 
9,^42,874 
6,530,168 
6398,313 
8,645,247 

77,653,314 
38,878,932 
20,817,045 
16,593,344 
138,318,081 

Porcelain  electrical  supplies.     . 
Pottery  products  not  elsewhere  classified       

Poultry  dressing  and  packing,  wholesale 

MANUFACTURES 


437 


MANUFACTURES 


TABLE  2— SUMMARY  FOR  1939,  BY  INDUSTRIES  (Continued) 


i 

Number 
of  u  tab- 

Solaria 

,      Wage 
I     earners 

Groui 

> 

per- 

(average 

Value  of 

No. 

Industry 

ments 

sonnel 

for  the  year) 

Salaries 

Wages 

products 

14 

Power  boilers  and  associated  products 
Prepared  feeds  (including  mineral)  for  animals  and 

448 

4,707 

18,889 

$11,206,036 

$25,298,161 

$140,959,533 

1 
IS 
9 

fowls 
Preserves,  jams,  jellies,  and  fruit  butters 
Primary  smelting  and  refining  of  nonferrous  metals 
Printing  ink  

1,383 
171 
63 
206 

3,541 
549 
3,717 
1,085 

15,401 
3,717 
27,630 
2J572 

8,312,760 
1,327,093 
9,056,365 
3  493  147 

16,252,988 
3,125,617 
38,411,086 

401,880,238 
38,025,559 
956,572.486 

4O  111   C7C 

17 
3 

Printing-trades  machinery  and  equipment  .    . 
Processed  waste  and  recovered  wool  fibers—  con- 

231 

2,263 

9,376 

5,995,149 

14,646,956 

*y,i  ji,j/5 
55,581,691 

3 

tract  factories 
Processed  waste  and  recovered  wool  fibers  —  regular 

27 

71 

619 

173,706 

563,961 

1,449.449 

20 

factories  or  jobbers  engaging  contractors 
Professional  and  scientific  instruments  (except  sur- 

126 

561 

4,225 

1,632,276 

3,370,149 

31,524,545 

6 

gical  and  dental)                                  .     . 
Public-building  furniture             

218 
106 

2,977 
918 

9,429 
5,900 

7,379,126 
1,929,171 

13,708,826 

61,017,302 

f)f.  fJO  ffQ 

7 

Pulp  goods  (pressed,  molded)   

14 

93 

701 

190,025 

818,699 

£O,O/B,DJ7 

3,826,393 

7 

194 

2,379 

26,870 

5,879311 

33,087  514 

17 

Pumping  equipment  and  air  compressors  

337 

4,867 

19180 

11  153  546 

26)208*0  19 

1  14*04^777 

1 

Quick-frozen  foods 

36 

141 

2,641 

280,792 

I  JTT,WJ,  III 

10,107  442 

16 

Radios,  radio  tubes,  and  phonographs 

224 

7,752 

43,508 

17,849,784 

4/,025;658 

275,870,165 

4 

Raincoats  and  other  waterproof  garments  (except 

6 

oiled  cotton) 
Rattan  and  willowware  (except  furniture)  and  bas- 

76 

223 

2,323 

560,519 

1,873,838 

11,304,341 

kets  other  than  vegetable  and  fruit  baskets 

47 

157 

1,377 

455,320 

925,968 

3,917,695 

9 

3 
3 

Rayon  and  allied  products 
Rayon  broad  woven  goods  —  contract  factories 
Rayon  broad  woven  goods  —  regular  factories  or 

30 
79 

5,266 
246 

48,332 
4,313 

12,291.353 
449,173 

60,029,523 
3,119,831 

247,065,556 
5,306,825 

jobl>ers  engaging  contractors 

196 

2,633 

65,432 

6,023,577 

53,435,008 

272,713,927 

3 
1 

Rayon  narrow  fabrics.    .  . 
Rayon  throwing  and  spinning  —  contract  factories 

120 
32 

621 
116 

5,999 
2,423 

1,326,1  •>! 
232,921 

4,754,591 
1,480,436 

20,516,419 
3,066,274 

3 

Rayon  yarn  and  thread,  spun  or  thrown  —  regular 

factories  or  jobbers  engaging  contractors 

52 

400 

5,910 

826,916 

3,996,548 

26,470,882 

11 

Reclaimed  rubber 

10 

112 

1,072 

386,207 

1,477,036 

6,894,018 

17 

Refrigerators,  domestic  (mechanical  and  absorp- 

tion), refrigeration  machinery  and  equipment  and 
complete  air-conditioning  units 

309 

5,011 

35,160 

11,791,494 

48,391,944 

278,645,540 

1 

Rice  cleaning  and  polishing 

72 

592 

2,146 

1,152,351 

1,533,096 

42,363,349 

4 

Robes,  lounging  garments,  and  dressing  gowns 

264 

724 

7J377 

1,598.959 

5,700,600 

39,830,309 

10 

Roofing,  built-up  and  roll,  asphalt  shingles,  roof 

coating  (except  paint) 

129 

1,069 

8,048 

2.642.517 

9,849,900 

107,826,873 

13 

Roofing  tile 

16 

82 

628 

147.968 

615,607 

1.824,881 

11 

Rubber  boots  and  shoes  (including  rubber-soled  foot- 

11 
12 

wear  with  fabric  uppers) 
Rubber  products  not  elsewhere  classified  .     .  . 
Saddlery,  harness,  and  whips 

13 
519 
156 

2,101 
7,407 
366 

14,861 
50,692 
2755 

3,479,190 
17,320,674 
706,058 

16,801,537 

53,357,735 
2,388,239 

49,980,591 
264,525,200 
12,118,430 

14 

Safes  and  vaults 

16 

229 

1,236 

495,615 

1,589,088 

6,084,319 

1 

Salad  dressings                  

134 

402 

2,556 

870,102 

2,433,965 

48,941,846 

9 

Salt 

40 

407 

3,737 

1,065,635 

4,235,484 

27,510,172 

13 

Sand-lime  brick,  block  and  tile 

27 

42 

346 

85.624 

414,466 

1,915,878 

1 

Sausage  casings  —  not  made  in  meat-packing  estab- 

lishments 

37 

98 

987 

294,159 

882,335 

6,014,658 

1 

Sausages,  prepared  meats,  and  other  meat  products 
—  not  made  in  meat-packing  establishments 

1,067 

1,812 

11,443 

5,004,781 

13,473,199 

208,048,345 

5 

Sawmills,  veneer  milK  and  copperageHrtock  mills,  in- 
cluding those  combined  with  logging  camps  and 

with  planing  mills 

7,391 

14,983 

265,185 

30,568,482 

214,920,436 

692,944,624 

14 

Saws 

87 

606 

4,072 

1,546,391 

«),  197,649 

18,470,682 

17 

Scales  and  balances 

56 

605 

2,839 

1,«)17,774 

3,306,476 

14,350,068 

14 

Screw-machine  products  and  wood  screws 

345 

2,277 

16,924 

6,579,689 

22,106,007 

82,806,869 

15 

Secondary  smelting  and  refining,  gold,  silver,  and 

platinum 

66 

238 

1,115 

848,022 

1,686,944 

101,783,864 

IS 

13 
17 
IS 
19 

Secondary   smelting   and   refining   of  nonferrous 
metals,  not  elsewhere  classified 
Sewer  pipe  and  kindred  products 
Sewing  machines,  domestic  and  industrial 
Sheet-metal  work  not  specifically  classified 
Shipbuilding  and  ship  repairing 

108 
65 
39 

756 
412 
1,166 
3,398 
7,658 

3,608 
6,406 
7,840 
18,749 
66,611 

2,437,029 
1,012,401 
2,769,627 
8,957,056 
20,199,650 

4,366,477 
6,817,738 
11,156,855 
23,078,689 
104,473,303 

82,038,323 
18,295,679 
29,706,544 
137,341,211 
327,387,099 

20 

Signs,  advertising  displays,  and  advertising  novelties 
Silk  broad  woven  goods—  contract  factories 
Silk  broad  woven  goods—  regular  factories  or  jobbers 
engaging  contractors  

82 

3,271 
70 

708 

17,206 
1,096 

8,754 

8,167,527 
103,907 

1,496,565 

20,557,406 
724,812 

7,605,930 

87,625,220 
1,101,949 

35,732,213 

3 

Silk  narrow  fabrics 

100 

373 

4,309 

943,033 

3,852,093 

13,111,079 

3 

78 

536 

1  028  945 

15  853  452 

3 

Silk  yarn  and  thread  spun  or  thrown—  regular  fac- 

H 

tories  or  jobbers  engaging  contractors     .  . 
Silverware  and  plated  ware 
Small  leather  goods  .                 

53 
150 
118 

534 
1,519 
370 

9,191 
12,105 
3,615 

1,473,018 
3,607,027 
938,708 

6,735,942 
15,304,194 
2,750,588 

48,004,996 
62,771,158 
14,334,431 

9 

Soap  and  glycerin      .          .     .              .."* 

264 

3,630 

13,624 

8,607,914 

18,800,527 

302,634,474 

MANUFACTURES 


438 


MANUFACTURES 


TABLE  2-SUMMARY  FOR  1939,  BY  INDUSTRIES  (Centimud) 


Number                   Wage 
of  eslab-  Salaried    earners 

Croup 

lish- 

per- 

(average 

Value  of 

No.                                  Industry 

ments 

sonnel 

for  the  year)     Salaries 

Wages 

products 

20    Soda  fountains,  beer  dispensing  equipment,  and 

related  products               

51 

322 

1,590 

$795,003 

$2,389,452 

$13,659,820 

9    Soy  bean  oil,  cake,  and  meal    
1    Special  dairy  products              
17    Special  industry  machinery,  not  elsewhere  classified 
20    Sporting  and  athletic  goods  not  elsewhere  classified 

47 
51 
207 
350 

338 
364 
2,413 
1,780 

1,481 
2,378 
10,388 
13,816 

663,469 
849,202 
6,266,111 
3,899,997 

1,889,457 
2,426,951 
15,160,633 
14,220,581 

43,946,647 
57,569,300 
55,785,016 
64,753,813 

14    Springs,  steel  (except  wire)—  made  in  plants  not 

operated  in  connection  with  rolling  mills 
14    Stamped  and  pressed  metal  products  (except  auto- 
mobile stampings)  
13    Statuary  and  art  goods  (except  stone  and  concrete) 
—  factory  production        

53 
655 
126 

441 
4,413 
143 

2,940 
33,113 
983 

1,113,419 
11,688,732 
315,005 

4,277,439 
37,535,454 
1,150,324 

23,044,252 
178,395,076 
3,440,114 

14    Steam  and  hot-water  heating  apparatus  (including 
hot-water  furnaces)   

68 

1,000 

8,493 

2,077,671 

9,921,515 

45,377,801 

13    Steam  and  other  packing;  pipe  and  boiler  covering. 
17    Steam  engines,  turbines,  and  water  wheels 

134 
18 

880 
1,294 

5,906 
3,902 

2.4R4.252 
3,116,932 

7,190,308 
6,349,143 

37,170,483 
24,751,466 

14    Steam  fittings,  regardless  of  material 

180 

4,571 

21,815 

10,125,087 

29,629,764 

111,985,627 

14    Steel  barrels,  kegs,  and  drums 

64 

621 

6,072 

1,585,881 

7,360,075 

49,165.973 

14    Steelcastings    

164 

4,292 

30,088 

11,020,411 

41,941,774 

135,466,423 

14    Steel  works  and  rolling  mills                           .     ... 

253 

34,527 

368,904 

88,554,227 

569,724,280 

2,720,019,564 

17    Stokers,  mechanical,  domestic  and  industrial 

61 

748 

3,549 

1,689,956 

4,789,265 

24,545,164 

14    Stoves,  ranges,  water  heaters,  and  hot-air  furnaces 

(except  electric) 
12    Suitcases,  briefcases,  bags,  trunks,  and  other  luggage 
20    Surgical  and  medical  instruments 

449 
329 
50 

5,194 
908 
319 

41,701 
8,326 
1,626 

12,657.540 
2,380,936 
1,006.020 

48,069,160 
7,918,929 
1,978,574 

223,427,130 
36,591,482 
8,052,120 

20    Surgical   supplies  and   equipment   not  elsewhere 

classified,  orthopedic  appliances 

360 

1.969 

8,468 

4,728.519 

8,547,630 

79,398,442 

4    Suspenders,  garters,  and  other  goods  made  from 

purchased  elastic  material 

66 

303 

2,558 

630,697 

1,956,082 

15,482,865 

13    Tableware,  pressed  or  blown  glass  and  glassware  not 
elsewhere  classified           ....                  ... 

115 

2,880 

27,330 

6,508,597 

30,114,795 

97,317,363 

9    Tanning  materials,  natural  dyestuffs,  mordants, 

assistants,  and  sizes                      .          

158 

800 

2,716 

2,739.758 

3,002,734 

42,164,716 

13    Terra  cotta 

12 

158 

1,099 

304.622 

1,298,603 

3,175,310 

4    Textile  bags  —  not  made  in  textile  mills      

216 

1,127 

11,991 

2,739,199 

10,002,651 

121,702,151 

17    Textile  machinery                   .                        
15    Tin  and  other  foils  (except  gold  and  silver  foil)  

300 
12 

3,219 
140 

21,904 
1,328 

7,697,178 
357,818 

27,614,519 
1,937,721 

93,276,326 
19,071,847 

14    Tin  cans  and  other  tinware  not  elsewhere  classified  . 

248 

4,886 

31,770 

10,801,712 

36,397,817 

372,616,014 

11    Tires  and  inner  tubes                                      .   ... 
2    Tobacco  (chewing  and  smoking)  and  snuff 
20    Tobacco  pipes  and  cigarette  holders 
14    Tools  (except  edge  tools,  machine  tools,  files,  and 

53 
132 
32 

9,016 
974 
173 

54,115 
9,202 
2,481 

23,250,768 
2,550,891 
497,076 

89,773,503 
8,192,529 
2,406,530 

580,928,993 
123,687,198 
7,507,616 

saws)  

387 

2,586 

15,343 

6,387,757 

18,002,210 

75,290,333 

17    Tractors      

19    Transportation  equipment  not  elsewhere  classified  . 
4    Trimmings  (not  made  in  textile  mills),  stamped  art 

30 
41 

6,269 
208 

31,275 
1,252 

11,187.232 
437,985 

49,845,575 
1,149,973 

253,951,435 
6,268,610 

goods,  and  art  needlework  —  contract  factories 

395 

409 

5,553 

1,090,618 

5,338,560 

12,509,807 

4    Trimmings  (not  made  in  textile  mills),  stamped  art 
goods,  and  art  needlework  —  made  in  regular  fac- 
tories or  by  jobbers  engaging  contractors  .  . 

227 

498 

3,728 

1,368,737 

3,152,643 

26,138,877 

4    Trousers  (semidress),  wash  suits,  and  washable 

service  apparel         
20    Umbrellas,  parasols,  and  canes  .   .                ... 
6    Upholstered  household  furniture  . 
?    Vegetable  and  animal  oils,  not  elsewhere  classified 

297 
90 
853 
54 

1,055 
262 
3,234 
234 

19,541 
2,862 
29,949 
l!l08 

2,295,078 
669,495 
7,062,492 
557,039 

12,841,415 
2,191,255 
30,082,203 
1,236,515 

60,984,613 
11,519,990 
128,723,519 
30,456,835 

Vending,    amusement,   and    other   coin-operated 

machines  

51 

564 

3,842 

1,827,870 

4,631,710 

23,142,882 

6    Venetian  blinds  

274 

788 

5,179 

1,356,600 

4,808,267 

25,965,350 

1    Vinegar  and  cider  
13    Vitreous-china  plumbing  fixtures. 
14    Vitreous  enameled   products,   including  kitchen, 

132 
25 

188 
491 

1,059 
4^34 

361,450 
1,109,177 

876,651 
6,315,843 

7,505,800 
21,978,821 

household,  and  hospital  utensils  .. 

55 

1,237 

10,809 

2,989,049 

11,441,682 

44,239,055 

13    Wallboard  and  wall  plaster  (except  gypsum),  build- 

ing insulation  (except  mineral  wool),  and  floor 

composition  
7    Wallpaper  

124 
46 

974 
499 

6,227 

4,054 

2,024,508 
1,468,733 

6,288,111 
5,333,246 

35,753,840 
24,968,843 

15    Watchcases  

42 

400 

2,409 

894,374 

2,939,759 

9,791,605 

13    Whiteware  

31 

629 

11,728 

1,776,339 

13,149,932 

27,800,677 

6    Window  and  door  screens  and  weather  strip 

162 

429 

2,830 

1,077,562 

2,983,580 

15,223,769 

6    Windowshades  

273 

435 

3,261 

913,144 

3,411,297 

27,070,810 

1    Wines  
14    Wire  drawn  from  purchased  rods  
14    Wlrewor  knot  elsewhere  classified  

301 
95 
669 

676 
3,080 
3,882 

2,056 
21,969 
30,386 

1,444,302 
8,511,162 
10,407,633 

2,023,106 

32,782,080 
176,503,111 
158,816,863 

16    Wiring  devices  and  supplies  
4    Women's  and  misses'  blouses  and  waists—  made  in 

146 

2,259 

14,564 

5,787,761 

16,905,970 

94,305,273 

contract  factories         ... 
4    Women's  and  misses'  blouses  and  waists—  made  in 

132 

125 

5,109 

247,320 

3,482,765 

5,311,394 

inside  factories  or  by  jobbers  engaging  contractors. 

170 

460 

4,564 

1,252,820 

3,909,750 

36,419,098 

MANUFACTURING 


439 


MARKETING 


TABLE  2-SUHMARY  FOR  1939.  BY  INDUSTRIES  (Ctmiimut) 


Number                  Wage 
ol  estab-  Salaried     earners 

Cfoni 

> 

tfiA- 

per- 

(average 

Value  of 

No. 

Industry 

ments 

sonnel 

for  the  year) 

Salaries 

Wages 

products 

4 

'Women's  and  misses'  clothing  not  clscwluro  classi- 

4 

fied  —  made  in  contract  factories 
Women's  and  misses'  clothing  not  elsewhere  classi- 

100 

128 

3,703 

1242,067 

f2,527,648 

14,311,175 

fied  —  made  in  inside  factories  or  by  jobbers  en- 

4 

gaging  contractors 
Women  s  and  mibses'  dresses  (except  bouse  dresses) 

231 

1,490 

554 
1,199 

6,281 
49,742 

1,318,880 
2,580,706 

5,386,948 
46,747,846 

35,759,421 
64,935,922 

4 

Women's  and  misses'  dresses  (except  house  dresses) 

—made  in  inside  factories  or  by  jobbers  engaging 

4 

contractors 
Women's,  children's,  and  infants'  underwear  and 

1,426 

5,824 

53,996 

17,800,519 

61,652,253 

441,324,635 

4 

nightwear  of  cotton  and  flannelette  woven  fabrics 
Women's,  children's,  and  infants'  underwear  and 

174 

727 

11,349 

1,387,694 

7,462,179 

37,184,478 

4 

nightwear  of  knitted  fabrics 
Women's,  children's,  and  infants'  underwear  and 

139 

457 

6,398 

1,061,087 

4,372,776 

24,608,459 

nightwear  of  silk  and  rayon  woven  fabrics 

372 

1,215 

20,509 

2,969,628 

14,349,204 

90,627,640 

12 
6 
9 

Women's  neckwear,  scarfs,  etc 
Women's  pocketbooks,  handbags,  and  purses 
Wooden  boxes  except  cigar  boxes 
Wood  naval  stores 

107 
286 
642 

25 

201 
985 
1,966 
350 

1,931 
14,048 
25,351 
2,353 

594,148 
2,558,125 
4,185,238 
771,693 

1,678,146 
11,238,826 
19,159,030 
1,866,991 

11,947,604 
55,806,860 
87,353,766 
14,114,193 

6 

Wood  preserving 

218 

1,029 

11,242 

2,009,948 

9,764,258 

106,295,341 

6 
17 

Wood  products  not  elsewhere  classified  . 
Woodworking  machinery 
Woolen  and  worsted  manufactures  —  contract  fac- 

886 
130 

2,413 
915 

21,993 
3,622 

5,011,157 
2,280,521 

17,680,122 
4,656,946 

69,185,697 
21,604,106 

tories 

76 

468 

6,081 

1,325,439 

6,061,441 

13,156,533 

3 

Woolen  and  worsted  manufactures  —  regular  fac- 

20 

tories  and  jobbers  engaging  contractors 
Wool  pulling 

583 
17 

8,771 
69 

140,022 
836 

22,944,457 
263,866 

133,487,752 
1,100,973 

685,311,713 
13,122,104 

4 

Work  clothing  (except  work  shirts),  sport  garments 
(except  leather),  and  other  men's  and  boy*'  ap- 

4 

parel  not  elsewhere  classified 
Work  gloves  and  mittens,  cloth,  cloth  and  leather 

742 

3,146 

56,959 

6,785,718 

36,796,518 

184,222,956 

combined          .   .                       . 

94 

383 

8,901 

691,173 

5,663,036 

22,457,470 

4 

Work  shirts  .... 

87 

566 

13,449 

870,862 

7,269,148 

35,672,002 

9 
14 

Writing  ink 
Wrought  pipes  welded  and  heavy  riveted  —  made  in 

15 

86 

254 

247,538 

247,116 

2,951,259 

plants  not  operated  in  connection  with  rolling 

mills 

49 

991 

8,370 

2,750,936 

12,306,077 

75,864,616 

16 

X-ray  and   theiai>euti<.  apparatus  and   electronic 

tubes 

84 

692 

1,959 

1,815,337 

2,744,251 

17,945,038 

The  tables  (pp.  431-439)  show  the  results  of  the 
census,  first  by  groups  of  industries  and  secondly 
by  individual  industries  in  alphabetical  order.  A 
separate  report  was  made  showing,  also,  the  rela- 
tive importance  of  leading  industries  in  terms  of 
employment.  Nine  industries  employed  a  total  of 
2,133,890  wage  earners  out  of  the  total  of  7,887,242 
employed  in  all  industry.  The  number  of  wage 
earners  in  each  of  the  nine  was  as  follows :  Motor 
vehicles,  bodies,  parts,  and  accessories,  397,537; 
steel  works  and  rolling  mills,  368,904 ;  cotton  broad 
woven  goods,  312,249 ;  sawmills,  veneer,  and  coop- 
erage-stock mills,  265,185;  footwear,  except  rub- 
ber, 218,028;  bakery  products  except  biscuit, 
crackers,  and  pretzels,  201,537;  woolen  and  wor- 
sted manufactures,  140,022 ;  wholesale  meat  pack- 
ing, 119,853;  paper  and  paperboard  mills,  110,575. 

MANUFACTURING.  See  BUSINESS  RE- 
VIEW; ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES  ;  MANUFACTURES, 
CENSUS  OF;  the  countries  under  Manufacturing 
or  Production;  the  States  under  Manufacturing. 

MAPLE  PRODUCTS.  See  SUGAR. 

MAPPING.  See  the  articles  on  GEOLOGICAL 
SURVEY  and  GEOLOGY. 

MARIANA  ISLANDS.  See  JAPANESE  PA- 
CIFIC ISLANDS 

MARIHUANA.  See  NARCOTIC  DRUGS  CON- 
TROL. 

MARITIME  COMMISSION,  U.S.  See 
SHIPBUILDING  ;  SHIPPING. 

MARITIME  LABOR  BOARD.  See  SHIP- 
PING. 


MARKETING.  The  volume  of  distribution  at 
both  wholesale  and  retail  expanded  during  1940,  as 
a  result  of  the  national  defense  program  and  the 
consequent  increase  in  national  income.  When  the 
volume  of  sales  increases,  problems  of  price  cut- 
ting and  regulation  of  competitive  practices  tend 
to  become  less  acute,  because  there  is  more  busi- 
ness available  for  all  types  of  distributors,  so  that 
interest  in  such  trade  problems  was  less  intense. 
The  war  produced  new  problems  for  wholesalers 
and  retailers,  since  imports  from  Europe  were 
largely  cut  off  during  the  latter  part  of  the  year 
and  there  was  widespread  fear  that  trade  with  the 
Far  East  also  might  be  limited  or  halted  because  of 
new  restrictions  imposed  by  the  U.S.  Government 
or  the  extension  of  the  war  to  that  part  of  the 
world.  The  conflict  abroad  also  curtailed  foreign 
markets  for  many  American  exports,  although  a 
sharp  increase  in  armament  shipments  to  British 
Empire  countries  was  an  offsetting  influence. 

The  gigantic  national  defense  program  launched 
by  the  U.S.  Government  affected  marketing  in  a 
number  of  respects.  First,  it  made  the  Government 
the  most  important  purchaser  of  a  wide  ranj?e  of 
products.  Not  only  war  materials  but  huge  quanti- 
ties of  woolen  cloth,  cotton  goods,  shoes,  lumber, 
and  other  products  were  purchased  by  the  Federal 
Government  for  the  armed  forces.  Separate  divi- 
sions were  set  up  in  the  Advisory  Commission  to 
the  Council  of  National  Defense  for  purchases  and 
price  stabilization,  and  buying  for  the  armed  forces 
was  partially  centralized.  Furthermore,  to  meet 


MARKETING 


440 


MARKETING 


the  new  situation,  a  large  proportion  of  Govern- 
ment purchases  were  effected  through  negotiated 
contracts,  rather  than  on  a  competitive  bidding 
basis.  In  many  instances,  "escalator  clauses"  were 
inserted  to  protect  contractors  against  unlocked  for 
increases  in  their  costs.  It  was  generally  recog- 
nized, however,  that  the  procurement  organization 
of  the  Federal  Government  would  have  to  be  fur- 
ther developed  to  carry  out  efficiently  the  vast  pro- 
gram of  purchases  required  for  the  defense  and 
aid  to  Britain  programs.  Early  in  January,  1941, 
the  Office  of  Production  Management  was  set  up 
to  accomplish  this.  With  the  application  of  priority 
restrictions  expected  in  the  later  phases  of  the 
armament  program,  wholesale  and  retail  distrib- 
utors knew  they  would  be  affected  in  a  number  of 
respects,  and  prepared  accordingly.  Under  a  drastic 
priority  system,  many  distributors  will  find  it  im- 
possible to  obtain  deliveries  to  maintain  their  sales 
volumes  in  the  case  of  many  products.  Hence,  they 
sought  to  expand  stocks  on  hand  late  in  the  year 

Raw  Materials  Marketing.  The  marketing  of 
agricultural  products  was  affected  by  the  loss  of 
European  export  outlets.  This  was  most  notable  in 
the  case  of  raw  cotton,  exports  of  which  fell  to 
negligible  levels  comparable  to  those  of  the  Civil 
War  period.  Exports  to  the  continent  of  Europe 
practically  halted,  except  for  a  trickle  of  shipments 
to  Russia  via  Vladivostok  Even  British  Empire 
countries  preferred  to  obtain  cotton  outside  the 
United  States,  in  order  to  conserve  their  dollar  ex- 
change resources  for  the  purchase  of  war  materi- 
als here.  Because  the  Government  absorbed  surplus 
cotton  and  other  leading  agricultural  products  by 
taking  them  over  as  collateral  for  loans  to  farm- 
ers, however,  prices  of  farm  products  remained 
firm.  The  Government  sought  to  reduce  acreage 
for  such  crops  further,  insofar  as  this  was  possible 
under  the  Agricultural  Adjustment  Act,  in  order  to 
hold  down  the  amount  of  surplus  output  which 
would  be  turned  over  to  it  as  security  for  loans. 

In  view  of  the  clouded  international  situation, 
measures  were  taken  to  build  up  reserves  in  this 
country  of  imported  raw  materials,  particularly 
those  regarded  as  "strategic"  because  they  play  a 
role  in  war  (see  RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE  COR- 
PORATION), and  the  marketing  of  raw  materials 
was  considerably  affected  bv  the  supervisory  role 
of  the  Price  Stabilization  Division  of  the  National 
Defense  Advisory  Commission  (qv.). 

Trading  on  the  commodity  futures  exchanges  de- 
clined sharply.  The  turnover  on  all  futures  ex- 
changes aggregated  2,131,000  contracts,  which 
compared  with  2,377,000  contracts  in  1939.  With 
strict  control  of  commodity  prices  by  governments 
here  and  abroad,  there  was  a  tendency  to  curtail 
the  use  of  hedging  facilities.  Furthermore,  in  the 
case  of  imported  commodities,  the  accumulation  of 
large  stocks  by  Government  corporations  and  the 
belief  that  a  cessation  of  shipments  to  this  country 
would  make  contracts  calling  for  future  delivery 
of  limited  value  to  those  covering  their  require- 
ments in  this  way  contributed  to  the  decline  in 
turnover.  The  futures  exchanges  made  efforts  to 
increase  interest  in  their  markets,  however,  con- 
tending that  the  possibility  of  the  end  of  the  war 
and  relaxation  of  Government  controls  made  hedg- 
ing more  desirable  than  ever  for  conservative  man- 
ufacturers and  merchants. 

Wholesale  Trade.  Wholesalers  enjoyed  a  larg- 
er volume  of  sales.  The  sharp  increase  in  the  vol- 
ume and  scope  of  Government  buying  produced  a 
new  situation  for  many  wholesalers.  In  the  food 


industry,  for  example,  a  committee  was  set  up  to 
confer  with  national  defense  officials  to  assure 
jobbers1  ability  to  fulfill  the  demands  of  Army 
posts  and  cantonments,  many  of  which  were  being 
established  in  out-of-the-way  places.  As  far  as 
possible,  wholesalers  in  each  area  sought  to  meet 
such  demands  through  the  use  of  their  existing 
warehouse  and  other  facilities.  Despite  the  large 
size  of  Army  and  Navy  purchases,  wholesalers  in 
many  instances  found  they  could  fill  defense  or- 
ders, although  in  other  cases  the  Government  pre- 
ferred to  deal  directly  with  manufacturers. 

Percentage  changes  in  the  volume  of  wholesale 
trade,  month  by  month,  during  1940,  as  compared 
with  1939,  as  reported  by  the  Bureau  of  the  Cen- 
sus on  the  basis  of  reports  from  a  varying  number 
of  wholesalers,  were  as  follows' 

WHOLESALE  TRADE 

[Salts  of  Wholesaler i  Reporting  to  The  Bureau  of  The  Census  and 

The  National  Association  of  Credit  Men  Figures  not  comparable  as 

number  of  reporting  concerns  vanes] 


Percentage 

change 

Month 

1940 

from  1939 

January 

$182,377,000 

+103 

February 
March 

1S9,979,000 
205,256,000 

+121 
+08 

April 

223,232,000 

+  11  3 

May 

220,473,000 

+68 

Tune 
July 

221,460,000 
221,214,000 

+61 
+105 

August 

217,647,000 

+57 

September  . 

243,779,000 

-51 

October 

246,405,000 

+100 

November 

214,296,000 

+70 

December 

214,821,000 

+150 

Retail  Trade.  Department  store  sales  increased 
4.4  per  cent  during  1940,  as  compared  with  the 
year  before,  according  to  the  Board  of  Governors 
of  the  Federal  Reserve  Board 

Changes  in  sales  volume  of  stores  in  various 
Federal  Reserve  Districts  for  the  year  were  as 
follows : 

DEPARTMENT  STORE  SALES 
[Change  in  Volume,  1940  as  compared  with  1939] 


Federal 
Reserve 
District 
Boston 
New  York 
Philadelphia  . 
Cleveland   ,  -  - 

Percentage 
Change 
(+  Increase) 
+3 
...     +4 
.   .     +7 
....     +7 

Federal 
Reserve 
District 
Chicago 
St  Louis 
Minneapolis 
Kansas  City 

Percentage 
Change 
(+  Increase) 

t? 

+3 
.     +3 

Richmond 
Atlanta 

•:   +4I 

Dallas 
San  Francisco 

+4 
.     +3 

Sales  of  other  types  of  stores  over  the  three 
years  1938-40  varied  as  follows : 

RETAIL  SALES 
[1929-31  - 100} 

Type  of  Stores  Im ~1939               1940 

Variety  Chain  Stores*  993              1035               1076 

Grocery  Cham  Stores  941              1025               1125 

Rural  Merchandise  Stores      1 14  1 1275 1346 

*  Base,  1935-39  -  100 

A  breakdown  of  retail  trade  by  kinds  of  busi- 
ness is  shown  in  the  table  on  page  441,  which  was 
published  (Feb.  14,  1941)  by  the  U.S.  Department 
of  Commerce  as  part  of  the  Sixteenth  Census  of 
the  United  States. 

While  retail  trade  thus  showed  a  substantial 
overall  increase,  there  were  several  special  devel- 
opments incident  to  the  national  defense  program 
and  the  war.  Supplies  of  many  types  of  imported 


MARKETING 


441 


MARKETING 


UNITED  STATES  STORES,  SALES,  PERSONNEL,  PAY  ROLL  AND  STOCKS  BY  KINDS  OF  BUSINESS:  1939 

[Sixteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1940] 


Active 
Proprietors 
of  unincor- 

Number of 
employees* 

Stocks  on 
kandtend 
of  year  , 

Number  of 

Sales 

porated 

(average  for 

Payroll* 

at  cost 

Kind  of  business 

stores 

(add  000) 

businesses 

year) 

(add  000) 

(add  000) 

UNITED  STATES        .          U9351.'. 
\1929i  . 

1,770,355 
.     1,587,718 
.     11476,365 

$42,039,138 
32,791,212 
48,329,652 

1,613,673 
1,440,108 
1,434,704 

4,600,817 
3,898,258 
4,286.516 

$4,529,499 
3,568,167 
5,044,128 

$5,122,583 
4,271,280 
7,199,656 

Food  Group 

560,549 

10,164,967 

516,976 

798,462 

760,762 

589,938 

Grocery  stores  (without  fresh  meats) 
Combination  stores  (groceries-meats)             .  .   . 

.       200,303 

2,22^,435 

178,182 
173,799 

131,102 
408,900 

110,663 
354,140 

196,202 
343,947 

Dairy  products  stores    . 

7,*382 

§142,'728 

4,111 

20,314 

17,892 

3,237 

Milk  dealers                                 .     .       . 

9,452 

597,283 

9,207 

81,586 

140.078 

4,859 

Meat  markets 

35,630 

700,243 

35,886 

47,798 

50,984 

7,817 

Fish  (sea  food)  markets 

6,730 

50554 

6,968 

5,280 

4,246 

490 

Candy,  nut  stores 

4,625 

40,200 

3,087 

6,775 

5,040 

1,191 

Confectionery  stores 

43,390 

255,100 

42,690 

23,801 

15,104 

13,411 

Delicatessen  stores 

9,909 

132,365 

9,895 

8,140 

6,911 

9,109 

Fruit  stores,  vegetable  markets 

27,666 

222,239 

28,282 

20,075 

15,993 

3,187 

Bakeries,  caterers 
Egg  and  poultry  dealers 
Other  food  stores 

16,985 
6,532 
4,911 

168,027 
63,350 
71,125 

14,284 
6,545 
4,040 

26,941 
4,966 
12,784 

21,735 
3,514 
14,462 

1,398 
670 
4,420 

General  Stores  (with  food)         .... 

.       39,688 

810,342 

38,646 

60,701 

47,376 

174,130 

General  Merchandise  Group 

50,267 

5,665,007 

36,362 

867,007 

803,485 

922,178 

Department  stores 
Dry  goods  stores 
General  merchandise  stores  with  food 
General  merchandise  stores  —  other 

4,074 
15,628 
2,737 
10,882 

3,974,998 
229,286 
112,108 
371,814 

560 
14,748 
2,448 
8,714 

566,052 
26,597 
10,828 
51,764 

611,706 
22,730 
9,409 
37,836 

561,493 
77,192 
25,767 
118,072 

Variety  stores    .     . 

16,946 

976,801 

9,892 

211,766 

121,804 

139,654 

Apparel  Group 

106,959 

3,258,772 

82,329 

388,737 

420,823 

674,674 

Men's-boys'  furnishings  stores 

5,122 

93,203 

4,187 

7,273 

9.049 

27,258 

Men's-boys'  hat  stores 

802 

15,598 

465 

1,580 

1,819 

2,606 

Mcn's-boys'  clothing  stores  (and  furnishings) 
Family  clothing  stores 

15,577 
10,053 

664,511 
429,454 

13,194 
8,317 

57,730 
56,334 

80,382 
58,478 

194,671 
106,800 

Women's  ready-to-wear  stores 

25,820 

1,009,494 

20,711 

133,586 

132,674 

127,752 

Furriers,  fur  shops 

2,214 

94,133 

1,794 

10,289 

16,809 

18,761 

Millinery  stores 
Corset  and  lingerie  shops 

10,799 
2,338 

118.586 
27,938 

7,472 
2,111 

23,559 
3,254 

18,888 
3,077 

5,023 
6,265 

Hosiery  shops. 

2,293 

35.307 

1,531 

7,989 

3,893 

4,562 

Other  women's  accessories  stores 

1863 

37,318 

1,261 

4,090 

3,769 

6,492 

Infants'  wear  shops 

625 

13,436 

554 

1,341 

1,275 

3,223 

Other  apparel  stores 

3,292 

36,448 

3,204 

5,186 

4,872 

8,145 

Custom  tailors 

5,674 

66,282 

5,523 

12,380 

16,088 

10,149 

Men's  shoe  stores 

2,472 

78,770 

650 

5.694 

7,462 

16,427 

Family  shoe  stores 

15,280 

384,156 

10,417 

40,711 

42,831 

113,247 

Women's  shoe  stores 

2,735 

154,138 

938 

17,741 

19,457 

23,293 

Furniture  —  Household  —  Radio  Group 

52,827 

1,733,257 

42.491 

214,235 

280,545 

366,761 

Furniture  stores    .         ... 

19,902 

973,157 

17,361 

104,751 

146,311 

213,375 

Floor  cover  ings  stores 

1,986 

58,618 

1,826 

6,083 

9,311 

15,148 

Drapery,  curtain,  upholstery  stores  . 
China,  glassware,  metalware  stores 

930 
778 

15843 
21,821 

859 
582 

1,906 
2,915 

2,054 
3,655 

3,702 
6,755 

Interior  decorators  . 

886 

27,930 

759 

3,235 

4,676 

4,936 

Antique  shops 

3,324 

17,743 

3,321 

1,594 

2,178 

18,815 

Other  home-furnishings  stores 

4,108 

84,772 

3733 

19,459 

21,335 

19,290 

Household  appliance  dealers 

11,095 

294,518 

4,846 

49,185 

60,301 

45,979 

Radio  —  household  appliance  stores 

6,907 

190,180 

6,463 

19,512 

23,596 

28,968 

Radio  stores 

2,409 

22,901 

2,361 

2,261 

2,461 

3,758 

Radio  —  musical  instrument  stores 

502 

25,774 

380 

3,334 

4,667 

6,035 

Automotive  Group 
Motor-vehicle  dealers  (new  and  trade-in) 
Motor-vehicle  —  farm  implement  dealers 
Motor-vehicle  dealers  (retail-wholesale) 
Used-car  dealers 

60,132 
31,511 
1,170 
928 
6,980 

5,546,035 
4,290,064 
88,607 
428,922 
193,790 

51,238 
27,318 
1,239 
512 
6,808 

389,298 
287,270 
6,638 
22,794 
12,981 

507,947 
378,615 
7,259 
34,714 
14,177 

554,960 
403,998 
13,449 
31,649 
25,985 

Accessory,  tire,  battery  dealers 
Motorcycle  dealers 

18,525 
513 

523,685 
8,619 

14,424 
504 

57,601 
895 

70,665 
1,023 

75,611 
2,032 

Aircraft  dealen                 .                   ... 

51 

2.358 

22 

273 

375 

497 

Motorboat,  yacht  dealers 

454 

9,990 

411 

846 

1,119 

1,739 

Fitting  Stations                  .   . 

.     241,858 

2,822,495 

231,475 

235,527 

198,934 

105,401 

Lumber—  Building  Group   .   ,. 
Lumber  yards 
Building-materials  dealers   ,  . 
Heating—plumbing  equipment  dealers 
Paint,  glass,  wallpaper  stores    . 
Electrical  supply  stores  

.       39,667 
20,621 
4,446 
4,262 
8,480 
1,858 

1,761,205 
1,196,817 
281,642 
102,404 
152,673 
27,669 

26,135 
10,615 
3,387 
3,644 
6,781 
1>08 

169,799 
109,624 
25,649 
14,932 
15,642 
3,952 

220,628 
143,269 
34,002 
18,924 
19,495 
4,938 

389,053 
295,714 
36,583 
15,470 
35,012 
6,274 

Hardware  Group  
Hardware  stores 
Farm  implement—  tractor—  hardware  dealers 

39,646 
.       29,147 
10,499 

973,709 
629276 
344,433 

39,620 
28,709 
10,911 

82,497 
56,762 
25,735 

91,532 
63,679 
27,853 

317,063 
227,852 
89,211 

Eating  Places     .     .             .          ... 
Restaurants  cafeterias,  lunchrooms  ..   .'.  
Lunch  counters  and  stands         

169,792 
99,068 
62.673 

2,135,020 
1,764,854 

170,002 
101,276 
61  364 

594,648 
529,528 
58,728 

405,896 
364,451 
37532 

34,900 
29,466 
4,487 

Soft  drink,  juice,  ice  cream  stands  .  . 

.   .        8,051 

337l871 

7',362 

6,392 

3,913 

947 

MARKETING  442  MARTINIQUE 

UNITED  STATES  STORES,  SALES,  PERSONNEL,  PAY  ROLL  AND  STOCKS,  ETC.  (C<mX*ut) 


Kind  of  business 
Drinking  Places    

Number  of 
stores 

135,594 

Sales 
(add  000) 

1,385,032 

Active 
proprietors 
of  unincor- 
porated 
businesses 

136,217 

Number  of 
employees* 
(average  for 
year) 

212,235 

Payroll* 
(add  000) 

159.689 

Stocks  on 
hand,  end 
of  year, 
at  covt 
(add  000) 

38,164 

Drinking  places  with  meals  

82,310 

967736 

82,596 

159,966 

118,775 

25,954 

Drinking  place,*—  other    ,  

53,284 

417,2% 

53,621 

52,269 

40,914 

12,210 

Drug  Stores      ... 
Drug  stores  with  fountain.  . 
Drug  stores—  other 

57,903 
39,452 
18,451 

1,562,502 
1,205,241 
357.261 

49,673 
33,257 
16,416 

189,403 
156,366 
33,037 

172,733 
137,994 
34,739 

304,883 
218,799 
86,084 

Liquor  Stores  (pachag  ed  goods)  .  . 

19,136 

586,351 

13,670 

25,676 

30,782 

66,203 

Other  Retail  Stores      

172,375 

3,496,437 

154,825 

349,792 

407,609 

543.135 

Fuel  and  ice  dealers  

38,129 

887617 

34,784 

96,315 

109,910 

66^445 

Fuel-oil  retailers  

2,843 

125,925 

2426 

9169 

13,873 

Hay,  grain,  and  feed  stores  (vrith  groceries) 
Hay,  gram,  and  feed—  farm  implements 
Hay,  gram,  and  feed  stores—  other  . 
Farm  and  garden  supply  stores  
Jewelry  stores  

1,860 
1,126 
13,786 
4,915 
14,559 

64,912 
82,820 
476,245 
155,312 
361,595 

1523 
785 
11,645 
4,074 
13,077 

3,905 
4,786 
26,660 
13,710 
35,249 

3,210 
5,032 
25,707 
13,447 
53,965 

6J203 
10,280 
42.394 
21,498 
162,599 

Book  stores      

2,845 

73,842 

2,156 

12,434 

13,932 

16,152 

Stationery  stores  

3,497 

58,814 

3,317 

6,690 

7,703 

12,933 

Cigar  stores,  cigar  stands  

18.504 

207,781 

16,748 

14,425 

14,085 

18,456 

Florists       .    T  
Gift,  novelty,  souvenir  shops    .  .  . 
News  dealers  
Office,  store  appliance  and  equipment  dealers 
Office,  store,  school  supply  dealers           .   . 
Opticians 
Photographic  supply  —  camera  stores 
Sporting  goods  stores  .  . 

Luggage  stores  < 
Piano,  musical  instrument  stores 
Scientific,  medical  instrument  and  supply  dealers 
Other  retail  stores  .     .   . 

16,055 
7429 
7,407 
3,600 
1,539 
5,995 
1.112 
2,605 
941 
759 
2,930 
961 
18,778 

148,741 

53,568 
72,427 
149,216 
59,170 
60,567 
32,343 
56,914 
6,837 
19,345 
65,127 
17,509 
259,610 

16,074 
7227 
6,038 
2,850 
1,124 
5,412 
982 
2,393 
937 
606 
2,5  H 
774 
17,339 

23,128 
6,317 
11,671 
19,949 
8,097 
7655 
3277 
5,229 
765 
1,942 
8,282 
2113 
28,024 

22,641 
5,548 
6,335 
29,049 
11,300 
11,919 
4,086 
6,653 
630 
2,601 
11.049 
3,007 
31,927 

9,493 
17,076 
3,894 
27,108 
12,619 
6,770 
6,412 
16,234 
1,620 
6,080 
16,217 
3222 
54,321 

Second-hand  Stores 
Book  stores  (second-hand) 
Clothing,  shoe  stores  (second-hand) 
Furniture  stores  (second-hand) 
Tires,  accessories,  parts  (second-hand) 
Pawn  shops  (sales) 
Other  second-hand  stores 

23,962 
588 
3,558 
7,875 
6,403 
1,373 
4,165 

138,007 
4,050 
9,766 
31,461 
39,863 
22,868 
29,997 

24,014 
578 
3,430 
7,882 
6,814 
U52 
4,058 

22,800 
441 
1,673 
4,016 
8,208 
2,993 
5,469 

20,758 
488 
922 
3,061 
6,888 
4357 
5,042 

41,140 
2,790 
2,180 
6,461 
8,951 
12,904 
7,652 

*  Employees  and  pay  roll  include  paid  executives  of  corporations  but  not  the  number  and  compensation  of  proprietors  of  unincorporated 
businesses. 

1  Revised  to  exclude  service  garages  and  other  automotive  service  businesses  formerly  classified  as  Retail  but  now  included  in  the  Service 
Census. 


merchandise,  such  as  jewelry,  wines,  and  toys,  be- 
came increasingly  difficult  to  obtain,  and  retailers 
sought  to  substitute  domestic  products  Sales  of 
luxury  goods  showed  much  smaller  increases,  by 
and  large,  than  distribution  of  lower  priced  prod- 
ucts, reflecting  the  increased  taxes  on  higher  in- 
comes, lower  stock  market  prices,  and  sharp  price 
increases  for  many  imported  luxury  products.  Late 
in  the  year,  consumers  showed  a  tendency  to  an- 
ticipate purchases  of  durable  consumer  goods, 
fearing  price  increases,  delivery  delays,  or  reduced 
output  of  these  products  because  of  the  defense 
program. 

The  Department  of  Justice  launched  a  compre- 
hensive investigation  into  the  food  industry,  on  the 
complaint  of  independent  retailers  that  restraint  of 
trade  and  monopoly  existed  in  food  distribution, 
particularly  in  the  marketing  of  fresh  fruits  and 
vegetables.  Enforcement  of  re-sale  prices  in  the 
liquor  trade  broke  down  in  several  communities, 
particularly  New  York,  and  sentiment  among  liq- 
uor retailers  for  the  enforcement  of  fair  trade 
laws  by  State  regulatory  commissions  increased. 
The  Department  of  Justice,  however,  was  critical 
of  State  fair  trade  laws  generally,  and  the  Miller- 
Tydings  Act  in  particular,  as  bars  to  free  price 
competition. 

Self-service  food  supermarkets  enjoyed  further 
growth,  numbering  about  8000  by  the  end  of  the 


year,  of  which  about  5500  were  individually  owned 
and  the  rest  operated  by  chain  store  enterprises. 
The  independent  supermarkets  reported  they  had 
a  total  turnover  of  about  $2,000,000,000  for  the 
year. 

See  AGRICULTURAL  MARKETING  SERVICE;  SUR- 
PLUS MARKETING  ADMINISTRATION.  For  market- 
ing quotas,  see  AGRICULTURAL  ADJUSTMENT  AD- 
MINISTRATION. 

JULES  I.  BOGEN. 

MARKLE  FOUNDATION.  See  BENEFAC- 
TIONS. 

MARMARICA,  Battle  of.  See  EUROPEAN 
WAR  under  British  Victories  in  Africa. 

MARQUESAS  ISLANDS.  See  OCEANIA, 
FRENCH. 

MARRIAGE.  See  LAW  under  Domestic  Rela- 
tions. 

MARSHALL  ISLANDS.  See  JAPANESE  PA- 
CIFIC ISLANDS 

MARTINIQUE.  A  French  island  in  the  West 
Indies,  between  the  British  islands  of  Dominica 
and  St.  Lucia.  Area,  385  square  miles ;  population 
(Jatt.  1,  1938),  255,000.  Chief  towns:  Fort-de- 
France,  the  capital  (52,051  inhabitants) ;  Le  La- 
mentin  (16,303).  Chief  products:  Sugar,  cacao, 
bananas,  pineapples,  and  rum.  Education  (1938)  : 
32,870  students  in  schools  of  all  kinds.  Trade 


MARYLAND 


443 


MASSACHUSETTS 


(1938):  Imports,  United  States  $6,756,000 ;  ex- 
ports, United  States  $8,918,000.  The  budget  for 
1937  balanced  at  101.100,000  francs. 

History.  With  France's  capitulation  to  Ger- 
many in  June,  1940,  the  future  status  of  Marti- 
nique became  a  matter  of  importance  to  both  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  as  well  as  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  island.  Upon  the  French  col- 
lapse, the  aircraft  carrier  B&arn,  carrying  100  new 
American-built  military  planes  in  addition  to  its 
normal  complement  of  40  aircraft,  took  refuge  in 
Fort-de-France  harbor.  The  light  cruiser  Emile 
Bertin  also  arrived  from  France,  carrying  govern- 
ment gold  estimated  at  $250,000,000  that  had  been 
removed  from  Paris  during  the  German  offensive. 
Several  other  French  naval  vessels,  a  supply  of 
munitions,  and  some  colonial  troops  were  also  in 
Martinique  and  near-by  Guadeloupe. 

To  prevent  these  forces  and  the  gold  from  fall- 
ing under  Axis  control  through  an  acquiescent 
French  Government,  the  British  demanded  the 
demilitarization  of  the  French  naval  vessels.  On 
July  4  British  warships  began  to  patrol  the  en- 
trance to  Fort-de-France  harbor  and  the  French 
naval  commander  was  warned  that  his  ships  would 
be  attacked  if  they  left.  Washington  then  inter- 
vened with  three  objectives  in  view — to  prevent  an 
Anglo-French  collision  in  the  West  Indies,  to  fore- 
stall the  conversion  of  Martinique  into  an  Axis 
advance  base  through  the  co-operation  of  the  Vi- 
chy Government,  and  to  prevent  British  occupa- 
tion of  the  island.  A  strong  American  naval  force 
was  sent  to  watch  developments  at  Martinique 
and  on  July  19  the  State  Department  announced 
that  the  American  consulate  wo'ild  be  reopened 
at  Fort-de-France.  Later  in  the  month  the  Havana 
Conference  (see  PAN  AMERICANISM)  established 
inter-American  machinery  for  taking  over  Euro- 
pean colonies  in  the  Americas  if  necessary  to  pre- 
vent Axis  control. 

Washington's  mediatory  efforts  helped  to  bring 
about  a  working  agreement  between  British  and 
French  governmental  and  naval  heads  in  the  Car- 
ibbean in  August.  The  French  naval  vessels  in 
Fort -de-France  and  Guadeloupe  were  to  be  vir- 
tually demilitarized.  The  military  force  in  Mar- 
tinique was  demobilized,  with  the  exception  of 
several  thousand  local  conscripts  undergoing  mili- 
tary training.  The  American  planes  were  stored 
on  an  open  field  near  Fort-de-France,  with  vital 
parts  removed  And  the  gold  stock  was  removed 
from  the  Emile  Bertin  and  stored  in  Fort  St. 
Louis  in  the  capital.  The  status  of  Martinique  was 
the  subject  of  further  discussions  between  Wash- 
ington and  Vichy  later  in  the  year.  French  pro- 
posals to  strengthen  its  defenses  were  opposed  by 
the  United  States  Government.  See  FRANCE  under 
History. 

French  officials  in  Martinique,  led  by  Governor 
Bressolles  and  Admiral  Robert,  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  French  West  Indian  forces,  remained 
loyal  to  the  Vichy  Government  despite  the  sympa- 
thy of  most  of  the  inhabitants  for  Gen.  Charles  de 
Gaulle's  "Free  French"  movement.  Pro-de  Gaulle 
sentiment  was  encouraged  by  the  virtually  com- 
plete economic  isolation  resulting  from  the  British 
blockade  and  other  factors  Following  an  investi- 
gation of  the  political  situation  in  Martinique  by 
one  of  his  agents,  Marshal  P£tain  on  December  13 
appointed  Yves  Marie  Nicol  as  Governor,  suc- 
ceeding M.  Bressolles. 

MARYLAND.  Area,  12,327  square  miles;  in- 
cludes water,  2386  square  miles.  Population  (Unit- 


ed States  Census):  April,  1940,  1,821,244;  1930, 
1,631,526.  Baltimore  (1940),  859,100;  Annapolis 
(the  capital),  13,069. 

Agriculture.  In  1940  Maryland's  harvested 
area  of  principal  crops  totaled  1,679,000  acres. 
Corn  led  all  crops  both  in  extent  and  in  estimated 
return  to  the  cultivator.  Corn  occupied  501,000 
acres,  made  17,535,000  bu.,  and  by  estimate  was 
worth  $12,224,000  to  the  growers.  Wheat,  on  388,- 
000  acres,  gave  7,566,000  bu.  (about  $5,826,000  of 
return)  ;  tame  hay,  on  422,000  acres,  55,000  tons 
($6,105,000)  ;  tobacco,  38,000  acres,  31,9^0,000  Ib. 
($6,544,000) ;  potatoes,  25,200  acres,  2,898,000  bu. 
($1,826,000) :  sweet  potatoes,  9000  acres,  1,485,000 
bu.,  ($1,188,000) ;  barley,  79,000  acres,  2,172,000 
bu.  ($1,129,000) ;  apples,  2,077,000  bu.  ($1,350,- 
000).  Farms  (1940) :  42,110;  in  area,  they  aver- 
aged 99.7  acres. 

Mineral  Production.  Minerals  produced  from 
Maryland's  soil,  as  reckoned  in  1940  by  the  U.S. 
Bureau  of  Mines,  attained  $9,407,723  for  1938.  Of 
this,  coal,  sand  and  gravel,  cement,  and  clay  prod- 
ucts made  over  nine-tenths.  Coal  mines  yielded 
1,281,413  net  tons,  value  $2,705,000  for  1938;  for 

1939,  1,468,000  tons.  Clay  products  (exclusive  of 
pottery:  1938,  $1,210,947.  Apart  from  the  total  of 
native  minerals,  furnaces  producing  pig  iron  from 
outside  ores,   largely   foreign,  shipped   1,219,611 
gross  tons  in  1938  and  1,805,080  tons  in  1939.  Pro- 
duction of  coke,  essentially  from  outside  coal,  rose 
from  1,105,262  net  tons  (1938)  to  1,578,973  tons 
(1939). 

History.  On  February  15  an  instance  of  the  old 
ill-feeling  between  whites  and  Negroes  arose  in 
one  of  the  State's  rural  parts.  A  band  of  whites 
broke  into  the  Worcester  County  (eastern  shore) 
jail  and  seized  two  Negro  women  held  there  in 
connection  with  the  murder  and  robbery  of  a  white 
farmer,  Harvey  Pilchard,  at  his  home  in  Stockton. 
The  captors  took  the  women  to  the  Pilchard  house, 
apparently  to  make  them  name  the  murderers. 
Five  of  the  State  police  followed  a  few  hours  la- 
ter and  recaptured  the  women;  the  mob  was  dis- 
persed, but  one  of  the  police  suffered  severe  injury. 

In  the  National  election  (November  5)  Mary- 
land's vote  ran  heavily  Democratic.  Roosevelt 
(Dem.)  got  385,546  votes,  to  269,534  for  Willkie 
(Rep.);  U.S.  Senator  G.  L.  Radcliffe  (Dem.) 
was  re-elected,  defeating  Harry  W.  Nice  (Rep.) ; 
Democrats  were  elected  to  fill  the  State's  six  seats 
in  the  House  of  Representatives  The  popular  vote 
adopted  five  changes  in  the  State  constitution  and 
rejected  four.  The  chief  of  those  adopted  deprived 
public  officers'  salaries  of  exemption  from  income 
tax,  and  allowed  the  establishment  of  "people's 
courts";  the  chief  ones  rejected  would  have  lim- 
ited the  General  Assembly's  regular  sessions  to  90 
days  and  forbidden  a  Governor's  directly  succeed- 
ing himself. 

Officers.  Maryland's  chief  officers,  serving  in 

1940,  were:    Governor,    Herbert    R.    O'Conor 
(Dem,);   Secretary  of   State,   Francis   Petrott; 
Treasurer,  Hooper  S.  Miles ;  Comptroller,  J.  Mil- 
lard  Tawes ;  Attorney  General,  William  C.  Walsh. 

MASONS.  See  FREEMASONRY. 

MASSACHUSETTS.  Area,  8266  square 
miles;  includes  water,  227  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion (U.S.  Census),  April,  1940,  4,316,721  (3,859,- 
476  urban  and  457,245  rural) ;  1930,  4,249,614  Bos- 
ton (the  capital),  had  (1940)  770,816  inhabitants; 
Worcester,  193,694;  Springfield,  149,554 

Agriculture.  Fanners  harvested,  in  1940,  483,- 
100  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Tame  hay,  on 


MASSACHUSETTS 


444 


MAURITIUS 


401,000  acres,  gave  586,000  bu.  estimated  as  worth 
$9,142,000  to  the  producers ;  cranberries,  a  special- 
ty of  the  southeastern  section,  on  13,400  acres, 
yielded  325,000  bbl.  ($4,128,000) ;  tobacco,  6100 
acres,  9,281,000  Ib.  ($2,438,000)  ;  potatoes,  19,000 
acres,  3,135,000  bu.  ($2,508,000);  corn,  38,000 
acres,  1,558,000  bu.  ($1,137,000) ;  apples  for  mar- 
ket £,1>4,000  bu.  ($2,283,000). 

Education,  Data  for  the  academic  year  1939- 
40  reckoned  the  number  of  Massachusetts'  inhabi- 
tants of  school  age,  by  age-groups,  thus:  114,754, 
from  5  years  to  7;  from  7  to  16,  638,287.  The 
year's  enrollments  of  pupils  in  public  schools  num- 
bered 700,305  (a  drop  of  some  17,000  from  the 
year  before).  Enrollments  comprised  410,141  ele- 
mentary, 107,622  in  junior  high  schools,  and  182,- 
542  in  high  schools.  The  year's  expenditures  for 
public-school  education  came  to  $69,818,825  for 
support  and  $4,586,245  for  outlay.  Teachers  in 
public  schools  numbered  25,656;  their  salaries  av- 
eraged $1959  for  the  year. 

Manufactures.  Yearly  production  of  manufac- 
tured goods  in  Massachusetts  totaled  $2,457,599,- 
210  for  1939;  $2,620,788,793  for  1937.  Other  ag- 
gregates for  1939  (each  with  that  for  1937  sub- 
joined) :  9006  (8619)  establishments  employed 
459,877  (496,036)  persons  for  wages  of  $500,197,- 
872  ($556,076,897),  paid  for  materials,  etc.,  and 
contract  work  $1,267,375,848  ($1,364,299,029),  and 
added  to  material,  by  manufacture,  a  value  of 
$1 190,223,362  ($1,256,489,764). 

History.  A  sequel  to  the  efforts  of  Governor 
Saltonstall's  incoming  administration,  in  1939,  to 
correct  waste  of  the  State's  money  came  in  Janu- 
ary, 1940,  in  a  series  of  decisions  of  the  Superior 
Court.  These  reduced  by  nearly  one-half  the  State's 
liability  on  contracts  made  by  Governor  Hurley 
and  Commissioner  of  Education  Reardon  (there- 
after removed),  to  the  amount  of  $410,232,  for 
ostensible  repair  of  damage  done  by  the  hurricane 
at  the  teachers'  colleges.  The  Court  also  ruled  out 
an  architect's  claim  to  a  fee  of  6  per  cent  on  the 
amount  of  the  contracts.  The  Supreme  Judicial 
Court  dismissed  in  May  a  petition  of  Attorney 
General  Dever  to  require  a  special  session  of  the 
General  Court,  for  correcting  alleged  faults  in  its 
act  of  1939  for  redistricting  the  State;  the  redis- 
tricting  act  was  sustained. 

Orders  on  account  of  the  Federal  Government's 
program  to  increase  the  Nation's  defenses  helped 
activity  in  some  Massachusetts  textile  industries 
and  in  other  lines  of  production,  as  the  year  ran 
on.  Dependency  on  public  aid  became  less  common. 

The  difficulties  of  the  New  Haven  Railroad  sys- 
tem and  of  its  subsidiary,  the  Old  Colony  Rail- 
road, were  not  permanently  settled,  but  the  litiga- 
tion over  the  proposal  to  cease  operation  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  Old  Colony's  un remunerative 
passenger  service  and  to  drop  the  line  from  the 
New  Haven  system  was  temporarily  settled;  in- 
surance companies  that  held  about  $72,000,000  of 
the  system's  securities  consented  to  further  opera- 
tion of  the  line  for  a  limited  time.  The  State  and 
Governor  Saltonstall  in  person  had  strenuously  op- 
posed abandonment,  holding  it  the  carrier's  duty 
to  go  on  operating,  even  though  at  a  loss,  in  the 
public  interest. 

Boston's  City  Council  adopted  for  the  current 
fiscal  year  a  budget  totaling  $46,245,217;  this  ex- 
ceeded that  of  the  previous  year  by  $630,832  and 
required  putting  the  rate  of  the  tax  on  property 
above  $4  per  $100  of  assessed  valuation.  Greater 
allowance  for  a  single  big  item,  the  removal  of 


snow,  made  up  the  whole  rise.  Heavy  and  rising 
taxation  stung  taxpayers  into  activity  in  some  of 
the  other  cities.  A  group  in  Cambridge  brought 
suit  and  won  in  the  Supreme  Judicial  Court,  in 
June,  a  decision  voiding  the  city's  proposed  budget 
as  tardily  and  inadequately  drawn ;  this  compelled 
Cambridge  to  limit  expenditure  to  the  total  of  the 
previous  year's  budget  In  Lowell  a  taxpayers'  as- 
sociation sought  by  petition  to  submit  the  munici- 
pal budget  to  a  popular  referendum.  See  FIRE  PRO- 
TECTION; WATER  WORKS  AND  WATER  PURIFICA- 
TION. 

The  Shell  Union  Oil  Corp.  announced  plans  to 
build  85  miles  of  pipe  line  connecting  Fall  River 
with  Boston  and  Worcester;  it  designed  to  use 
Fall  River  as  a  port  for  landing  the  product  of  its 
refineries  in  the  Gulf  States,  and  oil  was  to  be 
pumped  overland  to  the  big  market  in  the  State's 
two  chief  cities.  In  New  Bedford  the  remaining 
indictments  brought  against  several  local  officials 
in  1938  for  corrupt  conduct  were  dropped  in  May 
after  an  acquittal  of  Mayor  Carney  and  three  oth- 
ers tried  for  conspiracy  in  the  granting  of  con- 
tracts to  transport  WPA  workers.  The  Unemploy- 
ment Compensation  Commission,  after  an  investi- 
gation, charged  (April  17)  that  thousands  of  un- 
warranted claims  to  compensation  had  been  paid 
in  Lawrence.  The  town  of  Ware,  its  chief  indus- 
try having  moved  south  28  months  before,  was  re- 
ported in  February  to  have  successfully  followed 
the  example  of  Manchester,  N.H  ;  townsmen  had 
raised  money,  bought  the  abandoned  manufactory 
through  Ware  Industries,  Inc.,  a  company  created 
for  the  purpose,  and  rented  the  premises  among  17 
manufacturers  giving  employment  in  the  produc- 
tion of  hats,  shoes,  woolen  textiles,  and  wood- 
work. The  town  of  Natick  appropriated  for  the 
experiment  of  putting  bumps  in  the  roadway  in 
order  to  reduce  the  speed  of  vehicles  on  a  street 
much  frequented  by  children.  On  Cape  Cod  a  great 
tract  in  Bourne,  Sandwich,  Mashpee,  and  Falmouth 
towns  was  made  into  Camp  Edwards,  at  cost  of 
several  millions,  to  serve  for  training  United  States 
troops.  See  AQUEDUCTS;  BIRTH  CONTROL. 

Elections.  The  popular  vote  in  the  general  elec- 
tion (November  5)  went  to  Roosevelt  (Dem  ), 
1,076,522,  for  President  and  against  Willkie  ( Rep. ) , 
939,700,  in  the  proportion  of  about  8  to  7.  United 
States  Senator  David  I.  Walsh  (Dem  ),  1,088,838 
votes,  was  re-elected,  defeating  Henry  Parkman, 
Jr.  (Rep.),838,122 ;  but  Governor  Saltonstall  (Rep.), 
999,864  votes,  was  re-elected,  beating  Attorney  Gen- 
eral Paul  A.  Dever  (Dem.),  992,414,  by  a  margin 
of  a  few  thousand.  Democrats  gained  a  majority 
in  the  Governor's  Council,  a  body  of  sufficient 
powers  to  restrict  the  Governor's  action  in  many 
respects.  Referenda  in  many  localities  revealed  un- 
expectedly strong  support  for  proposals  to  get 
money  for  raising  old-age  pensions  to  $40  a  month 
by  operating  a  State  lottery. 

Officers.  Massachusetts'  chief  officers,  serving 
in  1940,  were:  Governor,  Leverett  Saltonstall 
(Rep.)  ;  Lieutenant  Governor,  Horace  T.  Cahill; 
Secretary  of  the  Commonwealth,  Frederic  W. 
Cook;  Treasurer,  William  E.  Hurley;  Auditor, 
Thomas  J.  Buckley;  Attorney  General,  Paul  A. 
Dever;  Commissioner  of  Education,  Walter  F. 
Downey. 

MASSILIA.  See  FRANCE  under  History. 

MATERNAL  WELFARE  AND  MOR- 
TALITY. See  CHILDREN'S  BUREAU. 

MAURITANIA.  See  FRENCH  WEST  AFRICA. 

MAURITIUS.  See  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 


MEAT 


445 


MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY 


MEAT.  See  LIVESTOCK. 

MECKLENBURG.  See  GERMANY  under 
Area  and  Population. 

MEDALS.  See  SCULPTURE.  For  medals  award- 
ed, see  the  subject. 

MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY.  The  past 
year  saw  no  striking  new  developments  in  the  field 
of  medicine,  but  rather  there  was  a  uniform  and 
orderly  advance  on  many  fronts.  In  particular,  ad- 
ditional experiences  tended  to  confirm  the  impor- 
tance of  previously  described  advances  in  the  fields 
of  chemotherapy  and  nutritional  research,  and  to 
indicate  that  they  may  be  of  even  greater  impor- 
tance than  at  first  had  been  expected.  In  other 
fields,  positions  tentatively  established  were  simi- 
larly consolidated.  World  War  II  was  not  with- 
out its  repercussions  in  medicine.  Interest  was  re- 
vived in  military  medicine  in  all  of  its  phases,  but 
perhaps  particularly  in  the  treatment  of  wounds 
and  of  compound  fractures,  and  in  the  use  of  pre- 
served blood,  or  plasma,  in  the  treatment  of  hem- 
orrhage and  shock.  Furthermore,  numerous  meas- 
ures were  taken  to  prepare  the  profession  against 
any  emergency  which  might  arise. 

Of  general  interest  to  medicine  in  its  sociologic 
and  economic  aspects  was  the  indictment  filed  on 
Dec.  20,  1938,  in  the  District  Court  of  the  United 
States  for  the  District  of  Columbia,  charging  the 
American  Medical  Association,  three  local  medi- 
cal societies,  and  twenty-one  individual  defendants 
with  conspiracy  to  violate  Section  3  of  the  Sher- 
man Anti-Trust  Act.  This  charge  was  based  on 
the  activities  of  certain  units  of  organized  medi- 
cine which,  it  was  alleged,  constituted  a  conspiracy 
to  restrain  Group  Health  Association,  a  non-profit 
co-operative  association  of  governmental  employ- 
ees in  the  District  of  Columbia,  "in  its  business  of 
arranging  for  the  provision  of  medical  care  and 
hospitahzation  to  its  members  and  their  dependents 
on  a  risk-sharing  prepayment  basis/1  As  reported 
in  the  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  demurrers  to  the  indict- 
ment had  been  sustained  by  Mr.  Justice  Procter, 
and  the  request  of  the  Department  of  Justice  that 
the  Supreme  Court  accept  jurisdiction  on  an  ap- 
peal (without  following  the  usual  course  through 
the  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals)  had  been  denied. 
In  the  meantime,  the  Government  had  appealed  the 
ruling  to  the  United  States  Court  of  Appeals  for 
the  District  of  Columbia,  and  on  Mar.  4,  1940,  this 
Court  filed  its  opinion  reversing  the  decision  of 
the  District  Court  and  remanding  the  case  to  the 
District  Court  for  a  trial  on  the  merits.  A  petition 
of  the  defendants  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  to  grant  a  writ  of  certiorari  to  re- 
view the  decision  of  the  Court  of  Appeals  was  op- 
posed by  the  Government,  and  was  denied  by  the 
Supreme  Court  on  June  3.  The  significance  of  this 
action  is  interpreted  bv  the  Editors  of  the  Journal 
of  the  American  Medical  Association  as  follows : 

"The  fact  that  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
declined  to  review  the  decision  of  the  Court  of  Appeals  at 
this  time,  does  not  mean,  as  all  lawyers  know,  that  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  approved  the  opinion 
of  the  Court  of  Appeals,  but  means  only  that  for  the  pres- 
ent the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  is  satisfied 
with  the  action  of  the  Court  of  Appeals  in  sending  the 
case  back  to  the  District  Court  for  a  trial  on  its  merits.  If 
the  result  of  such  a  trial  should  be  adverse  to  the  defend- 
ants, the  question  whether  the  practice  of  medicine  is  a 
trade,  within,  the  meaning  of  the  language  used  in  the 
Sherman  Anti-Trust  Law,  would  still  be  an  open  question 
for  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  to  decide  The 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  §  States  has  not  yet  decided 
that  the  practice  of  medicine  m  the  District  of  Columbia 
is  a  trade  within  the  meaning  of  the  language  of  the  Sher- 
man Anti-Trust  Law."  (.Jour.  Am.  Med.  sftt*.,  115:  222, 
1940.) 


On  October  17  United  States  Attorney  Curran 
announced  that  Justice  Morris  of  Criminal  Court 
No.  2  of  the  District  of  Columbia  had  disqualified 
himself  from  sitting  on  the  case  by  his  former  con- 
nection with  the  Justice  Department,  and  because 
of  the  fact  that  Justice  Letts  of  Court  No.  1  had 
a  heavy  assignment  for  the  next  few  weeks,  "I 
have  taken  the  case  off  the  assignment  and  it  will 
be  set  down  for  trial  in  the  future  on  a  date  agree- 
able to  both  the  Government  and  the  defendants." 

Of  importance  as  indicating  a  new  trend  in  med- 
icine was  the  publication  in  April  of  The  Direc- 
tory of  Medical  Specialists  Certified  by  American 
Boards,  (Columbia  University  Press,  New  York). 
This  volume,  prepared  under  the  editorial  direction 
of  Dr.  Paul  Titus  and  Dr.  J.  Stewart  Rodman, 
contains  the  names,  addresses,  and  a  brief  account 
of  the  training  of  some  14,000  specialists  who  have 
been  certified  by  the  various  examining  boards  for 
the  medical  specialties.  It  makes  readily  available  in- 
formation concerning  specialists  in  various  branches 
of  medicine  in  any  given  community.  As  the  im- 
portance of  certification  by  the  various  examining 
boards  gains  increasing  recognition,  it  seems  that 
not  only  may  hospital  appointments  be  conditioned 
by  evidence  of  competency  as  indicated  by  certifi- 
cation, but  that  there  may  even  be  developed  legal 
restrictions  concerning  so-called  specialization.  Al- 
though unquestionably  the  names  of  many  com- 
petent specialists  are  not  included  in  this  directory 
— since  they  have  not  as  yet  sought  certification — 
the  volume  does,  nevertheless,  make  available  the 
names  of  a  large  group  concerning  whose  training 
and  qualifications  as  specialists  there  can  be  no 
doubt. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  in  this  country 
fourteen  approved  examining  boards  in  the  medi- 
cal specialties,  the  work  of  which  is  co-ordinated 
by  the  Advisory  Board  for  the  Medical  Special- 
ties, organized  in  1938,  of  which  Dr  Willard  C. 
Rappleye  is  the  president.  The  specialties  covered 
are  anaesthesiology,  dermatology  and  syphilology, 
internal  medicine,  obstetrics  and  gynecology,  oph- 
thalmology, orthopedic  surgery,  otolaryngology,  pa- 
thology, pediatrics,  psychiatry  and  neurology,  ra- 
diology, surgery,  urology,  plastic  surgery,  and 
neurological  surgery. 

Although  the  requirements  for  certification  by 
the  different  boards  vary,  they  nevertheless  have 
certain  basic  features,  among  which  are  satisfac- 
tory moral  and  ethical  standing  in  the  profession, 
membership  in  some  of  the  units  of  organized  med- 
icine, limitation  of  practice  to  the  specialty,  an  ade- 
quate period  of  postgraduate  training  (usually  a 
minimum  of  three  years  in  an  approved  hospital), 
and  evidence  of  competency  as  furnished  by  writ- 
ten and  oral  examinations  as  well  as  in  some  in- 
stances by  observation  by  the  Board  of  the  tech- 
nical proficiency  of  the  applicant.  There  is  but  little 
question  that  the  specialty  boards  not  only  have 
afforded  a  great  impetus  to  the  improvement  of 
postgraduate  medical  education  in  this  country, 
but  also  that  they  will  insure  an  improved  standard 
of  practice  in  the  various  specialties 

Medical  Preparedness.  Events  of  the  past  year 
have  indicated  that  medicine  is  to  play  an  impor- 
tant role  in  the  National  Defense  Program.  On 
September  19  an  Executive  Order  was  issued  by 
the  Council  of  National  Defense,  with  the  approval 
of  the  President,  establishing  as  a  subordinate  body 
to  the  Council,  a  committee  to  be  known  as  The 
Health  and  Medical  Committee.  The  committee 
consists  of  Dr.  Irvin  Abell,  Chairman;  the  Sur- 


MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY 


446 


MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY 


geon  General  of  the  Army;  the  Surgeon  General 
of  the  Navy;  the  Surgeon  General  of  the  Public 
Health  Service,  and  the  Chairman  of  the  Division 
of  Medical  Sciences  of  the  National  Research 
Council.  The  duties  of  the  committee  are  to  "ad- 
vise the  Council  of  National  Defense  regarding 
the  health  and  medical  aspect  of  national  defense 
and  to  co-ordinate  health  and  medical  activities 
affecting  the  national  defense/1  It  was  a  source  of 
considerable  satisfaction  to  physicians  generally 
that  Dr.  Abell,  former  President  of  the  American 
Medical  Association  and  an  outstanding  figure  in 
organized  medicine,  was  made  chairman  of  this 
committee. 

Another  activity  of  physicians  has  been  in  rela- 
tion to  the  Selective  Service  Act  Throughout  the 
country  they  have  volunteered  their  services  to  the 
local  draft  boards.  The  importance  of  physicians 
in  deciding  whether  claims  for  exemption  on  ac- 
count of  physical  disability  are  just,  is  too  obvious 
to  deserve  comment  The  profession  is  proud  of 
the  part  it  will  take  in  the  selection  of  the  New 
Citizens  Army. 

Many  general  hospitals  and  particularly  those 
associated  with  medical  schools,  have  been  asked 
by  the  Surgeon  General  of  the  Army  to  organize 
military  hospitals  which,  in  case  of  emergency, 
could  function  promptly.  There  has  been  a  gratify- 
ing response  to  this  appeal,  and  a  number  of  plans 
for  base  hospitals  and  for  evacuation  hospitals  have 
been  set  up.  These  organizations  will  be  manned 
by  a  complete  staff  including  doctors,  nurses,  tech- 
nicians, and  lay  employees. 

Considerable  attention  is  being  devoted  to  the 
public  health  aspect  of  mobilization,  particularly 
in  regard  to  communicable  diseases,  the  control  of 
venereal  disease,  and  the  detection  and  prevention 
of  tuberculosis  in  recruits.  It  is  also  apparent  that 
the  widespread  physical  examination  of  young  men 
from  21  to  35  years  of  age  will  be  important  in  at 
least  two  aspects — first,  in  determining  the  degree 
of  physical  fitness  of  a  considerable  section  of  the 
general  population,  and  second  in  permitting  the 
early  diagnosis  and  treatment  of  many  remediable 
conditions. 

Certain  problems  are  beginning  to  arise  because 
of  the  induction  into  active  service  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  physicians  in  the  Medical  Reserve  Corps. 
Hospitals  are  beginning  to  feel  the  loss  of  junior 
staff  members  and  house  officers.  Also,  in  some 
smaller  communities,  a  considerable  burden  has 
been  placed  on  older  physicians  by  the  departure 
of  their  younger  colleagues. 

So  important  does  the  American  Medical  Asso- 
ciation consider  the  present  crisis  that  it  has  an- 
nounced the  forthcoming  publication  of  a  new  pe- 
riodical War  Medicine,  which  will  be  devoted  to 
consideration  of  the  various  phases  of  medical  serv- 
ice under  military  conditions.  Beginning  in  Janu- 
ary, 1941,  this  Journal  was  scheduled  to  be  issued 
bi-monthly. 

Surgery  of  Modern  Warfare.  Out  of  the  dis- 
astrous civil  war  in  Spain  came  the  report  of  a 
new  method  of  treatment  of  compound  fractures 
with  results  so  striking  that  itt  seems  likely  to  be 
adopted  by  military  surgeons  in  all  countries.  In 
a  small  book  by  J.  Trueta  (Treatment  of  War 
Wounds  and  Fractures  With  Special  Reference  to 
the  Closed  Method  as  Used  in  the  War  in  Spain, 
146  pp.  New  York,  Paul  B.  Hoeber,  Inc.,  1940) 
of  the  Spanish  Republican  Artny^  and  Chief  Sur- 
geon of  the  General  Hospital  of  Catalonia,  reports 
are  made  upon  the  treatment  of  1073  cases,  most 


of  them  due  to  war  wounds.  The  results  in  this 
group  were  considered  to  be  good  or  satisfactory 
in  9/6  cases,  and,  most  interesting  of  all,  there 
were  only  6  deaths.  The  method  had  as  its  chief 
aim  the  complete  immobilization  of  the  injured  ex- 
tremity in  a  circular  plaster  of  Paris  cast  after  a 
preliminary  careful  debridement  of  the  wound  and 
reduction  of  the  fracture.  This  simple  technique 
is  in  striking  contrast  to  the  elaborate  traction 
methods  of  the  last  world  war  and  the  associated 
irrigation  of  the  wound  with  chemicals.  A  method 
similar  in  principle  to  that  of  Trueta  has  long  been 
advocated  in  this  country  by  H.  Winnett  Orr  of 
Lincoln,  Neb.,  and  the  late  William  S.  Baer  of 
Baltimore,  but  it  had  been  used  chiefly  in  the  treat- 
ment of  osteomyelitis,  and  it  remained  for  Trueta 
to  apply  this  principle  of  physiologic  rest  of  the 
injured  extremity  to  a  large  series  of  war  wounds. 
Trueta  emphasizes  that  rest  allows  the  formation 
of  clots  in  the  small  veins  and  capillaries  of  the 
injured  area,  thus  preventing  the  spread  of  infec- 
tion, and  hastening  the  healing  of  the  wound.  It  is 
his  practice  to  apply  the  cast  directly  to  the  un- 
padded  skin  of  the  extremity  and  as  a  rule  it  is 
not  changed  for  a  period  of  10  to  15  days,  and  only 
then  chiefly  because  of  the  offensive  odor  of  the 
accumulated  wound  secretions.  Dr.  Rudolph  Matas, 
the  Dean  of  American  Surgeons,  visited  the  Cata- 
lonian  war  zone  and  had  the  opportunity  of  inspect- 
ing Trueta's  wards.  In  describing  his  experience 
he  says :  "I  had  an  opportunity  to  see  several  plas- 
ter encasements  removed  from  arms  and  thighs 
after  they  had  been  in  situ  for  from  15  to  21  days. 
The  stench  of  the  soiled  encasements  was  nauseat- 
ing. A  magma,  or  mush,  of  decomposing  pus,  wound 
secretions  including  sweat  and  other  matter,  cov- 
ered the  surface  of  the  wound  under  the  plaster 
bandage.  But  after  wiping  this  off  with  warm  wa- 
ter and  soap,  and  when  the  packs  were  removed, 
I  was  surprised  to  see  the  excellent,  healthy,  pink, 
well  granulated  appearance  of  the  wounds,  coupled 
with  a  very  satisfactory  condition  of  the  patients 
—no  fever,  no  pain,  good  appetite,  etc.  This  was 
indeed  a  revelation  which  I  had  not  anticipated, 
...  in  fact  if  there  was  one  essential  for  the  suc- 
cessful treatment  of  fractures,  it  was  plaster  of 
Paris.  By  the  close  of  the  war,  plaster  had  risen 
to  the  level  of  an  apotheosis  in  surgical  esteem." 
Another  American  suigeon  who  saw  service  with 
the  Republican  Army  in  Spain,  Dr.  Leo  Elosser, 
has  recently  written  very  interestingly  of  his  ex- 
periences (Jour.  Am.  Med.  Assn.  115 : 1848,  1940). 
Coller  and  Farris  have  recently  reviewed  the 
current  literature  concerning  war  injuries.  (Sur- 
gery, Gynecology  6-  Obstetrics,  72:15,  1941).  In 
regard  to  wounds  of  the  cranium,  they  point  out 
that  the  German  Army  during  the  Polish  campaign 
often  transported  those  with  head  wounds  to  the 
interior  by  air  in  order  that  they  might  have  the 
benefit  of  skilled  neurosurgical  assistance.  It  is  re- 
ported that  the  British  Army  has  prepared  mobile 
units  equipped  to  do  cranial  surgery  at  the  front. 
Both  of  these  reports  indicate  the  necessity  for  the 
treatment  of  those  with  cranial  injuries  by  sur- 
geons especially  trained  in  this  field,  and  having 
access  to  adequate  equipment.  Concerning  thoracic 
and  abdominal  wounds,  emphasis  is  again  placed 
upon  the  importance  of  early  treatment,  since  the 
chances  of  survival  vary  inversely  with  the  period 
allowed  to  elapse  before  treatment  is  instituted.  It 
seems  probable  that  air  transport  will  play  an  in- 
creasingly important  role  in  the  evacuation  of  the 
wounded.  Other  items  of  interest  are  the  develop- 


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ment  of  light  armor  for  various  parts  of  the  body. 
In  the  past  war,  for  instance,  it  was  demonstrated 
that  the  incidence  of  cranial  wounds  could  be  re- 
duced from  15  per  cent  to  3  per  cent  by  the  use 
of  steel  helmets.  Since  many  wounds  are  caused 
by  small  missiles  of  low  velocity,  light  armor  is 
now  being  proposed  for  the  chest,  for  the  hands, 
and  for  the  eyes. 

The  Use  of  Desiccated  Blood  Plasma. 
When  whole  blood  is  centrifuged,  the  solid  ele- 
ments (red  blood  cells)  are  separated  from  the 
fluid  component  (plasma).  For  sonic  time  it  has 
been  recognized  that  in  certain  conditions,  such  as 
shock  and  severe  burns,  only  plasma  is  lost  from 
the  circulatory  system ;  consequently  the  replace- 
ment of  plasma  by  transfusion  is  more  effective 
than  is  the  administration  of  whole  blood.  The  re- 
cent development  of  methods  by  which  blood  plas- 
ma may  be  concentrated  by  means  of  drying  from 
the  frozen  state,  promises  to  be  of  very  great  im- 
portance. The  "adtevac"  process  of  Hill  and  Pf eif- 
fer  at  the  Baylor  University  School  of  Medicine, 
apparently  offers  a  reliable  and  inexpensive  meth- 
od for  the  desiccation  of  blood  in  large  quantities. 
(Annals  of  Internal  Medicine  14 : 201, 1940.)  Dried 
blood  plasma  has  certain  unique  advantages.  It  may 
be  stored  practically  indefinitely  without  deteriora- 
tion, and  there  is  no  loss  of  antibodies  or  of  com- 
plement Because  of  the  small  volume  of  the  dried 
product,  it  may  be  transported  in  large  quantities 
with  ease.  Since  it  is  prepared  from  pooled  plasma 
of  various  types,  the  agglutinins  are  absorbed  and 
consequently  it  may  be  given  without  the  necessity 
of  typing  or  cross  matching  with  the  blood  of  the 
recipient.  Finally,  since  the  plasma  can  be  redis- 
solved  in  small  amounts  of  water,  it  may  be  given 
in  as  concentrated  a  form  as  desired  Because  of 
the  concentration  it  may  be  administered  with 
greater  simplicity  and  speed  than  whole  blood  The 
chief  uses  of  concentrated  plasma,  according  to 
Hill,  are  first  the  regulation  of  blood  volume ;  sec- 
ond, control  of  plasma  protein  level,  and  third,  spe- 
cial adjustment  of  fluid  balance  where  hypertonic 
effects  are  essential.  Only  in  instances  where  red 
blood  cells  must  be  added  to  the  patient's  circula- 
tion is  transfusion  of  whole  blood  definitely  supe- 
rior. 

Interest  in  blood  substitutes  has,  of  course,  been 
greatly  stimulated  by  the  present  war.  Two  groups 
of  English  workers,  Buttle  and  his  co-workers  at 
M  uldlesex  Hospital,  and  Aylward  and  his  colleagues 
in  Manchester,  have  reported  experimental  studies 
of  the  use  of  concentrated  plasma  and  serum.  Ac- 
cording to  the  former,  plasma  is  the  most  effica- 
cious blood  substitute  of  any  of  the  materials  which 
they  have  studied.  Aylward  has  been  particularly 
interested  in  the  technique  of  the  drying  and  con- 
centration of  plasma,  and  is  convinced  of  the  su- 
periority, particularly  so  far  as  use  in  war  is  con- 
cerned, of  dried  plasma  over  whole  plasma.  (Buttle 
et  aL,  Lancet  2-507,  1940.)  (Aylward  et  al.,  Brit. 
Med.  Jour.  2:  4165,  1940.) 

The  first  extensive  report  of  the  use  of  desic- 
cated plasma  in  shock  is  that  of  Hill,  Muirhead, 
Ashworth,  and  Tigertt  (Jour.  Am.  Med.  Assn 
1941— in  press).  They  point  out  that  the  essential 
aim  of  the  treatment  of  shock,  regardless  of  its 
cause,  is  the  restoration  of  circulating  blood  vol- 
ume since  the  syndrome  is  generally  agreed  to  de- 
pend upon  a  diminution  of  the  blood  volume  in  re- 
lation to  the  capacity  of  the  vascular  system.  Con- 
centrated blood  plasma  appears  to  be  ideal  in  this 
respect  since  larger  amounts  of  protein  can  be 


more  rapidly  placed  into  the  circulation  than  by 
any  other  method,  and  because  the  hypertonic  plas- 
ma tends  to  effect  an  immediate  reversal  of  the 
abnormal  physiologic  changes  of  shock — that  is  to 
say,  fluid  is  returned  to  the  blood  stream  from  tis- 
sues into  which  it  had  previously  been  lost.  Finally, 
it  seems  probable  that  concentrated  plasma  directly 
stimulates  the  tone  of  the  vascular  system  and 
causes  a  decrease  in  the  permeability  of  the  blood 
vessels.  They  report  upon  the  use  of  concentrated 
blood  plasma  in  45  carefully  studied  cases  of  shock 
of  various  types.  Of  this  number  19  cases  were 
considered  to  be  severe,  16  moderately  severe,  and 
10  mild.  The  results  of  treatment  in  this  group 
were  considered  to  be  excellent  in  36  cases,  fair  in 
8  cases,  but  poor  in  but  1  case. 

They  also  have  found  concentrated  plasma  to  be 
of  great  value  in  treatment  of  the  shock  associated 
with  severe  hemorrhage,  and  point  out  that  the 
loss  of  red  cells  does  not  reach  a  critical  level  un- 
til 60  to  75  per  cent  have  escaped  from  the  circu- 
lation. It  has  been  their  practice,  then,  in  cases  of 
shock  associated  with  hemorrhage,  to  administer 
plasma  first  and  then  as  the  blood  pressure  rises, 
to  give  in  addition  transfusions  of  whole  blood. 
One  point  emphasized  by  these  workers  is  the  safe- 
ty of  the  method.  Previous  reports  have  indicated 
that  reactions  to  the  administration  of  concentrated 
plasma  might  be  frequent.  The  Baylor  workers, 
however,  encountered  only  three  febrile  reactions 
in  299  administrations  of  concentrated  plasma.  They 
believe  that  if  the  dried  material  is  dissolved  in 
suitably  prepared  non-pyrogenic  water,  reactions 
will  be  very  rare  indeed. 

Without  reporting  a  series  of  cases  in  detail, 
Hill  indicates  that  concentrated  plasma  is  likely  to 
prove  of  great  use  in  the  treatment  of  a  number 
of  other  conditions ;  among  them  first,  severe  burns 
in  which  loss  of  plasma  is  probably  the  chief  cause 
of  early  death ;  second,  in  a  variety  of  states  char- 
acterized by  a  decrease  in  the  level  of  the  blood 
proteins;  and  third,  for  its  hypertonic  effect  in 
such  conditions  as  increased  intracramal  pressure. 
Among  other  conditions  in  which  its  use  is  being 
studied  are  nephrosis  and  the  toxemias  of  preg- 
nancy. 

It  seems  likely  that  the  administration  of  con- 
centrated plasma  will  come  to  be  a  commonly  used 
and  effective  therapeutic  agent  quite  comparable 
in  its  status  to  the  transfusion  of  whole  blood.  Al- 
though its  uses  probably  will  be  many,  at  the  pres- 
ent, because  of  the  world  war,  interest  will  be  cen- 
tered chiefly  in  its  use  in  hemorrhage  and  shock. 
Preparations  are  already  being  made  to  supply  the 
British  Army  with  a  large  amount  of  the  material 
derived  from  donated  blood.  It  seems  not  unlikely 
that  it  may  be  found  practicable  in  the  stress  of 
military  combat  to  administer  adequate  amounts 
of  concentrated  plasma  to  the  wounded  in  the  field 
Certainly  h  is  a  method  of  treatment  which  may  be 
used  at  the  emergency  aid  station.  It  should  in 
many  instances  prove  to  be  a  lifesaving  measure. 

Flosdorf,  Stokes,  and  Mudd,  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  who  have  for  some  time  been  in- 
terested in  the  preparation  of  dried  plasma,  are 
carrying  on  studies  similar  to  Hill's,  and  in  Sep- 
tember reported  upon  a  method  of  desiccation  called 
the  "desivac"  process  which,  they  say,  "is  more 
economical  than  earlier  procedures  with  vacuum 
drying  on  a  large  scale  required,  for  instance  in 
the  preservation  of  human  blood  plasma  for  use  as 
a  blood  substitute.  It  is  entirely  mechanical  in  op- 
eration ;  the  water  vapor  is  removed  directly  from 


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the  high  vacuum  space,  and  is  discharged  to  the 
atmosphere  in  the  liquid  phase.  Low  temperature 
condensation  or  chemical  dcsiccants  are  not  re- 
quired." (Jour.  Am.  Mcd.  Assn.  115: 1095,  1940.) 

The  present  interest  in  matters  pertaining  to  the 
composition  of  the  blood  in  relation  to  surgical 
problems  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  a  large  part  of 
the  program  of  the  meeting  of  the  American  Sur- 
gical Association  held  this  year  in  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
was  devoted  to  a  symposium  on  the  fluid  and  elec- 
trolyte needs  of  the  surgical  patient.  Such  subjects 
as  the  structure  of  the  blood,  blood  preservation, 
sodium  chloride  metabolism,  plasma  volume  in 
acute  intestinal  obstruction,  plasma  loss  in  severe 
dehydration  and  shock,  and  hypoproteinemia  were 
discussed 

It  may  be  mentioned  in  passing  that  at  the  pres- 
ent time  studies  are  being  carried  on  by  Wangen- 
steen  at  the  University  of  Minnesota  on  the  use  of 
bovine  plasma  administered  to  man.  (Proc.  of  the 
Society  for  Experimental  Biology  and  Medicine 
43 . 6161,  1940.)  Experiences  to  date,  while  favor- 
able, are  too  limited  to  allow  of  prediction  as  to  its 
ultimate  utility.  Should  the  transfusion  of  bovine 
plasma  prove  practicable,  it  is  clear  that  an  un- 
limited source  of  plasma  will  have  been  found 
Such  an  advance  would  certainly  be  one  of  the  very 
first  order. 

Sulfanilamide  and  Its  Derivatives.  Experi- 
ences gained  during  the  past  year  have  demon- 
strated conclusively  the  importance  of  the  sulfon- 
amide  group  of  drugs  in  the  treatment  of  infec- 
tions. Contrary  to  the  usual  experience  with  new 
therapeutic  agents,  the  early  hopes  aroused  by  re- 
ports of  the  use  of  sulfanilamide  have  not  only 
proved  to  be  well  founded,  but  rather  it  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  the  importance  of  this  new  thera- 
peutic agent  is  only  now  beginning  to  be  realized 
At  present  it  is  apparent  that  the  specific  action  of 
sulfanilamide  and  its  related  compounds  in  pyo- 
genic  infections  is  clearly  as  striking  as  that  of 
quinine  in  malaria  and  the  arsphenammes  in  syph- 
ilis. A  representative  opinion  is  that  of  Dr.  E.  K. 
Marshall,  Jr.,  Professor  of  Pharmacology  in  The 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  in  an  address  published 
in  the  North  Carolina  Medical  Journal,  March, 
1940,  that  "its  introduction  into  medicine  is  to  be 
ranked  with  the  two  great  therapeutic  discoveries 
in  all  medicine — the  discovery  of  anesthesia  and 
that  of  aseptic  surgery." 

In  previous  YEAR  BOOKS  the  story  of  the  dis- 
covery of  sulfanilamide  and  of  its  introduction  in- 
to clinical  medicine  has  been  told,  and,  in  1938,  the 
related  compound,  sulfapyridine,  was  described. 
This  year  we  report  on  still  another  derivative — 
sulfathiazole — which  has  been  found  to  be  very 
effective  in  the  treatment  of  infections  caused  by 
the  staphylpcoccus. 

Before  discussing  the  new  derivative,  certain 
points  of  interest  regarding  the  mode  of  action  of 
sulfanilamide  are  worthy  of  mention  Among  these 
is  the  important  contribution  of  Lock  wood  and 
Lynch  (Jour.  Am.  Med.  Assn.  114:  935,  1940)  who 
have  shown  that  the  bacteripstatic  action  of  sulfa- 
nilamide and  sulfapyridine  is  most  marked  in  cul- 
ture media  completely  devoid  of  peptone.  Since  pep- 
tone is  one  of  the  end  products  of  prpteolytic 
changes  in  tissue  resulting  from  necrosis,  these 
findings  help  to  explain  the  clinical  observation  that 
sulfanilamide  is  much  more  effective  in  the  treat- 
ment of  generalized  or  of  diffuse  spreading  infec- 
tions than  in  the  treatment  of  localized  lesions, 
such  as  abscesses,  which  contain  necrotic  tissue. 


Another  interesting  discovery  is  that  of  Harris  and 
Kohn  (Science  92: 11,  1940)  that  bacteria  grown 
and  subcultured  in  the  presence  of  sulfonamide 
drugs  might  eventually  develop  strains  against 
which  the  sulfonamides  would  have  little  or  no  bac- 
teripstatic action.  This  finding  throws  light  on  the 
clinical  observation  that  in  the  presence  of  long 
continued  inadequate  treatment  .with  sulfanilamide, 
the  bacteria  appear  to  develop  a  resistance  to  the 
drug. 

Among  the  new  uses  listed  for  sulfanilamide 
was  its  prophylactic  administration  prior  to  opera- 
tions involving  a  resection  of  the  bowel.  Lockwood 
and  Ravdin  (Surgery  8:43,  1940)  found  that  by 
this  means  they  were  able  definitely  to  lower  the 
incidence  of  postoperative  peritonitis.  Sulfanila- 
mide has  also  been  recommended  in  the  treatment 
of  chronic  undermining,  burrowing  ulcer  of  the 
skin,  a  dreaded  complication  sometimes  following 
the  drainage  of  peritoneal  abscesses,  and  in  the 
treatment  of  patients  with  severe  burns. 

Several  reports  have  attested  its  value  in  the 
treatment  of  chancroid,  in  which  a  shorter  healing 
time  of  the  genital  ulcer  has  been  found  Among 
conditions  in  which  its  use  has  been  recommended, 
on  an  experimental  basis,  are  Hodgkin's  Disease, 
tularemia,  and  lupus  erythematosus.  It  has  also 
been  used  experimentally  in  diphtheria  and  in  sub- 
acute  bacterial  endocarditis. 

Other  findings  of  importance  are  that  the  cyano- 
sis which  frequently  appears  as  a  transient  mani- 
festation during  sulfanilamide  therapy,  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  methemoglobin  in  the  blood,  and, 
it  may  be  mentioned,  is  of  little  clinical  significance. 
It  has  been  found  that  the  cyanosis  may  be  coun- 
teracted by  nicotinic  acid  (a  constituent  of  the 
vitamin  B  complex)  and  by  methylene  blue. 

A  point  of  practical  importance  is  the  recent 
demonstration  that  sulfanilamide  is  satisfactorily 
absorbed  from  the  rectum.  This  route  of  adminis- 
tration may  be  useful  in  the  presence  of  nausea 
and  vomiting  which  sometimes  follow  oral  admin- 
istration of  the  drug. 

Numerous  reports  during  the  year  have  again 
emphasized  the  importance  of  the  toxic  phenomena 
which  may  be  associated  with  the  use  of  the  sulfon- 
amide compounds,  and  have  indicated  the  necessity 
for  the  careful  study  both  by  clinical  and  by  lab- 
oratory means,  of  the  patients  undergoing  treat- 
ment, since  most  of  the  toxic  effects  disappear  if 
the  drug  is  promptly  withdrawn  upon  their  occur- 
rence. 

During  the  past  year  studies  have  been  made  of 
the  use  of  sulfanilamide  in  the  local  treatment  of 
wounds,  in  contrast  to  its  systemic  administration. 
Preliminary  results  seem  to  be  quite  encouraging. 
Jensen  and  his  co-workers  at  the  Minneapolis  Gen- 
eral Hospital  have  treated  thirty-nine  cases  of  com- 
pound fractures  and  two  compound  dislocations  by 
placing  crystalline  sulfanilamide  in  the  wounds  at 
the  time  of  debndement  and  reduction  of  the  frac- 
tures. They  report  that  all  of  these  wounds  healed 
without  infection.  In  a  similar  series  of  ninety- 
four  compound  fractures  treated  in  the  same  fash- 
ion, except  that  no  sulfanilamide  was  employed, 
27  per  cent  developed  infection,  and  in  5  per  cent 
of  the  cases  amputation  was  necessary.  These  au- 
thors believe  that  the  increased  effectiveness  of 
sulfanilamide  used  locally  may  be  explained  by  the 
fact  that  a  local  concentration  of  tne  drug  from 
seventy  to  eighty  times  greater  than  that  occurring 
with  systemic  administration  may  be  obtained.  Key 
and  Burford  conducted  experimental  studies  which 


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MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY 


showed  that  the  local  implantation  of  sulfanilamide 
in  compound  fractures  had  no  inhibitory  effect  up- 
on the  healing  of  the  bones.  Sulfanilamide  has  also 
been  used  in  the  local  treatment  of  perineal  wounds 
following  resection  of  the  rectum  by  Mayo  and 
Miller.  Herrell  and  Brown,  also  of  the  Mayo  Clin- 
ic, have  reported  encouraging  results  from  its  local 
use  in  infected  wounds  of  the  scalp,  thorax,  and 
abdomen.  Similar  studies  are  currently  being  car- 
ried on  in  many  clinics,  and  it  is  probable  that 
within  the  next  year  the  value  of  sulfanilamide 
used  locally,  as  well  as  its  limitations,  will  be  de- 
termined. Informal  clinical  reports  from  England 
and  from  the  Continent  indicate  that  there  is  a  con- 
siderable interest  in  the  use  of  sulfanilamide  in 
war  wounds,  but  it  is  probably  too  early  yet  to  es- 
timate just  how  effective  this  form  of  treatment 
will  be. 

Sulfathiazole.  During  the  past  year  a  new  de- 
rivative of  sulfanilamide — sulfathiazole — has  been 
the  subject  of  extensive  experimental  study  and 
of  widespread  clinical  trial.  This  compound  2  (para- 
ammo-benzene-sulfonamide)  thiazole  is  a  sulfanil- 
amide derivative  of  hetero-cychc  amines,  first  pre- 
pared by  Fosbinder  and  Walter  (Jour.  Am.  Chem. 
Soc.  61-20,  32,  1939).  Similar  compounds  have 
been  synthesized  by  Lott  and  Bergeim.  Preliminary 
experiences  indicate  that  it  probably  will  be  an  im- 
poitant  addition  to  the  sulfonamide  series. 

It  has  been  found  in  animal  experiments  that  the 
acute  toxicity  of  the  drug  is  definitely  less  than 
that  of  sulfapyridme  Its  chronic  toxicity,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  probably  about  the  same  as  that  of 
sulfapyridme.  In  clinical  use  its  administration  is 
much  less  frequently  followed  by  nausea  and  vom- 
iting than  is  that  of  sulfapyridme — a  finding  of 
some  importance.  It  is  true,  however,  that  such 
toxic  phenomena  as  drug  fever  and  drug  rashes 
are  not  uncommon  with  sulfathiazole  therapy,  and 
several  instances  of  a  rather  peculiar  congestion  of 
the  conjunctiva  and  sclera  associated  with  a  gen- 
eralized erythcmatous  skin  rash,  have  been  observed. 
It  is,  therefore,  obvious  that  its  clinical  use  must 
be  attended  by  the  same  rigid  precautions  as  have 
been  found  necessary  in  the  administration  of  sulf- 
anilamide and  sulfapyridine. 

Sulfathiazole  seems  to  be  absorbed  more  rapidly 
and  excreted  more  readily  than  sulfapyridine.  Be- 
cause a  smaller  fraction  of  the  drug  is  subject  to 
acetylation  in  the  body,  it  seems  likely  that  pre- 
cipitation in  the  kidneys  with  the  formation  of 
small  urinary  calculi  will  occur  less  commonly  than 
in  the  case  of  sulfapyridine.  The  therapeutic  effect 
of  sulfathiazole  seems  to  be  about  equal  to  that  of 
sulfapyridine  in  the  treatment  of  pneumococcic, 
streptococcic,  and  meningococcic  infections,  but  it 
apparently  is  definitely  superior  to  sulfapyridine  in 
the  treatment  of  infections  caused  by  the  staphy- 
lococcus.  In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  it 
appears  to  be  the  drug  of  choice  in  the  treatment 
of  staphylococcic  sepsis,  staphylococcic  pneumonia, 
and  carbuncle.  It  has  also  proved  to  be  effective  in 
certain  cases  of  staphylococcic  osteomyelitis.  In  in- 
fections of  the  urinary  tract  it  promises  to  be  of 
considerable  value,  according  to  Carroll,  Kappell, 
and  Lewis  (Jour.  Am.  Med.  Assn.  115 : 1350, 1940). 
It  has  been  found  to  be  effective  against  the  Staph- 
ylococcus,  Gonococcus,  Streptococcus  f  aecalis,  Aer- 
obacter  aerogenes,  and  to  a  less  extent  against 
Bacillus  proteus  and  Bacillus  pyocyaneus.  They  re- 
port recovery  following  its  use  in  cases  of  renal 
abscesses,  carbuncle,  furunculosis,  osteomyelitis, 
septicemia,  ulcers  of  the  penis,  pyelonephritis,  im- 


petigo, and  other  infections.  Spink  and  Hanson 
(Jour.  Am.  Med.  Assn.  115:840,  1940)  have  re- 
ported on  the  use  of  sulfathiazole  in  128  patients 
suffering  from  a  variety  of  infections.  In  33  cases 
of  pneumococcic  pneumonia  sulfathiazole  appeared 
to  be  fully  as  effective  as  sulfapyridine.  Fifteen 
consecutive  patients  with  staphylococcic  septicemia 
were  successfully  treated  with  sulfathiazole.  They 
also  found  it  to  be  of  value  in  urinary  tract  infec- 
tions. Flippin,  Schwartz,  and  Rose  (Annals  of  In- 
ternal Medicine  13 : 2038,  1940)  contrasted  a  series 
of  100  cases  of  pneumonia  treated  with  sulfathia- 
zole with  a  similar  number  treated  with  sulfapyri- 
dine, and  found  that  although  sulfapyridine  ap- 
peared to  reduce  the  temperature  more  rapidly  than 
sulfathiazole,  the  mortality  rate  was  slightly  low- 
er in  the  sulfathiazole  series.  Furthermore,  patients 
treated  with  sulfathiazole  were  less  subject  to  nau- 
sea and  vomiting. 

In  summary,  then,  it  may  be  said  that  this  new 
sulfanilamide  derivative  appears  to  possess  certain 
very  definite  advantages  over  both  sulfanilamide 
and  sulfapyridine,  particularly  in  the  treatment  of 
staphylococcic  infections.  But,  as  Dr.  Perrin  H 
Long,  one  of  the  outstanding  American  students 
of  chemotherapy,  has  said,  "the  evaluation  of  these 
new  chemotherapeutic  compounds  will  necessitate 
extensive  experimental  and  clinical  investigation  in 
order  to  determine  their  efficiency  in  the  control 
of  infections  and  their  clinical  toxic  manifestations. 
Until  the  time  when  such  data  are  in  hand,  it  is 
hoped  that  enthusiasms  do  not  outrun  common 
sense." 

High  Blood  Pressure.  Dr.  Soma  Weiss,  of 
Harvard,  has  contributed  an  excellent  review  of 
medical  progress  relating  to  arterial  hypertension 
(Neiv  England  Jour,  of  Medicine  223 :  939,  1940). 
Probably  the  most  important  development  in  this 
field  has  been  the  recognition  of  the  importance  of 
decreased  blood  flow  through  the  kidneys  (so  called 
renal  ischemia)  as  a  cause  of  high  blood  pressure 
in  man.  We  have  previously  reported  (1937  YEAR 
BOOK)  the  fundamental  studies  of  GoWblatt  on  ex- 
perimental hypertension  in  which  it  was  conclu- 
sively demonstrated  that  a  persistent  elevation  of 
blood  pressure  could  be  produced  at  will  in  animals 
by  a  constriction  of  the  renal  arteries  by  means  of 
a  specially  devised  clamp.  It  now  seems  clear  that 
a  similar  renal  ischemia  may  be  brought  about  in 
man  by  a  variety  of  pathologic  processes.  These 
Weiss  classifies  as  (1)  "congenital  malformations" 
(such  as  hypoplasia  of  the  renal  artery),  (2)  "In- 
flammatory vascular  diseases"  (such  as  nephritis 
and  renal  infections),  and  (3)  "Degenerative  vas- 
cular diseases"  (such  as  arteriosclerotic  occlusive 
lesions  of  the  renal  artery,  and  diffuse  arterioscle- 
rosis of  the  whole  renal  arterial  system).  He  states, 
".  .  .  renal  ischemia  is  considered  today  the  most 
important  cause  of  hypertension."  It  should  be 
pointed  out,  however,  that  high  blood  pressure  is 
still  thought  to  be  caused  in  many  instances  by  a 
diffuse  vascular  disease  (arterial  and  arteriolar 
sclerosis)  without  renal  ischemia,  and  that  it  also 
may  result  from  non-organic  vascular  disease  asso- 
ciated with  several  endocrine  and  nervous  disor- 
ders. 

Although  active  investigation  regarding  the  mech- 
anism by  which  renal  ischemia  produces  hyperten- 
sion is  being  carried  on,  no  final  answer  is  as  yet 
available.  Studies  indicate,  however,  that  the  ische- 
mic  kidney  liberates  into  the  blood  stream  a  mate- 
rial which  causes  arterial  constriction  and  eleva- 
tion of  the  blood  pressure.  Since  this  phenomenon 


MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY  450 

occurs  in  the  denervated  kidney  as  well  as  in  the 
intact  one,  it  appears  to  have  a  humoral  rather 
than  a  nervous  basis.  Pressor  substances  derived 
from  the  kidney  (notably  "renin")  are  being  ex- 
tensively studied,  but  interpretation  of  these  studies 
is  as  yet  difficult. 

One  interesting  line  of  work  is  that  of  Williams, 
Grollman,  and  Harrison  who  prepared  a  kidney 
extract  which  contained  an  anti-pressor  substance, 
which  when  injected  before  renin  would  diminish 
the  pressor  effect  of  the  latter,  and  which  would 
reduce  the  blood  pressure  of  rats  with  hyperten- 
sion due  to  the  removal  of  renal  tissue.  In  some  of 
the  experiments  untoward  effects  followed  the  fall 
in  blood  pressure. 

Recently  these  same  workers  have  treated  a 
small  group  of  hypertensive  patients  with  this  renal 
anti-pressor  substance,  and  in  most  of  the  subjects 
a  decline  in  pressure  was  observed.  (Jour.  Am. 
Med.  Assn.  115:1169,  1940).  Further  clinical  re- 
ports of  these  workers  will  be  awaited  with  interest. 

The  Role  of  the  Vertebral  Veins  in  the 
Spread  of  Cancer.  An  important  anatomical  study 
was  that  of  Batson  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania regarding  the  function  of  the  vertebral  veins, 
and  their  part  in  the  spread  of  metastases  (Annals 
of  Surgery,  112:138,  1940).  Pathologists  and  clini- 
cians alike  in  the  past  have  been  puzzled  by  the  oc- 
currence of  widespread  deposits  of  cancer  through- 
out the  body  without  carcmomatous  involvement 
of  lungs,  through  whose  blood  vessels  it  was 
thought  the  cancer  emboli  must  have  passed  in 
order  to  reach  the  periphery.  This  phenomenon  of 
"paradoxical  metastasis"  required  the  assumption 
that  the  tumor  emboli  must  be  so  small  as  to  be 
able  to  pass  through  the  capillaries  of  the  lung,  or 
that  having  lodged  there,  for  some  reason  they 
failed  to  grow.  By  a  series  of  injection  experi- 
ments, Batson  has  shown  that  the  vertebral  venous 
system,  a  network  of  thin  walled  veins  lying  about 
the  vertebrae  and  extending  from  the  cranium  to 
the  pelvis,  may  serve  as  a  shunt  by  means  of  which 
blood  may  flow  around  the  pulmonary  circulation. 
The  vertebral  veins  are  poor  in  valves  and  have 
numerous  anastamoses  with  the  systemic  veins  at 
different  levels.  Batson  believes  that  the  flow  of 
blood  through  the  vertebral  veins  is  relatively  slow, 
but  is  increased  whenever  pressure  in  the  caval 
system  rises  because  of  coughing  or  straining. 
This  route  of  spread,  he  thinks,  is  relatively  com- 
mon in  cancer  of  the  breast  and  prostate,  and  is 
also  that  frequently  observed  in  the  metastasis  of 
infectious  processes. 

The  Co-Existence  of  Brucella  Infection 
and  Hodgkin's  Disease.  In  the  1938  YEAR  BOOK 
it  was  reported  that  Parsons  and  Poston  of  the 
Duke  University  School  of  Medicine  had  isolated 
the  organism  of  Malta  fever,  Brucella  mehtensis, 
from  the  lymph  nodes  of  patients  suffering  from 
Hodgkin's  Disease.  It  was  pointed  out  that  these 
studies  opened  an  interesting  new  field  of  investi- 
gation into  the  etiology  of  this  disease,  the  cause 
of  which  is  as  yet  undetermined  In  December, 
Wise  and  Poston  reported  (Jour.  Am.  Med.  Assn. 
115:1976,  1940)  the  results  of  a  continuation  of 
the  study  previously  mentioned  They  stated  that 
in  14  consecutive  cases  of  Hodgkin's  Disease  they 
had  been  able  to  demonstrate  the  co-existence  of 
Brucella  infection  as  evidenced  by  the  isolation  of 
Brucella  melitensis  from  blood  or  lymph  node  cul- 
tures. At  the  same  time,  Brucella  had  been  isolated 
but  once  from  blood  or  lymph  node  cultures  from 
a  much  larger  group  of  patients  in  the  same  com- 


MBDICINB  AND  SURGERY 


munity  suffering  from  diseases  involving  the  lymph 
nodes,  other  than  those  with  Hodgkin's  Disease. 
The  authors  pointed  out  that  although  their  obser- 
vations suggested  the  possible  etiologic  importance 
of  Brucella  in  the  Hodgkin's  Disease  process,  they 
had  not  as  yet  been  able  to  produce  Hodgkin's  Dis- 
ease in  animals  by  the  injection  of  blood  or  lymph 
node  suspensions  from  patients  with  Hodgkin's 
Disease,  and  thus  had  not  been  able  to  fulfill  the 
rigid  postulates  set  down  by  Koch  many  years  ago 
as  essential  in  proving  the  etiologic  significance  of 
organisms  in  disease  processes.  They  state,  how- 
ever, that  "although  the  data  in  this  study  had  not 
established  an  etiologic  relationship  of  Brucella  to 
Hodgkin's  Disease,  it  is  suggested  that  the  clinical 
course  of  Hodgkin's  Disease  may  be  significantly 
influenced  by  Brucella  infection." 

Tobacco  and  Coronary  Disease.  An  interest- 
ing report  of  the  past  year  was  that  of  English, 
Willius  and  Berkson  of  the  Mayo  Clinic  (Jour. 
Am.  Med.  Assn.  115: 1327,  1940)  on  the  relation 
of  tobacco  to  coronary  disease.  This  subject  is  of 
special  importance  because  of  the  apparently  in- 
creasing number  of  deaths  from  coronary  artery 
disease  in  this  country,  and  because  of  the  increas- 
ing consumption  of  tobacco  products.  In  contrast- 
ing the  records  of  1000  male  patients  over  40  years 
of  age  who  had  coronary  disease  with  1000  without 
coronary  disease,  they  found  that  among  the  first 
group  69.8  per  cent  were  smokers,  while  in  the 
latter  group  66.3  per  cent  were  persons  who  smoked. 
This  represented  an  increase  of  only  3  5  ±  2.1  per 
cent  smokers  among  patients  who  had  coronary 
disease.  However,  when  the  incidence  of  smokers 
in  the  various  age  groups  was  compared,  it  was 
found  that  of  187  patients  with  coronary  disease 
between  the  ages  of  40  to  49,  149  were  smokers 
(79.7  per  cent),  while  among  302  patients  without 
coronary  disease  only  187  were  smokers  (61  9  per 
cent)  a  difference  of  17.8  =t  4  per  cent,  which  is 
statistically  significant. 

In  another  instance  when  the  records  of  a  group 
of  smokers  between  the  ages  of  40  and  49  were 
compared  with  those  of  a  group  of  non-smokers, 
the  incidence  of  coronary  disease  was  found  to  be 
4.8  per  cent  among  the  former  and  1.8  per  cent 
among  the  latter.  Between  the  ages  of  50  and  59, 
the  relative  figures  were  62  per  cent  among  the 
smokers  and  2  6  per  cent  among  non-smokers.  Be- 
yond the  age  of  60  no  noteworthy  differences  were 
observed. 

Finally,  in  a  group  of  males  between  40  and  49 
the  incidence  of  coronary  disease  among  those  who 
were  non-smokers,  those  who  smoked  moderately, 
and  those  who  smoked  excessively  was  compared, 
and  it  was  found  that  among  the  non-smokers  1 
per  cent  had  coronary  disease ;  among  the  moderate 
smokers  4.6  per  cent  had  coronary  disease,  and 
among  the  heavy  smokers  5  9  per  cent  had  coro- 
nary disease.  The  authors  conclude  "from  the  ma- 
terial comprising  this  study,  it  appears  that  a  great- 
er incidence  of  coronary  disease  occurs  among 
smokers  than  among  non-smokers  in  the  younger 
age  group— that  is,  less  than  the  age  of  50  years, 
and  perhaps  also  among  those  in  the  age  group  of 
50  to  59.  This,  however,  is  not  true  in  the  older 
age  groups.  Furthermore,  the  incidence  of  coro- 
nary disease  among  patients  less  than  50  years  of 
age  was  greatest  among  excessive  smokers,  was 
least  among  non-smokers,  and  occupied  an  inter- 
mediate position  among  moderate  smokers. 

"It  is,  therefore,  probably  that  the  smoking  of 
tobacco  has  a  more  profound  effect  on  younger 


MELLON  INSTITUTE 


451 


METEOROLOGY 


individuals,  owing  to  the  existence  of  a  relatively 
normal  cardiovascular  system,  influencing  perhaps 
the  early  development  of  coronary  disease.  In  the 
older  age  groups  in  which  arterial  changes  are 
prominent,  regardless  of  extraneous  influences  such 
as  smoking,  the  possible  harmful  effects  of  tobacco 
smoke  are  less  evident  than  the  other  factors  con- 
cerned in  the  production  of  arteriosclerosis." 

The  difficulties  of  interpreting  any  statistical 
study  are,  of  course,  well  recognized,  and  although 
the  figures  presented  seem  to  indicate  that  coro- 
nary disease  occurs  more  frequently  among  smok- 
ers, we  are  not  yet  justified  in  stating  that  smoking 
is  the  cause  of  coronary  disease.  Other  factors 
such  as  heredity,  temperament,  etc.,  probably  are 
also  important,  but  the  results  of  the  Mayo  group 
at  least  should  give  us  food  for  thought. 

See  BENEFACTIONS;  BIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY; 
CHILDREN'S  BUREAU;  LIVING  COSTS  AND  STAND- 
ARDS; PSYCHIATRY;  PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE; 
ROCKEFELLER  FOUNDATION;  VETERINARY  MEDI- 
CINE; VITAL  STATISTICS. 

H.  WALTON  COCHRAN. 

MELLON  INSTITUTE.  The  aim  of  Mellon 
Institute  is  the  creation  of  new  knowledge  by 
scientific  investigation,  in  accordance  with  the 
institution's  definite  fellowship  system.  According 
to  this  procedure  the  researches  are  restricted  to 
major  problems  of  the  pure  and  applied  sciences 
and  particularly  chemistry — problems  that  require 
protracted  periods  of  time  for  solution  by  special- 
ists. The  Institute  was  founded  by  Andrew  W. 
Mellon  and  Richard  B.  Mellon  in  1913  and  is  lo- 
cated at  4400  Fifth  Avenue,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

The  industrial  research  of  the  Institute  is  organ- 
ized on  a  contract  basis,  the  problem  being  set  by 
a  person,  firm,  or  association  interested  in  its  solu- 
tion, the  scientific  worker  being  found  and  en- 
gaged by  the  Institute,  and  an  industrial  fellow- 
ship being  assigned  for  a  period  of  at  least  a  year 
Each  holder  of  an  industrial  fellowship  is  given 
broad  facilities  for  accomplishing  the  research 
entrusted  to  him  and  all  results  belong  exclusively 
to  the  donor  of  the  fellowship.  Only  one  investiga- 
tion is  conducted  on  a  specific  subject  at  any  one 
time  and  hence  there  is  no  duplication  of  the  re- 
search activities  of  the  fellowships  in  operation. 
At  present  there  are  ninety  of  these  industrial  fel- 
lowships, which  employ  280  scientists  and  engi- 
neers. The  projects  range  from  steel  and  concrete 
to  synthetic  organic  chemicals,  new  plastics  and 
textiles,  and  improvements  in  foods  and  other  es- 
sential commodities. 

The  Institute  is  primarily  an  industrial  experi- 
ment station,  but  the  nature  of  its  investigatiqnal 
procedure  enables  broad  training  of  young  scien- 
tists in  research  methods  and  in  special  subjects  of 
technology.  It  also  recognizes  the  need  of  funda- 
mental scientific  research  as  a  background  and 
sustains  scopeful  studies  not  suggested  by  indus- 
try but  planned  within  the  Institute  and  directed 
toward  the  solution  of  more  basic  problems  than 
those  usually  investigated  for  technologic  purposes 

The  Institute  s  department  of  research  in  pure 
chemistry  is  conducting  on  a  broad  scale  investi- 
gations of  cinchona  alkaloids  and  their  derivatives 
in  relation  to  the  chemotherapy  of  pneumonia. 
During  the  fiscal  year  1939-40  the  Institute  ex- 
pended $1,181,639  in  carrying  on  pure  and  applied 
research. 

The  Institute's  board  of  trustees  is  constituted 
of  John  G.  Bowman,  President;  Edward  R,  Weid- 


lein,  Vice-President ;  Henry  A.  Phillips,  Treas- 
urer; Paul  Mellon;  Richard  K.  Mellon;  and 
Alan  M.  Scaife.  Edward  R.  Weidlein  is  Director. 

MEMEL.  A  German  territory  on  the  east 
coast  of  the  Baltic,  created  an  autonomous  district 
under  Lithuanian  sovereignty  by  the  Memel  Stat- 
ute of  May  8,  1924,  and  ceded  by  Lithuania  to 
Germany  on  Mar.  23,  1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939, 
pp.  473-474).  Area,  1099  square  miles;  population 
on  Jan.  1,  1940,  153,793.  See  GERMANY;  LITHU- 
ANIA. 

MENCHIANG  GOVERNMENT.  See  the 
article  MONGOLIA  under  Inner  Mongolia. 

MENNONITES.  A  religious  group  founded 
in  Switzerland  in  1525  in  protest  against  ecclesi- 
astical rule  and  rigid  liturgy.  In  the  United  States 
the  Mennonites  first  settled  at  Germantown,  Pa., 
in  1683,  ultimately  dividing  into  17  bodies.  For 
statistics,  see  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS. 

MENTAL  DISEASES  AND  MENTAL 
HYGIENE.  See  CHILDREN'S  BUREAU  ;  PSYCHI- 
ATRY; PSYCHOLOGY. 

MERCHANT  MARINE.  See  EUROPEAN 
WAR;  SHIPBUILDING;  SHIPPING. 

MERCURY.  Despite  the  high  demand  for  this 
metal  in  the  manufacture  of  munitions,  the  United 
States  mines  rose  to  the  emergency  and  produced 
a  quantity  ample  for  current  needs.  According  to 
the  Bureau  of  Mines  domestic  production  averaged 
about  3000  flasks  (76  Ib.  each)  per  month.  In  Oc- 
tober the  production  of  3600  flasks  was  double 
that  of  January,  which  is  an  indication  of  the  rapid 
response  of  the  industry  to  meet  the  emergency, 
created  by  the  almost  total  lack  of  imports  from 
Spain  and  Italy.  Production  for  the  year  was  in 
excess  of  36,000  flasks.  The  price  rose  from  $142 
per  flask  in  January  to  $200  in  June,  and  tapered 
off  to  $165  in  December.  The  average  for  the  year 
was  $176.865  compared  with  $103  94  for  1939.  Ex- 
ports continued  a  downward  trend  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  year,  and  stocks  in  the  hands  of  producers, 
consumers,  and  dealers  rose  slightly.  No  imports 
were  recorded  after  April.  See  CHEMISTRY,  IN- 
DUSTRIAL; OREGON. 

H.  C.  PARMELEE. 

MERIT  SYSTEM.  See  CIVIL  SERVICE  COM- 
MISSION; MICHIGAN  under  State  Civil  Service; 
SOCIAL  SECURITY  BOARD. 

MESOPOTAMIA.  See  ARCHAEOLOGY. 

METALS  AND  METALLURGY.  See  the 
topics  listed  under  MINERALS  AND  METALS. 

METALS  RESERVE  COMPANY.  See 
RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE  CORPORATION;  also 
COPPER. 

METEOROLOGY.  Callendar  has  published 
an  important  paper  on  the  variations  of  the  amount 
of  carbon  dioxide  in  different  air  currents.  The 
changes  in  the  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  in  the  air 
which  are  often  observed  during  quiet  weather  are 
of  local  origin  and  are  caused  by  organic  or  human 
activities ;  the  variations  in  the  great  wind  currents 
have  a  more  fundamental  basis  which  is  connected 
with  differences  of  carbon  dioxide  in  the  surface 
waters  of  the  oceans.  Theoretical  considerations 
suggest  that  this  gas  should  be  more  abundant  in 
the  air  of  equatorial  regions  than  elsewhere  be- 
cause the  carbon  dioxide  pressure  in  water  varies 
directly  with  the  temperature  so  that  warming  wa- 
ter gives  up  gas  to  the  air,  and  owing  to  organic 
action  carbon  dioxide  tends  to  accumulate  in  deep 
water  which  rises  to  the  surface  in  equatorial  re- 
gions returning  the  excess  gas  to  the  air.  These 


METEOROLOGY 


452 


METEOROLOGY 


theoretical  considerations  are  supported  both  by 
observations  in  the  water  and  in  the  air.  In  the 
upper  air  there  has  been  little  change  in  the  pro- 
portion of  carbon  dioxide  observed.  Callendar  has 
reviewed  all  the  measurements  of  carbon  dioxide 
which  have  been  made  since  1866.  By  examining 
past  weather  maps  in  connection  with  carbon  di- 
oxide measurements  made  during  the  last  century 
by  different  authorities,  it  was  found  that  the  car- 
bon dioxide  content  varied  from  290  parts  per  mil- 
lion in  marine  air  masses  to  301  in  sub-tropical  air 
masses.  Callendar  points  out  that  the  close  agree- 
ment obtained  by  different  observers  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  last  century  was  doubtless  the  cause  of 
the  scarcity  of  carbon  dioxide  measurements  dur- 
ing the  present  century.  There  were  almost  no 
measurements  made  from  1901  until  1932. 

The  most  significant  of  Calendar's  findings  is 
that  there  has  been  a  secular  increase  in  the  amount 
of  carbon  dioxide  in  the  air  over  the  past  seventy 
years.  The  modern  measurements  taken  from  1932 
to  1935  show  an  increase  over  the  measurements 
made  during  the  last  century  of  about  30  parts  per 
million.  Callendar  points  out  that  if  this  increase 
has  occurred  throughout  the  whole  atmosphere  then 
the  additional  mass  of  carbon  dioxide  in  the  air 
would  be  200,000  million  tons.  In  the  period  be- 
tween 1900  and  1935  the  amount  of  coal  and  oil 
consumed  has  been  very  nearly  50,000  million  tons, 
equal  to  the  direct  addition  of  150,000  million  tons 
of  carbon  dioxide  to  the  atmosphere  As  by  far  the 
larger  part  of  this  has  been  produced  in  the  North 
Temperate  zone  (where  all  the  observations  were 
made)  Callendar  believes  that  the  greater  increase 
found  in  the  air  might  be  due  to  incomplete  mixing 
of  the  whole  atmosphere.  For  the  period  from  1866 
to  1900  the  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  produced  by 
the  combustion  of  coal  and  oil  was  quite  small  and 
the  observations  do  not  record  a  change  in  the  air. 

Because  of  the  importance  of  sea  water  in  regu- 
lating the  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  in  the  air  a 
considerable  part  of  the  gas  produced  from  coal 
and  oil  might  be  expected  to  have  been  absorbed  by 
the  sea,  but  the  observations  indicate  that  all  this 
extra  carbon  dioxide  has  remained  in  the  air.  The 
most  probable  reason  for  the  failure  of  the  sea  to 
absorb  the  excess  can  be  traced  to  the  very  slow 
vertical  circulation  in  the  oceans;  it  is  only  the 
shallow  contact  surface  which  quickly  reaches 
equilibrium  with  the  atmospheric  gases  and  the  pe- 
riod required  for  the  whole  volume  of  water  in  the 
oceans  to  pass  through  the  narrow  surface  zone  has 
been  estimated  at  several  thousand  years.  More- 
over the  excess  carbon  dioxide  pressure  has  only 
reached  about  0  00002  atmospheres  at  present  and 
this  is  not  large  enough  to  force  much  of  the  gas 
into  the  surface  rone.  Hence,  although  the  total 
capacity  of  the  sea  to  absorb  carbon  dioxide  is 
very  great,  it  is  slow  in  action  and  will  doubtless 
take  many  centuries  to  stabilize  the  great  eruption 
of  this  gas,  now  about  300  million  cu.  meters  per 
hour,  which  has  resulted  from  human  activities. 
There  is  of  course  no  danger  that  the  amount  of 
carbon  dioxide  in  the  air  will  come  to  be  uncom- 
fortably large,  because  as  soon  as  the  excess  pres- 
sure in  the  air  becomes  appreciable  the  sea  will  be 
able  to  absorb  this  gas  as  fast  as  it  is  likely  to  be 
produced. 

During  the  past  year  there  were  great  strides  in 
practical  or  applied  meteorology.  This  progress 
was  almost  entirely  due  to  the  increased  attention 
being  given  to  civil  and  military  aviation.  In  the 
U.S.  Weather  Bureau  there  was  greater  develop- 


ment in  many  branches  of  its  activities  during  the 
past  year  than  in  any  previous  year.  The  airways 
weather  service  was  amplified  by  the  addition  of 
observations  in  blind  spots  in  the  network  and  by 
increase  in  upper-air  soundings  which  are  essential 
for  general  weather  forecasting  as  well  as  for  air 
transport.  Two  new  districts  were  established  for 
the  administration  of  this  service,  bringing  the  to- 
tal number  of  Airways  districts  to  thirteen  Also, 
wherever  possible  the  airways  weather  service  dis- 
tricts have  been  made  to  coincide  with  the  general 
weather  forecast  districts.  The  general  forecast 
and  warning  service  was  improved  by  providing  for 
four  weather  maps  per  day  in  parts  of  the  country 
where  only  two  maps  had  been  provided  previously 
and  by  organizing  two  new  forecast  districts  which 
can  give  greater  attention  to  local  weather  advices. 
The  establishment  of  these  new  districts  was  car- 
rying out  the  policy  of  decentralizing  the  weather 
forecast  and  warning  services.  The  two  new  fore- 
cast districts  were  the  Kansas  City  district,  com- 
prising Kansas,  Missouri,  and  Oklahoma,  and  the 
Albuquerque  district,  comprising  Arizona,  New 
Mexico,  and  western  Texas.  A  third  district  at 
Boston  for  the  New  England  States  will  be  fully 
established  early  in  1941.  Besides  the  above  in- 
creases in  the  two  main  services  the  agricultural 
weather  service  and  the  climatological  service  re- 
ceived modest  increases,  the  latter  also  benefiting 
greatly  from  the  enlarged  hydrologic  program 
which  has  been  organized  through  co-operation  of 
the  flood  control  agencies  of  the  Army  Corps  of 
Engineers  and  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
which  gives  much  needed  reports  and  planning  sta- 
tistics on  rainfall  in  important  river  basins. 

To  meet  the  growing  needs  of  practical  mete- 
orology the  Central  Office  of  the  Weather  Bureau 
was  reorganized.  Prior  to  June,  1940,  the  adminis- 
trative headquarters  had  functioned  through  divi- 
sions based  upon  projects  or  types  of  service, 
which  as  distinct  meteorological  services  were  to 
some  extent  complete  and  self-sufficient  units.  As 
now  organized  the  administration  of  the  Weather 
Bureau  operates  under  three  broad  headings:  (1) 
the  technical  service  group,  including  the  divisions 
of  station  operations,  synoptic  reports  and  fore- 
casts, climatology,  and  instruments ;  (2)  the  scien- 
tific services,  including  research  and  in-service 
training;  and  (3)  the  staff  services  group,  which 
comprises  budget,  supply,  personnel  management, 
and  business  administration. 

Not  only  was  the  Weather  Bureau  reorganized 
internally  but  the  entire  Bureau  was  transferred 
from  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  where  it  had 
functioned  for  nearly  fifty  years,  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce.  This  transfer  was  carried  out 
under  the  provisions  of  the  President's  Reorgani- 
zation Plan  No.  IV.  The  purpose  of  this  plan  is 
to  bring  the  Weather  Bureau  into  closer  co-ordina- 
tion with  the  Civil  Aeronautics  Administration  and 
with  the  aeronautical  interests  of  the  country  which 
find  meteorological  service  indispensable. 

The  service  in  Alaska  was  improved  by  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  first-order  station  at  Anchorage, 
with  pilot  balloon  observations  and  first-order  sta- 
tions at  Bethel,  Ketchikan,  and  Point  Barrow. 
Forecast  centers  were  established  at  Fairbanks  and 
Juneau.  Sixteen  new  second-order  stations  were 
established  in  the  Territory. 

Ship  reports  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  west  of 
the  35th  Meridian  were  increased  from  two  to  four 
times  a  day  from  each  ship;  the  number  of  re- 
porting ships  was  increased.  Since  February,  1940, 


METEORS 


453 


METROPOLITAN  OPERA 


two  Coast  Guard  Cutters  have  been  stationed  be- 
tween New  York  and  the  Azores  for  the  purpose 
of  making  daily  weather  observations.  See  COAST 
GUARD,  U.S. 

Weather  forecast  by  automatic  telephone  was 
put  in  operation  on  Nov.  17, 1940,  at  Boston.  Serv- 
ice of  this  type  is  now  in  effect  in  Baltimore,  Bos- 
ton, Chicago,  Detroit,  Newark,  New  York,  and 
Washington.  The  automatic  weather  forecast  serv- 
ice was  inaugurated  on  Apr.  8,  1939,  at  New  York 
City ;  by  the  end  of  1939  this  service  was  begun  in 
Chicago  and  Newark.  This  service  was  begun  at 
the  other  four  cities  during  1940.  The  automatic 
telephone  apparatus  giving  out  the  weather  fore- 
casts provides  for  100,000  calls  daily.  In  New  York 
City  on  July  30,  1940,  there  were  actually  78,861 
calls  made  by  the  public  for  the  weather  forecast 
on  the  automatic  telephone. 

Five-day  forecasts  were  begun  during  the  year 
from  sixteen  districts.  These  forecasts  are  based 
on  pressure  maps  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and 
are  the  outcome  of  recent  research. 

The  National  Bureau  of  Standards  in  co-opera- 
tion with  the  Weather  Bureau  has  developed  a  new 
ceiling  light  projector  for  use  in  the  daytime. 
Heretofore  ceilings  (cloud  heights)  have  been  de- 
termined by  a  light  beam  at  night  time  and  by 
means  of  small  balloons  of  known  ascensional  rate 
during  the  daytime.  On  account  of  drifting  with 
the  wind  the  balloon  method  can  seldom  be  used 
when  the  ceiling  is  over  2000  feet  and  the  observ- 
ers must  estimate  the  ceiling  when  above  this  alti- 
tude during  the  day.  The  new  ceiling  projector 
modulates  the  beam  of  light,  that  is,  breaks  it  up 
into  short  evenly  spaced  pulses  of  light ;  this  modu- 
lated beam  of  light  is  reflected  by  the  clouds  and  is 
then  detected  with  a  photoelectric  tube  and  ampli- 
fier, designed  to  respond  only  to  that  component  of 
the  total  light  received  from  the  clouds  which  has 
the  characteristic  pulses  introduced  into  the  pro- 
jected beam.  Thus  the  projected  signal  light,  after 
reflection,  is  sorted  out  from  the  background  light 
from  the  cloud.  In  use,  the  photoelectric  detector 
scans  the  base  of  the  cloud  until  the  meter  on  the 
amplifier  indicates  that  the  modulated  beam  is  be- 
ing received;  the  angular  setting  of  the  detector 
then  corresponds  to  the  angular  elevation  of  the 
spot  on  the  cloud.  During  the  daytime  with  over- 
cast conditions,  cloud  ceilings  as  high  as  9000  feet 
have  been  detected ;  ceilings  up  to  4000  feet  have 
been  detected  with  broken  clouds 

See  EARTHQUAKES;  FLOODS;  HURRICANES. 

Bibliography.  W.  J.  Humphreys,  Physics  of  the  Air, 
3d  ed.  (New  York) ;  Jerome  Namias.  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Air  Mass  and  Isentropic  Analysis,  5th  ed  (Mil- 
ton, Mass  ) ;  Sverre  Pctterssen,  Weather  Analysis  and 
Forecasting  (New  York). 

RICHMOND  T.  ZOCH. 
METEORS  AND  METEORITES.  See  As- 

TRONOMY. 

METHODIST  CHURCH.  The  year  of  uni- 
fication, 1939,  was  the  year  when  the  three  united 
Churches  began  to  know  each  other ;  1940  saw  the 
united  church  beginning  to  work  together,  the  year 
of  the  first  General  Conference,  the  Jurisdictional 
Conferences,  and  the  organization  of  the  various 
Boards  and  Committees  for  work. 

The  General  Conference,  with  776  Delegates,  67 
of  whom  were  from  overseas,  met  at  Atlantic  City 
on  April  24.  This  was  purely  a  legislative  body. 
The  General  Conference  was  followed  by  six  Ju- 
risdictional Conferences,  meeting  from  May  22  to 
July  9,  for  the  election  of  Bishops,  the  appoint- 


ment of  Committees,  and  planning  the  work  in 
their  respective  territories.  Only  two  Jurisdictions 
elected  Bishops :  The  Central  on  June  20  elected 
the  Rev.  W.  A.  C.  Hughes,  of  the  Board  of  Home 
Missions  and  Church  Extension,  and  the  Rev.  L. 
H.  King,  Pastor  of  St.  Marks  Methodist  Church, 
New  York  City,  the  Cathedral  of  Negro  Meth- 
odism ;  and  the  Western  in  July  elected  the  Rev. 
Bruce  R.  Baxter,  President  of  Willammette  Uni- 
versity at  Salem,  Ore.  Bishop  Hughes,  the  first 
Bishop  elected  in  the  new  Methodist  Church,  did 
not  perform  any  Episcopal  functions,  as  he  died  on 
July  12,  1940.  Bishop  Jashwant  Rao  Chitambar, 
the  first  native  Bishop  of  India,  died  on  Septem- 
ber 4.  At  the  Jurisdictional  Conferences  Bishops 
Edwin  Holt  Hughes,  John  L.  Nuelsen,  Edgar 
Blake,  and  Charles  L.  Mead  were  retired  with 
honors  from  the  work  of  the  episcopacy. 

On  December  28,  the  Central  Conference  of 
Southern  Asia  elected  the  Rev.  Clement  D.  Rock- 
ey,  the  son  of  pioneer  missionaries  and  himself  a 
missionary  since  1912,  and  the  Rev.  Shot  K.  Mon- 
dol,  a  native  of  India  and  Superintendent  of  the 
Asansol  District  and  Pastor  of  the  English  Church 
in  Asansol,  as  Central  Conference  Bishops.  The 
Central  Conference  of  Germany,  which  in  1936 
elected  the  Rev.  F.  H.  Otto  Melle  for  a  term  of 
four  years,  elected  him  for  a  life  term  in  1940. 

The  Board  of  Publication  elected  Mr.  B.  A. 
Whitmore  of  Nashville  and  the  Rev.  F.  D.  Stone 
of  Chicago  as  Publishing  Agents,  and,  carrying 
out  the  instructions  of  the  General  Conference, 
consolidated  the  Christian  Advocates,  elected  the 
Rev.  Roy  L.  Smith  of  First  Methodist  Church, 
Los  Angeles,  as  Editor  in  Chief  with  headquarters 
in  Chicago.  Assistant  Editors  and  special  writers 
were  also  elected.  The  Rev.  Ralph  Stoody,  150 
Fifth  Avenue,  New  York,  was  elected  Director  of 
"Methodist  Information  Service." 

The  Rev.  Ralph  E.  Diffendorf  er,  with  Associate 
Secretaries  and  Treasurers  in  the  various  depart- 
ments, was  elected  Executive  Secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Missions  and  Church  Extension  with 
headquarters  at  150  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York. 
This  Board  was  formed  by  the  merging  of  the 
Boards  of  the  three  Churches  and  the  Woman's 
Work.  This  merger  probably  makes  150  Fifth  Av- 
enue the  Home  Base  of  more  home  and  foreign 
missionaries  than  any  other  one  place. 

The  Rev.  H.  W.  McPherson,  Nashville,  Tenn., 
is  Executive  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, and  Mr.  E.  H.  Chernngton,  100  Maryland 
Ave.,  N.E.,  Washington,  D.C,  of  the  Board  of 
Temperance  and  Public  Morals.  The  Rev.  N.  B. 
Harmon,  Jr.,  150  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York,  is  the 
Book  Editor  and  the  Rev.  W.  K.  Anderson,  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  has  charge  of  the  Conference  Course 
of  Study  in  the  new  Church. 

The  latest  complete  figures  show  that  there  are 
59  effective  and  retired  Bishops,  28,500  effective 
and  retired  ministers,  850  District  Superintendents, 
25,000  Pastoral  charges  with  48,000  preaching 
places,  45,000  churches,  23,000  parsonages,  2900 
schools  ranging  from  Primary  school  to  Univer- 
sity, 177  hospitals,  and  133  old  people's  and  chil- 
dren's homes.  Six  million  were  enrolled  in  the 
Sunday  Schools  and  8,000,000  members  were  re- 
ported. 

METROPOLITAN  MUSEUM  OF  ART. 
See  ART. 

METROPOLITAN  OPERA  COMPANY. 
See  the  separate  articles  on  BENEFACTIONS  and 
Music. 


MEXICO 


454 


MEXICO 


MEXICO.  A  Federal  republic  of  North  Amer- 
ica, comprising  28  States,  2  Territories,  and  the 
Federal  District  (City  of  Mexico  and  11  sur- 
rounding villages).  Capital,  Mexico,  D.  F. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  760,290  square 
miles ;  population,  19,848,322  (estimated)  on  June 
30,  1940  (16,552,722  at  1930  census).  The  racial 
division  of  the  population  (1930  census)  was:  In- 
dians, 4,630,880;  whites,  2,444,466;  mixed  race, 
9,040,590.  The  population  of  the  city  of  Mexico  in 
1940  was  estimated  at  1,754,355  (1,234,000  in  1930). 
Populations  of  other  towns  (1930) :  Guadalajara, 
175,539;  Monterrey,  132,577;  Puebla,  114,793; 
Menda,  95,015;  San  Luis  Potosi,  74,003;  Le6n, 
69,238;  Tampico,  68,126;  Veracruz,  67,494;  Tor- 
reon,  66,001 ;  Aguascalientes,  62,244.  U.S.  citizens 
resident  in  Mexico  on  Jan.  1,  1940,  numbered  13,- 
262.  Germans  were  estimated  at  6000-7000 ;  Itali- 
ans at  4000-5000. 

Defense.  Military  service  in  the  active  army  or 
National  Guard  is  compulsory.  As  of  Nov.  1, 1940, 
there  were  about  62,500  in  the  active  army,  700  in 
the  air  force  (with  about  70  planes),  and  63,680 
trained  reserves.  In  addition  there  was  a  private 
militia  of  workers  and  peasants,  estimated  to  num- 
ber about  30,000,  with  some  arms  and  military 
training.  The  navy  consisted  of  6  escort  and  10 
coastguard  patrol  vessels.  See  History. 

Education  and  Religion.  In  his  message  to 
Congress  of  Sept.  1,  1940,  President  Cardenas 
said  illiteracy  had  declined  from  70  to  45  per  cent 
in  the  preceding  30  years,  and  that  primary  school 
attendance  had  increased  in  the  preceding  five  years 
from  1,400,000  to  1,800,000.  Free  secondary  edu- 
cation was  provided  for  the  first  time  under  the 
law  of  Dec.  30,  1939  (see  History).  The  Federal 
appropriation  for  education  in  the  1940  budget  was 
73,800,000  pesos. 

Roman  Catholicism  is  professed  by  over  90  per 
cent  of  the  population.  The  1917  Constitution  es- 
tablished State  control  of  all  churches.  All  foreign 
priests  were  expelled  in  1926.  In  1936  all  buildings 
used  for  religious  purposes  were  nationalized  and 
the  number  of  native  priests  permitted  to  officiate 
was  reduced  to  about  350.  In  subsequent  years  a 
number  of  State  governments  permitted  many 
churches  to  reopen. 

Production.  Agriculture,  mining,  stock  raising, 
and  manufacturing  are  the  chief  occupations.  The 
principal  crops  are  (in  metric  tons,  except  as  not- 
ed) :  Corn,  1,692,666  in  1938;  cotton,  about  243,- 
000  bales  in  1939;  wheat,  402,000  in  1938-39; 
sugar  cane,  4,132,260  in  1938;  bananas,  546,936  in 
1938;  henequen,  133,117  in  1938;  coffee,  39,023  in 
1939;  beans,  105,499  in  1938;  alfalfa,  1,540,324  in 
1938;  tomatoes,  80,117  in  1938-39. 

Excluding  coal  and  petroleum,  the  value  of  min- 
eral production  in  1939  was  598,626,000  pesos  (557,- 
180,000  in  1938).  Oil  production  m  1939  was  43,- 
200,000  bbl.  (37,900,000  in  1938) ;  coal,  628,200 
metric  tons.  Output  of  other  minerals  in  1939  was 
(in  metric  tons) :  Silver.  2360;  gold,  26.178  kilos 
(of  2.2  Ib.) ;  lead,  219,501;  zinc,  134,16^;  copper, 
44.389;  antimony,  7872;  iron,  141,336;  cadmium, 
817;  molybdenum,  870.  The  1935  industrial  census 
showed  7050  manufacturing  establishments  with  an 
output  of  at  least  10,000  pesos  each  annually  and 
204,755  employees.  Tourist  automobiles  entering 
Mexico  from  the  United  States  through  Nuevo 
Laredo  in  1939  numbered  28,126  (22,614  in  1938). 
Tourist  expenditures  in  Mexico  were  estimated  at 
$2.500,000  monthly  early  in  1940. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1939  were  valued 


at  629,708,225  pesos  (494,118,125  in  1938)  ;  ex- 
ports, 914,389,882  (838,127,957  in  1938).  The  in- 
crease in  1939  was  due  partly  to  depreciation  of 
the  peso  in  terms  of  the  dollar  (see  under  JP«- 
nance).  Of  the  1939  imports,  the  United  States 
supplied  66  per  cent  by  value  (57.7  in  1938)  ;  Ger- 
many, 12.7  (18.9) ;  United  Kingdom,  2.6  (4.1).  Of 
the  exports,  the  United  States  purchased  74.2  per 
cent  (67.4  in  1938) ;  United  Kingdom,  5.8  (9.4)  ; 
Germany,  5.6  (7.7).  Value  of  the  chief  1939  im- 
ports were  (in  pesos) :  Passenger  automobiles, 
45,134,000;  trucks,  25,546,000;  rayon,  yarn,  and 
waste,  14,630,000;  copra,  11,952,000;  iron  machin- 
ery parts,  11,874,000.  Leading  exports  were  (in 
pesos):  Silver,  177,673,000;  gold,  172,513,000; 
lead,  117,189,000;  zinc,  73,080,000;  copper,  52,665,- 
000;  crude  petroleum,  45,220,000;  coffee,  33,667,- 
000 ;  henequen,  22,564,000.  See  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  Budgeted  expenditures  for  1941  were 
492,000,000  pesos  as  compared  with  actual  expend- 
itures of  540,172,000  pesos  in  1940.  During  the  six- 
year  period  ended  in  December,  1940,  governmen- 
tal expenditures  totaled  2,742,646,000  pesos,  includ- 
ing 220,000,000  for  highways.  The  debt  service  for 
the  six-year  period  consumed  353,400,000  pesos, 
education  343,800,000 ;  the  accumulated  deficit,  to- 
taling 169,800,000  pesos,  was  met  by  borrowing 
from  the  Bank  of  Mexico.  The  funded  debt  on 
July  1,  1937,  was  1,133,994,612  pesos.  Average  ex- 
change rate  of  the  peso,  $0.2212  in  1938,  $0.1931 
in  1939.  Also  see  History. 

Transportation.  Mexico  had  14,252  miles  of 
railway  line  in  1936.  A  new  line  158  miles  long 
from  Mexicah,  Lower  California,  to  Punto  Pen- 
asco,  Sonora,  was  completed  in  May,  1940.  The 
principal  system  is  that  of  the  National  Railways 
of  Mexico,  nationalized  in  1937  and  turned  over 
to  the  railway  workers'  union  for  operation  in 
1938  (see  History).  Freight  carried  by  the  Na- 
tional Railways  in  1939  was  about  9,254,000  metric 
tons.  Highways  extended  56,923  miles  in  1939  (see 
ROADS  AND  STREETS).  There  were  23  air  lines  op- 
erating over  15,343  miles  of  route  (12,751  miles 
local  and  2592  miles  international).  A  total  of  12,- 
275  vessels  entered  and  cleared  Mexico's  22  ocean 
ports  in  1937. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  1917,  as 
amended  in  1929  and  1933,  vests  executive  power 
in  a  President  elected  by  direct  popular  vote  for 
six  years  and  ineligible  for  re-election.  Legisla- 
tive power  rests  with  an  elective  Congress  of  two 
houses — a  Chamber  of  Deputies  of  171  members 
chosen  for  three  years  and  a  Senate  of  58  members 
renewed  every  six  years.  President  at  the  begin- 
ning of  1940,  Gen.  Lazaro  Cardenas,  who  assumed 
office  Nov.  30,  1934.  Predominant  political  power 
had  been  exercised  since  1928  by  the  National 
Revolutionary  party,  organized  by  President  Plu- 
tarco  Elias  Calles,  and  its  successor,  the  Party  of 
the  Mexican  Revolution  (PRM),  formed  at  the 
direction  of  President  Cardenas  in  1938.  For  de- 
velopments in  1940,  see  History. 

HISTORY 

Avila  Camacho  Becomes  President.  Gen. 
Manuel  Avila  Camacho  was  inaugurated  as  Presi- 
ident  on  Dec.  1,  1940,  bringing  to  an  apparently 
peaceful  conclusion  months  of  bitter  and  violent 
political  controversy  that  repeatedly  threatened  to 
plunge  Mexico  into  civil  war. 

The  new  Chief  Executive  immediately  launched 
the  country  upon  a  more  conservative  course  than 
that  charted  by  President  Cardenas  during  the  pre- 


MEXICO 


455 


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ceding  six  eventful  and  troubled  years.  Before  the 
end  of  1940,  Avila  Camacho  had  reversed  his  pred- 
ecessor's agrarian  policy  by  vesting  title  to  their 
land  in  individual  members  of  the  ejidos,  or  agri- 
cultural communities,  instead  of  in  the  ejidos.  The 
President  explained  that  one  of  his  reasons  for 
this  change  was  to  free  agricultural  workers  from 
those  "who  have  used  the  collective  system  to  pro- 
mote exotic  doctrines  (i.e.  communism)  and  ex- 
ercise undue  influence  over  the  farmer." 

At  Avila  Camacho's  instigation,  Congress 
passed  other  measures  indicating  a  trend  away 
from  the  radicalism  of  the  preceding  years.  The 
railroads  were  returned  from  labor  union  to  gov- 
ernment control.  Supreme  Court  judges  were  made 
elective  for  life,  apparently  to  free  them  from  po- 
litical influence.  Nationalized  properties  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  and  other  churches  were  placed 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  courts  rather  than 
the  government,  thus  offering  the  Church  legal  re- 
course against  expropriation.  These  measures  won 
the  approval  of  many  elements  previously  hostile 
to  the  government  and  abated  the  danger  of  civil 
war. 

Still  another  reversal  of  the  Cardenas  policies 
was  the  adoption  by  the  Avila  Camacho  Government 
of  what  promised  to  be  close  and  friendly  collab- 
oration with  the  United  States  in  the  Roosevelt- 
Hull  program  of  inter-American  peace,  friend- 
ship, and  solidarity  against  overseas  military  and 
ideological  threats.  This  new  spirit  of  amity  was 
reflected  in  the  cordial  reception  given  Henry  A. 
Wallace,  Vice-President-Elect  of  the  United  States, 
who  attended  the  inaugural  ceremonies  in  Mexico 
City  as  President  Roosevelt's  official  representa- 
tive 

The  Elections.  The  chief  opponent  of  General 
Avila  Camacho,  candidate  of  the  PRM  (govern- 
ment party),  was  Gen.  Juan  Andreu  Almazan, 
who  had  strong  conservative  support  (see  YEAR 
BOOK,  1939,  p  481  for  background  data).  The 
electoral  campaign  was  marked  by  several  at- 
tempts to  assassinate  General  Almazan,  by  spo- 
radic armed  clashes  between  adherents  of  the  rival 
candidates,  and  by  minor  revolutionary  outbreaks 
in  some  States  where  anti -government  sentiment 
was  strong.  Spokesmen  for  Avila  Camacho  ac- 
cused Almazan  of  fomenting  these  revolutionary 
activities.  He,  in  turn,  repeatedly  warned  that  he 
would  lead  a  revolt  if  the  government  machine 
"thwarted  the  will  of  the  people"  at  the  polls. 

Almazan's  campaign  was  aided  by  a  marked  con- 
servative trend  in  public  sentiment,  evidenced 
among  important  groups  of  workers  as  well  as 
among  business,  professional,  and  other  upper 
class  groups.  General  Avila  Camacho,  who  was 
more  moderate  in  his  views  than  President  Carde- 
nas or  other  radical  leaders  of  his  party,  took  a 
middle-of-the-road  position  on  most  of  the  issues 
agitating  the  country. 

The  voting  on  July  7  was  accompanied  by  seri- 
ous disorders,  particularly  in  Mexico  City.  About 
50  persons  were  killed  and  more  than  400  wound- 
ed Both  sides  claimed  an  overwhelming  victory, 
while  accusing  each  other  of  fraud  and  irregulari- 
ties. A  significant  aspect  of  the  election  was  that 
of  some  6,500,000  eligible  to  vote,  about  2,500,000 
actually  went  to  the  polls—a  much  higher  propor- 
tion than  usual—under  the  guarantee  of  a  free 
election  given  by  President  Cardenas. 

Few  seemed  satisfied  that  the  results  announced 
bore  any  approximate  relation  to  the  preferences 
of  the  voters.  The  electoral  law  provided  that  the 


party  representatives  first  at  the  polling  booths 
had  the  right  to  open  and  control  the  polls  and 
guard  the  ballots  until  the  official  count  This  led 
to  fights  for  the  control  of  the  different  booths 
and  generally  to  the  exclusion  of  voters  opposing 
the  party  that  gained  control.  The  PRM  and  the 
Almazan  supporters  counted  their  own  ballots  and 
each  faction  proclaimed  the  election  of  its  Presi- 
dential and  Congressional  candidates  by  over- 
whelming majorities. 

Rump  Government  Proclaimed.  While  ten- 
sion continued  at  a  high  pitch,  efforts  were  made 
to  patch  the  widening  political  breach.  But  Avila 
Camacho's  supporters  rejected  the  Almazanistas' 
demand  for  a  new,  unmanipulatd  election.  Both 
the  Cardenas  Government  and  the  retiring  Con- 
gress accepted  as  official  the  election  results  an- 
nounced by  Avila  Camacho's  backers.  Then  on 
August  8  Cardenas  officials,  declaring  the  election 
settled,  banned  all  further  political  meetings  or 
agitation  in  the  Federal  District  This  drove  the 
Almazanistas  underground.  About  the  same  time 
the  Permanent  Commission  of  Congress  charged 
that  Almazan  was  plotting  to  assassinate  Cirde- 
nas  and  Avila  Camacho  and  overthrow  the  gov- 
ernment. 

On  August  15  the  electoral  college  of  PRM 
Senators  and  Deputies,  declared  elected  by  the  re- 
tiring Congress,  met  in  the  capital  and  validated 
their  own  election.  To  prevent  an  armed  coup  by 
Almazan  supporters,  hundreds  of  armed  peasants 
loyal  to  the  Cdrdenas  regime  were  moved  to  the 
capital  by  motor  truck.  The  Chambers  of  Con- 
gress were  heavily  guarded  by  troops  -and  police. 
The  Almazan  candidates  for  Congress  met  sepa- 
rately in  secret  session  and  approved  of  their  own 
election  credentials.  A  few  days  later  the  govern- 
ment began  to  arrest  leading  Almazan  supporters 
and  there  was  an  immediate  exodus  from  Mexico 
of  his  more  prominent  associates.  Almazan  him- 
self had  previously  left  on  a  "vacation"  that  took 
him  to  Cuba,  Panama,  and  the  United  States. 

While  he  was  in  the  United  States,  rival  con- 
gresses were  installed  in  the  Mexican  capital  on 
September  1.  President  C&rdenas  delivered  his  an- 
nual message  to  the  Avila  Camacho  Congress,  giv- 
ing it  official  recognition.  The  Almazan  Deputies 
and  Senators  met  secretly  and  three  days  later 
proclaimed  Almazan  as  President-elect.  On  ad- 
journing, they  named  a  permanent  commission  of 
six  members  with  full  legislative  powers  during 
the  recess. 

On  September  2  Almazan  announced  in  New 
York  that  he  would  return  to  claim  the  Mexican 
Presidency  "at  the  proper  time."  The  next  day  his 
Congress  issued  an  inflammatory  manifesto  vio- 
lently denouncing  Cardenas  and  his  government 
and  urging  the  Mexican  people  to  sweep  them 
away.  Roberto  Morales,  vice-president  of  Alma- 
zan's permanent  Congressional  commission,  an- 
nounced in  San  Antonio,  Texas,  on  September  10 
that  President  Cardenas  had  been  "impeached  and 
deposed"  and  that  Hector  F.  Lopez  would  serve 
as  provisional  President  until  December  1.  The 
PRM  Congress  in  Mexico  City  on  September  12 
certified  Avila  Camacho  as  President-elect.  The 
election  results  announced  by  this  Congress  were : 
Avila  Camacho,  2,476,641 ;  Almazan,  151,101 ;  Gen. 
Rafael  Sanchez  Tapia,  9840. 

In  a  declaration  of  policy  made  September  19 
Avila  Camacho  further  undermined  Almazan's  po- 
sition. He  said  he  would  insist  upon  adequate  pro- 
tection and  encouragement  of  both  Mexican  and 


MEXICO 


456 


MEXICO 


foreign  investors.  Describing  himself  as  a  good 
Catholic,  he  said  his  government  would  not  be  in- 
fluenced by  the  Communists  or  the  radical  wing 
of  the  labor  movement  under  Vincente  Lombardo 
Toledano.  An  Almazan  plot  to  seize  control  of 
the  industrial  center  of  Monterrey  as  a  revolu- 
tionary base  was  frustrated  on  October  1.  This 
was  followed  on  November  12  by  United  States 
recognition  of  Avila  Camacho  as  the  legally  elect- 
ed President  of  Mexico. 

These  developments  ended  hope  of  a  successful 
revolt.  A  number  of  prominent  Almazan  support- 
ers announced  their  acceptance  of  the  Avila  Ca- 
macho regime.  Bands  of  rebels  active  in  various 
isolated  parts  of  the  country  capitulated  to  the 
government  or  were  broken  up.  General  Almazan 
then  returned  to  Mexico  on  November  26  and  re- 
nounced "the  honorable  position  of  President,  to 
which  the  people  were  good  enough  to  elect  me 
on  July  7."  His  statement  removed  the  last  obsta- 
cle to  Avila  Camacho's  inauguration  on  Decem- 
ber 1. 

Struggle  over  Education  Law.  Besides  the 
threat  of  an  Almazanista  revolt,  the  Cardenas 
Government  had  faced  growing  opposition  or  un- 
rest among  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy,  labor  un- 
ions, Communists,  Nazis,  Fascists,  and  other 
groups.  The  five-year  truce  between  Church  and 
State  was  partially  broken  by  the  decree  of  Dec. 
30,  1939,  designed  to  enforce  provisions  of  the 
Mexican  Constitution  pertaining  to  education. 

The  decree  provided  for  free  education  in  gov- 
ernment schools,  based  on  socialistic  principles, 
with  compulsory  attendance  to  the  age  of  15  years. 
Private  schools  were  required  to  have  government 
permits  and  adhere  strictly  to  government  stand- 
ards. They  were  forbidden  to  impart  religious  in- 
struction or  to  have  any  relationship  with  any  re- 
ligious cult.  The  private  schools  were  given  six 
months  to  comply  with  the  new  "organic  educa- 
tion law."  The  decree  also  reorganized  and  ex- 
tended the  State  educational  system,  providing  for 
pre-school  education  of  children  from  four  to  six 
years  of  age,  six  years  of  primary  and  three  years 
of  secondary  schooling,  and  for  further  instruc- 
tion in  vocational,  normal,  technical,  professional, 
and  special  schools. 

General  Almazan  on  February  25  vigorously  de- 
nounced the  provision  for  socialistic  education  and 
demanded  repeal  of  clauses  in  the  1917  Constitu- 
tion under  which  it  was  issued.  General  Avila 
Camacho  reluctantly  approved  the  new  law  but  de- 
clared during  the  campaign  that  he  would  not  al- 
low socialistic  education  to  be  rigidly  enforced. 
Nevertheless  the  clergy  played  an  active  role  in 
enlisting  support  for  Almazan's  campaign. 

Disputes  with  Unions.  President  Cardenas 
found  himself  involved  in  serious  controversy  with 
the  powerful  railway  and  oil  workers'  unions  as  a 
result  of  the  failure  of  those  nationalized  indus- 
tries to  pay  their  way.  The  National  Railways, 
turned  over  to  the  Union  of  Mexican  Railway 
Workers  in  1938,  had  incurred  heavy  deficits, 
while  efficiency  and  discipline  declined  and  acci- 
dents increased.  On  Apr.  9,  1940,  President  Car- 
denas returned  control  of  the  National  Railways 
to  the  Department  of  Communications  and  Public 
Works  with  instructions  to  reorganize  their  ad- 
ministration and  to  pay  5.64  per  cent  of  the  gross 
earnings  to  the  Federal  Government  as  required  by 
law. 

The  reorganization  plan,  calling  for  reduction 
of  salaries,  abolition  of  unnecessary  positions,  etc., 


aroused  such  strenuous  objections  from  the  union 
that  President  Cardenas  was  obliged  to  intervene. 
He  ordered  the  union  to  accept  the  reorganization 
plan  within  10  days.  The  union  flatly  refused  and 
called  a  national  convention  to  consider  the  gov- 
ernment's ultimatum.  However  the  issue  was  post- 
phoned  until  after  the  inauguration  of  Avila  Ca- 
macho. He  then  carried  out  Cardenas's  reorganiza- 
tion plan. 

Oil  Industry's  Difficulties.  Very  similar  was 
the  situation  in  the  oil  industry,  expropriated  from 
American  and  other  foreign  oil  companies  in  1938 
and  turned  over  to  the  Mexican  Oil  Monopoly  for 
operation,  with  the  workers  exercising  a  voice  in 
the  management.  Production  in  the  first  quarter  of 
1940  was  lower  than  when  the  oil  fields  were  under 
foreign  control,  while  costs  had  increased  about 
50  per  cent.  The  basic  pay  of  the  workers  had 
been  increased  but  the  limitation  of  overtime  and 
higher  social  benefit  payments  made  their  actual 
earnings  smaller  than  before.  The  European  War 
and  the  boycott  of  the  ousted  oil  companies  had 
eliminated  the  chief  markets  for  Mexican  oil 
abroad  and  the  Monopoly  was  forced  to  export  it 
during  1939  at  one-half  the  world  market  price. 

The  management  of  the  Monopoly  charged  that 
the  inefficiency  and  lack  of  discipline  and  co-opera- 
tion of  the  oil  workers  was  responsible  for  rising 
production  costs  and  the  resulting  heavy  deficit. 
The  workers  accused  the  management  of  ineffi- 
ciency and  bungling  of  negotiations  for  the  sale  of 
oil  abroad.  On  February  28  President  Cardenas 
proposed  a  14-point  plan  for  reorganization  of  the 
industry,  including  a  reduction  of  personnel,  wage 
cuts,  and  elimination  of  over-time  pay  Several 
hundred  workers  were  dismissed  in  March,  but  the 
union  by  threatening  to  strike  held  up  the  reorgan- 
ization program  until  the  elimination  of  the  Italian 
market  in  June  and  an  ultimatum  from  the  Presi- 
dent forced  it  on  August  7  to  accept  further  econ- 
omics. The  workers  then  agreed  to  the  dismissal 
of  about  3000  more  workers,  pay  and  salary  reduc- 
tions in  the  higher  brackets,  etc. 

Friction  in  CTM.  This  friction  between  the 
unions  and  the  government  was  reflected  in  the 
mounting  opposition  within  the  Mexican  Confed- 
eration of  Labor  (CTM)  to  the  leadership  of 
Vicente  Lombardo  Toledano,  CTM  secretary-gen- 
eral, who  was  closely  identified  with  the  Cardenas 
policies.  Many  of  the  railway  and  oil  workers  sup- 
ported Almazan.  The  Mine  Workers'  Syndicate 
resigned  from  the  CTM  July  23  and  called  for 
the  formation  of  a  more  conservative  labor  front. 
Lombardo  Toledano's  policies,  which  closely  fol- 
lowed the  orthodox  Communist  party  line,  also 
drew  the  fire  of  the  conservative  faction  within 
the  government  party,  headed  by  ex-President 
Emilio  Portes  Gil. 

Communist  and  Nazi  Activities.  The  schis- 
matic trend  among  political  and  labor  groups  was 
evidenced  also  in  the  Mexican  Communist  party. 
Early  in  the  year  the  party  undertook  a  thorough 
purge  of  elements  who  "questioned  Joseph  Stalin's 
action  in  waging  war  against  Finland"  or  who  hes- 
itated to  condemn  Leon  Trotsky's  criticisms  of 
Stalin.  At  an  extraordinary  congress  of  the  party 
held  March  20-24  General  Secretary  Hernan  La- 
borde  and  two  other  leaders  were  expelled  for 
lack  of  sufficient  zeal  by  the  committee  they  had 
named  to  conduct  the  purge.  While  supporting 
Avila  Camacho's  candidacy,  the  party  censored 
President  Cardenas  for  his  "passive''  policy  toward 
Almazan  and  other  conservatives. 


MEXICO 


457 


MEXICO 


Leon  Trotsky,  Stalin's  mortal  enemy,  was  assas- 
sinated at  his  Coyoacan  refuge  late  in  August  An- 
other attempt  had  been  made  on  his  life  and  one 
of  his  bodyguards  had  been  murdered  on  May  24. 
The  police  accused  the  Mexican  Communist  party 
and  Stalin's  agents  in  Mexico  of  complicity  in 
both  of  these  attacks  (see  COMMUNISM  ;  NECROL- 
OGY under  Trotsky,  Leon). 

In  April  the  Mexican  secret  police  were  report- 
ed to  have  uncovered  evidence  that  Communist  and 
Nazi  agents  were  co-operating  in  seeking  to  fo- 
ment disturbances  in  Mexico  that  would  prevent 
the  United  States  from  intervening  in  the  Euro- 
pean conflict.  This  was  followed  in  May  by  the  ex- 
pulsion of  several  North  American  Communist 
agitators  by  the  Cardenas  Government  and  a  curb 
on  native  Communist  agitation.  The  following 
month  the  Cardenas  Government  curbed  the  Nazi 
propaganda  that  had  been  flooding  Mexican  publi- 
cations during  previous  months.  The  press  attache* 
of  the  German  Legation  was  declared  persona  non 
grata,  several  Nazi  magazines  were  suppressed, 
and  the  Mexican  press  was  warned  to  emphasize 
Mexico's  friendship  for  the  United  States  and  the 
other  democracies  At  the  same  time  Lombardo 
Toledano,  reversing  his  pro-Axis  attitude,  urged 
Latin  American  workers  to  fight  the  Rome-Berlin 
Axis  in  every  possible  way 

Fascists  and  Falangists.  On  July  4  the  CTM 
newspaper  Popular  published  a  four-page  expose 
of  Italian  activities  in  Mexico  It  charged  that 
Italian  Fascists  were  organized  for  political  and 
military  action  under  orders  from  Rome,  that  Ital- 
ian diplomatic  representatives  meddled  in  politics, 
that  pro-Fascist  propaganda  was  being  circulated 
both  officially  and  by  secret  Fascist  organizations, 
and  that  Italians  and  other  foreign  Fascist  groups 
were  working  with  "Almazamst  reactionaries"  for 
the  overthrow  of  the  legal  government. 

Similar  charges  were  made  against  the  Spanish 
Fascist  movement  (Falange  Espanola),  which 
though  officially  outlawed  was  said  to  be  operating 
underground  in  Mexico.  On  the  other  hand,  con- 
servative and  anti-Communist  elements  protested 
the  activities  of  some  Spanish  Republican  emi- 
grees  who  were  charged  with  spreading  Commu- 
nist ideas  or  with  training  to  serve  as  officers  of 
the  workers  militia.  Although  many  Spanish  refu- 
gees in  Mexico  were  reported  to  be  dissatisfied  and 
eager  to  migrate  to  the  United  States  or  else- 
where, the  Cardenas  Government  offered  asylum 
to  some  250,000  more  refugees  who  had  been  in 
France  since  the  Franco  victory  in  Spain.  An 
agreement  whereby  Mexico  undertook  to  accept 
all  these  Spaniards  without  regard  to  creed  or  po- 
litical beliefs  and  to  pay  their  transportation  ex- 
penses and  upkeep  pending  their  departure  from 
France  was  signed  by  the  Mexican  and  French 
(Vichy)  governments  late  in  August.  This  action 
was  bitterly  criticized  by  conservative  Mexicans 
and  even  by  some  radical  labor  unions. 

Economic  Difficulties.  The  rapid  decline  of 
the  peso  from  3.60  per  dollar  previous  to  the  oil 
expropriation  decree  of  March,  1938,  to  approxi- 
mately 6  per  dollar  in  February,  1940,  gave  added 
impetus  to  the  welter  of  conflicting  political 
forces.  This  depreciation  was  due  to  reduced  ex- 
ports and  the  flight  of  capital  following  seizure  of 
the  oil  properties,  increasing  imports  from  the 
United  States  after  the  outbreak  of  the  European 
war,  and  talk  of  a  further  reduction  in  silver 
prices  by  the  United  States  Government.  In  mid- 
February  the  Bank  of  Mexico  took  action  to  peg 


the  peso  at  the  6  per  dollar  level.  The  financial 
position  of  the  government  continued  difficult,  but 
unfavorable  economic  factors  were  offset  by  im- 
proving prices  and  demand  for  Mexican  minerals, 
sisal  and  other  raw  materials,  and  by  heavy  ex- 
penditures by  United  States  tourists.  A  marked 
business  up-turn  occurred  after  Avila  Camacho's 
inauguration. 

Conscription  Introduced.  The  Cabinet  on 
June  18  approved  a  bill,  later  passed  by  Congress, 
establishing  a  more  comprehensive  system  of  com- 
pulsory military  service  for  males  between  the 
ages  of  19  and  45.  Youths  were  to  serve  one  year 
at  the  age  of  19,  serve  in  the  first  reserve  with 
periodic  training  for  the  next  10  years,  serve  in 
the  second  reserve  for  another  10  years,  and  finally 
belong  to  the  National  Guard  for  six  years.  The 
private  workers'  militia  was  expected  to  be  ab- 
sorbed into  the  conscript  army.  Despite  the  gov- 
ernment's financial  straits,  arrangements  were  made 
for  the  purchase  of  arms,  munitions,  and  airplanes 
in  the  United  States. 

The  Oil  Controversy.  There  were  important 
developments  in  the  dispute  between  the  govern- 
ment and  the  foreign  oil  companies  whose  proper- 
ties were  expropriated  in  1938  (see  1938  and  1939 
YEAR  BOOKS).  Legal  proceedings  to  fix  the  com- 
pensation to  be  paid  the  companies  were  carried  to 
completion  over  their  opposition  and  protests.  On 
January  31  President  Cardenas  announced  that 
since  the  companies  refused  to  co-operate  in  the 
appraisal  of  their  properties,  the  Mexican  courts 
would  determine  the  valuation  without  appeal  as 
to  the  amount  of  compensation. 

While  two  experts  appointed  by  the  courts  were 
engaged  in  appraising  the  oil  properties,  the  gov- 
ernment broke  the  united  front  maintained  by  the 
United  States  oil  companies  in  the  expropriation 
controversy.  Early  in  May  the  Sinclair  interests, 
controlling  an  estimated  10  to  40  per  cent  of  the 
American  oil  holdings  in  Mexico,  agreed  to  accept 
$8,500,000  in  settlement  of  their  claims  Of  this 
sum,  $3,000,000  was  paid  in  1940  and  the  remainder 
was  due  in  installments  ending  in  1942.  It  was  un- 
derstood that  the  Sinclair  interests  also  agreed  to 
buy  a  substantial  amount  of  Mexican  oil  over  a 
period  of  years. 

On  August  20  the  two  appraisers  appointed  by 
the  courts,  one  representing  the  government  and 
the  other  the  oil  companies  (without  their  con- 
sent), submitted  their  reports.  The  government 
expert  estimated  the  compensation  due  all  the  for- 
eign companies  except  the  Sinclair  interests  at 
170,737,000  pesos  (about  $34,546,000  at  the  current 
exchange  rate).  The  estimate  of  the  other  expert 
was  181,202,000  pesos  (about  $36,258,000).  These 
estimates,  which  excluded  the  oil  underground, 
contrasted  with  the  companies'  estimate  that  their 
losses  approximated  $400,000,000,  including  oil  un- 
derground. A  third  expert  named  by  the  courts 
fixed  the  final  valuation  at  177,624,000  pesos 
(about  $35,525,000)  on  August  29.  Of  this  amount, 
$28,432,000  was  allotted  to  the  British  and  Nether- 
land  interests  controlling  the  Aguila  holdings, 
$5,117,000  to  the  Standard  Oil  Company  of  New 
Jersey,  and  the  rest  to  five  other  American  con- 
cerns. The  court  approved  this  award  and  signed 
the  deed  transferring  the  properties  to  the  Mexi- 
can Government  when  the  companies  concerned 
refused  to  sign. 

Government  spokesmen  declared  the  legal  con- 
troversy closed,  since  the  expropriation  law  barred 
any  appeal  from  the  court's  decision.  The  govern- 


MICHIGAN 


458 


MICHIGAN 


ttent  also  deducted  from  the  sum  of  the  award 
claims  totaling  $23,400,000  advanced  against  the 
companies  by  oil  workers  for  severance  pay  and 
other  items.  This  reduced  the  net  amount  owing 
the  companies  by  the  government  to  $12,125,000. 
On  September  18  the  Standard  Oil  subsidiaries  in 
Mexico  filed  a  petition  for  an  injunction  against 
the  award. 

Negotiations  with  Washington.  On  April  3 
the  United  States  Government  formally  intervened 
in  the  oil  controversy  with  a  note  requesting  arbi- 
tration of  all  the  issues  between  the  Mexican  Gov- 
ernment and  the  American  companies  involved 
Secretary  Hull's  note  declared  that  Mexico's 
treatment  of  Americans  in  many  fields  was  "whol- 
ly unjustifiable  under  any  principle  of  equity  or 
international  law."  It  asserted  that  these  differ- 
ences "must  of  necessity  be  adjusted  if  the  rela- 
tions between  our  two  countries  are  to  be  conduct- 
ed on  a  mutually  co-operative  basis  of  respect  and 
helpfulness."  Mr.  Hull  requested  that  an  umpire 
be  appointed  to  fix  the  amount  of  unadjusted  gen- 
eral American  claims  against  Mexico  or  that  a 
lump  sum  payment  be  negotiated  for  distribution 
among  claimants  by  the  United  States.  Once  these 
proposals  were  accepted,  he  suggested,  other  out- 
standing problems  should  be  discussed,  such  as 
Mexican  defaults  on  the  foreign  and  railway 
debts. 

This  note  produced  a  violent  reaction  in  Mexico. 
Virtually  all  sections  of  opinion  denounced  it  as 
a  manifestation  of  "Yankee  imperialism."  Protest 
parades  were  held  in  many  Mexican  cities  on 
April  11.  This  indignation  soon  subsided,  but  on 
May  1  the  Mexican  Government  firmly  rejected 
Secretary  Hull's  arbitration  proposal  on  the 
ground  that  the  oil  dispute  was  a  domestic  one 
which  was  nearing  solution.  His  request  for  set- 
tlement of  general  claims  by  an  umpire  was  like- 
wise turned  down  but  the  note  expressed  Mexico's 
willingness  to  negotiate  a  "global  settlement"  of 
these  non-adjudicated  claims. 

Meanwhile  the  Mexican  Government  proceeded 
with  the  expropriation  of  American  and  other  for- 
eign-owned agricultural  properties.  A  decree  of 
March  26  expropriated  1,500,000  acres  of  land  in 
the  State  of  Chiapas  held  by  three  American  cor- 
porations. The  decree  held  that  since  the  compa- 
nies1 title  was  not  valid  they  were  debarred  from 
compensation.  On  June  29  the  Mexican  Govern- 
ment made  another  $1,000,000  payment  on  Ameri- 
can-owned lands  confiscated  since  Aug.  30,  1927. 

See  FASCISM;  INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY;  PAN 
AMERICANISM. 

MICHIGAN.  Area,  57,980  square  miles;  in- 
cludes water  (but  not  the  State's  part  of  the  Great 
Lakes),  500  square  miles.  Population  (U.S.  Cen- 
sus), April,  1940,  5,256,106  (3,454,867  urban  and 
1,801,239  rural) ;  1930,  4,842,325.  Detroit  (1940), 
1,623,452;  Grand  Rapids,  164,292;  Flint,  151,543; 
Lansing  (the  capital).  78,753. 

Agriculture.  Michigan  harvested,  in  1940,  about 
7,707,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Corn,  lead- 
ing all  in  importance,  occupied  1,558,000  acres, 
made  49,856,000  bu.,  and  by  estimate  returned  the 
producers  $32,406,000.  Tame  hay,  on  2,694,000  acres, 
gave  4,064,000  tons  (about  $25,603,000) ;  potatoes, 
on  240,000  acres,  20,640,000  bu.  ($12,797,000' 
oats,  1,287,000  acres,  60,489,000  bu.  ($18,752,000 
wheat,  761,000  acres,  17,812,000  bu.  ($13,359,000 
dry  beans,  567,000  acres,  4,309.000  100-lb.  h 
($12,021,000)  ;  sugar  beets,  114,000  acres,  l,004,uw 
tons  (estimate  for  slightly  greater  crop  of  1939, 


$5,774,000).  Apples  for  market  gare  5,967,000  bu. 
($5,072,000)  ;  cherries,  38,870  tons  (about  $2,400,- 
000).  Farms  (1940)  :  187,589;  their  size  averaged 
96.2  acres. 

Manufacturing.  Yearly  production  of  manu- 
factured goods  in  Michigan  totaled  $4,341,413,139 
for  1939;  $5,296,100,960  for  1937.  Other  totals  for 

1939  (each  with  that  for  1937  subjoined) :  6313 
(5614)  establishments  employed  523,071  (660,676) 
persons  for  wages  of  $790,740,567  ($986,840,523), 
paid  for  material,  etc.,  and  contract  work  $2,550,- 
346,742  ($3,204,437,649),  and  added  to  material,  by 
manufacture,  a  value  of  $1,791,066,397  ($2,091,- 
663,311). 

Mineral  Production.  Michigan's  yearly  pro- 
duction of  native  minerals,  as  valued  in  1940  by 
the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  sank  to  $81,380,602  for 

1938,  or  less  than  seven-tenths  of  the  total  for 
1937.  Most  of  the  loss  resulted  from  lower  ship- 
ments of  iron  ore,  at  lower  prices.  The  iron-ore 
production  recovered,  to  9,159,222  gross  tons  for 

1939,  from  6,004,311  tons  for  1938;  mines'  actual 
shipments  of  iron  ore  recovered  more  sharply,  to 
11,238,605  tons,  from  4,092,902  tons;  and  ship- 
ments' value,  to  $37,026,665,  from  $13,139,823.  In 

1940  the  corresponding  totals  rose  to  some  13,746,- 
000  tons  and  $40,769,000. 

The  yield  of  petroleum  rose  to  approximately 
22,799,000  bbl.  for  1939,  from  18,745,000  bbl.  (val- 
ue, $19,300,000)  for  1938.  A  system  limiting  the 
production  of  petroleum  by  prorating  the  allowable 
output  of  new  fields  went  into  effect  June  1,  1939. 
Mines'  production  of  copper,  in  ore,  diminished 
somewhat  to  43,985  short  tons  (1939)  from  46,743 
tons  (value,  $9,161,628)  for  1938.  Of  portland 
cement,  producers'  yearly  shipments  (fairly  near 
yearly  production)  rose  to  8,327,479  bbl  (1939) 
from  7,192,511  (1938)  and  in  value  to  $10,891,978, 
from  $8,767,859.  The  yield  of  natural  gas  was  re- 
ported as  about  10  per  cent  higher  for  1939  than 
for  1938 ;  for  1938  the  consumed  output  of  natural 
gas  totaled  10,165  million  cubic  feet,  in  value  at 
points  of  consumption,  $6,387,000.  Producers'  sales 
of  salt  recovered  to  2,408,872  short  tons  (1939) 
from  2,078,612  (1938);  in  value,  to  $6,726,912, 
from  $6,151,154. 

Industries  using  minerals  wholly  or  partly  from 
outside  produced  great  totals  not  included  in  the 
State's  yearly  value  of  production  of  its  own  min- 
erals. Of  coke,  2,430,688  short  tons  were  made  in 
1939,  as  against  1,742,787  in  1938;  by  value,  $12,- 
408,881  as  against  $10,135,722.  Furnaces'  shipments 
of  pig  iron  doubled,  to  1,138,964  gross  tons  (1939) 
from  558,782  tons  (1938)  and  in  value  to  $18,872,- 
150,  from  $9,806,994. 

Education.  Michigan's  inhabitants  of  school  age 
(from  5  years  to  19,  inclusive)  were  reckoned,  for 
May,  1939,  at  1,389,347,  or  some  10,000  fewer 
than  a  year  before.  For  the  academic  year  1938-39 
—the  latest  covered  by  data  that  follow— enroll- 
ments in  the  public  schools  numbered  967,852;  this 
comprised  535,763  from  kindergarten  through 
eighth  grade,  398,886  in  high  school,  and  33,203 
otherwise  classified.  The  year's  expenditure  for 
public-school  education  totaled  $107,694,541.  Teach- 
ers in  public  schools  numbered  32,702;  their  pay 
averaged  $1599.14  for  the  year. 

History.  The  industries  of  Michigan,  as  a 
whole,  passed  an  unusually  productive  year,  toward 
the  end  of  which  the  leading  manufacturers  of 
automobiles  started  to  branch  out  into  the  produc- 
tion of  airplanes  and  aeronautical  engines,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  effort  of  the  Federal  Govern- 


MICHIGAN 


459 


MICHIGAN 


meat  to  increase  the  Nation's  armaments.  The 
State's  government,  however,  still  felt  the  weight 
of  the  heavy  deficit  that  the  Murphy  administra- 
tion had  bequeathed  to  its  successor  in  1939;  Gov- 
ernor Dickinson  resorted  to  severe  (though  unequal) 
retrenchment,  to  avoid  summoning  the  Legislature 
in  special  session  and  asking  it  for  more  money  to 
meet  obligations.  The  dependents  on  public  support 
became  less  numerous,  and  the  State's  sales  tax 
brought  in  more  revenue  as  industrial  activity  in- 
creased; but  the  difficulty  of  realizing  on  sums 
due  the  State  in  delinquent  taxes  on  property  re- 
mained, as  the  sales  of  land  for  taxes  in  February 
brought  in  many  cases  far  less  than  assessed  valu- 
ation. 

Governor  Dickinson  was  accused  during  the  year 
of  having  carried  economy  to  such  excess  as  to 
risk  wrecking  the  physical  condition  of  some  of 
the  State's  dependents.  An  epidemic  of  poliomye- 
litis had  spread  in  the  Upper  Peninsula,  and  the 
Governor's  accusers  charged  that  the  convalescent 
sufferers  lacked  the  public  care  needful  to  restor- 
ing nerves  and  muscles  paralysed  by  the  disease. 
This  consideration  was  said  to  have  contributed  to 
Dickinson's  failure  to  win  re-election :  and  H.  E. 
Van  de  Walker,  14  years  head  of  the  Crippled 
Children's  Commission,  resigned  in  October,  after 
controversy  with  Dickinson. 

Labor  Situation.  The  automobile-manufactur- 
ing industry,  harried  for  several  years  by  strikes 
and  suspensions  of  work,  complicated  with  rival- 
ries among  unions,  enjoyed  a  year  of  relative  free- 
dom from  these  troubles.  The  question  what  union 
should  prevail  as  the  agent  for  the  136,000  employ- 
ees of  the  General  Motors  Corporation  was  appar- 
ently settled  by  an  election  held  on  April  18  by  the 
NLRB.  While  most  of  these  employees  were  in 
Michigan,  their  total  was  scattered  among  11  States. 
They  gave  about  90,000  votes  for  the  C.I.O.'s 
fraction  of  the  disrupted  United  Automobile  Work- 
ers of  America  and  about  30,000  for  the  A.F.L. 
affiliation,  or  for  neither.  The  election  determined, 
at  least  for  a  time,  the  agency  to  have  control  of 
the  employees'  concerns  as  to  labor  matters. 

The  Board  of  Appeals  of  the  State's  Unemploy- 
ment Compensation  Commission  decided  (April 
23)  in  favor  of  the  claims  of  some  35,000  employ- 
ees of  the  Chrysler  Corporation  to  receive  $1,892,- 
700  in  compensation  for  their  idleness  in  the  course 
of  the  interruption  of  work  in  the  Chrysler  estab- 
lishments during  the  labor  troubles  in  the  autumn 
of  1939. 

Federal  Activities  in  the  State.  In  April, 
armed  with  reports  from  the  Federal  Bureau  of 
Investigation,  F.  John  Rogge  of  the  Federal  De- 
partment of  Justice  prosecuted  infractions  of  Fed- 
eral laws  on  the  part  of  State  authorities  and  oth- 
ers, as  he  had  successfully  done  in  Louisiana.  A 
Federal  Grand  Jury  subsequently  spent  over  six 
months  on  inquiries  along  this  line;  Frank  D  Mc- 
Kay of  Grand  Rapids,  veteran  political  boss,  was 
indicted  in  December.  Congress  passed  a  bill  to  per- 
mit Michigan  to  build  a  bridge  across  the  Straits 
of  MacWnac.  The  U.S.  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
received  from  Michigan  a  deed  to  133,405  acres  in- 
tended to  form  part  of  Isle  Royale  National  Park 
in  Lake  Superior. 

State  Civil  Service.  According  to  a  report  of 
the  State's  Civil  Service  Commission,  published 
late  in  January,  all  employees  in  24  of  the  State 
government's  departments  had  been  removed  from 
the  protected  status  of  civil  service  subsequent  to 
the  so-called  civil-service  ripper  act  passed  in  1939. 


While  this  act  was  defended  by  its  supporters  as  a 
counterthrust  to  the  intrenchment  of  Democratic 
officeholders  said  to  have  been  effected  by  the  civil- 
service  act  itself,  the  revealed  result  helped  renew 
the  agitation  for  restoring  the  system.  Petitions 
for  the  submission  of  an  amendment  to  the  voters 
at  the  election  during  November  were  circulated 
and  the  necessary  number  of  signatures,  about  161,- 
000,  was  obtained.  The  prospect,  later  realized,  that 
the  popular  vote  would  adopt  the  amendment,  lent 
particular  importance  to  the  year's  elections  of 
Governor  and  legislators.  The  amendment  required 
the  enactment  of  the  requisite  civil -service  law  un- 
der penalty  of  the  stoppage  of  all  the  State's  pay 
checks  on  August  1 ;  it  made  mandatory  the  crea- 
tion of  a  new  Civil  Service  Commission  of  two 
Republican  and  two  Democratic  members,  to  be 
appointed  by  the  Governor,  and  of  a  Director  of 
Personnel.  It  was  expected  that  the  commission 
when  created  would  admit  all  the  existing  State 
employees,  except  for  a  few  exempted  groups,  into 
the  protection  of  the  system. 

Detroit.  Under  Mayor  Jeffries,  elected  in  No- 
vember, 1939,  Detroit  underwent  at  least  the  open- 
ing stages  of  a  purge  of  official  misconduct.  The 
previous  Mayor,  Richard  W.  Reading,  was  held 
for  trial  as  a  receiver  of  bribes  from  operators  of 
games  of  policy  and  from  takers  of  wagers  on 
horse  races ;  he  was  one  of  137  charged  with  com- 
plicity in  the  protection  of  horse-race  gambling. 
Sheriff  T.  C.  Wilcox  of  Wayne  County  was 
removed  from  office  by  Governor  Dickinson  on 
charges  of  protecting  operators  of  places  of  un- 
lawful resort.  Duncan  C.  McCrea,  prosecutor  of 
Wayne  County,  went  out  by  the  same  exit.  Mc- 
Crea's  removal  took  from  his  hands  the  duty  of 
prosecuting  the  participants  in  the  alleged  corrup- 
tion. The  graft  indictments  as  a  whole  portrayed 
many  officers  of  the  law,  great  and  small,  as  hav- 
ing sold  immunity  to  bands  of  bookmakers,  lottery 
men,  and  traffickers  in  prostitution.  The  disclosures 
spread  from  a  relatively  small  origin,  the  suicide 
of  a  woman  employee  of  a  policy  shop  in  1939,  who 
was  found  to  have  left  a  memorandum  of  pay- 
ments made  to  members  of  the  police. 

The  lack  of  a  satisfactory  zoning  ordinance  for 
safeguarding  the  development  of  realty  came  into 
note  during  the  year  in  two  ways :  it  led  to  a  de- 
mand that^the  city  do  something  about  areas  that 
were  deteriorating  and  thus  losing  in  ability  to  pay 
taxes;  in  another  direction,  it  stimulated  demand 
for  housing  projects  that  might  help  rid  the  city  of 
slums. 

See  AQUEDUCTS;  WATER  WORKS  AND  WATER 
PURIFICATION. 

Elections.  At  the  general  election  (Novem- 
ber 5)  the  popular  vote  for  President  went  to 
Willkie  (Rep.)  by  1,039,917,  giving  him  a  plurality 
of  almost  7000  votes  over  Roosevelt  (Dem.),  who 
obtained  1,032,991.  U.S.  Senator  A.  H.  Vanden- 
berg  (Rep.)  was  re-elected,  by  1,053,104  to  939,- 
740  for  Frank  Fitzgerald  (Dem.).  Governor  Dick- 
inson (Rep.),  obtaining  945,774  votes,  failed  of 
re-election;  his  opponent,  M.  D.  Van  Wagoner 
(Dem.),  running  ahead  of  his  parry's  ticket,  with 
1,077,065  votes.  Majorities  in  both  houses  of  the 
Legislature  were  none  the  less  retained  by  the  Re- 
publicans. Eleven  Republicans  and  six  Democrats 
were  elected  U.S.  Representatives. 
.The  voters  adopted  a  thoroughgoing  system  of 
civil  service  for  employees  of  the  State,  as  provid- 
ed}  in  a  proposed  constitutional  amendment  They 
rejected  a  proposal  forbidding  the  Detroit  Street 


MICRO-FILM  COPYING 


460 


MILITARY  PROGRESS 


Railways  to  continue  charging,  between  Detroit  and 
suburban  points,  low  fares  that  privately  owned 
companies,  being  taxed  as  such,  were  said  to  be  un- 
able to  meet. 

Officers.  Michigan's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  Luren  D.  Dickinson  (Rep.) ; 
Lieutenant  Governor,  office  vacant;  Secretary  of 
State,  Harry  F.  Kelly ;  Attorney  General,  Thomas 
Read;  Treasurer,  Miller  Dunckel;  Auditor,  Ver- 
non  J.  Brown ;  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, Eugene  B.  Elliott. 

MICRO-FILM  COPYING.  See  LIBRARY 
PROGRESS  under  Gifts. 

MICROPHOTOGRAPHY.  See  PHOTOGRA- 
PHY. 

MIDDLE  CONGO.  See  FRENCH  EQUATORIAL 
AFRICA. 

MIDWAY  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  islands  in 
the  North  Pacific  (28°  12'  N.;  177°  22'  W.), 
some  1200  miles  to  the  northwest  of  Hawaii. 
Area,  28  square  miles;  population  (1936),  118. 
The  Naval  Appropriations  Bill  of  1939  provided 
for  the  construction  on  the  islands  of  a  United 
States  air  and  submarine  base.  Since  1935  the 
islands  have  been  used  as  a  station  on  Pan  Ameri- 
can Airways'  transpacific  route  to  Manila.  They 
are  administered  by  the  U.S.  Navy  Department. 

MIGRANT  WORKERS.  See  FARM  SECU- 
RITY ADMINISTRATION  ;  NEW  JERSEY  under  Admin- 
istrative Matters. 

MILBANK  MEMORIAL  FUND.  See 
BENEFACTIONS. 

MILITARY  PROGRESS.  The  development 
of  weapons,  training  of  troops,  tactics,  and  general 
military  thought  during  the  year,  was  influenced  in 
virtually  all  of  the  world  powers  by  the  successes 
of  the  German  Army.  Profoundly  impressed  by 
the  power  displayed  in  the  conquest  and  subjuga- 
tion of  Norway,  Netherlands,  Belgium,  and  France, 
military  leaders  in  belligerent  as  well  as  neutral 
countries  endeavored  to  apply  to  their  own  needs 
the  weapons  and  principles  which  made  this  pos- 
sible. As  the  year  drew  to  a  close,  British  troops  in 
North  Africa  with  smashing  blows  and  lightning 
movement  against  the  Italians,  were  demonstrating 
their  acceptance  and  absorption  of  the  German  con- 
cept of  war.  On  the  surface,  and  to  popular 
thought,  "Blitzkrieg"  was  a  war  of  modern  weap- 
ons— airplanes  and  tanks.  Studied  military  analy- 
sis revealed  it  to  be  a  modern  exposition  of  the  old 
principles  of  surprise,  mass,  and  exploitation,  fun- 
damentally based  upon  such  perfect  training  and 
co-ordination  of  all  arms  that  the  way  was  cleared 
for  the  Infantry  to  clinch  the  decision  and  consoli- 
date the  gains.  Stabilized  trench  warfare  passed 
from  the  military  mind  in  1940,  and  in  its  place 
came  a  return  to  the  war  of  movement.  Adopting 
modern  means  to  old,  but  sound  military  practice, 
the  German  Army  in  northern  Europe  blasted  its 
way  through  the  static  fixed  defenses,  and  in  dy- 
namic action  sent  its  armored  divisions  through 
the  gap  to  spread  havoc  and  destruction  to  the 
command  posts  and  communications  in  the  rear. 
Where  opposition  was  encountered,  the  way  was 
made  easier  by  the  devastating  attacks  of  support- 
ing dive  bombers.  Behind  the  wave  of  armored 
elements  came  the  motorized  infantry  and  the  mo- 
torized supply  elements  upon  which  both  depended. 
Next  followed  the  Infantry,  to  make  the  final  de- 
cision and  consolidate  the  gains.  With  the  Infantry 
came  horse-drawn  artillery  and  horse-drawn  sup- 
plies. Thus  the  modern  weapons  opened  the  way 
for  the  age-proven  to  conquer  and  hold,  while  the 


ancient  principle  of  perfect  training  and  co-ordina- 
tion made  it  possible. 

As  showing  the  German  thought  on  the  Blitz- 
krieg, Lieutenant  Colonel  Kohn  wrote  in  the  Mi'/f- 
tar  Wochenblatt  (Berlin)  of  Aug.  2,  1940: 

"During  the  pursuit,  the  tanks,  aviators,  and  fast  troops 
develop  the  tactical  success  into  a  strategic  one.  Neverthe- 
less, the  Infantry  also  continues  to  take  part  in  the  pur- 
suit, and  it  must  accomplish  great  feats,  as  the  present 
war  has  shown  once  more.  It  presses  forward  relentlessly 
and  is  not  afraid  to  lose  temporarily  the  previously  close 
support  of  its  neighbors  in  order  to  prevent  the  enemy 
from  making  a  new  stand.  This  necessitates  bold  and  de- 
cisive action  on  the  part  of  the  subordinate  commanders, 
who  can  usually  count  only  upon  their  respective  units 
and  must  wage  the  combat  without  relying  on  the  assist- 
ance of  their  neighbors  It  is  perhaps  in  just  this  kind  of 
combat  that  we  have  shown  ourselves  strongest  during  the 
present  war. 

"A  consideration  of  the  principles  will  show  very  plainly 
that  troops  had  been  adequately  prepared  and  trained  for 
combat.  In  accordance  with  the  missions  assigned  them, 
all  arms  have  supported  the  Infantry  so  fully  that  in  many 
cases  the  ideal  of  enabling  the  Infantry  to  reach  the  enemy 
with  its  strength  still  unimpaired  was  almost  completely 
attained.  Only  thus  is  it  possible  to  explain  the  almost  in- 
credibly small  losses  as  compared  with  those  occurring 
during  the  World  War.  Nevertheless,  it  should  be  stated 
that  the  endurance  and  tenacity  shown  by  the  Infantry 
during  the  World  War  and  again  in  the  present  war,  was 
the  decisive  factor  when  it  was  opposed  by  an  equally 
tenacious  enemy.  Therefore,  when  initial  successes  were 
swiftly  developed  by  the  command  into  strategic  successes, 
there  occurred  through  employment  of  all  arras  a  pursuit  of 
the  enemy  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  the  world,  and 
the  commanders  of  even  the  smallest  units  were  glad  to 
assume  responsibility.  It  was  this  fact  that  was  new  to  our 
foes  They  call  it  'Blitzkrieg'  and  talk  of  our  secrets  To 
us  this  quick  success  was  due  to  our  training,  but  it  can- 
not cause  us  to  overlook  the  basic  importance  of  general 
principles  in  combating  a  tenacious  ana  obstinate  foe.  The 
great  successes  obtained  by  all  arms  group  themselves  about 
the  victory  of  the  Infantry,  which,  as  the  principal  arm, 
overcame  the  enemy  man  to  man,  and  thus  triumphed  over 
his  technique." 

Nevertheless,  while  the  Infantry,  through  the 
co-ordination  and  training  of  other  arms,  continues 
to  be  the  final  and  decisive  factor,  general  recogni- 
tion is  given  to  the  fact  that  its  success  in  1940  was 
due  to  the  preparation  made  for  it  by  the  airplane 
and  mechanized  and  motorized  troops,  and  it  was 
to  these  agencies  and  to  methods  of  defense  against 
them  that  military  thought  turned  for  development 
and  exploitation. 

United  States.  Throughout  the  year  1940  there 
was  a  growing  determination  by  the  people  of  the 
United  States  that  a  strong  armed  defense  was 
necessary  to  their  security.  Public  sentiment  had 
been  swinging  in  the  preceding  years  from  depend- 
ence upon  diplomacy,  and  the  still  earlier  arms 
limitation  agreements,  to  dependence  upon  armed 
strength.  Two  factors  led  to  this  change:  First, 
Europe's  demonstration  of  the  destructive  power 
of  the  airplane  and  the  certainty  of  the  belief  that 
further  developments  of  its  powers  would  greatly 
weaken  the  security  formerly  provided  by  the  At- 
lantic and  the  Pacific  Oceans;  and  second,  the 
proof  offered  by  events  abroad  that  neither  strict 
neutrality,  non-aggression  treaties,  nor  sedulous  in- 
offensiveness  deters  nations  bent  on  conquest.  The 
intensity  of  this  trend  in  the  life  of  the  United 
States  mounted  through  the  year.  Submitting  his 
recommendations  in  as  large  increments  as  the  pub- 
lic mind  would  accept,  President  Roosevelt  led  the 
third  session  of  the  76th  Congress  to  vote  for  Na- 
tional Defense  and  enforcement  of  neutrality  the 
unprecedented  peace-time  sum  of  $9,114,345,921  in 
direct  appropriations  and  an  additional  $3,991,882,- 
009  in  contract  authorizations  making  a  total  of 
$13,106,227,930,  not  including  $4,586,000,000  (esti- 
mated cost)  for  long-range  commitments  for  naval 
shipbuilding  expansion  program  in  excess  of  ex- 


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461 


MILITARY  PROGRESS 


isting  appropriations.  Of  this  figure,  $8,792,145,- 
145  was  for  the  military  activities  of  the  War  De- 
partment, all  of  which  was  in  the  form  of  direct 
appropriations  except  $2,979,136,397  in  contract  au- 
thorizations for  the  fiscal  year  1941.  The  public 
determination  to  secure  defense,  reached  even  a 
higher  peak  in  the  fall  when  two  far  reaching 
pieces  of  legislation  became  laws :  On  August  27, 
legislative  authority  for  the  President  to  order  into 
the  active  military  service  of  the  United  States  for 
a  period  of  twelve  consecutive  months  each,  any, 
or  all  members  and  units  of  any  or  all  reserve 
components  of  the  Army  of  the  United  States  and 
retired  personnel  of  the  Regular  Army,  with  or 
without  their  consent;  and,  on  September  16,  a 
universal  military  service  law  under  the  title  "Se- 
lective Training  and  Service  Act  of  1940,"  which 
required  the  registration  for  military  training  and 
service  of  male  citizens  between  the  ages  of  21 
and  35  years.  See  DRAFT. 

This  effort  of  the  United  States  to  build  a  for- 
midable force  from  an  Army  that  had  stood  for 
years  as  the  seventeenth  among  the  nations  of  the 
world,  is  of  vital  military  importance  throughout 
the  world.  Such  progress  as  has  been  made  during 
the  short  period  the  new  funds  have  been  available, 
has  been  due  to  the  soundness  of  the  planning  of 
the  War  Department  General  Staff  during  the 
years  since  the  World  War,  particularly  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  National  Guard  and  Reserve  Of- 
ficer systems  of  civilian  components.  The  year  saw 
the  number  of  soldiers  on  active  duty  increase  from 
220,000  to  more  than  600,000,  with  1,400,000  sched- 
uled by  the  spring  of  1941.  In  January  of  1940 
there  were  only  five  newly  organized  Infantry  Di- 
visions and  one  inadequately  strengthed  Cavalry 
Division  in  active  service  in  the  United  States.  At 
the  end  of  the  year  there  were  twenty-two  divi- 
sions in  active  service. 

Organization  and  Administration.  The 
charted  picture  of  the  Army  was  altered  consider- 
ably. A  fundamental  change  was  that  separating 
the  geographical  Corps  Area  commands  from  the 
Army  and  Tactical  Corps  commands.  Under  the 
new  organization,  the  commanders  of  the  nine  ge- 
ographical corps  areas  constitute  an  organization 
quite  similar  to  the  Service  of  Supply  set  up  by 
Gen.  John  J.  Pershing  in  France.  They  are  re- 
lieved of  the  responsibility  for  the  training  and 
combat  efficiency  of  tactical  units.  Also  constituted 
during  the  year  was  the  nucleus  of  a  General 
Headquarters  Staff,  with  Maj.  Gen.  Leslie  J.  Mc- 
Nair  as  chief  of  staff.  Thus  the  Chief  of  Staff  of 
the  Army,  Gen.  George  C.  Marshall,  through  his 
dual  capacity  as  Commanding  General  of  the  Field 
Forces,  exercises  his  direction  and  supervision  of 
the  training  of  the  Field  Forces  (exclusive  of 
overseas  garrisons)  through  the  General  Head- 
quarters Staff,  to  the  Army  commanders  (tactical), 
Corps  Commanders,  and  commanders  of  Divisions 
and  troop  units.  On  the  other  hand,  the  supply  and 
general  house-keeping  duties  at  posts  are  adminis- 
tered by  the  War  Department  through  the  Corps 
Area  commanders  and  thence  to  post  commanders. 
Decision  to  separate  post  administration  from  tac- 
tical units  is  designed  to  free  the  latter  from  the 
duties  of  administering  and  maintaining  their  mili- 
tary townships  and  to  make  them  tenants  of  a  post 
from  which  they  may  depart  on  a  moment's  notice 
for  operations  in  the  field  or  as  expeditionary 
forces  without  disruption  either  of  the  tactical 
units  or  of  the  post's  administration.  Likewise,  the 
commands  of  the  four  field  Armies,  which  former- 


ly had  been  given  to  the  senior  corps  area  com- 
mander in  each  of  the  Army  areas,  were  made 
separate  commands  and  nine  tactical  Corps  com- 
mands were  set  up.  With  nine  Regular  Army 
(triangular — three  regiment,  mobile)  divisions  and 
eighteen  National  Guard  (square — two  brigade, 
four  regiment,  heavy)  divisions  in  existence,  the 
typical  corps  would  thus  be  composed  of  one  tri- 
angular division  and  two  square  divisions.  In  prac- 
tice only  the  Fourth  and  Eighth  Corps  were  thus 
constituted,  the  others  being  variously  composed, 
while  two  triangular  divisions,  the  5th  and  6th, 
together  with  the  contemplated  2d  Cavalry  Di- 
vision became  non-corps  troops  with  the  Second 
Army,  and  the  1st  Cavalry  Division  non-corps 
troops  with  the  Third  Army. 

The  successful  use  by  the  German  Army  of  its 
Panzer  (mechanized)  Divisions  for  surprise  and 
shock,  and  the  opening  of  a  way  for  its  Infantry 
troops,  led  the  U.S.  Army  to  intensify  its  develop- 
ment of  mechanized  warfare  by  the  creation  of 
an  Armored  Force  embracing  functions  formerly 
apportioned  to  both  the  Cavalry  and  Infantry. 
Under  the  previous  arrangement,  provided  by  the 
National  Defense  Act,  tanks  were  the  responsibili- 
ty of  the  Infantry,  yet  mechanization  had  been 
placed  under  the  Cavalry  because  its  missions  of 
reconnaissance,  shock,  and  exploitation  were  con- 
sidered Cavalry  functions.  Under  the  latter  ar- 
rangement tanks  were  assigned  to  the  Cavalry  un- 
der the  nomenclature  of  combat  cars.  With  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Armored  Force,  under  Maj.  Gen. 
Adna  R.  Chaffee,  all  Infantry  and  Cavalry  activi- 
ties relating  to  tanks  and  combat  cars,  and  their 
accompanying  artillery,  were  consolidated  in  a  new 
component  of  the  Army  responsible  directly  to  the 
Chief  of  Staff  and  without  an  intervening  chief  of 
branch.  Originally  one  corps,  composed  of  two  di- 
visions, was  created,  while  two  more  divisions  were 
authorized  to  be  formed  during  the  spring  of  1941. 

In  line  with  the  lessons  of  the  war  in  Europe, 
increasing  emphasis  was  given  to  the  Air  Compo- 
nent. Decision  was  reached  on  a  program  making 
provision  for  60  combat  groups  for  the  General 
Headquarters  Air  Force.  In  addition  the  GHQ 
Air  Force  was  removed  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Chief  of  the  Air  Corps,  and  designated  as  an 
element  of  the  field  forces  to  operate  under  the 
direct  control  of  General  Headquarters.  The  com- 
manding general  of  the  GHQ  Air  Force,  Delos  C. 
Emmons,  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant 
general,  thus  making  him  a  co-equal  of  the  com- 
manding generals  of  the  four  field  armies,  and  his 
headquarters  was  ordered  transferred  from  Lang- 
ley  Field,  Va.,  to  Boiling  Field,  D.C.,  where  he 
will  be  close  to  the  General  Headquarters  operat- 
ing from  the  Army  War  College.  This  carrying 
forward  of  the  development  of  aviation  as  an  inte- 
gral part  of  the  Army,  in  the  face  of  some  agita- 
tion for  a  separate  department  of  the  air,  was  done 
with  the  support  of  President  Roosevelt,  who,  in 
a  radio  speech  on  May  26,  had  stated  that  "the 
air  forces  should  be  a  part  of  the  Army  and  Na- 
vy." In  that  talk,  the  President  said : 

"Recent  wars,  including  the  current  war  in  Europe,  have 
demonstrated  beyond  doubt  that  fighting  efficiency  depends 
on  unity  of  control.  In  sea  operations  the  airplane  is  just 
as  much  an  integral  part  of  unity  of  operations  as  are  the 
submarine,  the  destroyer,  and  the  battleship,  and  in  land 
warfare  the  airplane  is  just  as  much  a  part  of  military 
operations  as  are  the  tank  corps,  the  engineers,  the  artil- 
lery, or  the  Infantry  itself." 

Emerging  from  this  reorganization  was  the  ba- 
sis of  a  mobile  field  Army  under  the  General 


MILITARY  PROGRESS 


462 


MILITARY  PROGRESS 


Headquarters  having  directly  under  its  command 
the  I  Armored  Corps  (Maj.  Gen.  Adna  R.  Chaf- 
fee,  commanding),  composed  of  the  First  and  Sec- 
ond Armored  Divisions;  the  GHQ  Air  Force;  a 
GHQ  Reserve  composed  of  heavy  artillery,  heavy 
tank,  and  other  elements;  and  four  field  Armies 
organized  as  follows : 

First  Army  (Lieut.  Gen.  Hugh  A.  Drum.  Commanding) 
—I  Corps.  8th,  9th,  and  30th  Divisions;  II  Corps,  SSth*, 
29th*.  and  44th  Divisions;  VI  Corps,  1st  and  26th*  Di- 
visions; and  the  1st,  2d,  and  3d  Coast  Artillery  Districts. 

Second  Army  (Lieut  Gen.  Ben  Lear.  Commanding) — 
VII  Corps.  27th,  33d*.  and  35th  Divisions;  and  the  5th 
and  6th  Divisions  and  the  2d  Cavalry  Divisions. 

Thtrd  Army  (Lieut  Gen.  Herbert  J.  Brees,  Command- 
ing)—IV  Corps,  4th,  31st  and  43d*  Divisions;  V  Corps, 
32d,  34th*.  37th,  and  38th*  Divisions;  VIII  Corps,  2d, 
36th,  and  45th  Divisions:  the  1st  Cavalry  Division;  the 
4th  Coast  Artillery  District,  and  the  Harbor  Defenses  of 
Galveston. 

Fourth  Army  (Lieut  Gen.  John  L.  DeWitt  Command- 
ing)—III  Corps,  7th  and  40th*  Divisions;  IX  Corps,  3d 
and  41st  Divisions;  9th  Coast  Artillery  Disttict;  and 
Alaskan  command. 

The  table  on  page  463  lists  by  corps  areas  the 
major  army  posts,  camps,  and  stations  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  with  estimated  population  in  round  num- 
bers as  of  June  15,  1941. 

Vertical  envelopment,  through  the  landing  be- 
hind the  enemy's  lines  of  Infantry  troops  dropped 
from  airplanes  by  parachutes,  having  proved  of 
value  under  favorable  conditions  in  Europe,  the 
formation  of  such  units  was  undertaken  in  the 
U.S.  Army,  initially  by  the  organization  of  the 
501st  Parachute  Battalion  at  Ft.  Banning,  Ga. 
The  U.S.  Army  had  demonstrated  some  years  ago 
the  feasibility  of  landing  rifle  and  machine-gun 
troops  by  parachutes,  but  had  not  pursued  its  own 
innovation. 

Looking  to  the  development  of  a  system  of  pro- 
tection against  aerial  invasion,  the  War  Depart- 
ment set  up  early  in  the  year  an  Air  Defense  Com- 
mand under  Maj.  Gen.  James  E.  Chancy,  Jr.  Em- 
bracing antiaircraft  units,  interceptor-pursuit  air- 
plane groups,  and  an  aircraft  warning  service  of 
signal  communications,  the  new  command  was 
established  in  the  New  England  area  to  work  out 
organization  and  methods  which  eventually  will 
be  duplicated  in  other  geographic  defensive  areas. 

Having  in  mind  the  experience  in  Finland  and 
in  Albania  and  in  order  that  it  might  be  prepared 
for  operation  under  all  weather  conditions,  the 
U.S.  Army  also  entered  upon  a  program  of  train- 
ing troops  in  northern  areas  to  travel  and  fight  on 
skis  and  snow  shoes. 

Profiting  from  its  experience  in  the  World  War, 
the  War  Department  is  basing  its  plans  for  expan- 
sion of  the  Army  on  the  replacement  center  system 
rather  than  on  the  old  system  of  recruit  training 
within  the  combat  unit,  or  as  happened  in  the 
World  War,  the  breaking  up  of  existing  units  to 
provide  personnel  for  replacement  of  losses  in 
other  units.  Under  the  replacement  system  all  re- 
cruits will  be  given  three  months  basic  training  in 
their  arm  or  service  in  a  replacement  center.  Up- 
on completion  of  this  training  they  will  be  sent  to 
operating  organizations.  Thus  the  tactical  organi- 
zations will  be  freed  from  the  problem  of  recruit 
training  and  enabled  to  devote  their  entire  energies 
to  training  in  units  above  that  of  the  company. 

Reviewing  the  progress  of  the  year,  Gen.  George 
C  Marshall,  Chief  of  Staff,  of  the  Army,  report- 
ed to  a  nation-wide  radio  audience  on  Jan.  7,  1941, 
as  follows: 

•  National  Guard  Division  due  for  induction  into  Fed- 
eral Service  early  In  1941. 


"A  littlt  more  than  a  year  ago  the  Army  had  a  mall 
garrison  in  the  Philippines,  one  of  medium  size  in  Pana- 
ma, and  a  well-developed  force  in  Hawaii.  In  Puerto  Rico 
there  were  lew  than  a  thousand  men,  and  in  Alaska  but  a 
few  hundred.  Here,  at  home,  there  was  no  field  army,  only 
scattered  regiments  of  the  regular  army,  incomplete  in 
numbers,  in  training,  and  in  many  vital  items  of  equip- 
ment. Behind  these  troops  was  a  wholly  inadequate  store 
of  modern  munitions,  insufficient  even  for  the  expansion 
of  the  few  existing  units  to  full  strength.  Our  reserves  of 
uniforms  had  been  exhausted  by  issues  to  the  Civilian 
Conservation  Corps.  There  was  so  little  motor  transporta- 
tion that  the  larger  units  could  not  be  given  adequate  field 
training,  even  if  assembled. 

"Today  more  than  600,000  men  are  in  active  training. 
Twenty-two  divisions  are  in  the  field  in  this  country,  along 
with  approximately  100  regiments  of  special  troops,  such 
as  heavy  guns,  antiaircraft  artillery,  and  engineers.  Theae 
units  are  organized  into  Array  Corps,  and  the  corps  in  turn 
are  organized  into  four  field  armies. 

"That  important  member  of  our  military  team,  the  Air 
Corps,  has  doubled  in  strength  and  will  soon  be  trebled. 

"Reinforcements  have  gone  to  Hawaii;  the  troop  strength 
in  Panama  has  more  than  doubled.  Puerto  Rico  now  has  a 
garrison  not  of  1000  but  of  12,000,  and  the  lonely  group 
In  Alaska  has  swelled  to  3000. 

"Throughout  the  Caribbean  region  air  fields  are  being 
improved  and  extended.  Gasoline  and  servicing  facilities 
are  being  installed  to  provide  for  any  sudden  movement  of 
our  planes  in  that  area.  Next  week  troops  will  sail  from 
New  York  to  Newfoundland  to  garrison  our  new  air  base 
there.  Our  engineers  are  on  the  ground  surveying  sites  in 
Bermuda,  Trinidad,  and  the  other  bases  recently  made 
available  to  us  by  the  British  government." 

Maneuvers  and  Field  Training.  In  contrast 
with  recent  years  when  two  weeks  in  the  field  for 
one  fourth  of  the  mobile  Army  in  the  United 
States  was  the  extent  of  the  Army's  maneuvers, 
1940  was  a  year  of  continuous  field  training  for 
most  of  the  field  forces.  The  opening  of  the  year 
found  most  of  the  combat  elements,  including  the 
new  organized  triangular  divisions,  under  canvas 
training  in  southern  areas.  This  divisional  and 
corps  training  culminated  in  the  spring  in  an  Army 
exercise  in  Louisiana  and  Texas. 

In  January,  the  Third  Division  engaged  in  a 
Joint  Exercise  with  Naval  forces,  involving  its 
transportation  by  sea  from  Ft.  Lewis,  Wash.,  to  a 
point  near  the  Presidio  of  Monterey,  Calif.,  where 
it  effected  a  landing  on  the  beach,  with  all  its  ar- 
tillery, tanks,  and  heavy  equipment  under  simulated 
war  conditions  and  opposition.  In  the  summer  each 
of  the  Four  Armies  in  the  United  States  held  field 
exercises  in  which  the  National  Guard  units  in 
their  areas  participated.  By  fall  the  bill  for  the  in- 
duction of  the  National  Guard  was  a  law  and, 
as  housing  and  health  facilities  became  available, 
those  units  entered  the  Federal  service  for  a  con- 
tinuous state  of  field  training. 

Materiel.  Procurement  of  materiel  and  the 
construction  of  housing  and  facilities  remained 
the  greatest  problems  in  connection  with  the  ex- 
pansion program  of  the  Army.  An  Advisory  Com- 
mittee to  the  National  Defense  Council  and  later 
an  Office  of  Production  Management  were  created 
to  speed  up  procurement.  For  contracts  and  de- 
liveries to  the  end  of  the  year,  see  NATIONAL  DE- 
FENSE ADVISORY  COMMISSION.  Nevertheless,  with 
a  large  portion  of  new  production  as  well  as  con- 
siderable ^amounts  of  Army  materiel  being  sent 
to  the  British,  it  was  difficult  to  forecast  when  the 
United  States  forces  would  be  completely  sup- 
plied with  modern  equipment. 

See  AERONAUTICS  under  Military  Aviation ;  EU- 
ROPEAN WAR;  PHOTOGRAPHY.  Compare  NAVAL 
PROGRESS.  For  military  medicine  and  hospitals,  see 
MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY. 

LEROY  WHITMAN. 


MILITARY  PROGRESS 


463 


MILITARY  PROGRESS 


MAJOR  ARMY  POSTS.  CAMPS,  AND  STATIONS  IN  THE  CONTINENTAL  UNTIED  STATES. 
V.  S.  Amy  Inform****  Service,  New  York  City 


Installations 


Post  Office 


FIRST  CORPS  AREA     

Fort  Ethan  Allen  ...  Ft  Ethan  Allen,  Vt. 
Bangor  Air  Base  ...  .  Bangor,  Maine  .  . 
FortDevens  .  ..  Ft  Devens,  Mass.. . 

Camp  Edwards Falmouth,  Mass 

Harbor  Defenses,  Boston  Boston,  Mass.  . .  . 
Harbor  Defenses,  L.I.  Sound 

Ft  Michie New  London,  Conn 

Ft.  Terry New  London,  Conn. 

Ft  Wright     Fishera  Island,  N.Y. 

Harbor  Defenses,  Narragansett  Bay  .       .  , 

Ft.Adams Newport,  R.I 

Ft  Getty Jamestown,  R  I. 

Ft  Greble        Jamestown,  R  I. 

Ft  Wetherill  .     ...     Jamestown,  R I 

Harbor  Defenses,  New  Bedford    .  . 

Ft  Rodman  .    .  New  Bedford,  Mass. 

Harbor  Defenses,  Portland 

Ft.  Levett    Portland,  Me.    . 

Ft.  McKinley.   .  Portland,  Me. 

Ft  Preble  .  .Portland,  Me 

Ft  Williams          .        Cape  Cottage,  Me 
Harbor  Defenses,  Portsmouth 

Ft  Constitution  .     .     New  Castle,  N.H. 

Ft  Foster  Kittery,  Maine 

Ft.  Stark    Portsmouth,  N.H.. .. 


Population 

est  for 

June  15, 

1941 

80,000 

. .  3,500 

.  2,100 

..  23,000 

..  28,800 

..  4,400 

. .  3,200 


3,200 


1,000 
'3,200 

"  1,300 


Hartford  Air  Base 
Manchester  Air  Base 
Westover  Field 
SECOND  CORPS  AREA    . 
Fort  Dix 


Hartford,  Conn    . 
Manchester,  N  H     . 
Chicopee  Falls,  Mass 


Ft  Dix,NJ   .  .     . 
Harbor  Defenses,  Delaware    .  ... 

Ft  Delaware     . . .        Delaware  City,  Del. .      . 

Ft  DuPont  .     Delaware  City,  Del.  . . 

Ft  Mott     .     ...        Salem,  NJ     

Ft  Saulsbury  .,  Milford,  Del 

Harbor  Defenses  of  Sandy  Hook  .   .   . 

Ft.  Hancock          ...     Ft  Hancock,  N  J   . 

Ft  Tilden  .  Rnckaway  Park,  L I ,  N.Y. 

Harbor  Defenses,  Southern  N  Y 

Ft  Hamilton         ...     Brooklyn,  N  Y 

Ft  Wadsworth        .       Rosebank,  SI 
Fort  Jay  Governors  Island,  N  Y 

Madison  Barracks  Sackcts  Harbor,  N  Y 

Mitchel  Field  . . .     Hempstead,  LI... 

Fort  Monmouth      .   .      Oceanport,  N  J 

Fort  Niagara Youngstown,  N.Y 

Fort  Ontario 
Pine  Camp     .  . 
Plattsburg  Barracks. 
FortTotten       .   .   . 
Camp  Upton    . . 
THIRD  CORPS  AREA      . 
Aberdeen  Proving  Ground  Aberdeen  Proving 

_  Ground,  Md 
Arlington  Cantonment 
FortBelvoir  ..     .. 
Boiling  Field 
Edgewood  Arsenal 

FortEustis  

Harbor  Defenses,  Chesapeake  Bay.  . 

Ft  Monroe  .        Ft  Monroe,  Va 

Holabird  QM  Depot         Baltimore,  Md. 
Indiantown  Gap  Military 

Reservation       . .      Annville,  Pa 


1,700 

2,000 

2,600 

78,200 

28.500 

3,100 


.  xoungsiown, 
Oswego,  N  Y 
Great  Bend,  N.Y     . 
Plattsburg  Barracks,  N  Y. 
Ft  Totten,  N  Y 
Camp  Upton,  L.I 


Ft.  Myer.  Va 
Ft.  Belvoir,  Va. 
Anacostia.  D  C 
Edgewood  Arsenal,  Md 
Ft  Eustis,  Va 


LangleyFieM 

Camp  Robert  E  Lee 

Fort  George  G.  Meade 

Fort  Myer  . 

New  Cumberland  Depot 

CampPendleton..     .   . 

FOURTH  CORPS  AREA 

Augusta  Air  Base 

Barksdale  Field 

Baton  Rouge  Air  Base  . 

CampBeauregard. 


FortBenning Ft. 


Langley  Field,  Va.    .  . 

Petersburg,  Va 
.Ft  George  G  Meade,  Md 

Ft.  Myer,  Va 

New  Cumberland,  Pa. 
.Virginia  Beach,  Va 

Augusta.  Ga     . 
.Barksdale  Field,  La 
Baton  Rouge,  La 


Camp  Blanding Camp  BlandW  Fla.    . . 

Fort  Bragg,  N  C Ft.  Bragg,  N  C 

Charlotte  Air  Base Charlotte,  N.C 

Camp  Claiborne Camp  Claiborne,  La.V. . . ! 

Camp  Croft Spartanburg.  S  d 

S^IPPJJV?* "ollyridge,  N  C..'.'  ".'..'. 


EgHn  Field Vi 

Camp  Forrest  .        . .      Tt 

Harbor  Defenses,  Charleston 
Ft.  Moultrie.        .   .     Moultrleville,  S  C 
Ft.  Suznter Moultrievffle,  S.C. 


5,800 


2,100 


.     3,600 

.     1,800 

4,100 

7,400 

900 

.  2,000 
.  13,400 
.  1,300 
.  2,000 
2,200 
130,800 

4,900 
1,100 

15,900 
1,400 
3,000 

14,200 
.  9,900 

1,800 

21,100 

.     7,400 

17,700 

27.200 

,     2,000 

1,100 

2,100 

486.100 

1,900 

3,300 

1,500 

15,300 

44,300 

50,600 

60,900 

1,500 

28,500 

15,200 

19,900 

1,400 

28,100 

1,100 


Population 
est  for 


Installations 


Post  Office 


1941 


Harbor  Defenses,  Pensacola       1,600 

Ft.  Barrancas  .    Ft  Barrancas,  Fla 

Ft.DeSoto        ..      .  Pensacola,  Fla 

Ft  McRee  . . .  Pensacola,  Fla 

Ft.  Morgan.  Ft  Morgan,  Ala 

Ft.  Pickens  . .  Ft  Barrancas,  Fla. 

Jackson  Air  Base  . .         Jackson,  Miss    2,200 

Fort  Jackson Fort  Jackson,  S  C 43,100 

Camp  Livingston  .  Camp  Livingston,  La 31,100 

MacDill  Field Tampa.  Fla    ..       4,800 

Maxwell  Field Maxwell  Field,  Ala 2,900 

Fort  McClellan Ft  McClellan,  Ala     21,100 

Fort  McPherson      .   .   .  Oakland  City  Station,  Ga..     1,900 
Montgomery  Air  Base    ..Montgomery,  Ala     . 
New  Orleans  Air  Base. .    New  Orleans,  La   ... 

Fort  Oglethorpe Ft  Oglethorpe,  Ga. 

Orlando  Air  Base Orlando,  Fla 


Fort  Screven    Ft  Screven,  Ga 


Selma  Air  Base 
Camp  Shelby  .   .    .. 
Camp  Stewart  . 
Tallahassee  Air  Base 
Tampa  Air  Base 


Selma,  Ala 
Camp  Shelby,  Miss 
Hinesville,  Ga 
Tallahassee,  Fla 
Tampa,  Fla 


West  Palm  Beach  Air  Base  West  Palm  Beach,  Fla 

Camp  Wheeler      .       .     Macon,Ga 

FIFTH  CORPS  AREA.  . 
Bowman  Field 
Fort  Benjamin  Harrison 


Fort  Hayes  .   . 
Fort  Knox    . 
Fort  Thomas 
Fort  Wayne     . . 
SIXTH  CORPS  AREA 
Chanute  Field    . 
Fort  Custer    . . . 
Camp  Grant 


Louisvflle,  Ky. 

Ft  Benjamin  Harrison, 

Ind.      .  . 
Ft  Hayes, Ohio.. 
Ft  Knox,  Ky     .... 
Ft.  Thomas,  Ky.  . 
..Ft.  Wayne,  Ind.  .. 

.  RantouLlil. 
.  Battle  Creek,  Mich.    .. 
Rockford,  111. 


Savanna  Ordnance  Depot  Proving  Ground,  HI 


Scott  Field 
Selfridge  Field..      . 
Fort  Sheridan 
SEVENTH  CORPS  AREA 
Fort  Des  Moines     . 
Jefferson  Barracks 
Fort  Leavenworth 


Belleville,  111  . 
Selfridge,  Mich 
Ft.  Sheridan,  111. 


.  Ft.  Des  Moines,  Iowa 
Jefferson  Barracks,  Mo 
______          ...  Ft.  Leavenworth,  Kan   . 

Fort  Meade  ..........  Ft   Meade,  S  D.     ..  . 

Fort  Riley  .  .  Ft  Riley,  Kan         .  .  . 

Camp  Joseph  T.Robinson  North  Little  Rock,  Ark. 
FortSnelling  .......  Ft.  Snelhng  .  Mum.      .   . 

Fort  Francis  E.  Warren  .  Ft  F.  E  Warren,  Wyo.. 
Fort  Leonard  Wood  ......  Rolla,  Mo  ....... 

EIGHTH  CORPS  AREA       .  .  ..... 

Albuquerque  Air  Base.  .  .  .  Albuquerque,  N.  Mex 

Fort  Bliss 


. 
Ft  Bliss,  Texas 


.........  , 

Camp  Bowie  ........  Camp  Bowie,  Texas 

Brooks  Field  ........  San  Antonio,  Texas 

Fort  Brown  .........  Brownsville,  Texas 

Fort  Clark  .........  Ft  Clark,  Texas 

Ellington  Field  .  .  .  Genoa,  Texas        . 
Harbor  Defenses,  Galveston 


Bolivar  Lighthouse 
Ft.  Crockett..  .. 


Ft.  Jadnto. , 
Ft.Travf 


Galveston,  Texas    

Galvrston,  Texas 
Galveston,  Texas      . .     . 
Galveston,  Texas 
Ft  Sam  Houston,  Texas. . 


2,000 
2,600 
.    2,700 
.    2,000 

'  53I200 

.  17,100 

.    2,100 

300 

.     3,000 

15,800 

35,700 

2,200 

4.200 

1,100 
25,000 

1,700 
.  1.500 
.  51,100 
.  5,400 
.  21,200 
.  9,100 
.  1,100 
.  4,100 
.  3,000 
.  7,200 
93,700 
.  200 
.  1,100 
.  1,600 

1,600 

17,000 
.  25,000 
.  3,200 
.  9,300 
34.700 
.171,300 

1,900 

.  27,100 

29,800 

1,700 
.  900 

1,500 
.  3,900 
.  10,900 


avis.... 

Fort  Sam  Houston.'. . . !    FT'SarnHouVton, Texas . . .  21,600 

FortHuachuca Ft  Huachuca,  Ariz.  ....  5,900 

CampHulen Camp  Hulen,  Texas  ....  12,500 

Kelly  Field Kelly  Field,  Texas    2,600 

FortLoffan Ft  Logan,  Colorado 1,300 

Lowry  Field Denver.  Colorado 4,100 

' San  Antonio.  Texas 1,300 

Oklahoma  City,  Okla 2,300 

Randolph  Field,  Texas 


Air  Base 


San  A: 
Fort 

Tucson "Army  'Air ways      ^  ... 

Station Tucson.  Arls., 


San  Angelo.  Texas. , 
Ft  Sill,  Okla. 


3,900 
200 
19,300 


Camp  Wolters.'.  . 
NINTH  CORPS  AREA 
Boise  Barracks. . 
Fort  Douglas  .... 
Everett  fir  Base 
Fresno  Air  Base 


2,300 
16,100 

190,200 

'Boise,  Idaho 2,000 


Mineral  Wells,' TwasV 


Ft  Douglas,  Utah. 
Everett,  Wash. 
Fresno,  Cal.. 


*  icwiu  rux  otOC  ..  4TCBUV,  v»»» 

Camp  Haan  Camp  Haan.  Cal 

Hamilton  Field  .'.'.  ' .      Hamilton  Field,  Cal. 


Columbia 

Illwaco,  Wash.      . 
.McGowan,  Wash. 


700 
1,500 
2,000 
15,400 
3,400 
2,200 


MILK 


464 


MINERALOGY 


Installations                          Post  Office 
Ft.  Stevens  .          .      Astoria,  Ore.         .   ... 

Population 
est  for 
June  15, 
1941 

Installations 

Camp  McQuaide      .   . 
Moffett  Field.  ..    . 
FortOrd            .     ... 
Pendleton  Air  Base  .  .  . 
Portland  Air  Base 
Presidio  of  San  Francisco 
Camp  Roberts 
Salt  Lake  Airdrome  Least 
Camp  San  Luis  Obispo 
Camp  Sibert 
Spokane,  Washington 
Sunset  Field 
Ft  George  Wright 
Stockton  Field 
Vancouver  Barracks 

Grand  Total    

Post  Office 

Watsonville,  Cal 
Moffett  Field,  Cal.    .  . 
Ft  Ord,  Cal 
.Pendleton,  Ore  
Portland,  Ore 
San  Francisco,  Cal 
San  Miguel,  Cal 
s  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 
San  Luis  Obispo,  Cal  . 
Boulder  City,  Nev.      . 

Spokane,  Wash.      . 
Stockton  Cal  

Population 
est  for 
June  15. 
1941 

.      2,100 
1,700 
.  32,000 
.    2,000 
1,800 
..     4,500 
.     19,300 
1,800 
20,500 
.     1,000 
.   .  2,300 

1,600 

Harbor  Defenses,  Los  Angeles                          .   . 
Ft.  MacArthur              San  Pedro,  Cal      

2,600 
.  *3,200 
.      9,100 
.'  5,100 

48,100 
.     2,600 
.       400 

Harbor  Defenses,  Puget  Sound        .  .              .     ,  . 
Ft  Worden                  .  Port  Townsend,  Wash 
Harbor  Defenses,  San  Diego    
Ft.  Rosecrans                Point  Loma,  Cal  ...     . 
Harbor  Defenses,  San  Francisco  ...              .  .   .   . 
Ft.  Baker  Ft.  Baker,  Cal  .  .   .. 
Ft.  Barry    Ft.  Baker,  Cal  
Ft.  Cronkite  Ft.  Baker,  Cal 

Ft  Funston    ..        .     Ft.  Winfield  Scott.  Cal 
Ft.  Milery            ...   .  San  Francisco,  Cal 
Ft.  Winfield  Scott  .      Ft.  Winfield  Scott,  Cal, 
Fort  Lewis           .   .   .       Ft.  Lewis,  Wash 
McChord  Field         .   .   .McChord  Field,  Wash 
McClelkn  Field  Sacramento.  Cal     . 

Vancouver,  Wash.  .   .   . 

1,300 

1.317,100 

MILK.  See  DAIRYING;  SURPLUS  MARKETING 
ADMINISTRATION. 

MINERALOGY.  Among  the  books  dealing 
with  minerals  that  have  appeared  during  1940,  the 
most  timely  if  not  the  most  important  is  "Stra- 
tegic Mineral  Supplies,"  by  G.  A.  Roush  (McGraw 
Hill,  New  York  and  London).  The  author  of  this 
volume  is  an  experienced  metallurgist  who  has 
served  on  the  Staff  Specialist  Reserve  of  the 
U.S.  Army,  and  can  write  with  authority  re- 
garding such  matters  as  the  uses,  ores,  output 
(both  world  wide  and  national),  prices,  and  ore 
reserves  of  such  materials  as  are  vitally  necessary 
to  the  defense  armament.  On  the  side  of  gem  min- 
erals the  most  important  book  of  the  past  year 
is  "Gemstones,"  by  G.  F.  Herbert  Smith  (Meth- 
uen  and  Company,  Ltd.  London).  This  admirable 
text,  the  first  edition  of  which  appeared  in  1912, 
has  been  a  standard  of  popular  reference  since 
that  year.  Dr.  Herbert  Smith,  however  has  pro- 
duced in  this,  the  ninth  edition,  what  amounts  to 
a  new  and  very  much  up-to-date  book.  The  scope 
of  the  rewritten  text  has  been  widened  so  that  its 
appeal  is  no  longer  confined  to  that  section  of  the 
public  interested  in  a  popular  handbook  on  gems, 
but  may  also  be  used  as  an  authoritative  tool  by 
professional  English-speaking  gemologists. 

What  impresses  one  chiefly  is  the  masterly 
way  in  which  the  great  mass  of  information  about 
gems  has  been  organized  so  that  a  given  fact  or 
group  of  facts  may  be  readily  found  and  cor- 
related. The  author  has  accomplished  this  with- 
out in  any  degree  sacrificing  the  charming  lucid- 
ity of  diction  which  has  characterized  his  book 
throughout  its  eight  previous  editions.  Such  terms 
as  "igmerald,"  synthetic  emerald  produced  by  the 
I.  G.  Farbenindustrie,  and  "endoscope,"  the  micro- 
scope accessary  used  to  differentiate  native  from 
cultured  pearls,  are  fully  discussed,  and  serve  to 
indicate  to  what  an  extent  gemstones  have  been 
brought  strictly  up  to  date.  The  new  edition  adds 
about  120  pages  over  previous  ones,  but  owing  to 
the  difference  in  format  and  typography,  it  con- 
tains upward  of  200,000  words  over  any  previous 
one.  New  half  tone  plates  have  been  added  and 
substituted,  and  many  new  and  better  line  cuts 
explain  the  letter  press. 

New  Minerals.  A  number  of  new  mineral  spe- 
cies have  been  announced  or  confirmed  during  the 
year  1940.  The  Kola  peninsula,  the  rocks  of  which 
have  furnished  several  new^  minerals  in  recent 
years,  has  yielded  two  species  new  to  science: 
Lovoserite  a  hydrous  silicate  of  zirconium,  was 


found  in  black  or  pink  grains  in  the  rocks  of  Loy- 
ozero  and  was  named  for  the  locality,  and  Kali- 
saponite,  a  zeolitic  mineral  related  to  saponite  but 
with  an  excess  of  potash  content,  was  found  in 
the  Khibine  Tundras  region. 

Falkmanite,  a  sulphantimonite  of  lead  occurring 
in  ncedlelike  monoclinic  crystals,  gray  in  color,  is 
so  named  in  honor  of  Oscar  Carl  August  Falkner, 
director  of  the  Boliden  mines  in  Sweden.  The 
Boliden  mines  were  among  the  several  localities 
where  this  new  mineral  was  found. 

A  hydrous  tantalate  of  aluminium  and  calcium 
from  Tabba  Tabba,  Western  Australia,  occurs 
in  small,  transparent,  colorless  hexagonal  crystals. 
It  has  been  named  Simpsonite  in  honor  of  the 
late  Dr.  Edward  S.  Simpson,  Government  Min- 
eralogist of  Western  Australia. 

Stiepelmannite,  a  basic  phosphate  of  yttrium, 
ytterbium,  and  aluminium  was  found  in  the  mine 
at  Klein  Spitzkopje,  Southwest  Africa.  It  occurs 
in  small  rhombohedral  crystals,  colorless  to  pale 
wine-yellow. 

From  Madagascar,  the  home  of  rare  minerals, 
comes  a  new  tungstate  and  molybdate  of  calcium, 
which  has  been  named  Seyrigite  in  honor  of  the 
manager  Mr.  Seyrig  of  the  mine  in  which  it  was 
found.  Seyrigite  occurs  in  tetragonal  crystals  that 
are  translucent  and  golden  yellow  in  color. 

Salesite,  a  copper  iodate,  from  Chuquicamata, 
Chile,  has  been  found  in  only  one  specimen.  This 
piece  shows  the  very  rare  mineral  in  bluish-green 
orthorhombic  crystals.  It  was  named  in  honor  of 
Reno  H.  Sales,  chief  geologist  of  the  Anaconda 
Copper  Mining  Company.  Another  copper  iodate, 
this  one  a  hydrated  iodate  of  copper  also  occurs 
at  Chuquicamata,  Chile.  Belling erite,  named  after 
H.  C.  Bellinger,  Vice-President  of  the  Chile  Ex- 
ploration Co.,  occurs  in  green  triclinic  crystals. 
Gratonite,  named  in  honor  of  Prof.  Louis  C. 
Graton  of  Harvard  University,  is  a  sulpharsenite 
of  lead,  occurring  in  dark  lead  gray  rhombohedral 
crystals  at  Cerro  de  Pasco,  Peru. 

Two  new  phosphates  from  the  Fairfield,  Utah 
locality  have  been  added  to  the  long  list  of  rare 
mineral  species  from  this  place:  Montgomeryite 
is  a  hydrous  phosphate  of  calcium  and  aluminium, 
occurring  as  green  to  colorless  monoclinic  crystals 
in  varusite  nodules,  and  was  named  after  Arthur 
Montgomery  of  New  York.  Another  hydrous 
phosphate  of  calcium  and  aluminium,  differing 
slightly  from  montgomeryite  in  composition  bears 
the  name  of  Oyerite  in  honor  of  Edward  Over  of 
Colorado  Springs,  Colorado.  Overite  occurs  in 


MINERALS  AND  METALS 


465 


MINES 


pale   green   to  colorless   orthorhombic   crystals. 

A  natural  bicarbonate  of  sodium  from  Sarles 
Lake,  California  has  been  named  Nahcolite  from 
its  chemical  formula  (NaHCOO.  It  occurs  in 
abundant  monoclmic  crystals.  Although  nahcolite 
has  long  been  known  as  a  mineral  occurring  un- 
der semi-artificial  conditions,  this  is  the  first  in- 
stance of  an  absolutely  native  sodium  bicarbonate. 

A  new  calcium  phosphate  occurring  in  clear 
colorless,  rhombohedral  crystals  was  found  in  a 
granite  pegmatite  near  North  Groton,  New  Hamp- 
shire. It  has  been  named  whltlockite  after  the 
author  of  this  review. 

HERBERT  P.  WHITLOCK. 

MINERALS  AND  METALS.  For  produc- 
tion, see  BUSINESS  REVIEW  and  the  UNITED  STATES, 
the  States,  and  the  countries  under  Mineral  Pro- 
duction ;  also,  the  separate  articles  on  the  follow- 
ing: ALUMINUM,  ANTIMONY,  ASBESTOS,  CADMI- 
UM, CHROMIUM,  COAL  AND  COKE,  COPPER,  GOLD, 
IRON  AND  STEEL,  IRON  ORE,  LEAD,  MAGNESIUM, 
MANGANESE,  MERCURY,  MOLYBDENUM,  NICKEL, 
PETROLEUM,  PLATINUM,  POTASH,  SILVER,  SUL- 
PHUR, TIN,  TUNGSTEN,  ZINC.  See  CHEMISTRY, 
INDUSTRIAL;  CUSTOMS,  BUREAU  OF;  GEOLOGICAL 
SURVEY;  GEOLOGY;  MINERALOGY;  MINES,  BUREAU 
OF  For  a  list  and  discussion  of  "strategic  metals" 
see  GEOLOGY  and  RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE  COR- 
PORATION 

MINES,  Bureau  of.  This  Bureau  of  the  U  S 
Department  of  the  Interior,  was  organized  in  1910 
to  conserve  the  mineral  resources  of  the  Nation, 
to  promote  safety  in  the  mineral  industries,  and  to 
conduct  investigations  leading  to  the  more  efficient 
and  more  economical  mining,  preparation,  and  util- 
ization of  minerals. 

The  Bureau  of  Mines'  technological  research 
and  its  economic-and-statistical  studies,  relating  to 
coals,  metals,  non-metals,  petroleum  and  natural 
gas,  and  other  resources,  have  contributed  materi- 
ally during  the  past  30  years  to  the  orderly  eco- 
nomic development  of  the  mineral  industries.  (The 
technical  investigations  are  conducted  largely  at 
the  Bureau's  14  experiment  stations  located  in  the 
more  important  mineral  districts,  the  efforts  at 
each  station  being  devoted  primarily  to  the  solu- 
tion of  mineral  problems  of  the  surrounding  re- 
gion ) 

As  in  the  emergency  of  1917-18,  the  Bureau  of 
Mines  during  the  past  year  gave  a  great  deal  of 
attention  to  the  preparations  for  national  defense. 
Among  the  Bureau's  outstanding  achievements  in 
this  respect  during  the  fiscal  year  1940  were  the 
following  : 

The  exploration  of  various  ore  deposits  in  the  United 
States  to  determine  available  sources  of  such  strategic  ma- 
terials as  antimony,  mercury,  chromium,  manganese,  nick- 
el, tungsten,  and  tin.  Results  indicated  significant  quanti- 
ties of  strategic  minerals  in  three  of  the  deposits  and  the 
possibility  that  in  an  emergency  the  country  could  be  self- 
sufficient  as  regards  antimony  and  mercury. 

The  development  of  methods  for  the  production  of  high- 
purity  electrolytic  chromium  from  domestic  chrome  ores 

The  development  of  methods  for  the  recovery  of  nick- 
el, copper,  and  platinum  metals  from  complex  domestic 
nickel  ores;  and  for  the  electrolytic  recovery  of  antimony 
from  antimonia]  gold  ores. 

The  further  improvement  of  methods  developed  by  the 
Bureau  for  the  production  of  high-purity  electrolytic  man- 
ganese; and  the  study  of  several  series  of  manganese  al- 
loys, made  with  manganese  produced  by  the  Bureau  meth- 
od, which  have  unique  properties. 

Laboratory  testing  of  an  electrothermal  process  for  pro- 
ducing magnesium  metal  from  magnesite. 

The  acquisition  of  special  economic  and  statistical  data 
on  minerals  of  importance  to  the  national  defense  pro- 


gram, also  special  surreys  of  secondary  metals  and  avia- 
tion gasoline. 

The  supplying  of  valuable  data  to  the  Advisory  Com- 
mission to  the  Council  of  National  Defense,  to  assist  that 
defense  agency  in  its  task  of  maintaining  an  available 
supply  of  raw  materials  for  industry. 

The  supplying  of  valuable  data  to  the  Army  and  Navy 
Munitions  Board  to  assist  in  the  Government's  stock-piling 
program 

The  compilation  of  data  for  defense  agencies  on  indus- 
trial diamonds,  asbestos,  graphite,  quartz  crystals,  mica, 
iodine,  and  other  non-metallic  commodities  essential  to  a 
military  program 

The  conduction  of  special  surveys  on  the  mineral  re- 
sources, production  and  trade  of  various  South  American 
countries  to  determine  new  sources  of  supply  for  certain 
minerals  which  the  United  States  now  imports  from  across 
the  oceans. 

The  conducting  of  tests  of  American  coals  to  find  their 
value  as  a  source  of  motor  fuel  and  lubricants,  and  the 
production,  as  by-products  of  the  coking  of  coal,  of  benzol, 
toluol,  and  xylol,  essential  constituents  of  explosives. 

The  expansion  of  information  on  demolition  explosives. 

The  application  of  the  newer  ore-dressing  methods  to 
domestic  non-metallic  minerals  in  order  that  satisfactory 
grades  of  such  materials,  including  ceramic  clays,  graph- 
ite, talc,  and  fluorspar,  which  are  usually  imported,  may  be 
produced  in  this  country,  and  the  United  States  therefore 
may  be  rendered  less  dependent  on  foreign  sources. 

The  production  at  the  Bureau's  plant,  at  Amarillo, 
Tex.,  of  nearly  9,500,000  cubic  feet  of  salable  helium, 
bringing  the  total  production  completed  of  this  lightweight 
non-inflammable  gas  to  more  than  100,000,000  cubic  feet 
during  the  first  11  years  of  plant  operation  The  present 
plant  capacity  is  about  24,000,000  cubic  feet  annually. 
Approximately  85  per  cent  of  the  current  output  is  used 
by  the  Government. 

The  promotion  of  the  health  and  safety  of  the 
workers  in  the  mines  and  allied  industries  was,  as 
always,  a  prime  function  of  the  Bureau  in  1940. 
Engineers  of  the  Bureau  trained  members  of  in- 
dustries in  first-aid  and  mine-rescue,  responded  to 
emergency  calls  for  assistance  after  mine  fires 
and  explosions,  and,  among  other  things,  inspected 
mines  at  the  request  of  mine  operators  or  State 
officials.  During  the  fiscal  year,  these  engineers 
trained  93,878  persons  in  mine  rescue  and  first- 
aid,  bringing  the  total  number  of  courses  com- 
pleted since  the  establishment  of  the  Bureau  to 
1,361,465.  They  also  investigated  18  mine  explo- 
sions in  12  States,  and  28  mine  fires  in  11  States, 
during  the  year  assisting  in  rescue  and  recovery 
work  in  virtually  all  of  them  where  life  was  in- 
volved. 

The  Bureau  continued  its  efforts  to  improve 
hygienic  conditions  in  the  mineral  industries  in 
order  to  maintain  health  and  increase  efficiency 
and  morale.  Studies  pertinent  to  the  safe  use  of 
Diesel  locomotives  underground  were  undertaken ; 
respirators  and  gas  masks  were  tested  and  ap- 
proved; and,  among  other  health  activities,  re- 
ports were  prepared  on  the  use  of  helium-oxygen 
mixtures  to  prevent  "ear-block"  and  on  the  ad- 
ministration of  oxygen  during  decompression  to 
prevent  compressed-air  illness. 

The  Bureau  tested  many  pieces  of  electrical 
equipment,  submitted  by  their  manufacturers  dur- 
ing the  year,  to  determine  through  investigations 
and  "explosion  tests"  whether  they  were  safe  for  use 
in  gassy  coal  mines  A  total  of  38  such  machines 
were  classified  as  "permissible"  by  the  Bureau  if 
properly  installed  and  maintained  in  accordance 
with  standards  promulgated  by  the  Bureau  Ex- 
perts of  the  Bureau  also  investigated  electrical 
equipment  for  the  Navy  Department,  in  co-opera- 
tion with  Navy  engineers.  They  also  undertook 
comparative  tests  of  the  explosive  properties  of 
aviation  gasolines  and  "dope"  solvents  and  thin- 
ners  with  petroleum  ether. 

Petroleum  engineers  of  the  Bureau  studied  en- 
ergy relationships  to  find  how  the  greatest  amount 


MINES  AND  MINE  SWEEPING       466 


MINNESOTA 


of  petroleum  can  be  produced  with  the  least  waste 

of  natural  energy,  oil,  and  gas.  Subsurface  and 
surface  samples  of  oil  and  gas  mixtures  were  col- 
lected from  flow  systems  of  wells  and  analyzed. 

During  the  1941  fiscal  year,  the  Bureau  pro- 
poses to  continue  to  devote  its  major  efforts  to- 
ward the  preparations  for  national  defense  by  fur- 
thering its  technical  research  and  investigations 
and  its  economic  studies  of  matters  having  a  bear- 
ing on  the  country's  needs  in  an  emergency.  At 
the  same  time,  because  of  the  continuing  need  for 
improvement  in  safe  working  conditions  and  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  many  new  workers  will  be 
needed  in  producing  supplies  essential  to  the  de- 
fense program,  the  Bureau  will  devote  ^special  at- 
tention also  to  making  working  conditions  safe 
and  hygienic.  Training  in  accident  prevention  will 
be  stressed  by  the  Bureau  so  that  the  mineral  in- 
dustries may  retain  the  improvement  they  have 
shown  in  the  past  30  years. 

A  number  of  publications  of  importance  to  the 
mineral  industries  has  been  published  by  the  Bu- 
reau of  Mines  in  the  past  year,  among  which  is 
the  1940  annual  Minerals  Year  Book,  widely  rec- 
ognized as  the  outstanding  publication  of  its  type 
in  the  world. 

R.  R.  SAVERS. 

MINES  AND  MINE  SWEEPING.  See 
NAVAL  PROGRESS. 

MINIMUM  WAGE.  See  under  WAGES. 

MINNESOTA.  Area,  84,692  square  miles ;  in- 
cludes water,  3824  square  miles  (but  not  the  State's 
part  of  Lake  Superior).  Population  (U.S.  Census), 
April,  1940,  2,792,300  (1,390,098  urban  and  1,402,- 
202  rural) ;  1930,  2,563,953.  Minneapolis  (1940), 
492,370;  St.  Paul  (the  capital),  287,736;  Duluth, 
101,065 

Agriculture.  Farmers  in  Minnesota  harvested, 
in  1940,  19,114,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  A 
feature  of  the  year  was  the  further-expanded  cul- 
tivation of  flaxseed,  to  more  than  twice  the  average 
acreage  of  the  years  1929-38,  putting  the  State 
much  in  the  lead  over  other  members  of  the  Union 
as  to  this  crop.  Corn,  considered  the  most  valuable 
crop,  occupied  4,366,000  acres,  made  172,457,000 
bu..  and  gave  the  producers  a  return  estimated  at 
196,576,000.  Oats,  on  4,524,000  acres,  grew  180,- 
795,000  bu.  ($41,583,000)  ;  tame  hay,  on  3,096,000 
acres,  4,702,000  tons  ($23,510,000) ;  wheat,  1,622,- 
000  acres,  32,069,000  bu.  ($22,448,000) ;  flaxseed, 
1,590,000  acres,  16,695,000  bu.  ($22,037,000)  ;  bar- 
ley, 1,944,000  acres,  57,348,000  bu.  ($20,645,000)  ; 
potatoes,  250,000  acres,  23,750,000  bu.  ($9,738,000) ; 
rye,  331,000  acres,  5,958,000  bu.  ($2,085,000).  In 
1940  there  were  197,351  farms ;  average  size,  165.2 
acres. 

Mineral  Production.  As  stated  in  1940  by  the 
U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  Minnesota's  yearly  produc- 
tion of  native  minerals  amounted,  for  1938,  to  $51,- 
425,289.  This  hardly  exceeded  one-third  of  the 
State's  total  for  the  year  before :  iron  ore,  in  good 
years,  furnishes  all  but  $10,000,000  or  so  of  Min- 
nesota's mineral  production ;  the  mining  of  iron  ore 
is  most  sensitive  to  the  ups  and  downs  of  industry ; 
and  the  great  industrial  slump  that  started  in  1937 
took  effect  on  the  iron  mines  mainly  in  1938.  The 
mines'  production  of  iron  ore  recovered,  to  an  an- 
nual total  of  31,547,701  gross  tons  for  1939,  from 
14,449,304  for  1938.  The  mines'  yearly  shipments 
of  ore  mounted  more  sharply,  to  32,370,241  gross 
tons  (1939)  from  14,535,744  (1938) ;  by  value,  to 
$97,113,591,  from  $44,361,534.  Further  advance 


made  shipments  about  47,949,000  tons  (value  around 
$121,758,000)  for  1940.  Minnesota  provided  about 
64  per  cent  of  the  Union's  output  of  iron  ore  in 
1940.  The  reserves  of  unmined  iron  ore  were  reck- 
oned at  1,208,047,717  gross  tons,  for  May  1,  1939; 
up  to  the  end  of  1939,  1,166,434,188  tons,  had  been 
mined  in  the  State.  Apart  from  iron  ore  above  an 
ore  of  iron  containing  also  various  percentages  of 
manganese  was  produced  in  1939:  one  grade  of 
this  ore  attained  shipments  to  the  quantity  of  469,- 
703  long  tons  and  the  value  of  $1,213,924. 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1938^39  (the 
latest  covered  by  these  statistics)  Minnesota  re- 
ported 537,200  enrollments  of  pupils  in  public 
schools ;  this  comprised  382,207  from  kindergarten 
through  8th  grade,  144,393  in  high  school,  7839 
special  students,  and  2761  in  junior  colleges.  The 
year's  expenditure  for  public-school  education  in- 
cluded $45,246,711  for  maintenance,  $7,120,201  cap- 
ital outlay,  and  $5,920,882  for  service  of  debt, 
Teachers  numbered  22,166. 

History.  Increased  demand  for  iron,  making 
Minnesota's  great  mines  more  active  in  1940,  rath- 
er than  improvement  in  other  lines  of  industry, 
helped  the  State's  economic  situation.  The  number 
of  dependents  on  poor-aid  and  other  kinds  of  pub- 
lic support  diminished;  likewise,  the  following  of 
some  of  the  more  thoroughgoing  liberal  leaders. 
The  old  Farmer-Labor  party,  which  had  committed 
Minnesota  to  various  liberal  proposals  long  before 
the  era  of  the  New  Deal,  lost  ground,  whether  on 
account  of  social  reaction  or  of  the  party's  having 
been  supplanted  by  the  Federal  policies.  It  suffered 
a  conspicuous  setback  when  Henrik  Shipstead  aft- 
er having  served  for  eighteen  years  as  U.S.  Sena- 
tor under  the  designation  of  the  Farmer-Labor 
party  sought  re-election  by  way  of  nomination  at 
the  September  primaries  as  a  Republican  candidate. 
In  doing  so  he  abandoned  the  Farmer-Labor  party, 
a  step  for  which  he  incurred  much  antagonism. 
Despite  this  he  won  the  Republican  nomination 
from  several  Republican  aspirants  of  older  affilia- 
tion with  their  party. 

The  State  became  involved  in  a  dispute  of  a  sort 
still  somewhat  novel  when  the  municipal  radio  sta- 
tion WNYC  of  New  York  City  sought  in  May 
the  permission  of  the  Federal  Communications 
Commission  to  extend  the  duration  of  its  daily  pro- 
gram. This  threatened  to  interfere  with  the  recep- 
tion of  the  program  sent  out  in  the  same  frequency 
by  the  National  Broadcasting  Company  from  sta- 
tion WCCO  at  Minneapolis.  On  this  account  the 
State  intervened  in  the  proceedings  over  the  New 
York  station's  application  in  order  to  protect  its 
conceived  rights  with  regard  to  the  time  that  had 
been  accorded  to  the  station  in  Minneapolis. 

In  Minneapolis  a  grand  jury  that  had  been  sum- 
moned late  in  1939  issued  on  Jan.  27, 1940,  a  report 
that  started  efforts  to  break  up  the  alleged  co-op- 
eration of  the  police  with  certain  sorts  of  unlawful 
enterprises.  Indictments  were  brought  about  the 
same  time  against  members  of  the  police  and  per- 
sons engaged  in  commercialized  gambling,  illicit 
liquor  dealing,  and  prostitution. 

Elections.  At  the  general  election  (Novem- 
ber 5)  the  State's  popular  vote  for  President  gave 
644,196  for  Roosevelt  (Dem.),  affording  him  a 
margin  of  13  to  12  over  the  vote  of  596,274  for 
WilUcie  (Rep.).  Harold  E.  Stassen  (Rep.),  654,- 
686  votes,  was  re-elected  Governor,  defeating  Ed- 
ward Murphy  (Dem.),  140,021,  and  Hjalmar  Pe- 
terson (Farmer-Labor),  459.609.  Henrik  Shipstead 
(Rep.;  see  above)  was  re-elected  U.S.  Senator  by 


MINORITIES 


467 


MISSOURI 


641,049  votes,  defeating  John  E.  Regan  (Dem.), 
248,658,  and  Elmer  A.  Benson  (Farmer-Labor), 
310.875. 

Officers.  Minnesota's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  Harold  £.  Stassen  (Rep.)  ; 
Lieutenant  Governor,  C.  Elmer  Anderson ;  Secre- 
tary of  State,  Mike  Holm ;  Treasurer,  Julius  A. 
Scnmahl;  Auditor,  Stafford  King;  Attorney  Gen- 
eral, J.  A.  A.  Burnquist;  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion, John  G.  Rockwell. 

MINORITIES.  See  ARGENTINA,  BELGIUM, 
BRAZIL,  BULGARIA,  BURMA,  CANADA,  CZECHO- 
SLOVAKIA, DENMARK,  HUNGARY,  LUXEMBURG,  PO- 
LAND, RUMANIA,  SLOVAKIA,  SOUTH  AFRICA,  UN- 
ION OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS,  and  YUGO- 
SLAVIA ;  FASCISM  ;  JEWS  ;  REFUGEES. 

MIQUELON  ISLANDS.  See  ST.  PIERRE 
AND  MIQUELON. 

MISSIONS,  Foreign.  See  the  articles  on  the 
CHURCHES 

MISSISSIPPI.  Area,  56,865  square  miles;  in- 
eluded  water,  503  square  miles.  Population  (U.S. 
Census),  April,  1940,  2,183,796  (urban,  432,882; 
rural,  1,750,914) ;  1930, 2,009,821  Jackson,  the  capi- 
tal, had  (1940)  62,107  inhabitants. 

Agriculture.  Mississippi  harvested,  in  1940, 
7,167,000  acres  of  principal  crops.  Cotton,  though 
it  fell  somewhat  short  of  the  normal  quantity  and 
value,  remained  by  far  the  leading  crop  and  the 
chief  source  of  cash  for  the  farmers.  On  2,545,000 
acres,  cotton  produced  1,280,000  bales,  estimated  as 
worth  $62,080,000  to  the  growers.  Corn,  on  2,896,- 
000  acres,  gave  40,544,000  bu.  (about  $28,381,000)  ; 
tame  hay,  on  959,000  acres,  1,223,000  tons  ($12,- 
108,000)  ;  sweet  potatoes,  69,000  acres,  4,485,000 
bu.  ($4,261,000) ;  potatoes,  20,000  acres,  1,240,000 
bu.  ($992,000)  ;  oats,  118,000  acres,  3,776,000  bu. 
($1,548,000). 

Mineral  Production.  The  yearly  total  value  of 
Mississippi's  production  of  its  native  minerals,  as 
stated  in  1940  by  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  was 
$5,209,457  for  1938.  Natural  gas  contributed  over 
three-fifths  of  this  sum.  The  quantity  of  natural 
gas  produced  in  the  State  and  delivered  to  con- 
sumers rose  to  15,233  million  cu.  ft.  for  1939,  from 
13,656  millions  (value,  $3,210,000  at  points  of  con- 
sumption), for  1938.  The  yield  of  1939  exceeded 
that  of  any  earlier  year ;  yet  the  general  view  of 
the  production  of  natural  gas  in  the  State  was  pes- 
simistic. A  single  remaining  field,  the  Jackson,  was 
producing  all  the  gas;  two-thirds  of  this  field's 
wells  had  given  out  in  two  years,  and  remaining 
gas  was  issuing  at  a  great  rate  from  a  few  wells, 
because  salt  water  at  depth  was  driving  it  out. 
Mineral  interest  found  another  subject  to  engage 
it — the  possibility  of  developing  a  substantial  pro- 
duction of  petroleum.  This  prospect  had  dawned 
when  drillers  struck  oil  in  Yazoo  County  in  Sep- 
tember, 1939.  By  the  end  of  that  year  107,000  bbl. 
of  petroleum  had  been  taken  from  Yazoo  County's 
Tinsley  field,  and  nine  wells  were  producing.  Pro- 
duction continued  in  1940  and  was  above  15,000  bbl. 
a  day  in  December. 

History.  The  State  was  little  disturbed  by  po- 
litical questions  in  1940.  It  cast  its  usual  almost  to- 
tally Democratic  vote  on  November  5 :  Roosevelt 
(Dem.)  for  President,  168,267 :  Willkie  (Rep.). 
7364.  U.S.  Senator  Theodore  G.  Bilbo  (Dem.)  and 
the  seven  incumbent  Democratic  U.S.  Representa- 
tives, were  all  re-elected  unopposed.  There  was  no 
election  for  Governor  or  other  State  officers.  The 
primary  election  (August  27),  as  usual,  predeter- 
mined the  November  result.  In  the  primary  Bilbo 


won  a  renomination  against  former  Governor  Hugh 
White  by  a  vote  in  the  approximate  ratio  of  three 
to  two. 

Two  attempts  at  lynching  Negroes  were  foiled 
by  the  authorities  early  in  January,  in  unrelated 
cases.  The  outgoing  Governor,  White,  sent  out  a 
party  of  the  National  Guard  to  check  the  lynchers 
in  one  instance;  in  the  other  the  intended  victim 
was  secretly  removed  from  a  jail  at  Columbia.  A 
dance  hall  took  fire  at  Natchez  on  the  night  of 
April  23  and  198  Negroes,  trapped  within,  lost 
their  lives ;  accessible  windows  had  all  been  nailed 
up  with  boards  to  keep  out  unwanted  guests. 

The  claims  of  Mississippi's  Choctaw  Indians, 
about  2000  in  number,  were  urged  on  the  Federal 
Government  by  Senator  Bilbo,  and  he  presented  a 
bill  on  their  behalf.  The  Choctaws  wanted  fulfill- 
ment of  the  asserted  promise,  of  640  acres  for  each 
family,  in  a  treaty  said  to  have  been  made  at  Danc- 
ing Rabbit  Creek  in  1830. 

See  LABOR  LEGISLATION. 

Officers.  Mississippi's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  Paul  B.  Johnson  (Dem.)  ; 
Lieutenant  Governor,  Dennis  Murphree ;  Secretary 
of  State,  Walker  Wood ;  Attorney  General,  Greek 
L.  Rice ;  Treasurer,  Lewis  S.  May ;  Auditor,  James 
M.  Causey;  Superintendent  of  Education,  J.  S. 
Vandiver. 

MISSOURI.  Area,  69,420  square  miles;  in- 
cludes water,  693  square  miles.  Population  (U.S. 
Census),  April,  1940,  3,784,664;  1930,  3,629,367. 
St.  Louis  (1940),  816,048;  Kansas  City,  399,178; 
Jefferson  City  (the  capital),  24,268.  Of  the  State's 
population  (1946),  1,960,696  were  urban,  and  1,823,- 
968  were  rural. 

Agriculture.  Missouri  harvested,  in  1940,  12,- 
192,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Corn,  hay, 
oats,  and  wheat  took  up  about  seven-eighths  of 
this  area.  Corn,  on  3,976,000  acres,  produced  119,- 
280,000  bu.,  estimated  as  worth  $70,375,000  to  the 
growers.  Tame  hay,  on  3,266,000  acres,  made  3,524,- 
000  tons  (value,  about  $22,906.000) ;  wheat,  on 
1,714,000  acres,  31,707,000  bu.  ($21,561,000) ;  cot- 
ton, 405,000  acres,  380,000  bales  ($18,240,000) ;  oats, 
1,800,000  acres,  48,600,000  bu.  ($14,580,000) ;  pota- 
toes, 54,000  acres,  5,616,000  bu.  ($3,426,000) ;  grain 
sorghums,  240,000  acres,  4,320,000  bu.  ($2,678,000). 
Farms  numbered  256,100  in  1940  and  averaged 
135.6  acres. 

Manufacturing.  Yearly  production  of  manu- 
factured goods  in  Missouri  totaled  $1,338,056,267 
for  1939;  $1,505,383,002  for  1937.  Other  aggre- 
gates for  1939  (each  with  that  for  1937  subjoined) : 
4796  (4291)  establishments  employed  178,534  (186,- 
831)  persons  for  wages  of  $190,735,831  ($202,585,- 
847),  paid  for  material,  etc.,  and  contract  work 
$800,094,538  ($944,894,934),  and  added  to  material, 
by  manufacture,  a  value  of  $587,961,729  ($560,- 
398,068). 

Mineral  Production.  Missouri's  yearly  pro- 
duction of  its  native  minerals,  as  stated  in  1940  by 
the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  attained  a  total  value 
of  $39,560,739  for  1938;  this  hardly  passed  three- 
fourths  of  the  figure  for  the  year  before.  Lead 
furnished  over  one-fourth  of  the  total  of  1938; 
coal  and  cement,  each  one-fourth.  The  mines'  pro- 
duction of  lead,  in  ore,  rallied  to  156,281  short  tons 
for  1939,  from  122,027  for  1938;  by  value,  to  $14,- 
700,000  (for  the  smelted  content),  from  $11,226,- 
484.  The  1940  output  of  lead  was  approximately 
171,600  torts;  as  usual,  Missouri  mined  more  lead 
than  any  other  State  of  the  Union  Zinc,  all 
mined  in  Missouri's  southwestern  area,  recovered 


MISSOURI 


468 


MOLUCCA  ISLANDS 


to  a  production,  in  ore,  of  15,096  short  tons  (1939), 
from  10,226  tons  (1938) ;  by  value  of  zinc  to  be 
recovered  from  this  ore,  to  $1,569,984,  from  $981,- 
696.  The  production  of  coal  attained  3,436,118  short 
tons  for  1938  (value,  $6,814,000).  Makers'  ship- 
ments of  Portland  cement  (fairly  close  to  yearly 
production)  increased  to  4,702,259  bbl.  (1939)  from 
4,570,389  (1938)  ;  by  value,  to  $7,420,013,  from 
$6,871,120.  The  clay  products  (except  pottery  and 
refractories)  attained  for  1938  $1,910,630. 

Education.  Missouri's  inhabitants  of  school  age 
(from  6  years  to  20)  were  reckoned,  for  the  aca- 
demic year  1939-40,  at  847,713.  The  year's  enroll- 
ments of  pupils  in  public  schools  numbered  705,037. 
This  comprised  506,173  elementary  and  198,864 
high-school  pupils.  The  year's  expenditure  for  pub- 
lic-school education  totaled  $56,620,150;  the  main 
part  of  this  went  to  pay  26,369  teachers,  whose 
salaries  for  the  year  averaged  $1357. 

History.  Missouri  enjoyed  increasing  industrial 
prosperity  during  the  year,  mainly  through  busi- 
ness created  by  the  war  abroad  and  by  the  Federal 
program  of  defense.  In  St.  Louis  appeared  a  con- 
spicuous instance :  the  establishment  of  the  Curtiss- 
Wnght  Corporation  at  Lambert  Field  in  that  city 
started  in  the  autumn  on  building  additions  intend- 
ed to  multiply  its  output  sixfold  before  the  summer 
of  1941.  A  site  in  Lake  City  was  chosen  for  an- 
other firm's  $15,000,000  factory  for  small-arm  am- 
munition. 

Economic  improvement  reduced  the  burden  of 
poor-aid  in  the  State.  For  April  the  State's  Social 
Security  Commission  allotted  to  this  purpose  $315,- 
000,  covering  26,410  cases ;  thereafter  the  scale  di- 
minished. 

The  Federal  work  of  straightening  the  more 
conspicuous  bends  in  the  Missouri  River  pro- 
gressed; a  new  channel  cutting  off  the  Big  Blue 
Bend,  between  Clay  and  Jackson  counties,  was  dug 
through ;  Clay  County  kept  the  land  that  the  new 
channel  put  on  the  south  side  of  the  river,  thus  be- 
coming the  only  county  in  the  State  to  straddle  the 
Missouri.  The  Army  Engineers  recommended  an- 
other cutoff  at  Liberty  Bend,  near  Courtney.  In 
southeastern  Missouri  the  Farm  Security  Admin- 
istration made  arrangements  to  settle  in  $500  cot- 
tages, at  Federal  expense,  some  hundreds  of  fami- 
lies of  homeless  "share-croppers"  who  had  drawn 
attention  to  their  distress  when  camping  by  road- 
sides in  January,  1939.  Under  an  apparently  ec- 
centric interpretation  of  its  law  on  unemployment 
compensation  the  State  paid,  in  the  winter  of  1939- 
40,  weekly  checks  to  idle  professional  baseball 
players,  though  some  of  them,  members  of  the  St. 
Louis  and  Kansas  City  teams,  earned  $2000  or 
more  by  the  year.  The  State  opened  a  cancer  hos- 
pital at  Columbia  for  the  treatment  of  indigent 
cases. 

The  U.S.  Social  Security  Board,  holding  back 
grants  for  a  time  in  October,  made  Missouri  put 
its  social  security  workers  under  adequate  civil 
service. 

Governor  Stark,  who  had  won  much  approval  in 
1939  for  his  part  in  the  overthrow  of  his  one-time 
political  supporter  Thomas  J.  Pendergast,  Demo- 
cratic boss  of  Kansas  City,  met  with  misfortune  in 
an  attempt  to  progress  from  his  expiring  term  in 
the  Governorship  to  a  seat  in  the  U.S.  Senate.  As 
candidate  for  the  Democratic  Senatorial  nomina- 
tion, he  encountered  the  opposition  ^not  only  of  the 
remnants  of  the  Pendergast  organization  but  also 
of  the  followers  of  Senator  Clark.  Shortly  before 
the  enactment  of  the  second  Hatch  Act,  the  Sen- 


ate's committee  on  campaign  expenditures  reported 
that  agents  had  been  collecting  contributions  for 
Stark's  campaign  from  employees  of  the  State 
Government  Stark  was  beaten  in  the  primary  elec- 
tion, and  Senator  Truman  won  a  Democratic  re- 
nomination. 

In  St.  Louis,  a  series  of  sharp  condemnations  of 
decisions  rendered  by  State  Circuit  Judge  Thomas 
J.  Rowe,  published  in  the  St.  Louis  Post-Dispatch, 
stirred  Rowe  to  impose  fines  and  imprisonment  on 
this  journal's  chief  editorial  writer  and  its  cartoon- 
ist. The  case  became  a  test  of  the  Constitutional 
freedom  of  the  press  when  opposed  to  the  asserted 
rights  of  the  judiciary.  It  was  appealed  until  it 
eventually  reached  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court,  which 
refused  to  set  aside  the  sentences. 

Reform  in  Kansas  City.  Bent  on  doing  away 
immediately  with  what  remained  to  the  Pendergast 
organization  out  of  the  ruin  that  had  followed  the 
exposure  and  imprisonment  of  its  leader  in  1939, 
the  reformists  brought  about  a  special  popular  elec- 
tion for  the  indirect  recall  of  the  eight  members 
of  the  City  Council.  They  had  been  elected  in  1938 ; 
a  proposed  amendment  to  the  city's  charter  short- 
ened their  four-year  terms  to  two  years.  The  vot- 
ers adopted  it  (February  13)  by  about  95,855  to 
17,235;  they  rejected  five  proposed  amendments 
from  the  City  Council  itself,  notably  one  to  put 
the  firemen  immediately  under  the  protection  of 
civil  service.  There  followed  (April  2)  a  municipal 
election  that  gave  the  city  a  reformist  mayor,  John 
Gage,  and  a  Council  of  the  same  persuasion.  It 
thus  became  possible  for  the  reform  wave  to  sweep 
away  as  many  as  it  would  of  some  5000  persons  in 
public  employ.  The  new  City  Council  chose  a  new 
City  Manager,  L.  P.  Cookingham,  taking  him  from 
a  like  post  in  Saginaw ;  he  took  office  on  June  10. 

More  of  the  former  aides  of  Pendergast  were 
convicted:  Matthew  S.  Murray,  ex-Administrator 
of  the  WPA  in  the  State,  found  guilty  of  evading 
Federal  income  taxes,  was  condemned  to  Federal 
imprisonment  for  two  years;  E.  Mont  Reily,  for- 
mer Governor  of  Puerto  Rico,  a  Republican  ad- 
herent of  Pendergast,  found  guilty  on  a  State 
charge  related  to  speculation  in  the  street-cleaning 
department,  got  a  sentence  of  six  months  in  the 
county  jail,  which  he  appealed. 

Elections.  On  November  5  the  popular  vote  for 
President  gave  Roosevelt  (Dem.)  958,476,  consti- 
tuting a  plurality  of  11  to  10  over  Willkie  (Rep.), 
who  received  871,009.  Harry  S.  Truman  (Dem.) 
was  re-elected  U.S.  Senator,  defeating  Manvel  H. 
Davis  (Rep.),  and  ten  Democrats  and  three  Re- 
publicans were  elected  U.S.  Representatives.  The 
Governorship  went  to  Forrest  C.  Donnell  (Rep.) 
by  a  very  small  plurality  over  L.  E.  McDaniel 
(Dem.),  which  appeared  on  the  counting  of  the 
absentee  ballots. 

Officers.  Missouri's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  Lloyd  C.  Stark  (Dem.); 
Lieutenant  Governor,  Frank  G.  Harris ;  Secretary 
of  State,  Dwight  H.  Brown;  Auditor,  Forrest 
Smith;  Treasurer,  R.  W.  Winn;  Attorney  Gen- 
eral, Roy  McKittrick;  Superintendent  of  Public 
Schools,  Lloyd  W.  King. 

MOLDAVIAN  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  RE- 
PUBLIC. See  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  RE- 
PUBLICS, under  Area  and  Population  and  History. 

MOLLUSKS.  See  ZOOLOGY. 

MOLOTOV'S  BREADBASKET.  See  EU- 
ROPEAN WAR  under  Finnish  Campaign. 

MOLUCCA  ISLANDS.  See  NETHERLANDS 
INDIES  under  Area  and  Population. 


MOLYBDENUM 


469 


MONGOLIA 


MOLYBDENUM.  As  in  the  preceding  year 
the  United  States  was  the  primary  world  producer 
of  molybdenum  in  1940,  and  Climax  Molybdenum 
Co.,  Climax,  Colo.,  was  by  far  the  leading  domes- 
tic source.  The  porphyry  copper  mines  at  Bingham, 
Utah ;  Chino,  N.M.,  and  Miami,  Ariz.,  were  sub- 
stantial producers  of  molybdenum  concentrates  as 
a  by-product  of  copper  production.  World  trade  in 
this  important  war  mineral  was  seriously  disrupted, 
primarily  by  the  moral  embargo  on  exports  im- 
posed by  the  United  States  in  December,  1939. 
This  proved  particularly  embarrassing  to  the  by- 
product producers,  although  it  was  a  serious  handi- 
cap to  the  Climax  company.  Germany  probably 
obtained  molybdenum  from  Norway. 

According  to  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domes- 
tic Commerce,  exports  for  1940  amounted  to  12,- 
667,794  Ib.  of  concentrates  containing  6,584,714  Ib. 
of  molybdenum,  valued  at  $4,904,000.  The  bulk  of 
this  export  was  for  the  United  Kingdom.  The  price 
of  90  per  cent  molybdenum  concentrates  was  45 
cents  per  Ib.  of  MoS,,  f.o.b.  mine.  The  principal 
use  was  in  alloying  steel.  See  COLORADO  under  Min- 
eral Production. 

H.  C.  PARMELEE. 

MONACO.  A  Mediterranean  principality  sur- 
rounded on  its  land  sides  by  the  French  depart- 
ment of  Alpes-Maritimes  Area,  370  acres ;  popu- 
lation (1939),  23,973  Chief  towns:  Monaco  (the 
capital),  La  Condamme,  Monte  Carlo.  The  tourist 
traffic  and  the  gambling  concession  at  Monte  Carlo 
were  the  chief  sources  of  revenue  There  is  no 
cultivation  as  all  of  the  land  has  been  built  over. 
The  budget  for  1939  showed  estimated  expendi- 
ture of  38,892,921  (franc  averaged  $00251  for 
1939).  A  ministry  assisted  by  a  council  of  state 
administers  the  country  under  the  authority  of 
the  Prince.  Legislative  power  rests  with  the  Prince 
and  the  national  council  of  12  members  elected  by 
universal  suffrage  for  a  four-year  term.  Ruler, 
Prince  Louis  II  (succeeded  June  26,  1922). 

MONETARY  UNITS.  See  INTERNATIONAL 
BANKING  AND  FINANCE;  the  countries  under  Fi- 
nance. 

MONEY,  United  States  Stock  of.  The  table 
on  page  470  from  the  1940  annual  report  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  U.S.  Treasury  shows  the  distri- 
bution of  the  stock  of  money  in  the  United  States 
on  June  30,  1940,  with  comparisons  for  previous 
years. 

MONGOLIA.  An  extensive,  vaguely  defined 
region  of  east-central  Asia,  bordered  by  the  Soviet 
Union  and  Tannu  Tuva  (q  v.)  on  the  north,  Man- 
choukuo  on  the  east,  China  proper  on  the  south, 
and  Sinkiang  (Chinese  Turkestan)  on  the  west 
It  is  divided  by  an  irregular  east-west  line  through 
the  Gobi  desert  into  Outer  Mongolia,  on  the  north, 
and  Inner  Mongolia,  on  the  south. 

Inner  Mongolia.  Geographically  Inner  Mon- 
golia includes  the  three  Chinese  provinces  of  Sui- 
yuan,  Ningsia  and  Chahar,  and  Jehol  and  part  of 
Hsingan  Province  in  Manchoukuo.  Politically  the 
term  is  now  generally  used  to  include  only  Sui- 
yuan,  Ningsia  and  Chahar.  According  to  1937  esti- 
mates of  the  Chinese  Ministry  of  Interior,  their 
combined  area  is  339,068  square  miles  and  the  pop- 
ulation 7,142,793,  all  Chinese  except  for  about 
1,500,000  Mongols.  Agriculture  and  stock  raising 
are  the  principal  occupations  and  rye,  potatoes, 
buckwheat,  and  wheat  are  the  chief  crops.  Trade 
is  mainly  with  the  Japanese-controlled  areas  in 
North  China. 


Japanese  troops  during  1937-38  occupied  the 
eastern  sector  of  Inner  Mongolia  to  a  point  west 
of  Paotow,  terminus  of  the  railway  from  Peiping. 
In  1938  a  semi-autonomous  Mongol  regime  headed 
be  Prince  Teh  Wang  was  organized  under  Japa- 
nese auspices,  with  its  capital  first  at  Kweiwha 
and  then  at  Kalgan.  This  so-called  Menchiang  re- 
gime controlled  an  area  estimated  at  roughly  117,- 
500  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  over  2,000,- 
000.  The  Japanese  advisers  of  the  Menchiang  Gov- 
ernment during  1938-40  elaborated  a  program  for 
the  joint  economic  development  of  North  China 
and  Inner  Mongolia.  A  separate  Japanese-con- 
trolled currency  and  banking  systems  were  estab- 
lished. By  Sept.  30, 1940,  the  Menchiang  Bank  had 
issued  paper  currency  to  the  amount  of  83,236,000 
Menchiang  yuan,  compared  with  42,593,000  yuan 
and  30,254,000  yuan  on  the  same  dates  in  1939  and 
1938,  respectively. 

The  Menchiang  Government  tentatively  budg- 
eted ordinary  expenditures  of  57,000,000  yuan  and 
extraordinary  expenditures  of  120,000,000  yuan  for 
1941.  However  the  heavy  excess  of  imports  over 
exports  in  the  first  half  of  1940  was  reported  to 
have  seriously  impaired  the  economy  and  finances 
of  the  government,  the  banks,  and  the  entire  re- 
gion. To  remedy  this  situation,  a  more  severe  ex- 
change-control law  was  put  into  effect  Sept.  1, 
1940.  Government  control  of  all  imports  and  ex- 
ports was  drastically  extended,  and  trade  was  re- 
stricted almost  entirely  to  official  agencies.  Direct 
telephone  service  between  Kalgan  and  Japan  was 
opened  June  1,  1940,  and  lines  were  strung,  to 
other  towns  under  the  Menchiang  regime's  con- 
trol. 

Outer  Mongolia.  The  same  Chinese  estimate 
cited  above  placed  the  area  of  Outer  Mongolia  at 
625,946  square  miles  and  the  population  at  2,077,- 
669.  A  British  estimate  gives  the  population  as  540,- 
000,  a  Japanese  estimate  as  840,000.  Ninety  per  cent 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Mongols,  chiefly  nomads, 
and  the  rest  Russians  and  Chinese.  The  capital, 
Ulan  Bator  Khoto  (Urga),  has  about  70,000  pop- 
ulation; Altanblak,  20,000. 

Outer  Mongolia  is  a  soviet  republic,  the  inde- 
pendence of  which  is  guaranteed  by  the  Soviet  Un- 
ion under  a  mutual  assistance  pact  signed  Mar.  12, 
1936.  However  the  Soviet  Union  in  1924  recog- 
nized the  suzerainty  of  the  Chinese  Republic  over 
the  region.  The  political  and  economic  system  have 
been  reorganized  on  the  soviet  model.  Ownership 
of  lands,  forests,  mineral  resources,  and  factories 
has  been  collectivized.  The  foreign  and  domes- 
tic trade  is  a  monopoly  of  People's  Central  Co- 
operative ;  foreign  trade  is  carried  on  exclusive- 
ly with  or  through  the  Soviet  Union  Soviet  in- 
structors are  said  to  have  trained  and  equipped 
with  modern  arms  a  Mongol  army  of  250,000  men. 
The  government  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Mongolian 
People's  Revolutionary  Party.  The  only  political 
party  permitted,  it  had  about  12,000  members  in 
1939  and  was  controlled  by  the  Comintern.  Su- 
preme authority  rests  in  an  elective  assembly 
(Great  Huruldan),  which  meets  at  least  once  an- 
nually and  while  in  recess  delegates  executive  pow- 
ers to  a  Little  Huruldan  of  30  members,  which  in 
turn  appoints  a  Premier  and  executive  committee. 

Stock-raising,  game  hunting,  agriculture,  manu- 
facturing, and  mining,  in  the  order  named,  are  the 
chief  occupations.  Livestock  estimates  for  1934 
were  1,638,200  horses,  2,068,000  cattle,  12,984,800 
sheep,  3,884,000  goats,  and  531,900  camels.  Meat, 
milk  products,  hides  and  skins,  wool,  furs,  wheat, 


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MONOPOLIES 


471 


MOROCCO 


rye,  millet,  and  coal  tart  the  main  products.  Exten- 
sive mineral  resources  remain  undeveloped.  State 
factories,  all  erected  since  1924,  produce  machinery, 
washed  wool,  wool  textiles,  felt,  leather,  sheep- 
skin coats,  shoes,  and  electric  power. 

The  first  railways  in  Outer  Mongolia— connect- 
ing Ulan  Bator  Khoto  with  the  Nalaiha  coal  mine 
22  miles  distant  and  linking  Kiakhta  with  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railroad  at  Ulan  Ude— were  re- 
ported to  have  been  completed  in  1939.  The  capital 
is  connected  with  Ulan  Ude  by  truck  road  and  air- 
line. Steamers  ply  the  Selenga  and  Orkhon  Rivers. 
However  caravans  still  handle  the  bulk  of  internal 
transport.  There  is  a  state  banking  and  monetary 
system,  the  unit  of  currency  being  the  tukrik  con- 
taining 17  grams  of  pure  silver. 

See  CHINA  under  History  for  the  trans-Mon- 
golia Chinese  supply  route,  and  MANCHOUKUO 
under  History  for  the  settlement  of  the  Manchou- 
kuoan-Mongolian  boundary  dispute. 

MONOPOLIES.  See  AMERICAN  FEDERATION 
OP  LABOR;  JAPAN;  MANCHOUKUO;  MARKETING; 
MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY  ;  RADIO  ;  UNITED  STATES 
under  Investigations  and  Prosecutions. 

MONTANA.  Area,  146,997  square  miles;  in- 
cludes water,  866  square  miles.  Population  (U.S. 
Census),  April,  1940,  559,456  (urban,  211,535;  ru- 
ral, 347,921) ;  1930,  537,606.  Helena,  the  capital 
had  (1940)  15,056  inhabitants;  Butte,  37,081. 

Agriculture.  Montana's  harvest  of  1940  includ- 
ed 6,675,000  acres  of  principal  crops.  Wheat,  on 
3,932,000  acres,  made  56,070,000  bu.  ($33,081,000, 
estimated  value  to  the  growers).  Tame  hay,  on 
1,239,000  acres,  produced  1,836,000  tons  ($9,364,- 
000) ;  sugar  beets,  85,000  acres,  1,156,000  tons  (val- 
ue of  crop  of  1939,  $4,309,000) ;  oats,  317,000  acres, 
9,034,000  bu.  ($2,530,000) ;  barley,  204,000  acres, 
4,692,000  bu.  ($1,736,000)  ;  potatoes,  17,000  acres, 
2,040,000  bu.  ($1,224,000);  corn,  159,000  acres, 
2,544,000  bu.  ($1,323,000). 

Mineral  Production.  The  yearly  production  of 
Montana's  native  minerals,  as  stated  in  1940  by  the 
U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  totaled  $48,602,547  for 

1938.  Copper,  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  zinc  made  up 
most  of  this  sum.  The  rest,  some  $20,000,000,  rep- 
resented chiefly  natural  gas,  petroleum,  and  coal. 
The  output  of  petroleum  rose  to  5,951,000  bbl.  for 

1939,  from  4.946,000  bbl.  (value,  $5,190,000)  for 
1938.  Natural  gas,  variously  used  for  fuel,  as  by 
metallurgical  works  and  sugar  refineries,  and  saved 
for  the  consuming  market,  was  restricted  in  1938 
to  21,216  million  cu.  ft.  (value  at  points  of  con- 
sumption, $6,132,000)  delivered  to  consumers;  in 
1939  the  market  for  natural  gas  rallied  consider- 
ably from  these  low  figures.  Coal  production  in- 
creased to  some  2,810,000  net  tons  (1939),  from 
2,732,050  tons  (value,  $4,106,000)  for  1938.  Aggre- 
gate value  of  copper,  gold,  silver,  zinc,  and  lead  in 
the  material  mined  yearly  rose  to  $40,937,870  for 
1939  and  approximately  to  $55,970,800  for  1940. 
Respective  metals'  totals  for  1940,  approximated 
(each  with  definite  total  for  1939  subjoined),  fol- 
low: copper,  253,200,000  (195,654,000)  lb.,  $28,- 
611,600  ($20,348,016)  ;  gold,  275,700  (264,173)  oz., 
$9,649,500  ($9  246,055) ;  silver,  12,357,000  (9,087,- 
571)  oz.,  $8,787,200  ($6,168,533) ;  zinc,  103,500,000 
(69,598,000)  ft >-,  $6,72£50p  ($3,619,096) ;  lead,  43,- 
900,000  (33,110,000)  lb.,  $2,195,000  ($1,556,170). 

History.  The  State's  Board  of  Education  held 
further  hearings  in  January  on  the  disagreement 
between  President  Simmons  and  members  of  the 
faculty  of  the  University  of  Montana,  which  had 
become  a  public  issue  in  1939.  In  February  it  with- 


drew its  demand,  made  in  1939,  that  the  professors 
opposed  to  Simmons  resign  and,  at  the  same  time, 
it  voted  a  resolution  of  confidence  in  Simmons  and 
warned  the  faculty  that  courses  disloyal  or  preju- 
dicial to  the  University  would  not  be  allowed. 

One  of  the  several  Federal  prosecutions  of  offi- 
cers of  divers  States  occurred  in  Montana:  Atty. 
Gen.  Harrison  J.  Freebourn  was  prosecuted  on  a 
charge  of  evading  the  Federal  tax  on  his  income 
of  1937  by  failing  to  report  the  receipt  of  $11,000 
allegedly  received  from  a  firm  interested  in  ma- 
chines for  gaming.  This  allegation  had  been  aired 
in  the  legislative  session  of  1939,  where  an  effort 
to  impeach  Freebourn  had  failed  by  two  votes. 

The  State  offered  bonds  in  August  for  the  cost 
of  building  a  projected  $250,000  armory.  An  effort 
on  the  part  of  the  American  Association  of  Com- 
posers, Authors,  and  Publishers,  to  collect  royal- 
ties in  Montana  on  the  copyrighted  products  of  its 
members,  was  opposed  in  Missoula ;  the  county  at- 
torney brought  charges  of  attempted  extortion 
against  the  officers  of  the  association  and  sought, 
without  effect,  the  extradition  of  Gene  Buck,  its 
President,  from  Arizona.  Buck  alleged  that  the 
Association  had  not  collected  a  royalty  for  use  of 
music  in  Montana  in  three  years.  (See  INSURANCE.) 

Elections.  On  November  5  the  popular  vote  for 
President  gave  145,698  for  Roosevelt  (Dem.),  and 
99,579  for  Willkie  (Rep.).  Burton  K.  Wheeler 
(Dem.)  was  re-elected  U.S.  Senator,  defeating  E. 
K.  Cheadle  (Rep.).  Samuel  C.  Ford  (Rep),  for 
Governor,  received  124,435  votes  and  won  from  the 
incumbent,  Roy  E.  Ayers  (Dem.),  who  got  119,- 
453. 

Officers.  Montana's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  Roy  E.  Ayers  (Dem.); 
Lieutenant  Governor,  Hugh  R.  Adair;  Attorney 
General,  Harrison  J.  Freebourn;  Secretary  of 
State,  Sam  W.  Mitchell ;  Treasurer,  Ray  N.  Shan- 
non ;  Auditor,  John  J.  Holmes ;  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  Ruth  Reardon. 

MONTE  CARLO.  See  MONACO 

MONTSERRAT.  See  LEEWARD  ISLANDS. 

MONUMENTS,  National.  See  NATIONAL 
PARK  SERVICE. 

MORAVIA.  See  BOHEMIA  AND  MORAVIA; 
CZECHO-SLOVAKIA. 

MORMON  CRICKET.  See  ENTOMOLOGY, 
ECONOMIC. 

MORMONS.  See  LATTER-DAY  SAINTS. 

MOROCCO.  A  region  of  northwestern  Africa, 
divided  politically  into  (1)  the  French  Zone  (area, 
162,162  sq.  miles;  population,  estimated  at  6,500,- 
000  on  Dec.  31,  1938),  comprising  about  85  per 
cent  of  the  total  area  and  population;  (2)  the 
Spanish  Zone  (area,  8108  sq.  miles;  population, 
estimated  at  750,000  on  Dec.  31,  1938,  including 
about  44,300  Europeans  and  12,900  Jews) ;  and  (3) 
Tangier  (q.v.),  which  on  Nov.  23,  1940,  was  in- 
corporated in  Spanish  Morocco.  The  1936  census 
returns  of  the  French  Zone  showed  5,875,000  Mos- 
lems, 206,500  Europeans  and  other  foreigners,  and 
161,300  Jews.  Populations  of  the  chief  cities  of  the 
French  Zone  in  1936  were :  Casablanca,  259,000 ; 
Marrakech,  191,000;  Fez,  144,000;  Rabat  (capi- 
tal), 84,000;  Mekncs,  75,000;  Oudjda,  35,000.  Es- 
timated populations  of  the  principal  towns  in  the 
Spanish  Zone  in  1936  were:  Melilla,  64,328;  Te- 
tuan  (capital),  49,535 ;  Ceuta,  38,945 ;  Alcazar,  30,- 
762 :  Larache,  29,477.  French  and  Spanish  are  used 
as  the  official  and  business  languages  in  the  French 
and  Spanish  Zones,  respectively,  but  the  natives 
speak  mainly  Moorish- Arabic  and  the  various  Ber- 


MOROCCO 


472 


MOTION  PICTURES 


her  dialects.  Unless  otherwise  specified,  the  fol- 
lowing statistics  refer  to  the  French  Zone  only. 

Production,  Agriculture  and  stock  raising  are 
the  main  occupations.  Yields  of  the  chief  crops  in 
1939  were  (in  metric  tons):  Wheat,  1,055,000; 
barley,  2,128,000;  oats,  76,000;  corn,  217,400  in 
1938 ;  olive  oil,  8000  in  1938.  The  wool  clip  in  1938 
was  20,300  metric  tons.  Livestock  in  the  same  year 
included  10,152,000  sheep,  1,910,000  cattle,  191,000 
horses,  775,000  mules  and  asses,  147,000  camels, 
and  5,800,000  goats.  Output  of  the  chief  minerals 
in  1938  (metal  content,  in  case  of  ores)  was  in 
metric  tons:  Coal,  123,000;  natural  phosphates, 
1,447,000;  manganese  ore,  39,000;  iron  ore,  140,- 
000;  lead  ore,  17,100;  zinc  ore,  2500.  Yield  of  sea 
fisheries,  1938, 30,300  metric  tons,  valued  at  33,300,- 
000  francs.  Industries  include  flour  mills,  brewer- 
ies, cement  factories,  soap  works,  sardine  and  tuna 
canning  plants,  Moorish  handicraft 

The  Spanish  Zone  raises  much  the  same  crops 
as  the  French  Zone,  but  in  limited  quantities.  Iron 
ore  (805,000  metric  tons  in  1938),  lead  and  some 
antimony  are  exported.  Stock  raising  and  tunny 
fishing  are  other  occupations. 

Foreign  Trade.  For  the  first  six  months  of 

1939,  merchandise  imports  were  1,142,400,000  francs 
and  exports  891,500,000  francs,  as  compared  with 
imports  of   2,184,900,000  francs  and  exports  of 
1,512,400,000  francs  for  the  full  year  1938.  Imports 
from  France  in  1938  were  733,000,000  francs,  ex- 
ports to  France  676,000,000  Imports  into  the  Span- 
ish Zone  in  1938  were  equivalent  to  about  3,300,- 
000  old  U.S.  gold  dollars;  exports,  $1,000,000. 

Finance.  The  1939  budget  estimates  for  the 
French  Zone  were  Receipts,  1,185,054,070  francs; 
expenditures,  1,184,958,430.  The  Moroccan  franc 
was  unpegged  from  the  French  franc  after  June, 

1940,  and  fluctuated  widely  in  accordance  with  sup- 
ply and  demand.  The   1938  budget  for  Spanish 
Morocco  balanced  at  111,785,245  pesetas. 

Transportation.  French  Morocco  in  1939  had 
about  1150  miles  of  railway  line,  3690  miles  of 
highways  and  roads,  and  air  lines  connecting 
Casablanca  with  Algiers,  Oran,  Tunis.  Toulouse 
(France),  and  Dakar  (French  West  Africa).  These 
air  services  were  interrupted  by  the  military  col- 
lapse in  France  in  June,  1940,  but  were  resumed 
on  August  20.  Casablanca,  chief  port  of  French 
Morocco,  was  the  only  port  in  French  North  Afri- 
ca open  to  ocean  traffic  as  of  July  26,  1940.  In 
1938,  3352  vessels  of  5,640,397  tons  entered  French 
Moroccan  ports.  In  the  Spanish  Zone  there  were 
about  72  miles  of  railway  and  1400  miles  of  roads. 

Government.  The  Sultan  of  Morocco,  who  re- 
sides in  the  French  Zone,  usually  at  Rabat,  ex- 
ercises nominal  executive  authority  in  both  the 
French  and  Spanish  Zones.  But  in  the  French 
Zone  his  acts  are  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
French  Resident-General.  In  the  Spanish  Zone  the 
Sultan  delegates  his  authority  to  a  Khalifa,  named 
by  him  from  a  list  of  two  candidates  submitted  by 
the  Spanish  Government.  Actual  authority  is  exer- 
cised by  the  Spanish  High  Commissioner  residing 
at  Tetuan.  Sultan  in  1940,  Sidi  Mohammed,  pro- 
claimed Nov.  18,  1927.  Resident-General  and  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  French  Zone,  Gen.  Auguste 
Nogues.  Spanish  High  Commissioner,  Gen.  Carlos 
Asensio. 

History.  French  Morocco  was  shaken  and  di- 
vided even  more  than  the  other  French  North 
African  colonies  by  the  military  defeat  and  capitu- 
lation of  France  to  Hitler  in  June,  1940.  The  re- 
percussions throughout  French  North  Africa  are 


described  in  the  article  ALGERIA  under  History.  In 
Morocco  the  agitation  to  align  the  colony  with 
Gen.  Charles  de  Gaulle's  "Free  French"  forces 
was  particularly  strong.  It  was  repressed  after  nu- 
merous arrests.  Many  of  the  de  Gaulle  partisans 
in  the  French  air  units  in  Morocco  flew  their 
planes  to  Gibraltar  to  join  the  Allies. 

This  conflict  among  the  French  encouraged  both 
the  native  independence  movement  and  Spam's  un- 
disguised ambition  to  replace  France  as  ruler  of  all 
Morocco.  General  Nogues  reorganized  his  admin- 
istration and  created  a  territorial  guard  to  main- 
tain order  m  the  interior,  while  other  preparations 
were  made  to  meet  a  possible  Spanish  invasion 
from  Spanish  Morocco.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR  un- 
der Effects  of  the  Fall  of  France ;  FRANCE  under 
History 

MORTGAGES.  See  AGRICULTURE;  FEDERAL 
HOUSING  ADMINISTRATION  ;  FINANCIAL  REVIEW  ; 
HOME  OWNERS  LOAN  CORPORATION. 

MOSLEMS.  See  AFGHANISTAN,  ALBANIA,  AL- 
GERIA, ARABIA,  EGYPT,  INDIA,  IRAN,  IRAQ,  MO- 
ROCCO, NETHERLANDS  INDIES,  PALESTINE,  TUNISIA, 
TURKEY. 

MOTION  PICTURES.  Although  it  was  a 
period  of  arduous  readjustment,  1940  found  the 
screen  exceedingly  vital.  Both  in  the  power  and 
diversity  of  its  offerings,  Hollywood  demonstrated 
that  it  could  rise  brilliantly  to  an  emergency  In- 
stead of  turning  entirely  to  escapist  films,  as  one 
might  have  anticipated  after  the  complete  drying 
up  of  European  markets,  it  tackled  significant  con- 
temporary material  and  even  experimented  with 
new  techniques.  In  most  instances,  courage  was  re- 
warded at  the  box  office.  There  was  ample  proof, 
meanwhile,  that  the  domestic  market  could  support 
even  high  budget  productions,  if  they  met  with 
popular  approval. 

The  outstanding  films  of  the  year  ranged  from 
the  starkly  realistic  adaptation  of  John  Steinbeck's 
novel,  The  Grapes  of  Wrath,  to  the  immensely 
successful  screen  version  of  Philip  Barry's  come- 
dy of  manners,  The  Philadelphia  Story.  Charlie 
Chaplin's  long-awaited  satire  on  the  Nazi  scheme 
of  things,  The  Great  Dictator,  and  Walt  Disney's 
brave  attempt  to  accompany  classical  music  with 
animated  cartoon  program  notes  were  two  of  the 
cinematic  events  of  1940,  although  both  enterprises 
proved  somewhat  disappointing.  From  an  artistic 
standpoint  The  Long  Voyage  Home,  a  contempo- 
rary re-working  of  Eugene  O'Neill's  short  sea 
plays,  stood  head  and  shoulders  above  other  offer- 
ings. 

The  same  fine  craftsmen  who  made  The  Inform- 
er were  responsible  for  the  last-named  picture. 
Dudley  Nichols  contributed  a  spare  and  eloquent 
adaptation  of  the  original  dramas  and  John  Ford 
turned  in  one  of  his  greatest  achievements  as  a 
director.  Dealing  with  the  sea,  in  real  terms  of  the 
sea,  The  Long  Voyage  Home  had  striking  film 
artistry,  as  well  as  emotional  compulsion,  as  it 
traced  the  voyage  of  a  freighter  from  the  Carib- 
bean to  this  country  to  pick  up  a  cargo  of  muni- 
tions and  through  the  blockade  to  embattled  Eng- 
land. It  had  no  single  hero,  but  all  the  members  of 
the  freighter's  crew  were  drawn  in  vivid  portrai- 
ture. There  were  no  stars  in  the  company,  but 
Thomas  Mitchell,  Barry  Fitzgerald,  Mildred  Nat- 
wick,  and  the  other  players  were  all  superb. 

The  Grapes  of  Wrath  was  another  John  Ford 
masterpiece.  Armed  with  a  brilliant  script  by  Nun- 
nally  Johnson,  the  director  hewed  close  to  the  orig- 
inal story,  making  a  splendid  social  document  as 


Courtesy,  Untied  Artists 

A  SCENE  1-ROM  "THE  LONG  VOYAGE  HOME" 

Mtn  cooped  up  on  a  trampbhip  get  suspicious  of  one  of  their  number  as  they  plow  through  the  war  zone  with  a  cargo  of  TNT 
Written  by  Eugene  O'Neill,  produced  by  John  Ford 


Courtesy t  Twentieth  Century-Fox 


A  SCENE  FROM  "THE  GRAPES  OF.WRATH" 


Starring  Henry  Fonda  and  Jane  Darwcll,  with  John  Carradine,  Charley  Grapewin,  Dorris  Bowden,  Russell  Simpson,  O.  Z.  White- 
head,  John  Qualen,  and  Eddie  Qufflan.  Written  by  John  Steinbeck,  i      '       * '     ~       


.  produced  by  Darryl  F.  Zanuck 


A 
Ih*  but  1  the 

a  to          ft**f  and  fctr 

1  ut  C  by  it  en  t»y 


4 

nf  «i  til 


MOTION  PICTURES 


473 


MOTION  PICTURES 


well  as  a  notable  film.  A  starkly  realistic  treat- 
ment gave  this  account  of  "Okies,"  wandering 
from  the  dust  bowl  to  California  only  to  find 
themselves  unwanted  there,  tremendous  visual  and 
dramatic  impact.  At  the  opposite  pole  from  The 
Grapes  of  Wrath  was  The  Philadelphia  Story,  a 
handsome  and  vastly  entertaining  translation  of 
the  Barry  play.  With  Katharine  Hepburn  surpass- 
ing her  stage  portrayal  of  a  spoiled  heiress  on  the 
screen,  the  film  proved  actually  better  than  its 
theatrical  prototype. 

Curiously  enough,  the  flood  of  purely  escapist 
films  which  had  been  threatened  failed  to  material- 
ize. Partly  because  intelligent  directors  and  pro- 
ducers had  a  bigger  hand  in  screen  offerings  than 
ever  before,  partly  because  audiences  showed  in- 
creasing discrimination,  there  was  a  laudable  at- 
tempt to  handle  new  themes  in  new  ways.  Even 
though  it  was  not  entirely  satisfying,  Walt  Dis- 
ney's experiment  with  pictorial  program  notes  to 
great  music,  in  Fantasia,  represented  a  courageous 
and  stimulating  thrust  into  the  cinematic  un- 
known. The  Great  Dictator  may  not  have  come  off 
as  an  epic  burlesque  of  totalitarian  power  politics, 
but  it,  too,  was  a  product  of  immense  courage  in 
an  un  settled  ^period. 

Although  painstakingly  produced  and  a  virtual 
lexicon  of  the  great  actor's  comic  artistry,  The 
Great  Dictator  lost  much  of  its  satirical  emphasis 
due  to  the  swift  progression  of  world  events.  Two 
years  earlier,  when  it  was  first  conceived,  it  would 
have  had  far  more  power.  With  the  Nazis  astride 
the  European  continent  in  a  successful  war  of  con- 
quest, Chaplin's  fun  at  the  expense  of  the  dictator- 
ships was  rather  forced.  In  any  case,  he  offered 
several  of  his  most  amusing  slap-stick  conceits 
and  he  had  no  trouble  at  all  with  dialogue,  whether 
straight  speech  or  mocking  double-talk. 

Other  propagandist  films  which  dealt  frankly 
with  anti-Nazi  themes  fared  badly  for  the  most 
part.  The  best  of  them  was  Pastor  Hall,  which 
dramatized  the  Nazi  persecution  of  the  Reverend 
Niemoeller  and  had  a  tragically  restrained  per- 
formance by  Wilfrid  Lawson.  Even  when  they 
were  bolstered  by  a  melodramatic  plot  and  popu- 
lar stars,  as  in  the  case  of  Escape,  most  of  them 
were  wanting  in  artistic  and  entertainment  values 
and  had  a  cold  reception  from  the  public. 

When  the  struggle  of  democracy  against  totali- 
tarian aggression  was  employed  merely  as  a  vivid 
background  for  diverting  narratives,  the  screen 
was  on  surer  ground.  Foreign  Correspondent,  di- 
rected in  Hollywood  by  the  talented  English  melo- 
drama-maker, Alfred  Hitchcock,  was  an  exciting 
show,  with  fugitive  over-tones  of  the  new  world 
war.  Arise  My  Love  traced  the  romance  of  a  pair 
of  foreign  correspondents  through  to  the  capitula- 
tion of  France,  with  the  accent  on  comedy.  The 
English  melodrama,  Night  Train,  celebrated  the 
new  espionage  which  preceded  the  outbreak  of  ac- 
tual hostilities  in  Europe  in  striking  and  effective 
fashion. 

In  the  field  of  social  drama  there  should  be  men- 
tion of  Primrose  Path,  which  found  the  screen 
studying  the  effect  of  poverty  on  moral  degenera- 
tion with  extraordinary  honesty  and  power.  In 
Gregory  La  Cava's  brilliant  direction  and  the 
down  to  earth  portrayals  of  Ginger  Rogers  and 
the  supporting  company,  this  film  was  a  significant 
indication  that  there  were  those  in  Hollywood  who 
were  anxious  to  bring  the  medium  into  closer  rela- 
tion with  the  realities  of  existence.  Dr.  Ehrlich's 
Magic  Bullet  dealt  sincerely  and  dramatically  with 


the  struggle  of  medical  science  to  find  a  specific 
for  syphilis.  A  straight  documentary  or  fact-film 
was  Pare  Lorentz's  brilliant  study  of  the  perils  of 
childbirth  for  the  under-privileged,  in  The  Fight 
for  Life. 

The  continued  sensational  success  of  Gone  With 
the  Wind  tempted  many  producers  to  translate 
best-sellers.  The  most  successful  of  these  enter- 
prises were  Rebecca,  a  vivid  but  disjointed  version 
of  the  Daphne  du  Maurier  novel,  staged  by  Hitch- 
cock, and  the  screen  adaptation  of  All  This  and 
Heaven  Too,  with  Bette  Davis  and  Charles  Boyer 
in  leading  roles.  Fiction  offered  far  more  material 
to  the  screen  than  did  the  theater.  Most  of  the  play 
translations  which  turned  out  well  were  patterned 
on  rather  old  stage  works,  such  as  The  Letter, 
Waterloo  Bridge,  or  They  Kneiv  What  They 
Wanted.  Virtuallv  no  screen  musicals  were  worthy 
of  chronicling,  although  such  spectacles  as  Lillian 
Russell  showed  that  Hollywood  had  not  abandoned 
the  form. 

Among  the  films  not  already  listed  which  con- 
tributed to  the  high  standard  of  the  year's  offer- 
ings were  Of  Mice  and  Men,  a  grim  version  of  the 
Steinbeck  book  about  a  pair  of  bindlestiffs ;  Dis- 
ney's second  full-length  cartoon,  Pinocchio;  a 
faithful  and  touching  translation  of  Our  Town  the 
gay  comedy  staged  by  Ernst  Lubitsch,  The  Shop 
Around  the  Corner;  Preston  Sturges's  bright  sat- 
ire of  political  corruption,  The  Great  McGinty, 
and  the  two  screen  biographies  of  Edison — Young 
Tom  Edison,  starring  Mickey  Rooney,  and  Edison, 
the  Man,  starring  Spencer  Tracy. 

One  of  the  biggest  money-makers  of  the  year 
was  a  reconstruction  of  wildcat  oil  operations, 
Boom  Town.  Northwest  Passage  and  Drums 
Along  the  Mohawk  were  the  best  of  the  historical 
films,  and  The  Westerner  was  a  moderately  enter- 
taining horse  opera.  The  small-town  family  cycles 
were  continued,  but  showed  signs  of  wearing  thin 
in  such  a  fabricated  film  as  Andy  Hardy  Meets 
Debutante. 

It  was  a  propitious  period  for  directors.  They 
had  a  rare  degree  of  independence,  often  combin- 
ing the  functions  of  producer  with  their  staging 
activities,  and  they  made  the  most  of  it.  John 
Ford,  with  two  masterpieces  to  his  credit,  towered 
above  his  colleagues,  but  nearly  every  notable  pro- 
duction of  the  year  had  a  veteran  and  knowing 
director  in  charge.  Among  the  outstanding  players 
were  Katharine  Hepburn,  Charlie  Chaplin,  Ginger 
Rogers,  William  C.  Fields,  Bette  Davis,  James 
Stewart,  Claudette  Colbert,  Henry  Fonda,  Thom- 
as Mitchell,  Spencer  Tracey,  Vivien  Leigh,  Dean- 
na  Durbin,  and  Bing  Crosby. 

Color  was  used  in  a  number  of  offerings,  but  it 
had  no  widespread  popularity  and  its  absence 
rarely  militated  against  the  success  of  a  film.  It 
was  best  when  employed  unobtrusively  in  neutral 
shades.  The  total  number  of  screen  productions 
for  1940  remained  approximately  500. 

France.  The  outstanding  French  importation  of 
the  year  and  one  of  the  finest  films  exhibited  was 
The  Baker's  Wife.  Produced  and  directed  by  Mar- 
cel Pagnol,  it  was  a  splendid  account  of  the  eco- 
nomic dislocation  which  occurred  in  a  Provencal 
town  when  the  wife  of  the  bread  maker  eloped 
with  a  shepherd.  Raimu's  performance  of  the  bak- 
er was  exceptional,  although  a  whole  village  was 
brought  to  life  in  a  series  of  portrayals.  Hotel  du 
Nora  was  another  fine  French  importation. 

Germany.  A  number  of  Nazi-made  films  came 
to  this  country  and  were  distributed  in  German- 


MOTORBOATING 


474 


MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT 


speaking  districts.  Without  exception  they  were 
singularly  devoid  of  artistic  merit 

Great  Britain.  In  the  stunning  melodrama, 
Night  Train,  the  British  studios  continued  the 
great  tradition  of  thrillers  started  by  Alfred 
Hitchcock.  Meanwhile  Pastor  Hall  was  made  in 
an  English  studio,  although  financed  by  Holly- 
wood. 

U.S.S.R.  The  once  great  Russian  cinema  lan- 
guished for  the  most  part  under  dictatorial  con- 
trol. Such  fine  directors  as  Eisenstein  and  Pudov- 
kin  were  conspicuous  for  their  absence. 

Awards.  The  New  York  Film  Critics  selected 
The  Grapes  of  Wrath  as  the  outstanding  film  of 
the  year,  and  The  Baker's  Wife  as  the  best  for- 
eign-language motion  picture.  Charlie  Chaplin's 
performance  in  The  Great  Dictator  and  Katharine 
Hepburn's  portrayal  in  The  Philadelphia  Story 
were  adjudged  the  finest  jobs  of  acting.  John  Ford 
was  adjudged  the  best  director l  for  The  Gropes 
of  Wrath,  and  there  was  a  special  award  to  Walt 
Disney  and  Leopold  Stokowski  for  Fantasia. 

See  ART  under  Other  Developments ;  BUSINESS 
REVIEW;  PHOTOGRAPHY;  also,  Music. 

HOWARD  BARNES. 

MOTORBpATING.  Hotsy  Totsy  III  won 
the  Gold  Cup  in  motorboating,  and  nothing  could 
be  done  about  it  A  saucy  little  upstart  upon  whose 
obtuse  wooden  hide  not  scorn  nor  sneer  could 
cause  the  least  concern,  she  puffed  and  fumed  and 
blocked  the  way  until  at  last  she  crossed  the  line 
in  victory.  It  mattered  not  to  Totsy  that  her  vic- 
tory was  questionable,  to  say  the  least,  for  some- 
where in  the  race  officials  tried  to  flag  her  off  the 
course,  to  make  room  for  speedier  craft  behind, 
but  Totsy  could  see  nothing  except  victory  ahead. 
And  so  she  won  the  race. 

The  occasion  was  the  annual  Gold  Cup  tourna- 
ment off  the  shore  of  Northport,  L.I.,  in  August, 
1940.  The  Quality  of  motorboating  were  all  on 
hand.  A  spectator  fleet  of  1200  yachts  were  strung 
around  like  pearls  in  glistening  sun.  Some  of  the 
finest  boats  afloat  were  entered  in  the  race,  boats 
with  background,  family  tree,  ancestral  glory ;  and 
Hotsy  Totsy,  a  rude  ungainly  ne'er-do-well  car- 
ried off  the  prize. 

One  of  the  flabbergasted  losers  of  the  race  was 
Notre  Dame,  the  apple  of  the  eyes  of  Herbert 
Morrison.  Nothing  daunted,  Notre  Dame  sought 
to  regain  her  prestige  a  week  later  in  a  race  off 
Red  Bank,  N.J.,  but  snapped  her  propeller  shaft 
and  was  easily  outdistanced  by  63-year-old  Jack 
Cooper  of  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  who  drove  a  225- 
cubic-inch  hydroplane  called  Tops  HI.  Neverthe- 
less Notre  Dame  was  winner  of  the  three-heat 
contest  in  the  President's  Cup  race  at  Washing- 
ton, although  she  lost  the  one-mile  trial  on  the  Po- 
tomac to  Bill  Cantrell's  Why  Worry  f 

Back  home  on  the  Detroit  River,  however,  in 
more  familiar  circles,  Notre  Dame  electrified  the 
sporting  and  scientific  world  by  shooting  through 
the  water  at  an  average  speed  of  100  987  miles  an 
hour.  It  represented  an  all-time  high  for  the  in- 
ternational 12-liter  class,  in  which  the  Notre  Dame 
belonged;  and  clearly  established  Notre  Dame  as 
the  greatest  boat  of  the  year,  notwithstanding 
Hotsy  Totsy  III. 

MOTOR  CARRIERS,  MOTOR  TRANS- 
PORTATION, MOTOR  VEHICLES.  See 
ACCIDENTS  ;  AUTOMOBILES  ;  INTERSTATE  COMMERCE 
COMMISSION;  RAILWAYS;  ROADS  AND  STREETS. 
For  motor  fuel,  see  PETROLEUM. 


MOTORS.  See  AUTOMOBILES  ;  ELECTRICAL  IN- 
DUSTRIES. 

MOUNTAIN  CLIMBING.  See  EXPLORA- 
TION. 

MOYNE  COMMISSION.  See  BRITISH  WEST 
INDIES. 

MOZAMBIQUE  (PORTUGUESE  EAST 
AFRICA).  A  colony  in  East  Africa,  consisting 
of  two  separate  administrative  divisions :  (1)  Prov- 
ince of  Mozambique  (245,773  sq.  mi.),  comprising 
seven  districts;  (2)  Manica  and  Sofala  (51,881 
sq.  mi.),  two  districts  administered  by  the  Mozam- 
bique Company  under  a  charter  expiring  in  1941. 
Total  area,  297,654  square  miles ;  total  population 
(1936),  4,995,750.  Chief  towns :  Lourenc.o  Marques 
(capital  of  the  Province),  47,390  inhabitants;  Beira 
(capital  of  Manica  and  Sofala). 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  products :  sugar, 
groundnuts,  maize,  cotton,  copra,  sisal,  and  gold. 
Livestock  (1937) :  553,531  cattle,  270,833  goats, 
85,549  sheep,  72,254  swine.  Trade  (1939) :  imports, 
402,480,000  escudos;  exports,  134,520,000  escudos 
(escudo  averaged  $0.0404  for  1939).  The  forego- 
ing trade  figures  are  for  the  whole  country.  Com- 
munications (1938)  :  13,175  miles  of  roads,  1043 
miles  of  railways.  During  the  fiscal  year  ended 
Mar.  31, 1940,  shipping  aggregating  3,858,265  gross 
tons  entered  the  port  of  Beira.  In  1937,  2613  ships 
aggregating  12,284,691  tons  entered  the  ports  of 
the  colony. 

Government.  Budget  (1939)  :  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure balanced  at  589,383,545  escudos.  The 
Province  of  Mozambique  (the  districts  of  Cape 
Delgado,  Inhambane,  Louren^o  Marques,  Mozam- 
bique, Nyasa,  Quelimane,  and  Tete)  is  adminis- 
tered by  a  governor  general  who  is  represented  in 
each  of  the  seven  districts  by  a  governor.  Governor 
General,  Dr.  J.  N.  Nunes  de  Oliveira;  Governor 
of  Manica  and  Sofala,  Rear  Admiral  Luis  A.  de 
M.  Correia. 

History.  The  colony's  defense  forces  received 
reinforcements  of  about  1000  troops  from  Portugal 
in  August  as  a  result  of  the  growing  danger  of  a 
redistribution  of  colonial  territories  among  the  Eu- 
ropean belligerents.  Financial  stringency  led  to  the 
imposition  of  a  2  per  cent  ad  valorem  export  tax 
on  May  8,  1940.  A  new  railway  line  connecting  the 
Tete  district  with  the  Trans-Zambezia  Railway 
and  providing  an  outlet  at  the  port  of  Beira  for 
mineral  products  was  nearly  completed  at  the  end 
of  1940. 

See  PORTUGAL  and  SOUTH  AFRICA,  UNION  OF, 
under  History. 

MULTIPLE  BIRTHS.  See  ZOOLOGY  under 
Twinning. 

MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT.  Rejec- 
tions and  adoptions  of  the  council -manager  plan 
were  about  equal  in  number  during  1940,  but  in 
size  of  municipalities  rejections  dominated.  By  far 
the  worst  defeats  were  in  New  Jersey  where  New- 
ark, Bayonne,  and  Atlantic  City  gave  decisive  noes. 
The  State  is  a  stronghold  for  the  straight  commis- 
sion-plan of  government,  with  a  few  men  pos- 
sessing both  legislative  and  administrative  powers 
and  allotting  the  latter  among  themselves.  Trenton 
and  Cape  May  went  back  to  the  commission  plan 
after  having  had  managers,  leaving  only  five — 
Asbury  Park,  Bendix,  Clifton,  Hackensack,  and 
Teaneck— with  city  managers.  In  Massachusetts, 
Cambridge  adopted  the  manager  plan  by  a  large 
majority  after  a  minor  defeat  in  1938;  but  Chico- 
pee  and  Quincy  voted  it  down  for  the  second  time 
and  h  was  defeated  in  North  Adams,  also.  In  these 


MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP 


475 


MUSIC 


four  places  not  only  a  city  or  town  manager  was 
included  in  the  plan  but  also  election  of  the  council 
by  proportional  representation  (Plan  £).  A  man- 
ager plan  without  P.R.  (Plan  D)  was  adopted  by 
a  small  majority  at  Havcrhill.  A  half-dozen  plans 
of  city  government  have  been  provided  by  the 
Massachusetts  legislature,  so  a  city  or  town,  in- 
stead of  framing  a  charter  by  a  special  commis- 
sion, chooses  one  of  the  ready-made  plans,  thus 
avoiding  57  varieties  of  municipal  government 
Results  of  other  council-manager  elections  during 
1940  were:  Adoptions:  Bridgton,  Jay  (rescinded 
later),  Hodgdon,  Linneus,  and  Norridgewock, 
Me.;  Hartford,  Randolph,  and  Vergennes,  Vt.; 
Bloomfield,  Conn.;  Traverse  City,  Mich.  To  re- 
tain :  Schenectady,  N.Y.,  and  Cleveland,  Ohio.  De- 
feats: Onondaga  County  (includes  Syracuse), 
N.Y.;  Martinsburg,  W.Va.;  Raleigh,  N.C.;  Pon- 
tiac  and  St.  Louis  Park,  111.;  Mankato,  Minn.; 
Hot  Springs,  S.D. ;  Durant,  Okla. ;  Arcadia  and 
Hermosa  Beach,  Calif.;  Lakeview  and  Silverton, 
Ore.  Abandoned:  Hardwick,  Vt. ;  Huron,  S.D. 
(For  further  details  of  all  the  charter  elections 
see  monthly  issues  of  National  Municipal  Review.) 
Votes  scheduled  for  December  7  at  Abilene,  Tex- 
as. At  the  close  of  1940  there  were  over  500  cities 
under  the  council -manager  plan. 

Attempted  abandonment  of  proportional  repre- 
sentation by  an  amendment  to  die  charter  of  New 
York  City  was  defeated  on  November  5  by  a  vote 
of  783,000  to  566,000. 

The  permissive  Civil  Service  Act  of  New  Jersey 
was  adopted  by  Atlantic  County  on  November  5 
by  a  vote  of  23,028  to  2236,  while  Sussex  County 
defeated  adoption  by  4159  to  3953  The  act  was 
adopted  by  six  cities  or  towns,  including  Asbury 
Park  and  Bloomfield,  and  defeated  in  three  small 
places.  Data  supplied  by  the  New  Jersey  Civil 
Service  Commission  show  that  since  the  passage  of 
the  act  in  1910  it  has  been  adopted  by  12  of  the  21 
counties  of  the  State,  and  38  cities,  boroughs, 
towns,  townships,  and  villages,  and  the  Newark 
School  District.  The  city  adoptions  include  New- 
ark, Jersey  City,  Trenton,  Paterson,  and  Elizabeth. 

See  WATER  WORKS  AND  WATER  PURIFICATION. 

Bibliography.  Alten,  Civil  Service  Manual  (New 
York);  American  City  Magazine.  Municipal  Index  and 
Atlas,  1940-41  (New  York);  American  Public  Works  As- 
sociation, Public  Works  Engineers  Year  Book,  1940  (Chi- 
cago); Buehler,  Public  Finance  (New  York);  Chatters 
and  Tenner,  Municipal  and  Governmental  Accounting 
(New  York) ;  Gould,  New  England  Town  Meeting— Safe- 

Stard  of  Democracy  (Brattleboro,  Vt.):  Mohaupt,  The 
onded  Debt  of  272  Cities,  Jan.  1,  1940,  Comparative  Tax 
Rates  of  301  Cities,  1940,  National  Municipal  Review, 
June  and  December  (New  York) ;  Municipal  Journal,  The 
Municipal  Year  Book,  1940  (London);  Pfiffner,  Munici- 
pal Administration  (New  York);  Public  Administration 
Service,  City  Manager  Government  in  the  United  States; 
a  Review  after  Twenty-five  Years  (New  York) ;  Ridley  & 
Nolting,  The  Municipal  Year  Book,  1940  (Chicago): 
Stone  and  Price,  City  Manager  Government  in  the  United 
States  (Chicago);  Woolpert.  Municipal  Public  Relations 
(Chicago). 

M.  N.  BAKER. 

MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP.  Transfer  to 
New  York  City  in  June  of  two  great  local  passen- 
ger transportation  systems  consummated  negotia- 
tions that  have  been  in  progress  for  years.  On 
June  1  the  city  took  over  subways,  elevated,  street 
car,  and  bus  lines  of  the  Brooklyn-Manhattan 
Transit  Co.  (BMT).  On  June  12  it  acquired  the 
subway  and  elevated  lines  not  already  acquired  of 
the  Interborough  Rapid  Transit  Co.  (IRT).  Inte- 
gration of  these  properties  with  the  Independent 
Subway  System  or  Eighth  Avenue  Subway,  re- 


cently built  by  the  city,  and  the  operation  of  all  by 
the  Board  of  Transportation  unifies  the  local  trans* 
it  lines  of  New  York  City  which  comprise  the 
largest  example  of  municipal  ownership  and  oper- 
ation of  local  transportation  facilities  in  the  world. 
Some  of  the  privately-operated  subways  were  built 
by  the  city  and  leased  to  the  companies.  Some  of 
the  elevated  railway  lines  have  been  torn  down 
and  removal  of  most  of  what  remain  is  imminent 

The  Tennessee  Valley  Authority  (TVA)  was 
selling  electric  power  to  106  municipal  authorities 
and  co-operative  associations  at  the  close  of  1940. 
The  largest  city  to  contract  with  TVA  during  1940 
was  Huntsville,  Ala.  (See  1939  YEAR  BOOK  for 
data  on  the  larger  TVA  city-customers ;  also  vari- 
ous TVA  reports.) 

Municipally-owned  electric  light  and  power 
plants  in  the  United  States  increased  from  2100 
to  2632  as  of  Jan.  1,  1938  and  Nov.  1,  1940,  ac- 
cording to  statistics  compiled  by  the  Burns  &  Mc- 
Donnell Engineering  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo.  The 
Federal  Power  Commission  listed  2035  publicly- 
and  1314  privately-owned  electric  utilities  in  1940, 
but  excluded  places  of  less  than  250  population. 

Bibliography.  Federal  Power  Commission.  Directory 
of  Electric  Utilities  (Washington). 

M.  N.  BAKER. 

MUNITIONS.  See  DEFENSIVE  PREPARATIONS  ; 
MILITARY  PROGRESS;  NAVAL  PROGRESS  Compare 
the  topics  listed  under  DEFENSE,  NATIONAL. 

MURALS.  See  PAINTING. 

MUSEUMS.  See  ART  under  Museums;  SOCIE- 
TIES under  MUSEUMS,  AMERICAN  ASSOCIATION  OF. 

MUSIC.  General  News:  What  with  the  ex- 
tension of  the  war  in  Europe,  the  United  States 
figured  more  and  more  prominently  as  a  world 
center  of  musical  activities  in  1940.  An  increasing 
number  of  prominent  musicians  visited  the  Latin- 
American  republics,  and  the  general  trend  toward 
closer  cultural  relations  also  had  its  musical  ef- 
fects. The  first  North  American  orchestra  to  visit 
South  America  was  the  National  Broadcasting 
Company's  symphony  orchestra  (known  as  the 
N.B.C.  Symphony)  under  Arturo  Toscamm's  di- 
rection, which  gave  sixteen  highly  successful  con- 
certs in  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  Argentina  between 
June  12  and  July  10.  This  was  followed  in  August 
by  the  All  American  Youth  Orchestra,  organized 
in  the  spring  by  Leopold  Stokowski  with  a  roster 
mainly  of  musicians  of  both  sexes  ranging  in  age 
from  14  to  24.  These  were  chosen  in  preliminary 
auditions  held  throughout  the  country  by  the  Na- 
tional Youth  Administration  (qv),  which  also 
maintained  orchestras  of  its  own  in  the  principal 
centers,  and  final  auditions  held  by  Mr.  Stokowski. 
They  gave  five  concerts  in  Brazil,  ten  in  Argenti- 
na, three  in  Uruguay,  and  one  in  the  Dominican 
Republic.  In  a  week  of  concerts  in  eastern  cities 
before  its  departure,  the  orchestra  was  much 
praised  by  the  critics,  and  some  hoped  that  it 
might  be  made  permanent,  but  it  was  disbanded 
after  giving  some  further  home  concerts  in  Sep- 
tember. Plans  were  announced  for  the  organiza- 
tion of  a  second  orchestra  of  this  kind  in  1941. 

Government  support  of  music  through  the  Work 
Projects  Administration  (q.v.)  continued  through- 
out the  year  upon  the  relatively  decentralized  basis 
which  had  been  inaugurated  by  legislation  stipulat- 
ing that,  after  Jan.  1,  1940,  one  fourth  of  the  costs 
of  the  various  music  and  other  cultural  projects 
must  be  met  locally.  It  was  estimated  that,  under 
the  new  conditions,  10,072  musicians  were  em- 


MUSIC 


476 


MUSIC 


ployed  in  these  activities  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year,  as  compared  with  the  former  Federal  Music 
Project's  peak  figure  of  15,700. 

In  New  York,  the  city  co-operated  with  the 
WPA  in  providing  popular-priced  orchestral  con- 
certs in  large  auditoriums  tinder  various  guest  con- 
ductors and  with  prominent  soloists.  Here  the  pro- 
grams were  relatively  conservative,  but  WPA  or- 
chestras in  certain  other  large  cities,  especially  the 
Illinois  Symphony  Orchestra  of  Chicago  under  Iz- 
ler  Solomon  and  others,  gave  more  attention  to 
American  and  other  modern  music. 

An  anticipation  of  the  possibilities  of  seeing  as 
well  as  hearing  opera  by  television  was  provided 
in  New  York,  March  10,  when  the  first  large-scale 
demonstration  of  this  kind  took  place  in  the  Na- 
tional Broadcasting  Company's  studios,  where  a 
cast  of  Metropolitan  Opera  singers  gave  Act  I  of 
Pagluicci  in  condensed  form  The  Rockefeller 
Foundation  made  a  grant  of  $20,000  to  the  New 
School  for  Social  Research  for  a  two  year  study 
of  the  use  of  music  in  motion  pictures.  Perhaps 
the  most  ambitious  example  thus  far  of  such  use 
was  the  film  Fantasia,  made  by  Walt  Disney  with 
the  collaboration  of  Leopold  Stokowski  and  the 
Philadelphia  Orchestra  and  first  publicly  shown 
on  November  13.  (See  MOTION  PICTURES.) 

In  an  attempt  to  popularize  operatic  music  in  the 
United  States,  the  National  Committee  for  Music 
Appreciation  placed  on  sale  in  September  the  first 
of  twelve  sets  of  records  of  familiar  works  at 
$1.75  a  set.  Twenty-two  thousand  sets  of  records 
of  Carmen  were  sold  during  the  first  week. 

One  of  the  country's  most  prominent  musical  so- 
cieties, the  Beethoven  Association,  voted  to  dis- 
solve in  May  after  a  career  of  22  years  during 
which  it  had  given  away  nearly  $100,000  to  educa- 
tional and  musical  institutions  The  funds  had  been 
raised  by  concerts  for  which  the  members,  includ- 
ing most  of  the  well-known  musicians  who  lived 
or  appeared  in  New  York,  contributed  their  serv- 
ices. 

There  were  several  changes  during  1940  in  the 
university  field.  Daniel  Gregory  Mason,  who  con- 
tinued as  MacDowell  Professor  of  Music,  resigned 
as  head  of  the  music  department  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, and  was  succeeded  by  Douglas  Moore.  Da- 
vid Stanley  Smith  retired  as  dean  of  the  Yale  Uni- 
versity School  of  Music  at  the  end  of  the  1939-40 
academic  year,  after  22  years'  service.  A  separate 
department  of  music  was  formed  in  Yale  College 
with  Bruce  Simonds  as  chairman.  In  the  field  of 
musical  journalism,  a  noteworthy  appointment  was 
that  of  Virgil  Thomson,  well  known  as  a  com- 
poser, as  music  critic  of  the  New  York  Herald 
Tribune,  succeeding  the  late  Lawrence  Oilman.  An 
instance  of  an  increasing  esteem  for  music  in  the 
American  cultural  world  was  the  naming  of  Ste- 
phen C.  Foster  for  commemoration  in  New  York 
University's  Hall  of  Fame.  He  was  the  first  Amer- 
ican musician  to  be  thus  honored. 

Under  the  five-year  agreement  which  expired 
December  31,  radio  stations  paid  the  American 
Society  of  Composers,  Authors  and  Publishers 
(see  under  SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS)  $4,142,- 
200  in  1939  for  the  use  of  music  which  the  Society 
controlled,  including  much  of  the  popular  music 
which  was  broadcast.  In  March,  the  A.S.C.A.P. 
offered  a  new  contract  which,  according  to  an  esti- 
mate, would  virtually  double  the  annual  payment. 
Most  of  the  radio  stations,  represented  by  the  Na- 
tional Association  of  Broadcasters,  rejected  this, 
and  both  sides  prepared  for  battle.  The  broadcast- 


ers organized  a  new  firm,  Broadcast  Music,  Inc., 
which,  it  was  hoped,  would  provide  new  music  and 
arrangements,  buy  out  existing  publishers,  and  pro- 
vide radio  with  a  source  of  music  of  its  own,  or 
at  least  with  an  instrument  for  bargaining.  In  No- 
vember, the  large  chains  began  to  drop  music  con- 
trolled by  the  A.S.C.A.P.  from  the  air,  and  it  was 
dropped  by  all  except  some  independent  stations 
by  Jan.  1,  1941. 

Artists  and  Composers.  Hitherto  the  Ameri- 
can Federation  of  Musicians  had  not  attempted  to 
enlist  instrumental  concert  virtuosi  in  its  ranks,  or 
opposed  their  enrollment  by  the  American  Guild 
of  Musical  Artists,  which  was  also  an  affiliate  of 
the  American  Federation  of  Labor.  Early  in  Au- 
gust, however,  the  new  president  of  the  American 
Federation  of  Musicians,  James  C.  Petrillo,  an- 
nounced that  instrumental  artists  must  join  the 
Federation  by  Labor  Day,  or  cease  to  take  part  in 
any  activities  in  which  Federation  members  were 
concerned.  This  meant  that  those  who  did  not  com- 
ply would  be  barred  from  appearing  in  concerts 
with  Federation  musicians,  including  those  of  all 
but  one  of  the  major  orchestras;  from  making 
records  or  musical  films,  and  also  from  broadcast- 
ing. 

Conferences  between  Mr.  Petrillo  and  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Guild,  Lawrence  Tibbett,  noted  bary- 
tone, failed  to  reach  a  compromise,  and  legal  war- 
fare began.  On  August  29  Justice  Ferdinand  Pe- 
cora,  of  the  New  York  Supreme  Court,  granted 
an  application  for  a  temporary  injunction  restrain- 
ing Mr.  Petrillo  from  enforcing  his  demands.  Ap- 
plication for  a  final  injunction  was  made  before 
Justice  Aron  Steuer,  of  the  Supreme  Court,  who 
denied  the  motion  on  November  20.  The  Guild 
carried  the  matter  up  to  the  Appellate  Division, 
which  dismissed  the  application  on  Jan.  24,  1941, 
holding  that  members  of  a  labor  union  had  the 
right  to  refuse  to  work  with  non-members  in  the 
same  field  of  endeavor.  The  Guild  planned  to  take 
the  case,  which  it  regarded  as  involving  the  free- 
dom of  musical  culture  in  America,  to  the  Court 
of  Appeals  in  Albany.  In  February,  1941,  Mr. 
Petrillo  announced  that  instrumentalists  must  join 
the  Federation  by  Mar.  1,  1941. 

Many  noted  European  musicians  had  come  to  the 
United  States  within  the  last  few  years,  owing  to 
political  conditions  in  Europe.  The  intensification 
of  the  war  brought  many  more,  including  Darius 
Milhaud,  who  arrived  in  July  and,  after  conduct- 
ing the  first  performance  of  his  Cortege  Funcbre, 
for  the  Columbia  Broadcasting  System,  went  to 
California  to  join  the  music  faculty  of  Mills  Col- 
lege. Among  other  well-known  European  compo- 
sers now  in  America,  Paul  Hindemith  devoted 
most  of  the  year  to  teaching,  becoming  a  visiting 
lecturer  for  the  Yale  University  School  of  Music 
in  May;  Igor  Stravinsky,  who  took  out  his  first 
citizenship  papers,  appeared  as  guest  conductor 
with  most  of  the  principal  orchestras. 

Among  the  concert  artists  who  made  American 
debuts  in  1940  were  Marcelle  Denya,  French  so- 
prano; Suzanne  Sten,  German  mezzo-soprano; 
Magda  Tagliaf ero,  French-Brazilian  pianist ;  An- 
tonio Brosa,  Spanish  violinist,  and  Edward  Kilenyi, 
Hungarian-American  pianist.  The  youngest  artist 
to  make  a  notable  impression  in  a  New  York  debut 
was  the  9-year-old  Andre  Mathieu  from  Montreal, 
who,  on  February  3,  showed  a  remarkable  talent 
as  a  pianist  and  as  a  composer.  Ignace  Jan  Pade- 
rewski  returned  from  Europe  on  his  80th  birthday, 
November  6,  to  live  in  America,  at  least  during 


MUSIC  477 

the  period  of  the  war.  Owing  to  his  age  and  health, 
he  planned  to  make  no  concert  appearances. 

Chamber  Music.  The  year's  most  intensive 
presentation  of  recently  composed  American  cham- 
ber music  was  held  September  9  and  10  on  the 
Yaddo  estate  at  Saratoga  Springs,  N.Y.,  where 
works  by  36  composers  were  heard  in  four  pro- 
grams. In  general,  this  cross-section  of  contempo- 
rary activity,  as  compared  with  its  predecessors  in 
this  series,  snowed  a  trend  away  from  experimen- 
talism,  if  not  from  up-to-date  idioms. 

As  before,  the  most  extensive  urban  series  of 
chamber  music  was  that  offered  in  New  York  by 
the  New  Friends  of  Music,  who  devoted  their 
1939-40  programs  to  works  of  Bach,  Beethoven, 
and  Brahms.  For  1940-41,  the  list  was  expanded 
to  include  music  by  modern  composers  such  as 
Arnold  Schonberg,  Mark  Brunswick,  Ernest  Bloch. 
and  Bela  Bartok,  whose  sonata  for  two  pianos  and 
percussion  instruments  had  its  first  American  per- 
formance November  3.  Within  the  scope  of  this 
review,  it  would  be  impossible  to  list  all  the  new 
works  presented  in  the  United  States  during  1940. 
Bach's  Musical  Offering  had  its  first  New  York 
performance  in  full  in  the  Bach  Circle's  concert 
of  January  20,  in  Hans  T.  David's  arrangement. 
Haydn's  The  Seven  Last  Words  of  Christ  was 
introduced  to  America  by  the  Primrose  Quartet 
in  a  New  York  concert  on  February  18 

Choral  Music.  Mozart's  last  Mass,  in  C  minor 
(K.  427),  had  its  first  American  concert  perform- 
ance in  the  concert  of  the  Schola  Cantorum  of 
New  York  (January  9)  under  the  direction  of 
Hugh  Ross,  who  used  Alois  Schmitt's  edition.  In 
its  second  concert  (April  17),  this  enterprising 
chorus  sang  a  Sinfonia  Biblica  by  Juan  Jose  Cas- 
tro, of  Buenos  Aires,  for  the  first  time  in  the 
United  States,  and  a  Pater  Noster  by  Burle  Marx, 
of  Brazil,  for  the  first  time  anywhere.  The  New 
York  Oratorio  Society,  under  Albert  Stoessel,  re- 
mained faithful  to  Bach's  Mass  in  B  minor  and 
Handel's  Messiah,  which  was  sung  by  innumerable 
choral  groups  of  all  sizes  during  the  Christmas 
season.  A  touring  group  new  here,  the  General 
Platoff  Don  Cossack  Chorus,  completed  its  first 
American  tour  in  February. 

Festivals.  The  ninth  festival  of  the  Elizabeth 
Sprague  Coolidge  Foundation  in  the  Library  of 
Congress  was  held  in  Washington,  April  12  to  14. 
Works  performed  for  the  first  time  were  Ildebran- 
do  Pizzetti's  Epithalamium,  for  soloists,  chorus, 
and  chamber  orchestra;  Jerzy  Fitelberg's  sonata 
for  two  violins  and  two  pianos,  Nicolai  Berezow- 
sky's  string  sextet,  Malipiero's  Quattro  Vecchi 
Cansoni  for  voice  and  seven  instruments,  Roy  Har- 
ris's quintet  for  strings,  Marcel  Grand jany's  fan- 
tasy-chorale on  Pange  Lingua  for  harp  and  organ, 
David  Stanley  Smith's  eighth  quartet,  and  Frank 
Bridge's  Divertimento  for  wind  instruments.  The 
Pizzetti,  Fitelberg,  and  Berezowsky  works  had 
been  commissioned  by  Mrs.  Coolidge.  Joseph  Szi- 
geti  and  Bela  Bartok  played  a  program  of  the  lat- 
ter's  music  for  violin  and  piano. 

The  Eastman  School  of  Music  held  its  tenth 
American  Music  Festival,  April  22  to  26,  in  Roch- 
ester, N.Y.,  under  the  general  direction  of  Howard 
Hanson,  who  introduced  an  18th  century  work,  a 
sinf  onia  by  Johann  Friedrich  Peter,  in  his  opening 
program.  Modern  works  performed  for  the  first 
time  were  Edmund  Haines's  Symphony  in  Minia- 
ture, Burnll  Phillips's  Concert  Piece  for  bassoon 
and  strings,  Frederick  Woltmann's  Incantation, 
and,  in  part,  Roy  Harris's  Folk-Song  Symphony. 


MUSIC 


Walter  Piston's  The  Incredible  Flutist  was  a  nov- 
elty in  the  closing  ballet  program. 

Ifor  Jones  completed  his  second  season  as  con- 
ductor of  the  Bach  Choir  of  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  with 
its  33d  Bach  Festival,  May  17  and  18.  Seven  can- 
tatas were  sung  on  the  first  day  and,  according  to 
custom,  the  second  day  was  devoted  to  the  Mass 
«?  B  njinor.  Other  Bach  festivals  were  held  at 
Be™a,  O  in  June,  and  Carmel,  Calif.,  in  July. 

The  Philadelphia  Orchestra  again  took  part  with 
the  University  of  Michigan  Choral  Union  in  the 
47th  festival  at  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  May  8  to  11. 
Eugene  Ormandy  and  Thor  Johnson  shared  the 
conductorsnip.  Among  the  principal  works  present- 
ed were  Charles  Vardell's  cantata,  The  Inimitable 
Lovers,  Harl  McDonald's  Santa  Fe  Trail  sym- 
phony, conducted  by  the  composer,  and  Saint- 
Saens  s  opera,  Samson  et  Dclila,  presented  in  con- 
cert form  in  the  closing  program 

The  eighth  annual  Berkshire  Symphonic  Festi- 
val, consisting  of  nine  concerts,  three  more  than 
in  the  last  four  summers,  was  held  from  August 
1  to  17.  This  was  the  fifth  festival  to  be  given  with 
the  participation  of  the  Boston  Symphony  Orches- 
tra under  Serge  Koussevitzky's  direction  and  the 
third  in  the  semi-outdoor  auditorium  built  for  this 
purpose  on  the  Tanglewood  Estate  in  Lenox,  Mass 
For  the  first  time,  an  entire  program  was  devoted 
to  a  major  choral  work,  Bach's  Mass  in  B  minor 
with  a  chorus  which  had  been  trained  in  the  allied 
Berkshire  Music  Center.  Three  concerts  were  de- 
voted to  Beethoven  and  Tchaikovsky  (in  honor  of 
his  birth  centenary).  The  other  five  programs 
consisted  largely  of  standard  works,  but  included 
a  few  modern  compositions,  such  as  Roy  Harris's 
third  symphony  and  Paul  Hindemith's  Mathis  der 
Maler  symphony. 

The  Music  Center,  with  Dr.  Koussevitzky  as 
director,  opened  its  first  session  at  Tanglewood 
early  in  July.  This  was  in  two  divisions,  one  pro- 
viding advanced  training  in  various  fields,  while 
the  other  gave  opportunities  to  less  advanced  stu- 
dents and  to  amateurs  to  increase  their  acquaint- 
ance with  music  and  its  interpretation.  In  the  fall 
Mrs.  Mary  Louise  Curtis  Bok,  of  Philadelphia, 
gave  the  Center  $10,000  to  build  an  opera  theater 
seating  1200  for  its  opera  department 

Two  stage  performances  of  opera,  Gluck's  Or- 
pheus and  Offenbach's  Tales  of  Hoffmann  were 
given  under  Albert  Stoessel's  direction  in  the  61st 
festival  at  Worcester,  Mass ,  September  30  to  Oc- 
tober 5.  Both  were  sung  in  English.  Mabel  Dan- 
iels s  The  Song  of  Jaelt  for  soprano,  chorus,  and 
orchestra,  had  its  first  performance,  October  3, 
and  the  Ninth  Symphony  was  heard  in  a  Beetho- 
ven program. 

In  the  South,  festivals  were  held  in  April  at 
Columbia  and  Spartanhurg,  S  C.,  in  August,  when 
Cost  fan  tutte  was  included  in  a  Mozart  reper- 
toire, at  Asheville,  N.C.,  and  in  Birmingham,  Ala., 
in  October.  Handel's  Belshaszar  had  what  was 
believed  to  be  its  first  complete  performance  in 
the  United  States  in  the  May  Festival  at  Pasadena, 
Calif.,  under  Richard  Lert's  direction.  The  Inter- 
national^ Society  for  Contemporary  Music  planned 
to  hold  its  annual  festival  in  New  York  in  Decem- 
ber, but,  owing  to  difficulties  of  preparation,  espe- 
cially in  the  matter  of  obtaining  foreign  scores, 
this  was  postponed  until  May,  1941. 

In  Canada,  a  feature  of  the  fifth  annual  Mont- 
real Festival  was  a  performance  of  Debussy's  Pel- 
leas  et  Melisanje,  June  14,  under  Wilfred  Pel- 
letier*s  direction,  with  Raoul  Jobin  and  Marcelle 


MUSIC 


478 


MUSIC 


Dcnya  in  the  title  roles,  Mack  Kartell  at  Golaud, 
and  Leon  Rothier  as  Arkel. 

Opera.  When  the  owners  of  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  House  in  New  York,  represented  by  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  and  Real  Estate  Company,  de- 
cided that  they  could  not  continue  to  maintain  the 
property  under  the  existing  arrangement,  the  Met- 
ropolitan Opera  Association,  which  produces  the 
operas,  offered  to  buy  it  for  $1,500,000,  subject  to 
a  first  mortgage  of  $470,000,  and  thus  avoid  the 
possibility  of  having  the  theater  sold  for  non- 
operatic  purposes. 

This  proposal  was  accepted  by  the  Real  Estate 
Company  on  January  12.  A  campaign  to  raise 
$1,000,000  for  the  cash  payment  of  $500,000  and 
for  various  changes  and  improvements  was  launched 
January  27,  and  passed  its  goal  on  May  9.  About 
$240,000  of  this  sum  was  contributed  by  out  of 
town  listeners  to  the  Saturday  afternoon  opera 
broadcasts.  On  May  21,  the  Association's  directors 
voted  to  go  ahead  with  the  purchase  and  improve- 
ment program,  and  the  title  was  formally  trans- 
ferred June  28.  Thus  the  theater  came  to  be  owned 
by  its  producing  organization  for  the  first  time 
since  1892.  One  of  the  principal  changes  was  the 
substitution  of  rows  of  seats  for  the  former  grand 
tier  boxes,  and,  for  the  first  time  in  the  Metro- 
politan's history,  the  parterre  boxes,  formerly  the 
property  of  the  owners  of  the  house,  were  placed 
on  public  sale. 

The  Metropolitan's  55th  regular  season  and  its 
fifth  under  Edward  Johnson's  general  management 
began  Nov.  27,  1939,  and  continued  for  the  usual 
16  weeks,  followed  by  four  post-season  perform- 
ances. During  the  longest  spring  tour  in  many 
years,  the  company  appeared  in  Baltimore,  Boston, 
Cleveland,  Rochester,  Houston,  New  Orleans,  and 
Atlanta.  Performances  during  the  regular  season 
in  Philadelphia,  Newark,  and  Hartford  made  an 
out  of  town  total  of  48  performances  in  a  grand 
total  of  171,  not  counting  14  Sunday  night  con- 
certs. 

Of  the  33  operas  presented  in  New  York,  four 
less  than  in  1938-39,  15  were  sung  in  Italian,  11 
in  German,  and  7  in  French.  In  the  representation 
of  composers  Wagner  again  had  a  long  lead,  with 
45  performances  of  ten  works.  Verdi  and  Puccini 
held  second  and  third  places.  There  were  no  novel- 
ties, but  seven  operas  not  heard  in  the  previous 
season  returned  to  the  repertoire.  The  most  dis- 
tinguished revival  was  that  of  Mozart's  Le  Nosse 
di  Figaro,  last  sung  at  the  Metropolitan  in  1918. 
This  was  produced  February  20  with  Ezio  Pinza 
as  Figaro  and  Elisabeth  Rethberg,  Bidu  Sayao, 
Rise  Stevens,  and  John  Brownlee  in  other  leading 
roles.  Ettore  Panizza  conducted;  Herbert  Graf 
had  charge  of  the  stage  direction,  and  the  sets  were 
designed  by  Jonel  Jorgulesco. 

Debussy's  Pelleas  et  Mtlisande,  revived  March  7 
after  six  years,  made  a  more  mixed  impression; 
the  Pelleas  of  Georges  Cathelat,  who  had  come 
from  France  to  sing  this  role,  was  praised,  but 
Helen  Jepson's  M&isande  was  considered  dra- 
matically inadequate.  The  return  of  Montemezzi's 
JJ Amort  dei  Tre  Re,  on  December  27,  after  a 
lapse  of  four  seasons,  was  undistinguished,  despite 
Ezio  Pinza's  laudable  Archibaldo.  Miss  Jepson, 
Armand  Tokatyan,  and  Richard  Bonelli  were  the 
other  principals  with  Gennaro  Papi  conducting. 
None  of  the  other  works  restored,  Wagner's  Der 
Fliegende  Hollander  with  Kirsten  Flagstad  as 
Senta  and  Friedrich  Schorr  as  the  Dutchman; 
Gounod's  Faust,  Puccini's  Madama  Butterfly,  ana 


Ponchielli's  La  Gioconda,  had  been  out  of  the  ac- 
tive list  for  more  than  two  seasons. 

Of  the  92  artists  who  sang  solo  roles  during 
1939-40, 16  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  a  regular 
Metropolitan  season.  Two  former  members  of  the 
organization  returned  to  it :  Helen  Traubel,  Amer- 
ican soprano,  in  two  Wagnerian  roles,  and  the 
veteran  Italian  barytone,  Giuseppe  De  Luca,  who, 
although  63  years  old,  proved  still  to  be  a  master 
of  vocal  style. 

Eight  of  the  newcomers  were  Americans.  The 
three  new  artists  who  proved  most  valuable  were 
Jarmila  Novotna,  whose  ability  as  a  singing  actress 
was  best  illustrated  as  Violetta  and  Cherubino; 
Alexander  Kipnis,  a  basso  of  Russian  origin,  who 
was  at  his  best  as  Gurnemanz,  Hagen,  and  Marke 
in  the  Wagner  list  and  as  Baron  Ochs  in  Der 
Rosenkavalier,  and  Licia  Albanese,  Italian  sopra- 
no, who  made  her  debut  in  the  title  role  of  Madama 
Butterfly.  Another  Italian  soprano,  Hilde  Reg- 
giani,  showed  moderate  vocal  attainments  as  Gilda 
and  Rosina.  Walter  Olitzki,  German  barytone, 
showed  ability  of  a  routine  sort.  Eyvind  Laholm, 
American  tenor,  sang  Siegmund  and  Tannhauser 
early  in  the  season.  Single  appearances  in  leading 
roles  were  made  by  Harriet  Henders  and  Jean 
Dickenson,  American  sopranos,  and  Raoul  Jobin, 
French-Canadian  tenor.  He  played  a  more  impor- 
tant part  in  the  following  season.  Newcomers 
heard  in  minor  assignments  were  Annamary  Dick- 
ey, soprano,  and  Mack  Harrell,  barytone,  the  win- 
ners in  the  1939  radio  auditions ;  Lodovico  Oliviero, 
tenor,  who  had  sung  in  the  1937  spring  season,  and 
two  young  Americans,  Jean  Merrill  and  Winifred 
Heidt,  who  sang  only  in  the  Sunday  concerts.  The 
death  of  the  company's  senior  conductor,  Artur 
Bodanzky,  on  Nov.  23,  1939,  threw  the  whole  bur- 
den of  the  Wagner  repertoire  upon  the  28-year-old 
Erich  Leinsdorf,  who  also  conducted  Pelleas  et 
Melisande.  The  other  regular  conductors  were 
Messrs.  Panizza,  Papi,  and  Wilfred  Pelletier. 
George  ^A.  Sloan,  who  had  been  chairman  of  the 
fund-raising  committee,  was  elected  president  of 
the  Metropolitan  Opera  Association  September  11, 
succeeding  the  late  Paul  D.  Cravath. 

The  season  of  1940-41,  also  16  weeks  long,  be- 
gan with  a  new  production  of  Verdi's  Un  Ballo  in 
Maschera,  last  heard  in  this  house  in  1916.  The 
action  was  transferred  from  Boston  to  Sweden,  the 
locale  of  the  Scribe  play  on  which  the  libretto  is 
based,  but  the  names  were  not  correspondingly 
changed.  Jussi  Bjoerling,  Zinka  Milanov,  Alex- 
ander Sved,  Kerstin  Thorborg,  and  Stella  Andreva 
sang  the  leading  roles,  with  Mr.  Panizza  conduct- 
ing. Saint-Saens's  Samson  et  Delila  was  reinstated 
in  the  repertoire  December  6,  with  Rene  Maison 
and  Rise  Stevens  as  the  principals,  and  Verdi's  // 
Trovatore  received  a  new  production  December  12, 
with  settings  by  Harry  Horner.  Here  Ferruccio 
Calusio,  a  conductor  of  the  Teatro  Colon  in  Bue- 
nos Aires,  made  his  North  American  debut.  The 
next  revivals  were  of  two  comic  operas  by  Doni- 
zetti, Don  Pasquale,  whose  title  role  provided  for 
the  company's  admirable  new  Italian  basso  buffo, 
Salvatore  Baccaloni,  and  La  Fille  du  Regiment, 
sung  in  French  with  Lily  Pons  as  Marie. 

Five  American  singers  made  their  Metropolitan 
debuts  before  the  close  of  the  year :  Eleanor  Steber 
and  Norina  Greco,  sopranos ;  Emery  Darcy,  tenor, 
and  Francesco  Valentino  and  Arthur  Kent,  bary- 
tones. The  others,  besides  Mr.  Baccaloni,  who 
made  their  first  appearances  in  December  were 
Maria  Hussa,  Viennese  soprano;  Alexander  Sved, 


MUSIC 


479 


MUSIC 


Hungarian  barytone,  and  John  Dudley,  Australian 
tenor. 

The  National  Orchestral  Association  of  New 
York  added  opera  to  its  training  program,  giving 
Pagliacci  December  9  as  the  first  of  a  series  of 
experimental  performances  with  young  American 
singers. 

The  Chicago  City  Opera  Company,  renamed 
simply  the  Chicago  Opera  Company,  was  com- 
pletely reorganized,  with  Chauncey  D.  McCormick 
as  chairman  of  the  board,  Walter  D.  Kirk  as  presi- 
dent, and  Henry  Weber  as  artistic  director.  Wil- 
liam Wymetal  was  made  regisseur.  The  organiza- 
tion of  a  new  chorus  of  young  singers  began  in  the 
spring  and  the  Ballet  Theater,  which  had  made  a 
notable  impression  in  New  York  in  its  first  season, 
was  engaged  for  the  fall  series,  in  which  it  offered 
some  all-ballet  programs  in  addition  to  appear- 
ances in  the  operas.  The  seven  weeks'  season 
opening  November  2  with  Aida.  Counting  two  ex- 
tra Christmas  holiday  performances,  there  were 
forty  presentations  of  21  operas — seven  operas  less 
than  in  1939,  but  quite  enough  for  this  relatively 
short  period. 

The  revivals  were  Verdi's  Falstaff,  with  John 
Charles  Thomas  in  the  title  role;  Mozart's  Don 
Giovanni,  with  Ezio  Pinza ;  Strauss's  Salome,  first 
heard  in  a  special  performance  with  Rose  Pauly 
as  its  protagonist  and  Artur  Rodzinski  conducting, 
and  later  under  Carl  Alwin  with  Marjorie  Law- 
rence as  the  Salome ;  Strauss's  Der  Rosenkavalier 
and  Montemezzi's  IJAmore  det  Tre  Re,  in  which 
Grace  Moore  sang  Fiora  for  the  first  time,  with 
the  composer  conducting.  Falstaff,  Martha,  and 
Hansel  and  Gretel  were  sung  in  English.  Wagner 
was  represented  by  one  performance  of  Tristan 
und  Isolde,  with  Kirsten  Flagstad,  and  two  of 
Die  Walkure.  Twenty-two  singers  were  heard  with 
the  company  for  the  first  time,  and  two  conduc- 
tors, Maurice  Abravanel  and  Paul  Breisach,  joined 
the  regular  staff,  which  included  Mr.  Weber,  An- 
gelo  Canarutto,  Leo  Kopp,  Carl  Alwin,  Kurt  Ad- 
ler,  Dr.  Rodzinski,  Mr.  Montemezzi,  Fritz  Reiner, 
and  Edwin  McArthur.  According  to  Edward  Bar- 
ry, music  critic  of  the  Chicago  Tribune,  the  1940 
season  was  the  most  stimulating  in  recent  years 
and  marked  the  beginning  of  a  new  operatic  era 
for  Chicago. 

Ten  operas  were  produced  by  the  San  Francisco 
Opera  Association  between  October  12  and  No- 
vember 3 :  Le  Nosse  di  Figaro,  La  Bpheme,  Don 
Giovanni,  Un  Ballo  in  Maschera,  Rigolctto,  and 
Aida  in  Italian;  Lakme,  Carmen,  and  Manon  in 
French,  and  Der  Rosenkavalier  in  German  De- 
buts were  made  by  Margit  Bokor,  Mari  Monte, 
and  Verna  Osborne,  sopranos;  Suzanne  Sten  and 
Elsa  Zebranska,  contraltos ;  Jussi  Bjoerling,  George 
Stinson,  and  Francisco  Naya,  tenors,  and  John 
Brownlee  and  Walter  Olitzki,  barytones.  Gaetano 
Merola,  the  general  manager,  shared  the  conduc- 
torship  with  Gennaro  Papi  and  Erich  Leinsdorf. 

In  addition  to  the  visiting  Metropolitan,  Phila- 
delphia was  served  by  two  resident  organizations, 
the  Philadelphia  Opera  Company,  composed  main- 
ly of  young  singers  living  in  the  city  or  its  neigh- 
borhood, and  the  Philadelphia-La  Scala  Opera 
Company,  with  visiting  artists.  For  its  1940-41 
season,  the  former  company  adopted  a  policy  of 
performances  in  English,  except  for  La  Bohcme, 
and  presented  Tchaikovsky's  Eugene  Onegin  and 
Smetana's  The  Bartered  Bride  in  the  fall,  with 
translated  texts. 

The  St.  Louis  Opera  Association  presented  Ma- 


Rigoletto, and  Carmen  in  April  with  casts 
mainly  of  Metropolitan  artists,  but  canceled  its 
projected  fall  series.  In  Los  Angeles,  the  Southern 
California  Opera  Association  made  its  debut  May  7 
with  Faust  under  the  conductorship  of  Albert 
Coates.  The  principal  summer  season,  as  before, 
was  that  of  the  Zoo  Opera  Company  of  Cincinnati, 
which  presented  15  works  between  June  30  and 
August  10.  Fortune  Gallo's  San  Carlo  Opera  Com- 
pany again  toured  extensively. 

South  America's  principal  opera  season,  at  the 
Teatro  Colon  in  Buenos  Aires,  began  May  25  and 
continued  into  the  latter  part  of  October.  Among 
the  works  revived  or  restaged  were  La  Boheme, 
L'Elisir  d'Amore,  and  Alceste,  while  Cimarosa's 
Le  Astwtie  femminili  had  its  local  premiere  in  Au- 
gust. As  usual,  the  first  part  of  the  season  was 
devoted  to  works  in  Italian  and  French,  and  the 
later  weeks  to  German  opera. 

Orchestras.  For  its  fiftieth  season,  the  Chicago 
Symphony  Orchestra  had  commissioned  prominent 
composers  of  several  countries  to  write  for  it,  and 
also  held  a  competition  for  a  short  work  by  an 
American.  The  unusually  large  list  of  works  played 
for  the  first  time  during  the  first  twelve  weeks  of 
1940-41  included  symphonies  by  Darius  Milhaud 
(October  17),  John  Alden  Carpenter  (October 
24),  and  Igor  Stravinsky  (November  7) ;  Roy 
Harris's  American  Creed  (October  31),  Eric  Del- 
amarter's  Fable  of  the  Hapless  Folk-Tune  (De- 
cember 5),  Remi  Gassman's  Symphonic  Overture 
in  G  (December  12),  and  Nicolai  Miaskovsky's 
Symphonic  Fantasia  (December  26).  Messrs.  Mil- 
haud and  Stravinsky  conducted  their  own  works ; 
the  others  were  directed  by  Frederick  A.  Stock, 
now  in  his  36th  year  of  consecutive  service  as  con- 
ductor. One  of  the  novelties  of  the  49th  season, 
1939-40,  was  a  symphony  by  a  Russian,  Van  Mu- 
radeli,  which  was  introduced  February  15  and  re- 
peated in  a  later  pair  of  concerts.  In  both  seasons, 
several  concerts  were  led  by  the  associate  conduc- 
tor, Hans  Lange. 

The  Philharmonic-Symphony  Society  of  New 
York,  which  exchanged  a  pair  of  subscription  dates 
with  the  Chicago  Symphony  during  its  November 
tour,  continued  under  the  regular  conductorship  of 
John  Barbirolli,  whose  contract  was  renewed  in 
February  for  the  next  two  seasons.  Igor  Stravin- 
sky was  a  guest  conductor  for  a  week  in  January 
and  another  in  April,  and  Albert  Stoessel,  con- 
ductor of  the  Oratorio  Society,  which  joined  with 
the  orchestra  in  Bach's  Passion  According  to  St. 
Matthew,  directed  three  concerts  in  March.  Dimi- 
tri  Mitropoulos,  the  Minneapolis  Symphony  Or- 
chestra's Greek  conductor,  began  a  four  weeks' 
guest  engagement  December  19. 

The  year's  most  extensive  novelty  was  Moby 
Dick,  by  Bernard  Herrmann,  a  young  New  York 
composer,  a  dramatic  cantata  for  men's  chorus, 
soloists,  and  orchestra  with  a  text  by  W.  Clark 
Harrington  based  on  Melville's  novel.  This  was 
often  effective,  but  sometimes  derivative  and  over- 
scored. 

Other  works  which  had  first  performances  or 
American  premieres  were  John  Powell's  A  Set  of 
Three  (first  time  in  full,  February  18),  Leo  Wein- 
er's  Divertimento  No.  2,  Op.  24  (February  8), 
Benjamin  Britten's  violin  concerto  (March  28) 
with  Antonio  Brosa  as  soloist,  Anis  Fuleihan's 
Symphonic  Concertante  for  string  quartet  and  or- 
chestra (April  23),  Jaromir  Weinberger's  Song 
of  the  High  Seas  (November  9),  Alexander  Zem- 
linsky's  Sinfonietta,  and  Casella's  suite  from  his 


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480 


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La  Donna  Serpente  (December  29).  Homer  Kel- 
ler's first  symphony,  which  had  won  the  Henry 
Hadley  Foundation's  American  composer's  prize, 
was  introduced  in  a  special  conceit  November  2. 

Under  Leon  Barzin,  the  training  orchestra  of 
the  National  Orchestral  Association  added  to  the 
list  of  novelties  in  New  York  Boris  Koutzen's 
Valley  Forge  (February  19)  and  Walter  Piston's 
violin  concerto  (March  18,  with  Ruth  Posselt  as 
soloist),  both  played  for  the  first  time,  and  Hen- 
rietta Bosmans's  Concert  stuck  for  violin  and  or- 
chestra (March  18),  played  for  the  first  time  in 
America.  For  its  1940-41  series  in  Carnegie  Hall 
under  Fritz  Stiedry's  direction,  the  orchestra  of 
the  New  Friends  of  Music  added  modern  works  to 
its  repertoire,  and  played  Schonberg's  Kammer- 
symphonic  No.  2  for  the  first  time  December  15. 

Arturo  Toscanim  continued  as  conductor  of  the 
N.B.C.  Symphony  Orchestra  in  its  Saturday  night 
radio  series,  and  also  took  it  out  of  New  York  for 
a  few  concerts  in  the  winter  and  to  Carnegie  Hall 
for  performances  of  Verdi's  Manjsoni  Requiem 
and  Beethoven's  Missa  Solemnis  in  November  and 
December.  Other  conductors  in  the  radio  series 
were  Bernardino  Molinari  and  Bruno  Walter,  in 
the  winter,  and  Hans  Wilhelm  Steinberg  in  the 
fall. 

Serge  Koussevitzky,  who  began  his  seventeenth 
season  with  the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra  Oc- 
tober 11,  conducted  most  of  the  concerts  of  the 
regular  series  and  those  of  the  Berkshire  Festival. 
Guest  conductors  were  Nikolai  Malko  in  January, 
Tauno  Hannikamen,  a  Finnish  leader,  in  February, 
Igor  Stravinsky,  March  29-30,  and  Desire*  De- 
f auw,  November  29-30.  Works  heard  for  the  first 
time  were  Edward  Burhngame  Hill's  concertino 
for  strings  (April  19) ;  Mario  Castelnuovo-Tedes- 
co's  Cipressi  (October  25),  and  George  Foote's  In 
Praise  of  Winter  (January  5).  Works  performed 
for  the  first  time  in  the  United  States  were  Serge 
Prokofieff's  cello  concerto  (March  8;  soloist, 
Gregor  Piatigorsky) ,  Paul  Hindemith's  violin  con- 
certo (April  19,  Richard  Burgin),  and  Darius  Mil- 
haud's  Suite  Provencale  (December  20)  with  the 
composer  conducting. 

The  Boston  Symphony  continued  to  be  the  only 
non-union  major  orchestra  in  the  United  States, 
although  James  C.  Petrillo,  in  August,  announced 
his  intention  of  bringing  it  into  the  fold  of  the 
American  Federation  of  Musicians.  There  was  no 
indication  from  the  management,  however,  of  a 
change  of  the  orchestra's  traditional  policy  in  this 
regard. 

Eugene  Ormandy,  musical  director  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Orchestra,  who  had  hitherto  ranked  as  co- 
conductor  with  Leopold  Stokowski,  was  re-engaged 
in  November  for  five  years  and  designated  as  con- 
ductor with  full  authority.  Mr.  Stokowski  con- 
ducted for  three  weeks  in  March  and  three  more  in 
November,  giving  the  American  premiere  of  Dmitri 
Shostakovich's  Sixth  Symphony  November  29  and 
the  first  performance  of  Schonberg's  Violin  Con- 
certo December  7,  with  Louis  Krasner  as  soloist. 
The  work  was  found  rather  baffling.  Mr.  Ormandy 
conducted  the  first  American  performance  of  Ro- 
sario  Scalero's  The  Divine  forest  December  20. 
Edwin  McArthur  and  Saul  Caston  each  conducted 
for  a  week  in  March. 

For  a  time,  it  seemed  that  the  National  Sym- 
phony Orchestra  of  Washington,  D  C.,  would  end 
its  career  with  the  close  of  the  1939-40  season, 
owing  to  a  long  deadlock  between  the  orchestra 
association  and  the  local  musicians'  union  over  the 


length  of  the  season  and  the  salary  scale,  the  di- 
rectors feeling  that  it  would  not  be  possible  to 
raise  the  additional  $27.000  called  for  by  the  un- 
ion's terms.  Finally,  on  April  22,  a  compromise  was 
reached  with  the  aid  of  the  U.S.  Conciliation  Serv- 
ice, and  the  tenth  season  under  Hans  Kindler's 
direction  opened  November  6. 

The  Cleveland  Orchestra,  under  Artur  Rodzin- 
ski  as  regular  conductor  and  Rudolph  Ringwall  as 
associate,  began  its  23d  season  October  10.  Roy 
Harris's  Folk-Song  Symphony  in  seven  move- 
ments, five  of  these  with  a  large  chorus,  had  its 
first  complete  performance  December  26.  Arthur 
Shepherd,  long  a  resident  of  Cleveland,  introduced 
his  second  symphony  March  7.  After  the  close  of 
the  1939-40  season,  which  had  included  five  one- 
composer  programs,  Franco  Ghione  resigned  his 
conductorship  of  the  Detroit  Symphony  Orchestra, 
which  began  its  next  season  under  the  leadership 
of  Victor  Kolar,  the  associate  conductor,  and 
Bruno  Walter  and  Tauno  Hannikamen  as  guests 
Mr.  Kolar  gave  the  first  performance  of  Wein- 
berger's The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  November 
21.  Eugene  Goossens,  conductor  of  the  Cincinnati 
Symphony  Orchestra,  introduced  his  symphony 
April  12.  Among  other  novelties  were  Robert 
Casadesus's  two-piano  concerto  (February  9),  John 
Ireland's  Concertino  Pastorale  (February  23),  Ber- 
nard Rogers's  The  Song  of  the  Nightingale  (March 
21),  and  Anton  Bilotti's  piano  concerto  (April  5) 

To  celebrate  its  60th  anniversary,  the  St  Louis 
Symphony  Orchestra  offered  a  $1000  prize  for  an 
American  work ;  this  was  won  by  Antoni  Van  dcr 
Woort  of  Santa  Barbara,  Calif.,  whose  Sinf onietta 
was  played  under  Vladimir  Golschmann's  direction 
November  22.  Darius  Milhaud's  Fanfare,  dedicated 
to  this  orchestra,  was  introduced  in  the  closing 
spring  concerts.  Bela  Bartok*s  divertimento  for 
strings,  first  played  at  Basel  in  May,  had  its  first 
American  performance  in  St.  Louis  November  8. 
Guest  conductors  were  Carlos  Chavez,  January  26- 
27,  and  Sir  Thomas  Beecham,  December  13.  The 
Pittsburgh,  Minneapolis,  and  Kansas  City  Sym- 
phony Orchestras  continued  under  the  respective 
conductorships  of  Fritz  Reiner,  Dimitri  Mitrop- 
oulos,  and  Karl  Krueger.  Mr.  Reiner  introduced 
Morton  Gould's  Stephen  Foster  Symphony  in  Jan- 
uary, and  a  Minneapolis  novelty  was  Frederick 
Woltmann's  The  Coliseum  at  Night.  Among  the 
new  works  introduced  by  the  Indianapolis  Sym- 
phony Orchestra  under  Fabien  Sevitzky  were 
Claude  McKay's  To  a  Liberator,  Frederick  Con- 
verse's sixth  symphony,  and  Frances  McCollin's 
Christmas  Poem. 

Otto  Klemperer,  who  had  been  out  of  action  in 
1939-40  owing  to  a  serious  illness,  resigned  as  con- 
ductor of  the  Los  Angeles  Philharmonic  Orchestra 
in  October.  The  guest  leaders  who  shared  its  di- 
rection were  Albert  Coates,  in  January,  March,  and 
April ;  Leopold  Stokowski  in  February,  and  Bruno 
Walter  for  most  of  the  fall.  In  January,  the  or- 
chestra left  the  Los  Angeles  Auditorium  for  the 
Pantages  Theater  in  Hollywood.  Mr.  Coates  in- 
troduced three  American  works,  Charles  W.  Cad- 
man's  Pennsylvania  Symphony,  Elinor  Remick 
Warren's  The  Passing  of  King  Arthur,  for  or- 
chestra and  chorus,  and  R.  Meredith  Willson's 
second  symphony,  The  Missions  of  California.  The 
San  Francisco  Symphony  Orchestra,  with  Pierre 
Monteux  as  its  regular  conductor,  offered  12  pairs 
of  concerts  in  its  regular  series,  and  five  concerts 
and  six  ballet  programs  in  the  series  given  under 
the  auspices  of  the  city's  Art  Commission.  Messrs. 


MUSIC 


481 


MUSIC 


Stokowski  and  Chavez  made  guest  appearances. 
Fortnightly  concerts  were  given  from  July  to  Sep- 
tember at  the  San  Francisco  Fair.  Nikolai  Sokoloff 
continued  as  conductor  of  the  Seattle  Symphony 
Orchestra.  Among  the  new  orchestras  which  made 
their  debuts  in  1940  were  those  organized  in  To- 
ledo, San  Antonio,  and  Sacramento. 

The  vogue  of  outdoor  symphony  concerts  in  the 
summer  remained  undiminished.  As  before,  the 
principal  series  were  those  held  at  the  Lewisohn 
Stadium  in  New  York,  Robin  Hood  Dell  in  Phila- 
delphia, Ravinia  Park  near  Chicago,  the  Water 
Gate  in  Washington,  and  the  Hollywood  Bowl 
near  Los  Angeles.  Each  employed  several  conduc- 
tors. Several  American  works,  including  Roy  Har- 
ris's Challenge,  1940,  William  Grant  Still's  And 
They  Lynched  Him  to  a  Tree,  and  William  Schu- 
man's  This  Is  Our  Day  had  their  first  public  per- 
formances at  the  Stadium  under  Artur  Rodzinski 
and  Alexander  Smallens.  Opera,  to  a  varying  ex- 
tent, figured  in  all  these  series,  except  for  Ravinia. 
Persistent  b,id  weather  forced  the  Dell  concerts  to 
close  a  week  earlier  than  planned  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Hollywood  Bowl  series  was  unusually 
successful  from  an  economic  point  of  view. 

In  Mexico  City,  the  Orqucsta  Sinfonica  de  Mex- 
ico gave  its  usual  summer  series  under  Carlos 
Chavez  from  June  21  to  September  23  Stravinsky, 
welcomed  with  great  enthusiasm,  conducted  three 
pairs  of  concerts. 

Despite  exceptional  claims  on  the  public  purse 
owing  to  war  conditions,  Canadian  orchestras  did 
not  abate  their  activities,  and  a  marked  increase  in 
the  number  of  subscribers  to  the  concerts  of  the 
Toronto  Symphony  Orchestra  was  reported  at  the 
opening  of  the  1940-41  season,  October  29.  The 
conductor,  Sir  Ernest  McMillan,  announced  in 
June  that  works  by  German  composers  living  in 
Germany  would  be  excluded  from  his  programs. 
Reginald  Stewart  conducted  the  annual  Promenade 
series  of  weekly  concerts  in  Toronto  from  May  to 
October.  Montreal  was  served  by  the  Montreal 
Symphony  Orchestra  under  Douglas  Clarke  and 
Les  Concerts  Symphoniques  under  Wilfred  Pel- 
letier  and  guests.  Sir  Thomas  Beecham  made  guest 
appearances  in  the  fall  with  the  Toronto,  Montreal, 
and  Vancouver  Symphony  Orchestras. 

Before  coming  to  Canada,  Sir  Thomas  Beecham 
spent  several  months  in  Australia,  conducting  in 
Sydney,  Melbourne,  Brisbane,  and  other  centers. 
His  efforts,  following  those  of  Georg  Schneevoigt 
earlier  in  the  year,  produced  substantial  progress 
in  the  standards  of  orchestral  playing 

Music  in  Europe.  After  an  almost  complete 
halt  during  the  first  few  weeks  of  the  war,  musical 
activities  in  Great  Britain  had  revived  to  a  notable 
extent  by  the  beginning  of  the  year,  and  the  in- 
tensity of  the  London  winter  season  was  not  very 
far  below  its  pre-war  scale.  The  British  Broad- 
casting Corporation's  orchestra  had  been  divided 
into  smaller  groups,  but  the  London  Philharmonic 
and  London  Symphony  Orchestras  both  presented 
regular  series.  The  London  Philharmonic  ran  into 
economic  difficulties  which  threatened  its  disband- 
ment,  and  a  testimonial  concert  to  impress  the  pub- 
lic with  this  fact  was  held  in  London  July  18.  One 
of  those  who  provided  assistance  was  the  well- 
known  popular  music  leader,  Jack  Hylton,  who 
undertook  the  responsibility  for  a  month's  tour. 
Later  the  C.E.M.A.  (Council  for  the  Encourage- 
ment of  Music  and  the  Arts)  took  an  important 
step  in  keeping  up  the  country's  major  orchestras 
by  guaranteeing  ten  extra  concerts  apiece  to  the 


two  London  organizations,  the  Halle"  Orchestra 
of  Manchester  and  the  Northern  and  Scottish 
Philharmonics. 

The  C.E.M.A.  originated  with  a  grant  of  £25,000 
made  by  the  Pilgrim  Trust  in  December,  1939, 
for  the  encouragement  of  music  and  other  cul- 
tural activities.  This  was  so  well  administered  that 
the  government  agreed  to  match  each  private  con- 
tribution. In  November,  this  organization  gave 
about  400  concerts  in  rest  centers,  air  raid  shelters, 
and  factories.  Another  source  of  widespread  music 
was  the  E.N.S.A.  (Entertainments  National  Serv- 
ice Association),  which  provided  concerts  of  vari- 
ous kinds  for  soldiers  and  sailors  and  factory 
workers,  and  also  for  interned  aliens,  and  spon- 
sored orchestral  programs  in  provincial  centers. 

There  was  no  Covent  Garden  opera  season,  but 
the  Sadler's  Wells  Company  gave  opera  in  English 
in  London  in  the  winter  and  spring  and  returned 
to  London  after  a  provincial  tour  for  a  summer 
season.  John  Gielgud  produced  The  Beggar's  Opera 
in  February  under  the  direction  oi  Frederic  Austin, 
who  had  made  some  revisions  in  the  score,  The 
London  Symphony  took  part  in  the  annual  sum- 
mer Promenade  Concerts  under  Sir  Henry  Wood, 
who  had  announced  that  the  1940  season  would  be 
his  last.  The  outbreak  of  intensive  air  raiding 
halted  it  early  in  September,  but  the  desire  to  hear 
music  proved  to  be  remarkably  persistent,  and  a 
skeleton  scheme  of  London  concerts  was  maintained 
in  the  fall.  The  remarkable  series  of  concerts  in- 
stituted by  Myra  Hess  in  London's  National  Gal- 
lery in  October,  1939,  kept  up  a  daily  schedule 
without  a  break,  offering  a  varied  list  recital  and 
ensemble  programs  with  the  participation  of  most 
of  the  country's  best  known  artists.  During  their 
first  year,  it  was  estimated,  these  concerts  had  em- 
ployed nearly  1100  musicians. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  German  invasion,  Paris 
had  an  active  musical  life.  The  last  novelty  pro- 
duced at  the  Opera  before  the  French  defeat  was 
Darius  Milhaud's  Medee  under  Philippe  Gaubert's 
direction,  with  Marysa  Ferrer  in  the  title  role.  The 
Opera-Comique  celebrated  the  40th  anniversary  of 
the  premiere  of  Charpentier's  Louise  in  February. 
The  Conservatoire  Orchestra  was  conducted  by 
Charles  Munch ;  the  Colonne  and  Lamoureux  Or- 
chestras joined  forces  under  Paul  Paray,  who  gave 
Wagner  his  first  wartime  Pans  representation, 
March  9,  arousing  both  favorable  and  unfavorable 
demonstrations.  Albert  Wolff  reopened  the  Pasde- 
loup  Orchestra's  schedule  early  in  the  winter.  One 
of  the  season's  principal  new  works  was  Florent 
Schmitt's  L'Arbre  entre  Tous,  for  soloists,  chorus, 
and  orchestra,  introduced  in  a  Conservatoire  pro- 
gram early  in  March.  The  State  Radio  gave  its 
hearers  a  comprehensive  supply  of  music  of  vari- 
ous kinds. 

Under  the  occupation,  the  Paris  Op£ra  reopened 
August  24.  In  unoccupied  France,  Marseilles  be- 
came the  principal  concert  and  radio  center. 

Opera  and  concerts  continued  at  their  normal 
pace  in  Italy,  although  neither  La  Scala  in  Milan 
or  the  Teatro  Reale  in  Rome  staged  any  premieres 
of  much  consequence.  Guido  Pannain's  first  opera, 
L'Intrusa,  based  on  Maeterlinck's  play,  and  G 
Federico  Ghedini's  La  Pulce  d'Oro  were  produced 
in  Genoa  in  February.  Lorenzo  Filasi's  Mattutino 
d' Assist  had  a  first  production  in  Naples,  and 
Busoni's  Arlecchino  and  Richard  Strauss's  Fricd- 
enstag  had  their  Italian  premieres  at  the  Fenice 
Theater  in  Venice  under  Vittorio  Gui. 

The  annual  May  Festival  in  Florence,  opening 


MUSIC 


482       MUTUAL  ASSISTANCE  PACTS 


April  20  and  continuing  into  June,  began  with  Ros- 
sini's Semiromidc  under  Tullio  Serafin.  Purcell's 
Dido  and  Aeneas  was  performed  for  the  first  time 
in  Italy  May  14,  while  the  only  new  work  staged 
was  Luigi  Dallapiccola's  Vol  de  Nuit.  Other  operas 
performed  were  The  Magic  Flute,  the  Turandots 
of  Puccini  and  Busoni,  La  Traviata,  Boris  Go  dun- 
off  (in  the  original  version),  and  Acis  and  Galatea. 
Bach's  Actus  Tr&gicus,  Kodaly's  Psaltnus  Hun- 
garicus,  Verdi's  Stabat  Mater,  Haydn's  Creation, 
and  Seven  Last  Words  were  sung  in  the  choral 
concerts. 

The  second  annual  Music  Week  in  Siena  in  Sep- 
tember was  devoted  to  music  by  members  of  the 
Scarlatti  family,  including  Alessandro's  opera  II 
Trionfo  d'Onore.  A  little  known  phase  of  Domen- 
ico's  creative  talent  was  represented  by  a  perform- 
ance of  his  recently  discovered  Stabat  Mater  for 
ten-part  chorus  and  organ. 

According  to  a  report  from  Germany  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year,  musical  life  there  was  con- 
tinuing with  its  usual  intensity,  and  concert  at- 
tendance was  said  to  exceed  its  pre-war  figure.  A 
special  court  was  attached  to  the  concert  division 
of  the  Reich  Music  Chamber  to  decide  war  ques- 
tions. It  was  stipulated  that  orchestras  must  not  be 
disbanded,  or  musicians  under  contract  thrown  out 
of  employment,  and  that  if  concerts  were  canceled 
owing  to  the  depletion  of  an  orchestra  for  military 
purposes,  artists  must  receive  compensating  en- 
gagements. New  opera  theaters  were  opened  in  the 
Sudetenland,  Austria,  and  Upper  Silesia.  Rela- 
tively  few  novelties  were  given  in  the  operatic  and 
orchestral  fields.  Wilhelm  Furtwaengler,  whose 
romantic  sonata  for  violin  and  piano  was  first 
played  by  Georg  Kulenkampf  and  the  composer  hi 
Bielefeld  February  13,  was  made  Commissar  of 
Music  for  Vienna  early  in  the  winter. 

The  Wagner  Festival  at  Bayreuth,  opening  July 
16,  was  designated  the  Bayreuth  War  Festival  and 
given  for  soldiers  and  civilian  workers  who  came 
as  guests  of  the  Strength  Through  Joy  organiza- 
tion. They  heard  Der  Fliegende  Hollander  and  the 
Ring  cycle.  Music  in  Prague,  despite  German  oc- 
cupation, continued  to  be  cosmopolitan  in  charac- 
ter. One  event  of  the  1939^-40  season  was  the  re- 
staging  of  Gluck's  Orfeo  with  modernistic  settings. 

In  Switzerland,  Honegger's  choral  symphony, 
Dance  of  Death,  with  text  by  Paul  Claudel,  made 
a  notable  impression  in  its  premiere  in  Basel 
(March  2)  under  Paul  Sacher's  direction.  Other 
new  works  presented  by  Basel's  enterprising  or- 
chestra were  Krenek's  Symphonic  Piece,  Op.  86, 
Bela  Bartok's  divertimento  for  strings  and  Willy 
Burkhard's  cantata.  Genug  ist  nicht  Genug.  The 
Stockholm  Opera,  in  its  season  of  1939-40,  gave 
the  first  performances  of  Erich  Korngold's  Kath- 
ryn,  Fried  Walter's  Queen  Elisabeth,  and  Gunnar 
de  Frumerie's  Singoalla.  Fidelio  and  three  Swedish 
works  were  revived.  Harald  Andre  began  his  sec- 
ond season  as  the  Stockholm  Opera's  general  man- 
ager September  3. 

In  Russia,  Serge  ProkofiefFs  Semyon  Katko,  a 
folk  musical  drama  with  its  action  in  the  Ukraine 
during  the  civil  war,  was  first  performed  in  Mos- 
cow June  23.  Other  Soviet  works  prepared  for 
production  in  1940  were,  according  to  an  article  by 
Dmitri  Shostakovich  in  Musical  America,  I.  Dzer- 
zhmsky*s  Days  of  Volochayevsk,  B.  Mokrussov's 
Chapay  w,  and  Toktogul  by  V.  Vlasspv  and  V.  Fere. 

Many  Finnish  musicians  fought  in  the  war  be- 
tween Russia  and  Finland,  but  casualties  among 
them  were  relatively  small.  Music  began  to  revive 


in  Helsinki  during  the  latter  part  of  the  conflict, 
Arvo  Hannikainen  gathering  what  musicians  he 
could  for  the  orchestra.  After  the  war,  the  Hel- 
sinki Orchestra  played  under  Martti  Sitnlaa  and 
other  guest  leaders  during  Georg  Schneevoigt's 
absence.  In  the  fail,  Helsinki's  concerts  had  their 
best  attendance  in  several  years,  and  the  opera  was 
also  well  patronized.  In  Spain,  musical  life  con- 
tinued a  gradual  revival  since  the  close  of  the 
civil  struggle. 

See  BENEFACTIONS;  NEGROES;  PHOTOGRAPHY 
under  Motion-Picture  Photography;  RADIO  PRO- 
GRAMS. 

Bibliography.  A  list  follows  of  some  of  the 
books  on  musical  subjects  which  were  published 
during  1940.  Works  for  which  no  place  of  publi- 
cation is  cited  were  published  in  New  York : 

Biography.  John  N.  Burk,  Clara  Schumann,  a  Roman- 
tic Biography:  Madeleine  Brinkley  GOBS.  Bolero,  the  Life 
of  Maurice  Ravel,  Signd  Onegm,  with  Dr.  Fritz  Pen- 
roldt,  Memoirs,  Magdeburg,  R  McCandless  Gipson,  The 
Life  of  Emma  Thursby;  Martin  Cooper,  Georges  Btset, 
Antoma  Sawyer,  Songs  at  Twilight,  Carrie  Jacobs  Bond, 
End  of  the  Road,  Hollywood,  Rosa  Newmarch,  Jean 
Sibelius,  a  Short  Story  of  a  Long  Friendship,  Boston, 
Marta  Mihnowski,  Teresa  Carreno,  New  Haven;  Maurice 
Dumesml,  Debussy,  Master  of  Dreams,  David  Ewen, 
Living  Musicians',  Charles  L.  Wagner,  Seeing  Stars, 
Dame  Ethel  Smyth,  What  Happened  Next',  Katherme 
Little  Bakeless,  Story-Lives  of  the  Great  Composers,  Wil- 
liam Treat  Upton,  Anthony  Philip  Heinnch;  Hendrik 
Willcm  Van  Loon,  Johann  Sebastian  Bach 

Opera.  Edward  J.  Dent,  Opera,  Irving  Kolodm,  The 
Metropolitan  Opera.  1883-1939  (revised  edition),  Oscar 
Thompson,  editor,  Plots  of  the  Operas. 

Aesthetics  and  Criticism.  Deems  Taylor,  The  Well 
Tempered  Listener  \  Virgil  Thomson,  The  State  of  Music; 
George  Sherman  Dickinson,  The  Pattern  of  Music,  Pough- 
keepsie;  Compton  Mackenzie,  A  Musical  Chair,  London; 
W.  G.  Whittaker,  A  Pilgnmage  through  the  Church  Can- 
tatas of  J  S.  Bach,  London;  Irving  Kolodin,  compiler, 
The  Critical  Composer;  William  Treat  Upton,  Art  Song 
tn  America  (revised  edition):  Gerald  Abraham.  Chopin's 
Musical  Style ,  Donald  Francis  Tovey,  Essays  in  Musical 
Analysis,  Vol.  6,  Lawrence  Abbott,  Approach  to  Music; 
Sigmund  Spaeth,  Great  Program  Music;  W.  G.  Whittaker, 
Collected  Essays;  Christian  Darnton,  You  and  Music; 
Helen  L.  Kautraann,  You  Can  Enjoy  Music;  William  C. 
Hartshorn  and  Helen  S.  Leavitt,  Making  Friends  With 
Music;  Ernest  Hutcheson.  The  Book  of  the  "Ring." 

Beference.  Who  is  Who  in  Music,  1941  Edition,  Chi- 
cago; Bakers  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Musicians.  4th 
Edition;  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  H.  C. 
Colics,  editor,  Supplementary  Volume,  Elizabeth  C  Moore, 
An  Almanac  for  Music  Lovers;  David  Hall,  The  Record 
Book,  a  Music  Lover's  Guide  to  the  World  of  the  Phono- 
graph; Charles  O'Connell,  The  Victor  Book  of  the  Sym- 
phony ,  revised  edition. 

Theory  and  Technique.  Robert  Comber  Tones,  Har- 
mony and  its  Contrapuntal  Treatment;  Will  Garroway, 
Pianism;  Dayton  C.  Miller,  Sound  Waves,  their  Shape 
and  Sound;  Arthur  Tillman  Merritt,  Sixteenth  Century 
Polyphony,  Cambridge,  Mass  ;  Kaare  Bolgen,  The  Science 
of  Violin  Playing,  Boston;  Kathenne  Ruth  Heyman,  Pnn- 
ciplts  of  Pianism;  Archibald  T.  Davison,  Choral  Conduct- 
ing, Cambridge,  Mass. 

History.  Glenn  Ditlard  Gunn,  Music,  its  History  and 


Curt  Sachs,  History  of  Musical  Instruments 

Miscellaneous.  Raymond  Frances  Dvorak,  The  Band  on 
Parade;  L.  D.  Gibbon,  Building  a  Music-Teaching  Con- 
nection; W.  R.  Anderson,  Music  as  a  Career;  Sharon 
Pease,  Boogie-Woogie,  Chicago;  T.  Campbell  Young,  The 
Making  of  Musical  Instruments;  Charles  Henderson  and 
Charles  Palmer,  How  to  Sing  for  Money,  Hollywood, 
Margaret  Grant  and  Herman  S  Hettinger,  Americas  Sym- 


G     jn>*»*VT>     AS(/»»i*rj     rr  nnny     oc/Tiy*,      c«ii*uuckii     ju/aviu.     i 

Played  their  Accompaniments;  Max  Schoen,  The  Psychol- 
ogy of  Music. 

FRANCIS  D.  PERKINS. 
MUSICA  CASE.  Sec  CONNECTICUT  under  His- 


ASSISTANCE    PACTS.    See 
BALKAN  ENTENTE;  EGYPT,  GERMANY,  GREECE, 


NANYO 


483        NARCOTIC  BRVQS  CONTROL 


HUNGARY,  JAPAN,  RUMANIA,  and  TURKEY,  under 
History. 

NANYO.  See  JAPANESE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS. 

NARCOTIC  DRUGS  CONTROL.  Inter- 
national.  During  the  war  year  1940  the  interna- 
tional bodies  charged  with  world  accountancy  of 
narcotic  drugs,  and  with  supervision  over  the  exe- 
cution of  the  various  opium  and  drug  Conventions, 
continued  their  functions  in  order  to  ensure  the 
working  of  the  machinery  set  up  to  control  the 
manufacture  of  and  domestic  trade  in  narcotic 
drugs.  Due  to  the  application  of  the  international 
opium  Conventions,  there  continued  to  be  a  pro- 
gressive shrinkage  in  the  volume  of  trade  in  opi- 
um, coca  leaves,  and  manufactured  drugs.  The  task 
of  supervising  and  controlling  the  licensed  facto- 
ries producing  drugs  for  the  legitimate  trade,  in 
order  to  prevent  serious  leakages  from  legitimate 
channels  of  distribution  into  the  illicit  traffic,  forms 
the  basis  of  international  drug  control. 

In  its  Introduction  to  the  Statement  of  Esti- 
mates for  1940,  the  Drug  Supervisory  Body  ex- 
pressed the  opinion  that  the  importance  of  the  con- 
trol instituted  by  the  1931  Convention  "is  not 
diminished  in  war-time;  on  the  contrary,  as  the 
experience  of  the  last  war  showed,  it  is  accentuated 
by  the  psychological  and  other  conditions  created 
by  a  state  of  war  which  affect  profoundly  not 
merely  the  nations  engaged  "in  the  conflict  but 
many,  if  not  most,  other  countries." 

The  Opium  Advisory  Committee  held  its  Twen- 
ty-fifth Session  in  Geneva,  Switzerland,  May  13- 
17,  1940.  It  devoted  its  attention  particularly  to  the 
possible  repercussions  of  the  war  on  national  and 
international  supervision  of  drugs.  Summing  up 
the  results  achieved  since  the  last  war  (1914-18), 
the  Opium  Advisory  Committee  reached  the  fol- 
lowing conclusions : 

1.  More  than  60  countries  parties  to  the  opium  conven- 
tions are  now  under  obligation  to  operate  national  legislation 
and  administrative  systems  based  on  uniform  principles; 

2.  The  total  medical  and  scientific  requirements  in  drugs 
are  now  known  and  the  quantities  of  drugs  manufactuied 
legitimately  by  some  sixty  licensed   factories  have  been 
stabilized  at  the  level  of  the  world's  legitimate  needs; 

3  A  dividing  line  between  the  legitimate  trade  and  the 
illicit  traffic  has  thus  been  drawn  and  the  free  passage  of 
the  legitimately  manufactured  narcotics  into  the  illicit  traf- 
fic has  been  stopped;  the  leakages  which  may  occur  have 
been  reduced  to  a  police  problem; 

4.  A  world  system  of  estimates  and  statistics  based  on 
national  returns  forms  the  foundation  of  an  international 
system  of  accounts  in  which  are  recorded  all  legitimate  op- 
erations connected  with  the  production  of,  trade  in,  and 
consumption  of  narcotics. 

5  All  the  channels  of  distribution,  national  as  well  as 
international,  are  supervised. 

Against  this  background  of  results  of  nineteen 
years  of  sustained  and  unremitting  efforts,  the 
Opium  Advisory  Committee  viewed  with  concern 
the  possible  repercussions  of  the  present  interna- 
tional conflict  on  the  subject  of  its  work.  It  drew 
the  attention  of  the  governments  to  the  fact  that 
recent  wars,  and  particularly  the  war  of  1914-18, 
resulted  in  a  serious  increase  of  drug  addiction 
and  a  dangerous  extension  of  the  illicit  traffic  due 
to  the  absence  of  national  or  international  legisla- 
tion of  a  repressive  character,  and  to  the  lack  of 
any  adequate  system  of  control.  The  Opium  Ad- 
visory Committee,  therefore,  strongly  recommend- 
ed that  governments  and  international  organs 
functioning  under  the  international  opium  conven- 
tions should  take  all  necessary  measures  to  prevent 
an  increase  of  drug  addiction  and  a  return  to  con- 
ditions such  as  prevailed  during  and  after  the  war 
of  1914-18.  It  considered  essential  that  these  in- 


ternational organs  should  continue  to  function  as 
fully  as  possible  and  that  governments  should  as- 
sist them  in  the  accomplishment  of  their  obliga- 
tions, particularly  by  furnishing  annual  reports, 
reports  on  seizures  of  drugs  in  the  illicit  traffic,  es- 
timates of  legitimate  needs,  statistics,  etc. 

It  was  noted  that  the  raw  opium  seized  in  the 
Far  East  continued  to  be  of  Iranian  and  Chinese 
origin.  This  is  disquieting  to  the  North  American 
authorities  because  much  of  the  opium  smuggled 
into  the  United  States  is  Iranian  and  is  known  to 
come  from  China. 

Smuggling  continued  southward  from  North 
China  and  Jehol.  France,  Yugoslavia,  and  Italy 
were  used  as  bases  for  smuggling  into  the  United 
States  during  1939  and  the  early  months  of  1940. 
The  Opium  Advisory  Committee  noted  that  the 
narcotic  drug  situation  in  the  Far  East  is  in  a  pro- 
gressive state  of  deterioration  notwithstanding  the 
laudable  efforts  of  the  National  Government  of 
China. 

The  work  of  the  Opium  Advisory  Committee 
concerning  the  limitation  of  the  production  of  raw 
opium  reached  the  advanced  stage  of  a  preliminary 
draft  Convention,  which  has  been  referred  to  gov- 
ernments for  consideration.  The  Committee  de- 
cided that  while  it  is  obviously  impossible  for  the 
time  being  to  summon  the  proposed  conference  to 
consider  the  limitation  of  the  production  of  raw 
opium,  the  studies  aiming  at  the  completion  of  the 
text  of  the  preliminary  draft  Convention  should 
be  continued. 

One  of  the  principal  objectives  of  the  Opium 
Advisory  Committee  has  been  to  have  govern- 
ments send  more  and  more  precise  information  on 
cases  of  illicit  traffic,  to  weave  the  first  meshes  of 
the  net  to  entangle  the  traffickers  which  was  given 
final  legal  sanction  in  Article  23  of  the  1931  Con- 
vention. As  the  cases  of  illicit  traffic  furnish  valu- 
able indications  on  the  weak  points  of  the  world- 
wide system  of  the  regulation  of  legitimate  trade, 
it  is  clear  that,  if  this  system  is  shaken  by  the  war 
and  hence  liable  to  show  rifts,  an  accurate  and 
speedy  notification  of  these  cases  appears  more 
than  ever  desirable  and  indispensable  to  the  effec- 
tive application  of  the  1931  Convention 

United  States.  In  common  with  the  sixty-two 
other  signatories  of  the  International  Convention 
of  1931,  the  United  States  Government  operates 
under  the  quota  system.  Only  an  amount  of  drugs 
equivalent  to  the  estimated  legitimate  needs  of  the 
country  is  permitted  to  be  imported  each  year.  A 
system  of  close  control  is  maintained  over  manu- 
facturers and  distributors,  and  through  the  splen- 
did co-operation  of  our  drug  manufacturers  and 
distributors,  the  diversion  of  legitimate  drugs  into 
illicit  channels  represents  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  problem.  In  the  field  of  international  control, 
the  system  provided  by  the  Convention  approaches, 
in  principle,  the  national  system  of  drug  control  in 
the  United  States. 

As  a  result  of  the  various  control  measures,  the 
number  of  drug  addicts  per  thousand  of  the  popu- 
lation in  the  United  States  has  decreased  year  by 
year,  and  the  quantity  of  drugs  abusively  con- 
sumed by  the  individual  addict  in  the  United  States 
is  growing  steadily  less ;  in  fact  there  is  evidence 
from  many  reliable  sources  that  addiction  to  nar- 
cotics in  this  country  has  reached  its  lowest  ebb 
since  the  enactment  of  the  Harrison  Narcotic  Act 
in  1914.  This  trend  of  decrease  in  addiction  cor- 
responds closely  to  the  reduction  achieved  in  Can- 
ada. Throughout  1939  and  increasingly  so  in  1940, 


NARCOTIC  DRUGS  CONTROL        484 


NATIONAL  DEFENSE 


evidence  at  times  indicated  an  almost  total  absence 
of  illicit  narcotics  in  large  sections  of  the  country. 
In  commenting  editorially  on  the  "Traffic  in 
Narcotic  Drugs"  the  American  Medical  Associa- 
tion in  its  Journal  dated  Dec.  28,  1940,  stated: 

"The  Journal  commends  the  enlightened  and  effective  ad- 
ministration of  the  Bureau  of  Narcotics.  A  record  such  as 
that  here  reported  indicates  effective  control.  (The  article 
summarized  accomplishments  reported  by  the  U.  S  Bureau 
of  Narcotics  on  "Traffic  in  Opium  and  Other  Dangerous 
Drugs"  for  the  vear  1939  )  The  cooperation  of  the  medical 
profession  has  been  freely  and  fully  rendered,  owing  no 
doubt  to  recognition  by  the  medical  profession  of  the  desire 
of  the  Bureau  to  destroy  criminal  practice  without  undue 
interference  with  the  legitimate  prescription  of  narcotic 
drugs  Complete  cooperation  with  the  Bureau  by  State 
licensing  agencies  will  do  much  to  further  this  significant 
work." 

"Contained  in  this  report  [Sixth  annual  report  of  the 
Michigan  State  Board  of  Health  for  the  fiscal  year  ended 
Sept.  30.  1878]  is  a  most  interesting  contrast  of  the  prev- 
alence ox  addiction  to  narcotic  drugs  in  1877  and  at  pres- 
ent. In  1877,  according  to  the  report,  one  in  every  400 
persons  in  the  United  States  was  addicted  to  opium  or  one 
of  its  derivatives,  while  in  1922  and  1938,  subsequent  to 
enactment  of  the  Harrison  Narcotic  Act  in  1914,  the  ratio 
of  such  addicts  to  population  was  respectively  1  in  every 
1,000  and  1  in  every  3,000.  In  the  State  of  Michigan  m 
1877  there  were  516  narcotic  addicts  per  hundred  thousand 
of  population,  but  in  1938,  according  to  a  survey  conducted 
in  Michigan  by  the  Bureau  of  Narcotics  in  that  year, 
there  were  only  17  addicts  per  hundred  thousand.  In  1877 
this  country,  with  a  population  of  46,000,000,  imported 
350,000  pounds  of  raw  opium,  but  during  the  past  few 
years,  since  importation  of  that  drug  was  by  law  restricted 
to  amounts  necessary  for  medicinal  and  scientific  needs, 
such  imports  have  averaged  only  150,000  pounds  yearly 
for  more  than  130,000,000  people.  In  1877  the  average 
per  capita  consumption  of  opium  and  its  derivatives  was 
53  grams  as  compared  with  an  average  consumption  in 
1939  of  approximately  8  grains  per  capita  The  consump- 
tion of  opium  is  no  longer  greatly  out  of  proportion  to 
medical  needs." 

Preliminary  figures  compiled  by  the  Bureau  of 
Narcotics  showed  that  during  the  last  year  there 
was  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  persons  arrested 
for  violations  of  the  Federal  narcotic  laws  (ex- 
cluding marihuana)  ;  2216  persons  being  arrested 
in  1940  as  compared  with  the  final  figure  of  3295 
in  1939.  The  number  of  marihuana  arrests  re- 
mained practically  constant,  870  persons  being  ar- 
rested for  violations  of  the  Marihuana  Tax  Act 
in  1940  as  compared  with  the  final  figure  of  864 
persons  arrested  in  1939.  Arrests  for  all  offenses 
therefore  were  3086  as  compared  with  4159  in 
1939. 

Preliminary  figures  also  show  a  substantial  de- 
crease in  the  amount  of  drugs  seized.  In  the  in- 
ternal traffic  the  Bureau  of  Narcotics  seized  ap- 
proximately 2292  oz.  of  narcotic  drugs  in  1940  as 
compared  with  3544  oz.  in  1939  The  Bureau  of 
Customs  seized  at  ports  and  borders  approximately 
2286  oz.  in  1940  as  compared  with  8895  in  1939. 
Total  Federal  narcotic  seizures,  therefore,  were 
approximately  4578  oz.  in  1940  as  compared  with 
12439  in  1939. 

In  addition,  in  1940  there  were  seized  in  the  il- 
licit traffic  20,960  oz.  of  bulk  marihuana  (which 
includes  3450  oz.  seized  at  ports  and  borders)  and 
19,560  marihuana  cigarettes  (which  includes  1243 
seized  at  ports  and  borders),  as  compared  with 
final  figures  showing  17,035  oz.  of  bulk  marihuana 
and  19,091  cigarettes  seized  in  1939. 

In  the  carrying  on  of  a  program  of  marihuana 
eradication  throughout  the  country  in  co-operation 
with  State,  municipal,  and  other  enforcement  agen- 
cies, marihuana  was  found  growing,  and  was  erad- 
icated from  approximately  19,200  acres  of  land  in 
1940  as  compared  with  6506  acres  of  land  in  1939. 

For  several  years  the  principal  narcotic  drug  of 
addiction  has  been  heroin,  with  morphine  and 


smoking  opium  next  in  importance,  and  it  is  be- 
lieved that  this  relative  situation  continues.  How- 
ever, such  heroin  as  is  commonly  encountered  in 
the  illicit  traffic  is  generally  highly  adulterated 
and  that  commonly  sold  is  a  mixture  which  usually 
contains  less  than  5  per  cent  heroin.  In  the 
amounts  used  in  many  cases  it  does  not  establish 
a  real  tolerance  and  dependence  for  the  drug. 

The  apparent  shortage  in  many  sections  of 
smuggled  drugs  has  resulted  in  efforts  by  peddlers 
and  addicts  to  divert  narcotics  from  medicinal 
sources.  There  was  an  increase  both  in  the  number 
of  robberies  and  the  amounts  stolen  from  pharma- 
cies, wholesale  houses,  and  other  sources  for  le- 
gitimate narcotics.  Because  of  the  co-operation  of 
the  drug  trade  in  affording  maximum  protection  to 
large  concentrations  of  supplies,  the  total  amount 
of  narcotic  drugs  thus  made  available  to  the  illicit 
traffic  was  minimized.  Considerable  attention  was 
devoted  by  the  Bureau  of  Narcotics  to  the  problem 
presented  by  numerous  addicts  resorting  to  pare- 
goric, various  barbituric  acid  derivatives,  or  other 
so-called  exempt  preparations  for  narcotics  to  sat- 
isfy their  addiction  (Exempt  preparations  are 
those  containing  such  a  small  amount  of  narcotic 
drugs  as  to  be  conditionally  exempted  from  the 
usual  requirement  of  the  law  that  narcotic  drugs 
be  dispensed  on  prescriptions  only.) 

Credit  for  the  downward  trend  of  illicit  narcotic 
trafficking  and  resultant  addiction  is  given  to  rigid 
enforcement  of  the  domestic  narcotic  laws,  and  to 
the  effectiveness  of  present  international  control 
under  the  1931  Convention  to  Limit  the  Manufac- 
ture of  Narcotic  Drugs,  sixty-three  nations  being 
parties  thereto.  The  situation  with  respect  to  the 
increasing  scarcity  of  smuggled  drugs  which  has 
been  noted  in  the  last  two  or  three  years  was  also 
accentuated  in  1940  by  war  conditions  which  have 
disrupted  shipping  routes. 

Bibliography.  Department  of  State,  Press  Release  No. 


940)*    _        ___        __     _    _       _ 

World  Requirements  of  ffangerous  Drugs  in  1940 

HARRY  J.  ANSLINGER. 

NARCOTICS,  Bureau  of.  See  NARCOTIC 
DRUGS  CONTROL. 

NARVIK.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR  under  The 
Norwegian  Campaign ;  NORWAY  under  History. 

NATAL.  See  SOUTH  AFRICA,  UNION  OF  under 
Area  and  Population. 

NATIONAL  ART  WEEK.  See  ART 

NATIONAL  DEFENSE  ADVISORY 
COMMISSION.  To  co-ordinate  and  organize 
the  resources  of  men  and  materials  for  the  defense 
of  the  United  States,  President  Roosevelt  on  May 
28,  1940,  under  authority  of  a  statute  passed  by 
Congress  Aug.  29,  1916  (39  Stat.  649),  appointed 
the  Advisory  Commission  to  the  Council  of  Na- 
tional Defense. 

The  1916  statute  directed  the  President  to  ap- 
point a  Council  of  National  Defense,  composed  of 
the  Secretaries  of  War,  Navy,  Interior,  Agricul- 
ture, Commerce,  and  Labor.  The  Council,  in  turn 
was  directed  to  nominate,  and  the  President  ap- 
point "An  Advisory  Commission  consisting  of  no 
more  than  seven  persons,  each  of  whom  shall  have 
special  knowledge  of  some  industry,  public  utility 
or  the  development  of  some  natural  resource,  or 
be  otherwise  specifically  qualified,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  Council ;  for  the  performance  of  the  duties 
hereinafter  provided." 

On  request  of  the  President,  the  76th  Congress 


NATIONAL  DEFENSE 


485 


NATIONAL  DEFENSE 


appropriated  $10  billion  and  authorized  an  addi- 
tional $6  billion  in  contract  authorizations  to  in- 
crease the  strength  of  our  Army  to  1,200,000  men 
and  to  provide  critical  equipment  for  an  additional 
800,000  men,  and  a  two-ocean  Navy. 

The  Commission's  task,  in  brief,  is  to  translate 
this  national  defense  program  from  appropriations 
and  blueprints  into  action.  It  is  based  on  three  fun- 
damental questions:  What  do  we  need?  Where  is 
it  ?  How  do  we  get  it  ?  The  Commission  draws  no 
specifications,  signs  no  contracts.  It  advises,  aids 
m  negotiations,  facilitates  procurement,  by  means 
of  the  following  organization : 

Industrial  Materials  Division.  The  Indus- 
trial Materials  Division,  under  Edward  R.  Stet- 
tmius,  Jr.,  former  Chairman  of  United  States 
Steel  Corporation,  is  responsible  for  insuring  a 
continual  supply  of  raw  materials.  The  Division  is 
building  stock  piles  of  strategic  and  critical  ma- 
terials such  as  aluminum,  tungsten,  antimony,  etc. 
It  sees  that  adequate  sources  of  heat,  light,  and 
power  are  available  to  meet  the  enormously  in- 
creased productive  capacity  of  American  industry. 
The  procedure  of  the  Division  is  first  to  secure 
from  the  Army  and  Navy  a  statement  of  require- 
ments The  next  step  is  to  check  the  available  sup- 
ply Where  scarcity  exists,  the  Division  undertakes 
to  find  means  of  building  the  supply,  whether  by 
enlarging  American  production,  ananging  for  in- 
creased international  purchase  or  developing  sub- 
si  itutes  The  work  of  the  Division  is  broken  into 
three  mam  sub-divisions  :  Mining  and  mineral  prod- 
ucts, agriculture  and  forest  products,  and  chemical 
and  allied  products.  The  responsibility  of  the  Divi- 
sion carries  to  the  point  where  materials,  such  as 
sheet  steel,  armor  plate,  and  hides,  are  cut  up  for 
production 

Production  Division.  The  job  of  arranging 
for  production  of  essential  defense  items — air- 
planes, tanks,  machine  guns,  munitions,  uniforms 
—is  carried  on  by  the  Production  Division  headed 
by  William  S  Knudsen,  former  President  of  Gen- 
eral Motors  Corporation.  This  production  job  in- 
volves obtaining  fullest  use  of  all  available  manu- 
facturing facilities.  Additional  facilities  are  pro- 
vided where  expansion  is  needed.  Plants  engaged 
in  manufacture  of  peacetime  items  are  adapted. 
Whole  new  factories  are  built,  some,  such  as  those 
making  munitions,  in  non-strategic  inland  areas 
away  from  usual  industrial  areas.  Contracts  cleared 
by  the  Production  Division  are  then  awarded  by 
the  Army  and  Navy.  Clearance  is  based  on  con- 
siderations of  speed,  quality,  price,  and  a  recogni- 
tion of  labor  standards  and  of  the  needs  of  the 
civilian  consumer. 

Transportation  Division.  Watching  the  Na- 
tion's vast  network  of  transportation  lines  to  see 
that  no  vital  supplies  of  raw  materials  are  cut  off 
from  the  factories  and  that  finished  products  move 
smoothly  to  cantonments  is  the  task  of  the  Trans- 
portation Division,  under  Ralph  Budd,  President 
of  the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy  Railroad. 
The  Transportation  Division  is  also  charged  with 
responsibility  for  acquiring  special  rolling  stock 
for  transporting  men  and  military  materials.  Wa- 
terways, pipe  lines,  airlines,  truck  lines,  and  ware- 
housing facilities  come  under  Mr.  Budd's  jurisdic- 
tion and  it  is  up  to  his  Division  to  see  that  they  are 
ready  to  meet  any  emergency. 

Labor  Division.  Making  certain  that  the  fac- 
tories, fields,  and  mines  of  the  Nation  have  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  manpower,  and  that  this  manpower 
is  trained  for  the  task  and  not  exploited,  is  the 


responsibility  of  the  Labor  Division,  whose  Com- 
missioner is  Sidney  Hillman.  President  of  the 
Amalgamated  Clothing  Workers  Union.  Thou- 
sands of  men  have  enrolled  in  training  courses  in 
vocational  schools  and  in  on-the-job  apprentice 
training  in  plants.  Further,  the  Division  has  or- 
ganized a  Labor  Advisory  Board  with  representa- 
tives from  the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  the 
Congress  of  Industrial  Organizations  and  the  Rail- 
road Brotherhoods.  The  Division  works  to  avert 
work  stoppages  on  defense  projects. 

Agriculture  Division,  The  Agriculture  Divi- 
sion, under  Chester  Davis,  a  member  of  the  Board 
of  Governors  of  the  Federal  Reserve  System,  is 
vitally  interested  in  maintaining  parity  between  ag- 
ricultural and  industrial  prices.  One  of  its  mam 
functions  is  to  prevent  shortages  of  farm  produce 
and  to  find  means  of  utilizing  surpluses.  It  is  also 
concerned  with  the  problem  of  location  of  new 
plants  manufacturing  defense  items,  aiming  at  use 
of  unemployed  rural  labor  where  possible. 

Division  of  Price  Stabilization.  To  handle 
the  complex  problem  of  price  stabilization,  this 
Division,  headed  by  Leon  Henderson,  member  of 
the  Securities  and  Exchange  Commission,  watches 
the  effect  of  the  defense  program  on  the  Nation's 
price  structure.  If  prices  of  materials  begin  to  rise 
unduly,  voluntary  agreements  with  producers  are 
sought.  If  this  fails,  recommendations  for  appro- 
priate governmental  actions  are  made. 

Division  of  Consumer  Protection.  Headed 
by  Miss  Harriet  Elliott,  Dean  of  Women,  Wom- 
an's College  of  the  University  of  North  Carolina, 
the  Consumer  Division  studies  all  aspects  of  the 
defense  program  affecting  consumers.  This  Divi- 
sion makes  recommendations  which  will  balance 
military  and  civilian  requirements  and  which  will 
maintain  and  promote  economic  well  being  of  the 
civilian  population.  The  Division  protects  living 
standards  by  co-operating  with  Federal  agencies, 
civic  organizations,  industrial  and  trade  associa- 
tions, and  other  groups.  It  promotes  activities  de- 
signed to  encourage  economic  stability  through 
steady  flow  of  goods.  In  addition  to  the  seven  mem- 
bers of  the  Commission  specified  in  the  original 
statute,  the  following  divisions  of  the  Commission 
have  been  created : 

Co-ordinator  of  Purchasing.  The  Coordina- 
tor of  National  Defense  Purchases  was  appointed 
by  Executive  Order  on  June  27,  1940,  to  maintain 
close  contact  with  defense  procurement  agencies 
and  the  Commission.  Donald  M.  Nelson,  as  Co- 
ordinator, studies  and  makes  recommendations  on 
a  wide  variety  of  subjects  dealing  with  procure- 
ment. Included  are  methods  of  financing,  profit 
control,  contract  forms,  specifications,  and  geo- 
graphic distribution  of  purchasing.  A  Priorities 
section  has  been  set  up  to  deal  with  this  specific 
problem.  A  Small  Business  Activities  office,  work- 
ing through  the  Federal  Reserve  System,  assists 
manufacturers  and  others  in  dealing  with  the  Gov- 
ernment by  giving  them  a  central  distribution 
point  for  information. 

Bureau  of  Research  and  Statistics.  The  Bu- 
reau of  Research  and  Statistics,  under  Stacy  May 
of  the  Rockefeller  Foundation,  serves  the  Com- 
mission by  supplying  information  and  conducting 
research  studies  upon  request.  Where  possible,  re- 
quests for  information  are  directed  to  existing 
agencies  in  and  out  of  the  Government  The  Bu- 
reau undertakes  special  studies  only  when  no  other 
agency  can  readily  supply  the  desired  information. 
Co-ordinator  of  Defense  Housing.  The  De- 


NATIONAL  DEFENSE 


486 


NATIONAL  DEFENSE 


fense  Housing  Co-ordinator  is  Charles  F.  Palm- 
er, President  of  the  National  Association  of  Hous- 
ing Officials.  Under  direction  of  the  Commission 
he  is  charged  with  planning  the  defense  housing 
program  and  co-ordinating  it  with  private  indus- 
try and  the  appropriate  Federal  agencies.  The 
Housing  Co-ordinator  also  takes  necessary  action 
to  avoid  housing  shortages. 

Division  of  State  and  Local  Co-operation. 
Under  Frank  Bane,  Executive  Director  of  the 
Council  of  State  Governments,  this  Division  serves 
as  a  channel  of  communication  between  the  Com- 
mission and  the  State  Defense  Councils,  and  with 
local  Councils  within  each  State;  keeps  the  State 
and  local  Councils  informed  of  the  progress  of  the 
defense  program,  particularly  with  respect  to  the 
specific  activities  in  which  State  and  local  co-op- 
eration are  needed;  receives  from  the  State  and 
local  Councils  reports  on  co-ordination  problems 
resulting  from  defense  activities ;  and  advises  the 
Commission  concerning  the  most  effective  use  of 
facilities  of  States  and  localities  in  the  defense 
program. 

Other  Offices.  In  addition  to  the  Advisory 
Commission,  the  President,  at  the  recommendation 
of  the  Council  of  National  Defense,  has  created 
three  other  offices. 

Since  1935  licensing  of  arms,  ammunitions,  and 
implements  of  war  has  been  required  prior  to  ex- 
port. This  summer  certain  other  materials,  chemi- 
cal products,  machine  tools,  etc.,  have  been  placed 
under  licensing  requirements.  The  President  has 
the  power  to  prohibit  all  exports  or  requisition  ma- 
terials prepared  for  export  needed  for  national  de- 
fense. The  administration  of  such  powers  are  han- 
dled by  the  Administrator  of  Export  Control, 
Lieut  Col.  Russell  L.  Maxwell.  His  office  co-op- 
erates with  the  State  Department  which  handles 
the  licensing  of  items  already  on  the  list. 

Nelson  Rockefeller  was  appointed  Co-ordinator 
of  Commercial  and  Cultural  Relations  Between 
the  American  Republics  to  take  charge  of  develop- 
ing closer  relationship  between  the  United  States 
and  the  nations  of  Latin  America,  through  the 
medium  of  press,  radio,  motion  pictures,  and  by 
strengthening  the  commercial  bonds  of  all  of  the 
Pan-American  republics.  It  aims  to  remove  exist- 
ing sources  of  cultural  friction  which  may  have 
existed  by  promoting  greater  understanding  of  the 
cultural  backgrounds  of  Latin  America  and  the 
United  States,  each  for  the  other. 

The  Federal  Security  Administrator,  Paul  V. 
McNutt,  has  been  appointed  Co-ordinator  of 
Health,  Welfare,  Nutntiont  Recreation,  and  Re- 
lated Activities  to  carry  out  these  responsibilities 
in  co-operation  with  the  National  Defense  Advi- 
sory Commission.  The  Co-ordinator  formulates 
and  executes  plans,  policies,  and  programs  to  pro- 
vide adequate  services  of  this  character  during  the 
defense  emergency.  He  co-ordinates  the  facilities 
of  existing  Federal  agencies  in  these  fields  and 
maintains  a  liaison  with  Other  agencies,  public  and 
private.  The  Health  and  Medical  Committee,  es- 
tablished in  September,  exercises  its  functions  un- 
der the  direction  of  the  Co-ordinator. 

Activities  of  the  Commission.  The  follow- 
ing is  an  outline  of  the  activities  undertaken  by 
the  National  Defense  Advisory  Commission  in  its 
first  six  months. 

To  meet  defense  needs  the  Commission  has 
cleared  contracts  totalling  more  than  $10  billion. 
The  Army  and  Navy  have  awarded  approximately 
$9  billion  of  those  contracts  to  industry,  represent- 


ing over  %  of  the  program.  Major  contract  cate- 
gories include:  $3.3  billion  for  ships;  $1.5  billion 
for  construction  of  factory  expansion  and  for  hous- 
ing; $1.5  billion  for  planes  and  parts;  $600  million 
for  ammunition ;  $500  million  for  guns ;  $400  mil- 
lion for  trucks  and  tanks. 

These  contracts,  plus  such  British  and  other 
foreign  material  orders  as  have  been  placed  at  the 
present  time,  call  for:  50,000  airplanes;  130,000 
engines ;  17,000  heavy  guns ;  25,000  light  guns ;  13,- 
000  trench  mortars ;  33  million  shells  loaded ;  9200 
tanks;  300,000  machine  guns  and  ammunition; 
400,000  automatic  rifles  and  ammunition;  1,300,000 
regular  rifles  and  ammunition ;  380  navy  ships ;  200 
mercantile  ships ;  210  camps  and  cantonments ;  40 
government  factories ;  clothing  and  equipment  for 
1,200,000;  the  first  mass  production  tank  factory 
in  the  world;  5  smokeless  powder  and  high  ex- 
plosive plants ;  6  shell,  bag,  and  ammunition  load- 
ing plants ;  5  new  machine-gun  plants ;  50,000  new 
trucks. 

Deliveries  on  these  contracts  show:  Approxi- 
mately 2400  airplane  engines  monthly;  approxi- 
mately 700  airplanes  monthly ,  over  100  light  tanks 
monthly ;  more  than  10,000  Ml  semi-automatic  ri- 
fles monthly ;  one  fighting  ship  for  the  Navy  every 
12  days.  Contracts  will  call  for  about  18,000,000 
man  hours  of  labor. 

As  the  Nation's  factories  go  to  work  on  defense, 
a  system  of  priorities  has  been  set  up  to  minimize 
the  threat  of  bottlenecks  with  consequent  price 
rises  in  materials  for  defense  and  civilian  needs.  A 
Priorities  Board  and  an  Administrator  of  Priori- 
ties have  been  appointed  to  handle  this  question 
and  establish  policies.  The  Board  has  already  ap- 
proved a  system  of  voluntary  preference  ratings 
on  national  defense  contracts  A  Commercial  Air- 
craft Priority  Committee  is  co-ordinating  produc- 
tion and  maintenance  of  commercial  air  transport 
equipment  with  defense  requirements.  A  Machine 
Tool  Priority  Committee  is  co-ordinating  national 
defense,  commercial,  and  export  demands  on  ma- 
chine tool  industries. 

Closely  integrated  with  the  priority  plan  was  de- 
velopment of  new  purchasing  policies  to  prevent 
defense  orders  from  dislocating  our  economic 
structure  and  causing  spiralling  prices  such  as  oc- 
curred during  the  last  War.  New  f.o.b  and  split- 
bid  buying  policies  distribute  defense  orders  geo- 
graphically and  to  smaller  units.  Under  the  f.ob. 
buying  plan,  the  government  will  take  delivery  on 
its  orders  at  the  factory  door.  Split-bids  enable 
small  manufacturers  to  bid  on  as  mucii  of  a  con- 
tract as  they  can  fulfill.  In  a  new  type  of  contract 
the  Government  shares  the  risk  of  emergency  plant 
expansion  for  defense  orders,  thus  bringing  pri- 
vate capital  into  the  defense  program.  The  Com- 
mission has  also  developed  a  policy  of  negotiated 
contracts  to  speed  defense  work  and  make  fullest 
possible  use  of  the  Nation's  resources. 

A  Small  Business  Activities  Office  has  been  set 
up  to  make  use  of  the  facilities  of  smaller  manu- 
facturers and  sub-contractors  in  the  defense  pro- 
gram, spreading  orders  even  further.  This  Office 
maintains  close  contacts  with  Army  and  Navy 
procurement  offices.  Through  district  offices  of  the 
Federal  Reserve  System,  information  is  trans- 
mitted to  small  business  throughout  the  Nation  on 
defense  needs.  Local  Federal  Reserve  officers  are 
ready  to  work  with  manufacturers,  give  informa- 
tion on  government  requirements,  and  arrange  fi- 
nancing through  local  banks,  the  Federal  Reserve 
System,  or  the  RFC.  Manufacturers  desiring  fur- 


NATIONAL  DEFENSE 


487 


NATIONAL  DEFENSE 


ther  information  should  call  on  their  local  Federal 
Reserve  officials. 

An  intensive  drive  to  revitalize  the  Nation's 
"ghost  towns"  is  going  ahead,  along  with  the  de- 
velopment of  the  Small  Business  Activities  Office. 
This  division  will  utilize  idle  labor  and  plant  ca- 
pacities of  shut-down  areas  in  meeting  defense 
needs. 

In  order  to  have  on  hand  detailed  surveys  of  the 
requirements  of  the  defense  program  in  terms  of 
raw  materials  and  productive  facilities,  the  Bureau 
of  Research  and  Statistics  works  in  close  collabo- 
ration with  the  Army  and  Navy.  Thus,  when  the 
Commission  receives  estimates  of  Army  and  Navy 
requirements  for  a  certain  product,  it  can  break 
these  down  into  raw  materials  such  as  iron,  steel, 
tungsten,  leather,  wool,  etc.  These  figures  are 
checked  against  the  available  productive  facilities. 
Arrangements  are  made  to  augment  supplies  when 
and  where  necessary. 

Through  surveys  of  available  supplies  of  raw 
materials  and  of  requirements  of  the  defense  pro- 
gram, the  Commission  has  prevented  threatened 
price  rises  in  such  key  industries  as  wood  pulp  and 
lumber,  steel,  copper,  and  zinc.  Representatives  of 
these  industries  agreed  that  speculative  rises  were 
unjustifiable.  A  contract  has  been  signed  for  the 
delivery  of  Bolivian  tin  and  negotiations  for  the 
construction  of  domestic  tin  smelters  are  in  the 
final  stages  Reserve  stocks  of  tin,  already  in  the 
country  or  en  route  to  this  country,  are  adequate 
to  meet  requirements  for  the  next  nine  to  twelve 
months.  Stock  piles  of  antimony,  rubber,  manga- 
nese, tungsten,  chrome  ore,  etc.  are  growing.  Pro- 
duction of  synthetic  substitutes  for  vital  materials 
which  we  do  not  produce  in  this  country,  such  as 
rubber,  has  been  encouraged.  Satisfactory  substi- 
tutes are  now  available  for  two  of  the  strategic 
materials — coconut  shell-char  and  silk.  Domestic 
output  of  strategic  materials,  such  as  manganese 
and  mercury  is  being  encouraged,  and  scientists 
arc  at  work  on  new  processes  for  the  fuller  utili- 
zation of  domestic  resources  The  Brazilian  Gov- 
ernment has  agreed  to  increase  its  exports  of  man- 
ganese. Supplementary  supplies  of  chrome  ore  will 
come  from  Cuba.  Congress  has  authorized  a  $25 
million  increase  to  TVA  to  insure  adequate  sup- 
plies of  electricity  for  aluminum  production.  Large 
scale  expansion  in  the  production  of  aluminum 
will  provide  a  sufficient  quantity  to  meet  the  mili- 
tary requirements  of  the  defense  program  as  well 
as  present  civilian  needs. 

In  the  field  of  agricultural  and  forest  materials, 
plans  have  been  laid  for  ample  supplies  of  cotton 
timers  for  munitions  purposes.  Arrangements  are 
under  way  for  stock  piles  and  storage  of  neces- 
sary wool  for  all  emergency  needs.  Surveys  have 
been  made  of  lumber  requirements,  and  plans  ar- 
ranged for  utilizing  the  New  England  hurricane 
lumber  in  defense  construction.  Lumber  for  Army 
cantonments  is  being  received,  and  construction  is 
up  to  schedule.  A  survey  has  shown  domestic  sup- 
plies of  pulp  and  paper  products  sufficient  for 
domestic  needs  and  export.  Adequate  supplies  of 
leather  are  available.  In  the  field  of  chemical  and 
allied  products,  expansion  in  the  output  of  am- 
monia and  ammonium  nitrates  for  powder  produc- 
tion has  been  arranged.  A  program  for  under- 
ground storage  of  high-performance  aviation  gas- 
oline is  under  way.  Steps  have  been  taken  toward 
protection  of  storage  facilities  against  attack  and 
sabotage.  Arrangements  have  been  made  to  de- 
velop adequate  new  sources  of  toluene  from  pe- 


troleum to  augment  our  present  supplies  of  this 
basic  ingredient  of  TNT.  and  a  new  plant  is  al- 
ready under  way.  The  Commission's  surveys  of 
agricultural  production  have  shown  that  sufficient 
supplies  are  on  hand  and  surpluses  exist  in  many 
commodities.  This  has  been  a  factor  in  the  Com- 
mission's decision  to  develop  a  program  of  decen- 
tralizing industry  to  make  excess  agricultural  man- 
power available  for  defense  production. 

Surveys  in  the  field  of  transportation  show  an 
adequacy  of  transportation  facilities  at  present. 
Some  80,000  miles  of  roads  are  being  improved  to 
facilitate  rapid  movement  of  troops  and  materials. 
A  co-ordinated  warehousing  program  is  being  un- 
dertaken by  the  Commission  as  an  adjunct  to  mak- 
ing full  use  of  transportation  facilities.  A  survey 
of  all  warehouses  available  is  being  made. 

Providing  manpower  for  the  Nation's  factories, 
mines,  and  transportation  systems  is  another  func- 
tion of  the  Commission.  One  million  men  and 
women  have  gone  back  to  work  in  the  past  two 
months.  Several  million  more  will  be  needed  by 
next  November.  To  provide  manpower  for  indus- 
tries, the  Commission  has  set  up  a  three-phase 
labor  supply  program.  Five  and  a  half  million  men 
and  women  registered  through  the  U.S.  Employ- 
ment Service  have  been  classified  as  to  availability 
for  defense  jobs.  These  registers  are  available  to 
manufacturers  throughout  the  country 

A  program  has  been  developed  for  training  men 
in  industry  and  for  advancing  present  employees 
to  positions  of  greater  responsibility  with  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  defense  program.  In  the  vocational 
training  program,  over  100,000  enrollees  are  taking 
refresher  courses  and  learning  new  skills.  A  train- 
ing program  designed  to  strengthen  and  expand 
managerial  organizations  through  increasing  re- 
sponsibility in  junior  executive  and  supervisory 
positions  is  under  way.  A  detailed  program  of 
training  skilled  craftsmen  for  America's  defense 
industries  through  apprenticeship  has  been  for- 
mulated. The  A.F.L.  and  the  C.I.O.  have  informed 
the  Commission  that  they  will  be  responsible  for 
seeing  that  Negro  workers  are  not  discriminated 
against  in  national  defense  employment. 

Adequate  housing  is  vital  to  the  defense  pro- 
gram so  that  not  a  single  rivet  in  a  single  ship  is 
delayed,  because  workers  cannot  find  decent  hous- 
ing at  reasonable  rentals.  The  Commission  has 
launched  a  co-ordinated  housing  program.  The  first 
two  projects  of  housing  units  are  completed.  Con- 
struction is  under  way  on  housing  projects  in  75 
additional  vital  defense  centers.  Private  industry 
is  being  encouraged  to  construct  the  major  por- 
tion of  the  $700  million  housing  program.  Under 
the  co-ordinated  program  various  Federal  agencies 
will  aid  private  enterprise  in  this  task.  The  re- 
maining portion  designed  for  temporary  needs  dur- 
ing the  period  of  emergency,  or  for  families  whose 
income  does  not  permit  private  enterprise  to  make 
a  reasonable  profit,  will  be  constructed  by  various 
Federal  agencies. 

The  Commission  has  taken  action  to  protect  the 
consumer.  For  example,  evidence  was  found  of 
speculation  in  No.  10  size  canned  foods  Military 
supplies  are  usually  purchased  in  a  No.  10  size 
can.  Should  this  condition  continue,  not  only  the 
Army,  but  institutional  buyers  of  food  in  large 
size  cans,  such  as  hospitals,  schools,  restaurants. 
etc.  faced  unjustifiable  increases  in  the  cost  of 
canned  goods.  The  Defense  Commission  recom- 
mended the  Quartermaster  General  authorize  the 
purchase  of  canned  foods  in  smaller  size  cans  as 


NATIONAL  FORESTS 


488      NATIONAL  LABOR  RELATIONS 


an  alternate,  tending  to  bring  about  more  normal 
relationships  between  the  prices  of  different  sizes. 
A  program  to  strengthen  the  Nation's  human 
defenses  by  making  food  market  information  avail- 
able to  household  buyers  through  market  news 
broadcasts  is  under  way.  A  price  information  pro- 
gram, designed  to  assist  consumers  in  meeting 
some  of  their  food  purchasing  problems  and  help 
them  contribute  to  the  defense  program  by  buying 
in  ways  which  will  tend  to  stabilize  prices,  has 
been  initiated.  Methods  of  co-operation  between 
wholesale  distributors  of  consumer  goods  and  the 
Commission  have  been  discussed  at  a  conference 
of  wholesaling  trade  representatives.  Merchant  and 
distributor  leaders  of  100  wholesaling  groups  took 
part.  For  Office  of  Production  Management,  see 
DEFENSIVE  PREPARATIONS.  See  BUSINESS  REVIEW 
under  Commodity  Prices;  LIVING  COSTS  AND 
STANDARDS  ;  RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE  CORPORA- 


TION. 


WILLIAM  H.  MCREYNOLDS. 


NATIONAL  FORESTS.  See  FORESTRY. 

NATIONAL  GALLERY  OF  ART.  See  ART 
under  Museums. 

NATIONAL  GUARD.  See  DEFENSIVE  PREP- 
ARATIONS, U.S.;  DRAFT,  MILITARY;  MILITARY 
PROGRESS. 

NATIONALISM.  See  EDUCATION  and  the 
articles  on  literature.  Compare  COMMUNISM  ;  FAS- 
CISM. 

NATIONALITY.  See  IMMIGRATION,  EMI- 
GRATION, AND  NATURALIZATION;  INTERNATIONAL 
LAW. 

NATIONAL  LABOR  RELATIONS 
BOARD  (NLRB).  Congress  enacted  the  Na- 
tional Labor  Relations  Act  in  1935  in  an  effort  to 
lessen  industrial  strife  by  removing  that  portion 
of  it  which  was  caused  by  certain  unfair  labor 
practices.  To  the  National  Labor  Relations  Board 
was  given  the  task  of  enforcing  the  prohibition  of 
unfair  labor  practices  by  employers  and  the  con- 
duct of  secret  ballot  elections  to  determine  the  ac- 
credited representatives  of  their  employees.  The 
fifth  year  of  the  Board's  operations  shows  that  it 
has  been  active  and  vigilant  in  carrying  out  the 
mandate  of  Congress. 

In  the  last  fiscal  year  the  Board  had  on  its  dock- 
et more  than  10,000  cases  involving  over  two  and 
a  half  million  workers.  The  Board  disposed  of 
more  than  70  per  cent  of  these  cases,  involving 
one  and  a  half  million  employees,  as  compared 
with  a  total  of  62  per  cent  of  such  cases  disposed 
of  during  the  preceding  year. 

The  effect  of  this  case  work  upon  the  status  of 
industrial  peace  is  most  clearly  seen  by  comparing 
the  strike  activity  in  the  last  fiscal  year  with  that 
of  the  fiscal  period  1936-37,  which  is  one  of  com- 
parable business  activity.  The  total  number  of 
strikes  declined  49  per  cent  between  the  two  peri- 
ods; the  number  of  workers  involved  declined  63 
per  cent,  and  man-days  of  idleness—the  most  ac- 
curate index  of  unemployment  due  to  strikes — 
dropped  66  per  cent.  The  number  of  strikes  for 
recognition  and  against  discrimination — the  very 
causes  of  industrial  strife  that  Congress  had  in 
mind  when  it  enacted  the  NLRA — declined  62  per 
cent. 

In  addition  to  the  sharp  decrease  in  industrial 
strife  the  positive  effects  of  the  Board's  work 
were  discernible  in  the  880  agreements  to  bargain 
arising  from  the  Board  cases,  and  the  600  written 
trade  contracts  between  labor  organizations  and 
employers  as  a  result  of  such  cases. 


Evidently  working  upon  the  principle  that  cases 
disposed  of  without  formal  hearings  and  formal 
orders  are  most  conducive  to  future  amicable  em- 
ployer-employee relationships,  the  Board,  as  in  pre- 
vious years,  stressed  the  informal  handling  and 
disposition  of  cases.  Eighty-three  per  cent  of  the 
cases  were  closed  without  the  necessity  of  formal 
action.  Forty  per  cent  of  these  closed  cases  were 
disposed  of  by  settlement.  Slightly  less  than  half 
of  the  cases  alleging  unfair  labor  practices  closed 
during  the  year  were  removed  from  the  active 
docket  by  settlements  voluntarily  accepted  by  the 
parties  and  by  substantial  compliance  with  the 
Act.  Of  the  cases  involving  questions  concerning 
representation,  nearly  40  per  cent  of  those  disposed 
of  were  closed  by  informal  determination.  Thus, 
a  great  number  of  secret  ballot  elections  were  held 
by  consent  of  all  parties  without  Itie  necessity  of 
formal  hearings.  Determination  of  representation 
questions  thus  expedited  resulted  in  early  collective 
bargaining. 

Entrusted  with  the  protection  of  the  public  pol- 
icy which  guarantees  to  workers  the  right  to  self- 
organization  and,  upon  a  showing  of  a  majority 
representation,  the  right  to  bargain  collectively 
with  the  employer,  the  Board  was  given  the  power 
to  set  forth  remedies  in  situations  which  ran 
counter  to  that  public  policy  During  the  past  fis- 
cal year  the  record  of  the  remedies  applied  by  the 
Board  disclosed  that  approximately  31,000  work- 
ers were  reinstated  after  discrimination  for  union 
membership  or  after  strikes  in  protest  against  vio- 
lations of  the  Act.  Approximately  4800  received 
back  pay  awards  amounting  to  $650,000  for  the 
losses  they  suffered  because  of  discrimination 
against  them.  Other  forms  of  remedy  included  the 
posting  of  1000  notices  by  employers  agreeing  to 
cease  interfering  with  labor  organizations,  the  dis- 
establishment of  220  company-dominated  unions, 
the  agreement  to  bargain  collectively  in  880  cases, 
and  the  signing  of  written  agreements  in  600  in- 
stances. 

The  Board  conducted  a  total  of  1192  elections 
during  the  year,  more  than  half  of  these  with  the 
consent  of  all  the  parties  involved.  The  number  of 
elections  represented  an  increase  of  446  over  the 
number  conducted  during  the  preceding  fiscal  year ; 
the  number  of  workers  eligible  to  vote  more  than 
doubled  over  the  same  period.  A  keen  interest  and 
belief  in  the  election  machinery  continues,  as  in 
preceding  years,  to  be  shown  by  the  workers  eligi- 
ble to  cast  their  ballots  in  these  elections  More 
than  90  per  cent  of  the  590,000  workers  eligible  to 
vote  cast  their  ballots;  in  the  preceding  year  88 
per  cent  of  the  eligibles  voted. 

Stressing  as  it  has  informal  procedure  and  dis- 
position of  cases,  the  Board  is  called  upon  to  issue 
final  orders  in  only  a  very  small  percentage  of 
cases.  This  is  especially  true  in  cases  involving 
questions  of  unfair  labor  practices.  Thus,  during 
the  last  fiscal  year,  the  Board  had  on  its  docket 
6836  unfair  labor  practice  cases.  In  the  same  peri- 
od the  Board  issued  530  decisions  and  orders,  of 
which  132  were  issued  by  the  Board  with  the  ex- 
press consent  of  the  employer.  The  Board's  deci- 
sions continued  to  show  an  increase  in  the  number 
dismissing  the  unfair  labor  practice  allegations. 
Also,  the  year  was  marked  by  a  continued  and 
marked  increase  in  compliance  with  the  Board's 
orders  and  decisions. 

Thus,  a  delineation  of  the  Board's  operations 
shows  a  pyramid  of  cases  tapering  off  from  a  base 
of  charges  and  allegations  with  fewer  and  fewer 


NATIONAL  LABOR  RELATIONS      489 


NATIONAL  PARK  SERVICE 


instances  in  which  the  Board  is  called  upon  to  initi- 
ate formal  action  and  issue  final  decisions  and  or- 
ders. At  the  apex  of  this  record  of  the  Board's 
work  stands  the  small  number  of  cases  in  which 
recourse  to  the  Courts  was  necessary  to  resolve 
contested  issues.  Sixty-nine  decisions  were  is- 
sued in  such  cases  during  the  year  by  the  Circuit 
Courts  of  Appeals  and  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States.  Of  these  69  court  decisions  involv- 
ing the  enforcement  or  review  of  Board  orders, 
the  Board  was  sustained  in  whole  or  in  part  in  58 
cases,  or  84  per  cent  of  the  total  cases  decided, 
which  compares  with  its  record  of  74  per  cent  dur- 
ing the  preceding  year.  No  Board  order  was  re- 
versed by  the  Supreme  Court. 

In  the  past  fiscal  year  the  Supreme  Court  ac- 
cepted nine  cases,  the  Board  and  the  employer 
seeking  review  in  four  cases  each,  and  a  union  in 
the  remaining  case.  Two  of  these  cases  remained 
on  the  Court's  docket  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
term.  The  Board's  position  was  fully  upheld  in 
each  of  the  seven  cases,  although  in  two  instances 
the  Board's  order  was  modified  slightly. 

As  in  the  preceding  years  the  issues  ruled  upon 
by  the  courts  were  of  great  importance  to  an  un- 
derstanding of  the  Act  and  afforded  guide  posts 
for  the  future  orderly  administration  of  it.  In 
N.L.R.B.  v.  Newport  News  Shipbuilding  &  Dry- 
dock  Company  the  Supreme  Court  held  that  the 
Board  could  properly  find  that  only  complete  dis- 
establishment of  a  company-dominated  organiza- 
tion could  eliminate  the  effects  of  years  of  such 
domination  and  restore  the  employees'  freedom  of 
choice.  It  was  immaterial,  the  Court  stated,  that  a 
majority  of  the  employees  had  endorsed  the  or- 
ganization and  that  it  had  worked  to  the  apparent 
satisfaction  of  all  concerned. 

In  two  cases  the  Supreme  Court  sustained  the 
Board's  right  to  control  its  own  election  procedure. 
(N.L.R  B.  v.  Palk  Corp.,  N.L.R.B.  v.  Waterman 
Steamship  Corp.)  In  the  Waterman  case  the 
Board's  view  prevailed  that  during  a  union  elec- 
tion campaign  a  ship  owner  may  grant  ship  passes 
to  all  competitors  or  to  none,  but  that  he  may  not 
discriminate  between  them  in  this  matter. 

In  the  Waterman  case  and  in  N.L.R.B.  v.  Brad- 
ford Dyeing  Association  the  Supreme  Court  ruled 
upon  questions  of  considerable  importance  to  Fed- 
eral administrative  bodies.  Both  cases  raised  issues 
as  to  the  sufficiency  of  evidence  supporting  fact 
findings  of  the  Board.  In  the  first  decision  the 
Court  held  that  a  Circuit  Court  had  exceeded  its 
powers  and  stressed  the  strict  necessity  of  judicial 
adherence  to  the  Congressional  demarcation  of 
power  between  administrative  agencies  and  the  re- 
viewing courts  and  admonished  the  lower  court 
for  encroaching  upon  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of 
the  Board  in  its  fact  finding  powers.  In  addition 
to  a  similar  treatment  of  the  difference  between 
the  powers  of  a  judicial  and  administrative  body 
in  the  Bradford  case,  the  Supreme  Court  there 
ruled  that  a  shift  in  majority  status  of  a  union 
due  to  unfair  labor  practices  of  the  employer  did 
not  affect  the  validity  of  the  Board's  order  to  bar- 
gain based  upon  the  original  majority  status  of  the 
union. 

In  National  Licorice  Co.  v.  N.L.R.B.  and  Amer- 
ican Manufacturing  Co.  v,  N.L.R.B.  Board  orders 
setting  aside  illegal  contracts  of  employment  ex- 
acted from  employees  in  violation  of  rights  guar- 
anteed to  them  by  the  Act  were  sustained  by  the 
Court  with  slight  modification  of  the  notice  or- 
dered to  be  posted. 


In  the  several  Circuit  Courts  of  Appeals  63 
Board  decisions  were  ruled  upon  during  the  fiscal 
year,  an  increase  of  65  per  cent  over  the  38  de- 
cisions rendered  in  the  preceding  year.  Of  these, 
Board  orders  were  enforced  in  full  in  22  cases  and 
were  enforced  as  modified  in  30.  In  11  of  the  cases 
the  Board's  orders  were  set  aside.  Of  these,  in  two 
cases  new  hearings  were  ordered,  in  another  the 
decision  was  subsequently  reversed  by  the  Supreme 
Court,  and  in  the  fourth  the  Court  itself  vacated 
its  decision. 

A  multitude  of  issues  were  involved  in  the 
Board  orders  reviewed  in  the  Circuit  Courts. 
Some  of  these  were  of  exceeding  importance  in 
giving  body  to  and  clarifying  the  provisions  of  the 
Act.  For  instance,  a  Board  order  based  upon  a  dis- 
criminatory refusal  to  hire  was  upheld  in  the  first 
Circuit  in  N.L.R.B.  v.  Waumbec  Mills,  Inc.  The 
Circuit  Courts,  following  the  view  set  forth  in  the 
Supreme  Court  Newport  News  decision,  have  in- 
terpreted a  Board  order  of  disestablishment  to 
mean  complete  dissolution  of  the  illegal  organiza- 
tion. The  requirement  that  the  parties  should  enter 
into  a  signed  agreement  if  bargaining  resulted  in 
a  meeting  of  minds  on  the  terms  has  been  enforced 
in  numerous  decisions,  one  Circuit  having  set  aside 
such  an  order.  This  issue  was  finally  resolved  by 
the  Supreme  Court  on  Jan.  6,  1941,  in  H.  J.  Heinz 
v.  N.L.R.B. 

In  that  case  the  Supreme  Court  stated : 

It  is  true  that  the  National  Labor  Relations  Act,  while 
requiring  the  employer  to  bargain  collectively,  does  not 
compel  him  to  enter  into  an  agreement.  But  it  does  not 
follow,  as  petitioner  (company)  argues,  that,  having  reached 
an  agreement,  he  can  refuse  to  sign  it,  because  he  has 
never  agreed  to  sign  one.  He  may  never  have  agreed  to 
bargain  out  the  statute  requires  him  to  do  so  To  that  ex- 
tent his  freedom  is  restricted  m  order  to  secure  the  legisla- 
tive objective  of  collective  bargaining  aa  the  means  of  cur- 
tailing labor  disputes  affecting  interstate  commerce  The 
freedom  of  the  employer  to  refuse  to  make  an  agreement 
relates  to  its  terms  in  matters  of  substance  and  not,  once 
it  is  reached,  to  its  expression  in  a  signed  contract,  the 
absence  of  which,  as  experience  has  shown,  tends  to  frus- 
trate the  end  sought  by  the  requirement  for  collective  bar- 
gaining. A  business  man  who  entered  into  negotiations  with 
another  for  an  agreement  having  numerous  provisions, 
with  the  reservation  that  he  would  not  reduce  it  to  writing 
or  sign  it,  could  hardly  be  thought  to  have  bargained  in 
good  faith.  This  is  even  more  so  in  the  case  of  an  employer 
who,  by  his  refusal  to  honor,  with  his  signature,  the  agree- 
ment which  he  has  made  with  a  labor  organization,  dis- 
credits the  organization,  impairs  the  bargaining  process 
and  tends  to  frustrate  the  aim  of  the  statute  to  secure  in- 
dustrial peace  through  collective  bargaining. 

Petitioner's  (company's)  refusal  to  sign  was  a  refusal 
to  bargain  collectively  and  an  unfair  labor  practice. 

See  LABOR  CONDITIONS;  UNITED  STATES  under 
Government  and  Labor  and  Investigations. 

H.  A.  MILLIS. 

NATIONAL  MEDIATION  BOARD.  See 

RAILWAYS. 

NATIONAL  PARK  SERVICE.  A  bureau 
of  the  U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior,  estab- 
lished Aug.  25,  1916.  Inclusion  of  Kings  Canyon 
National  Park,  California,  and  of  Isle  Royale  Na- 
tional Park,  Michigan,  in  the  Federal  park  system 
administered  by  the  National  Park  Service  were 
major  conservation  developments  of  the  year  1940 
Within  Kings  Canyon  National  Park  are  numer- 
ous High  Sierra  peaks  12,000  to  14,000  feet  high, 
also  outstanding  groves  of  giant  Sequoias.  This 
park  includes  the  4-square  mile  area  established  in 
1890  as  the  General  Grant  National  Park.  Isle 
Royale  National  Park,  located  in  upper  Lake  Su- 
perior, is  a  roadless  wilderness,  and  contains,  in 
addition  to  44-mile-long  Isle  Royale,  a  number  of 
near-by  islets. 


NATIONAL  PARK  SERVICE 


490  NATIONAL  RESOURCES  PLANNING 


The  five  following  units  also  were  added  to  the 
Federal  park  system  in  1940:  Whitman  National 
Monument,  Washington,  site  of  an  Indian  mission 
and  school  established  in  1836,  the  first  institution 
of  its  kind  in  the  Pacific  Northwest ;  Appomattox 
Court  House  National  Historical  Monument,  Vir- 
ginia, scene  of  the  surrender  Apr.  9,  1865,  of  Con- 
federate forces  under  Gen.  Robert  £.  Lee  to  the 
Federal  Army  under  Gen.  Ulysses  S.  Grant ;  M a- 
nassas  National  Battlefield  Park,  Virginia,  site  of 
the  Battles  of  First  and  Second  Manassas,  fought 
July  21,  1861,  and  Aug.  29-30,  1862,  respectively; 
Custer  Battlefield  National  Cemetery,  Montana, 
site  of  the  Battle  of  the  Little  Big  Horn  River  of 
1876  in  which  Lieut.-Col.  George  A.  Custer  and 
his  command  of  226  men  were  destroyed  by  Sioux 
Indians;  and  Vanderbilt  Mansion  National  His- 
toric Site,  in  Dutchess  County,  New  York,  an  out- 
standing example  of  the  type  of  estate  built  in  the 
era  of  expansion  that  succeeded  the  War  Between 
the  States. 

Major  boundary  adjustments  of  existing  units 
of  the  Federal  park  system  resulted  in  the  addition 
of  187,411  acres  of  scenic  wilderness  to  Olympic 
National  Park,  Washington,  and  the  reduction  in 
size  of  Grand  Canyon  National  Monument,  Arizo- 
na, from  272,145  to  201,291  acres,  with  the  elimi- 
nated lands  being  returned  to  the  Public  Domain 
for  administration  by  the  Grazing  Service  of  the 
U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior. 

From  a  travel  standpoint,  the  year  1940  was  a 
record  one  for  the  National  Park  Service,  approx- 
imately sixteen  and  three-quarter  million  persons 
visiting  the  national  parks,  national  monuments, 
and  allied  recreational  areas  comprising  the  vast 
and  far-flung  Federal  park  system  under  its  juris- 
diction. Two  major  factors  undoubtedly  responsi- 
ble for  this  heavy  travel  were  the  war  conditions 
prevailing  overseas  and  the  intensive  campaign  car- 
ried on  by  the  National  Park  Service  to  acquaint 
Americans  with  the  scenic  and  recreational  re- 
sources of  their  own  country. 

Work  was  continued  by  the  National  Park  Serv- 
ice in  1940  on  the  construction  of  three  national 
parkways — the  Blue  Ridge,  connecting  Shenandoah 
National  Park,  Virginia,  and  Great  Smoky  Moun- 
tains National  Park,  North  Carolina-Tennessee; 
the  Natchez  Trace,  which  will  link  Natchez,  Miss., 
and  Nashville,  Tenn. ;  and  the  George  Washington 
Memorial  Parkway,  a  projected  route  between 
Mount  Vernon,  Va.,  and  the  Great  Falls  of  the 
Potomac. 

Other  major  projects  of  the  Service  were  con- 
cerned with  acquisition  of  land  and  the  wrecking 
of  undesirable  structures  in  connection  with  the 
Jefferson  National  Expansion  Memorial  Project, 
St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  supervision  of  construction  of  the 
Thomas  Jefferson  Memorial  in  the  Nation's  Capi- 
tal ;  continuation  of  a  Nation-wide  Park,  Parkway, 
and  Recreational-Area  Study  being  carried  on  in 
co-operation  with  the  various  States  under  author- 
ity of  the  Act  of  Congress  of  June  23,  1936 ;  and 
completion  of  a  study  of  fees  charged  in  parks 
throughout  the  Nation  and  publication  of  a  report 
on  that  subject. 

Again,  during  1940,  considerable  development 
work  throughout  the  Federal  park  system  was 
made  possible  through  funds  and  manpower  fur- 
nished by  the  Civilian  Conservation  Corps. 

At  the  dose  of  1940,  units  in  the  Federal  park 
system  totaled  162,  and  were  classified  as  follows : 
national  parks,  26  (see  table  in  next  column) ; 
national  historical  parks,  4;  national  monuments, 


LOCATION,  SUE.  AND  TRAVEL  RECORDS  OF 
NATIONAL  PARKS,  1940 


Nam* 

VMtors.Tratel 

of 

Area  in 

Yea*  Ended 

Park 

Stwre  Miles 

Sept.  30,  1940 

Acadia  (Maine)  

2883 

382,084 

Bryce  Canyon  (Utah)        
Carlsbad  Caverns  (New  Mexico) 

5622 
77.45 

103,362 
236,653 

Crater  Lake  (Oregon) 

25345 

252,482 

Glacier  (Montana)      

1,537.98 

177,307 

Grand  Canyon  (Arizona) 

1,00800 

371,613 

Grand  Teton  (Wyoming) 
Great  Smoky  Mountains  (North 

15000 

103,324 

Carolina-Tennessee) 

71300 

860,960 

Hawaii  (Territory  of  Hawaii) 
Hot  Springs  (Arkansas) 
We  Royale  (Michigan) 

27571 
157 
208.85 

287,810 
182,583 
2962 

Kings  Canyon  (California) 
Lassen  Volcanic  (California) 
Mammoth  Cave  (Kentucky) 
Mesa  Verde  (Colorado) 

710.31 
16332 
7504 
8021 

201,545 
104,619 
»  69,  107 
36,448 

Mount  McKinley  (Alaska) 

3,030.46 

1,201 

Mount  Rainier  (Washington) 

37778 

456,637 

Olympic  (Washington) 

1,305  33 

91,863 

Platt  (Oklahoma) 

133 

309,794 

Rocky  Mountain  (Colorado) 
Sequoia  (California) 

40598 
60400 

627,847 
282,198 

Shenandoah  (Virginia) 

28642 

950,807 

Wind  Cave  (South  Dakota) 
Yellowstone  (Wyoming,  Montana, 

1975 

>  18,028 

Idaho) 

3,471  52 

526,252 

Yosemite  (California) 

1,189  24 

506,781 

Zion  (Utah) 

13491 

165,029 

Totals 

16,16666 

7,309,296 

1  Actual  Admissions  to  Cave  Persons  entering  the  park  totaled 
117,751.  « Actual  Admissions  to  Cave  Visitors  totaled  25,808 

82;  national  military  parks,  11 ;  national  battlefield 
sites,  7 ;  national  historic  sites,  6 ;  national  recrea- 
tional areas,  1 ;  national  memorials,  9 ;  national  cem- 
eteries, 12 ;  national  parkways,  3 ,  and  the  system 
of  national  capital  parks  in  and  adjacent  to  the  Na- 
tion's Capital  which  are  considered  as  one  unit. 
See  TRAVEL  BUREAU,  U.S. 

NEWTON  B.  DRURY. 

NATIONAL  RAILROAD  ADJUST- 
MENT BOARD.  See  RAILWAYS. 

NATIONAL  RESOURCES  PLANNING 
BOARD.  Under  President  Roosevelt's  Reor- 
ganization Plan,  effective  July  1,  1939,  the  func- 
tions of  the  National  Resources  Committee  were 
consolidated  with  the  functions  of  the  Federal 
Employment  Stabilization  Office  under  the  name 
of  the  National  Resources  Planning  Board  in  the 
Executive  Office  of  the  President  The  functions 
do  not  differ  radically  from  those  entrusted  to  the 
Board's  immediate  predecessor,  the  National  Re- 
sources Committee.  The  Board  is  concentrating  its 
current  activities  on  problems  of  the  Post-Defense 
Period. 

The  Board  has  also  made  large  contributions  in 
the  field  of  research  toward  filling  in  planning 
gaps.  Its  research  on  "trends  of  business  and  em- 
ployment" includes  studies  on  national  income,  con- 
sumption habits,  the  structure  of  our  economy, 
patterns  of  resource  use,  housing,  etc.  The  Board 
through  its  Advisory  Committee  on  Science  has 
made  long-range  surveys  of  population,  technologi- 
cal trends,  and  the  Nation's  research  resources, 
both  public  and  private.  An  extensive  study  of  ur- 
ban problems  has  been  completed  by  its  Committee 
on  Urbanism.  Nationwide  studies  of  land  and  wa- 
ter problems  have  been  made.  At  the  request  of  the 
President,  and  with  a  view  to  establishing  national 
policies  for  the  conservation  and  use  of  resources, 
basic  surveys  have  been  made  of  our  energy  re- 
sources, of  the  relief  problem,  and  of  transporta- 
tion. It  has  also  prepared  for  the  President  and 


NATIONAL  YOUTH 


491  NAVAL  PROGRESS 


for  Congress  a  program  for  the  development  of 
the  national  resources  and  a  six-year  program  of 
public  works  as  required  by  the  Federal  Employ- 
ment Stabilization  Act 

For  the  Defense  Program,  the  Board  has  un- 
dertaken special  studies  of  Industrial  Location, 
and  is  co-operating  with  the  Civil  Service  Com- 
mission on  the  Roster  of  Scientific  and  Specialized 
Personnel.  Assistance  on  planning  problems  is  also 
being  provided  to  State  and  Local  communities 
where  critical  situations  have  developed  due  to  de- 
fense activities. 

Through  its  technical  committees  the  National 
Resources  Planning  Board  acts  as  a  clearing- 
house and  a  correlator  for  overlapping  planning 
activities.  The  Board's  10  field  offices  assist  the 
various  regional,  State,  and  local  planning  en- 
deavors. All  of  these  activities  of  the  Board  head 
up  in  its  advisory  function.  It  reports  its  findings 
to  the  President  and  the  Congress  and  makes  rec- 
ommendations as  to  long-range  programs  for  the 
conservation  and  full  development  of  pur  natural 
and  social  heritage.  It  makes  suggestions  to  the 
President  and  to  administrative  establishments  as 
to  policy  proposals  and  the  planning  of  national 
policy.  It  assists  the  President,  as  requested,  in 
developing  public  policies  that  are  co-ordinated 
both  among  the  various  agencies  administering 
them  and  with  other  broad  programs  of  the  Ad- 
ministration. See  PLANNING. 

CHARLES  W.  ELIOT  2ND. 

NATIONAL  YOUTH  ADMINISTRA- 
TION (NY A).  The  National  Youth  Administra- 
tion was  established  through  Executive  Order  on 
June  26,  1935,  within  the  Works  Progress  Admin- 
istration ;  but  on  July  1,  1939,  the  First  Reorgani- 
zation Plan  placed  it  under  the  Federal  Security 
Agency.  Since  its  inception  the  National  Youth 
Administration  has  been  allocated  approximately 
$456,000,000  and  has  employed,  on  the  average, 
over  500,000  young  men  and  women  a  year.  Dur- 
ing the  current  year,  operating  on  a  budget  of  $134,- 
659,000,  NYA  will  employ  more  than  a  million  dif- 
ferent young  people,  more  than  500,000  out-of- 
school  youth,  and  approximately  500,000  students. 

The  out-of-school  work  program  provides  part- 
time  jobs  for  out-of-school  youth  who  are  in  need 
of  employment  and  unable  to  find  it  in  private  in- 
dustry. A  high  percentage  of  the  young  people  em- 
ployed by  the  NYA  have  either  had  no  work  ex- 
perience or  merely  the  experience  obtained  from 
jobs  calling  for  little  or  no  skill.  NYA  work  proj- 
ects are  therefore  planned  by  local  officials  and  co- 
sponsors  with  two  major  aims  in  mind :  first,  the 
filling  of  community  needs ;  and,  second,  the  pro- 
vision to  youth  of  an  opportunity  to  acquire  good 
work  habits  and  certain  skills  that  are  basic  to  a 
general  occupational  field.  During  the  current  year 
increasing  emphasis  is  being  placed  on  mechanical 
production  projects  because  of  the  expanded  em- 
ployment opportunities  in  this  field.  In  view  of  its 
importance  in  providing  young  people  with  prac- 
tical experience  that  will  fit  them  for  jobs  in  pri- 
vate industry,  NYA  has  been  designated  as  a  na- 
tional defense  agency. 

During  the  week  ending  Dec.  21,  1940,  a  total  of 
352,186  youths  were  employed  on  the  out-of-school 
work  program.  Of  these  117,139  were  employed  on 
non-resident  production  projects;  97,211  were  em- 
ployed on  construction  projects,  and  105,328  were 
employed  on  professional,  clerical,  and  service  proj- 
ects. In  a  somewhat  special  category  were  the  32,- 


508  young  people  who  were  employed  at  the  600 
NYA  resident  projects.  The  young  people  employed 
at  resident  projects  live  at  the  job  site  and  provide 
their  own  subsistence. 

Through  the  co-operation  of  the  local  school  sys- 
tem, young  people  employed  on  the  NYA  out-of- 
schopl  work  program  have  the  opportunity  of  at- 
tending related  training  classes  on  non-paid  time. 
They  study  subjects  which  have  a  direct  bearing 
on  the  work  they  are  doing,  such  as  blueprint  read- 
ing and  shop  mathematics.  In  this  way  they  are 
able  to  acquire  a  background  in  which  theory  and 
practical  experience  are  co-ordinated. 

The  National  Youth  Administration's  student 
work  program  provides  jobs  for  financially  handi- 
capped students  from  16  to  24  years  of  age,  The 
students  are  selected  for  NYA  work  by  the  school 
officials  on  the  basis  of  need  and  scholarship.  They 
are  assigned  to  such  jobs  as  the  repair  of  class- 
room furniture,  library  and  laboratory  assistants, 
research  work,  and  improvement  of  campuses  or 
school  grounds.  For  this  work  they  receive  a  regu- 
lar monthly  wage  based  on  the  prevailing  hourly 
rate  for  the  type  of  job  they  perform.  The  wage 
for  secondary  school  students,  of  whom  there  were 
315,000  employed  in  November,  1940,  varies  be- 
tween a  minimum  of  $3  and  a  maximum  of  $6  a 
month.  The  wage  for  college  students,  of  whom 
there  were  121,000  employed  in  November,  1940, 
runs  from  $10  up  to  $20  a  month,  and  the  wage  for 
graduate  students,  of  whom  there  were  3100  dur- 
ing the  same  month,  varies  from  $10  to  $30  a 
month.  All  told,  the  student  work  program  was 
employing  439,548  students  in  November,  1940. 

The  National  Youth  Administration  pioneered 
the  establishment  of  junior  placement  offices  which 
were  operated  in  co-operation  with  State  Employ- 
ment Services  for  the  purpose  of  finding  jobs  in 
private  industry  for  young  people.  This  function 
is  being  carried  on  by  the  various  State  Employ- 
ment Services  in  co-operation  with  the  Bureau  of 
Employment  Security  of  the  Social  Security  Board. 
To  assist  young  people  in  finding  suitable  jobs  in 
private  industry,  the  National  Youth  Administra- 
tion has  published  over  100  occupational  and  in- 
dustrial studies  which  outline  the  job  possibilities 
and  training  requirements  in  various  lines  of  work. 

See  Music ;  EDUCATION  ;  table  under  RELIEF. 
AUBREY  WILLIAMS. 

NATURALIZATION.  See  IMMIGRATION, 
EMIGRATION,  AND  NATURALIZATION. 

NAURU.  See  AUSTRALIA  under  Area  and  Pop- 
ulation and  History. 

NAVAL  AND  AIR  BASES,  Leased.  See 
NAVAL  PROGRESS  ;  GREAT  BRITAIN  under  History ; 
the  map  under  UNITED  STATES.  For  a  detailed  ac- 
count of  each  see  ANTIGUA  ;  BAHAMAS  ;  BERMU- 
DA; BRITISH  GUIANA;  JAMAICA;  NEWFOUND- 
LAND; ST.  LUCIA;  TRINIDAD 

NAVAL  PROGRESS.  In  a  year  marked  by 
no  great  naval  battles  such  as  Jutland,  Trafalgar, 
or  Lepanto,  nor  even  by  clashes  of  opposing  forces 
as  strong  as  those  at  Coronel  or  the  Falklands,  a 
great  fleet  of  war-ships  was  sunk.  Scores  of  other 
fighting  craft  were  so  badly  damaged  that  millions 
of  dollars  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  man-hours 
were  required  to  repair  them.  Included  in  this  vast 
armada  of  lost  and  damaged  ships  were  battleships 
and  carriers,  a  dozen  or  more  cruisers,  destroyers, 
and  submarines  by  the  score,  and  small  craft  in  un- 
told numbers. 

Great  Britain,  having  many  more  ships  and  em- 


NAVAL  PROGRESS 


492 


NAVAL  PROGRESS 


ploying  them  freely  on  dangerous  missions,  was 
the  heaviest  single  loser.  Italy,  Germany,  and 
France,  however,  lost  larger  proportions  of  their 
navies,  and  Norway  had  its  navy  completely  wiped 
out. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  war  Germany  had 
lost  a  pocket  battleship  to  English  cruisers  off  Mon- 
tevideo, and  had  the  26,000-ton  battleships  Scharn- 
horst  and  Gneisenau  damaged  by  gun-fire  off  Nor- 
way. Italy  beached  one  new  battleship  and  suffered 
serious  damage  to  two  or  three  others  from  tor- 
pedoes launched  from  aircraft  at  the  ships  at  an- 
chor in  Taranto.  France  had  four  battleships  put  out 
of  action  by  British  gun-fire  and  bombs  at  Oran 
and  Dakar.  Great  Britain  lost  the  old  battleship 
Royal  Oak  and  the  old  aircraft  carrier  Courageous 
from  submarine  attacks  in  1939 ;  the  demilitarized 
Iron  Duke  was  accounted  for  by  bombing,  and  the 
carrier  Glorious  was  sunk  off  Narvik  by  gun-fire 
from  two  German  battleships  during  1940.  Other 
heavy  ships  were  reported  damaged. 

The  cruiser  casualties  to  the  various  powers  came 
from  collision,  grounding,  bombs,  torpedoes,  and 
gun-fire.  Auxiliary  cruisers  particularly  suffered 
from  under-water  attacks  and  gun-fire  from  heav- 
ier opponents. 

All  belligerents  suffered  heavy  destroyer  losses, 
the  British  about  thirty;  the  Germans  more  than 
half  as  many,  of  which  perhaps  at  least  ten  were 
sunk  by  gun-fire  at  Narvik;  the  French  lost  al- 
most as  many  as  the  Germans,  and  the  Italians  not 
very  many  less  The  small  belligerents  having  few 
surface  craft  other  than  destroyers  suffered  their 
heaviest  losses  in  that  type. 

Submarines,  which  were  the  most  effective  foe 
of  both  naval  and  merchant  shipping,  paid  heavily 
for  their  destructive  ventures.  Authoritative  in- 
formation of  German  losses,  of  this  their  most  im- 
portant naval  weapon,  were  lacking;  but  well  in- 
formed sources  placed  their  losses  at  about  fifty, 
probably  more  rather  than  less  The  British  also 
suffered  heavily  in  this  type.  Italian  submarine  cas- 
ualties were  also  high;  but  the  French  lost  com- 
paratively few,  perhaps  because  they  were  less 
actively  employed  than  were  those  of  the  other 
principal  belligerents.  By  the  very  nature  of  their 
operations,  the  character  of  the  attacks,  and  the 
secrecy  surrounding  anti-submarine  devices  and 
tactics  little  information  was  available  to  the  gen- 
eral public  as  to  the  methods  of  destroying  sub- 
marines. 

The  absence  of  fleet  actions  had  stimulated  the 
war  of  attrition,  with  results  as  great.  Naval  ex- 
perts everywhere  clamored  for  complete  informa- 
tion of  each  engagement  in  order  to  develop  coun- 
ter measures  through  modification  of  tactics  or 
changes  in  material.  As  might  have  been  expected, 
one  of  the  chief  interests  of  both  experts  and  lay- 
men was  concerned  with  the  relative  merits  of  ships 
and  aircraft.  And,  as  the  more  thoughtful  and  per- 
haps more  conservative  naval  officers,  air  officers, 
and  lay  students  had  long  realized,  there  was  no 
clear-cut  advantage.  Aircraft  sank  ships,  anti-air- 
craft guns  from  ships  brought  down  planes;  but 
ships  continued  to  ply  the  seas  even  in  narrow  wa- 
ters, aircraft  continued  to  fly  over  the  water  and 
to  attack  the  ships  at  favorable  opportunity.  Air- 
craft co-operated  with  surface  ships  by  spying  out 
enemy  vessels  to  be  chased  or  fled  from.  Ships 
bombarded  airfields  within  range  of  their  guns  to 
weaken  the  enemy  air  opposition  and  thus  to  facili- 
tate friendly  aircraft  activities.  There  were  strong 
indications  that  German  aircraft  frequently  ap- 


prised their  own  submarines  of  the  movement  of 
enemy  convoys  and  thus  enabled  them  to  gain  fa- 
vorable position  for  torpedo  attack. 

In  the  earlier  part  of  the  year  dive  bombing  em- 
ployed by  the  Germans  was  particularly  efficacious 
against  naval  vessels,  but  this  advantage  rapidly 
diminished  as  multi-barreled  pompom  guns  were 
supplied  to  ships,  and  improved  fire-control  facili- 
ties were  developed.  The  duels  between  bombers 
and  anti-aircraft  guns  at  sea  as  well  as  on  shore 
forced  the  horizontal  bombing  planes  to  seek  high- 
er altitudes  to  deliver  their  attacks,  with  a  conse- 
quent reduction  in  accuracy. 

It  soon  developed  that  bombers  in  one  respect 
had  a  certain  capacity  for  inflicting  damage  that 
had  not  hitherto  been  fully  appreciated.  Fragmen- 
tation from  near  misses  of  bombs  with  instantane- 
ous fuses  often  inflicted  casualties  among  exposed 
personnel  and  damaged  imperfectly  protected  ma- 
terial. Incidentally  similar  results  were  experienced 
from  shells  exploding  in  upper  works  of  ships.  As 
a  consequence,  alterations  to  improve  splinter  pro- 
tection were  feverishly  inaugurated.  Aircraft,  how- 
ever, in  order  to  take  full  advantage  of  such  frag- 
mentation damage  were  obliged  to  determine  before 
loading  their  bombs  whether  they  would  seek  to 
reduce  temporarily  the  fighting  efficiency  of  the 
ship  in  such  manner,  or  whether  they  would  strive 
to  damage  the  target  more  seriously  by  using  de- 
layed action  fuses  that,  in  case  of  a  hit,  would  cause 
explosion  of  the  bomb  to  be  delayed  until  it  had 
penetrated  to  more  vital  parts  of  the  ship.  In  the 
latter  case,  there  was  the  disadvantage  that  if  the 
target  proved  to  be  lightly  protected  the  bomb 
might  penetrate  the  ship  doing  but  slight  damage 
and  explode  harmlessly  in  the  water  outside. 

Naval  vessels  found  that  operations  at  high  speed 
and  radical  maneuvers  tended  to  confuse  the  bomb- 
ers, and  to  interfere  seriously  with  the  accuracy  of 
their  aim.  The  bombers,  on  the  other  hand,  found 
that  high  altitude  and  judicious  use  of  cloud  pro- 
tection rendered  them  virtually  immune  to  anti-air- 
craft fire,  as  when  operating  against  land  objectives. 
Unlike  the  operations  over  land  at  night,  however, 
the  mobile  targets  on  the  sea  were  difficult  if  not 
impossible  to  locate,  and  their  relatively  small  size 
gave  night  bombing  against  ships  at  sea  little  hope 
of  success. 

Operations  of  French  and  English  light  naval 
forces  in  the  evacuation  of  Dunkirk  demonstrated 
that  even  with  a  strong  air  superiority  air  attacks 
might  not  necessarily  be  completely  successful  in 
stopping  naval  operations.  Damage  there  inflitted 
by  aircraft  on  ships,  both  merchant  and  naval, 
was  enormous.  Nonetheless,  favored  by  weather 
conditions,  the  naval  forces  were  able  to  carry  out 
with  a  high  degree  of  success  a  most  difficult  mis- 
sion with  but  little  support  from  their  own  air- 
craft 

It  was  fully  demonstrated,  however,  that  it  would 
not  only  be  extremely  hazardous  but  impossible  for 
surface  vessels  to  operate  for  any  considerable 
time  within  range  of  shore-based  enemy  bombers. 
That  fact  was  borne  out  in  the  Allied  naval  opera- 
tions off  the  coast  of  occupied  Norway.  Lack  of 
adequate  air  support  for  naval  vessels  against  the 
shore-based  planes  of  the  Germans  soon  forced 
withdrawal  of  the  French  and  English  ships. 

A  further  change  in  the  composition  of  naval 
forces  and  in  equipment  of  naval  vessels  that  be- 
came marked  during  the  year  because  of  air  threats 
was  the  trend  toward  special  anti-aircraft  ships, 
and  the  trend  toward  increased  anti-aircraft  gun 


NAVAL  PROGRESS 


493 


NAVAL  PROGRESS 


power  in  ships  of  all  classes.  The  U.S.  Navy  ex- 
pected to  gain  the  desired  ends  by  extensive  use  of 
double  purpose  guns  suitable  for  use  either  against 
planes  or  light  surface  craft.  The  British  felt  the 
necessity  also  for  using  the  special  type  of  ship. 
For  the  time  being,  the  Carlisle  class  of  cruisers 
that  were  rearmed  for  this  special  purpose  consti- 
tuted the  principal  ships  of  the  new  type.  It  was 
reported,  however,  that  certain  destroyers  had  also 
been  rearmed,  and  that  some  ships  building  were 
being  redesigned  with  the  same  end  in  view.  The 
necessity  for  a  different  type  of  gun  and  fire  con- 
trol arrangement  to  oppose  dive  and  horizontal 
bombings  also  added  to  the  complications  of  those 
who  designed  or  fought  men  of  war. 

Even  though  heavy  ships  repeatedly  showed  that 
they  could  withstand  bombing  attacks  of  consider- 
able power  the  German  air  attacks  took  heavy  toll 
of  English  ships  that  came  within  range  of  her 
planes.  In  the  Mediterranean  area  the  English  na- 
val ships  were  more  successful  in  combating  the 
Italian  air  menace.  Naval  and  air  authorities,  neu- 
tral and  belligerent,  however,  were  agreed  that  sup- 
port of  one's  own  fighting  planes  would  always 
constitute  a  much  more  effective  answer  to  oppos- 
ing bombers  than  would  any  amount  of  anti-air- 
craft fire,  splinter  protection,  speed,  or  maneuver- 
ability. Acceptance  of  that  principle,  as  well  as  an 
offensive  spirit  calling  for  great  aerial  striking 
power  caused  the  United  States  to  let  contracts  for 
eleven  aircraft  carriers  during  the  year.  European 
nations  who  were  doing  their  fighting  in  and  over 
the  water  in  more  restricted  seas  sought  similar 
ends  by  basing  aircraft  at  strategic  points  along 
the  coast  from  which  they  might  send  planes  to 
attack  enemy  ships  or  to  protect  their  own. 

In  general,  the  results  of  bombing  attacks  on 
ships,  of  which  there  were  many  hundred,  showed 
that  between  the  last  world  war  and  the  present 
one  as  the  range,  mobility,  and  striking  power  of 
aircraft  increased,  the  menace  had  in  considerable 
degree  been  met  by  tactician,  gunner,  and  designer. 
In  the  U  S.  Navy  it  was  further  met  by  the  devel- 
opments of  naval  aviation.  In  that  service  aviation, 
surface  craft,  and  submarines  had  never  been  dis- 
associated. As  a  consequence,  development  of  of- 
fensive and  defensive  power  of  both  planes  and 
ships  had  proceeded  hand  in  hand,  so  that  some  of 
the  lessons  learned  by  the  belligerents  as  a  result 
of  serious  losses  in  action,  had  been  appreciated  by 
them  long  before  as  a  result  of  maneuver  on  the 
game  aboard  or  at  sea. 

While  the  developments  resulting  from  the  injec- 
tion of  aircraft  into  naval  warfare  was  spectacular, 
both  because  of  the  nature  and  the  character  of  the 
new  weapon,  and  though  this  new  development 
brought  greater  changes  in  design  and  tactics,  the 
underwater  menace  was  a  more  serious  one.  The 
toll  taken  by  submarines  and  mines  was  greater 
for  both  men-of-war  and  merchant  ships. 

The  magnetic  mine,  briefly  described  in  the  1939 
YEAR  BOOK,  for  a  time  caused  heavy  losses  to  Al- 
lied navies  and  shipping ;  but  in  time  effective  sweep- 
ing methods  were  devised,  and  scientists  evolved 
schemes  for  rendering  the  mines  inoperative  as 
ships  passed  over  them.  It  took  time,  however,  to 
find  suitable  means  to  overcome  the  newly  created 
hazards,  and  further  time  to  manufacture  and  in- 
stall the  requisite  devices  to  gain  protection.  The 
measures  developed  under  pressure  were  not  al- 
ways completely  successful  but  they  did  check  the 
losses  that  were  rapidly  becoming  alarming.  As 
with  all  new  weapons,  those  against  whom  they 


were  first  used  quickly  seized  upon  the  principle 
and  applied  it  to  their  own  use. 

Other  new  mine  devices  of  less  importance  were 
reported  from  time  to  time.  Acoustic  mines  were 
experimented  with,  and  several  appliances  were  used 
with  varying  degrees  of  success  to  interfere  with 
minesweeping  or  to  render  paravanes  ineffectual. 

The  British,  of  course,  suffered  most  from  mines, 
because  extensive  use  of  ships  that  must  pass  in 
and  out  of  mineable  waters  was  essential  to  the 
receipt  of  food  and  raw  materials  and  to  the  main- 
tenance of  blockade  against  the  enemy.  The  mines 
around  their  ports  were  planted  largely  by  sub- 
marines and  aircraft  It  was  generally  believed  that 
a  number  of  the  German  and  Italian  submarine 
losses  were  attributable  to  mines,  either  those  plant- 
ed by  the  Allies  or,  in  some  cases,  to  mines  pre- 
viously laid  by  the  Axis  powers  themselves. 

The  number  of  small  craft  involved  in  mine- 
sweeping,  the  man  power  required,  and  the  time, 
energy,  and  treasure  expended  by  all  the  belliger- 
ents to  gain  protection  from  this  danger  was  enor- 
mous. Even  so,  damage  from  mines  continued  to 
be  an  important  cause  for  losses,  and  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  war  effort  was  expended  in  salvag- 
ing or  repairing  ships  that  had  been  struck.  Amer- 
ican ships  were  forbidden  by  law  and  presidential 
proclamation  to  enter  the  European  war  zone,  but 
one  American  ship  on  the  other  side  of  the  world 
was  sunk  when  it  ran  into  a  mine,  evidently  laid  by 
a  raider,  in  Australian  waters. 

The  effectiveness  of  mine  fields  laid  by  Italians 
in  the  Straits  of  Sicily  was  less  effective  than  some 
authorities  had  anticipated.  Although  war  opera- 
tions had  brought  merchant  traffic  through  those 
waters  to  a  virtual  standstill  it  was  reported  on 
good  authority  that  the  English  occasionally  used 
the  passage.  The  main  bodies  of  water  in  the  east- 
ern and  western  Mediterranean  are  too  deep  for 
mining,  but  nearly  all  the  North  Sea  and  the  wa- 
ters adjacent  to  the  British  Isles  are  well  suited 
to  mining  tactics. 

As  in  the  last  war,  the  submarine  was  the  prin- 
cipal weapon  of  attrition  for  the  Germans  and  their 
chief  means  for  blockading  the  English.  Although 
initially  the  tactics  employed  were  less  ruthless 
than  in  1917  and  1918  the  methods  employed  soon 
followed  closely  the  earlier  pattern.  Progress  in 
this  field  as  in  others  had  been  made  however ;  tor- 
pedoes were  of  longer  range  and  carried  heavier 
explosive  charges,  communication  facilities  had  im- 
proved, submarine  listening  devices  were  more  pro- 
ficient, and  machinery  was  moie  reliable.  All  those 
advantages  accrued  to  all  powers.  The  Germans 
had  tremendous  improvement  in  operating  condi- 
tions. After  the  fall  of  France  there  was  little 
chance  of  hampering  their  exit  from  port  as  was 
the  case  in  the  first  World  War.  They  could  and 
did  base  from  Bordeaux  to  Narvik.  Superiority  m 
air  power  made  available  to  submarines  much  in- 
formation that  would  otherwise  have  been  unob- 
tainable. In  addition  the  Germans  had  carefully 
studied  all  reports  of  Allied  anti-submarine  meas- 
ures of  the  previous  war  and  they  took  many  cor- 
rective measures  in  planning  and  conducting  their 
operations. 

Notwithstanding  the  progress  in  submarine  tac- 
tics and  material,  the  submarine  losses  by  all  bel- 
ligerents were  great.  This  was  primarily  because 
even  greater  progress  had  been  made  in  the  meth- 
ods of  submarine  detection  and  in  the  tactics  for 
attacking  them.  Sound  devices  operated  from  sur- 
face ships  could  detect  the  presence  of  a  submerged 


NAVAL  PROGRESS 


494 


NAVAL  PROGRESS 


submarine  "within  limited  distances,  or  cotjld  simi- 
larly locate  it  on  the  surface  at  night  Patrol  air- 
craft gave  warning  of  the  presence  of  submarines 
on  the  surface ;  and  under  favorable  circumstances 
spotted  them  at  considerable  distances  below  the 
surface.  The  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  especial- 
ly favored  the  aircraft  searching  for  submarines. 
Some  of  the  aircraft  carried  special  depth  bombs 
for  use  against  the  submarines  sighted,  others  led 
surface  craft  to  attack. 

Improvements  in  acoustic  devices,  and  the  use  of 
opposing  aircraft  made  it  difficult  and  hazardous 
to  get  in  attacks  on  ships  so  protected ;  but  limited 
equipment  often  prevented  such  protection  being 
given.  The  current  war  found  the  Allies  with  far 
fewer  available  ships  for  anti-submarine  work  than 
they  had  in  1918,  and  screens  were  often  woefully 
weak  or  not  available,  and  convoys  were  unduly 
large.  Moreover,  screening  vessels  were  often 
needed  to  protect  against  air  attacks  as  well  as 
against  submarine  threats.  The  detection  devices 
were  available  to  only  a  limited  number  of  ships, 
and  skilled  operators  were  necessary  to  manipulate 
them. 

As  against  those  handicaps  the  Allies  had  the 
background  of  much  knowledge  as  to  organization 
and  measures  for  combatting  submarines  and  put 
them  into  effect  with  little  delay  While  much  of 
the  desired  equipment  was  not  available,  there  was 
a  considerable  amount  of  essential  material  ready 
at  hand,  and  personnel  trained  in  its  use.  The  depth 
charges  were  improved  over  those  used  in  the  last 
war,  and  suitable  tactics  for  their  employment  had 
been  developed.  As  the  results  of  the  year  showed, 
submarines  did  great  damage,  but  much  less  than 
during  the  high  tide  of  1917,  and  they  paid  heavily 
for  damage  inflicted. 

In  addition  to  aircraft,  mines,  and  submarines, 
another  weapon  of  attrition  that  was  used  was  the 
high  speed  (30  to  35  knots)  motor  torpedo  boat. 
All  the  belligerents,  including  the  smaller  powers, 
had  these  vessels  in  considerable  numbers.  They 
were  a  source  of  great  potential  danger,  but  up  to 
the  year's  end  they  had  done  comparatively  little 
damage.  Their  very  existence  in  an  area,  however, 
made  it  necessary  for  the  enemy  to  take  strong 
defensive  measures. 

All  of  the  foregoing  methods  for  affecting  at- 
trition were  particularly  applicable  to  the  restricted 
area  of  the  principal  naval  operations  of  the  cur- 
rent war.  The  gun  remained  the  primary  means  of 
exercising  control  of  the  high  seas.  Superiority  in 
gun  power  enabled  the  British  Fleet  to  dominate 
both  ends  of  the  Mediterranean,  although  Italy  oc- 
cupied a  central  position  where  she  held  great  su- 
periority in  aircraft,  submarines,  mines,  and  motor 
torpedo  boats. 

The  English  with  their  gun  power  controlled  the 
Atlantic  approaches  to  Europe.  But  despite  the 
overwhelming  preponderance  of  that  gun  power 
they  could  not  dominate  the  North  Sea  and  its 
shores  because  they  had  insufficient  aircraft  to  give 
adequate  defense  against  enemy  bombing  attacks. 

In  ^such  gun  actions  as  occurred  there  were  no 
startling  developments,  the  principal  progress  noted 
being  in  the  increased  proficiency  of  damage  con- 
trol over  that  of  Jutland  days.  All  types  of  newer 
ships  were  able  to  take  more  punishment  whether 
it  came  from  bomb,  gun,  mine,  or  torpedo.  This 
increase  in  floatability  was  partly  due  to  design  and 
partly  due  to  improved  organization  and  drill  in 
localizing  damage.  Ships,  in  general,  were  faster, 
but  any  increase  in  gun  power  over  that  of  two 


decades  before  was  about  offset  by  corresponding 
increase  in  the  defensive  qualities  of  the  ships.  The 
added  defensive  arrangements  and  the  increase  in 
anti-aircraft  guns  had  necessitated  larger  crews 
and  more  complex  organizations  all  along  the  line. 

Comparative  Naval  Strength.  The  status  of 
the  various  important  navies  in  combatant  types  of 
vessels  could  only  be  approximated,  and  it  was  quite 
impossible  to  bring  data  completely  up  to  date  by 
the  end  of  the  year.  Losses  were  sometimes  con- 
cealed for  considerable  periods,  or  the  merits  of 
conflicting  claims  as  to  losses  could  not  be  analyzed. 
Moreover,  data  as  to  ships  building  by  belligerents 
cannot  be  based  on  official  figures.  For  purposes 
of  comparison,  however,  the  data  as  of  July  1, 
1940,  is  furnished  in  the  table  on  page  495,  and 
subject  to  the  notes  thereunder  is  about  correct. 
Further  information  regarding  naval  activities  in 
the  different  countries  follows. 

Argentina.  This  country,  with  the  largest  Navy 
in  Latin  America,  continued  to  add  small  craft  to 
its  list ;  the  latest  additions  being  a  series  of  nine 
minesweepers.  The  last  of  these,  the  Foumier,  was 
launched  in  August  Their  general  characteristics 
were  550  tons,  11.5  knots,  two  4-inch  guns,  crew 
of  62.  Built  in  local  yards,  they  were  destined  to 
replace  sweepers  of  the  M-CIass  acquired  from 
Germany  after  the  last  war.  Plans  were  underway 
for  building  larger  ships  at  home,  and  work  was 
begun  on  installation  of  facilities  at  Rio  Santiago 
for  producing  10,000-ton  ships.  Hitherto  the  larg- 
est ship  built  in  the  country,  or  even  in  South  Amer- 
ica, had  been  the  5000-ton  tanker  Figueroa  Alcorta. 

The  personnel  was  increased  to  1000  officers  and 
14,500  men.  Three  United  States  naval  officers  were 
attached  to  the  Navy  Department  in  an  advisory 
capacity.  The  recently  built  6-inch  cruiser  La  Ar- 
gentina engaged  in  an  extensive  cruise  in  the  Pa- 
cific to  train  men  and  prospective  officers. 

Australia.  The  backbone  of  the  navy  were  the 
two  8-inch  cruisers  Australia  and  Canberra.  These 
and  most  of  the  other  combatant  ships,  however, 
were  engaged  on  Empire  duties  rather  than  re- 
stricting their  operations  to  local  waters.  Stimu- 
lated by  occasional  mining  in  adjacent  waters  by 
raiders  considerable  progress  was  made  in  building 
locally  a  number  of  minesweepers  and  other  small 
local  defense  craft  It  was  also  reliably  reported 
that  some  destroyer  construction  had  been  under- 
taken. The  personnel  that  consisted  of  but  little 
over  4000  men  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  was 
considerably  increased  both  for  manning  Austra- 
lian ships  and  for  augmenting  the  Royal  Navy. 

Brazil.  The  British  Government  terminated  the 
prewar  contracts  for  six  destroyers,  similar  to  the 
Hero  class,  which  were  being  built  in  British  yards 
and  returned  the  sums  already  paid  toward  their 
construction.  The  vessels  in  question  were  incor- 
porated into  the  British  navy  as  they  were  com- 
pleted. One  of  them,  the  Jayary,  had  the  same  name 
as  a  destroyer  which  was  similarly  building  at  com- 
mencement of  the  first  World  War  but  was  com- 
missioned in  the  British  Navy  as  the  Hardy. 

Meantime  the  Brazilians  launched  a  destroyer  at 
Rio  de  Janerio,  the  Marcidio  Dias,  and  laid  keels 
for  two  more.  The  four  remaining  minelayers  of 
the  C-Class,  also  locally  built,  were  completed.  No 
progress  was  made  toward  building  the  two  cruis- 
ers of  the  ten-year  program. 

Canada.  Out  of  necessary  wartime  secrecy  sur- 
rounding details  of  Canada's  war  efforts,  only 
general  information  was  available.  A  $50,000,000 
ship-construction  program  made  rapid  progress  at 


NAVAL  PROGRESS  495  NAVAL  PROGRESS 

COMPARATIVE  DATA-THE  GREAT  NAVAL  POWERS-AS  OF  JULY  1,  1940 


Country  and 
type  oj  ships 

United  States- 
Capital  Ships      .... 
Aircraft  Carriers                     
Cruisers  (8*  guns)              .       .         

Commissioned 
and  under  age 
No.            1000  tons 

12              384 
6              135 
18              171 
17               144 
74              115 
33                49 
00                00 

160              998 

14              445 
5                83 
15               146 
25               196 
104               154 
42                51 
1                  7 

206             1082 

9              272 
11               147 
12               108 
15                98 
90              125 
41                65 

178              815 

6              142 
2                32 
7                70 
11                80 
63               108 
72                69 

161              501 
6              164 

7                70 
12                74 
98              109 
103                83 

226              500 
5              107 

2              '20 
4                23 
49                55 
80                42 

140              247 
unavailable) 
3                70 
1                 9 
3               24 
1               17 
38                67 
192              114 

Total  built 
No,            1000  tons 

15              464 
6              135 
18              171 
19              158 
197              254 
101               101 
8                 9 

364            1292 

14              445 
7               104 
15               146 
46              297 
175              233 
54                57 
1                  7 

312             1289 

10              301 
11               147 
12              108 
22              129 
134              170 
66                91 
1                  9 

256              955 

7              164 
2                32 
7                70 
11                80 
64              109 
76                73 

167              528 
6              164 

'  7                70 
14                81 
130               132 
110                85 

267              532 
5              107 

'  2                20 
4                23 
49                55 
80                42 

140              247 

3                70 
1                  9 
3                24 
5                29 
53                84 
203              120 

Building* 
No.           1000  tons 

10              390 
5              126 
4                52 
17              154 
61              111 
41                61 
00               00 

138              894 

9              335 
7              153 

23              158 
26               48 
4                  3 
24                39 

93              736 

8-            332- 
2-             40- 

"  6«          "47« 
12-              12« 
9«               4« 
!•               6* 

38«            441« 

4              140 
2                36 

*3                24 
32                50 
25                25 

66              275 
2               70 

*14                56 
12                15 
22               25 

50             166 

3              115 
2                39 
2                20 
6               46 
23                16 
??                ?? 

36??           2T6?? 

3              105 
2                24 
5                40 

'??               '?? 
??                ?? 

Cruisers  (6*  guns)             
Destroyers                           
Submarines                                  

Light  Minelayers 

Total  ..     .                 

British  Empire- 
Capital  Ships 

Cruisers  (8*  guns)          

Cruisers  (6*  guns)                 .... 
Destroyers 
Submarines                               .          .... 
Minelayers  and  Gun  boats  .                ... 

Total  .                      
Japan  • 
Capital  Ships        

Cruisers  (8*  guns) 
Cruisers  (6*  guns) 
Destroyers             
Submarines        
Minelayers               ... 

Total  

Prance  * 
Capital  Ships                               .       . 
Aircraft  Carriers 
Cruisers  (8*  guns)   .                              .   . 
Cruisers  (6*  guns) 
Destroyers 
Submarines 

Total                     
Italy  « 
Capital  Ships 
Aircraft  Carriers 
Cruisers  (8'  guns)                      .  .                  ... 
Cruisers  (6*  guns) 
Destroyers 
Submarines 

Total          

Germany  r 
Capital  Ships                   
An  craft  Carriers               .           .... 

Destroyers  and  Minelayers 
Submarines    .                      

Total    

Russia  *  (Figures  given  are  minimums  —  much  data  ' 
Capital  Ships             

Cruisers  (6*  guns)                   
Destroyers     

Total  —  Data  are  too  incomplete  to  give  totals 

•  As  Japan  releases  no  data  officially  the  information  may  be  incomplete,  particularly  as  to  "building  and  appropriated  for  " 

•  Note  that  this  data  is  of  July  1.  1940  before  certain  units  were  immobilised  by  tie  British,  and  before  the  incidents  at  Oran  and 
Dakar  The  ships  listed  as  building  have  probably  had  no  further  work  done  on  them 

•  The  deductions  for  submarine  and  destroyer  losses  of  Germany  and  Italy  may  be  incomplete  It  is  also  probable  that  additional  vessels 
of  those  classes  were  building  but  the  number  and  tonnage  is  unknown 

<  Data  available  as  to  Russia  are  known  to  be  incomplete  but  figure!  given  are  considered  to  be  reliable  minimums. 


•  Building  and  appropriated  for  as  far  as  is  known. 

fifteen  different  yards.  Sixty-four  patrol  ships  and 
twenty-nine  sweepers  were  underway  as  were  ten 
ships  of  unannounced  characteristics  building  for 
the  British  Admiralty.  Other  craft  included  light- 
ers, aircraft  tenders,  rescue  boats,  supply  and  sal- 
vage boats,  etc. 

Chile.  Naval  authorities,  recalling  violations  of 
the  country's  neutrality  in  past  wars,  put  into  effect 
stringent  rules  regarding  the  use  of  national  wa- 


ters by  both  merchant  ships  and  men-of-war,  ir- 
respective of  nationality.  Efforts  of  Italy  to  obtain 
orders  for  the  two  new  cruisers  planned,  with  pay- 
ment to  be  in  copper  and  nitrates,  was  unsuccess- 
ful, and  later  the  Minister  of  National  Defense 
announced  a  decision  to  place  no  order  for  those 
vessels  during  continuance  of  the  present  war. 

Unconfirmed  reports  stated  that  the  government 
had  giVen  final  approval  to  plans  for  a  dry  dock 


NAVAL  PROGRESS 


496 


NAVAL  PROGRESS 


capable  of  accommodating  45,000-ton  ships.  The 
dock  was  to  be  built  at  Caleta  Membrillo  on  Val- 
pariso  Bay  at  a  cost  of  $5,000,000  and  completed 
in  four  years.  Presumably  its  construction  was  de- 
pendent upon  a  United  States  loan. 

Denmark.  At  the  time  this  country  was  invaded 
by  the  Germans  the  navy  consisted  of  two  armored 
coast  defense  ships,  Peder  Skntm  and  Niels  luel, 
about  twenty  torpedo  boats,  some  twelve  subma- 
rines, and  a  few  auxiliaries.  In  addition,  the  mine- 
layer Lindormen  and  one  or  more  small  subma- 
rines were  nearing  completion.  Shortly  after  the 
invasion,  all  naval  personnel  was  disarmed  and  an- 
nouncement was  made  that  all  crews  had  been  given 
furlough  and  that  all  recruiting  had  ceased.  It  was 
not  apparent,  however,  whether  any  of  the  units 
were  manned  and  operated  by  German  crews. 

Aside  from  the  naval  ships  that  came  under  their 
control,  the  Germans  found  in  Denmark  a  flour- 
ishing naval  construction  industry  well  adapted  to 
building  craft  that  might  be  used  for  transporting 
men  and  supplies  in  an  invasion  of  England. 

Estonia.  Prior  to  its  absorption  by  Russia  this 
small  Baltic  power  had  made  some  progress  to- 
ward developing  a  coastal  defense  force ;  the  most 
important  units  were  a  mine-laying  torpedo  boat 
and  two  Vickers'  built  submarines.  At  the  time  the 
country  was  taken  over  by  the  Soviets,  three  small 
submarines  were  under  order  in  Finland  and  four 
motor  torpedo  boats  were  building  at  Tallinn. 

France.  At  the  outbreak  of  war  the  French  na- 
vy had  82,000  men  and  4900  officers;  some  172 
combatant  ships  were  in  commission  and  sixty  odd 
others,  principally  destroyers  and  submarines,  were 
building.  The  personnel  was  rapidly  expanded  and 
numerous  small  craft  for  anti-submarine,  anti- 
mine,  and  other  purposes  were  added  to  the  navy 
list  Until  the  invasion  of  Norway,  only  routine 
operations  were  engaged  in  and  losses  received  or 
inflicted  were  inconsequential.  Several  ships  were 
engaged  in  the  Norwegian  operations,  where  one 
destroyer  was  lost  and  the  cruiser  mine  layer  Emile 
Berlin  was  damaged. 

During  invasion  of  the  low  countries  and  col- 
lapse of  France,  intensive  coastal  operations  were 
engaged  in  by  light  forces,  particularly  in  the  evac- 
uation of  Boulogne  and  Dunkirk.  Some  eight  de- 
stroyers and  a  submarine  were  lost  and  others  dam- 
aged. In  general  command  of  the  heterogeneous 
Allied  craft  that  so  effectively  evacuated  Dunkirk 
was  the  French  Vice  Admiral  Abrial. 

After  the  French  collapse  much  confusion  ex- 
isted as  to  the  location,  loyalty,  and  future  of  the 
French  Navy.  The  Armistice  terms  provided  that 
the  French  fleet  should  not  be  used  against  their 
former  Allies,  but  the  English  did  not  trust  the 
Germans  and  feared  the  dire  consequences  if  the 
French  ships  fell  into  German  hands.  Accordingly, 
early  in  July  possession  was  taken  of  all  those  in 
English  ports  and  in  Alexandria.  These  included 
3  battleships,  6  cruisers,  8  destroyers,  a  few  sub- 
marines, including  the  3000  ton  Surcouf,  and  nu- 
merous small  craft.  On  July  3  a  British  force  ap- 
peared off  Oran  where  many  important  French 
units  were  anchored  and  presented  an  ultimatum 
which  was  refused.  In  the  ensuing  action  three 
French  battleships  were  sunk  or  badly  damaged, 
as  were  several  other  ships ;  some  escaped  to  Tou- 
lon where  most  of  the  French  cruisers,  destroyers, 
and  submarines  were  assembled. 

Shortly  after  this  incident  an  abortive  attempt 
was  made  to  capture  Dakar,  but  the  British  force 
which  had  expected  the  forces  there  to  join  Gen- 


eral de  Gaulle  were  driven  off  after  minor  damage 
had  been  inflicted  on  each  side.  Those  incidents  of 
course  brought  tension  between  the  English  and 
the  Vichy  government. 

At  the  year's  end  two  battleships,  a  dozen  cruis- 
ers, and  large  numbers  of  destroyers,  submarines, 
and  auxiliaries  were  in  French  Mediterranean  ports, 
Casablanca,  or  Dakar.  The  aircraft  carrier  Beam, 
two  cruisers,  and  several  auxiliaries  were  at  Mar- 
tinique. A  number  of  ships  that  were  building  were 
on  the  ways  in  occupied  France.  Rumors  were  fre- 
quently circulated  that  the  Germans  were  endeav- 
oring to  gain  possession  of  the  French  ships  but 
that  Petain  continued  a  firm  refusal. 

Germany.  Although  Germany  suffered  consid- 
erable losses  during  the  Norway  operations  and  in 
connection  with  the  campaign  against  Allied  ship- 
ping she  ended  the  year  with  a  navy  no  smaller 
than  that  with  which  she  commenced  the  war. 
Throughout  the  war  the  U-boats  have  been  active, 
and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year  were  particularly 
vigorous. 

In  the  Norwegian  campaign  the  small  German 
Navy  supported  by  air  was  employed  with  great 
boldness  against  its  far  more  powerful  adversaries. 
Early  in  April,  almost  the  entire  submarine  force 
was  on  station  to  cover  the  operations.  About 
twenty-five  were  disposed  along  the  coast  of  Scot- 
land thence  to  the  Orkneys,  Shetlands,  and  the 
coast  of  Norway  to  give  warning  of  British  Fleet 
and  transport  movements  and  to  attack  such  ships. 
Many  others  operated  off  entrances  to  the  various 
fjords  to  prevent  Allied  interruption  of  German 
landings.  To  naval  tacticians  this  mass  employment 
of  submarines  was  noteworthy  The  results  they 
achieved  were  inconsequential.  A  few  merchant 
ships  were  torpedoed,  but  no  successful  attacks 
were  accomplished  against  troop  ships  or  combat- 
ant vessels.  Submarine  losses  are  not  definitely 
known,  but  were  certainly  considerable  and  prob- 
ably exceeded  the  number  of  merchant  ships  sunk. 
It  was  considered  as  a  clear  indication  of  the  lim- 
itations of  submarines  in  operating  against  high 
speed,  well  escorted  ships. 

The  surface  escorts  that  accompanied  convoys 
to  the  various  ports  were  effective,  and  except  at 
Narvik  the  losses  were  comparatively  light.  The 
British  successful  feat  of  taking  the  30,000-ton 
battleship  War  spite  up  the  narrow  fjord  in  the  face 
of  submarine  and  destroyer  opposition  was  note- 
worthy. All  German  naval  forces  present  were  de- 
stroyed. Meantime  an  encounter  between  the  world 
war  battle-cruiser  Renown  and  the  modern  battle- 
ship Scharnhorst  supported  by  the  10,000-ton  Hip- 
per had  quickly  resulted  in  some  slight  damage  to 
the  Renown  and  considerable  damage  to  the  Scharn- 
horst, after  which  the  modern  ships  took  advan- 
tage of  superior  speed  and  broke  off  the  engage- 
ment, for  the  new  11-inch  guns  were  not  a  match 
for  the  older  15-inch. 

After  occupation  of  Norway,  the  low  countries, 
and  northern  France,  the  naval  forces  continued 
active  principally  against  the  enemy  sea-borne  com- 
merce; submarines  in  the  western  approaches  to 
the  British  Isles,  motor  torpedo  boats  in  the  chan- 
nel, pocket  battleships  occasionally  in  the  North 
Atlantic,  and  auxiliary  cruisers  raiding  as  far  away 
as  the  South  Pacific.  Threats  by  battleships,  cruis- 
ers, and  destroyers  based  in  the  German  Bight  or 
on  Norway,  together  with  air  support,  prevented 
any  serious  English  interference  with  the  traffic 
between  occupied  Norway  and  the  homeland.  Thus 
developments  of  a  quarter  of  a  century  prevented 


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the  British  Navy  from  exercising  the  same  close 
control  of  the  North  Sea  that  it  did  in  the  last  war, 
even  though  it  had  become  relatively  more  power- 
ful. 

The  Germans  were  prompt  to  develop  naval  bases 
in  all  occupied  areas.  Some  were  for  small  craft 
only,  but  others  were  suitable  for  major  operations 
such  for  instance  as  Bordeaux  which  became  a 
major  submarine  operating  base,  and  Trondheim 
which  was  suitable  as  an  advance  fleet  operating 
base.  All  of  them  combined  to  add  tremendously 
to  the  effectiveness  of  naval  forces  that  might  op- 
erate in  support  of  a  major  landing  effort  from 
the  continent  against  the  British  Isles. 

Great  Britain.  As  in  the  Napoleonic  Wars  and 
the  first  world  war,  the  strategy  of  the  British 
Navy  in  the  current  war  has  been  to  conduct  a 
long  range  blockade  of  the  enemy,  and,  if  the  pres- 
sure thus  applied  could  draw  the  enemy  fighting 
ships  to  sea,  to  crush  them  with  overwhelming 
power.  Developments  of  succeeding  decades  had 
forced  the  blockading  forces  further  and  further 
off  shore,  but  in  1940  as  in  Nelson's  day  the  advan- 
tages accruing  to  a  naval  power  that  controlled  the 
high  seas  were  tremendous.  Collapse  of  France 
and  entry  of  Italy  into  the  war  as  an  opponent  put 
a  terrific  strain  upon  the  British  Navy  but  it  con- 
tinued the  blockade  with  a  high  degree  of  effec- 
tiveness. 

In  the  Narvik  operations  the  British  lost  heav- 
ily, particularly  from  bombs  By  the  time  their  na- 
val forces  reached  Norwegian  waters  the  enemy 
had  established  control  of  the  air,  and,  although 
the  British  vessels  were  well  handled  and  them- 
selves inflicted  considerable  damage,  they  were  un- 
able to  maintain  themselves  in  Southern  Norway 
without  adequate  fighter  protection  against  repeat- 
ed air  attacks  any  more  than  they  could  have  op- 
crated  there  with  inadequate  destroyer  screens  to 
safeguard  them  from  submarine  torpedoes. 

For  a  time,  the  air  opposition  in  the  Narvik  area 
was  much  less  intense  and  the  operations  there 
were  correspondingly  more  successful  When  the 
fall  of  Dunkirk  and  the  collapse  of  France  oc- 
curred, that  area  too  was  abandoned.  On  June  8, 
the  carrier  Glorious,  with  all  her  planes  on  deck, 
escorted  by  two  destroyers  was  surprised  by  two 
German  battleships  as  she  was  evacuating  Narvik. 
The  4  7-inch  guns  of  the  Glorious  were,  of  course, 
no  match  for  those  of  the  heavier  ships  and  she 
and  her  escort  were  at  once  destroyed.  No  satis- 
factory explanation  has  been  made  for  the  hope- 
less inadequacy  of  the  escort,  nor  for  the  reason 
for  the  surprise  under  conditions  of  ten  miles  visi- 
bility when  she  might  have  had  warning  from  an 
air  patrol  had  one  been  established. 

During  the  Norwegian  operations  a  particularly 
historic  event  occurred  when  an  English  subma- 
rine was  captured.  It  had  struck  a  mine  in  the 
Kattegat  which  rendered  it  completely  inoperative 
on  the  surface.  Its  commander  surrendered  to  an 
aircraft  that  landed  alongside.  After  minesweepers 
had  cleared  a  path,  it  was  towed  into  port.  This 
was  the  first  capture  of  an  English  warship  since 
1815  when  the  USS.  Hornet  captured  H.MS. 
Penguin. 

As  has  been  mentioned  earlier,  the  evacuation  of 
Dunkirk  in  late  May,  using  all  manner  of  ships 
from  cruisers  to  row  boats  without  suitable  air 
support  in  face  of  opposition  by  mine,  submarine, 
motor  torpedo  boat,  aircraft,  and  shore  batteries, 
was  not  only  a  fine  illustration  of  the  efficiency, 
morale,  and  discipline  of  the  naval  personnel,  and 


a  tribute  to  the  ship  builders  and  designers,  but  it 
forcibly  demonstrated  that  aircraft  had  not  gained 
ascendency  over  surface  craft  as  might  have  been 
concluded  from  the  Norwegian  campaign. 

With  France  out  of  the  war  and  Italy  in,  it  be- 
came necessary  for  Great  Britain  to  readjust  the 
disposition  of  its  naval  forces  to  prevent  serious, 
perhaps  fatal,  leaks  in  its  blockade.  The  Mediter- 
ranean force  was  heavily  reinforced.  The  handi- 
cap of  continuously  operating  ships  in  close  prox- 
imity to  enemy  air  bases  was  not  so  marked  in 
that  area,  and  with  their  own  fleet  bases  at  Alex- 
andria and  Gibraltar  moderately  secure,  it  became 
possible  gradually  to  bring  increasing  pressure  on 
enemy  outlying  positions  without  relinquishing  the 
blockade.  The  major  naval  base  at  Malta  that  had 
for  so  many  years  been  Great  Britain's  key  posi- 
tion in  the  Mediterranean  was  too  close  to  Italian 
air  centers  to  be  used  as  a  primary  base.  On  the 
other  hand,  with  the  English  fleet  behind  it  neither 
Italian  sea  nor  air  power  was  able  to  force  its 
capitulation  and  the  English  ships  continued  to  use 
it  to  a  minor  extent. 

A  number  of  contacts  between  English  and  Ital- 
ian ships  occurred  and  the  former  were  uniformly 
successful.  Early  in  November  a  new  type  of  naval 
engagement  occurred.  A  strong  English  force  in- 
cluding two  carriers  entered  the  instep  of  the  Ital- 
ian boot  by  night.  Torpedo  planes  supported  by 
fighters  were  launched  from  the  carriers  and  at- 
tacked naval  vessels  in  the  strongly  fortified  base 
at  Taranto.  Conflicting  claims  were  made  as  to  re- 
sults, but  it  was  certain  that  one  new  battleship 
was  severely  damaged  and  sunk  in  shallow  water 
and  that  two  others  were  struck  by  torpedoes.  Oth- 
er indeterminate  damage  was  done.  Italian  counter 
air  attacks  on  the  ships  apparently  did  no  serious 
damage. 

During  the  latter  half  of  the  year  the  demands 
on  the  British  Navy  to  maintain  unaided  a  block- 
ade of  such  vast  proportions,  to  be  ready  to  over- 
come enemy  surface  ships  that  might  put  to  sea,  to 
safeguard  convoys  from  air  and  submarine  attacks, 
and  to  dispose  of  raiders  in  distant  seas,  necessi- 
tated strenuous  efforts  to  increase  the  available 
light  forces. 

The  problem  was  all  the  more  difficult  because 
she  had  entered  the  war  with  too  few  destroyers 
for  major  efforts  in  modern  war  and  the  losses  in 
that  type  had  been  heavy.  In  addition,  the  repair 
facilities,  particularly  those  along  the  channel  had 
suffered  heavily  from  the  enemy  air  offensive. 
President  Roosevelt  helped  the  situation  when  he 
entered  into  an  arrangement  to  exchange  50  over- 
age American  destroyers  for  leases  of  sites  in 
British  territory  in  the  western  Atlantic  suitable 
for  American  air  and  naval  bases.  This  and  other 
possible  American  aid,  together  with  Empire  build- 
ing, promised  to  continue  the  British,  for  a  time 
at  least,  in  a  favorable  naval  situation. 

Greece.  In  August,  as  a  prelude  to  the  Greek- 
Italian  war,  an  old  minelaying  cruiser,  the  2100-ton 
Helle,  was  torpedoed  by  a  submarine,  but  the  Ital- 
ians disclaimed  any  responsibility  for  the  act.  Prof- 
iting by  instruction  and  technical  advice  from  Eng- 
lish naval  officers  the  small  Greek  navy  demon- 
strated an  unexpected  degree  of  proficiency  in 
patrolling  adjacent  waters  after  the  war  broke.  At 
least  one  Italian  submarine  was  sunk  by  a  Greek 
vessel  of  similar  class,  and  a  destroyer  division  on 
one  occasion  penetrated  the  Straits  of  Otranto  and 
raided  the  Italian  held  port  of  Valona  in  Albania. 

The  new  navy  yard  at  Scaramanga  was  in  full 


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operation,  and  two  destroyers,  the  first  to  be  built 
in  Greece,  were  under  construction. 

Ireland.  Probably  as  a  consequence  of  reports 
that  German  submarines  were  entering  the  bays  of 
Ireland  in  perfect  safety  to  recharge  batteries  and 
for  other  purposes,  the  government  of  Eire  com- 
menced the  nucleus  of  a  Navy.  Two  fishing  escort 
vessels  were  equipped  and  commissioned,  plans 
were  made  for  putting  several  tugs  into  service,  a 
number  of  fast  motor  torpedo  boats  costing  about 
$1,000,000  were  ordered,  and  personnel  was  re- 
cruited. 

Under  the  terms  of  the  Anglo-Irish  accord  of 
1938,  the  ships  of  the  Royal  Navy  had  no  right  to 
enter  the  territorial  waters  of  the  Free  State.  The 
British  rigidly  respected  this  agreement,  but  made 
insistent  pleas  for  permission  to  use  Irish  ports 
upon  which  to  base  naval  vessels  for  anti-sub- 
marine operations.  At  the  year's  end,  however, 
such  permission  had  been  steadfastly  refused. 

Italy.  When  Italy  entered  the  war  on  June  10 
she  had  two  powerful  new  battleships  and  four 
older  ones  that  had  been  recently  modernized,  seven 
new  8-inch  cruisers  that  were  regarded  as  among 
the  best  afloat,  a  dozen  modern  light  cruisers,  about 
a  hundred  destroyers,  and  even  more  submarines, 
all  modern,  besides  a  number  of  older  vessels  of 
those  types,  and  about  a  hundred  motor  torpedo 
boats. 

The  power  of  this  great  Navy,  however,  did  not 
make  itself  felt.  Among  the  material  factors  to 
which  the  failure  may  be  ascribed  were  a  serious 
oil  shortage,  inadequate  munitions  supply,  particu- 
larly torpedoes  and  mines,  and  a  general  lack  of 
raw  materials  to  make  up  losses  and  deficiencies. 

The  fleet  remained  for  the  most  part  in  port  as 
"a  fleet  in  being"  rather  than  one  striving  for  mas- 
tership of  the  Mediterranean.  The  English  forces 
at  the  opposite  ends  of  the  sea  not  only  extended 
their  control  instead  of  being  driven  back  to  their 
bases,  but  they  seriously  interferred  with  commu- 
nications between  Italy  and  the  African  colonies. 
Several  of  their  transports  and  supply  ships  were 
reported  destroyed,  and  lack  of  a  sure  and  steady 
stream  of  supplies  became  a  serious  handicap  for 
the  Army  in  Libya. 

The  weak  point  in  Italy's  fundamental  naval 
policy  gradually  became  apparent  That  policy  had 
influenced  the  design  of  ships  which  were  ex- 
tremely fast.  But  the  high  speed  was  attained  at 
sacrifice  of  protection.  The  policy  might  be  char- 
acterized of  one  to  raid  and  run  rather  than  to 
stand  and  fight.  Such  a  policy  when  operating 
against  tougher  ships  manned  by  personnel  ready 
to  trade  heavy  blows  could  not  bring  control  of 
the  sea. 

In  six  months  the  Italians  lost  at  least  15  com- 
batant ships,  with  fully  as  many  more  badly  dam- 
aged, without  inflicting  anything  like  as  serious 
losses  on  the  enemy.  Early  in  July  British  and  Ital- 
ian forces  met  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Ionian 
Sea.  Such  fighting  as  took  place  was  at  long  range 
and  the  Italians  outdistanced  the  British  and  re- 
turned to  port.  En  route  the  battleships  Cavour 
and  Cesare  were  attacked  by  their  own  aircraft. 
The  aviators,  in  a  separate  service  in  Italy,  had 
probably  confused  the  appearance  of  these  ships 
with  that  of  one  of  the  English  which  they  closely 
resembled. 

In  one  engagement  the  Sydney  sank  the  Bar- 
tolomeo  Colleont  as  it  was  running  away,  and  in 
another  the  Ajax  (made  famous  in  the  Graf  Spee 
engagement)  sank  three  destroyers  and  damaged 


another  that  she  encountered  in  the  eastern  ap- 
proaches to  the  Straits  of  Sicily.  The  Taranto  dis- 
aster has  been  mentioned  in  the  account  of  British 
activities.  The  British  also  claim  to  have  done 
some  damage  to  naval  ships  in  bombing  Naples 
and  Brindisi.  At  any  rate,  well  credited  reports 
stated  that  most  of  the  important  Italian  naval 
units  had  been  withdrawn  to  the  comparative  safety 
of  the  ports  of  Trieste,  Fiume,  and  Pola. 

Little  had  been  heard  of  activities  of  motor  tor- 
pedo boat  flotillas,  and  the  submarine  service  from 
which  so  much  was  expected  inflicted  compara- 
tively little  damage  in  the  Mediterranean.  Italian 
announcements  that  numbers  of  them  were  oper- 
ating in  the  Atlantic  (possibly  based  at  Bordeaux) 
lacked  confirmation. 

Japan.  "The  Combined  Fleet,"  Japan's  principal 
fighting  force,  did  not  take  direct  part  in  the  China 
war  but  carried  on  its  regular  training  schedule  in 
home  waters  and  in  the  mandated  islands.  The 
forces  in  China  occupied  the  Yangtze  river  and  a 
number  of  coast  ports  and  maintained  a  blockade 
against  Chiang  Kai-shek.  The  naval  air  force 
gained  considerable  experience  in  bombing  shore 
objectives.  They  operated  both  from  carriers  and 
shore  bases. 

The  Navy  established  a  base  on  Hainan  island 
but  details  were  lacking.  The  facilities  of  the  base 
at  Maidzuru  were  expanded  to  bring  it  up  to  the 
first  rank.  Various  unconfirmed  reports  were  in 
circulation  regarding  improvement  of  the  naval  fa- 
cilities in  the  Marshall,  Caroline,  and  Mariana  Is- 
lands. 

The  reticence  as  to  the  building  program  con- 
tinued, but  public  announcements  were  made  from 
time  to  time  giving  the  names,  but  not  the  types 
nor  characteristics,  of  ships  launched.  A  large 
amount  of  naval  work  was  going  on  in  shipyards, 
and  it  had  become  well  established  that  two  of  the 
battleships  building  were  nearing  completion,  and 
that  a  number  of  others  were  on  the  ways.  The 
necessary  light  units  to  maintain  a  well  balanced 
fleet  were  also  under  construction. 

The  record-breaking  ten -hi  11  ion-yen  budget  for 
the  1940-41  fiscal  year  was  so  divided  that  it  was 
not  possible  to  get  a  clear  idea  of  just  what  pro- 
portion would  be  used  for  naval  purposes,  but 
about  64  per  cent  was  for  Army  and  Navy  estab- 
lishments. 

On  January  22  the  submarine  1-63,  which  went 
down  with  81  officers  and  men  after  a  collision  in 
Bungo  Straits  the  preceding  February,  was  raised 
after  more  than  eleven  months  salvage  operations. 
This  mishap  to  that  ship  was  the  first  of  a  series 
of  submarine  disasters  that  hefell  Japanese,  Amer- 
ican, British,  and  French  submarines  in  turn  dur- 
ing the  first  six  months  of  1938. 

Netherlands.  Before  being  overrun  by  Ger- 
many the  government  continued  to  keep  its  naval 
forces,  both  in  home  waters  and  in  the  East  Indies, 
in  fighting  trim  At  the  same  time,  it  pushed  for- 
ward the  construction  work  in  progress  on  two 
cruisers,  a  number  of  destroyers  and  submarines, 
and  other  minor  vessels.  Paravanes,  motor  torpedo 
boats,  and  other  accessories  were  ordered  from 
abroad. 

When  the  German  invasion  came  the  naval  forces 
had  no  surface  craft  to  oppose,  but  for  several  days 
numerous  contests  occurred  between  ships  and  air- 
craft The  naval  losses  were  surprisingly  small, 
about  ten  of  the  least  valuable  ships;  just  how 
many  of  these  were  from  bombing  attacks  and 
how  many  from  mines  or  artillery  fire  remained 


NAVAL  PROGRESS 


499 


NAVAL  PROGRESS 


uncertain.  The  anti-aircraft  fire  of  the  ships  in- 
flicted considerable  damage  on  the  invaders,  and 
valuable  assistance  was  given  shore-based  forces. 

After  naval  support  of  the  Army  could  no  longer 
be  effective  several  ships  under  construction  were 
destroyed,  and  several  others  that  were  building  ac- 
companied the  fleet  to  England,  either  under  their 
own  power  or  under  tow.  Two  cruisers  on  the 
ways  in  the  early  stages  of  construction  fell  into 
German  hands.  The  ships  that  reached  England 
continued  in  the  war,  operating  with  the  British 
Navy  but  with  their  own  crews. 

In  the  East  Indies,  the  Dutch  naval  forces  con- 
sisted of  two  cruisers,  a  dozen  modern  destroyers, 
at  least  twenty  submarines,  and  several  squadrons 
of  naval  flying  boats,  as  well  as  various  small 
craft.  That  force  under  general  direction  of  the 
Dutch  Government  in  London  maintained  itself  in 
readiness  for  action,  improved  its  principal  base 
at  Surabaya,  and  developed  subsidiary  bases  at 
other  points  in  the  Dutch  possessions. 

Norway.  The  Norwegian  Admiralty  announced 
that  a  series  of  tests  as  to  probabilities  of  collision 
with  floating  mines  established  that  in  a  calm  sea 
the  bow  wave  would  throw  the  mine  clear  if  it 
were  more  than  five  yards  from  the  stem  of  the 
ship,  and  that  in  a  rough  sea  the  results  were  ir- 
regular. (Note:  This  referred,  of  course,  to  con- 
tact mines,  not  to  magnetic  mines.) 

The  Norwegian  naval  forces  on  April  9  when 
the  Germans  made  their  unexpected  attack  were 
as  impotent  as  the  Norwegian  Army.  While  the 
Germans  sustained  considerable  naval  losses  during 
the  Norwegian  campaign  the  only  damage  directly 
attributable  to  the  Navy  was  that  to  a  cruiser  by 
gun-fire  from  the  minelayer  Olaf  Trygrasson. 
The  Norwegians,  on  the  other  hand,  had  at  least 
eleven  ships  sunk  and  the  rest  of  their  Navy  cap- 
tured ;  virtually  all  losses  being  without  any  show 
of  resistance. 

Portugal.  Slow  progress  was  made  on  the 
building  program.  The  new  navy  yard  at  Alfeite 
launched  a  1150-ton  hydrographic  ship.  Work  was 
commenced  on  a  small  dry  dock  at  Paco  de  Arcos, 
six  miles  from  Lisbon  Reports  indicated  that  fa- 
cilities for  submarine  operations  were  being  devel- 
oped in  the  Cape  Verde  Islands. 

Spain.  Extensive  plans  for  rehabilitating  the 
Spanish  navy  seemed  unlikely  to  make  much  prog- 
ress in  the  existing  impoverished  condition  of  the 
country.  Some  work  was  accomplished,  however, 
in  improving  the  facilities  of  the  Ferrol  navy  yard. 
The  naval  vessels  that  survived  the  war  were  in 
poor  shape,  and  remained  relatively  inactive  Funds 
were  not  available  for  modernizing  or  repairing 
them,  much  less  for  building  new  ships. 

Sweden.  The  navy  was  actively  engaged  in  im- 
proving its  defenses;  protective  mine  fields  were 
planted;  reserve  supplies  of  fuel  were  accumu- 
lated, and  special  provisions  were  made  for  protec- 
tion from  mine  damage.  More  than  one  hundred 
merchant  ships  were  armed,  and  the  government 
assisted  in  providing  them  with  paravanes  for  pro- 
tection against  mines.  The  construction  program, 
however,  was  slowed  down  because  of  difficulties 
in  obtaining  materials.  Supplementary  appropria- 
tions were  made  for  current  and  future  maneuvers. 

Union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Republics  (Rus- 
sia). Notwithstanding  the  lack  of  complete  or 
wholly  accurate  information,  many  things  sug- 
gested that  the  Soviet's  navy  was  developing  and 
strengthening.  In  July  Admiral  Kuznetzov  an- 
nounced that  the  Navy  would  add  168  warships  to 


her  fleet  during  the  year;  and  he  stated  that  112 
ships  had  been  completed  in  1939.  Those  grandiose 
claims  might  not  have  been  warranted,  but  numer- 
ous additions  to  the  fleet  were  made,  particularly 
in  the  destroyer  and  submarine  classes.  More  op- 
erations at  sea  than  formerly  were  noted  in  the 
Baltic,  the  Black  Sea,  the  Arctic,  and  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  Siberia. 

Acquisition  of  naval  bases  in  Finland,  Latvia, 
and  Estonia  greatly  strengthened  the  Russian  naval 
position  in  the  Baltic ;  while  control  of  the  north- 
ern mouth  of  the  Danube,  in  the  territory  taken 
from  Rumania,  improved  her  position  in  the  Black 
Sea.  For  some  years  she  had  been  improving  the 
facilities  of  her  Arctic  coast,  and  naval  bases  of 
a  sort  were  being  slowly  developed  in  the  Far  East. 

United  States.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year, 
with  the  European  War  relatively  quiescent,  naval 
training,  expansion,  and  development  was  planned 
to  continue  along  the  lines  of  late  1939.  After  a 
substantial  reduction  in  its  initial  estimates  by  the 
Budget  Bureau,  the  Navy  Department  asked  Con- 
gress for  $1,078,000,000.  This  was  cut  about  113 
million  by  the  House  in  February  and  another  two 
million  by  the  Senate  in  April.  Before  final  ap- 
proval of  the  bill,  German  successes  in  Europe 
caused  the  country,  the  President,  and  Congress  to 
become  alarmed  over  our  own  defenses,  and  the 
President  delivered  a  special  message  to  Congress 
on  the  subject.  The  Senate  recalled  the  bill  and 
when  it  next  passed,  the  amount  had  been  increased 
to  $1,300,000,000.  Meantime  a  bill  had  been  passed 
authorizing  an  11  per  cent  increase  in  ships. 

As  the  international  situation  rapidly  became 
worse,  a  supplementary  appropriation  measure  car- 
ried additional  funds,  bringing  the  Navy  allotment 
to  $1,867,451,208  with  contract  authorization  for 
a  further  $311,755,612.  After  France  collapsed, 
Congress  hastily  rushed  through  a  bill  to  increase 
the  Navy  by  70  per  cent  at  an  estimated  ultimate 
cost  of  four  billion  dollars.  The  aircraft  program 
called  for  15,000  naval  planes.  A  bill  for  10,000 
naval  pilots  followed  closely. 

In  August,  a  second  supplementary  defense  bill 
added  over  700  millions  and  a  further  500  millions 
in  contracts  was  authorized.  A  third  bill  provided 
for  another  75  million  bringing  the  total  in  cash 
and  contract  authorization  for  the  year  to  $3,460,- 
000,000. 

Provision  was  made  for  170,000  men  in  the  Navy 
and  34,000  in  the  Marine  Corps,  a  substantial  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  reserves  on  extended  active 
service,  and  a  large  increase  in  pilot  training. 
Funds  were  made  available  for  10,000  serviceable 
aircraft,  for  commencing  contraction  of  292  com- 
batant vessels  and  57  auxiliary  ships  and  for  ac- 
quiring and  converting  other  auxiliary  ships,  for 
recommissionmg  decommissioned  naval  vessels,  for 
establishing  new  air  bases  and  stations,  and  for 
providing  additional  production  facilities,  including 
new  plants  and  extension  of  existing  plants  for 
accelerating  immediate  production. 

The  composition  of  the  Navy  in  under-age  com- 
batant vessels  as  authorized  by  the  aforementioned 
legislation,  and  for  which  funds  to  commence  con- 
struction were  made  available  was : 


Battleships 
Aircraft  Carriers 
Cruisers    . 
Destroyers 
Submarines 


1,045,000  tons 
454,500  tons 
899,024  tons 
478,000  tons 
172,956  tons 


Tbtal...  3,049,480  tons. 


NAVAL  PROGRESS 


500 


NEBRASKA 


The  authorized  number  of  aircraft  for  that  fleet 
was  15,000.  It  was  estimated  that  to  man  it  would 
require  461,000  men  and  25,000  officers,  including 
10,000  pilots.  The  earliest  date  of  completion  was 
estimated  to  be  1946. 

The  Navy  Department  in  anticipation  of  passage 
of  those  several  successive  bills  conferred  with 
shipyard  representatives  and  contractors.  Tentative 
agreements  were  negotiated,  and  as  bills  were  passed 
contracts  were  definitely  awarded  with  but  little 
delay.  Plant  expansions  were  provided  for,  and 
arrangements  were  made  for  acquisition  of  auxil- 
iary vessels. 

Legislation  in  June  gave  the  President  authority 
to  dispose  of  any  naval  weapon,  ship,  boat,  air- 
craft, etc.,  in  the  event  that  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Operations  certified  they  were  not  essential  to  the 
defenses  of  the  United  States.  On  September  third 
he  informed  Congress  that  he  had  negotiated  an 
agreement  with  the  British  Government  to  secure 
sites  for  naval  and  air  bases  in  British  territory  in 
the  western  hemisphere  in  exchange  for  50  over- 
age American  destroyers.  The  requisite  certifica- 
tion was  given  by  Admiral  Stark,  Chief  of  Naval 
Operations,  and  the  destroyers  were  taken  to  Cana- 
dian ports  where  they  were  turned  over  to  British 
officers. 

A  board  headed  by  Rear  Admiral  Greenslade,  a 
member  of  the  General  Board,  conferred  with 
British  representatives  and  agreed  upon  sites  for 
bases  in  Newfoundland,  Bermuda,  the  Bahamas, 
the  Antilles,  and  Trinidad.  Plans  for  their  develop- 
ment were  drawn  and  arrangements  were  made  to 
commence  construction  at  once. 

The  ships  and  planes  of  the  Navy  were  main- 
tained in  the  same  general  organization  as  in  the 
recent  past  with  a  large  portion  of  the  combatant 
strength  operating  in  the  Pacific.  In  April  these 
units  were  concentrated  in  Hawaiian  waters  for 
extended  maneuvers,  including  the  annual  fleet 
problem.  Upon  the  scheduled  date  of  return  to  the 
Pacific  Coast  announcement  was  made  that  the 
fleet  would  continue  to  base  indefinitely  in  Hawaii 
to  facilitate  training.  At  the  end  of  the  year  it  was 
still  operating  in  that  area.  The  Atlantic  Squadron 
was  considerably  increased  in  strength  by  additions 
of  new  ships  and  old  ones  recommissioned.  With 
increase  in  operating  strength,  its  status  was  raised 
to  that  of  a  force  and  its  name  changed  to  Patrol 
Force.  The  organization  was  along  fleet  lines  to 
which  it  might  be  advanced  as  the  two-ocean  navy 
became  a  reality. 

The  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  operating 
ships  and  planes  required  a  commensurate  increase 
in  personnel.  And  the  increase  in  numbers  became 
even  greater  when  determination  was  made  to  bring 
all  ships  up  to  100  per  cent  complement  instead  of 
the  85  per  cent  which  was  the  normal  peacetime 
allowance  of  most  of  them.  This  required  an  ac- 
celerated recruiting  program  and  a  large  increase 
in  shore  facilities  where  the  men  newly  inducted 
in  to  the  Service  received  initial  indoctrination  and 
training.  The  period  of  preliminary  training  was 
reduced  to  six  weeks,  and  as  the  new  men  joined 
their  ships  they  were  given  intensive  training  to 
qualify  them  for  the  innumerable  specialized  billets 
they  were  to  fill. 

Difficult  as  were  the  problems  of  developing 
competent  petty  officers  and  skilled  technicians, 
those  of  providing  officers  for  the  existing  and 
building  navy  were  even  more  acute.  Retired  and 
reserve  officers  were  placed  on  active  duty  and  the 
Naval  Academy  was  expanded  New  air  stations 


were  being  built  at  Corpus  Christi,  Texas,  and  at 
Jacksonville,  Florida,  to  supplement  the  one  at 
Pensacola,  Florida,  for  training-  naval  aviators. 
Machinery  was  set  up  for  obtaining  the  embryo 
pilots,  and  arrangements  were  perfected  for  hay- 
ing both  the  new  stations  operating  to  capacity  in 
1941. 

With  the  large  navy  in  prospect  it  would  no 
longer  be  possible  to  obtain  all  the  line  officers 
necessary  to  man  it  from  the  Naval  Academy. 
Legislation  was  obtained  authorizing  permanent 
commissions  in  the  line  of  the  regular  Navy  of 
selected  reserve  officers  and  graduates  of  naval 
R.O.T.C.  units.  Examinations  were  held,  and  it 
was  expected  that  the  first  groups  would  have  their 
commissions  approved  early  in  1941.  As  with  the 
enlisted  personnel,  strenuous  training  schedules 
awaited  the  newly  commissioned  officers  as  they 
joined  their  ships. 

During  the  year  the  carrier  Wasp,  the  10,000- 
ton  light  cruiser  Heletia,  and  a  number  of  destroy- 
ers, submarines,  and  motor  torpedo  boats  were 
commissioned.  A  great  number  of  destroyers,  sub- 
marines, and  auxiliaries  were  recommissioned,  and 
a  large  number  of  auxiliaries  were  purchased  and 
converted  or  were  being  converted  to  naval  use. 
Two  new  battleships  were  neanng  completion,  but 
no  other  large  ships  were  scheduled  for  delivery 
before  1942.  After  the  construction  program  was 
in  full  swing  various  means  of  speeding  it  up  were 
found,  and  late  in  December  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  announced  that  many  of  the  ships  would  be 
completed  ahead  of  scheduled  dates,  and  that  nor- 
mal building  time  of  destroyers  particularly  was 
being  considerably  reduced. 

Much  progress  was  made  in  expanding  shore  fa- 
cilities both  for  new  construction  and  for  repairs 
and  other  services  to  the  fleet.  Activities  were  most 
marked  in  providing  air  bases  from  which  long 
range  patrol  bombers  would  operate.  The  largest 
development  of  this  nature  was  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  with  outlying  advance  bases  at  Midway, 
Johnston,  and  Palmyra.  Others,  outside  the  con- 
tinental limits  of  the  United  States,  were  in  Alaska, 
Panama,  and  Porto  Rico.  It  was  expected  that  the 
developments  of  the  bases  obtained  from  Great 
Britain  would  be  rapid. 

See  AERONAUTICS  under  Military  Aviation ;  EU- 
ROPEAN WAR;  SHIPBUILDING;  Compare  MILITARY 
PROGRESS. 

C.  H.  McMoRRis. 

NAVIGATION.  See  COAST  GUARD,  U.S.; 
NAVAL  PROGRESS;  SHIPPING. 

NAVY,  U.S.  See  NATIONAL  DEFENSE  ADVISO- 
RY COMMISSION;  NAVAL  PROGRESS. 

NAZARENE,  Church  of  the.  A  church  or- 
ganized in  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  in  1895.  With  it 
were  subsequently  united  the  Association  of  Pen- 
tecostal Churches  in  America  (founded  in  1895), 
the  Holiness  Church  of  Christ,  and  the  Pente- 
costal Mission.  Headquarters,  2923  Troost  Ave- 
nue, Kansas  City,  Mo.  For  statistics,  see  RELI- 
GIOUS ORGANIZATIONS. 

NAZISM.  See  FASCISM. 

NEANDERTAL  MAN.  See  ANTHROPOLOGY. 

NEBRASKA.  Area,  77,520  square  miles;  in- 
cludes water,  712  square  miles.  Population  (U.S. 
Census),  April,  1940.  1,315,834;  1930,  1,377,963. 
Omaha  (1940),  223,844,  Lincoln  (the  capital), 
81,984.  The  whole  population  of  the  State  dimin- 
ished (1930-40)  by  62,129;  the  rural  group,  by 
90,170,  to  801,686;  but  the  urban  population 


NEBRASKA 


501 


NECROLOGY 


(dwellers  in  places  of  2500  or  more)  rose  by  28,- 
041,  to  S14,l4 

Agriculture.  Nebraska  harvested,  in  1940,  17,- 
322,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Leading  these, 
corn,  on  6,289,000  acres,  made  106,913,000  bu.,  esti- 
mated as  having  a  value  of  $62,010,000  to  the  pro- 
ducers. Wheat,  on  2,646,000  acres,  gave  34,821,000 
bu.  (value,  about  $22,634,000);  oats,  1,490,000 
acres,  35,760,000  bu.  ($10,013,000)  ;  barley,  1,409,- 
000  acres,  22,544,000  bu.  ($8,792,000)  ;  tame  hay, 
1,029,000  acres,  1,366,000  tons  ($8.879,000) ;  pota- 
toes, 81,000  acres,  11,340,000  bu.  ($5,557,000) ;  grain 
sorghums,  736,000  acres,  7,728,000  bu.  ($3,246,000)  ; 
sugar  beets,  70,000  acres,  910,000  tons  (for  crop  of 
previous  year,  1940,  $3,492,000).  Farms  numbered 
121.062  in  1940  and  averaged  391 1  acres. 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40  Ne- 
braska's inhabitants  of  school  age  (from  5  years 
to  21)  were  reckoned  at  369,154.  The  year's  en- 
rollments of  pupils  in  all  public  schools  numbered 
276,188:  this  comprised  191,910  in  the  elementary 
group  and  84,278  in  high  school.  The  year's  ex- 
penditure for  public-school  education  totaled  $20,- 
427,684.  Teachers  in  public  schools  numbered  12,- 
759 ;  their  year's  pay  averaged  $1283  for  men  and 
$981  for  women  in  cities  and  villages  and  $518  for 
men  and  $498  for  women  in  rural  schools. 

Mineral  Production.  Petroleum,  found  near 
Falls  City  in  1939,  gave  a  small  but  rising  yield  in 
1940.  Mineral  production  (totaling  $4,028,712  for 
1938)  had  previously  no  conspicuous  features. 

History.  The  Legislature  met  in  special  session 
early  in  the  year.  As  the  Union's  only  unicarneral 
legislative  body,  established  in  1937  and  still  in 
the  initial  stage  of  trial,  it  continued  to  draw  at- 
tention from  outside  the  State.  It  sat  for  eleven 
days,  disposed  of  about  twenty  bills  dealing  chiefly 
with  poor-relief,  pensions,  and  unemployment  com- 
pensation, and  kept  the  cost  of  running  the  session 
down  to  about  $5000,  the  members  getting  no  ad- 
ditional pay.  This  compared  favorably  with  its 
own  previous  record,  $103,445  for  the  regular  ses- 
sion of  1937  and  $100,678  for  the  regular  session 
of  1939;  still  more  favorably  with  the  $202,593 
that  the  last  regular  session  of  the  old  bicameral 
Legislature  cost  in  1935.  Comment  at  the  time 
noted  that  the  unicameral  Legislature  showed  the 
advantage  of  fixing  responsibility  in  a  single  house, 
that  it  had  successfully  done  without  the  secrecy 
employed  in  other  legislatures'  executive  sessions 
and  often  in  their  committees'  meetings,  and  that 
it  had  brought  to  the  task  a  higher  type  of  citizens. 
The  Atlanta  Constitution  apprehended,  however, 
that  a  unicameral  Legislature  in  the  hands  of  a 
political  ring  "could  wreak  great  damage,"  even 
though  the  system  had  brought  "astonishing  re- 
sults" in  Nebraska. 

Nebraska's  three  State-owned  power  districts  be- 
came (August  15)  a  single  organization,  forming 
a  $60,000,000  system  of  electrical  generation.  Five 
years  of  dispute  and  litigation  had  preceded  the 
merger,  long  sought  by  the  Federal  authorities 
through  the  Public  Works  Administration,  which 
had  furnished  the  money  for  constructing  the  works. 
The  Platte  Valley  and  Loup  River  districts  were 
in  operation  at  the  time  of  the  merger ;  the  Central 
Nebraska  District  was  still  partly  in  stage  of  con- 
struction. Its  Kingsley  Dam  was  scheduled  for 
completion  by  November  1.  In  addition  to  supply- 
ing electricity,  the  district  was  to  irrigate  220,000 
acres  of  land  that  had  suffered  much  from  drought 
in  recent  years.  An  adverse  report  on  financial 
practices,  made  to  the  WPA,  led  to  D.  W.  Kings- 


ley's  retirement  (October  8)  as  head  of  the  Cen- 
tral District.  See  FLOODS. 

Elections.  On  November  5  Nebraska's  popular 
vote  for  President  gave  Willkie  (Rep.)  352,201, 
constituting  a  margin  of  about  88,524  over  Roose- 
velt (Dem),  who  got  263,677  votes.  D  wight  L. 
Griswold  (Rep  )  was  elected  Governor,  defeating 
Terry  Carpenter  (Dem  ).  For  U.S.  Senator,  Hugh 
A.  Butler  (Rep)  defeated  Gov.  R.  L.  Cochran 
(Dem  )  and  won  the  seat  actually  held  by  E.  R. 
Burke  (Dem.),  an  opponent  of  the  New  Deal,  who 
had  failed  of  renommation  in  the  Democratic  pri- 
mary. 

Officers.  Nebraska's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  R  L,  Cochran  (Dem.); 
Lieutenant  Governor,  William  E.  Johnson ;  Secre- 
tary of  State,  Harry  R  Swanson ;'  Auditor,  Ray 
C.  Johnson ;  Treasurer,  John  Havekost ;  Attorney 
General,  W.  R.  Johnson ;  Superintendent  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction,  Charles  W.  Taylor. 

NECROLOGY.  The  following  is  a  list  of 
notable  persons  who  died  during  the  year  1940. 

Aage,  Prince  of  Denmark;  died  in  Taza,  French  Mo- 
rocco, Feb  29,  1940,  born  m  Copenhagen,  June  10,  1877. 
He  renounced  his  rights  to  the  Danish  throne  m  1914.  He 
served  m  the  French  Foreign  Legion  during  1923-31  and 
again  after  1932 

Abbott,  Maude  E.  8.  Canadian  heart  specialist;  died 
in  Montreal,  Can,  Sept.  2,  1940,  born  in  1869,  was  grad- 
uated from  Laval  Univ.  Faculty  of  Medicine,  1894  An 
international  authority  on  heart  ailments,  she  served  on 
the  staff  of  McGill  University  until  her  retirement  in 
1935.  At  her  death  she  was  secretary  of  the  International 
Association  of  Medical  Museums. 

Abbott,  Robert  Sengstacke.  American  editor  and  pub- 
lisher; died  in  Chicago,  Feb.  29,  1940;  born  m  Savannah, 
Ga  ,  Nov.  24,  1870,  educated  at  Claflin  University,  Hamp- 
ton Institute,  and  Kent  Law  School.  Founder  in  1905  and 
afterwards  editor  and  publisher  of  The  Chicago  Defender, 
a  weekly  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  Negro  race 

Abercromble,  John  W.  American  educator;  died  in 
Montgomery,  Ala.,  July  2,  1940;  born  in  St.  Clair  Co, 
Ala ,  May  17,  1866.  He  served  as  State  superintendent  of 
education  in  Alabama  during  1898-1902  and  again  during 
1920-27,  as  assistant  superintendent,  1927-35,  and  as 
State  supervisor  of  teacher  certification  thereafter.  He  was 
president  of  the  University  of  Alabama  (1902-11)  and 
was  a  member  of  the  63d  and  64th  Congresses  (1913-17) 
as  a  delegate  at  large  from  Alabama. 

Abertay,  1st  Baron,  Charles  (Oonptr)  Barrie.  British 
politician,  shipowner,  and  merchant;  died  at  Tullybelton, 
Perthshire,  Scot.,  Dec.  6,  1940:  born  m  1875  He  was  a 
member  of  Parliament  from  Elgin  Burghs  (1918);  from 
Banffshire  (1918-24);  and  from  Southampton  (1931-40). 

Adams,  Thomas.  British  architect;  died  in  Battle,  Sus- 
sex, Mar.  24,  1940;  born  in  Edinburgh,  Sept.  10,  1871. 
He  was  the  founder  and  first  president  of  the  Town  Plan- 
ning Institute  (1914-15)  and  subsequently  served  as  pres- 
ident of  the  Canadian  Town  Planning  Institute  (1916) 
and  as  director  of  the  Regional  Plan  of  New  York  (1923- 
30)  He  taught  at  Harvard  University  and  the  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology  and  was  president  of  the 
Institute  of  Landscape  Architects  during  1937-39. 

Adler,  Cyrus.  American  educator,  died  in  Philadelphia. 
Apr.  7,  1940.  born  in  Van  Buren,  Ark ,  Sept.  13,  1863. 
He  was  associated  with  the  Smithsonian  Institution  during 
1892-1908  and  with  the  US  National  Museum  (1889- 
1908);  was  named  president  of  Dropsie  College  for  He- 
brew and  Cognate  Learning  in  1908,  and  in  1924  became, 
in  addition,  president  of  the  Jewish  Theological  Seminary 
of  America.  He  was  a  founder  of  the  American  Jewish 
Committee  (1907),  and  served  as  its  president  after  1929, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  Jewish  Publication  Society.  Al- 
though a  non-Zionist,  he  was  president  of  the  United 
Synagogue  of  America,  resigning  in  1917  when  that  or- 
ganization expressed  approval  of  the  Zionist  movement. 
He  was  a  leader  in  the  United  Palestine  Appeal,  and  the 
United  Jewish  Appeal  for  Refugees  and  Overseas  Needs, 
and  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Jewish  Encyclopedia, 
and  of  the  American  Jewish  Year  Book  (1899-1906).  Al- 
so, he  was  chairman  of  the  Army  and  Navy  Committee 
of  the  Jewish  Welfare  Board  and  on  Dec.  23,  1939,  was 
invited  by  President  Roosevelt  to  represent  the  Jews  in  a 
joint  peace  effort  by  the  religious  leaders  of  the  world. 
An  authority  on  Semitic  philosophy,  Assyriology,  Oriental 
archeology,  and  comparative  religions,  he  wrote  a  memo- 
randum on  the  Waiting  Wall  (1930)  prepared  for  the  Spe- 
cial Committee  of  the  League  of  Nations  on  behalf  of  the 
Jewish  Agency  for  Palestine. 


NECROLOGY 


502 


NECROLOGY 


7,  Oregorlo.  Filipino  bishop;  died  in  Manila, 
es,  Sept.  1,  1940;  born  in  Batac,  IIocos  Norte 
jrovince,  May  9,  1860.  In  1889  he  was  ordained  a  Roman 
Catholic  priest.  Ten  years  later  he  was  excommunicated 
for  having  joined  Aguinaldo's  rebel  forces  the  previous 
year.  In  1902  he  founded  the  Philippines  Independent 
Church,  which  he  headed  until  his  death.  With  Aguinaldo, 
he  was  defeated  by  Quecon  in  the  1935  presidential  elec- 
tion. 

Aldrich,  Chester  Holmes.  American  architect;  died  in 
Rome,  Italy,  Dec  26,  1940;  born  in  Providence,  R.I., 
June  4,  1871.  He  was  educated  at  Columbia  University 
and  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris:  and  (with  W. 
Adams  Delano)  founded  the  firm  of  Delano  and  Aldrich, 
New  York,  in  1903.  Delano  and  Aldrich  were  the  archi- 
tects for  many  famous  structures,  public  and  private,  in- 
cluding the  Japanese  Embassy  in  Washington,  the  new 
American  Embassy  in  Paris;  the  homes  ofjohn  D.  Rocke- 
feller in  Pocantico  Hills,  N.Y.,  and  Col.  Charles  E.  Lind- 
bergh at  Hopewell,  N.J.  In  the  World  War.  Mr.  Aldrich 
was  director  general  of  civil  affairs  of  the  American  Red 
Cross  Mission  in  Italy.  He  was  a  trustee  of  the  American 
Academy  in  Rome  since  1926  and  director  since  1935. 

Aleshirs,  Arthur  William.  American  Democratic  Con- 
gressman from  Ohio  (1937-39);  born  in  Luray,  Va.,  Feb. 
15,  1900;  died  in  Springfield,  d.  Mar.  11,  1940. 

Alexander,  Sir  Henry.  Scottish  editor;  died  in  Aber- 
deen, Apr.  7,  1940;  bom  in  1875.  He  edited  the  Aberdeen 
Free  Press  from  1914  to  1922  and  was  Lord  Provost  of 
Aberdeen  during  1932-35. 

Allan,  George  William.  Canadian  lawyer  and  business 
executive:  died  in  Victoria,  B  C,  Can.,  Dec  6,  1940; 
born  in  Moss  Park,  Toronto,  Ont ,  Aug  13,  1860  He  was 
president  of  the  Great-West  Life  Assurance  Co  ;  and  was 
a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons  from  South  Winni- 


___    f1Q17_2I} 

AlsbSTg,  O(arl)  Lncafl.  American  biochemist;  died  in 
Berkeley,  Calif.,  Nov.  1.  1940,  born  in  New  York  City. 
N.Y..  Apr  2,  1877  He  was  graduated  from  the  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons  at  Columbia  University  (1900), 
and  continued  his  medical  studies  at  the  Universities  of 
Strassburg  and  Berlin  (1900-03).  He  was  chief  chemist 
of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture from  1912  to  1921,  resigning  to  head  the  newly  es- 
tablished Food  Research  Institute  of  the  Carnegie  Founda- 
tion at  Stanford  University,  California  Dr  Alsberg's  fa- 
ther, Meinhard,  who  was  also  a  noted  chemist,  was  the 
founder  of  the  New  York  Chemical  Society,  parent  body 
of  the  American  Chemical  Society 

Amos,  Sir  Manrlca  Sheldon  British  Jurist;  died  In 
Ulverston,  Lancashire,  Eng,  Tune,  1940;  born  on  June 
15,  1872,  In  public  life  since  1898.  he  was  adviser  to  the 
Egyptian  Government,  1919-25,  Quain  Professor  of  Com- 
parative Law,  London  Univ.  1932-37,  and  chief  British 
member  of  the  International  Committee  of  Experts  on 
Private  Aerial  Law  from  1933  until  his  death. 

Amyot,  John  Andrew.  Canadian  physician,  Deputy 
Minister  of  Pensions  and  National  Health  (1919-33); 
died  in  Ottawa,  Feb  13,  1940;  born  in  Toronto,  July  25, 
1867  An  advocate  of  modern  sanitation  methods,  he  taught 
at  the  University  of  Toronto  during  1900-18  and  served 
with  the  Canadian  Expeditionary  Forces  during  the  World 
War  as  a  consultant  in  sanitation 

Andersen,  Hendrlk  Christian.  American  sculptor;  died 
in  Rome,  Italy,  Dec.  9,  1940;  born  in  Norway,  Apr  17, 
1872  He  came  to  the  United  States  as  a  child,  studied  art 
in  Boston;  and  lived  In  Italy  after  1899  Besides  sculp- 
ture, he  was  famous  as  the  author  of  plans  for  a  proposed 
international  city,  to  be  devoted  to  peace  and  art  He  spent 
$150.000  and  employed  40  architects,  working  under 
Ernest  Hebrard  of  Paris,  to  make  blueprints  for  the  city, 
which  was  to  be  the  permanent  seat  of  all  governments 
and  in  which  all  Internal,  financial,  commercial,  and  cul- 
tural exchanges  were  to  be  transacted — thus  assuring 
world  unity  and  peace 

Anderson,  Abraham  A.  American  artist:  born  in  Pea- 
pack,  N  J.,  in  1847:  died  In  New  York,  Apr.  27,  1940. 
His  work  was  mainly  of  portraits  of  prominent  men,  but 
one  of  his  best  known  works  was  a  triptych,  "Neither  do 
I  Condemn  Thee  "  He  was  active  in  the  founding  of  the 
United  States  forest  reserve  system. 

Anderson,  Harold  MacDonald.  American  journalist; 
died  in  New  York  City,  Dec.  26,  1940;  born  in  Great  Bar- 
rington,  Mass.  Aug  22,  1876.  He  worked  a*  a  reporter 
on  the  Berkshire  News  and  the  Berkshire  Courier,  Great 
Harrington;  corresponded  for  New  York  newspapers;  and 
joined  the  staff  of  The  Sun  in  New  York  City  on  June  1, 
1894,  remaining  there,  except  for  an  Interval  of  15  months 
In  1924-25,  until  his  death  He  penned  the  editorial  Lind- 
bergh Flies  Alone,  which  was  published  in  The  Sun  May 
21,  1927,  and  attracted  nation-wide  notice 

Anderson,  John  Crawford,  American  lawyer,  associate 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Alabama  from  1904  to 
1914.  chief  justice  thereafter;  died  in  Montgomery,  Ala., 
Apr.  27,  1940;  born  in  Greene  Co.,  Ala  ,  Aug.  5,  1863.  He 
dissented  from  the  Court's  opinion  that  the  Negroes  in  the 


Scottsboro  case  had  received  a  fair  and  impartial  trial. 

Anderson,  Mary.  See  NAVARRO,  MARY  ANDBMK>N  D*. 

Andreen.  OnstaY  Albert.  American  educator  and  au- 
thor; died  in  Chicago,  111.,  Oct.  1.  1940;  born  in  Porter, 
Ind.,  Mar.  13,  1864.  He  was  president  of  Augustana  Coll., 
Rock  Island,  111..  1901-35  (Emeritus).  Until  bis  death  he 
served  as  general  alumni  secretary. 

Andrevo,  QuiUermo.  See  SrAjrxsn-AuiaiCAN  LITERA- 
TURES under  Panama. 

m  Andrew,  John  B.  American  Civil  War  veteran,  na- 
tional commander  of  the  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic 
O939740):  died  in  Quincy,  111.,  June  30,  1940;  born  in 
Ohio  in  1849. 

Andrews,  Onarles  Freer.  British  clergyman;  died  in 
Calcutta.  Apr.  5.  1940;  born  in  Newcastre-on-Tyne,  Feb 
12,  1871.  Vice-president  of  Rabin dranath  Tagorers  Institu- 
tion in  Bengal  India,  he  was  an  authority  on  Indian  labor 
and  a  trusted  friend  of  Mahatma  Gandhi.  A  prolific  writ- 
er on  Indian  affairs,  he  wrote  Mahatma  Gandhi,  His  Own 
Story  and  The  Rise  and  Growth  of  the  Congress  in  India 

Arco,  Oeorg  von.  German  engineer;  died  in  Berlin, 
May  7,  1940;  born  in  Grossgorschuetz,  Aug.  30,  1869,  A 
pioneer  in  wireless  telephony  and  telegraphy,  he  invented 
several  improvements  tor  high  frequency  machines  and 
was  director  of  Gesellschaft  fftr  Drahtlose  Telegraphic, 
Berlin,  and  of  Telefunkcn. 

ArgHeUo  Barreto,  Santiago.  See  SPANISH-AMERICAN 
LITERATURES  under  Nicaragua 

Arnott,  Sir  John  Alexander.  Irish  soldier  and  publish- 
er;  died  on  July  26,  1940;  born  on  Nov.  16,  1853.  He  was 
a  major  and  an  honorary  lieutenant  colonel  of  the  4th 
Battalion,  Cheshire  Regiment  until  he  retired  in  1900  At 
his  death  he  was  chairman  of  7  he  Irish  Times  and  jus- 
tice of  the  peace  of  Dublin  and  Coik  Counties. 

Aronson,  Louis  V.  American  inventor;  died  in  Long 
Branch,  NJ,,  Nov.  2,  1940;  born  in  New  York  City, 
N.Y.,  Dec.  25,  1870.  He  invented  the  Ronson  cigarette 
lighter;  originated  several  types  of  mechanical  firewoiks, 
including  a  time-fuse  for  airplane  bombs,  and  was  a 
leader  in  the  development  of  non-poisonous  matches,  for 
which  last-named  work  he  received  a  $10,000  award  from 
the  Belgian  Government.  He  founded  the  Art  Metal 
Works  of  Newark,  N  J.,  in  1897. 

Ashbrook,  William  A.  American  Congressman;  died  in 
Johnstown.  O  ,  Jan.  1,  1940,  where  he  was  born,  July  1, 
1867.  Publisher  and  editor  of  the  Johnstmvn  Independent 
from  1885,  he  served  as  a  Democratic  member  of  Con- 
gress (1907-21;  1935-39). 

Auden,  Henry  William.  Canadian  philologist;  died  in 
London,  Canada,  Jan.  26.  1940:  born  in  1867  From  1903 
to  1918  he  was  principal  of  Upper  Canada  College,  and 
from  1919  to  1938  he  was  professor  of  Latin  at  Univer- 
sity of  Western  Ontario,  London.  Ont.  Thereafter  he  was 
Professor  Emeritus  of  the  Classics. 

Aughlnbangh,  William  Edmund.  American  physician, 
author,  educator,  lawyer,  and  explorer;  died  in  New  York 
City,  Dec.  18,  1940;  born  in  Westmoreland  Co,  Va.,  Oct. 
12,  1871.  A  graduate  of  the  National  Law  School,  Wash- 
ington. D  C.  (1892),  and  of  Columbia  (now  George  Wash- 
ington) University  (1897),  he  practiced  medicine  among 
lepers  in  Cuba,  Puerto  Rico,  and  Vene/urla;  visited  many 
countries  on  medical,  economic,  and  legal  missions:  enter- 
tained William  Jennings  Bryan  in  India;  was  friend  of 
a  rajah  who  had  800  wives  and  no  children;  wrote  for 
various  magazines,  newspapers,  and  syndicates,  and  was 
for  a  while  Professor  of  Foreign  Trade  at  New  York  Uni- 
versity. He  served  also  on  the  faculty  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity; founded  the  Explorers  Club;  and  headed  the 
Manhattan  Medical  Society  as  president  His  most  famous 
book  was  I  Swear  by  Apollo,  an  effervescent  autobiogra- 
phy published  in  1938 

Ayros,  Agnes.  American  motion  picture  actress;  died 
in  Hollywood,  Dec.  25,  1940;  born  in  Carbondale,  HI,  in 
1898.  She  played  opposite  Rudolph  Valentino  in  The 
Sheik  and  starred  in  many  other  silent  photoplays. 

Azafia,  Mannel.  Spanish  ex-President  and  writer;  died 
in  Montauban,  France,  Nov.  4,  1940;  born  in  Alcala  de 
los  Henares,  Castile,  Spain,  Jan.  10,  1880.  He  became 
Minister  of  War  in  1931;  was  accused  and  acquitted  of 
complicity  in  the  Socialist  and  Catalan  uprising  (1934); 
and  was  made  Prime  Minister  in  February,  1936.  He  was 
elected  President  (May,  1936)  and  served  through  the 
Civil  War  until  February,  1939,  when  he  fled  to  France. 

Bailey,  Sir  Abe.  South  African  financier  and  politician; 
died  in  Cape  Town,  South  Africa.  Aug  10,  1940;  born  in 
Cradook,  Cape  Colony,  Nov.  6,  1864.  In  1887  he  went  to 
Johannesburg,  and  became  one  of  the  leading  mine  own- 
ers. After  the  Jameson  Raid  in  1895  he  spent  thirteen 
months  in  jail  for  alleged  conspiracy  in  it.  He  served  in 
the  Boer  War.  1899-1902.  and  was  a  member  of  the  Cape 
House  of  Assembly.  1902-05,  and  the  Transvaal  Parlia- 
ment, 1910-24.  He  held  large  interests  in  gold  mining  and 
other  industries 

Bailey,  Guy  Wlnfred.  American  educator;  died  in  Bos- 
ton, MAM.,  Oct.  22,  1940;  bom  in  Hardwick,  Vt,  May  7, 


NECROLOGY 


503 


NECROLOGY 


1876.  Graduatinf  from  the  Unir.  of  Vermont  in  1900,  he 
studied  law,  and  served  tn  the  House  of  Representatives  of 
Vermont,  1904-08,  becoming  Secretary  of  State,  1908-17. 
He  became  controller  of  the  Univ.  of  Vermont  in  1917 
and  was  its  president  from  1920  until  his  death. 

Bailie,  Earte.  American  investment  banker:  died  in 
New  York  City,  N.Y.,  Nov.  15,  1940;  born  in  Milwaukee. 
Wis.,  Sept.  17,  1890.  He  was  chairman  of  the  board  and 
founder  of  the  Tn-Continental  Corporation,  the  country's 
largest  investment  management  corporation.  In  1933  he 
was  appointed  a  special  assistant  for  fiscal  affairs  in  the 
Treasury  Department;  and  on  Sept.  5,  1939,  he  became  a 
member  of  a  special  advisory  committee  of  three  bankers 
who  assisted  the  Treasury  Department  in  handling  the 
complex  financial  and  economic  problems  arising  from  the 
European  War. 

Baker,  Asa  George.  American  publisher;  died  in 
Springfield,  Mass..  Sept.  10,  1940;  born  in  Milwaukee, 
Win,  Sept  27,  1866.  He  began  with  G.  &  C.  Mernam 
Co  in  1888  and  supervised  three  editions  of  the  Mernam 
Webster  Dictionary.  He  was  president  of  the  firm  from 
1922  to  1934,  and  chairman  ot  the  board  thereafter  until 
his  death. 

Baker,  James  Marion.  American  diplomat;  died  in 
Lowndesville,  S  C.,  Nov.  21,  1940;  born  in  Lowndesville, 
Aug.  18,  1861.  He  was  Minister  to  Siam  (1933-37)  and 
Secretary  of  the  US.  Senate  (1913-19). 

Balbo,  Italo.  Italian  aviator,  killed  fighting  the  British 
over  Tobruk,  Libya,  June  28.  1940,  as  announced  by  the 
Italian  Government  but  denied  by  the  British  who  said  that 
none  of  their  aircraft  was  over  Tobruk  at  the  time  Balbo 
was  killed,  born  in  Ouartesana,  Ferrara,  June  6,  1896. 
After  service  in  the  World  War,  he  entered  politics  and 
by  1922  was  a  trusted  member  of  the  Fascist  Party.  He 
became  minister  of  national  economy  and  general  of  the 
Black  Shirt  Militia  after  Mussolini  came  into  power  and 
subsequently  became  under-secretary  for  Air,  General  of 
the  Air  Fleet,  and  in  September,  1929,  Air  Minister.  Un- 
der his  rule  the  Italian  air  force  was  modernized  and  re- 
organized and  he  promoted  mass  flights  as  a  demonstration 
of  military  strength  He  led  a  squadron  of  12  planes  from 
Rome  to  Kio  de  Janeiro  in  1931,  and  in  1933  ne  piloted  a 
mass  flight  of  24  planes  to  America,  flying  from  Rome  on 
June  30,  arriving  in  Chicago  on  July  14  and  New  York 
on  July  18.  They  left  for  home  on  July  25,  reaching 
Rome  on  August  12.  He  was  made  Air  Marshal  in  recog- 
nition of  thu  feat  In  November,  1933,  Marshal  Balbo 
was  appointed  Governor  of  Libya,  said  to  have  been  more 
of  an  exile  than  a  promotion  During  his  rule  many  im- 
provements weie  made  in  that  country.  In  April,  1937,  he 
was  appointed  commander  in  chief  of  the  armed  forces  of 
Italian  North  Africa.  He  was  the  founder  and  former  edi- 
tor of  Cornere  Padano  and  published  his  diary  in  1922. 

Ball,  David  H.  American  manufacturer;  died  in  Mount 
Vernon,  NY.,  Feb.  3,  1940;  born  in  Baltimore  in  1870. 
Associated  with  the  American  Tobacco  Co.  from  1900,  in 
1911  he  became  executive  vice-president  of  P.  Lonllard 
Co,  and  in  1937  succeeded  to  the  presidency. 

BalL  John.  British  golf  champion;  died  in  Holy  well, 
Wales,  Dec.  2,  1940;  horn  in  Hoy  lake,  1861  He  was 
British  amateur  champion  in  1888,  1890,  1892,  1894,  1899, 
1907,  1910,  and  1912,  and  in  1890  he  captured  the  open 
championship  as  well. 

Bankhaad,  William  Brockman.  American  congress- 
man; died  in  Washington,  D.C..  Sept.  15,  1940,  born  in 
Moscow,  Ala,  Apr.  12,  1874.  He  graduated  from  the 
Univ.  of  Alabama  in  1893,  and  from  the  law  school  of 
Georgetown  Univ.  in  1895.  He  served  in  the  Alabama 
legislature,  1900-01.  Elected  to  the  65th  Congress  in  1917, 
he  was  re-elected  to  each  succeeding  Congress,  being  a 
member  of  the  76th  Congress  at  his  death.  lie  had  the  dis- 
tinction of  holding  the  three  most  important  positions  m 
the  House — chairman  of  the  Rules  Committee  in  the  73rd 
Congress:  Majority  Leader,  1st  session,  74th  Congress, 
and  Speaker  since  June  4,  1936,  upon  the  death  of  Joseph 
W.  Byms.  Noted  for  his  knowledge  of  parliamentary  law, 
he  was  also  a  skilled  orator 

Barling,  Sir  (Harry)  Gilbert.  British  surgeon;  died 
in  Birmingham,  Apr.  27,  1940;  born  in  Newnham,  Eng- 
land, Apr.  30,  1855.  Consulting  surgeon  at  Birmingham 
General  Hospital,  he  was  pro-chancellor  and  late  dean  of 
the  Medical  Faculty  at  the  University  of  Birmingham 
and  former  examiner  in  surgery  at  the  University  of 
Cambridge. 

Barnes,  George  NicoU.  British  politician;  died  in  Lon- 
don, .Apr  22f>  1940;  bom  in  Scotland,  Jan.  2,  1859  Ac- 
tive in  labor  circles  from  1892,  he  served  as  a  Labor  Mem- 
ber of  Parliament  frorn  1906  to  1922.  when  he  resigned. 
He  was  Pensions  minister  (1916-18),  minister  without 
portfolio  (1919),  a  member  of  the  War  Cabinet  (1917), 
and  minister  plenipotentiary  at  the  Paris  Peace  Confer- 
ence (1919).  tn  1926  he  wrote  The  History  of  the  Inter- 
national Labour  Organisation 

Barnes,  Ralph  W(aldo).  American  newspaper  corre- 
spondent; killed  in  an  fM«M  accident  near  Damlov 
Grad,  Yugoslavia,  Nov.  18,  1940;  bora  in  Salem,  Ore., 


June  14,  1899.  He  was  educated  at  Willamette  and  Har- 
vard Universities:  worked  for  the  Brooklyn  Baffle  in 
1924;  the  New  York  Evening  World  (1925-26);  Paris 
Herald  (1926-29);  and  was  thereafter  assigned  to  various 
European  capitals  as  correspondent  for  the  New  York 
Herald  Tribune.  He  was  in  Germany  from  1935  to  1939; 
was  with  the  British  Expeditionary  Force  in  France  from 
the  beginning  of  the  war  until  April,  1940,  when  he  was 
shifted  to  cover  operations  of  the  German  army.  He  was 
later  expelled  from  Germany  on  the  ground  that  he  had 
"indulged  m  false,  hateful,  and  sensational  reporting"  and 
had  endangered  German  interests."  He  then  went  to  the 
Balkans  and  Palestine  and  to  Egypt,  where  he  covered 
the  Italian  advance  to  Sidi  Barram.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  in  Greece  he  was  transferred  to  that  battleground. 
He  met  his  death  in  a  night-riding  British  bomber  that 
crashed  in  Yugoslavia 

Baxrere,  Camilla.  French  diplomat;  died  in  Paris, 
France,  Oct.  9,  1940,  born  m  La  Chantc-sur-Loirc,  Octo- 
ber, 1851.  He  was  Ambassador  to  Switzerland,  1894,  and 
to  Italy,  1897-1929.  In  1922  he  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Lausanne  Conference.  The  most  noteworthy  achievement 
in  his  career  was  the  winning  over  of  Italy  from  the  Tri- 
ple Alliance  to  the  Triple  Entente  in  the  World  War. 

Barriero,  Manuel  Siiamsh  soldier;  died  in  Vigo,  Spain, 
July  14,  1940;  born  m  1881  A  general  of  Engineers,  h<? 
was  reputed  to  have  been  the  first  to  use  heavier-than-air 
craft  for  military  purposes.  He  was  decorated  by  Spain, 
after  having  been  shot  down  and  wounded  during  the  Riff 
wars  m  1903,  while  piloting  a  primitive  biplane  over 
Comico  Mountain. 

Barriga,  Jnaa  Agustin.  See  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LIT- 
ERATURES under  Chile. 

Barry,  Patrick.  Roman  Catholic  bishop;  died  in  Jack- 
sonville, Flav  Aug.  12,  1940;  born  in  West  Clare,  Ire- 
land, 1869.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  m  1895  He  was 
rector  of  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Augustine  and  vicar  general 
of  the  St.  Augustine  Diocese,  1917-21,  and  was  conse- 
crated bishop  m  1922. 

Bauer,  Bertha.  American  educator;  died  in  Cincinnati, 
O.,  Sept.  18,  1940;  born  in  Ann  Arbor,  Mich  She  was 
president  of  the  Cincinnati  Conservatory  of  Music  from 
1912  to  1930  when  she  retired  as  emeritus.  The  conserva- 
tory was  founded  by  her  aunt,  Miss  Clara  Bauer,  in  1876, 
and  is  now  affiliated  with  the  Univ.  of  Cincinnati 

Beck,  Martin.  American  vaudeville  impresario,  died  in 
New  York  City,  N.Y.,  Nov.  16,  1940;  bom  in  Bohemia, 
1869.  He  came  to  America  in  1887;  played  with  a  group 
of  German  actors;  and  opened  his  first  theater,  the  Or 
pheum  Concert  Hall,  in  1889,  the  nucleus  of  the  Orpheum 
Circuit,  which  numbered  some  60  theaters  headed  by  Mr 
Beck.  In  1924  he  built  the  Martin  Beck  Theater  in  West 
45th  Street,New  York  City. 

Becker,  Karl.  German  soldier  and  scientist;  died  in 
Berlin,  Apr.  8,  1940;  born  in  Speyer,  Dec.  14,  1879.  A 
general  and  a  renowned  ballistics  expert,  he  headed  the 
Arms  and  Munition  Bureau  in  the  War  Ministry.  His 
state  funeral  was  attended  by  Rcichsfuehrer  Hitler. 

Beckham,  J(ohn)  Oreppi  Wiekliffe.  American  law- 
yer; died  m  Louisville,  Kv  .  Jan.  9,  1940,  bom  in  Wick- 
land,  Ky.,  Aug.  5,  1869.  Active  in  the  affairs  of  his  State 
he  was  its  governor  from  1900  to  1907  and  in  1915  was 
elected  to  the  U.S.  Senate,  serving  one  term.  In  1927  he 
was  defeated  for  the  governorship  and  in  1937  tried  un- 
successfully to  obtain  the  nomination  for  Senatorship. 

Bedford,  Bake  of,  Herbrand  Arthur  BnsselL  Eng- 
lish landowner;  died  at  Woburn  Abbey,  Bedfordshire, 
Eng.,  Aug.  27.  1940;  born  in  London,  Feb.  19,  1858  The 
eleventh  to  hold  the  title,  he  was  one  of  the  richest  dukes 
m  the  United  Kingdom.  A  natural  history  expert,  he  was 
president  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  1899-1936. 
maintaining  a  large  zoological  park  on  his  estate,  and 
financing  many  world-wide  specimen-collecting  expeditions. 
He  served  in  the  Egyptian  Campaign  of  1882,  and  was 
aide  de  camp  to  King  Edward  VII  and  King  George  V, 
1908-20,  Rejoining  the  army,  he  served  throughout  the 
World  War.  His  vast  holdings  included  his  family  seat 
at  Woburn.  estates  in  Northamptonshire  and  other  parts 
of  England,  and  large  parcels  in  Bloomsbury  and  St. 
Pancras  section*  in  London  The  Covent  Garden  estate 
m  the  heart  of  London  was  sold  by  him  in  1913  at  an 
estimated  price  of  $17,500.000 

Beggf  Alexander  Swanson.  American  educator-  died 
m  Boston,  Mass ,  Sent.  26,  1940:  born  in  Council  Bluffs, 
la.,  May  23,  1881.  He  received  his  M.D  degree  in  1907 
from  Drake  Univ  ,  and  taught  there  until  1913,  from 
1911  to  1918  and  1919  to  1921  he  taught  at  Harvard 
Medical  School,  and  was  dean  of  the  Graduate  School  of 
Medicine,  1917-18.  At  the  Carnegie  Inst.  he  was  research 
associate  in  1915-16  During  the  World  War  he  com- 
manded the  base  hospitals  of  the  A.E.F.  From  1923  until 
his  death,  he  was  dean  of  the  Boston  Univ.  School  of 
Medicine  which  he  had  joined  in  1921. 

Btfcxend,  Ernst  Richard.  German-American  paper  man- 
ufacturer: died  in  Erie,  Psu  Sept.  22,  1940;  born  in 
Coeslm,  Germany,  Mar.  29,  1869.  He  came  to  the  United 


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504 


NECROLOGY 


States  in  1896  and  was  naturalized  in  1901.  After  work- 
ing for  several  paper  companies  he  founded  the  Ham- 
mernull  Co.  in  1898.  A  pioneer  in  manufacturing  fine 
writing  papers  from  cellulose  fibers  in  wood}  he  invented 
high-speed  watermarking,  and  founded  the  first  all- 
sulphite  process  paper  mill  in  the  United  States. 

Belloaa  y  Sancnei,  Mons.  Alfonso.  See  SPANISH- 
AMEIICAN  LITERATURES  under  El  Salvador. 

Benjamin,  William  Bvarts.  American  antiquarian  and 
philanthropist;  died  in  New  York,  Feb.  24,  1940,  where 
he  was  born,  Feb.  19,  1859.  A  collector  of  Americana, 
he  endowed  a  chair  of  American  History  at  the  Library 
of  Congress  and  contributed  historical  papers  and  photo- 
graphs to  the  Congressional  Library,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity, and  the  New  York  Historical  Society. 

Benson,  Allan  L.  American  writer;  died  in  Yonkers, 
NY.,  Aug.  19,  1940;  born  in  Plainwell,  Mich.,  Nov.  6, 
1871.  Entering  newspaper  work  in  1890  as  a  reporter,  he 
was  successively  assistant  managing  editor  and  managing 
editor  on  several  newspapers  until  1907,  when  he  retired 
from  active  newspaper  work.  From  1908  to  1916  he 
wrote  on  political  and  economic  subjects  for  Pearson  t 
Magaxine.  In  1916  he  was  selected  as  the  Socialist  presi- 
dential candidate,  replacing  Debs,  but  resigned  from  the 
party  in  1918  due  to  its  stand  on  World  War  issues.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  Reconstruction  Magaxine  after 
the  war. 

Benson,  Edward  Frederic.  British  writer:  died  in  Lon- 
don, Feb.  29,  1940;  born  at  Wellington  College,  July  24, 
1867,  the  son  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  worked 
in  Athens  for  the  British  Archaeological  Society  and  in 
Egypt  for  the  Hellenic  Society,  and  in  1893  published  his 
first  book  Dodo,  which  established  him  as  a  writer  of 
fiction.  His  later  works  included  As  We  Were  (1930), 
As  We  Are  (1932),  King  Edward  VII  (1933),  Queen 
Victoria  (1935),  and  Daughters  of  Queen  Victoria  (1939) 

Bentley.  Irene  (Mrs.  Harry  B.  Smith).  American 
actress;  died  in  Allenhurst,  N  /.,  June  3,  1940;  born  in 
Baltimore,  Md.,  in  1870  A  musical  comedy  star  of  the 
1890's.  she  was  best  known  for  her  roles  in  The  Belle  of 
New  bark  (1898),  The  Rounders  (1900),  The  Girl  from 
Dixie  (1903),  etc.  She  retired  in  1910 

Berg,  William  H.  American  industrialist,  president  of 
the  Standard  Oil  Co.  of  California  from  1937;  died  in 
Burlmgame,  Calif,  June  26,  1940;  born  in  Tripoli,  la., 
Apr.  8,  1882. 

Berry,  Sir  George  A.  British  ophthalmologist;  died  in 
London,  June  18,  1940;  born  in  Glenstriven,  Scotland  in 
1853.  He  lectured  on  ophthalmology  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity and  had  served  as  a  Conservative  Member  of 
Parliament  for  the  Scottish  Universities  (1922-31).  He 
wrote  several  works  on  diseases  of  the  eye  and  was  a 
former  president  of  the  Ophthalmological  Society  of  the 
United  Kingdom 

Beit,  Sir  Matthew  Bobert.  British  naval  officer;  died, 
Oct.  13.  1940;  born,  June  18,  1878  Rising  through  the 
grades  he  served  in  the  World  War,  and  participated  in 
tne  battle  of  Jutland  He  was  Commander  in  Chief  of 
the  America  and  West  Indies  Station,  1934-37,  becoming 
a  full  admiral  in  1936  He  retired  in  1939. 

Besteiro,  Julian.  Spanish  republican  leader;  died  in 
Carmona,  Sevilla  Province,  Spam.  Sept.  27,  1940;  born 
in  1870.  He  had  been  professor  of  logic  and  dean  of  the 
faculty  at  Madrid  Univ.,  Minister  to  the  Hague,  and 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs.  He  became  president  of  the 
Cortes  in  1931  and  speaker  in  1933.  He  was  president 
general  of  the  Union  of  Workers  and  leader  of  the  Social- 
ist Party  until  1934.  As  the  last  head  of  the  Republican 
Government  he  surrendered  Madrid  to  the  Nationalists  in 
1939,  and  was  sentenced  to  prison,  where  he  died. 

Bielschowsky.  Alfred.  German  ophthalmologist;  died 
in  Brooklyn.  N.Y.,  Jan.  5,  1940;  born  in  German  Silesia 
in  1872.  After  a  noteworthy  career  in  Germany  as  pro- 
fessor of  ophthalmology  and  chief  of  the  eye  clinic  of  the 
University  of  Breslau,  Germany,  he  became  associated 
with  the  Dartmouth  Eye  Institute  in  1934  After  1937 
he  became  professor  of  ophthalmology  and  director  of  the 
Institute.  He  was  known  as  an  authority  on  motor  anom- 
alies of  the  eye 

BUlotte,  Gaston.  French  general;  killed  in  an  auto- 
mobile accident  while  commanding  a  group  of  armies  in 
the  field  in  May,  1940;  born  in  Sommeval,  Aube  Dept, 
Feb.  10,  1875.  In  the  army  from  1896,  he  saw  service  in 
the  Colonial  army;  during  the  World  War;  and  in  Po- 
land, and  from  1937  to  September,  1939,  was  Military 
Governor  General  of  Paris. 

Biaefc-Valmer,  Jean.  French  novelist;  founder  of  La 
Renaissance  Latine  (1902)  and  author  of  several  books 
including  Le  Mendiant  magnifiqnt  (1919)  and  Le  Jar  din 
de  VImpur  (1930);  born,  1875;  died,  1940. 

Birch,  Stephen.  American  industrialist  and  mining  en- 
gineer; died  in  New  York  City,  Dec.  29,  1940;  born  in 
New  York  City.  Mar.  24,  1872.  He  was  graduated  from 
Columbia  School  of  Mines  in  1898;  became  a  mining  en- 
gineer in  Alaska  for  the  Morgan-Guggenheim  Syndicate, 
and  later,  as  director  of  the  syndicate,  he  developed  nu- 


projects,  including  copper  mines.  The  Kennecott 

Copper  Co.,  with  Mr.  Birch  asits  head,  was  formed  in 
1915  in  a  merger  of  several  of  the  syndicate's  interests. 
He  was  chairman  of  the  board  of  directors  at  the  time  of 
his  death. 

Black,  Alexander.  American  journalist,  Sunday  editor 
of  thVNew  York  World  (1905-10),  managing  editor  of 
"Frank  Seaman,  Inc.,"  (1910-13),  editor,  Newspaper 
Feature  Service  (1913-26),  and  art  editor  of  King  fea- 
tures Syndicate  (1926-35):  died  in  New  York,  May  8, 
1940;  born  in  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  Feb.  7.  1859.  His  reminis- 
cences, Time  and  Chance,  appeared  in  1937. 

Bland,  Pascal  Brooke.  American  obstetrician  and  gyne- 
cologist; died  in  Pennsylvania,  Oct.  31,  1940;  born  in 
Monocacy,  Pa.,  May  9,  1875.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  textbooks  and  was  Professor  of  Obstetrics  (1925- 
37)  at  Jefferson  Medical  College. 

Blatch,  Harriot  Stanton.  American  woman  suffrage 
leader  and  lecturer;  died  in  Greenwich,  Conn.,  Nov.  20, 
1940;  born  in  Seneca  Falls,  N.Y.,  Jan.  20,  1856.  She 
was  graduated  from  Vassar  College  (1878);  and  lived 
in  England  from  1881  to  1896,  where  she  married  Wil- 
liam Henry  Blatch,  an  Englishman.  Returning  to  the 
United  States,  she  led  the  first  woman  suffrage  parade  in 
New  York  City  (1910);  and  was  unsuccessful  Socialist 
party  nominee  for  Comptroller  of  New  York  City  (1921). 
She  wrote  several  books  including:  Challenging  Years; 
Mobilising  Woman  Power,  for  which  President  Theodore 
Roosevelt  wrote  an  introduction;  and  The  Life  and  Let- 
ters of  Elisabeth  Cady  Stanton,  her  mother. 

Blaichley,  Willis.  American  naturalist,  state  geologist 
of  Indiana  from  1894  to  1911  when  he  retired;  died  in 
Indianapolis,  Ind.,  May  28,  1940;  born  in  No  Madison, 
Conn.,  Oct.  6,  1859  A  prolific  writer  his  works  include 
My  Nature  Nook  (1931),  South  America  as  I  Saw  It 
(1934),  and  The  Fishes  of  Indiana  (1938). 

Bliss,  William  J.  A.  American  educator,  professor  of 
physics  at  Johns  Honking  University  from  1901  to  1928, 
died  in  Baltimore,  Md  ,  on  Dec  27,  1940;  born  in  Wash- 
ington, DC,  Jan.  22,  1867.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard 
and  Johns  Hopkins  Universities. 

Bloch,  Charles  Edward.  American  publisher;  died  in 
Great  Neck,  L.I.,  Sept.  2,  1940:  born  in  Cincinnati,  O., 
1862.  Known  as  the  dean  of  Jewish  publishers  in  the 
United  States,  he  was  president  of  the  Bloch  Publishing 
Co.,  and  founder  and  former  president  of  the  Free  Syna- 
gogue of  N.Y. 

Block,  Budolph  (Bruno  lies  sing).  American  journal- 
ist, with  the  Hearst  papers  from  1896,  he  was  editor  of 
the  comic  supplement  for  twenty  years  and  wrote  the 
column  "Vagabondia"  from  1928;  died  in  Tucson,  Ariz, 
Apr.  29,  1940:  born  in  New  York,  Dec  6,  1870. 

Blood,  Sir  Bindon.  British  army  officer;  died  in  Lon- 
don, May  16,  1940:  born  in  Cranaher,  Ireland,  Nov.  7, 
1842.  He  entered  the  Royal  Engineers  in  1860,  retiring 
in  1907  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant  general.  In  1936  he 
was  appointed  to  the  revived  position  of  Chief  Royal 
Engineer,  retiring  in  April,  1940.  He  wrote  Four  Score 
Years  and  Ten  (1933). 

Blnmer,  O(eorga)  Alder.  American  alienist;  died  in 
Providence,  R.I.,  Apr.  25,  1940;  born  in  Sunderland, 
England,  May  25,  1857.  He  was  associated  with  the 
Utica  State  Hospital  from  1889  to  1899  and  thereafter 
was  physician-in-chief  and  superintendent  of  the  Butler 
Hospital  at  Providence  until  he  was  retired  as  emeritus 
in  1922.  He  was  also  editor  emeritus  of  the  American 
Journal  of  Psychiatry. 

Bocchini,  Artnro.  Italian  chief  of  the  secret  police  and 
senator;  died  on  Nov.  20,  1940;  born  in  the  hills  of  San 
Giorgio  del  Sannio,  Campania,  Italy,  1880.  He  became 
prefect  of  Bologna  (1923);  Genoa  (1926);  and  senator 
and  member  of  the  National  Fascist  Council  since  1933. 

Bockus.  Charles  XL  American  industrialist;  died  in 
New  York,  June  29.  1940;  born  in  Dorchester,  Mass., 
July  10,  1868.  With  the  Clmchfield  Coal  Corporation 
from  1913,  he  became  president  and  chairman  of  the 
board  in  1914.  He  was  also  president  of  the  National 
Coal  Association  during  1929-34. 

BoBx,  Joseph  Henri  Honore.  See  ROSNY,  J.  H. 

Bonci,  Alessandro.  Italian  lync  tenor;  died  in  Italy, 
August,  1940;  born  m  Cesena,  Italy,  in  1870.  Oscar  Ham- 
merstein  brought  him  to  the  Manhattan  Opera  House  in 
1906  as  a  counter-attraction  to  Enrico  Caruso  who  was  at 
that  time  starring  for  the  Metropolitan  Opera  Co.  After 
two  years  Bonci  transferred  to  the  Metropolitan  while 
Hammerstein,  charging  breach  of  contract,  sought  in  vain 
to  halt  his  appearance  there.  Addicted  to  emotional  ex- 
plosions, Bonci  quit  the  Metropolitan  suddenly  in  1909 
and  returned  to  Italy.  He  toured  the  American  concert 
halls  during  1910-11,  and  was  with  the  Chicago  Opera 
Co.  in  1920-21.  Many  critics  regarded  him  as  a  greater 
singer  than  Caruso 

Book,  William  P.  American  psychologist;  died  in  Long 
Beach,  Calif..  May  22,  1940;  born  in  Princeton,  Ind., 
June  10,  1873  Professor  of  psychology  at  the  University 
of  Montana  (1906-12),  he  became  professor  of  educa- 


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SOS 


NECROLOGY 


tional  psychology  mt  Indiana  University  in  1913.  During 
1913-17  he  was  director  of  vocational  education  there, 
and  after  1917  was  professor  of  psychology  and  directory 
of  the  Psychology  Laboratory  until  his  retirement  in 
1934.  He  taught  at  the  summer  sessions  at  Indiana,  Co- 
lumbia, Wisconsin,  and  Hawaiian  universities  and  was 
the  author  of  numerous  articles  and  books  on  education 
and  psychology,  the  latest  being  Economy  and  Technique 
of  Learning  (1931). 

Booth,  Ballington.  American  welfare  worker;  died  in 
Blue  Point,  LI.,  Get  5,  1940;  born  in  Brighouse.  Eng., 
July  28,  1859.  He  was  the  son  of  William  Booth,  founder 
of  the  Salvation  Army,  after  serving  as  commander  in 
Australia  and  the  United  States,  he  broke  with  his  father 
in  1896,  and  formed  the  Volunteers  of  America,  a  reli- 
gious reform  and  benevolent  organization,  which  he 
headed  as  general  in  chief  and  Ordained  presbyter. 

Borah,  William  E.  American  Senator,  died  in  Wash- 
ington, Jan  19,  1940;  born  in  Fairfield,  111,  June  29, 
1865.  A  lawyer  by  profession,  in  1907  he  was  elected 
Senator  from  Idaho  on  the  Republican  ticket  and  was 
re-elected  thereafter  to  each  succeeding  term.  Dean  of  the 
Senate,  he  served  as  a  member  of  the  judiciary,  labor,  and 
education  committees  and  as  chairman  of  the  Indian  dep- 
redations, the  expenditures  in  the  Department  of  Justice, 
the  Interoccamc  canals,  and  the  education  and  labor 
committees  From  1924  to  1932  he  was  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  foreign  relations.  The  highlights  of  his  ca- 
reer were*  successful  opposition  to  American  entrance 
into  the  League  of  Nations  and  the  World  Court  (1920); 
the  limitation  of  arms  conference  in  Washington  (1922), 
and  his  unsuccessful  opposition  to  the  repeal  of  the  arms 
clause  of  the  Neutrality  Act  (1939).  He  also  waged  a 
long  fight  against  monopolies  and  advocated  the  federal 
licensing  of  corporations — a  measure  sponsored  jointly 
with  Senator  O'Mahony  of  Wisconsin  Although  an  iso- 
lationist in  foreign  affaits  and  an  opponent  of  "entangling 
alliances,"  he  was  a  strong  believer  in  world  peace  and 
the  reduction  of  armaments  In  his  domestic  policy  he 
was  a  firm  believer  in  constitutionality,  and  often  found 
himself  against  bills  with  which  he  was  in  sympathy  but 
which  he  felt  were  unconstitutional,  as  the  anti-lynching 

Bordenave,  Enrique.  Paraguayan  diplomatist,  minister 
to  the  United  States  during  1933-36,  died  in  Asuncion, 
Jan  24,  1940,  horn  in  Barrero  Grande,  Oct  30,  1889 

Bosch,  Oarl.  German  chemist,  chairman  of  the  board 
of  directors  of  the  T  G  Farbemndustrie  Aktiengesell- 
schaft;  died  in  Heidelberg,  Apr.  26,  1940,  born  m  Co- 
logne. Aug  27,  1874  In  1931  he  shared  the  Nobel  prize 
in  chemistry  for  his  process  of  large-scale  production  of 
ammonia  through  adaptation  of  the  Haber  process  in  the 
synthesis  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen. 

Bosley,  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Cromwell.  American  turf- 
woman ,  died  in  an  auto  accident  near  Baltimore,  Md , 
Dec  9,  1940,  born  in  1895  She  was  a  nationally  known 
breeder  and  trainer  of  thoroughbreds,  and  brought  out 
Chase  Me,  which  was  one  of  the  few  unbeaten  horses  of 
turf  history 

Bostwlck,  Lucius  Allyn.  American  naval  officer;  died 
in  Washington,  Jan  14,  1940;  born  in  Providence,  R.I., 
Feb  21,  1869  After  graduation  from  the  Naval  Academy 
in  1890  he  held  various  posts  and  was  advanced  succes- 
sively to  the  grade  of  rear  admiral  in  1923  As  commander 
of  the  battleship  division,  Battle  Fleet  1929-30,  he  held 
the  rank  of  vice  admiral.  He  retired  Mar.  1,  1933. 

Bothezat,  George  de  American  aerodynamics  expert; 
died  in  Boston,  Mass.  Feb  1,  1940;  born  in  Bessarabia, 
Russia  in  1884.  In  1922  he  built  for  the  U  S.  Army  Air 
Corps  the  first  helicopter  to  make  sustained  hovering 
flights. 

Bougl6,  C61estln.  French  sociologist,  professor  of  so- 
cial economy  at  the  Sorbonne  from  1901  and  director  of 
1  ficolc  Normale  SupeVieure;  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  25,  1940; 
born  in  1870.  His  latest  work  was  Bilan  de  la  sociolooie 
francaise  ccmtemporaine  (1935).  In  1926  he  lectured  at 
Harvard  and  in  1938  at  Columbia  University. 

Bourne,  Jr.,  Jonathan.  American  ex-senator;  died  in 
Washington,  D  C.,  Sept  2,  1940;  born  in  New  Bedford, 
Mass  ,  Feb  23,  1855  He  was  a  member  of  the  Oregon 
House  of  Representatives  in  1885,  1886,  and  1892,  and 
served  as  United  States  Senator  from  1907  to  1913,  being 
the  first  to  be  elected  by  popular  vote.  He  was  the  author 
of  the  parcel-post  law 

Bower,  Sir  Hamilton.  British  soldier  and  explorer; 
died  in  London,  Mar.  7,  1940:  born,  Sept  1,  1858.  In 
the  Army  from  1880  to  1912,  he  was  the  first  European 
to  cross  the  Tibetan  plateau,  for  which  he  received  the 
Founder's  medal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 

Boycott,  Arthur  St.  John .  BritiSi  riding  master;  died 

£  NeTS&  ?Ju'«  °Ct  l\  19,f°;  born  il»  Norfolk  Co., 
Eng.,  1862.  In  his  youth  he  lived  with  an  uncle,  Capt. 
Charles  C  Boycott,  on  a  farm  in  County  Mayo  Ireland; 
and  the  actions  of  tenant-farmers,  involved  in  a  labor 
dispute  with  the  elder  Boycott,  resulted  in  the  coining  of 
the  word  "boycott."  St.  John  Boycott  served  M  master 


of  the  hounds  for  many  wealthy  families  in  the  United 
States. 

BoyUn.  William  A.  American  educator,  first  president 
of  Brooklyn  College,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  (1930-38);  died 
in  New  York,  July  8,  1940;  born  there,  Jan.  6,  1869.  He 
was  a  graduate  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  College  (1887). 
had  taught  m  the  New  York  City  public  schools,  and 
served  (1927-30)  as  associate  superintendent  of  schools. 

Brady,  John  F.  American  Roman  Catholic  monsignor, 
died  in  New  York  City,  Dec.  27,  1940;  born  in  New 
York  City  in  1871.  Shortly  after  his  graduation  there- 
from in  1898,  he  became  professor  of  science  at  St  Jo- 
seph's Seminary,  Troy,  N.Y.,  a  position  he  held  for  18 
years.  He  was  rector  of  the  Church  of  St.  Francis  de 
Sales  since  1916  and  director  of  Catholic  hospitals  of  the 
archdiocese  of  New  York  since  1918. 

Brand,  Albert  B.  American  ornithologist;  died  in 
Ithaca.  N.Y..  Mar.  28.  1940,  born  m  New  York  in  1889. 
He  retired  from  the  business  world  in  1929  to  make  a 
study  of  birds  and  subsequently  became  research  associate 
in  the  Department  of  Ornithology  at  Cornell  University 
and  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History*  He  was 
an  authority  on  the  recording  of  bird  calls  and  had  made 
expeditions  to  all  parts  of  Canada  and  the  United  States. 

Brandenburg,  William  A.  American  educator  and  lec- 
turer; died  on  Oct.  29,  1940,  born  in  Clayton  Co.,  la., 
Oct.  10,  1869.  He  was  graduated  from  Drake  University 
and  later  was  superintendent  of  schools  at  Mason  City, 
la.,  and  Oklahoma  City.  After  1913  he  was  president  of 
Kansas  State  Teachers  College. 

Branly,  Edouard.  French  physicist,  died  in  Paris,  Mar. 
24,  1940;  born  in  Amiens,  Oct.  23,  1844  Associated  with 
the  Institut  Cathohque  for  many  years,  his  discovery  of 
the  principle  of  the  coherer,  one  of  the  first  successful 
devices  used  as  a  detector  of  wireless  signals,  led  to  his 
election  to  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  In  1903  he 
shared  the  Osiris  Prize  with  Mme  Curie 

Brennen,  Joseph  D.  American  character  actor,  died  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Dec.  10,  1940,  born  in  New  York  City, 
1858.  He  became  famous  as  "Simon  Legree"  in  Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin,  a  role  he  played  for  several  years  in  a  cast 
headed  by  Otis  Skinner  He  appeared  also  m  plays  with 
David  Belasco,  William  Gillette,  and  David  War  field 

Brentano,  Theodore.  American  lawyer;  died  m  Larch- 
mont,  N.Y.,  July  2,  1940;  born  in  Kalamazoo,  Mich., 
Mar  29,  1854.  He  was  a  judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of 
Cook  Co.,  111.,  from  1890  to  1921,  and  served  as  Envoy 
Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  to  Hungary 
from  1922  to  1927  when  he  retired 

Brittlngham,  Juan  F.  American  industrialist;  died  in 
Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  Oct  28,  1940;  born  in  St  Louis, 
Mo.,  1859.  Visiting  Mexico  on  a  vacation  in  1883,  he 
turned  the  trip  into  a  57-year  stay.  In  Gomez  Palacio,  in 
the  State  of  Durango,  where  he  made  his  home,  he 
founded  Mexico's  first  cottonseed  oil  mill  and  soap  fac- 
tory, later  building  the  first  glass  factory  and  cement 
plant  at  Monterey.  He  changed  his  given  name  from  John 
to  Juan  and  was  known  throughout  Mexico  as  Don  Juan 

Bronner,  Barry.  American  financier;  died  in  New 
York  City  on  Dec  21,  1940:  born  thereat  in  1868.  A 
graduate  of  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  he 
began  his  banking  career  in  1887  with  Hallgarten  and 
Co.;  became  senior  partner  m  the  firm  and  a  member  of 
33  boards  of  directors;  and  retired  in  1917  from  Hall- 
garten and  Co  ,  to  become  chan  man  of  the  board  and 
president  of  the  Missouri  Pacific  Railroad  Co.  and  a 
dominant  factor  in  many  other  corporations.  From  1920 
to  1930  he  was  a  director  of  Blair  and  Co  ,  investment 
bankers,  and  of  its  successor,  Bancamenca-Blair  Corp. 
Among  the  many  reorganizations  with  which  he  was  con- 
nected was  that  of  the  old  Maxwell  Motors  Corp.  As 
chairman  of  the  reorganization  committee  of  the  firm  he 
was  instrumental  in  securing  for  the  reorganized  company 
the  services  of  the  late  Walter  P.  Chrysler  The  reor- 
ganized company  later  became  part  of  the  Chrysler  Corp 

Brookfield,  Robert  M.  American  major  general;  died 
in  Philadelphia  on  Dec  20,  1940;  born  in  1873.  A  grad- 
uate of  West  Point  (1896),  he  served  in  the  Spanish- 
American  and  World  Wars;  became  a  brigadier  general 
in  1926  and  a  major  general  three  years  later. 

Brown,  Donald  Lament.  American  manufacturer;  died 
in  New  York,  Jan.  29,  1940;  born  in  Berlin,  Wis  ,  Nov 
17,  1890.  Associated  with  the  aeronautical  industry  from 
1917,  in  1930  he  was  elected  president  of  Pratt  &  Whit- 
ney  Aircraft  Co  ,  and  upon  the  organization  of  the  United 
Aircraft  Corporation  in  1934  he  was  elected  president 

Brown,  James  Buckner.  American  banker;  died  in 
Louisville,  Ky.,  Oct  24,  1940;  born  in  Lawrenceburg, 
Ky.,  1872.  Early  in  the  1920's  he  founded  and  headed  the 
Banco  Kentucky  Corporation,  a  $50,000,000  holding  com- 
pany for  several  banks,  which  crashed  in  November,  1930. 
He  was  also  publisher  for  a  time  of  the  Louisville  Herald- 
Post. 

Brnneau,  Arthur  Aime.  Canadian  jurist;  died  in  Mont- 
real, Que.,  Can.,  Dec  1,  1940;  born  in  St  Anthanase, 
Que.,  Mar.  4,  1864.  He  was  a  Superior  Court  Judge 


NECROLOGY 


506 


NECROLOGY 


(1908-28)  and  represented  Richelieu  Riding,  Quebec,  in 
the  House  of  Commons  (1892-1908). 

Brush,  Matthew  Ohauneer.  American  industrialist; 
died  inNew  York  City.  N.Y.,  Oct.  15,  1940;  born  in 
Still  water,  Minn.,  1877.  Turning  to  railroad  work  after 
graduation  from  the  Massachusetts  Inst.  of  Technology 
in  1901,  he  became  president  of  the  Boston  Elevated  Rail- 
road, 1914-15,  1916-18;  president  of  the  American  In- 
ternational Ship-building  Corp.,  1918-21,  and  served  as 
president  of  the  American  International  Corp..  one  of  the 
largest  investment  companies  in  the  United  States,  from 
1923  to  1935 

Brnyn.  William  Edmund.  American  rubber  expert; 
died  in  New  York  City,  N.Y.,  Oct.  31,  1940;  born  in 
Rosendale,  N.Y.,  1879.  He  was  with  the  importing  firm 
of  Littlejohn  and  Co.,  New  York  City,  since  1905  and  in 
latter  years  was  treasure/  and  director;  he  was  also  a 
director  and  former  president  of  the  Rubber  Trade  As- 
sociation of  New  York. 

Bnchan,  Sir  John.  See  TWXKDSMUH,  IST  BAHON,  or 
ELSPIELD 

Buchanan,  Sir  George.  British  engineer;  died  in  Ditch- 
ingham,  Norfolk,  Apr.  14,  1949;  born  Apr.  20.  1865.  A 
consulting  engineer,  a  specialist  in  harbor,  dock,  and 
river  works  and  the  economics  of  transport,  his  services 
were  called  for,  not  only  throughout  the  Empire,  but 
also  in  Venezuela,  Argentina,  and  Spain.  Among  his  more 
notable  achievements  were  the  Rangoon  River  Training 
Works,  costing  a  million  pounds  sterling,  the  new  port 
of  Basra,  and  the  river  improvements  on  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates.  He  was  the  author  of  several  books  on  ports 
ana  rivers. 

Bunau-Varllla,  Philippe  J.  French  engineer;  died  in 
Paris,  May  18,  1940;  born  there,  July  26,  1859.  He 
served  as  chief  engineer  of  the  French  Panama  Co.  in  its 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  build  the  Panama  Canal  in 
1885,  and  in  1893  was  Minister  Plenipotentiary  of  the 
Republic  of  Panama  to  the  United  States;  as  such  he 
signed  the  Hay-Bunau-Vanlla  treaty  granting  the  United 
States  the  right  to  complete  the  canal  and  operate  it  in 

Bandy,  Omar.  American  soldier;  died  in  Washington, 
Jan.  21,  1940,  born  in  Newcastle,  Ind  ,  June  17,  1861. 
In  the  army  from  1887,  he  served  with  the  American 
Expeditionary  Forces  in  France  and  was  known  for  his 
work  at  Chateau  Thierry  and  Belleau  Woods.  He  retired 
in  1925  with  the  rank  of  major  general. 

Burdlck,  Charles  Kellogg.  American  legal  educator; 
died  in  Ithaca,  N.Y ,  June  22  1940;  born  in  Utica,  N.Y., 
Feb.  7,  1883.  He  became  processor  of  law  at  Tulane  Uni- 
versity m  1909;  in  1912  he  joined  the  faculty  of  the 
University  of  Missouri  and  in  1914  that  of  Cornell,  where 
he  served  as  acting  dean,  1923-24  and  1925-26,  and  as 
dean,  1926-36  Active  in  civic  affairs,  he  was  a  member 
of  the  New  York  State  Commission  to  Investigate  the 
Administration  of  Justice  (1931-39),  chairman  of  the 
New  York  State  Law  Revision  Commission  after  1934, 
and  Counsel  to  Governor  Lehman  of  New  York  in  the 
Geoghan  removal  proceedings  (1936).  He  edited  Bur  dick's 
Law  of  Torts  (4th  ed.,  1926)  and  Bur  dick's  Cases  OH 
Torts  (4th  ed  .  1929). 

Bnrkam.  Eliey  O.  American  journalist,  editor,  and  pub- 
lisher of  the  Dayton  (Ohio)  Journal  and  Dayton  Herald 
(1910-35);  died  in  Dayton,  Mar.  13,  1940;  born  in  Law 
renceburg,  Ind  ,  Dec  7f  1872. 

Burke,  James.  American  inventor;  died  in  Erie,  Pa., 
Jan.  21,  1940;  born  in  Ireland,  Apr.  7,  1873.  He  was 
founder  (1890)  and  president  of  the  Burke  Electrical 
Co.,  retired  in  1931,  and  was  known  for  his  invention  of 
the  three-wire  generator,  the  universal  motor,  and  the 
"teaser"  system  for  electrical  printing-press  control.  He 
was  president  of  Edison  Pioneers,  1936-39 

Bnrkhardt,  Wilbur  N.  American  journalist,  editor,  and 
vice-president  of  the  San  Francisco  News  from  1923;  a 
suicide  in  San  Francisco,  June  27,  1940;  born  in  Altoona, 
la.,  Nov.  11,  1899. 

Burns,  James  Aloystaf.  American  Catholic  educator; 
died  in  South  Bend,  Ind.,  Sent.  9,  1940;  born  in  Michi- 
gan City,  Ind,  Feb.  13,  1867.  He  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Notre  Dame  in  1888,  and  was  ordained  a 
priest  m  1893.  He  became  president  of  Holy  Cross  College 
in  1900,  and  president  of  the  University  of  Notre  Dame, 
1919-22.  Named  provincial  superior  of  the  Congregation 
of  the  Holy  Cross  in  1927  he  became  assistant  superior 
general  in  1938  In  1904  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Catholic  Education  Association. 

Bnrt,  William  H.  American  general;  died  in  Westwood, 
Mass.,  Nov.  21,  1940;  born  in  rrovincetown,  Mass.,  1866. 
He  entered  military  service  as  a  corporal  in  the  First 
Vermont  Volunteer  Infantry  in  1898;  was  commissioned 
a  first  lieutenant  in  1900  and  a  brigadier  general  in  the 
World  War.  He  retired  Sept.  30,  1934 

Burton.  Lewis  William.  American  Protestant  Episcopal 
bishop;  died  in  Lexington,  Ky.,  Oct.  17,  1940;  born  in 
Cleveland,  O.,  Nov.  9,  1852  He  graduated  from  Kenyon 
College  in  1873,  and  from  the  Philadelphia  Divinity 


School  in  1877.  He  received  the  Doctor  of  Divinity  de- 
gree from  Kenyon  College,  and  the  College  of  the  South 
in  1896.  Ordained  a  priest  in  1878,  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Lexington,  Ky.  in  1896,  retiring  in  1928. 

Bnrwash,  Laohlin  Taylor.  Canadian  Arctic  explorer; 
died  near  Coburg,  Ont..  Dec.  21,  1940;  born  thereat  in 
1874.  He  was  graduated  from  the  University  of  Toronto 
in  1896:  was  an  engineer  for  the  Dominion  government 
in  the  Yukon  Territory  from  1897  to  1912;  and  chief 
Arctic  investigator  for  the  Canadian  government  from 
1923  to  1932.  He  made  several  trips  to  the  Far  North 
and  collected  much  geographical  and  other  scientific  data, 
despite  harrowing  hardships  and  obstacles.  He  was  one 
of  the  searchers  for  the  ill-fated  Franklin  expedition  of 
1845  and  after  months  in  the  north  in  1928,  1929,  and 
1930  he  found  sufficient  traces  to  map  the  route  of  the 
lost  expedition  which,  under  the  leadership  of  Sir  John 
Franklin,  had  sought  the  Northwest  Passage.  In  1930,  with 
W.  E.  Gilbert,  his  pilot,  he  was  the  first  man  to  fly  over 
and  map  by  aerial  photography  the  north  magnetic  pole, 
to  which  all  compass  needles  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere 
point.  He  was  a  lieutenant  in  the  Canadian  forces  in 
France  in  the  World  War  and  suffered  injuries  m  battle. 

Bush,  Lincoln.  American  civil  engineer;  died  in  East 
Orange,  N.J ,  Dec.  11,  1940;  born  in  Cook  Co..  111.,  Dec. 
14.  1860.  He  was  graduated  from  the  University  of  Illi- 
nois (1888)  and  after  holding  various  engineering  jobs 
in  the  middle  west  he  entered  the  employ  of  the  Delaware, 
Lackawanna,  and  Western  Railroad  m  1899  as  a  bridge 
engineer,  progressing  to  chief  engineer,  a  position  he 
resigned  in  1908  to  open  up  a  consulting  engineer's  firm 
in  New  York  City.  He  was  a  colonel  in  the  Quarter- 
master Corps  in  the  World  War  and  designed  and  super- 
vised the  construction  of  military  terminals  at  Brooklyn, 
Port  Newark.  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Norfolk,  Charleston, 
and  New  Orleans,  and  of  14  warehouses  and  three  ar- 
senals. 

Butler,  Jr.,  James.  American  merchant;  died  in  Ka- 
tonah,  N.Y.,  Oct.  20,  1940;  born  in  1891.  The  son  of 
the  founder  of  the  Butler  grocery  chain  was  killed  when 
a  horse  he  was  schooling  failed  to  make  a  jump.  In  1934 
he  succeeded  his  father  as  president  of  the  James  Butler 
Grocery  Co  and  the  Empire  City  Race  Track. 

Butler,  Mother  Mary  Joseph.  American  educator, 
died  in  Tarrytown,  N.Y.,  Apr.  23,  1940,  born  in  Kil- 
kenny, Ireland,  July  22,  1860  A  member  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary,  she 
was  founder  and  president  (1918-26)  of  Marymount 
College.  After  1926  she  was  Superior  General  of  the 
Order. 

Butler,  Smedley  D.  American  marine  officer;  died  in 
Philadelphia,  June  21.  1940;  born  in  West  Chester,  Pa., 
July  30,  1881.  Appointed  to  the  United  States  Marine 
Corps  in  1898,  he  was  promoted  through  the  grades  to 
brigadier  general  (1921)  and  major  general  (1929)  and 
was  retired  on  Oct.  1.  1931.  He  received  Congressional 
Medals  of  Honor  for  his  work  in  Mexico  (1914)  and  m 
Haiti  (1917).  Under  a  leave  of  absence  he  acted  as 
Director  of  the  Department  of  Safety,  Philadelphia,  1924- 
25.  In  1932  he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  Re- 
publican nomination  for  United  States  Senator  from 
Pennsylvania. 

Bntte,  George  Charles.  American  lawyer;  died  in  Mex- 
ico City,  Jan.  18,  1940;  born  in  San  Francisco,  May  9, 
1877.  Professor  of  law  at  the  University  of  Texas  from 
1914  and  dean  of  the  law  school  during  1923-24,  he  was 
Republican  candidate  for  governor  of  Texas  in  1924.  He 
served  as  attorney  general  of  Puerto  Rico  from  1925  to 
1928  and  during  that  period  was  acting  governor  three 
times.  He  was  vice-governor  of  the  Philippine  islands 
during  1930-32  and  associate  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  there  during  1932-36. 

Byrne,  Edward  J.  Irish  Roman  Catholic  Archbishop 
of  Dublin  from  1921  and  Primate  of  Ireland  from  1927; 
died  in  Dublin,  Feb.  9,  1940;  born  there,  May  10,  1872. 

Byrne,  John  J.  American  soldier;  died  in  New  York, 
Apr.  14,  1940;  born  there,  Sept.  13,  1872.  He  joined  the 
New  York  National  Guard  m  1890  and  was  promoted  to 
brigadier  general  in  1929  and  made  chief  of  coast  artillery 
of  the  Guard.  He  was  retired  as  major  general  in  1935 

Bywater,  Hector  Charles.  British  naval  expert  and 
journalist;  died  in  Richmond.  Surrey,  Eng,  Aug.  17, 
1940;  born  in  London,  Oct.  21,  1884.  He  was  naval  cor- 
respondent of  the  London  Daily  Telegraph,  the  Navy 
League  in  Germany,  Naval  and  Military  Record,  Pall 
Mall  Curette,  Daily  Graphic,  Daily  Neivs  and  Observer, 
and  the  Baltimore  Sun.  He  served  with  the  British  Naval 
Intelligence  throughout  the  World  War.  Author  of  Sea 
Power  in  the  Pacific  (1921);  The  Great  Pacific  War 
(1925),  and  others. 

Oalderon,  Salvador.  Nicaraguan  naturalist;  died  in 
San  Salvador,  El  Salvador,  Nov.  9,  1940;  born  in  Nica- 
ragua, 1884.  He  was  the  author  of  Flora  of  Salvador  and 
other  scientific  works. 

Oaldwell,  Charles  Pope.  American  lawyer;  died  in 
Sunn/side,  Queens,  L.I.,  July  31,  1940;  born  in  Bastrop 


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Co.,  Tex.,  June  18.  1875.  After  receiving  the  LL.B.  de- 
gree from  the  University  of  Texas  in  1898  and  from 
Yale  University  in  1899,  he  was  admitted  to  the  N.Y. 
Bar  in  1900.  He  was  a  member  of  the  64th  to  66th  Con- 
gresses, 1915-21.  In  1926,  Mayor  Walker  of  New  York 
City  appointed  him  Associate  Justice  of  the  Court  of 
Special  Sessions  for  a  ten-year  term,  after  which  he  re- 
sumed his  law  practice. 

Oalfee,  John  Edward.  American  educator;  died  near 
Asheville,  N.C.,  Nov.  28,  1940;  born  in  Arcola,  Mo., 
Feb.  7,  1875.  He  was  graduated  from  Park  College, 
Mo.t  (1905);  was  professor  of  natural  science  and  mathe- 
matics, respectively,  at  Tusculum  and  Berea  Colleges 
(1907-16) ;  and  was  president  of  Asbeville  Normal  Teach- 
ers College  (1916-37). 

Oallahan,  Patrick  Henry.  American  manufacturer, 
president  of  the  Louisville  Varnish  Co.;  died  in  Louis- 
ville, Ky.,  Feb  4,  1940,  born  in  Cleveland,  O.,  Oct.  15, 

1866.  He  was  a  leader  in  Catholic  affairs  and  the  prohibi- 
tion and  other  reform  movements.  In  1922  he  was  made  a 
Knight  of  the  Order  of  St.  Gregory  by  Pope  Pius  XI. 

Oallan,  John  Gnerney.  American  inventor;  died  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  on  Dec  30,  1940;  born  at  Northfield, 
Conn.,  Apr.  7,  1875.  He  was  graduated  from  Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology  in  1896:  was  professor  of 
steam  and  electric  engineering  at  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin from  1915  to  1920;  and  professor  of  industrial 
management  at  the  Harvard  Business  School  since  that 
time.  He  held  70  patents  on  steam  turbines  and  other 
industrial  engines  and  was  responsible  for  numerous  ad- 
vances in  steam  engine  development. 

Oallistos,  Bishop.  Greek  Orthodox  bishop;  died  in  Chi- 
cago, 111.,  Nov.  28,  1940,  born  near  Patras,  Greece,  1875. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1905  and  was  head  of 
the  San  Francisco  diocese  before  becoming  Bishop  of 
Chicago  in  1931 

Callow,  John  Michael.  English  metallurgist  and  min- 
ing engineer \  died  in  Rcdhill,  Surrey,  Eng.,  July  27, 
1940;  born  in  Northrepps,  Norwich,  Norfolk,  July  7, 

1867.  Known  internationally  for  his  work  in  metallurgy, 
he  invented  the  settling  tank   and  traveling  belt  screen, 
and  originated  pneumatic  flotation  in  treating  ores,  holding 
18  patents  in  all    Coming  to  the  United  States  in  1890,  he 
worked    for   various   engineering   and   mining   companies, 
and  became  president  of  the  General  Engineering  Co.  in 
1906,  retiring  in  19^3 

Calverton,  Victor  Francis  (George  Qoets).  American 
writer  and  lecturer,  died  in  New  York  City,  Nov.  20, 
1940,  born  in  Baltimore,  Md ,  June  25,  1900  He  was 
graduated  from  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  1921  and  in 
1923  founded  the  Modern  Quarterly,  a  magazine  later 
known  as  the  Modern  Monthly,  which  he  edited  until  his 
death.  His  many  works  included  Three  Strange  Lovers, 
1929;  The  Man  Inside,  1936;  Between  Two  Wars,  1940; 
and  he  was  co-author  of  Sex  in  Civilization,  1929.  He 
took  Calvcrton  as  a  pen  name  in  1923 

Oamac,  Charles  Nicoll  Bancker.  American  physician 
and  educator;  died  in  Altadena,  Calif.  Sept  27,  1940; 
born  in  Philadelphia.  Pa  ,  Aug  6,  1868.  After  receiving 
his  medical  degree  from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1895,  he  took  a  post-graduate  course  at  Johns  Hopkins 
University  Medical  School,  1895-97,  and  became  assistant 
to  Sir  William  Osier  there,  and  later  compiled  his  writ- 
ings He  taught  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1895, 
Cornell  University  Medical  Coll,  1899-1910,  the  Coll. 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  Columbia  University,  1910- 
38,  and  the  Poly  clinic  Hospital  Medical  School,  1934-36. 
Serving  in  the  World  War,  he  attained  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant colonel. 

Cameron,  Henry  George.  Canadian  physician;  died  in 
Weyburn,  Saskatchewan.  Can.,  Aug.  6,  1940;  born  in 
Greenock.  Scot .  in  1895.  He  was  renowned  for  his  dis- 
covery of  cardaissin,  a  heart  stimulant,  in  1926,  and  was 
associated  for  a  time  with  Sir  Frederick  Banting,  a  dis- 
coverer of  insulin. 

Camp.  Walter,  Jr.  American  motion  picture  executive; 
died  in  We  at  wood,  Calif.,  on  Dec.  31.  1940:  born  in  New 


entered  the  shipping  and  banking  business  and  at  the  time 
of  his  retirement  in  1935  was  president  of  Inspiration 
Pictures,  Inc.,  a  photoplay  concern. 

CamphelL  Beatrice  Stella  (Mrs.  Patrick).  British 
actress,  died  in  Pau,  France,  Apr.  9,  1940;  born  in  Lon- 
don, Feb.§9,  1865  Her  professional  debut  was  made  in 
1888  and  in.  1893  she  achieved  success  in  the  role  of  Paula 
Tanqueray  in  The  Second  Mrs.  Tanqueray.  Other  of  her 
important  roles  were  in^Tne  Notorious  Mrs.  Ebbsmith 
(1895),  The  School  for  Scandal  (1896),  Hamlet  (1897), 
Pelleas  and  Mehsande  (1898),  Hedda  Gabler  (1907), 
Pygmahon  (1914).  In  1902  she  made  her  American  debut 
and  thereafter  made  frequent  appearances  there.  After 
1914  she  was  seen  mostly  in  revivals  of  her  early  suc- 
cesses. In  1882  she  married  Patrick  Campbell,  who  died 
in  1900,  and  in  1914  she  married  George  fcornwallis- 


West.  Her  memoirs,  My  Lift  and  Som*  Littir*  appeared 
in  1922. 

Canto,  Giuseppe.  Italian  admiral  and  commissioner 
general  for  Italy  to  the  New  York  World's  Fair;  died  in 
New  York  City,  Oct.  24,  1940;  born  in  Orzinuovi,  Italy, 
May  24,  1873.  A  graduate  of  the  Royal  Naval  Academy 
he  served  in  the  Far  East  in  1899  and  1900  and  in  1903 
was  appointed  aide-de-camp  of  the  Commander  of  the 
Royal  Italian  Navy.  He  saw  active  service  in  the  Italian 
war  against  Turkey  and  in  China  during  the  Boxer  Re- 
bellion. In  1935  he  was  nominated  admiral  and  president 
of  the  Council  of  the  Royal  Italian  Navy.  In  December, 
1937,  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  Italy's  exhibit  at  the 
New  York  World's  Fair. 

Carpenter,  Sir.  H.  O.  Harold.  British  metallurgist; 
died  near  Swansea,  Wales,  September,  1940;  born  on  Feb. 
6.  1875.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  Leipzig,  and  Man- 
chester Univs  In  1901  he  became  head  of  toe  chemical 
and  metallurgical  depts.  of  the  National  Physical  Labora- 
tory, and  was  professor  of  metallurgy  at  Victoria  Univ. 
1906-13.  A  former  president  of  the  Institute  of  Metals 
and  the  Institution  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy,  he  was 
professor  of  metallurgy  in  the  Royal  School  of  Mines  at 
his  death.  He  received  many  honors,  including  the  Car- 
negie  gold  medal  (1905). 

Carpenter,  Lewis  Van.  American  engineer;  died  in 
New  York,  May  10.  1940;  born  in  Wheeling,  W.Va., 
Dec.  25,  1894.  In  1929  he  became  professor  of  sanitary 
engineering  at  the  University  of  West  Virginia,  and  in 
1932  was  made  chairman  of  the  department  of  civil  en- 
gineering He  joined  the  faculty  of  New  York  University 
as  professor  of  sanitary  engineering  in  1935  Also  he  was 
director  of  the  Sanitary  Research  Laboratory  conducted 
by  the  University  and  the  City  of  New  York 

Carson,  John  Renshaw.  American  research  engineer; 
died  in  New  Hope,  Pa ,  Oct.  31,  1940;  born  in  Pittsburgh, 
Pa.;  June  28,  1887.  He  was  graduated  from  Princeton 
University  in  1907:  and  in  1913  entered  the  engineering 
department  of  the  American  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Co. 
and  took  part  in  the  early  radio-telephone  experiments. 
He  was  responsible  for  several  of  the  earliest  installations 
of  the  carrier  current  system,  which  permits  the  trans- 
mission of  several  calls  over  one  circuit  He  also  developed 
the  mathematical  background  for  the  use  of  metal  pipes  to 
guide  radio  waves.  In  1934  he  joined  the  technical  staff 
of  the  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories.  He  was  the  author  of 
Electric  Circuit  Theory  and  the  Operational  Calculus  and 
of  a  book  published  in  German. 

Casey,  Edward  Pearce.  American  architect;  died  in 
New  York,  Jan.  2,  1940;  born  in  Portland,  Me.,  June  18, 
1864.  He  was  architect  for  the  Library  of  Congress, 
Washington,  during  1892-97  and  the  winner  of  the  New 
York  City  Hall  competition  in  1893  and  the  Grant  Monu- 
ment competition  in  1902. 

Canlfield.  Alfred  H.  W.  Canadian  pathologist;  died  in 
Toronto,  May  2,  1940;  born  in  Eden,  Ont.,  in  1879.  An 
authority  on  respiratory  diseases,  he  was  consultant  for 
the  diseases  of  tne  lungs  of  the  Department  of  Pensions 
and  National  Health,  and  a  research  member  of  the 
Connaught  Laboratory  of  the  University  of  Toronto. 

Oavero,  Salvador.  Peruvian  politician;  first  Vice- 
President  of  Peru  (1908-12);  died  in  Lima,  Feb.  19, 
1940;  born  in  1850.  He  was  Peruvian  legal  adviser  in 
the  Tacna-Arica  arbitration  proceedings  in  1923 

Chamberlain.  (Arthur)  Neville.  British  statesman; 
died  at  Highfield  Park,  Heckfield,  Hampshire,  Eng  ,  Nov. 
9,  1940;  born  on  Mar.  18,  1869  He  was  the  second  son 
of  the  late  Joseph  Chamberlain,  British  imperialist  states- 
man; and  a  half-brother  of  Austen  Chamberlain,  British 
Foreign  Secretary,  who  engineered  the  Locarno  Treaties 
in  1925.  Neville's  mother  was  Florence,  daughter  of 
Timothy  Kenrick  of  Birmingham  He  was  educated  at 
Rugby  and  Mason  College.  Birmingham;  and  after  gradu- 
ation resided  in  the  Bahama  Islands  (1890-97).  In  1911 
he  married  Annie  Vere,  daughter  of  the  late  Major  W. 
U.  Cole;  they  had  one  son  and  one  daughter. 

A  successful  manufacturer  in  Birmingham,  Chamber- 
lain was  elected  to  the  Birmingham  City  Council  (1911) 
and  became  chairman  of  its  Town  Planning  Committee, 
in  which  latter  position  he  attained  national  fame  for 
his  accomplishments  in  the  field  of  better  housing  and 
slum-clearance.  A  member  of  the  Conservative  party,  he 
was  Alderman  (1914)  and  Lord  Mayor  of  Birmingham 
(1915-16);  Director-General  of  National  Service  (1916- 
17);  Postmaster-General  (1922-23):  Paymaster-General 
(1923);  Minister  of  Health  for  awhile  in  1923  and  from 
1924  to  1929,  and  again  from  August  to  November,  1931 
He  was  also  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  in  1923-24  and 
in  1931-37.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Unionist  Party 
(1930-31);  and  wa<  Prime  Minister  and  First  Lord  of 
the  Treasury  from  May  28,  1937,  to  May  9,  1940. 

As  Minister  of  Health  and  in  other  governmental  posts, 
Mr.  Chamberlain  was  identified  with  national  housing 
projects,  reform  of  the  poor  law,  and  the  final  legislation 
which  brought  the  widows'  pension  law  into  actual  opera- 
tion. As  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  he  repeatedly  ig- 


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nored  the  United  States  wmr  debt  in  hit  budget  compila- 
tions. 

When  he  became  Prime  Minister,  Mr.  Chamberlain 
embarked  on  a  policy  of  appeasing  Hitler,  either  in  the 
belief  that  he  could  thus  assure  the  peace  of  Europe  or  as 
a  desperate  temporizing  device  to  permit  Great  Britain  to 
build  up  her  armaments.  The  German  absorption  of  Aus- 
tria brought  merely  perfunctory  protests  from  Downing 
Street.  Hitler's  threat  to  invade  Czecho-Slovakia  sent 
Chamberlain  scurrying  to  Germany  (on  his  first  airplane 
ride,  and  with  bis  umbrella  tucked  under  his  arm),  in  an 
effort  to  conciliate  the  German  Chancellor.  In  all,  Mr. 
Chamberlain  made  three  airplane  flights  to  Germany 
(September  15,  September  22,  and  September  30).  On  the 
last  occasion.  Messrs.  Chamberlain,  Daladier  of  France, 
Mussolini  ox  Italy,  and  Hitler  of  Germany  signed  the 
famous  accord  in  Munich  by  which  Germany  was  given 
access  to  the  Sudeten  and  other  predominantly  Teutonic 
areas  of  Czecho-Slovakia,  thus  easing  the  way  to  eventual 
dismemberment  of  the  young  republic. 

Upon  his  return  to  England,  Chamberlain  said-  "This 
is  the  second  time  in  our  history  that  there  has  come  back 
from  Germany  to  Downing  Street  a  peace  with  honor.  I 
believe  it  is  peace  in  our  time." 

When  in  March,  193°,  Hitler  took  over  Czecho-Slovakia 
in  toto,  Mr  Chamberlain  declared-  "I  bitterly  regret 
what  has  occurred,  but  do  not  let  us  be  deflected  from  our 
course.  Acts  of  violence  and  injustice  will  soonei  or  later 
bring  their  own  reward  " 

Mr  Chamberlain  made  no  further  attempts  at  appease- 
ment, however,  and  two  days  after  the  first  German  sol- 
dier invaded  Poland,  Great  Britain  was  at  war.  Mr. 
Chamberlain  fell  from  power  because  of  public  dissatis- 
faction with  the  progress  of  Britain's  war  effort. 

He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey 

Chamberlain,  Paul  Mellon.  American  mechanical  en- 
gineer; died  in  Keene,  N  Y.,  May  27,  1940;  born  in 
Three  Oaks,  Mich  ,  Feb  28,  1865  An  engineer  in  private 
industry  from  1890.  he  taught  mechanical  engineering  at 
the  Michigan  Agricultural  College  (1893-96)  and  at 
Lewis  Institute,  Chicago  (1899-1906).  Until  his  retire- 
ment in  1917  he  was  a  consulting  engineer  He  was  an 
authority  on  timepieces,  their  history,  and  their  construc- 
tion. 

Chambers,  Frank  S.  American  merchant;  died  in 
Bronxville,  N  Y.,  Apr  30,  1940,  born  in  Mobile,  Ala., 
Sept  3,  1850  One  of  the  original  partners  of  Rogers 
Peet  Co.,  in  1874,  he  was  its  president  several  times  and 
after  1936  was  chairman  of  the  board  of  directors. 

Chandler,  Swlthin.  American  surgeon  and  diagnosti- 
cian; died  in  Strafford,  Philadelphia,  Pa..  Dec.  10,  1940; 
born  in  Centrcville,  Del.,  1870.  Immediately  upon  his 
graduation  from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  Medical 
School  at  the  age  of  21,  he  was  elected  chief  surgeon  of 
Delaware  Hospital,  Wilmington  He  was  the  inventor  of 
several  brain  surgery  instruments  and  was  associate  pro- 
fessor of  surgery  at  Temple  University  from  1918  to 
1928.  In  1916  he  was  chief  sanitary  officer  of  El  Paso, 
Texas. 

Chandler.  Sir  William  K.  Barbados  legislator,  member 
of  the  legislative  council  from  1884  and  its  president  in 
1912;  died  in  Bridgetown,  Barbados,  May  24,  1940;  born 
Feb  19,  1857. 

Chang  Shan-Tee.  Chinese  painter;  died  in  Chungking, 
China,  Oct.  19,  1940;  born  in  1878  Known  as  "the  most 
eminent  painter  in  modern  China,"  he  specialized  in  paint- 
ing tigers.  Fordhara  University  received  two  paintings, 
valued  at  $5000  each  from  him  in  April,  1939.  Formerly 
a  major  general  in  the  Imperial  Court,  he  joined  the 
revolutionists  and  became  a  diplomat  for  the  Republic. 
In  1937  be  was  converted  to  Catholicism,  and  later  he 
traveled  in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  raising  funds 
for  the  Chinese  Government  Relief  Mission 

Ohapln,  Howard  Millar.  American  librarian;  died  in 
Providence,  R  L,  Sept.  18,  1940;  born  in  Providence, 
May  11,  1887.  Graduating  from  Brown  University  in 
1908,  he  was  in  various  businesses  until  1912,  when  he 
was  appointed  librarian  of  the  Rhode  Island  Historical 
Society,  holding  this  post  until  his  death  He  was  noted 
as  an  authority  on  Colonial  history  and  heraldry.  Author 
of  many  books  and  papers,  his  best-known  work  was 
Documentary  History  of  Rhode  Island  (2  vols.). 

Chase,  William  Sheaf e.  American  clergyman:  died  in 
Kings  Park,  L.I .  July  16,  1940;  born  in  Amooy,  HI., 
Jan.  11,  1858.  Graduating  from  Brown  University  in 
1881.  he  entered  the  Episcopal  Theological  School,  from 
which  he  graduated  in  1885.  He  was  honorary  canon  of 
the  Cathedral  of  the  Incarnation  and  chaplain  of  St. 
Paul's  School,  Garden  City,  L.L.  1902-05.  When  he  be- 
came rector  of  Christ  Church.  Blclrn.,  N.Y.,  in  1905,  he 
started  national  crusades  against  betting,  drinking,  war. 
movies,  and  Sunday  baseball,  and  all  other  forms  of 
temptation,  and  was  a  leader  in  a  number  of  reform 
organizations.  He  retired  in  1932. 

Chiperfleld.  Burnett  MltchelL  American  lawyer;  died 
in  Canton,  111.,  June  24,  1940;  born  in  Dover,  111.,  June 


14,  1870.  Active  in  Republican  politics,  he  was  a  member 
of  the  64th  (1915-17)  and  the  71st-72nd  (1929-33)  Con- 
gresses from  Illinois.  A  member  of  the  Illinois  National 
Guard  from  1904  to  1934,  he  served  as  judge  advocate 
general  of  the  3d  Army  Corps  of  the  Army  of  Occupation 
in  Germany  in  1918-19. 

Chltainbar,  Jashwant  Bao.  Indian  Methodist  bishop; 
died  in  India,  Sept.  4,  1940;  born  in  1875.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Lucknow  Christian  Coll,  Allahabad  Univ., 
and  the  Methodist  Theological  School  in  Bareilly,  India. 
From  1916-31  he  was  president  of  Lucknow  Chnstian 
Coll.,  when  he  became  the  first  Indian  to  be  elevated  to 
the  Methodist  episcopacy.  Mahatma  Gandhi  was  a  close 
friend,  and  was  the  subject  of  a  book  by  him. 

OhrlBtoff,  Theodore.  Bulgarian  diplomatist;  died  in 
Moscow,  June  20,  1940;  born  in  Kasanlik,  Bulgaria  in 
1890.  In  the  diplomatic  service  from  1924,  he  was  min- 
ister to  Germany  (1935-36),  to  Turkey  (1936-39)  and  to 
Moscow  thereafter.  He  wrote  Das  Heutige  Bulgaricn 
(1931). 

Christopher,  Prince  of  Greece;  died  in  Athens,  Jan. 
21,  1940;  born  in  St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  July  29,  1888, 
the  son  of  King  George  I  of  Greece,  and  Queen  Olga 
On  Feb  1,  1920,  he  was  married  to  Mrs  William  B 
Leeds,  widow  of  a  Cleveland  tin  plate  manufacturer  She 
died  in  1923. 

Chrysler,  Walter  Percy.  American  auto  manufacturer; 
died  at  Great  Neck,  L.I ,  Aug.  18,  1940,  born  in  Wamego, 
Kan.,  Apr.  2,  1875.  Graduating  from  high  school,  he 
became  a  machinist's  apprentice  in  a  railroad  shop  At 
33  he  had  risen  to  superintendent  of  motive  power  and 
machinery  of  the  Chicajjo  Great  Western  line,  and  in  1911 
was  manager  of  the  Pittsburgh  works  of  the  American 
Locomotive  Co  Turning  to  the  automobile  field  he  became 
works  manager  of  the  Buick  Motor  Co,  1912-16,  and 
president  and  general  manager,  1916-19  He  was  vice- 
president  of  General  Motors  Corp  ,  1919-20.  and  resign- 
ing, became  vice-president  of  the  Willys-Overland  Co , 
1920-22.  Reorganizing  the  Maxwell  Motor  Corp.  to 
straighten  out  its  financial  difficulties,  he  again  reorgan- 
ized it  in  1925  as  the  Chrysler  Corp,  becoming  president 
and  chairman  of  the  board  He  resigned  the  mesidency 
in  1935  but  remained  as  chairman  of  the  board  until  the 
time  of  his  death 

Churchill,  Allen  L.  Former  associate  editor  of  THE 
NEW  INTERNATIONAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA  and  the  YEAR  BOOK, 
died  in  Flushing,  Queen*,  N.Y  ,  Nov.  15,  1940,  born  in 
Houlton,  Me ,  Feb.  26,  1873 

Clark,  Marguerite.  American  actress;  died  in  New 
York  City,  N  Y  ,  Sept  25,  1940;  born  in  Avondale,  Cin- 
cinnati, O.,  Feb.  22,  1887  She  was  educated  in  the 
Ursulme  Convent,  Brown  Co.,  O  ,  and  made  her  stage 
debut  in  Baltimore  in  1900  under  Milton  Aborn  Appear- 
ing with  De  Wolf  Hopper  as  a  child  actress  at  fifteen, 
she  co-starred  with  him  within  two  years,  and  starred  in 
several  Shubert  musical  shows,  as  well  as  numerous  suc- 
cessful plays  In  1914  she  was  signed  by  Adolph  Zukor 
of  Famous  Players  for  the  silent  films,  and  was  one  of 
the  biggest  "box-office"  stars  in  1917-18  After  her  mar- 
riage to  Harry  P.  Williams,  wealthy  Louisiana  lumber 
man  and  plantation  owner,  in  1918,  she  retired  from  the 
films  in  1920.  At  his  death  in  1936  she  managed  his  large 
interests  in  Louisiana  Included  in  the  long  list  of  suc- 
cessful plays  and  pictures,  were  Prunella,  Wishing  Ring, 
Babes  in  Toyland.  Snow  White,  Baby  Mine,  Wild  Flower, 
Goose  Girl,  The  Crucible,  and  The  Seven  Sisters. 

Coefleld,  John.  American  labor  leader,  president  of  the 
United  Association  of  Journeymen  Plumbers  and  Steam- 
fitters  and  a  vice-president  of  the  American  Federation  of 
Labor;  died  in  Washington,  Feb.  8,  1940;  born  near 
Frankhn,  Pa.,  in  1870. 

Cogliolo,  Pietro.  Italian  senator;  died  in  Genoa  on 
Dec.  14,  1940;  born  in  1858  A  university  professor  and 
specialist  in  aeronautical  law,  he  drafted  Italy's  aviation 
code  in  1923,  and  was  appointed  a  senator  in  1913. 

Coleman,  Georgia.  American  diving  champion,  died 
in  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  Sept.  14,  1940,  born  in  1912.  She 
became  world  famous  in  the  1928  Olympic  games  at 
Amsterdam,  where  she  won  all  the  diving  events,  a  feat 
she  repeated  in  the  national  championships.  She  won  the 
fancy  diving  contest  in  the  Olympic  games  at  Los  Angeles, 
1932,  and  the  Women's  Amateur  Athletic  Union  in  the 
same  year.  Turning  professional,  she  taught  swimming  and 
acted  in  motion  pictures.  In  1937  she  contracted  infantile 
paralysis  which  affected  her  limbs  and  organs  of  speech, 
but  recovered  a  year  later  and  resumed  teaching 

Collins,  Eddie.  American  stage  and  screen  actor;  died 
in  Arcadia,  Calif,  on  Sept.  1,  1940,  born  in  Jersey  City, 
N.J..  Jan.  30,  1884.  He  plavcd  the  role  of  "Jiggs"  in  the 
original  stage  production  ot  Bringing  Up  Father  (1911) 
and  from  1914  to  1930  toured  the  United  States  with  his 
own  musical  comedy  company  of  20  persons  called  Mr 
and  Mrs.  Eddie  Collins'*  Big  Revue.  Walt  Disney  used 
him  as  the  model  for  Dopey  in  the  motion  picture  Snow 
White  and  the  Seven  Dwarfs  and  he  spent  practically  a 
whole  year  in  the  Disney  studio  while  his  facial  expres- 


NECROLOGY 


509 


NECROLOGY 


•ions  were  being  photographed  for  the  eventual  amusement 
of  America's  millions. 

Collins,  Edward  Day.  American  educator:  died  in  Mid- 
dlebury,  Vt.,  Jan.  1,  1940:  born  in  Hardwick,  Vt.,  Dec. 
17,  1869.  Associated  with  Middlebury  College  from  1909, 
he  was  professor  of  pedagogy  until  1912,  acting  president 
during  1918-19  and  1921,  provost,  1919-21,  and  comp- 
troller, 1923-25,  when  he  retired. 

Oolqultt.  Oscar  Branch.  American  politician,  governor 
of  Texas  for  two  terms  (1911-15):  died  in  Dallas,  Tex., 
Mar.  8,  1940;  born  in  Camilla,  Ga.,  Dec.  16,  1861.  In 
May,  1929,  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  U.S.  Board 
of  Mediation. 

Oombs,  Leslie.  American  diplomat;  died  at  Belair 
Farm,  near  Lexington,  Ky ,  Nov  18,  1940;  born  in  Little 
Compton,  R.I.,  July  31,  1852  He  was  Minister  to  Guate- 
mala and  Honduras  during  the  administration  of  Presi- 
dent Theodore  Roosevelt,  and  Minister  to  Peru  under 
President  Taft 

Oompton,  Virginia  Bateman  (Mrs.  Edward).  British 
actress,  died  in  London,  May  4,  1940;  born,  Jan.  1,  1853. 
On  the  stage  from  1865,  she  appeared  with  the  Compton 
Comedy  Co.,  after  her  marriage  in  1882.  She  managed 
the  company  after  the  death  of  her  husband,  and  in 
September.  1920,  opened  the  Repertory  Theatre  in  Not- 
tingham. She  retired  in  1925  and  devoted  her  time  to  the 
Theatre  Girls'  Club,  founded  by  her 

Condon,  Frank.  American  short-story  writer  and  hu- 
morist; died  at  Beverly  Hills,  Calif.,  on  Dec  19,  1940; 
Born  at  Toledo,  Ohio,  in  1882  He  was  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  the  Saturday  Evening  Post  and  Collier's,  and 
wrote  many  scenarios  during  his  30  years'  residence  in 
the  vicinity  of  Hollywood 

Connolly,  Walter.  American  actor:  died  in  Beverly 
Hills,  Calif.,  May  28,  1940,  born  in  Cincinnati,  Apr  8, 
1887.  On  the  stage  from  1908,  he  appeared  in  The  Woman 
of  Bronze  (1920),  Uncle  Vanya  (1930),  Six  Characters 
in  Search  of  An  Author  (1931),  The  Good  Fairy  (1931), 
The  Late  Christopher  Bean  (1932),  and  The  Bishop  Mis- 
behaves (1935).  He  entered  motion  pictures  in  1932  and 
was  seen  in  such  successes  as  The  Bitter  Tea  of  General 
Yen,  Lady  for  a  Day,  It  Happened  One  Night,  The  Great 
Victor  Herbert  (1939)  in  which  he  played  the  title  role, 
and  Bachelor  Mother  (1940)  He  was  considered  one  ot 
the  must  versatile  actors  of  stage  and  screen. 

Cook,  Frederick  Albert.  American  explorer;  died  in 
New  Rochelle,  N  Y.,  Aug  5,  1940;  born  in  Callicoon 
Depot,  N  Y  ,  June  10,  1865  Claiming  to  have  discovered 
the  North  Pole  on  Apr  21,  1908,  he  was  feted  by  the 
King  of  Denmark  after  he  had  emerged  from  the  Arctic 
on  Sept  1,  1909,  and  was  welcomed  upon  his  return  to 
New  York  and  elected  president  of  the  Explorers  Club. 
His  fame  was  short  lived,  for  Admiral  Peary's  claim  that 
he  had  reached  the  North  Pole  on  Apr.  6,  1909,  was 
accented  by  scientific  men,  and  Cook  was  discredited  and 
expelled  from  the  Explorers  Club  In  1922  he  was  sen- 
tenced to  prison  for  oil  swindles,  and  was  released  on 
parole  in  1930  On  May  17,  1940,  President  Roosevelt 
granted  him  a  full  pardon,  and  to  his  death  he  sought  to 
vindicate  himself. 

Cook,  Robert  George.  American  physician,  died  on 
Oct  25,  1940,  born  in  Canandaigua,  N  Y.,  Aug.  4,  1864. 
He  fostered  State  legislation  to  aid  the  insane  of  New 
York  and  was  the  head  of  Brigham  Hall,  a  private  mental 
hospital  at  Canandaigua,  N  Y  ,  from  1908  to  1928 

Coolidge,  Dane.  American  author  and  naturalist;  died 
in  Berkeley,  Calif  ,  Aug  8,  1940:  born  in  Natick,  Mass., 
Mar  24,  1873  He  was  graduated  from  Stanford  Univer- 
sity in  1898,  and  did  post-graduate  work  in  biology  at 
Harvard  University,  1898-99.  While  in  college  he  was 
field  collector  of  mammals,  birds,  and  reptiles  for  several 
learned  institutions  He  was  an  expert  in  Indian  lore  and 
a  prolific  writer  of  Western  stories.  Among  his  biographies 
and  histories  were  Tcras  Cowboys,  1937;  Arigona  Cowboys, 
1938,  California  Cowboys,  1939.  Included  in  his  40-odd 
novels  were  Silver  Hat,  1934;  Snake-Bit  Jones,  1936; 
Wallv  Laughs  Easy,  1939;  Bloody  Head,  1940. 

Cooper.  Oonrtney  Ryley.  American  writer;  died  in 
New  York  City,  N.Y.,  by  suicide,  Sept.  29,  1940;  born 
in  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  Oct.  31.  1886.  Educated  in  public 
schools,  he  ran  away  and  joined  the  circus.  A  special 
writer  for  several  newspapers,  1910-13,  and  a  contributor 
to  magazines  from  1912  until  his  death,  he  is  credited 
with  having  written  more  than  500  stories  on  jungle 
animal  life,  circus  life,  and  Rocky  Mountain  "high  coun- 
try" life.  He  was  press  agent  for  Sells-Floto  Circus  and 
Buffalo  Bill,  1914-15  In  recent  years  he  became  inter- 
ested in  crime  study,  especially  in  relation  to  the  FBI 
He  wrote  several  scenarios,  including  Wild  Cargo  and 
Weary  River. 

Cooper,  Oswald  Bruce.  American  type  designer;  died 
in  Chicago  on  Dec  17,  1940;  bom  in  Mt.  Gilead.  O.,  in 
1879  A  printer's  devil  since  the  age  of  14,  he  attended 
the  Frank  Holm  School  of  Illustration  in  Chicago  in  1901. 
studying  under  Frederic  William  Goudy.  He  later  formed 
the  advertising  firm  of  Bertsch  and  Cooper  and  became 


one  of  the  foremost  type  designer!  in  the  country.  He 
originated  the  Cooper  Black  type,  also  known  as  the 
Cooper  Bold  and  designed  the  Packard  type  from  work 
which  he  had  done  for  the  Packard  Motor  Car  Co. 

Cope,  Sir  Arthur.  British  portrait  painter;  died  in 
Cornwall,  July  5,  1940;  born  Nov.  2,  1857.  Among  his 
best-known  works  were  portraits  of  King  Edward  vll, 
the  German  Emperor,  King  George  V,  and  "Some  Sea 
Officers  of  the  War." 

Copeland.  Benjamin.  American  Methodist  clergyman 
and  poet;  died  in  Buffalo,  N.Y.,  Dec.  1,  1940;  born  in 
Clarendon,  N  Y ,  June  14,  1855.  He  wrote  hundreds  of 
verses  which  were  published  in  magazines  and  news- 
papers; composed  a  coronation  hymn  for  George  VI  of 
England  and  received  letters  of  thanks  from  the  royal 
family.  He  was  a  direct  descendant  of  John  Alden  and 
Priscilla  Mullms. 

Cortelyou,  George  Bruce.  American  financier;  died  at 
Huntington  Bay,  LI.,  Oct  23,  1940;  born  in  New  York, 
Julv  26,  1862.  After  having  been  a  law  reporter,  1883-85, 
and  a  New  York  school  teacher,  1885-89,  he  entered  pub- 
lic service,  becoming  secretary  to  various  officials,  includ- 
ing the  4th  Assistant  Postmaster  General.  Later  he  served 
as  secretary  to  Grover  Cleveland,  William  McKmley,  and 
Theodore  Roosevelt,  who  appointed  him  first  Secretary  of 
the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  1903-04,  Post- 
master General,  1905-07,  and  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
1907-09  He  was  president  of  the  Consolidated  Gas  Co.  of 
New  York,  1909-35. 

Cosden,  Joshua  8.  American  oil  producer;  died  aboard 
a  train  at  Willcox,  Ariz  ,  en  route  to  El  Paso,  Tex ,  from 
Palm  Springs,  Calif.  Nov.  17,  1940;  born  in  Kent  Co. 
Md.  July  8,  1882  He  organized  and  headed  several  of 
the  largest  independent  oil  refineries,  owned  a  seat  on  the 
New  York  Stock  Exchange  in  the  early  1920's;  enter- 
tained the  then  Prince  of  Wales  at  the  Cosden  estate  at 
Sands  Point,  LI,  in  1924:  and  erected  the  16-story 
Cosden  Building  in  Tulsa,  Oklahoma,  in  1913,  at  that 
time  the  tallest  building  in  the  world. 

Coss,  John  J.  American  educator,  died  in  New  Or- 
leans, La ,  Apr  28,  1940:  born  in  Lima,  O  .  Mar  24, 
1884.  Associated  with  Columbia  University  from  1912, 
after  1920,  he  was  executive  officer  of  the  department  of 
philosophy,  and  director  of  the  University's  summer  ses- 
sion He  was  interested  in  Negro  education 

Cotter,  William  Timothy.  British  Roman  Catholic  bish- 
op, died  in  Portsmouth,  Eng.,  Oct.  24,  1940;  born  in 
Cloyne,  Ireland,  1866.  He  was  bishop  of  Portsmouth  for 
30  years. 

Cowie,  David  Murray.  American  pediatrician;  died  in 
Ann  Arbor,  Mich  ,  Jan.  27,  1940;  born  in  Monet  on,  N  B  , 
Nov  19,  1872.  Associated  with  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan from  1896,  he  became  prof essor  of  pediatrics  and  in- 
fectious diseases  in  1920  He  was  associate  editor  of  the 
American  Journal  of  Diseases  of  Children  during  1912-24 
and  president  of  the  American  Pediatric  Society  in 
1923-24. 

Cralgavon,  1st  Viscount,  James  Craig.  Irish  states- 
man, died  at  Glencraig,  near  Belfast,  Northern  Ireland, 
Nov.  24,  1940;  born  at  Craigavon  in  Down,  Jan.  8,  1871. 
After  serving  in  the  Boer  war  as  a  lieutenant,  he  was 
elected  to  the  British  House  of  Commons  (1906)  and  was 
successively  re-elected  until  the  Ulster  government  was 
formed  in  1921  with  Craigavon  as  Prime  Minister.  He 
was  a  bitter  opponent  of  union  with  Southern  Ireland 

Cramer,  Stuart.  American  manufacturer,  died  in  Char- 
lotte, N  C.,  July  2,  1940;  born  in  Thomasville,  N.C.,  Mar. 
31,  1868.  A  mill  engineer  and  contractor  from  1895  to 
1918,  during  that  period  he  designed  or  equipped  almost 
all  of  the  South's  cotton  mills  He  became  president  of 
Cramerton  Mills,  Inc.,  in  1908,  and  in  1938  became  chair- 
man of  the  board  of  directors  Also  he  was  head  of  Mays 
Mills,  and  Mayflower  Mills  His  research  in  the  textile 
field  brought  him  60  United  States  and  foreign  patents. 
He  was  president  of  the  American  Cotton  Manufacturers 
Association  (1916-17)  and  of  the  National  Council  of 
American  Cotton  Manufacturers  (1917-18,  1920-27).  He 
wrote  Useful  Information  for  Cotton  Manufacturers  (4 
vol.,  1904-09).  Active  in  Republican  politics,  he  served 
on  state  and  national  committees. 

Cravath,  Paul  B.  American  lawyer;  died  in  Locust 
Valley,  N.Y.,  July  1.  1940;  born  in  Berlin  Heights,  O., 
July  14,  1861.  One  of  the  foremost^  corporation  lawyers  in 
the  country,  he  was  known  for  his  reorganization  work 
of  International  Harvester,  the  Missouri  Pacific.  Bethle- 
hem Steel,  the  Metropolitan  Street  Railway,  and  the  In- 
terborough  Rapid  Transit  Co.,  and  numbered  leading  in- 
dustrialists among  his  clients.  At  his  death  he  was  the 
senior  partner  in  the  firm  of  Cravath,  deGersdorfF,  Swame 
&  Wood  His  talents  were  utilized  during  the  World 
War  by  the  Inter-Allied  War  Conference  in  Pans  (1917) 
and  the  American  Mission  to  the  Inter-Allied  Council  on 
War  Purchases  and  Finances  and  he  received  the  Dis- 
tinguished Service  Medal  and  honors  from  many  foreign 
governments.  A  noted  art  collector  and  traveller,  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  board  of  directors  of  the  Metro- 


NECROLOGY 


510 


NECROLOGY 


._.  Co.,  in  1931  and  at  hit  death  was  preai- 

j  of  the  Metropolitan  Opera  Association.  Alto,  he  was 

actively  interested  in  the  Council  on  Foreign  Relations, 
Inc.,  the  English  Speaking  Union,  and  the  Economic 
Club. 

Crawford,  27th  Earl  of,  David  Alexander  Edward 
Lindsay;  Scottish  peer;  died  near  Wigan,  Mar.  8,  1940; 
born  in  1871.  A  Conservative  Member  of  Parliament  from 
1895  to  1913,  he  served  in  the  Cabinet  in  1916  and  in 
1922,  and  was  Lord  Privy  Seal  from  1916  to  1918,  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster  during  1919-21,  first 
commissioner  of  Works  in  1921  and  1922,  and  Minister  of 
Transport  in  1922.  An  expert  on  art,  he  wrote  The  Evolu- 
tion of  Italian  Sculpture  (1910). 

Orawshaw,  William  B.  American  educator;  died  in 
Hamilton,  N.Y.,  July  2,  1940:  born  in  Newburgh,  N.Y., 
Nov.  6,  1861.  Associated  with  Colgate  University  from 
1887,  he  was  professor  of  English  literature  (1893-1917) 
and  professor  of  general  literature  (1917-30),  dean  (1897- 
1930),  acting  president  (1897-99,  1907.  1908),  and  presi- 
dent pro  tern.,  (1908-09).  In  1930  he  was  retired  as 
emeritus.  He  was  associated  with  the  University  Cruise 
Around  the  World  during  1929-31.  In  1937  he  published 
My  Colgate  Years. 

Orompton,  Bookes  E.  B.  British  electrical  engineer; 
died  in  Ripon,  Feb.  15,  1940:  born  in  Thirsk,  May  31, 
1845.  Founder  of  Crompton  &  Co.,  in  1878,  he  was  an  elec- 
tric light  pioneer  in  Great  Britain.  He  served  twice  as 
president  of  the  Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers  and 
was  Faraday  medallist  and  James  Forrest  lecturer.  He 
wrote  Reminiscences  (1928). 

Oulpeper,  Charles  E.  American  manufacturer;  died  in 
New  York,  Feb.  2,  1940;  born  in  Rome,  Ga.,  in  1875. 
Associated  with  the  Coca  Cola  Co.,  from  1897,  he  founded 
the  Coca  Cola  Bottling  Co.,  of  which  he  wan  president  and 
chairman  of  the  board.  In  his  will  he  left  his  stock  in  the 
Coca  Cola  Co.,  valued  at  about  $8,000,000,  to  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Charles  E  Culpeper  Foundation,  a  non-sec- 
tarian charitable  institution 

Cunningham,  William  Francis.  American  pathologist 
and  author;  died  in  New  York  City,  N  Y.,  Nov.  19,  1940; 
horn  in  Norwich,  Conn  ,  1889.  He  was  for  many  years 
associated  with  the  Department  of  Experimental  Pathology 
of  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  Columbia 
University,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  experiment  with 
Hodgkin's  disease  in  apes 

Gureton,  Calvin  M.  American  jurist,  chief  justice  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  Texas  from  1921;  died  in  Austin, 
Tex.,  Apr  8,  1940;  born  near  Walnut  Springs,  Tex., 
Sept.  1,  1874. 

Onrtin,  John  J.  American  lawyer;  died  in  Brooklyn, 
N.Y.,  on  Dec.  16,  ,1940;  born  in  Ireland  on  Oct.  3,  1878. 
He  came  to  America  with  his  parents  when  he  was  two 
years  old;  lived  in  Manchester,  N  H. ;  was  graduated 
from  Manhattan  College  in  1900  and  from  the  Brooklyn 
Law  School.  St.  Lawrence  University,  in  1906.  He  was 
identified  with  much  important  litigation;  succeeded  Sam- 
uel Untermyer  as  counsel  to  the  New  York  Transit  Com- 
mission in  negotiations  leading  to  the  unification  of  New 
York  City's  rapid  transit  system;  was  special  counsel  to 
Gov.  Alfred  E.  Smith  and  to  Mayor  James  J.  Walker, 
and  a  counselor  of  the  Democratic  National  Committee; 
and  was  chairman  of  the  State  Racing  Commission  by 
appointment  of  Governor  Smith  and  reappointment  of 
Governor  Roosevelt.  He  was  a  prominent  Roman  Catholic 
layman,  a  Knight  of  St.  Gregory,  and  counsel  to  Bishop 
Thomas  E  Molloy  of  the  Brooklyn  Diocese. 

Daniels,  Arthur  Hill.  American  educator,  professor  of 
philosophy  from  1899  and  acting  president  from  1933  at 
the  University  of  Illinois;  emeritus  after  1934;  died  in 
Urbana,  111.,  Apr.  2,  1940;  born  in  East  Medway,  Mass., 
Oct  19,  1865. 

Dargan,  Edwin  Preston.  American  educator;  died  in 
Chicago,  111,  Dec.  13,  1940;  born  in  Barboursville,  Va.. 
Sept.  7,  1879  He  was  graduated  from  the  University  of 
Virginia  in  1902;  taught  in  the  University  of  Virginia 
and  the  University  of  California;  and  after  1918  was 
professor  of  French  Literature  at  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago. He  wrote  several  books  on  French  literary  figures, 
particularly  Balzac 

Darsia,  Marvin  Lloyd.  American  educator;  died  in  Los 
Angeles,  Calif.,  Tan.  25,  1940;  born  in  Cleveland,  O., 
Feb.  18,  1887  Associated  with  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia at  Los  Angeles  from  1919.  he  was  appointed  profes- 
sor of  education  m  1927  and  dean  of  Teachers  College 
in  1922. 

D'Areonyal,  Jacques  Arsene.  French  physiologist;  died 
in  France  in  December,  1940;  born  in  1851  Professor  of 
experimental  physiology  at  the  Sorbonne  (1894-1932).  he 
was  a  pioneer  in  the  field  of  electrotherapy,  a  medical 
treatment  once  known  as  "arsonvalisation. 

Davidovitch,  LJuba.  Yugoslav  politician,  died  in  Bel- 
grade, Feb.  19,  1940,  born  in  VTaska,  Serbia  in  1863.  A 
member  of  the  Serbian  Radical  Party  he  was  elected  a 
deputy  in  1901  and  m  1919  he  was  elected  president  of 
the  newly-founded  Democrat  party.  He  was  prune  minister 


of  a  coalitio 


ntfr 


i  August,  1919,  to  February, 


1920,  and  agaftThT\924. 

Davidson,  X.  P.  American  educator;  died  in  New  Or- 
leans, La.,  on  Dec.  27,  1940;  born  in  Weymouth,  Mass., 
on  Jan.  26.  1875.  A  graduate  of  Harvard  University 
(1897).  he  held  various  teaching  posts  and  was  professor 
of  Latin  and  Greek  at  St.  Stephen's  College  (now  Bard 
College)  from  1913  to  1918.  He  was  dean  of  the  college 
from  1918  to  1925  and  acting  president  in  1919. 

Davles,  William  Henry.  Welsh  poet;  died  in  Nails- 
worth,  Gloucestershire,  Eng.,  Sept.  26,  1940;  born  in 
Newport,  Monmouthshire,  Apr.  20,  1871.  In  his  early 
manhood  he  spent  several  years  wandering  over  the  United 
States  as  a  hobo,  and  lost  a  foot  boarding  a  train  at 
Renfrew.  Ontario.  His  numerous  poems  have  been  widely 
praised  by  critics,  including  George  Bernard  Shaw,  and 
his  Autobiography  of  a  Super  Tramp,  first  published  in 
1917,  has  had  several  republisbings,  the  most  recent  in 
1938.  In  1913  the  Asquith  government  awarded  Davies  a 
small  pension  from  the  Civil  List,  and  in  1921  it  was  in- 
creased somewhat. 

D'Avlgdor-Ooldsmid.  Sir  Osmond.  British  Jewish  lead- 
er; died  in  London,  Apr.  14,  1940;  born  in  1877.  He 
served  as  president  of  the  Anglo- Jewish  Association  (1921- 
26),  of  the  Jewish  Colonization  Association  from  1919, 
and  of  the  Board  of  Deputies  of  British  Jews  (1926-33). 
He  was  a  recognized  leader  in  the  cause  of  aiding  Euro- 
pean refugees. 

Davis,  Francis  E.  American  jurist;  died  in  Woodbury, 
N.J.,  on  Dec.  22,  1940;  born  in  Camden,  N  J..  in  1878. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1899;  was  president  judge 
of  the  Gloucester  County  Common  Pleas  Court  (1917- 
22);  State  Senator  (1923-31);  and  vice-chancellor  of 
the  New  Jersey  Court  of  Chancery  since  1932.  As  major- 
ity leader  of  the  State  Senate,  he  was  Acting  Governor 
for  a  period  in  1937  when  Gov.  A.  Harry  Moore  was  out 
of  the  state. 

Davison,  Charles.  British  mathematician  and  authority 
on  earthquakes,  about  which  he  wrote  several  books,  in- 
cluding A  History  of  British  Earthquakes;  died  in  Cam- 
bridge, Eng.  Apr.  28,  1940;  born  May  1,  1858 

Dawes,  Burns  Cutler.  American  industrialist,  died  in 
Chicago,  Jan.  8,  1940;  born  in  Marietta,  O.,  July  30, 
1867.  In  1897  he  engaged  in  the  organizing  and  manag- 
ing of  gas  and  electric  companies,  subsequently  becom- 
ing president  of  the  Union  Gas  &  Electric  Co  and  the 
Metropolitan  Gas  &  Electric  Co.  During  1933-34  he  was 
president  of  the  Century  of  Progress  Exposition,  Chicago, 
and  after  1934  was  president  of  the  Museum  of  Science 
and  Industry  there.  He  was  an  adviser  on  the  preparation 
of  the  Dawes  plan  and  wrote  Dawes  Plan  in  the  Making 
(1925). 

Day,  George  Calvin.  American  admiral;  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D  C.,  Nov.  3,  1940;  born  in  Bradford,  Vt,  Nov.  8, 
1871.  He  was  graduated  from  the  Naval  Academy  in 
1892;  was  commander  of  submarines  in  the  Pacific  from 
1923  to  1925:  and  commandant  of  the  15th  Naval  District 
in  the  Canal  Zone,  including  the  Panama  Canal,  from 
1925  to  1927.  He  was  president  of  the  Naval  Board  of 
Inspection  and  Survey  at  the  time  of  his  retirement  in 
1935.  He  acquired  the  rank  of  rear  admiral  in  1925. 

Deasy,  Lucre  B.  American  jurist,  chief  justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Maine  (1929-30);  died  in  Portland, 
Me,  Mar.  13,  1940;  born  in  Gouldsboro,  Me,  Feb.  8, 
1859. 

De  Bower,  Herbert  F.  American  educator,  founder  of 
Alexander  Hamilton  Institute,  New  York,  in  1909,  died 
in  New  York,  Mar.  16,  1940;  born  in  Dane,  Wis.,  in 
1874. 

De  Kok,  Johan  Egbert  Frederlk.  Dutch  industrialist; 
died  in  The  Hague,  Netherlands,  Oct.  28.  1940;  born  in 
1882.  A  graduate  of  the  Royal  Military  Academy  (1908) 
and  a  former  army  officer  in  the  Netherlands  Indies,  De 
Kok  joined  the  Royal  Dutch  Shell  Co  as  an  exploitation 
engineer  and  worked  his  way  up  until  he  became  director 
general  of  the  company  in  1937. 

Dell,  Robert.  British  journalist;  died  in  New  York 
City,  N.Y.,  July  20,  1940;  born  in  1865  From  1907  to 
1938  he  was  foreign  correspondent  for  the  Manchester 
Guardian  in  Pans,  Berlin,  and  Geneva  and  after  the 
World  War  he  was  also  a  regular  contributor  to  the  Na- 
tion. He  was  expelled  from  France  in  May,  1918,  follow- 
ing the  publication  of  some  critical  articles  from  his  pen 
on  the  manner  in  which  the  French  government  had  dis- 
cussed indirect  Austrian  peace  moves.  He  wrote  three 
books;  My  Second  Country,  published  in  1920,  was  a 
general  discussion  of  France. 

Darners,  Marie  Joseph.  Canadian  jurist;  died  in  Mont- 
real, Can.,  July  28,  1940;  born  in  Henryville.  Iberville 
Co.,  May  31.  1871.  He  represented  St.  Johns-Iberville  m 
the  House  of  Commons  (1906-11);  was  Mayor  St.  Johns 
(1909);  and  served  as  Superior  Court  Justice  for  18 
years. 

Deneen,  Charles  8.  American  politician;  died  in  Chi- 
cago, Feb.  5,  1940;  born  in  Edwardsville,  111,  May  4, 
186*3.  A  leader  in  Illinois  politics,  he  served  as  governor 


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511 


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of  niteob  during  1905-12  and  as  senator  from  that 
State  during  1925-31. 

Denlson,  Sir  Hugh  Robert.  Australian  newspaper  pub- 
lisher; died  in  Sydney,  Australia,  Nov.  23,  1940:  born 
in  Forbes,  N.S.W.,  Nov.  11,  1865.  Born  kugh  Robert 
Dixon,  he  was  educated  in  Australia  and  at  University 
College,  London:  and  assumed  the  name  of  Demson  by 
deed  poll  (1907).  He  was  a  member  of  the  Australian 
Parliament  (1901-05);  and  from  1926  to  1928  served  as 
Commissioner  for  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia  to  the 
United  States.  He  was  the  head  of  Associated  News- 
papers, Ltd.,  of  Sydney,  and  was  knighted  in  1923. 

Deschamps,  Alphonse  B.  Canadian  Roman  Catholic 
clergyman,  auxiliary  bishop  of  Montreal  from  1925;  died 
m  Montreal,  June  23,  1940;  ordained  in  1899;  born  in 
St.  Genevieve,  Que.,  m  1875. 

de  Schwelniti,  PauL  American  Moravian  Bishop;  died 
in  Bethlehem.  Pa.,  Feb.  8,  1940;  born  in  Salem,  N.C., 
Mar  16,  186.1  Ordained  in  1886,  he  was  secretary  of  the 
Missions  of  the  Moravian  Church  in  America  from  1898 
to  1930  He  was  consecrated  bishop  on  Mar.  14,  1937. 

Des  Graz,  Sir  Charles  Louis.  British  diplomat;  died 
in  Wimbledon,  Enp  .  Oct.  22,  1940,  born  on  Mar.  2,  1860. 
He  held  several  diplomatic  posts  and  was  appointed  Min- 
ister to  Serbia  in  1914,  a  position  he  held  throughout  the 
World  War.  He  continued  as  Great  Britain's  representa- 
tive at  Belgrade  after  the  Yugoslav  kingdom  was  formed, 
retiring  in  1920 

Devereux,  Anthony  J.  A.  American  poloist;  died  at 
Philadelphia,  Pa,  on  Dec  18,  1940,  born  thereat  in 
1878.  He  won  many  riding  trophies,  including  the  Na- 
tional Hunt  Cup  in  1910,  played  polo  with  the  Phila- 
delphia Fox  Hunters  from  1902  to  1914,  was  injured 
many  times  in  riding  mishaps  and  suffered  a  stroke  when 
thrown  from  his  mount  in  Union ville,  Pa  ,  in  1920.  He 
was  hospitalized  continually  from  1922  until  his  death. 

de  vries,  Louis.  Dutch  actor,  died  in  Nice,  France, 
Mar.  11,  1940  One  of  the  foremost  tragedians  of  the 
Netherlands,  his  greatest  roles  were  as  Pancras  in 
Schakels,  Abram  Lchmann  in  The  Lchmann  Family,  Shy- 
lock  in  The  Merchant  of  Venice,  and  Marc  Antony  in 
Julius  Caesar 

Dial,  Nathaniel  Barked  ale.  American  ex-senator;  died 
in  Washington  D  C  ,  Dec  11.  1940,  born  in  Laurens  Co., 
S  C  ,  Apr  24,  1862  He  studied  law  at  the  University  of 
Virginia,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1883,  was  Mayor  of 
Laurens  (1887-91)  and  again  in  1895,  he  organized  and 
assumed  the  presidency  of  several  industrial  enterprises 
including  banks,  power  companies,  and  mills  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  glass,  oil,  and  cotton  A  Democrat,  he  served 
as  United  States  Senator  for  South  Carolina  from  1918 
to  1925 

Dietorlch,  William  H.  American  ex-senator;  died  in 
Springfield,  111,  Oct  12,  1940,  born  in  Cooperstown,  111., 
Mar  31,  1876  He  was  graduated  from  Northern  Indi- 
ana Law  School,  was  Illinois  State  representative  (1917- 
21);  United  States  Congressman-at-large  (1931);  and 
United  States  Senator  from  Illinois  (1932-38).  He  was 
a  Democrat 

Dlllard,  James  Hardy.  American  educator,  died  in 
Charlottesville,  Va.,  Aug.  2,  1940;  born  in  Nansemond 
Co.,  Va.,  Oct.  24,  1856  He  was  graduated  from  Wash- 
ington and  Lee  University  in  1876,  was  professor  of 
Latin  at  Tulane  University  (1891-1907);  president  of 
the  Jeanes  Foundation  for  the  promotion  of  Negro  rural 
education  from  1907  to  1931,  a  member  of  the  Southern 
Education  Board  since  1908  and  the  General  Education 
Board  since  1917.  He  was  a  trustee  of  the  General  Theo- 
logical Seminary  (1916-25)  and  rector  of  William  and 
Mary  College  in  1917.  Dr  Dillard  was  the  recipient  of 
the  Theodore  Roosevelt  Medal  for  1937  for  his  work  in 
furthering  understanding  between  the  white  and  Negro 
races. 

Dodd,  William  Edward.  American  historian,  died  in 
Round  Hill,  Va.,  Feb  9,  1940;  born  m  Clayton,  NC, 
Oct.  21,  1869  In  1908  he  became  professor  of  American 
history  at  the  University  of  Chicago,  resigning  in  1933 
to  become  ^  American  ambassador  to  Germany  An  out- 
spoken critic  of  Nazi  ideology  and  foreign  policy,  he  found 
his  post  uncongenial  and  resigned  on  Dec  28,  1937  An 
authority  on  the  history  of  the  American  South  he  wrote 
Lincoln  or  Lee  (1928)  and  The  Old  South,  Struggle  for 
Democracy  (vol.  1,  1937)  During  1924-26  he  was  joint 
editor  with  Ray  Stannard  Baker  of  The  Public  Papns  of 
Woodrow  W\lwn  His  autobiographical  work.  Ambassador 
Dodd's  Diary  1933-J918,  edited  by  William  E  Doclrl,  Jr  , 
and  Martha  Dodd,  was  published  in  1941. 

Dorpfeld,  Wilhelm.  German  archaeologist,  honorary 
professor  of  archaeology  at  Jena  university  and  former 
director  of  the  German  Archaeological  Institute  at  Athens, 
died  at  Levkas,  Greece,  Apr.  26,  1940;  born  in  1856 

DonglM,  James.  English  editor  and  author;  died  in 
Budleigh  Salteron,  Devonshire,  Eng ,  Sept.  26,  1940; 
born  in  Belfast,  Ireland,  Feb.  9,  1867.  He  edited  the 
London  Sunday  Express  (1920-31). 

Douglass,  Leon  P.  American  inventor;  died  in  Calif. , 


Sept.  7,  1940;  born  in  Lincoln,  Neb.,  1869.  While  work- 
ing as  manager  of  a  telephone  company  in  Seward,  Neb., 
he  patented  the  first  coin  telephone  (1888);  in  1894  he 
invented  the  first  spring  phonograph  motor  and  in  1900 
was  co-founder  with  Eldridge  Johnson  of  the  Victor  Talk- 
ing Machine  Co.,  of  which  he  became  successively  vice- 
president,  general  manager,  and  chairman  of  the  board 
of  directors,  retiring  in  1921.  In  the  World  War  he  de- 
vised a  magnetic  torpedo  for  use  against  German  sub- 
marines. His  inventions  in  connections  with  color  and 
undersea*  photography  revolutionized  previous  techniques. 

Doweil,  Caiilus  O.  American  Republican  Congressman 
from  Iowa  from  1915,  died  in  Washington,  Feb.  4,  1940, 
born  near  Summerset,  la.,  Feb.  29,  1864.  He  was  chair- 
man of  the  House  roads  committee. 

Bowling,  John  P.,  O.P.  Irish  clergyman;  died  in  Port 
of  Spain,  Trinidad,  June  5,  1940;  born  in  Freshford, 
Ireland,  June  23,  1860  He  joined  the  Dominican  Order 
in  1881,  and  was  ordained  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  in 
1887.  He  was  appointed  superior  of  the  Dominican  Fa- 
thers in  Trinidad  in  1905  and  in  1909,  Archbishop  and 
Metropolitan  of  Port  of  Spam 

Downle,  John  Wallace.  British  administrator;  died  in 
Southern  Rhodesia,  Aug.  22,  1940,  born  in  Glasgow,  Scot , 
1876.  He  was  high  commissioner  for  Southern  Rhodesia 
from  1930  to  1934. 

DroaaaertB,  Arthur  Jerome.  American  Roman  Catholic 
archbishop:  died  in  Texas,  Sept  8,  1940;  born  in  Breda. 
Netherlands,  Sept.  11,  1862.  Ordained  a  priest  in  Holland 
in  1889,  he  came  to  the  United  States  two  years  later 
and  was  given  a  pastorate  in  Louisiana  In  1918  he  was 
made  bishop  of  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  and  m  1926,  when 
Pope  Pius  XI  established  the  archdiocese  of  Texas,  Bishop 
Drossaerts  became  Archbishop  of  San  Antonio. 

Drouet,  Bessie  Clarke.  American  spiritualist,  died  in 
New  York  City,  N.Y.,  Aug  27,  1940,  bom  in  Ports- 
mouth, N  H.,  1879  A  friend  of  the  late  Arthur  Conan 
Doyle  and  the  late  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  she  was  the  author 
of  Station  Astral,  a  book  dealing  with  psychic  methods. 
She  founded  ana  presided  over  the  American  Student 
Foundation  from  its  inception  in  1934  until  its  demise  m 
1937. 

Dubechp  Lucien.  French  journalist  and  essayist,  dra- 
matic critic  for  Candide  and  author  of  Histoire  generate 
\llustree  du  theatre  (1931),  born  in  1882,  died  in  1940 

Du  Bois,  Charles  G.  American  utility  executive,  died 
at  New  York  City  on  Dec.  23,  1940,  born  thereat  on 
Mar  22,  1870  After  his  graduation  from  Dartmouth 
College  in  1891,  he  went  to  work  for  the  Western  Electric 
Co.  m  New  York  City  at  $10  a  week  and,  except  for  a 
period  of  11  years  (1907-18)  when  he  was  controller  of 
the  American  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Co.,  remained 
with  Western  Electric  through  all  of  his  business  life, 
serving  as  president  from  1919  to  1926  and  as  chairman 
of  the  board  from  1921  to  1927. 

Dumeld,  Boy  FarreL  American  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman:  died  in  Garden  City,  L  I.,  on  Dec.  22,  1940; 
born  in  Block  Island,  R  I.,  on  July  25,  1877  A  graduate 
of  Columbia  University  (1900)  and  General  Theological 
Seminary  (1903),  he  held  the  dual  post  of  canon  of  the 
Cathedral  of  the  Incarnation,  Garden  City,  and  arch- 
deacon for  Queens  and  Nassau  of  the  Episcopal  Diocese 
of  Long  Island  from  1910  until  his  retirement  in  1933. 

Dngan,  Raymond  Smith.  American  astronomer;  died 
in  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.,  Aug.  31,  1940,  born  in  Montague, 
Mass.,  May  30,  1878.  A  graduate  of  Amherst  College,  he 
served  as  acting  director  of  the  observatory  of  the  Syrian 
Protestant  College.  Beirut,  Syria  (1899-1902),  assistant 
in  the  Astro-Physical  Observatory  at  Heidelberg  Univer- 
sity (1902-4)4);  instructor  in  astronomy  at  Princeton 
University  in  1905,  rising  to  Professor  in  1920,  a  posi- 
tion he  occupied  at  his  death  Dr  Dn pan's  special  field  of 
study  was  that  of  eclipsing  variable  stars,  commonly 
known  as  double  stars — measuring  changes  in  their  bright- 
ness as  a^  means  of  computing  their  size,  shape,  density, 
mass,  orbit,  and  other  information  He  was  co-author  with 
Professors  Henry  Norris  Russel  and  John  Quincy  Stewart 
of  Astronomy,  a  textbook  (1926) 

Dunlap,  William  B  American  General;  died  in  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.,  Nov.  21,  1940,  born  in  1885.  He  went  over- 
seas as  a  captain  in  the  World  War,  and  rose  to  be  the 
S>ungest  colonel  in  the  A  E  F  He  was  awarded  the 
istmguished  Service  Medal  In  July,  1939,  President 
Roosevelt  appointed  him  a  brigadier  general  in  the  Penn- 
sylvania National  Guard  In  civilian  life,  he  was  a  State 
Representative  (1921-23),  Director  of  City  Supplies, 
Pittsburgh  (1931-34)  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  pub- 
licity man  for  the  Carnegie-Illinois  Steel  Corporation 

Dunn.  William  F.  American  publisher,  died  m  Monti- 
cello,  111.,  Mar.  18,  1940;  born  in  Sedalia,  Mo,  June  30, 
1872.  A  newspaperman  from  1893,  he  was  associated 
with  the  Chicago  Post  from  1897  until  his  retirement  in 
1929,  and  was  its  president  and  publisher  from  1925 

Duret,  Miguel  Lane.  Mexican  editor  and  lawyer;  died 
in  Mexico  City.  Nov.  21,  1940:  born  in  1880  He  was  for 
18  yean  president  and  general  manager  of  El  Universal, 


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Mexico  City's  leading  morning  newspaper;  and  at  the 
time  of  hit  death  was  Professor  of  International  Law  at 
National  University  of  Mexico  Law  School  and  a  former 
president  of  the  Mexican  bar  association. 

DuMlgncnr,  Bdonard.  French  army  officer;  died  in 
Lyons.  France,  Mar.  3,  1940.  A  former  chief  of  staff  of 
the  Air  Ministry,  he  was  one  of  the  seventy-one  members 
or  associates  of  the  Cagoulards  indicted  in  an  investiga- 
tion of  an  alleged  plot  to  overthrow  the  French  Govern- 
ment in  1937.  He  was  released  on  bail  in  June,  1938. 

Dusser  de  Baxenae,  Joannes  O.  Dutch  physiologist; 
died  in  Boston,  June  9,  1940:  born  in  Bridle,  The  Neth- 
erlands, June  6,  1885.  Associated  with  the  University  of 
Utrecht  from  1919  to  1930,  he  was  Sterling  professor  of 
physiology  at  Yale  University  thereafter.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral books  on  the  functions  ot  the  central  nervous  system, 
and  had  recently  done  important  research  work  on  the 
brain. 

Duveen,  Charles  J.  American  decorator;  died  in  Yon- 
kers,  N.Y,  July  21,  1940;  born  in  Hull,  feng ,  1871.  A 
brother  of  Lord  Joseph  Duveen,  noted  British  art  con- 
noisseur, and  in  his  early  life  a  member  of  the  London 
firm  of  Duveen  Brothers,  Charles  J.  Duveen  emigrated 
to  America  and  for  many  years  conducted  an  antique 
shop  in  Fifth  Ave.,  and  later  at  52  East  52d  St.,  New 
York,  under  the  business  name  of  "Charles  of  London." 
One  of  the  greatest  authorities  on  rare  and  antique 
furniture,  Charles  Duveen  was  also  a  recognized  con- 
noisseur of  fine  velvets,  particularly  reds  and  greens. 

Easterwood,  Jr.,  William  Edward.  American  capital- 
ist; died  in  Santa  Monica,  Calif,  Aug  24,  1940;  born  in 
Wills  Point,  Tex  ,  Nov  5,  1883.  A  banker  and  industrial- 
ist in  Dallas.  Tex,,  who  had  served  as  a  captain  in  the 
Marines  in  the  World  War,  Easterwood  became  national 
vice-commander  of  the  American  Legion  in  1933  In  1930, 
he  was  financial  supporter  of  the  Dieudonne  Costes  and 
Maurice  Bellonte  airplane  flight  from  Paris  to  New  York 
to  Dallas,  donating  a  reward  of  $25.000  to  the  two  flyers. 
He  founded  several  airfields,  three  ot  which  bear  his  name. 

Bcheniqne  OandarlUaa,  Josd  MlgneL  See  SPANISH- 
AMERICAN  LITERATURES  under  Chile 

Edey,  BirdsaU  Otis  (Mrs.  Frederick  Edey).  American 
feminist;  died  in  New  York,  Mar.  17,  1940;  born  in  Bell- 
port,  L.I.,  June  25,  1872  Previously  active  in  the  woman 
suffrage  movement,  she  became  associated  with  the  Girl 
Scouts  of  America  in  1919  and  served  as  president  of  the 
national  council  from  1930  to  1935  when  she  was  named 
national  commissioner 

Egerton,  Sir  George.  Bntish  naval  officer;  died  in  Ring- 
wood,  Hants,  Mar.  30,  1940,  born  Oct  17,  1852.  In  the 
navy  from  1866,  he  served  on  the  Arctic  Expedition  (1875- 
76)  and  was  Second  Sea  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  (1911- 
12)  and  Commander-in-Chief  at  Plymouth  during  1913-16. 

Eisen,  Oustavus  Augustus.  Amen  can  archaeologist  and 
biologist;  died  in  New  York  City,  N.Y.,  Oct.  29,  1940; 
born  in  Stockholm,  Sweden,  Aug  2,  1847.  An  honor  stu- 
dent and  graduate  of  the  University  of  Upsala,  Sweden, 
he  received  a  grant  from  his  alma  mater  and  from  the 
Swedish  government  to  study  marine  zoology  in  California 
in  1873.  By  pointing  out  to  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture that  the  failure  of  California  fig  plantings  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  all  the  blossoms  of  the  domestic  trees  were 
females,  and  that  pollen  from  male  flowers  would  have  to 
be  earned  by  a  special  species  of  Near-East  wasp,  if  the 
trees  were  ever  to  bear  fruit.  Eisen  was  directly  responsible 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  $20,000,000  California  fig  indus- 
try. He  became  an  American  citizen  in  1887;  and  took  part 
in  many  archaeological  explorations  from  1880  to  1915.  A 
friend  of  Fahim  Kouchakji,  New  York  art  dealer  and  own- 
er of  the  Chalice  of  Antioch,  reputed  by  many  to  be  the 
Holy  Grail  sought  by  King  Arthur's  Knights,  Dr.  Eisen 
wrote  The  Legends  of  the  Holy  Grail  (1940)  and  numer- 
ous other  scientific  works.  A  lon$  campaign  by  Dr.  Eisen 
for  the  conservation  of  California's  Sequoia  forests  was 
followed  by  the  establishment  of  Sequoia  National  Park 
in  1890 

Elliott,  Maxlne  (Jessie  Dermot).  American  actress, 
died  in  Juan  Les  Pins,  France,  Mar  5,  1940;  born  in 
Rockland,  Me.,  Feb  5,  1871.  She  made  her  debut  in  1890 
but  not  until  she  appeared  in  Her  Own  Way  in  1903  did 
she  become  a  "star*'  On  Dec.  30,  1908,  she. opened  the 
Maxine  Elliott  Theatre  in  New  York  with  The  Chaperon. 
She  appeared  frequently  on  the  London  stage  and  enjoyed 
a  success  in  Joseph  ana  His  Brethren  there  in  1913  Her 
last  appearance  on  the  stage  was  in  Trimmed  tn  Scarlet  in 
New  York  in  1920.  She  was  considered  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  women  of  the  American  stage 

Bspalter,  Jos6.  Uruguayan  statesman,  died  in  Uruguay. 
Aug.  30,  1940,  born  in  1870.  A  former  vice-president  of 
Uruguay,  he  was  president  of  the  Uruguayan  Senate  at  the 
time  of  his  death.  As  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Dr. 
Esnalter  concluded  a  barter  agreement  with  Germany 
(1935)  by  which  the  latter  was  to  take  5000  tons  of  Uru- 
guayan meat  in  return  for  German  industrial  goods. 

Estlgarrlbla,  Jos6  Felix.  Paraguayan  president;  died  in 
an  airplane  accident  between  Altos  and  San  Bernardino, 
Paraguay,  Sept.  7,  1940;  born  in  Caraguatay,  Jan.  21, 


1888.  A  graduate  of  the  Asunci6n  Military  Academy,  he 
earned  a  military  scholarship  to  the  Ecole  de  Guerre, 
France,  where  he  studied  from  1924  to  1928,  becoming 
chief  of  staff  of  the  Paraguayan  army  immediately  there- 
after. He  was  promoted  to  commander-m-chief  in  the  Chaco 
War,  where  he  won  notable  successes;  was  exiled  June  14, 
1935;  was  recalled  in  1937  when  the  government  of  Col. 
Rafael  Franco  toppled;  was  appointed  Minister  to  the 
United  States,  participating  in  that  capacity  in  the  final 
adjustment  of  the  Chaco  dispute.  Elected  by  a  large  major- 
ity, he  took  office  as  president  of  Paraguay  on  Aug.  15, 
1939,  a  post  which  he  developed  into  a  virtual  dictatorship. 
His  foreign  policy  pivoted  on  increased  friendship  with 
the  United  States 

EttL  John.  American  portrait  sculptor;  died  in  New 
York  City  on  Dec.  22,  1940;  born  in  Hungary  in  1872.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1898;  received  numerous 
sculptural  commissions  and  invented  the  Ettl  Enlarging 
Machine  for  increasing  the  size  of  sculptures.  It  received 
wide  application  in  the  United  States  and  was  used  to 
enlarge  the  statue  of  Joan  of  Arc  on  Riverside  Drive,  New 
York  City,  and  the  pediment  sculptures  on  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  Building  in  Washington  His  last 
completed  sculptural  work  was  a  portrait  bust  of  Franklin 
D.  Roosevelt. 

Evans,  Earle  Wood.  American  lawyer;  died  in  New 
York  City,  July  30,  1940;  born  near  Wellington,  Kan., 
Feb.  20.  1873  A  graduate  of  Garfield  University,  he  was 
admitted  to  the  Kansas  Bar  in  1894,  identified  himself  with 
much  important  litigation;  became  a  director  of  several 
corporations;  and  was  attending  a  board  meeting  of  the 
Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  te  Railway  in  New  York 
City  when  he  died.  He  was  president  of  the  American  Bar 
Association  in  1933  and  1934  Advocating  stringent  meth- 
ods to  rid  the  legal  profession  of  crooks,  he  told  the  Kansas 
Bar  Association  in  1933:  "The  public  and  the  newspapers 
feel  that  we  ought  to  be  responsible  for  the  crooks,  and  I 
don't  know  but  what  they  are  right.  Let's  clean  house.  Who 
else  is  there  who  can  do  it?" 

Eve,  Sir  Harry  Trelawney.  British  jurist;  died  in 
Farnhem,  Surrey,  Eng.,  Dec  10,  1940,  born  in  London. 
Oct  13,  1856  A  hamster  since  1881,  he  was  a  member  ot 
Parliament  from  1904  to  1907,  when  he  was  appointed 
judge  of  the  Chancery  Division  of  the  High  Couit,  one  of 
the  solemnest  tribunals  in  England  He  boasted  that  he 
had  never  visited  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  the  British  Muse- 
um, or  the  National  Gallery. 

Everitt,  Byron  Forbes.  American  auto  manufacturer; 
died  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  Oct.  5,  1940;  born  in  Ridgetown, 
Ont ,  Can.,  18/2.  A  carnage-maker  by  trade,  he  early  be- 
came associated  with  Henry  Ford  and  other  automobile 
manufacturers;  and  with  Walter  O  Bnggs,  William  E. 
Metzger,  and  Walter  Flanders,  produced  the  Maxwell, 
Flanders-20,  Wayne,  EMF,  Everitt,  and  Rickenbacker 
cars. 

Eyde,  SamneL  Norwegian  scientist  and  industrialist; 
death  at  Asgardstrand  announced  June  21,  1940;  born  in 
Norway,  Oct.  29,  1866.  In  1903,  with  Dr.  K.  Birkeland, 
he  invented  the  method  of  extracting  nitrogen  from  the  air 
and  using  it  in  the  manufacture  of  fertilizer  and  other 
products.  In  1905  he  founded  the  Norsk  Hydro-Elektnk 
Kvelstofactiselskat  which  for  many  years  dominated  the 
hydroelectric  and  nitrate  industry  m  Norway.  He  resigned 
in  1919.  Dunng  1920-23  he  was  Norwegian  minister  to 
Poland. 

Fablet,  Julian.  Argentine  admiral,  former  chief  of  naval 
operations;  died  on  Nov.  26,  1940;  born  in  1882. 

Fagnanl,  Charles  P.  American  theologian  and  educator; 
died  in  German-occupied  France  on  Nov.  25,  1940;  born  in 
New  York  City  in  1854,  the  son  of  Giuseppe  Fagnam,  por- 
trait painter.  He  was  a  teacher  in  New  York  City's  public 
schools;  was  afterward  graduated  from  Union  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  where  he  became  an  instructor  in  Hebrew 
(1892)  and  Professor  of  Old  Testament  Literature  (1914- 
26).  He  was  expelled  from  Germany  in  1921  because  of 
his  anti-German  stand  during  the  World  War. 

Palrbairn,  James  Valentine.  Australian  cabinet  minis- 
ter; died  in  an  airplane  accident  8  miles  from  Canberra, 
Australia,  Aug.  13,  1940;  born  in  Wadhurst,  Surrey,  Eng , 
July  28,  1897.  He  became  assistant  minister  of  Defense  on 
Apr.  26,  1939;  and  air  minister  and  minister  of  civil  avia- 
tion on  Mar.  14,  1940. 

Faison,  Samson  Lane.  American  general:  died  in  Balti- 
more, Md,  Oct  17,  1940;  born  in  Faison,  N.C ,  Nov.  29, 
1860.  A  graduate  of  the  US.  Military  Academy  (1883). 
he  saw  service  in  the  Philippines,  and  in  the  World  War 
as  commander  of  90th  Division  m  France.  He  became  a 
brigadier  general  on  Aug  5,  1917. 

Fair,  Otto  H.  American  manufacturer;  died  in  Mil- 
waukee, Wis  ,  May  21.  1940;  born  there,  June  18,  1865. 
Associated  with  the  Falk  financial  interests  from  1885,  he 
was  vice-president  of  the  Falk  Co.,  manufacturers  of  steel 
casings,  and  in  1912  he  became  receiver  of  the  Allis- 
Chalmers  Co.,  manufacturers  of  heavy  machinery.  He 
served  as  president  of  the  latter  company  during  1913-32 
and  was  chairman  of  the  board  thereafter.  Mr  Falk  served 
in  the  Wisconsin  National  Guard  during  1886-1911  and 


International 

CYRUS  ADLKR 
American  Educator,  1863-1940 


International 

WIIIIAM  BKOCXMAN  BANKH*AD 
American  Congressman.  1874  1940 


International 

NEVILLE  CHAMBFRLAIN 
British  Statesman,  1869-1940 


Wtde  World 

MAXINE  ELLIOTT 
American  Actress.  1871-1940 


International 

MANUEL  AZA&A 
Spanish  ex-President,  1880-1940 


International 

WILLIAM  £   BORAII 
American  Senator,  1865-1940 


Wide  World 

WALTLR  P    CUR\SLFR 
American  Manufacturer,  1875-1940 


\ 


International 

JOS*   FELIX   ESTIGARRIBIA 


International 

ITALO  BALBO 
Italian  Aviator,  1896-1940 


International 

MRS    PATRICK  CAMPBLLL 
British  Actress,  1895-1940 


International 

RUFUS  CUTLER  DAWES 
American  Manufacturer,  1867-1940 


Hams  6*  Evnng 

WILLIAM  PRESTON  FEW 


International 

JOHN  H    FINLEY 
American  Educator,  1863-1940 


International 

F    SCOTT  FITZOI.RALD 
American  Novelist,  1896-1940 


Wide  World 

DANIEL  FKOHMAN 
American  Producer,  1851-1940 


International 

VISCOUNT  FURNESS 
British  Shipbuilder,  1883-1940 


International 

HAMLIN  GARLAND 
American  Writer,  1860-1940 


International 

GIULIO  GATTI-CASAZZA 
Italian  Opera  Manager,  1869-1940 


International 

EMMA  GOLDMAN 
American  Anarchist,  1869-1940 


International 

SIR  WILLIAM  GRFNFELL 
British  Missionary,  1865-1940 


Acme 

EDWARD  S    HARKNESS 
American  Financier,  1874-1940 


DUBOSJC  HKYWARD 


International 

JAN  KUBWJK 


International 

SELMA  LAOERLOI- 


NECROLOGY 


513 


NECROLOGY 


was  a  member  of  the  United  States  Volunteer!  during 


the  aguish-American  War. 


JEMJUW*,  Boland  Pott.  American  statistician  and  econo- 
mist; died  in  New  York  City,  Nov.  27,  1940;  born  in 
Bridgeport,  Conn.,  Apr.  14,  1866.  He  was  graduated  from 
the  Wnarton  School  of  Finance  and  Economy  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  (1885);  was  editor-in-chief  of  the 
Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social 
Science  (1890-1900):  Commissioner  of  Education,  Puerto 
Rico  (1904-07);  Assistant  Director  of  the  Census  (1911- 
12);  editor  and  director  of  research,  Alexander  Hamilton 
Institute  (1915-26);  and  chief  statistician  of  the  National 
Industrial  Conference  Board  from  1925  until  his  death. 

Fantoli,  Ouadenzio.  Italian  engineer;  died  in  Milan, 
Jan.  16,  1940:  born  in  1867.  Professor  of  hydraulic  engi- 
neering at  and  director  of  the  Milan  Polytechnic  Institute, 
after  1928  he  wan  a  Senator. 

Farman,  Blchard.  French  aviator;  died  in  Paris,  Jan. 
31,  1940;  born  there  in  1876.  With  his  brothers,  Henri  and 
Maurice,  he  did  much  to  develop  aviation,  and  on  Tan.  13, 
1908,  he  won  a  $10,000  prize  at  Issy  for  having  flown  an 
airplane  one  kilometer  in  a  prescribed  circle. 

Faversnain,  William.  American  actor,  died  in  Bay 
Shore,  L.I ,  N.Y..  Apr.  7.  1940,  born  in  London,  England. 
Feb  12,  1868  His  American  debut  was  made  in  1887  and 
subsequently  he  became  the  leading  matinee  idol  of  his 
day.  His  greatest  success  was  as  Jim  Carston  in  The 
Squaw  Man  in  1905 

Ferris,  Harry  Burr.  American  anatomist:  died  in  New 
Haven,  Conn,  Oct  12,  1940,  born  in  Old  Greenwich, 
Conn  ,  May  21,  1865  He  became  a  teacher  at  Yale  shortly 
after  his  graduation  from  the  university's  medical  school 
in  1890,  was  made  a  full  professor  in  1892;  and  headed 
the  department  of  anatomy  from  1895  until  his  retirement 
in  1933. 

Ferry,  D6sir6.  French  politician;  died  in  Paris,  Jan. 
12,  1940;  born  in  Metz  ,  Oct  26,  1886.  A  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  from  1919,  he  was  minister  of  ma- 
rine (1924),  minister  of  public  health  (1930).  After  1933 
he  was  director  of  La  Lincrtt 

Few,  William  Preston.  American  educator,  died  in  Dur- 
ham, N.C,  Oct  16,  1940;  born  in  Greenville,  S  C.,  Dec. 
29,  1867.  A  graduate  of  Wolford  College  (1889),  Dr.  Few 
began  to  teach  English  in  Trinity  College,  Durham,  N  C  , 
in  1896,  was  dean  of  Trinity  (1902-10)  and  president 
(1910-24).  He  was  instrumental  in  influencing  the  decision 
of  the  late  James  B.  Duke,  tobacco  manufacturer,  to  es- 
tablish a  $40,000,000  trust  fund  and  assign  a  large  portion 
of  it  for  the  creation  of  Duke  University,  with  Trinity  a 
part  of  it.  Dr.  Few  was  president  of  Duke  from  its  be- 
ginning  in  1924  until  his  death 

Findley,  Alvin  Irwln.  American  editor:  died  in  St. 
Petersburg,  Fla.,  Dec.  12,  1940;  born  in  Monmouth,  111., 
June  29,  1859.  He  was  editor-in-chief  of  Iron  Age 
(1910-30) 

Finley,  John  H.  American  educator  and  editor:  died  in 
New  York,  Mar.  7,  1940,  born  in  Grand  Ridge,  111.,  Oct 
19.  1863.  Educated  at  Knox  College  (A.B.,  1887)  and 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  he  was  secretary  of  the  State 
Chanties  Aid  Association  and  editor  of  Charities  Review, 
the  first  publication  of  its  kind  (1889-92);  president  of 
Knox  College  (1892-99);  editor  of  Harper's  Weekly 
(1899)  during  which  year  he  aided  in  founding  Worlds 
Work;  professor  of  politics  at  Princeton  University  (1900- 
03);  president  of  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York 
(1903-13),  during  which  period  he  reorganized  the  Col- 
lege; commissioner  of  education  for  the  State  of  New  York 
and  president  of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York 
(1913-21)  and  as  such  emphasized  the  value  of  physical 
and  military  training;  associate  editor  of  The  New  York 
Times  (1921-37),  editor-in-chief  of  that  paper  from  1937 
to  Nov.  16.  1938.  and  editor  emeritus  thereafter  He  was 
editor  of  Nelson**  Encyclopedia  and  was  the  author  of 
French  Schools  in  War  Time  (1917),  A  Pilgnm  in  Pales- 
tine (1918),  The  Debt  Eternal  (1923).  The  Mystery  of  the 
Mind's  Desire  (1936),  and  The  Coming  of  the  Scot,  pub- 
lished posthumously  in  April,  1940.  The  recipient  of  nu- 
merous honorary  degrees  and  foreign  decorations,  Dr. 
Finley  was  active  in  many  varied  fields  and  was  lecturer 
at  the  Sorbonne  (1910-11).  head  of  the  American  Red 
Cross  in  Palestine  and  the  Near  East  (1918-19),  and  di- 
rector of  the  Hall  of  Fame  at  New  York  University  after 
1938. 

Fisher,  Herbert  A.  L.  British  educator  and  historian; 
died  in  London,  Apr  17,  1940;  born  there.  Mar.  21,  1865 
A  member  of  parliament,  during  1916-26,  he  was  president 
of  the  Board  of  Education  (1916-22)  and  as  such  intro- 
duced an  education  bill  in  August,  1917,  urging  the  adop- 
tion of  a  national  system  of  public  education.  Lowell  Lec- 
turer in  1909.  and  president  of  the  British  Academy 
(1928-32).  after  192$  he  was  warden  of  New  College, 
Oxford.  An  authority  on  Napoleon,  his  most  important 
work  was  A  History  of  Europe  (3  vol.,  1935) 

Fitzgerald,  F.  Boott.  American  noveliat;  died  in  Holly- 
wood, Calif.,  on  Dec.  21,  1940;  bom  in  St.  Paul.  Minn, 
Sept.  24,  1896.  He  came  of  an  old  southern  family.  His 
great-grandfather's  brother  was  Francis  Scott  Key;  his 


father's  annt  was  Mrs.  Suratt,  one  of  the  conspirators 
hanged  for  the  assassination  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  Young 
Fitzgerald  attended  Princeton  University  (1913-17), 
served  as  a  lieutenant  in  the  army  in  the  World  War: 
worked  for  an  advertising  agency  in  New  York  City  and 
then,  at  the  age  of  23,  published  a  tremendously  successful 
novel  called  This  Side  of  Paradise  (1920).  It  depicted  the 
noisy  frivolities  and  frustrations  of  American  youth  in  the 
period  immediately  following  the  World  War.  His  other 
works  were:  Flappers  and  Philosophers,  1920;  The  Beauti- 
ful and  Damned,  1921;  Tales  of  the  Jagg  Age,  1922;  The 
Great  Gatsby,  1925;  All  the  Sad  Young  Men,  1926;  Ten- 
der Is  the  Night,  1934;  Taps  at  Rgvetile,  1935. 

Fitsgerald,  John  O.  Canadian  bacteriologist,  professor 
of  hygiene  and  preventive  medicine  and  director  of  the 
Connaught  Laboratories  and  School  of  Hygiene  from  1913, 
and  dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  (1932-37)  at  the 
University  of  Toronto;  died  in  Toronto,  June  20,  1940, 
born  in  Drayton,  Ont.,  Dec  9,  1882. 

Fleming,  Adrian  Sebastian.  American  general  and  pa- 
permaker;  died  on  Dec.  1,  1940;  born  in  Midway,  Ky  , 
Dec.  6,  1872.  A  graduate  of  West  Point  (1895),  who  had 
seen  service  in  the  Philippines,  he  became  a  brigadier  gen- 
eral in  May,  1918,  and  commanded  artillery  units  on  the 
Western  Front. 

Fleming,  Arthur  Henry.  American  manufacturer  and 
philanthropist;  died  in  Pasadena.  Calif.,  Aug.  11,  1940; 
born  in  Halton  Co..  Ont.,  Can.,  Apr.  3,  1856  He  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1879  and  eventually  settled  in  Cali- 
fornia, where  he  became  president  and  principal  owner  of 
many  lumbering  and  mining  companies  He  financed  the 
founding  of  California  Institute  of  Technology,  and  do- 
nated huge  sums  for  its  early  upkeep  In  1926  he  donated 
100,000  francs  to  the  French  government  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  pavilion  and  park  in  Compiegne  forest  as  a 
shnne  for  the  railway  car  in  which  the  World  War  Ar- 
mistice was  signed 

Forbes,  Joseph  O.  Canadian  Roman  Catholic  clergyman, 
Archbishop  of  the  Diocese  of  Ottawa  from  1928;  born  in 
He  Perrot,  Canada,  Aug  10,  1865;  ordained  in  1888;  died 
in  Ottawa,  May  22,  1940. 

Fortin,  Miguel  A.  See  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES 
under  El  Salvador. 

Fowler,  Alfred.  British  astronomer:  died  in  London, 
June  24,  1940:  born  in  1868.  An  authority  on  research 
dealing  with  the  stellar,  cometic,  and  solar  spectra,  he 
was  a  member  of  the  British  Government  Eclipse  Expedi- 
tions of  1893,  1896,  1900,  1905,  and  1914,  and  for  many 
Ehe  was  professor  of  Astrophysics  at  the  Imperial  Col- 
in South  Kensington  From  1923  to  1934  he  was 
3W  research  professor  of  the  Royal  Society.  President 
of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  (1919-21)  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Institute  of  Physics  (1935-37),  he  was  award- 
ed the  Valz  prize  of  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences  (1913), 
the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  (1915), 
the  Royal  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  (1918),  the  Henry 
Draper  Gold  Medal  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Washington  (1920),  and  the  Catherine  Wolfe  Bruce  gold 
medal  of  the  Astronomical  Society  of  the  Pacific  (1934) 

Fox,  John  M.,  B.J.  American  Roman  Catholic  clergy- 
man, president  of  Holy  Cross  College,  Worcester,  Mass  , 
1929-33;  died  in  Pomfret,  Conn.,  Feb  15,  1940;  ordained 
in  1913;  born  in  Dorchester,  Mass,  in  1880 

Frank,  Glenn.  American  publicist,  editor,  and  educator; 
died  in  an  auto  accident  near  Greenleaf,  Wis  ,  Sept  15, 
1940;  born  in  Queen  City,  Mo.,  Oct,  1,  1887.  He  was 
graduated  from  Northwestern  University  (1912);  was  as- 
sistant to  Dr.  Abram  W  Harris,  president  of  Northwest- 
ern (1912-16);  associated  with  Edward  A  Filene,  Boston 
merchant,  in  research  and  organization  work  in  the  field 
of  social  welfare  (1916-19);  editor,  the  Century  Magatine 
(1919-25);  and  President  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin 
from  1925  until  he  was  removed  by  Governor  LaFollette  in 
1937  on  the  ground  of  maladministration.  He  was  killed, 
together  with  his  son.  while  campaigning  for  the  Republi- 
can nomination  for  U  S  Senator 

Dr.  Frank's  utterances  and  writings  and  controversies 
kept  him  almost  constantly  in  the  public's  mind  As  editor 
of  the  Century  Maganne,  his  editorials  and  philosophical 
discourses  were  widely  read  and  led  directly  to  his  ap- 
pointment to  the  president's  chair  at  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity. He  had  frequent  tiffs  with  politicians  in  Wiscon- 
sin, particularly  in  relation  to  his  unorthodox  views  on 
methods  of  education.  He  was  removed  by  the  Board  of 
Regents  on  Jan.  7,  1937.  His  published  books  included- 
The  Polities  of  Industry  (1919);  An  American  Look*  at 
His  World  (1923) ;  Thunder  and  Dawn  (1932) ;  Amenta's 
Hour  of  Decision  (1934) 

Frank,  Karl  Oeorg.  American  engineer  and  inventor; 
died  in  North  CaldweTl,  N  t.,  Dec.  if,  1940;  born  in  Sar- 
stedt,  Hanover,  Germany,  Mar.  5,  1872.  He  studied  under 
Roentgen  at  the  University  of  Munich:  came  to  the  Unit- 
ed States  in  1903;  was  the  holder  of  numerous  patents 
for  inventions,  mainly  in  wireless  telegraphy;  and  he  was 
the  author  of  many  pamphlets  on  technical  aspects  of 
--*-*-  optics 

Italian  clown;  died  In  Paris,  France. 


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tht  world  M  the  Three  Fr 
ts  of  a  long  line  of  downs. 

FraMr,  •paulding.  American  lawyer:  died  in  Asheville, 
N.C.,  Mar.  7,  1940;  born  in  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  Oct.  7,  1881. 
Active  in  Republican  politics,  he  was  corporation  counsel 
of  Newark,  N.J.,  from  1915  to  1917.  Founder  and  dean  of 
Mercer  Beaatey  Law  School  in  1926,  he  continued  as  dean 
upon  its  merger  with  Newark  University  in  1936. 

Frederick,  Oharle*.  Landgrave  of  Hesee;  died  in  Kas- 
sel,  Germany,  May  29,  1940:  born  hi  Panker,  Holstem, 
May  1,  1868.  He  saw  service  in  the  German  Army  during 
the  World  War  and  in  1918  was  elected  King  of  Finland 
by  the  Finnish  Parliament  but  refused  the  throne. 

Frederick  William,  Prince  of  Schleswig-Holstein- 
Qucksburg,  killed  in  action,  June,  1940;  born  m  Frank- 
fort  am  Main,  Dec.  29,  1909. 

French,  Hollls.  American  consulting  engineer  and  au- 
thor; died  in  Boston.  Mass.,  Nov.  21,  1940;  born  in  Bos- 
ton,  .June  26,  1868.  A  graduate  of  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology,  he  supervised  the  construction  of  many 
large  power  plants  in  New  England;  was  the  president  of 
Robert  Breck  Brighara  Hospital,  Boston;  and  wrote  books 
on  early  American  furniture  and  silver,  and  a  biography 
of  Thatcher  Magoun,  Boston  shipbuilder  and  sea  captain, 
published  in  1934. 

Frohaaa,  Daniel.  American  theatrical  producer;  died 
in  New  York  City  on  Dec.  26,  1940,  born  in  Sandusky, 
O.,  on  Aug.  22,  1851.  A  brother  of  Charles  and  Gustave 
Frohman,  also  prominent  figures  in  the  theater,  he  worked 
as  an  office  boy  on  the  New  York  Tribune  for  several 
years  beginning  in  1866;  was  publicity  agent  for  Cal- 
lender's  Original  Georgia  Minstrels  (1874-79);  manager 
of  the  Fifth  Ave.  Theater  and  the  Madison  Square  Thea- 
ter (1879-85);  manager  of  the  Lyceum  Theater  for  many 
years,  beginning  in  1885,  and  president  of  the  New  Ly- 
ceum Theater  Co.  from  1902  until  his  death.  He  was  a 
founder  of  the  Actors  Fund  of  America  and  its  president 
from  1906  to  1940. 

The  actors  and  actresses  who  appeared  on  the  stage  un- 
der Frohman's  management  included  Richard  Mansfield, 
Maude  Adams,  Herbert  Kelcey,  Henrietta  Crosman,  James 
K.  Hackett,  Georgia  Cayvan,  Isabel  Irving,  Henry  Miller, 
Mary  Mannering,  and  Miss  Kendals.  He  was  for  many 
years  associated  with  David  Belasco,  a  relationship  that 
began  in  1879  at  the  Madison  Square  Theater.  Frohman 
was  long  recognized  as  the  dean  of  American  theatrical 
producers.  His  autobiography  entitled  Daniel  Frohman 
Presents  was  published  in  1935.  Frohman  and  Margaret 
Islington,  the  actress,  were  married  in  1903.  She  divorced 
him  on  grounds  of  desertion  in  1909  and  some  years  later 
she  married  Major  Edward  Bowes. 

Fmgoni,  Pletro.  Italian  general,  died  in  Brescia,  Italy, 
Sept.  10,  1940;  born  in  1850  He  commanded  the  2d  and 
5th  Italian  armies  in  the  World  War. 

Fn  Hsiao-en,  Chinese  public  official;  assassinated  in 
Shanghai,  China,  Oct.  11,  1940;  born  in  Ningpo,  1870.  A 
prominent  Chinese  banker,  he  became  Japan's  puppet  may- 
or of  Shanghai  on  Oct.  10,  1938. 

Fuller.  Sir  George  Warburton.  Australian  statesman; 
died  in  Australia,  July,  1940;  born  in  Kiama,  New  South 
Wales,  Jan.  22,  1861.  He  was  premier  of  New  South 
Wales  from  1922  to  1925. 

FnmoBS,  Viscount,  Marmadnke  Fnrness,  British  ship- 
builder and  iron  and  coal  operator;  died  in  Cap  Ferrat. 
France,  Oct.  7,  1940;  born  on  Oct.  29,  1883.  Son  of  Lord 
Christopher  Furness,  English  farm  laborer  who  amassed  a 
fortune  in  the  mercantile  world.  Viscount  Furness  was 
chairman  of  the  Furness  Shipbuilding  Co.;  the  Cargo 
Fleet  Iron  Co  ;  the  South  Durham  Steel  and  Iron  Co  ; 
Weardale  Steel,  Coal,  and  Coke  Co  ;  Broomhill  Collieries, 
Ltd.,  and  was  a  director  of  several  other  large  British 
concerns. 

Fynn,  Sir  Perdval.  Rhodesian  politician;  minister  of 
internal  affairs  from  1935:  died  in  Salisbury,  Southern 
Rhodesia,  Apr.  25,  1940:  born  in  Cape  Colony  in  1872. 

Ganfield.  William  Arthur.  American  educator;  died  in 
Chicago,  111.,  Oct.  18,  1940;  born  in  Dubuque  Co.,  la., 
Sept  3,  1873.  Ordained  s  Presbyterian  minister  in  1901, 
he  served  as  president  of  Centre  College,  Danville,  Ky. 
(1915-21)  and  of  Carroll  College,  Waukesha,  Wis.  (1921- 
39).  He  ran  for  the  U.S.  Senate  in  Wisconsin  against 
Robert  M.  La  Follette  in  1922  but  was  defeated. 

Garcia,  Gines.  See  SPAKISH-AMEEICAM  LXTEXATURKI 
under  Argentina. 

Garland,  Hamlin.  American  writer,  died  in  Hollywood, 
Calif.,  Mar.  4,  1940;  born  in  West  Salem,  Wis..  Sept  14. 
1860.  Writing  from  1890,  his  works  included  Rose  of 
Dutcher**  Coolly  (1895),  considered  his  best  novel,  Ulys- 
ses Grant  (1898),  The  Eagle**  Heart  (1900),  The  Cap- 
tain of  the  Gray  Horse  Troop  (1902),  The  Long  Trail 
(1907),  Boy  Life  on  the  Prairie  (1907),  and  Other  Main 
Traveled  Roads  (1913).  but  it  was  not  until  the  publica- 
tion of  A  Son  of  the  Middle  Border  (1917),  the  first  vol- 
ume of  a  trilogy  which  was  largely  autobiographical,  that 
his  position  in  Amen  can  letters  was  secured.  The  second 
volume,  A  Denahter  of  the  Middle  Border  (1921)  re- 


ceived the  FuHtxer  Prise;  the  third  volume,  was  Back 
Trailers  of  the  Middle  Border  (1928).  One  of  the  first 
Americans  to  write  of  the  soil,  his  work  attracted  wide 
attention  for  its  realistic,  or  as  he  preferred,  veritist,  ap- 
proach to  pioneering  farm  life.  His  biter  works  were  based 
largely  on  the  diary  he  had  kept  for  years  and  included 
Roadside  Meetings  (1930),  Companion*  of  the  Trail 
(1931).  My  Friendly  Contemporaries  (1932),  and  After- 
noon Neighbors  (1934).  His  latest  works  were  two  books 
on  psychical  research,  Forty  Yews  of  Psychic  Research 
(1936)  and  The  Mystery  of  the  Buried  Crosses  (1939). 
In  1931  Mr.  Garland  received  the  Roosevelt  Memorial 
Association  medal  for  "distinguished  service  as  a  social 
historian." 

Garofalo.  Atttlto.  Italian  general  divisional  command- 
er in  the  World  War;  died  in  San  Remo,  Italy,  Nov.  6, 
1940;  born  m  1865. 

Garvey.  Maxcus.  Negro  adventurer;  died  in  London, 
June  10,  1940;  born  in  Jamaica,  B.W.I.,  in  1860.  He  first 
became  known  in  the  United  States  about  1914  with  the 
formation  of  the  Universal  Negro  Improvement  Associa- 
tion. Subsequently  he  organized  the  Black  Star  Steam- 
ship Line  and  the  Black  Star  Steamship  Co ,  to  be  manned 
entirely  by  Negroes;  the  African  Community  League;  the 
Negro  Factories  Corporation;  the  Black  Cross  Nurses, 
and  the  Universal  African  Legion.  He  set  himself  up  as 
"Emperor  of  the  Kingdom  of  Africa,"  although  it  was 
believed  that  he  had  never  set  foot  on  that  continent.  In 
1922  he  was  arrested  for  using  the  mails  to  defraud  and 
from  1925  to  1927  he  was  jailed  in  the  Atlanta  penitentia- 
ry. He  was  then  deported  to  Jamaica,  and  thereafter  slow- 
ly faded  into  obscurity.  In  New  York  in  1924  be  called 
the  Fourth  Annual  International  Congress  of  Negro  peo- 
ples of  the  World. 

Garz6n,  Eugenic.  See  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES 
under  Uruguay. 

Gates,  William.  American  archaeologist;  died  in  Balti- 
more, Md.(  Apr  24,  1940:  born  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  in  1864. 
He  was  associated  with  Johns  Hopkins  University  as  a  re- 
search associate  in  Mayan  languages  and  history  (1930- 
38),  and  was  an  outstanding  authority  on  Mayan  history, 
language,  and  culture  In  1931  he  published  Outline  Dic- 
tionary of  Maya  Ghphs. 

Gattl-Casasza,  Giulio.  Italian  operatic  manager:  died 
in  Ferrara.  Italy,  Sept.  2,  1940;  born  in  Udme,  Feb.  3, 
1869.  In  1893  he  succeeded  his  father,  Stefano.  newly 
elected  member  of  the  Italian  parliament,  as  head  of  the 
directors  of  the  Teatro  Communale  d%  Ferrari.  He  be- 
came director  of  the  revived  La  Scala  Opera  House  in 
Milan  in  1898  and  in  that  capacity  was  responsible  for 
some  startling  innovations,  particularly  the  introduction 
of  German  operas  there  for  the  first  time  and  the  starring 
of  non-Italian  singers,  notably  Chaliapin.  There  also  for 
the  first  time  he  met  Arturo  Toscanini,  musical  director  of 
La  Scala.  He  was  a  warm  friend  of  Giuseppe  Verdi  and 
always  remembered  the  old  master's  advice  to  him  in 
1898.  "The  theater  is  intended  to  be  full  and  not  empty. 
That's  something  you  must  always  remember  " 

He  came  to  New  York  in  1908,  succeeding  Heinrich 
Conried  as  general  manager  of  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
Company,  a  position  he  occupied  until  his  retirement  on 
Apr.  27,  1935.  His  first  production  here  was  Verdi's  Aida 
on  Nov.  16,  1908,  with  a  cast  including  Emmy  Destin, 
Louise  Homer,  Enrico  Caruso,  and  Antonio  Scott i.  Tos- 
canini conducted. 

Gatti-Casazza  did  much  to  popularize  music  drama  in 
the  United  States  and  encouraged  the  writing  and  presen- 
tation of  American-made  operas.  In  1910  he  produced 
Frederick  S  Converse's  The  Pipe  of  Desire,  the  first 
American  opera  to  be  staged  at  the  Metropolitan.  Also, 
about  that  time  he  persuaded  the  directors  to  conduct  an 
opera-writing  contest  among  American  composers,  with 
$10,000  as  the  first  prize.  The  prize-winning  work,  Hora- 
tio William  Parker's  Mono,  was  produced  at  the  Metro- 
politan on  Mar.  4,  1912. 

The  public  response  was  lukewarm,  however,  and  Ital- 
ian, German,  and  French  operas  continued  their  command 
of  the  Metropolitan  stage  through  all  of  Gatti-Casazza's 
tenure. 

After  the  first  two  or  three  seasons,  the  Metropolitan 
began  to  make  a  profit,  and  the  balance  remained  on  the 
right  side  of  the  ledger  until  the  1930-31  season,  when 
falling  revenue  was  followed  by  drastic  cuts  in  salaries 
(including  the  director's,  self-imposed)  and  other  expendi- 
tures. 

In  1910  Mr.  Gatti-Casazza  married  Frances  Alda,  op- 
eratic soprano  from  New  Zealand,  who  had  made  her  de- 
but at  La  Scala  They  were  divorced  in  1929  Shortly  aft- 
erward  he  married  Rosina  Galli,  former  premiere  danseuse 
and  ballet  mistress  of  the  Metropolitan,  who  died  on  Apr. 

Gannti  Sir  Ernest  Frederick.  British  naval  officer;  died 
in  London,  Apr.  20.  1940;  bom  in  Melbourne,  Australia, 
Mar.  25,  1865.  In  the  navy  from  1878,  he  was  a  rear  ad- 
miral commanding  the  1st  Battle  Squadron  at  the  Battle 
of  Jutland,  commander-in«chief  in  the  East  Indies  (1917- 
19)  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  Western  Approaches 


NECROLOGY 


515 


NECROLOGY 


(1921-22).  Promoted  to  admiral  in  1924,  he  wu  retired  ia 
1925. 

GantUer,  Joseph  Alexandra  George*.  Roman  Catholic 
archbishop;  died  in  Montreal,  Can.,  Aug.  31.  1940;  born 
in  Montreal,  Oct.  9,  1871.  A  graduate  of  Montreal  Col- 
lege, he  was  ordained  a  priest  In  1894;  became  professor 
in  the  Grand  Seminary  in  Montreal  (1896);  auxiliary 
bishop  of  Montreal  (1912);  archbishop  coadjutor  (1923) 
and  archbishop  (September,  1939).  He  was  noted  as  a 
powerful  preacher  in  both  the  French  and  English  Ian- 

(flbbs,  George.  American  engineer;  died  in  New  York, 
May  20,  1940;  born  in  Chicago,  Apr.  19,  1861.  A  leading 
authority  on  railroad  engineering,  he  designed  and  pat- 
ented the  first  practical  all-steel  railway  car,  and  was  chief 
engineer  in  charge  of  the  design  and  construction  of  the 
Pennsylvania  station  in  New  York  (1905-12)  and  chief 
engineer  for  electric  traction  for  the  Long  Island  Railroad 
after  1912.  He  was  consulting  engineer  for  the  Inter- 
borough  Rapid  Transit  Co.,  New  York:  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad,  being  in  charge  of  the  electrification  of  the  road 
between  New  York  and  Washington:  the  Long  Island 
Railroad,  and  other  lines.  A  past  president  of  the  Ameri- 
can Institute  of  Consulting  Engineers  and  president  at  the 
Rome  session  of  the  International  Railway  Congress  in 
1922,  he  was  awarded  the  Norman  medal  (1911)  and  the 
Wellington  prize  (1930)  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil 

Gibson,  Ernest  WUlard.  American  lawyer;  died  in 
Washington,  June  20,  1940;  born  in  Londonderry,  Vt., 
Dec.  29,  1871.  A  Republican  in  politics,  he  served  in  the 
68th  to  73d  Congresses  (1923-35)  from  the  2d  Vermont 
District,  and  in  1933  was  appointed  to  the  U.S  Senate  to 
fill  a  vacancy.  He  was  elected  Senator  in  1934  and  re- 
elected  in  1938.  He  served  on  the  naval  affairs,  commerce, 
civil  service,  library,  and  territories  committees. 

Gilder,  Robert  Fletcher.  American  journalist  and  ar- 
chaeologist, he  discovered  in  1906  the  Nebraska  "Loess 
man,"  the  oldest  human  remains  found  in  America;  died 
in  Omaha,  Neb.,  Mar.  7,  1940;  born  in  Flushing,  N.Y., 
Oct.  6,  1856 

Gill,  Eric.  British  sculptor  and  wood  engraver;  died  in 
Uxbridge,  Eng.,  Nov.  18,  1940;  born  in  Brighton,  1882. 
His  principal  works  included  a  war  memorial  for  Leeds 
University,  which  caused  a  great  stir  because  the  subject 
— the  expulsion  of  the  money  changers  from  the  temple- 
depicted  them  in  tophats  and  frock  coats 

Gilxnore,  Melvln  Randolph.  American  ethnobotanist; 
died  in  Lincoln,  Neb.,  July  25,  1940;  born  in  Valley,  Neb., 
Mar.  11,  1868  A  graduate  of  Cotner  College,  Bethany. 
Neb.  (1905),  he  was  curator  of  the  Nebraska  Historical 
Museum  (1911-16);  curator,  North  Dakota  Historical  So- 
ciety (1916-23);  and  curator  of  ethnology  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan  since  1931  In  his  studies  of  the  Ameri- 
can Indian,  he  spent  much  time  actually  living  among  the 
various  tribes;  and  his  books  on  the  subject  have  com- 
manded wide  recognition 

Gllmonr,  Sir  John.  British  politician,  died  in  London, 
Mar.  30,  1940;  born  May  27,  1876.  A  Conservative  Mem- 
ber  of  Parliament  from  1910,  he  was  Secretary  for  Scot- 
land (1924-26)  and  Secretary  of  State  for  Scotland  (1926- 
29);  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries  (1931)  and 
Home  Secretary  (1932-35)  He  was  appointed  Minister 
of  Shipping  in  the  Chamberlain  cabinet  in  October,  1939. 
and  as  such  controlled  Britain's  merchant  fleet  He  served 
as  rector  of  Edinburgh  University  during  1926-29  and 
was  Lord  High  Commissioner  to  the  General  Assembly  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland  during  1938-39 

Glenn,  Mrs.  John  Mark  (nee  Mary  Wlllcox  Brown). 
American  welfare  leader;  died  in  New  York  City,  Nov.  3, 
1940;  born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  1870.  She  was  president  of 
the  National  Council  of  the  Church  Mission  Help  (1919- 
37);  president  of  the  Family  Welfare  Association  of 
America  (1920-37).  In  1915.  she  was  president  of  the 
National  Conference  on  Charities  and  Corrections,  an  of- 
fice which  her  husband,  John  M.  Glenn,  held  in  1901.  She 
was  executive  secretary  of  the  Henry  Watson  Children's 
Aid  Society  in  Baltimore  (1897-19002;  and  for  two  years 
thereafter,  general  secretary  of  the  Charity  Organization 
Society  of  Baltimore.  Mr.  Glenn,  who  survives,  retired 
in  1931  as  general  director  of  the  Russell  Sage  Founda- 
tion. _ 

Goenaga,  Florentine.  See  SPANXIB-AMKRICAN  LITERA- 
TURES under  Colombia. 

Goldberg,  Sol  H.  American  inventor  of  the  wrinkled 
hair  pin,  from  which  he  made  millions  of  dollars  until 
long  hair  became  scarce  as  a  style  among  women;  died  in 
Chicago,  111.,  on  June  4,  1940;  born  in  Cincinnati,  O.. 
1887.  "Irene  Castle  cost  me  $2,000,000  when  she  bobbed 
her  hair."  he  once  remarked.  However,  he  continued  to 
make  a  handsome  income  manufacturing  bobble  pins. 

Goldenweiser,  Alexander.  American  anthropologist  and 
sociologist;  died  in  Portland,  Ore.,  July  6,  1940;%orn  in 
Kiev,  Russia,  Jan.  29,  1880.  He  came  to  this  country  in 
1900,  studied  at  Harvard  and  Columbia  Universities;  lee- 
tared  at  Columbia  (1910-19) ;  and  has  taught  sociology  and 
anthropology  at  one  time  or  another  at  Reed  College, 


Portland,  and  the  universities  of  Oregon,  Wisconsin, 
Washington,  Buffalo,  and  LeUnd  Stanford.  One  of  his 
many  books,  Early  CiviliMation  (1922),  ia  a  well-thumbed 
college  textbook. 

Goldman,  Emma.  American  anarchist:  died  in  Toronto, 
May  14,  1940,  born  in  Kovno.  Russia,  June  27,  1869.  In 
1886  she  emigrated  to  the  United  States.  The  Haymarket 
Square  Riot  in  Chicago  in  1886  aroused  her  sympathies 
and  finally  led  her  to  support  anarchism.  After  1889  she 
was  associated  with  Alexander  Berkman  and  other  anar- 
chists in  New  York,  and  in  1893-94  she  served  a  year  in 
BlackwelPi  Island  prison,  New  York,  for  inciting  to  riot. 
Upon  her  release  she  lectured  in  England  and  Scotland 
in  1895  and  in  the  United  States  in  1897,  1899.  and 
1907-10.  She  was  under  suspicion  for  implication  in  the 
assassination  of  President  McKinley  in  1901  and  after 
1906  she  co-operated  in  the  publication  of  Mother  Earth, 
an  anarchist  monthly.  In  1919  Miss  Goldman  waa  de- 
ported to  Russia  and  in  the  following  year  expressed  a 
desire  to  return  to  the  United  States  but  waa  refused.  Aft- 
er 1924  she  was  allowed  to  live  in  Germany  on  condition 
that  she  would  abstain  from  propaganda.  Subsequently 
she  fled  to  England,  and  in  1926,  having  obtained  British 
citizenship  by  marrying  a  Welsh  miner,  she  went  to  Can- 
ada. In  1931  she  went  to  the  south  of  France  to  live  and 
in  1934  received  permission  to  visit  the  United  States  for 
ninety  days  on  a  lecture  tour.  During  the  Spanish  Civil 
War  she  worked  in  London  and  Madrid  for  the  loyalist 
cause,  and  finally  returned  to  Canada.  She  wrote  two 
books  dealing  with  her  disillusionment  with  the  Soviet 
Government.  My  Disillusionment  in  Russia  (1923-24) 
and  My  Further  Disillusionment  in  Russia  (1925).  Her 
autobiography.  Living  My  Lift,  appeared  in  1931. 

Goler,  George  w.  American  public  health  authority; 
died  in  Rochester,  N.Y.  Sept.  18.  1940;  born  in  Brook- 
lyn, N.Y.,  Aug.  24,  1864.  A  graduate  of  the  University 
of  Buffalo  medical  school  (1889).  he  was  Rochester  Health 
Officer  from  1896  to  1932,  in  which  latter  capacity  he  es- 
tablished the  first  municipal  milk  station  and  the  first  pre- 
natal clinic  in  the  nation.  In  1926  he  won  a  long  fight  to 
dose  Rochester's  water  supply  with  iodine  to  combat  ado- 
lescent goiter.  The  general  public  did  not  relish  the  idea  of 
drinking  iodine  from  household  faucets;  skepticism  bred 
uneasiness;  and  in  1932  the  issue  resulted  in  Dr.  Goler's 
resignation. 

Gom&  7  Tomas,  Isldro  Cardinal.  Spanish  Roman 
Catholic  primate;  died  in  Pamplona,  Spain,  Aug  22,  1940; 
born  in  La  Riba,  Tarragona  province,  Aug.  19,  1940.  He 
became  bishop  of  Tarazora  in  1927  and  archbishop  of  To- 
ledo and  primate  of  Spain  in  1933.  Pope  Pius  XI  appoint- 
ed him  cardinal  in  1935.  During  the  Spanish  Civil  War 
he  represented  the  Vatican  as  "provisional  semi-official 
representative"  to  Burgos.  He  openly  denounced  govern- 
mental interference  in  ecclesiastical  affairs;  defied  the 
Spanish  Republic;  and  supported  General  Franco.  He  made 
his  escape  from  Toledo  to  Pamplona  three  days  before 
the  government  forces  sacked  his  cathedral  and  home  and 
killed  some  of  his  priests 

Gomez,  Alejandro.  Salvadoran  general;  died  in  El  Sal- 
vador, Sept.  19,  1940;  born  in  1870. 

Goodrich,  James  Putnam.  American  ex-governor;  died 
in  Winchester,  Ind.,  Aug.  15,  1940;  born  in  Winchester, 
Feb.  18,  1864.  Educated  at  De  Pauw  University,  Wabash 
College  and  the  University  of  Notre  Dame,  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  of  Indiana  in  1886;  was  active  in  Re- 
publican politics  since  that  time,  serving  as  Governor  of 
Indiana  (1917-21).  Appointed  a  member  of  the  Russian 
Relief  Commission  (1921),  he  made  four  trips  to  Russia. 
President  Coolidge  named  him  to  the  St.  Lawrence  Sea- 
way Commission  (1924)  and  President  Hoover  appointed 
him  a  member  of  the  National  Conservation  Commission. 

Gordon,  John  Bloan.  Canadian  artist;  died  in  Hamil- 
ton, Ont,  Can.,  Oct.  12,  1940;  born  in  Brentford,  Ont, 
1868.  He  was  the  leader  of  the  original  impressionist 
movement  in  Canadian  art  Among  his  works  was  the 
ceiling  of  the  Congressional  Library,  Washington,  D.C. 

Grant,  Robert.  American  author;  died  in  Boston,  May 
19,  1940:  born  there,  Jan,  24,  1852.  He  was  chairman  of 
the  board  of  the  Boston  Water  Commission  during  1889- 
93,  a  judge  of  the  Probate  Court  and  Count  of  Insolvency 
for  Suffolk  Co.,  Mass.,  during  1893-1923,  an  overseer  of 
Harvard  University,  1895-1921,  and  a  member  of  the  Sac- 
co-Van*etti  Commission  (1927).  He  was  a  prolific  writer 
of  fiction  deal  in*  with  marrinore  and  divorce  problems  and 

,  Fourscore — An  Au- 

8.  American   army  officer;  died  in 


tobtograpky. 
Graves,  William 


Shrewsbury,  N.J.,  Feb.  27,  1940;  bornTn  Mt.  Calm,  Tex., 
Mar.  27,  1865.  In  the  U.S.  Army  from  1889,  he  com- 
manded the  American  Expeditionary  Forces  in  Siberia 
(1918-20),  was  promoted  to  major  general  in  1925,  and  at 
his  retirement  in  1928  was  commander  of  the  Panama 
Canal  Department. 

(  Green,  Thomas  B.  American  lecturer:  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.C..  Jan.  24,  1940;  born  in  Harnsville,  Pa ,  Dec. 
27,  1857.  Ordained  a  Protestant  Episcopal  minister  in 
1887,  he  held  various  pastorates,  and  was  elected  Bishop 


NECROLOGY 


516 


NECROLOGY 


of  Iowa  in  1898.  which  he  declined.  After  1903  he  de- 
voted himself  to  lecturing,  mud  in  1910  begin  hii  interest 
in  international  peace.  He  lectured  for  the  American 
Peace  Society  from  1913,  and  after  1918  was  director  of 
the  national  speakers'  bureau  of  the  American  Red  Cross. 
A  prolific  writer,  his  latest  work  was  Tkt  Man  of  Tomor- 

Oreenway,  Walter  Burton.  American  educator;  died  in 
Stanhope,  N  J.,  on  Dec.  22,  1940;  born  in  Broylesville, 
Tenn.,  Aug.  18,  1876.  A  graduate  of  Princeton  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  he  was  ordained  a  Presbyterian  minister  in 
1900:  held  several  pastorates;  and  was  president  of  Bea- 
ver College  for  Women  in  Jenkintown,  Pa.,  from  1928  to 
1939. 

Grendal,  Vladimir.  Russian  general;  died  on  Nov  16, 
1940;  born  in  1883  He  was  vice-chief  of  the  Red  Army 
artillery  board;  and  in  the  Finnish  war  organized  the 
storming  of  the  Mannerheim  line  and  the  seizure  of  Vi- 


,  Sir  William  Thomason.  British  missionary, 

surgeon,  and  author;  died  in  Charlotte,  Vt.,  Oct.  9,  1940; 
born  in  Parkgate,  Cheshire,  Eng.,  Feb.  28,  1865.  After 
studying  at  Oxford  and  London  Hospital,  he  became  a 
medical  missionary  among  the  fishermen  of  the  North  At- 
lantic, cruising  for  five  years  with  them  and  sharing  their 
hardships  along  the  stretch  between  the  Bay  of  Biscay 
and  Iceland.  A  qualified  master-manner,  he  went  to  Lab- 
rador in  1892,  established  his  headquarters  at  St.  Anth- 
ony, on  the  northern  shore  of  Newfoundland,  and  for  43 
years  was  engaged  in  improving  the  health  and  living  con- 
ditions of  the  inhabitants  of  Labrador  and  nearby  regions. 
He  built  5  hospitals,  7  nursing  stations,  4  orphanage- 
boarding  schools,  co-operative  stores,  and  started  indus- 
trial, agricultural,  and  child  welfare  work  along  the  coasts 
of  Labrador  and  North  Newfoundland.  He  was  ( surgeon 
in  charge  of  the  hospital  steamer  Strathcona  II  in  which 
he  cruised  annually  along  the  Labrador  coasts;  he  built 
a  seamen's  institute  at  St.  John's,  Newfoundland  (1912) ; 
and  owned  and  operated  many  boats,  large  and  small, 
which  carried  provisions  and  medical  supplies  to  the  in- 
habitants of  Labrador.  Dr.  Grenfell  was  the  founder  and 
superintendent  of  the  International  Grenfell  Association, 
an  organization  which  raised  money  and  assisted  in  other 
ways  in  fostering  the  work  of  the  Labrador  Medical 
Mission. 

In  1935  ill  health  forced  Dr.  Grenfell  to  retire  from 
Labrador  and  he  spent  much  of  his  time  thereafter  at  his 
home  at  Charlotte,  Vt ,  overlooking  Lake  Champlam  How- 
ever, he  still  visited  and  kept  in  close  touch  with  his  Lab- 
rador stations  and  advised  the  various  boards  of  the  Gren- 
fell  Associations  in  New  York,  Boston,  Ottawa,  St.  Johns, 
Nfld.,  and  London.  He  received  several  honorary  degrees 
from  universities,  and  was  the  recipient  of  many  decora- 
tions and  awards  for  his  missionary  work  He  was  knight- 
ed in  1927.  His  wife,  Lady  Grenfell,  died  on  Dec  9,  1938. 
She  was  the  former  Anne  MacClanahan  of  Lake  Forest, 
111.,  a  graduate  of  Bryn  Mawr.  They  had  two  sons  and  a 
daughter. 

During  the  World  War,  Dr  Grenfell  went  to  France  as 
a  major  in  the  Harvard  Medical  Unit 

His  publications  included  Adrift  on  an  Ice  Pan  (1909), 
Off  the  Rocks  (1906),  Down  to  the  Sea  (1911),  Down 
North  on  the  Labrador  (1911);  Northern  Neighbors 
(1923):  Adventure  of  Life  (1912) ;  Immortality  (1912); 
What  Life  Means  to  Me  (1910):  Tales  of  the  Labrador 
(1916);  Labrador  Days  (1921),  Yourself  and  Your  Body 
(1925);  Labrador  Looks  at  the  Orient  (1928);  Forty 
rears  for  Labrador,  his  autobiography,  1932,  and  the 
Romance  of  Labrador,  1933. 

Orevstad,  Nicolay.  American  editor;  died  in  Chicago, 
Feb.  20.  1940;  horn  in  Norway,  June  2,  1851  He  was  edi- 
tor of  Skandmaven  during  1892-1911  and  after  1930,  and 
during  1911-15  he  was  envoy  extraordinary  and  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  Paraguay  and  Uruguay  from  the  United 
States 

Oroff.  Charles  O.  American  business  man;  died  in 
Greenwich,  Conn  ,  Oct.  24,  1940;  born  in  Edgerton,  O.. 
Aug.  26,  1880  A  former  salesman,  newspaperman,  and 
general  manager  for  Air  Way  Appliance  Co.  of  Toledo,  he 
was  president  of  the  Electrolux  Corp.  since  1933  and 
chairman  of  the  board  of  the  Servel,  Inc.,  since  1934. 

Oronan,  Hans  von.  German  army  officer;  died  in  Pots- 
dam. Feb.  23,  1940;  born  at  Alt-Schadow,  Feb.  6,  1850. 
In  the  German  army  from  1869,  he  commanded  the  Fourth 
Reserve  Corps  in  the  campaign  of  August  and  September, 
1914,  and  the  41st  Army  from  1915  to  1919 

Gnillaumat,  Marie  Louis  Adolphe.  French  general;  died 
in  Nantes,  Mav  18,  1940;  born  in  Bourgneuf,  Jan.  4,  1863. 
During  the  World  War  he  served  as  Commander  of  the 
2d  Army  (1916),  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  Allied 
forces  in  the  East  (1917-18).  as  military  governor  of 
Paris  (1918),  and  as  commander  of  the  5th  Army.  Dur- 
ing 1924-30,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  months  in  1926 
when  he  was  minister  of  war,  he  commanded  the  Allied 
Forces  in  the  Rhineland,  and  then  retired 

Ctalllot,  Victor  Jnan.  See  SFANISH-AUERICAN  LXTKKA- 
under  Argentina. 


Quite,  Due  de,  Jean  Pierre  dement  Marie.  French 
pretender;  died  in  Larache,  Spanish  Morocco,  Aug.  25, 
1940;  born  in  Paris,  France,  Sept.  4,  1874.  He  was  the 
great-grandson  of  Louis  Philippe,  only  member  of  the 
House  of  Orleans  ever  to  reign  as  King  of  France.  The 
Due  de  Guise  is  succeeded  in  his  claim  by  his  son.  Prince 
Henri  de  Guise.  Prince  of  Orleans  and  Count  of  Paris 

Quitart,  Juittno.  Spanish  Roman  Catholic  clergyman, 
Bishop  of  Urgell  and  co-Prince  of  Andorra;  died  m  Bar- 
celona, Jan.  31,  1940;  born  in  1874. 

Gullett,  Sir  Henry  Bomer.  Australian  cabinet  minister; 
died  in  an  airplane  accident  8  miles  from  Canberra,  Aus- 
tralia, Aug.  13,  1940;  born  in  Harston,  Victoria.  Mar.  26, 
1878.  He  was  the  official  correspondent  with  the  British 
and  French  armies  in  France  during  the  World  War  in 
1914;  and  became  minister  of  external  affairs  and  minister 
of  information  in  the  cabinet  of  Prime  Minister  Menzies 
in  1939. 

Gulliver,  Julia  Henrietta.  American  educator;  died  in 
Eustis,  Fla.,  July  26,  1940;  born  in  Norwich,  Conn.,  July 
30t  1856.  A  graduate  of  Smith  College,  she  began  teaching 
philosophy  and  Biblical  literature  in  1890  at  Rockford 
Female  Seminary,  predecessor  of  Rockford  College,  Illi- 
nois. She  was  president  of  the  college  from  1902  to  1919. 

Qunther,  Robert  Theodore.  Bntish  zoologist;  died  at 
Oxford,  Mar.  9,  1940;  born  Aug.  23,  1869.  In  1924  he 
became  the  first  curator  of  the  Lewis  Evans  Collection 
which  became  the  Oxford  Museum  for  the  History  of  Sci- 
ence in  1935.  He  was  a  prolific  writer  on  zoological  and 
archaeological  subjects 

Guzmin,  David  J.  See  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERA- 
TURES under  El  Salvador. 

Haddon,  Alfred  Oort.  British  anthropologist;  died  in 
Cambridge,  Apr.  20,  1940,  born  in  London.  May  24,  1855. 
He  was  lecturer  in  ethnology  at  Cambridge  University 
(1900-09),  and  at  London  University  (1904-09),  and  Uni- 
versity Reader  at  Cambridge  (1909-26).  He  made  ethno- 
logical investigations  in  Torres  Straits,  New  Guinea,  and 
Sarawak,  and  was  president  of  the  anthropological  section 
of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
in  1902  and  1905 

Hadfleld,  Sir  Robert  Abbott.  British  metallurgist;  died 
in  London,  Eng.,  Sept.  30,  1940;  born  in  Sheffield.  Nov. 

29,  1858.  He  inherited  Hadfield's,  Ltd  ,  one  of  the  largest 
steel  and  munitions  works  in  England;  invented  manganese 
steel,    employed   in    helmets   and    armaments    during   the 
World  War;  and  discovered  a  magnetic  steel  of  high  per- 
meability, especially  suited  for  use  in  dynamos  and  electric 
motors. 

Haggard,  William  David.  American  surgeon;  died  in 
Palm  Beach,  Fla ,  Jan  28,  1940;  born  in  Nashville,  Tenn.. 
Sept.  28,  1872.  He  was  professor  of  surgery  and  clinical 
surgery  at  Vanderbilt  University  Medical  School  from 
1913,  saw  service  in  the  World  War,  and  was  president 
both  of  the  American  College  of  Surgeons  (1933)  and  of 
the  American  Medical  Association  (1925) 

Hainarl,  Tilma.  Finnish  feminist,  died  in  Helsinki,  Jan. 
23,  1940;  born  in  1861  A  leader  in  the  peace  movement 
and  in  social  and  child  welfare  work,  she  was  president 
of  the  National  Council  of  Women  in  Finland  and  was  a 
deputy  delegate  to  the  League  of  Nations  Assemblies 
(1927-30) 

Halniach,  Michael.  Austrian  politician;  died  in  Glog- 
gnitz,  Austria,  Feb.  29,  1940,  born  in  Aue,  Aug  15,  1858. 
A  leading  advocate  of  Anschluss,  he  was  the  first  presi- 
dent of  the  Austrian  Republic  (1920-28)  and  was  minis- 
ter of  commerce  (1929-30).  Thereafter  he  lived  in  retire- 
raent. 

Hamilton,  Frederick  William.  American  educator;  died 
in  Boston,  May  22,  1940;  born  in  Portland,  Me,  Mar. 

30,  1860.  He  entered  the  Universalist  ministry  in   1889 
and  after  serving  in  several  pastorates  was  appointed  pres- 
ident of  Tufts  College  in  1905.  He  resigned  in  1913 

Hamilton,  James  McLellan.  American  educator;  died 
in  Bozeman,  Mont.,  Sept.  23,  1940;  born  in  Annapolis, 
111..  Oct.  1,  1861.  He  studied  at  Union  Christian  College 
and  Harvard  University;  was  Professor  of  History  and 
Economics  at  the  University  of  Montana  (1901-04)  and 
president  of  Montana  State  College  (1904-19). 

Hamlin,  Clarence  Clark.  American  publisher  and  politi- 
cian;  died  in  Colorado  Springs.  Col ,  Oct  29,  1940;  born 
in  Manchester,  la.,  Jan  7,  1$68  In  1896,  the  year  he 
moved  to  Colorado  Springs,  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Re- 
publican National  Convention,  and  he  was  a  delegate  to 
every  subsequent  convention  except  that  of  1940.  He 
bought  the  Colorado  Springs  Evening  Telegraph  in  1916 
and  the  Colorado  Springs  Gate  tie  in  1923 

Hammond,  Aubrey.  British  artist;  died  in  London,  Mar. 
19,  1940;  born  in  Folkestone,  Sept.  18.  1893.  Known  prin- 
cipally as  a  stage  designer,  he  was  a  pioneer  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  modern  technique  of  camouflage. 

Harada,  Tasnkn.  Japanese  Christian  educator;  died  in 
Kyoto,  Japan,  Feb  22,  1940;  born  Nov.  10,  1863.  He  was 
president  of  Doshisha  University  in  Kyoto  from  1907  to 
1919  when  he  was  retired  as  professor  emeritus,  and  dur- 
ing 1920-32  he  was  professor  of  Japanese  History  and 
Literature  at  the  University  of  Hawaii.  He  lectured  fre- 


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quently  in  America  and  in  1920  delivered  the  Lowell  Lec- 
tures in  Boston. 

Harcourt,  Bertram  E.  American  jurist:  died  in  New 
York  City,  Dec.  9.  1940;  born  in  Lockport,  fo.Y.,  1881.  He 
worked  in  a  law  firm  in  Medina,  N.Y..  in  1896;  was  elect- 
ed  county  judge  and  surrogate  in  1925;  and  Supreme 
Court  Justice  in  1939,  taking  office  on  Jan.  1,  1940. 

Harden,  Sir  Arthur.  British  biochemist;  died  in  Bourne 
End,  Bucks.,  June  17.  1940;  born  in  Manchester  in  1865. 
Emeritus  professor  of  biochemistry  at  London  University 
and  late  head  of  the  Biochemical  Department  of  Lister 
Institute,  in  1929  he  shared  the  Nobel  Chemistry  Award 
for  his  experimental  work  in  the  field  of  alcoholic  fer- 
mentation. lie  was  joint  editor  of  the  Biochemical  Journal 
(1913-37)  and  in  1935  received  the  Davy  Medal  of  the 
Royal  Society. 

Harington,  Sir  Charles  Harlngton.  British  general; 
died  in  Cheltenham,  Eng.,  Oct.  23,  1940;  born  in  Chi- 
Chester,  May  31.  1872.  An  army  officer  since  1892,  he  was 
chief  of  staff  with  the  Canadian  forces  for  a  time  during 
the  World  War:  commander-in-chief  of  the  Allied  forces 
in  Constantinople  from  1921  to  1923;  and  governor  and 
commander-m-chief  of  Gibraltar  from  1933  to  1938. 

HarknesB,  Edward  Stephen.  American  financier  and 
philanthropist;  died  in  New  York,  Jan.  29,  1940;  born  in 
Cleveland,  Jan.  22.  1874.  An  inheritor  of  great  wealth 
from  the  estate  of  His  father,  he  was  a  director  of  several 
railroads,  including  the  Southern  Pacific  and  the  New 
York  Central.  His  philanthropies  amounted  to  over  $100,- 
000,000  and  included  such  gifts  as  $1,000,000  to  the  New 
York  Public  Library  (1923),  $4,000,000  to  the  Columbia- 
Presbyterian  Medical  Center  (1924),  $1,131,097  to  Yale 
University  (1924),  $1,000,000  to  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  (1926),  $1,250,000  to  Union  Theological 
Seminary  (1926),  $1,000,000  to  Western  Reserve  Medical 
Center,  Cleveland  (1927),  $1,000,000  to  the  Near  East 
Relief  (1928),  $11,392,000  to  Harvard  University  (1928), 
$2,500,000  to  Columbia  University  (1929),  $5,428,821  to 
Yale  University  to  start  the  new  "quadrangle  plan"  (1930), 
$7,000,000  to  Phillips  Exeter  Academy  (1930),  $10,000,- 
000  for  the  establishment  of  the  Pilgrim  Trust  for  "the 
benefit  of  Britain"  (1930),  $4,000,000  to  Columbia  Uni- 
versity for  a  new  library  (1931),  $2,500,000  to  the  Colum- 
bia- Pre^by  ten  an  Medical  Center  for  an  eye  institute  (1931), 
$1,000,000  to  the  Department  of  Surgery,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity (1931),  $3,000,000  to  Lawrenceville  School,  New 
Jersey  (1936),  and  $8,000,000  to  the  Commonwealth  Fund 
(1937)  In  his  will,  he  left  his  estate  in  trust  to  his  wife 
and  on  her  death  one-half  of  the  remainder  was  to  go  to  the 
Commonwealth  Fund,  one-quarter  to  the  Presbyterian  Hos- 
pitalj  and  the  remaining  quarter  was  to  be  divided  among 
ten  institution-; 

Harper,  Robert  Newton.  American  banker;  died  in 
Washington,  D  C.,  Sept.  23,  1940;  born  in  Leesburg,  Va  , 
Jan  31.  1861.  A  pharmacist  in  Washington,  D  C.  (1896- 
1916),  he  was  also  founder  of  the  banking  firm  of  Harper 
and  Co  ,  which  was  merged  into  the  District  National  Bank 
with  Mr.  Harper  as  president  In  recent  years  he  was 
treasurer  of  the  Democratic  Congressional  Campaign  Com- 
mittee 

Harrington,  Francis  Clark.  American  government  of- 


mil ice  *•*    MUU   ««viui ci     iiuiu    ioy/,    uicu    in    VsiicaiJiui   Jim,    ii 

Harrington,  Francis  Clark.  American  government  of-  May  14,  1940;  born  in  Philadelphia,  Aug.  24.  1864 
ficial.  died  in  New  London,  Conn  ,  Sept.  30,  1940;  born          Hernandei  Bnstos,  Benito.   Colombian  diplomat, 

in  Bristol,  Va.,  Sent.   10,  1887    He  was  graduated  from  in  an  airplane  accident  near  Bucaramanga,  Colombia, 


,   .,       , 

West  Point  in  1909,  being  No.  2  man  of  his  class,  and 
served  in  the  World  War  as  an  instructor  of  engineers. 
In  1935  Colonel  Harrington  received  a  leave  of  absence 
from  the  army  to  become  assistant  administrator  of  the 
Works  Progress  Administration  He  succeeded  Harry  L. 
Hopkins  as  WPA  administrator  in  December,  1938  It 
was  Colonel  Harrington's  boast  that  he  had  never  voted 
in  his  life  and  that  ne  was  completely  free  from  political 
affiliations 

Harrison,  (William)  Preston.  American  art  patron; 
died  in  Los  Angeles,  June  28,  1940;  born  in  Chicago,  111, 
Apr.  12,  1869.  Interested  in  real  estate  from  1889,  he 
was  editor  and  publisher  of  the  Chicago  Time*  (1891-95) 
and  thereafter  travelled  extensively.  In  1918  he  founded 
the  Mr.  &  Mrs.  William  Preston  Harrison  Gallery  of 
American  Art  in  Los  Angeles  and  in  1926  established  the 
Gallery  of  Modern  French  Art,  both  later  becoming  part 
of  the  Los  Angeles  Museum.  He  was  an  active  supporter 
of  the  Los  Angeles  Museum,  the  Huntington  Library  and 
Art  Gallery,  and  the  Art  Institute  of  Chicago. 

Hartwell,  John  Augustus.  American  surgeon;  died  in 
Oakdale,  L.I.,  Nov.  30.  1940;  born  in  Sussex,  N.J.,  Sept. 
27,  1869.  He  received  his  bachelor  of  philosophy  degree 
(1889)  and  his  medical  degree  (1892)  from  Yale  Univer- 
sity; practiced  in  New  York  City;  and  was  president  of 
the  New  York  Academy  of  Medicine  (1929-33)  and  direc- 
tor of  it  from  1934  to  1939.  In  1939  he  was  appointed 
associate  director  of  the  American  Society  for  the  Con- 
trol of  Cancer. 

Harry,  Blr  John  Mnsgrave.  Australian  clergyman  and 
jurist;  died  in  Australia,  June  13,  1940:  born  in  Hamn- 
stead,  London,  Eng..  Dec  22,  1865.  He  wu  ^et?w  chief 
justice  of  New  Soutn  Wales  (1933-34)  and  chancellor  of 
the  diocese  of  Sydney  (1934). 


Haynes,  Frederick  J.  American  industrialist;  died  in 
Detroit,  May  3.  1940;  born  in  Cooperstown,  N.Y.,  in  1871. 
A  worker  in  the  automobile  industry  from  its  beginning, 
he  joined  Dodge  Brothers  in  1912  and  in  1920  was  elected 
president  and  general  manager  of  the  company,  becoming 
chairman  of  the  board  of  directors  in  1925.  In  1929  he 
joined  Durant  Motors,  Inc.,  as  president,  and  in  1930 
returned  to  the  H.  H.  Franklin  Manufacturing  Company, 
for  which  he  had  worked  in  his  youth,  as  vice-president. 
He  retired  in  1931. 

Hays.  Harold  M.  American  ear  specialist;  died  in 
Scarsdale,  N  Y.,  Aug.  20,  1940;  born  in  Rochester.  N.Y., 
Sept.  26,  1880  He  was  a  brother  of  Arthur  Garfield  Hays, 
attorney.  A  graduate  of  Columbia  University's  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons,  he  was  founder,  president,  and 
director  of  the  New  York  League  for  the  Hard  of  Hear- 
ing. 

Head,  Sir  Henry.  British  neurologist;  died  near  Read- 
ing, Eng.,  Oct.  9,  1940,  born  on  Aug.  4,  1861.  Since  1900 
a  fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  he  made  no- 
table contributions  to  the  science  of  neurology.  His  pub- 
lished works  included:  Studies  in  Neurology,  2  vols.,  1919; 
and  Aphasia  and  Kindred  Disorders,  2  vols.,  1926. 

Healy,  Francis  Joseph.  American  Roman  Catholic  cler- 
gyman and  editor;  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.Y ,  Dec.  10,  1940; 
born  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  1883.  A  graduate  of  Holy  Crosa 
College  and  St.  John's  Seminary,  Brooklyn,  he  was  or- 
dained May  19.  1909.  Since  1921  he  served  as  editor-m- 
chief  of  the  Tablet,  official  publication  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Diocese  of  Brooklyn. 

Heldenstam,  Carl  O.  V.  yon.  Swedish  poet;  died  in 
Stockholm,  May  20,  1940;  born  in  Olshammar,  July  6, 
1859.  After  studying  art,  he  turned  to  a  literary  career, 
his  chief  works  being  V  alii  art  och  Vandnngsar  (1888). 
Hans  Alienus  (1892),  Karohnerna,  Dikter  (1895).  Folk- 
ungatradet  (1905),  Svcnskarna  och  deras  hofdingar  (1909), 
and  Nya  dikter  (1914;  1924)  which  won  him  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  the  greatest  Swedish  lyricist.  A  member  of 
the  Swedish  Academy,  he  received  the  Nobel  prize  for 
literature  in  1916  and  the  Henrik  Steffena  prize  in  1938. 

Heinke,  George  H.  American  Republican  Congressman, 
elected  to  the  76th  Congress  from  Nebraska  on  Nov.  8, 
1938;  died  in  Morrilton,  Ark.,  Jan,  2,  1940;  born  near 
Dunbar.  Neb ,  July  22,  1882. 

Homing,  Arthur.  Canadian  artist;  died  in  Hamilton, 
Ont.,  Can.,  Oct.  30.  1940;  born  in  Pans,  Ont ,  Jan.  17, 
1870.  He  was  noted  for  his  paintings  of  Canada's  north 
and  woodlands,  pictures  that  were  done  in  three  tones  only 
— black,  white,  and  yellow— because  Mr.  Heming  was  color 
blind  until  he  reached  the  age  of  60.  His  work  since  that 
time  was  also  widely  praised 

Henke,  Alfred.  German  aviator,  killed  while  on  a  test 
flight,  somewhere  in  Germany,  Apr  22,  1940  On  Aug. 
10-11,  1938,  he  piloted  the  Brandenburg  in  the  first  non- 
stop flight  from  Berlin  to  New  York,  also  breaking  non- 
stop distance  records  for  the  east-west  crossing  He  made 
the  eastward  crossing  from  New  York  to  Berlin,  Aug. 
13-14,  1938 

Haring,  Hermann  8.  American  Christian  Science  lead- 
er and  lecturer  from  1897;  died  in  Chestnut  Hill,  Mass , 

,  died 

in  an  airplane  accident  near  Bucaramanga,  Colombia,  Feb. 
27,  1940.  He  had  served  as  ambassador  to  France  and 
Great  Britain  and  had  served  in  several  Colombian  cabi- 
nets. 

Herti,  Emannel.  American  lawyer  and  authority  on 
Abraham  Lincoln;  died  in  New  York,  May  23,  1940;  born 
in  Butka,  Austria,  Sept.  2,  1870.  He  wrote  Abraham  Lin- 
coln—A New  Portrait  (1931)  and  The  Hidden  Lincoln 
(1938). 

Heyward,  DnBose.  American  writer;  died  in  Tryon, 


N.C.,  Tune  '16,  1940,  born  in  Charleston.  S  C.,  Aug.'  3 
1885.  His  first  publication  was  Carolina  Chansons  (1922), 
written  in  collaboration  with  Hervey  Allen.  This  was  fol- 


lowed by  Skylines  and  Horizons  (1924),  and  in  1925  his 
novel  Porgy  brought  him  to  the  attention  of  the  critics. 
With  his  wife  he  dramatized  the  novel  and  it  was  pro- 
duced in  New  York  in  1927  It  was  also  the  basis  of  the 
opera  Porgy  and  Bess  written  in  collaboration  with  George 
Gershwin  and  produced  in  1935.  Other  of  Mr.  Heywarcfs 
works  were  the  novels  Anqel  (1926);  Mamba's  Daughters 
(1929)  dramatized  and  produced  in  1938:  Peter  Ashley 
(1932);  Lost  Morning  (1936),  and  Star  Spangled  Virgin 
(1939);  also  a  short  story  Half  Pint  Flask  (1929)  and 
Jasbo  Brown  and  Selected  Poems  (1931).  He  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  foremost  chroniclers  of  American  Negro  life. 
Hlckey.  Thomas  F.  American  Roman  Catholic  arch- 
bishop; died  in  Rochester,  N  Y.,  Dec.  10,  1940:  born  in 
Rochester,  Feb.  4,  1861.  Educated  at  St.  Joseph's  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  Troy,  N.Y.,  he  was  ordained  a  priest 
on  Mar.  5,  1884;  served  as  a  curate  in  Geneva  and  Mora- 
via, N.Y..  and  as  rector  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  Roch- 
ester; bishop  coadjutor  of  Buffalo,  1905;  and  bishop  from 
1909  to  1928,  retiring  because  of  ill  health.  He  has  since 
held  the  inactive  post  of  Archbishop  of  Viminacium,  con- 
ferred on  him  by  Pope  Pius  XI. 


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518 


NECROLOGY 


••^*nt«r* 


died  in 


June  25,  1940;  born  in  St.  Louis,  Mo,,' Dec,  20,  1878^^ 
teacher  from  1907,  he  was  head  of  the  department  of  the 


social  science!  at  the  University  of  Chicago  High  School 
(1917-35),  at  the  College  of  Arts  and  Sciences  after  1935, 
and  assistant  professor  after  1924  at  the  University.  A 
prolific  writer,  his  works  include  textbooks  on  social  sci- 
ence, literature,  and  economics. 

Hill,  William  J.  (Billy).  American  song  writer  and 
author  of  The  Last  Round-up;  died  in  Boston  on  Dec.  24, 
1940;  born  there  on  July  14,  1899.  He  studied  violin  at 
the  Mew  England  Conservatory  of  Music  as  a  protege"  of 
Dr.  Karl  Much,  intending  to  become  a  member  of  the 
Boston  Symphony  Orchestra,  an  ambition  which  he  after- 
ward modified  somewhat  At  the  age  of  16  he  left  home 
and  roamed  the  country  in  knockabout  style,  working  at 
such  various  jobs  as  band  leader,  doorman,  dishwasher, 
timekeeper,  and  cowboy.  In  1936  he  told  a  Congressional 
committee  inquiring  into  the  operations  of  the  copyright 
law  that  he  had  been  living  penniless  in  Greenwich  Village, 
with  the  gas  shut  off.  the  rent  unpaid,  and  maternity  hos- 
pitals refusing  admission  to  his  wife,  when  The  Last 
Round-up  brought  him  fame  and  luxury.  Some  of  his  other 
musical  creations  were:  Empty  Saddles.  Wagon  Wheels; 
There's  a  Cabin  in  the  Pines;  The  Old  Spinning  Wheel; 
Have  You  Ever  Been  Lonely  f;  They  Cut  Down  the  Old 
Pine  Tree;  Sleepy  Head;  and  In  a  Chapel  in  the  Moon- 
light. Some  of  Hill's  songs  received  the  praise  of  Pietro 
Mascagni,  the  Italian  operatic  composer. 

Hilainger,  Alburtis  0.  American  industrial  designer; 
died  in  Lyons,  N.J..  July  14,  1940;  born  in  Marathon, 
N.Y.,  1847.  He  served  in  the  Civil  War  as  a  private  with 
the  185th  New  York  Infantry,  and  in  1874,  while  work- 
ing for  the  old  Crump  Press  Co ,  of  Montclair,  N  J  ,  he 
designed  the  first  successful  four-color  printing  press  used 
in  the  United  States 

Binidale,  William  Graham.  American  physician,  edu- 
cator, and  authority  on  Indian  and  Eskimo  culture;  died 
in  Syracuse,  N.Y  ,  July  15,  1940;  born  in  Princeton,  N.J.. 
1862.  He  excavated  numerous  sites  of  Indian  villages  and 
discovered  extensive  remains  of  an  ancient  New  York  State 
Eskimo  culture 

Hobson.  John  Atkinson.  British  economist,  died  in 
London,  Apr.  1,  1940;  born  in  Derby t  July  6,  1858.  A 
leader  of  the  welfare  school  of  economic  thought,  he  was 
a  prolific  writer.  His  works  included  Problems  of  Poverty 
(1891),  The  Problem  of  the  Unemployed  (1896),  7m- 
perialism  (1902,  revised,  1938).  The  Science  of  Wealth 
(1911),  Taxation  in  the  New  State  (1919),  Problems  of 
a  New  World  (1921),  Rationalisation  and  Unemployment 
(1930),  and  Confessions  of  an  Economic  Heretic  (1938). 

Hollander,  Jacob  H.  American  economist;  died  in  Bal- 
timore, July  9,  1940,  born  there,  July  23,  1871.  Associated 
with  Johns  Hopkins  University  from  1900,  he  served  as 
professor  of  political  economy  from  1925.  Active  in  gov- 
ernment affairs,  he  was  a  special  commissioner  to  revise 
the  laws  relating  to  taxation  in  Porto  Rico  (1900)  and 
introduced  the  present  revenue  system  (Hollander  law) 
of  the  island.  He  was  financial  adviser  to  the  Dominican 
Republic  (1908-10)  and  served  as  chairman  and  member 
of  the  board  of  referees  in  the  Cleveland  Garment  Indus- 
try (1921-32).  President  of  the  American  Economic  As- 
sociation (1921),  he  was  a  prolific  writer  on  economic 
subjects,  his  later  works  being  Economic  Liberalism  (1925) 
and  Want  and  Plenty  (1932) 

Holloway,  Mrs.  Ella  Virginia  Houck.  American  cru- 
sader; died  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Nov  30,  1940;  born  in 
1862.  She  organized  a  campaign  to  have  the  Star-Spangled 
Banner  officially  designated  as  the  national  anthem,  and  a 
bill  to  that  effect  was  passed  by  Congress  on  Mar.  3,  1931. 

Holm,  Guitar  Frederik.  Danish  explorer;  died  in  Co- 
penhagen, Mar  12,  1940:  born  there  in  1849.  A  member 
of  the  Royal  Greenland  Commission  after  1896  he  became 
distinguished  for  his  explorations,  especially  of  the  east 
coast  of  Greenland.  During  his  career  he  discovered  11 
hitherto  unknown  Eskimo  communities  and  five  great  ice 
fjords.  In  1925  he  published  De  tslandske  Kursforskrifter* 
Svalbarde. 

Holmes,  William  TrnmbvIL  American  educator;  died 
in  New  York  City.  N.Y.,  Jttlv  28.  1940;  born  in  New 
York  City,  1866  A  Congregational  minister  since  1897, 
he  served  from  1913  to  1933  as  president  of  Tougaloo  Col- 
lege, Miss,  an  institution  for  higher  education  among 
Negroes. 

Honeycutt,  Ftancis  Wtbfter.  American  general;  died 
in  an  airplane  accident  near  Woodbine.  Ga.,  Sept.  20, 
1940;  born  in  San  Francisco.  Calif.,  May  26,  1883.  A 
graduate  of  West  Point  (1904),  he  advanced  through  the 
grades,  becoming  brigadier  general  June  1,  1938.  He  was 
made  commandant  of  Fort  Bragg,  N.C.,  on  Sept.  13,  1940. 

Honeywell,  Harry.  American  Aeronaut;  died  in  San 
Antonio,  Tex.,  Feb.  10,  1940;  born  in  Cleveland,  Sept.  19, 
1871.  A  participant  in  nearly  600  balloon  flights,  both 
national  and  international,  he  woo  the  National  Balloon 
Races  of  1912,  1916,  and  1920. 

Booptr,  Franklin  Henry.  American  editor;  died  near 
Saranac  Lake,  N.Y.,  Aug.  14,  1940;  born  in  Worcester. 


Mass.,  Jan.  28,  1863.  After  graduating  from  Harvard 
University  (1883),  he  joined  the  staff  of  the  Century  Co., 
publishers,  and  was  afterward  editor  of  the  Encyclopaedia 
Bntannica  from  1899  to  1938,  becoming  editor-in-chief  in 
1932  and  editor  emeritus  in  1938.  He  was  editor  of  The 
World  Today  iron  1933  to  1938. 

Hopkins,  Louis  Bertram.  American  educator;  died  in 
Hanover,  N.H.,  Aug.  10,  1940:  born  in  Hopkinton.  N.H., 
Aug.  11.  1881.  Educated  at  Dartmouth  College,  he  was 
personnel  director  of  Northwestern  University  (1922-26) 
and  president  of  Wabath  College  since  that  time.  He  was 
a  brother  of  Dr.  Ernest  Martin  Hopkins,  president  of 
Dartmouth  College. 

Horliok,  William.  American  manufacturer,  chairman 
of  the  board  of  directors  and  treasurer  of  the  Horhck 
Malted  Milk  Co.;  died  in  Racine.  Wis.,  Apr.  1,  1940; 
born  in  Chicago,  Dec.  12,  1875.  He  helped  finance  Ad- 
miral Byrd's  polar  trips,  Amelia  Earhart's  flights,  and 
Amundsen's  Arctic  ventures. 

Horn*,  Viscount,  Bobert  Stevenson  Borne.  British  ex- 
cabinet  minister  and  financier;  died  in  Surrey,  Eng.,  Sept. 
3,  1940:  born  in  Slamannam,  Stirlingshire,  Scot.,  Feb.  28, 
1871.  He  was  Minister  of  Labor  (1919);  President  of  the 
Board  of  Trade  (1920-21);  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
(1921-22),  and  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons  for 
17  years.  A  leading  figure  in  the  business  world,  he  was 
chairman  of  the  Great  Western  Railway. 

Horner,  Henry.  American  governor;  died  in  Winnekta, 
suburb  of  Chicago,  111,  Oct.  6,  1940;  born  in  Chicago. 
Nov.  30,  1878.  He  was  the  son  of  Solomon  A  Levy  and 
Dilah  Horner  Levy  and  took  his  mother's  family  name 
when  his  parents  separated  by  mutual  agreement  in  1882. 
A  graduate  of  the  law  department  of  Lake  Forest  Uni- 
versity, he  began  legal  practice  with  Frank  Whitney, 
whose  father  had  been  a  friend  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  Horn- 
er's  consuming  interest  in  the  life  of  Abraham  Lincoln 
and  the  nucleus  of  his  Lincoln  library — consisting  eventu- 
ally of  some  6000  volumes — date  from  his  association  with 
Whitney.  A  Democrat,  he  was  elected  probate  judge  of 
Cook  County  in  1914;  was  re-elected  four  times;  and  had 
been  on  the  bench  18  years  when  he  resigned  to  become 
Governor  in  1932  He  polled  a  vote  of  1,930,330  votes  in 
1932,  outdistancing  President  Roosevelt,  who  headed  the 
ticket.  Governor  Homer's  plurality  was  considerably  less 
in  1936,  however,  due  in  part,  it  was  believed,  to  a  bitter 
primary  fight  between  himself  and  the  forces  of  the  Kelly- 
Nash  machine 

Houston,  David  Franklin.  American  ex-cabinet  officer 


(1887);  was  superintendent  of  schools  at  Spartanburg. 
S.C.  (1888);  president  of  the  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College  of  Texas  (1902-05).  president  of  the  University 
of  Texas  (1905-08);  chancellor  of  Washington  University, 
St.  Louis  (1908-13),  Secretary  of  Agriculture  (1913-20); 
and  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  (1920-21).  After  leaving 
public  life  he  was  associated  with  the  American  Telephone 
and  Telegraph  Co  ;  the  Bell  Telephone  Securities  Co.; 
and  was  president  of  the  Mutual  Lite  Insurance  Co  from 
1927  to  Jan.  1,  1940,  when  he  became  chairman  of  the 
board  of  trustees 

As  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Mr.  Houston  helped  to 
organize  the  Federal  Reserve  Bank  system,  and  was  one 
of  the  creators  of  the  Federal  Farm  Loan  Board.  During 
the  1912  campaign  he  had  been  Mr.  Wilson's  confidential 
adviser  on  tariff  and  currency  problems.  He  succeeded 
Carter  Glass  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  1920  and 
in  this  latter  capacity  he  developed  measures  for  handling 
the  floating  debt  and  for  retiring  the  Victory  Loan  and 
he  also  framed  a  program  for  tax  revision  that  included 
repeal  of  the  excess-profits  tax.  He  was  the  author  of 
Bight  Years  With  Wilson's  Cabinet,  a  two-volume  work 
published  in  1926. 

Howe,  Frederic  Olemson.  American  lawyer  and  econo- 
mist; died  in  Oak  Bluffs,  Mass..  Aug.  3,  1940;  born  in 
Meadvtlle.  Pa.,  Nov.  21.  1867.  After  graduating  from  Alle- 
gheny College  (1889),  he  attended  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity, where  he  first  met  Woodrow  Wilson,  then  a  professor. 
He  held  minor  political  and  educational  posts  in  Ohio;  was 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Immigration,  Port  of  New 
York  (1914-19);  a  representative  at  the  Paris  Peace  Con- 
ference (1919),  attending  as  a  special  expert  on  the  East- 
era  Mediterranean;  and  was  associated  with  various  liberal 
movements,  including  the  La  Follette  presidential  campaign 
of  1924.  In  July,  1933,  be  was  appointed  consumer's  coun- 
sel of  the  Agricultural  Adjustment  Administration;  and 
in  February,  1935,  he  was  appointed  a  special  assistant  to 
Henry  A.  Wallace,  Secretary  of  Agriculture.  In  1937  he 
took  an  extended  leave  to  act  as  economic  adviser  to  Presi- 
dent Quezon  of  the  Philippines.  He  was  founder  of  the 
People  s  Music  League  ana  the  Drama  League  of  America; 
and  was  the  author  of  many  books  on  economic  subjects, 
including  the  Confessions  of  a  Reformer. 


NECROLOGY 


519 


NECROLOGY 


,  where  fee  became 
of 


of  Penitentiaries;  alter  service 
a  brigadier  general,  he  wat  ap 
Penitentiaries.  He  retired  in  1932. 

Humphrey,  Bart  Jay.  American  jurist;  died  at  Jamaica 
Estates.  Queens,  L.I.,  Dec.  11,  1940;  born  in  Speedsville, 
N.Y.,  Apr.  23,  1866.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Bing- 
hamton,  N.Y.,  in  1890,  and  sometime  afterward  settled  m 
Jamaica,  L.L  A  Democrat,  he  was  elected  county  judjre  in 
1903  and  was  re-elected  four  times.  He  was  Supreme  Court 
Justice  from  1925  to  1936. 

Hunter-Weiton,  Sir  Aylmer.  British  soldier;  died  in 
West  Kilbnde,  England,  Mar.  18,  1940;  born  on  Sept.  23, 
1864.  In  the  army  from  1884,  he  commanded  the  29th  Di- 
vision at  Galhpoli  Peninsula  (1915)  and  the  8th  Army 
Corps  (1915-19).  He  served  as  a  Conservative  Member  of 
Parliament  from  1916  to  1935. 

Hutchison,  Bonald  Maedonald.  See  TATS,  HAMT. 

Button,  Maurice.  Canadian  educator;  died  in  Toronto, 
Apr.  5,  1940;  born  in  Manchester,  England,  in  1856.  Asso- 
ciated with  the  University  of  Toronto  from  1887,  he  was 
professor  of  Greek  and  principal  (1901-28)  of  University 
College  and  was  acting  president  of  the  University  in 
1906-7  and  in  1925.  He  retired  in  1928. 

Xbnka,  Kajinoraka.  Japanese  clergyman;  died  in  Japan, 
June  24,  1940;  born  there  in  1854.  Converted  to  Christian- 
ity in  1873,  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Church  of 
Christ  in  Japan,  the  major  Protestant  group  in  that  country. 

Inculetz,  Ion.  Rumanian  statesman;  died  on  Nov.  19, 
1940;  born  in  Rezeni  prov.,  Lapusna,  Bessarabia,  1885. 
He  was  president  of  the  autonomous  Bessarabian  Republic 
between  the  Russian  revolution  in  1917  and  the  unification 
of  Bessarabia  with  Rumania  in  1918. 

Ingersoll,  Baymond  ValL  American  lawyer,  died  in 
Brooklyn.  N.Y.,  Feb.  24,  1940;  born  in  Corning,  N.Y., 
Apr.  3,  1875  Interested  in  civic  affairs,  he  had  served  in 
many  capacities  and  in  1933  was  elected  president  of  the 
borough  of  Brooklyn,  N  Y.,  on  the  Fusion  ticket  and  was 
re-elected  m  1937 

lonescn,  Nae.  Rumanian  educator;  died  in  Bucharest, 
Mar.  15,  1940,  born  in  1890  He  was  professor  of  logic 
and  metaphysics  at  Bucharest  University,  director  of  the 
dailyt  Cuvantul  (The  Word)  and  former  leader  of  the 
Fascist  Iron  Guard 

Irias,  Julian.  Nicaraguan  statesman;  died  on  Nov  20, 
1940;  born  in  1873.  He  was  President  ad  interim  in  1936 
following  the  resignation  of  Dr.  Juan  B  Sacasa,  serving 
until  the  election  of  Anastasio  Somora.  He  was  in  public 
life  for  40  years. 

Irvine,  Benjamin  F.  American  editor,  editor  of  the 
Oregon  Daily  Journal  (1919-37)  and  thereafter  emeritus; 
died  in  Portland,  May  1,  1940;  born  near  Scio,  Ore,  in 
1863 

Jabotlnsky,  Vladimir.  British  Zion  Revision  leader, 
author,  and  soldier;  died  in  Hunter,  N.Y.,  Aug  3,  1940, 
born  in  Odessa,  Russia,  1880.  He  was  a  delegate  from 
Russia  to  the  Sixth  Zionist  Congress  at  Basle  in  1903;  was 
active  in  the  World  Zionist  Organization  until  he  split 
with  its  leader,  Dr.  Chaim  Weizmann;  and  was  leader  of 
the  New  Zionist  Organization  since  its  founding  in  1935. 
He  headed  a  Jewish  legion  of  15,000  soldiers  in  the  British 
army  in  the  World  War  and  fought  in  the  near  East 

Jacoby,  Oeorge  W.  American  neurologist;  died  in  New 
York  City,  N.Y  ,  Sept.  11,  1940;  born  in  St  Louis,  Mo., 
Sept  ,1856  He  was  president  of  the  American  Neurologi- 
cal Association  in  1915  and  of  the  New  York  Neurologi- 
cal Society  from  1888  to  1890 

Jenkins,  Thomas  Lincoln.  American  general  and  sur- 
geon- died  in  Crawford,  Me,  July  29,1940;  born  in  Chel- 
sea, Mass..  1867.  A  graduate  of  Harvard  Medical  School, 
he  served  m  the  Spanish-American  War  and  the  Mexican 
Border  Campaign  before  going  to  France  in  the  World 
War  as  senior  surgical  officer  in  the  A.E.F.  He  was  re- 
tired from  the  Medical  Corps  in  1930  with  the  rank  of 
brigadier  general 

Jimenez  Mena,  Nicolas.  See  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LIT- 
MATUBHS  under  Ecuador 

Joel,  Jaek  Barnato.  British  financier;  died  in  St  Al- 
bans.  Hertfordshire,  Eng.,  Nov  13,  1940:  born  on  Sept. 
29,  1862.  Chairman  of  the  Johannesburg  Consolidated  In- 
vestment Co.  and  head  of  several  gold  and  diamond  mines 
in  South  Africa,  he  was  a  famous  horse  breeder  and  cap- 
tured the  Epsom  Derby  in  1911  with  Sunstar. 

Johnson,  Arthur  Newhall.  American  civil  engineer; 
died  m  Baltimore,  Md.,  July  11,  1940;  born  in  Lynn, 
Mass.,  Nov.  11,  1870  A  graduate  of  Harvard  University 
and  a  recognized  authority  on  hard-surface  road  construc- 
tion, he  held  official  positions  at  different  times  m  the 
highway  departments  of  New  York,  Massachusetts,  Mary- 
land, Illinois,  and  with  the  U.S  Bureau  of  Public  Roads. 
He  was  dean  of  the  University  of  Maryland  College  of 
Engineering  from  1920  to  1936  and  dean  emeritus  since 
that  time. 

Washington',  Ja^S,  194$^™in™fic^?;p&ltAVtb 
22,  185§.  In  the  army  from  1879  he  retired  £  190'S  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier  general  and  served  as  a  District  of 
Columbia  commissioner  during  1903-06.  In  1917  he  volun- 


teered for  active  war  service  mad  commanded  the  Thirty- 
Fourth  Division  in  France. 

Jones,  Jerome.  American  labor  leader  and  editor;  died 
in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Sept  24,  1940;  bom  im  Nashville,  Tenn., 
1855.  He  was  at  one  time  president  of  the  Georgia  Federa- 
tion of  Labor  and  served  as  editor  of  the  Atlanta  Journal 
of  Labor  from  1902  until  his  death. 

Jones,  Norman  L.  American  Jurist;  died  in  Jackson- 
ville, 111.,  Nov.  15,  1940;  born  in  Patterson,  111.,  Sept.  19, 
1870.  A  lawyer  since  1896,  he  served  on  the  bench  in 
various  Illinois  courts  for  25  years;  was  Supreme  Court 
Justice  since  1931  and  Chief  Justice  since  June,  1940.  He 
was  unsuccessful  Democratic  candidate  for  governor  in 
1924. 

Joseph*,  Mary,  (nee  Hurley).  American  Roman  Cath- 
olic mother  superior  and  educator;  died  in  Scranton,  Pa., 
Dec.  4,  1940:  born  in  Susquehanna,  Pa.  She  was  president 
of  Marvwood  College,  Scranton,  Pa.,  and  mother  superior 
of  the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary  since  1931. 

Josephson,  Walter  S.  American  manufacturer,  founder 
of  the  dry  ice  industry  and  president  of  the  Dry  Ice  Corpo- 
ration of  America  from  1923  until  1928;  died  in  Holfis, 
L.I.,  N.Y.,  Mar.  7,  1940;  born  in  Roseburg,  Ore.,  in  1889. 

Joslyn,  Sarah  B.  (Mrs.  George  A.).  American  philan- 
thropist;  died  in  Omaha,  Neb.,  Feb.  28,  1940;  born  in 
Waitsfield,  Vt..  Apr.  14,  1851  (>).  In  1928  she  gave 
$4,600,000  to  establish  the  Joslyn  Memorial  in  Omaha,  a 
fine  arts  building  opened  in  1931. 

Joyce,  Ernest  E.  M.  British  Arctic  explorer;  died  in 
London,  May  2,  1940;  born  in  1875.  He  served  with 
Robert  F.  Scott  (1901-04),  with  Sir  Ernest  Shackleton 
(1907-09),  and  during  1914-17  laid  depots  for  the  pro- 
posed, but  unfulfilled  Shackleton  expedition  across  the 
Antarctic  Ocean  from  Weddell  Sea  to  Ross  Sea. 

Kander,  Mrs.  Simon  (ne>  Lizzie  Black) .  American  so- 
cial worker;  died  in  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  July  25,  1940.  born 
in  Milwaukee,  1852.  She  was  the  author  of  The  Settlement 
Cookbook,  first  published  in  1900.  designed  to  aid  poor 
mothers  provide  better  meals  for  their  families.  The  book 
was  reprinted  22  times  with  a  total  sales-revenue  of  $75,- 
000,  which  Mrs.  Kander  donated  to  the  Milwaukee  Jewish 
Center,  of  which  she  was  founder. 

Kantorowicz,  Herman.  German  lawyer  and  historian, 
died  m  Cambridge,  England,  Feb.  12,  1940;  born  in  Poz- 
nan,  Poland,  Nov.  18,  1877.  A  professor  at  Freiburg  Uni- 
versity during  1913-17  and  at  Kiel  University  during 
1929-33,  he  was  dismissed  in  1933  upon  the  accession  of 
the  Nazis  to  power.  Thereafter  he  taught  in  the  United 
States  and  in  England.  At  his  death  he  was  director  of  re- 
search in  law  at  Cambridge  University  and  lecturer  at  all 
Souls  College.  Oxford  His  most  important  work  was  Der 
Geist  der  englischen  Politik  (1929;  Eng.  ed.,  The  Spirit  of 
British  Policy,  1932;  Amer.  ed  ,  1933). 

Kara,  Frederick  James.  British  musical  educator,  con- 
ductor, organist,  and  composer;  died  in  Cranleigh,  Surrey, 
Eng..  December.  1940;  born  in  Leather  head,  Surrey,  Aug. 
29,  1862.  He  was  long  principal  of  the  London  College 
of  Music. 

Kearton,  Cherry.  British  naturalist,  author,  and  pho- 
tographer; died  in  London,  Eng.,  Sent.  27,  1940;  born  in 
Thwaite  Swaledale,  Yorkshire,  July  8,  1871.  He  made  the 
first  aerial  photograph  of  London,  in  1905,  from  a  dirigible. 
His  motion  pictures  of  African  wild  life  were  exhibited  in 
New  York  in  1913,  with  Ex-President  Theodore  Roosevelt 
(who  had  met  Kearton  in  Africa)  sharing  the  stage  with 
the  photographer. 

Keith,  l>ora  Wheeler  (Mrs.  Boudinot  Keith).  Ameri- 
can portrait  painter:  died  in  New  York  City  on  Dec.  27, 
1940;  born  in  Jamaica,  N.Y..  Mar  12.  1857.  She  studied 
at  the  Art  Students  League  in  New  York  and  the  Julian 
Academy  in  Paris.  Her  portrait  of  Samuel  L.  Clemens 
hangs  in  the  Mark  Twain  Memorial  Home  in  Hartford, 
Conn.,  and  her  work  is  also  represented  in  the  Brooklyn 
Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences  and  the  Boston  Public 
Library. 

Kellogg,  Frederick  William.  American  newspaper  pub- 
lisher; died  at  sea  en  route  from  Hawaii  to  Japan,  Sept. 
5,  1940;  bom  in  Norwalk,  O .  Dec.  7,  1866.  He  was  ad- 
vertising  manager  of  the  Detroit  News  (1887-94)  and  of 
the  ScrTpps-McRae  League  (1895-1899);  and  publisher  of 
the  Omaha  Daily  News  (1899).  In  association  with  L  V. 
Ashbaugh  and  B.  D.  Butler,  he  established  the  St.  Paul 
Daily  Newt  in  1900.  the  Minneapolis  Daily  News  in  1902 
and  the  San  Francisco  Call  in  1913.  He  sold  the  Call  in 
1919  to  become  part  owner  and  general  manager  of  the 
Los  Angeles  Evening  Express.  He  was  also  president  of 
Kellogg  Newspapers,  Inc.,  which  operated  15  West  Coast 
newspapers. 

Kelly,  Michael,  Roman  Catholic  Archbishop  of  Sydney, 
N.SW,  from  1911;  died  in  Sydney,  Mar.  8,  1940;  born 
in  Waterford,  Ireland,  Feb  13,  1850. 

John.  American  fire  chief;  died  in  Englewcod 
May  30,  1940;  born  in  County  Louth,  Ireland 
member  of  the  New  York  City  Fire  Department 
from  1887,  he  was  chief  of  the  department  from  1911  to 
1931,  when  he  retired  During  his  tenure  he  established 
the  Fire  College  and  became  its  first  president  and  made 


NECROLOGY 


520 


NECROLOGY 


many  improvements  in  the  Department.  He  attended  40,- 
000  fires.  He  published  Fires  and  Fir*  Fighttrt  (1913) 
and  Fourteen  Years  a  Sailor  (1923). 

Ktppler,  Frederick  L.  American  architect  and  industri- 
alist; died  in  White  Plains,  N.Y.,  July  30,  1940;  born  in 
Stuttgart,  Germany,  Sept.  14,  1862.  A  descendant  of 
Johannes  Kcppler,  noted  German  astronomer,  he  came  to 
the  United  States  as  a  boy;  practiced  architecture  in  Chi- 
cago for  several  years  and  m  1912  founded  the  Keppler 
Glass  Construction  Co.  in  New  York  City.  His  firm  was 
the  first  in  this  country  to  employ  glass  in  the  construction 
of  building  walls  and  floors. 

Kerr,  Duncan  J(ohn).  American  railway  executive; 
died  in  Spokane,  Wash.,  Oct.  8,  1940;  born  in  Glasgow, 
Scot,  Dec.  3,  1883.  A  graduate  of  Glasgow  University,  he 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1904  and  got  a  job  as  a 
rodman  with  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad.  He  stayed  in  the 
business  36  years,  held  technical  and  executive  positions 
with  several  companies  and  was  president  of  the  Lehigh 
Valley  Railroad  from  1937  to  1939,  retiring  because  of  ill 
health. 

Kenhentieff.  Platon.  Soviet  politician;  died  in  Moscow, 
June  3,  1940;  bom  in  1881.  A  member  of  the  Bolshevik 
party  from  1904,  he  was  ambassador  to  Sweden  (1921-23), 
and  to  Italy  (1925-26),  and  after  1928  an  official  of  the 
Central  Committee  of  the  Communist  Party.  After  1933 
he  was  president  of  the  All-Union  Broadcasting  Commit- 
tee, and  during  1936-38  was  chairman  of  the  All-Union 
Committee  for  Arts.  He  wrote  several  books  on  Lenin. 

Xilner.  Walter  Olenn.  American  general ;  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  Aug.  30,  1940;  born  in  Shelby,  N.Y.,  July 
8,  1888.  He  was  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1912  and 
was  a  lieutenant  in  the  army's  1st  Aero  Squadron,  at- 
tached to  Gen.  John  J.  Pershmg's  punitive  expedition  into 
Mexico  in  1916.  He  served  in  France  in  the  World  War 
as  an  army  flying  instructor.  He  was  assistant  chief  of 
the  Air  Corps  when  he  retired  on  Nov.  30,  1939.  President 
Roosevelt  appointed  him  the  following  day  to  succeed  Colo- 
nel Lindbergh  on  the  National  Advisory  Committee  for 
Aeronautics.  ___ 

Xlmball,  Wilbur  B.  American  inventor;  died  in  New 
York  City,  July  29,  1940;  born  in  Lynn,  Mass.,  1863.  He 
invented  and  built  an  eight-propeller  helicopter  that  as- 
tonished the  world  in  May  and  June,  1909,  by  rising  up 
in  the  air  like  a  mythological  chariot  and  bouncing  along 
the  earth  two  or  three  times  before  cracking  up  at  Morris 
Park  in  New  York  City.  In  the  course  of  his  life,  Mr 
Kimball  obtained  many  important  electrical  and  aeronauti- 
calpatents. 

Kirby,  Fred  Morgan.  American  merchant;  died  in  Glen 
Summit  near  Wilkes-Barre,  Pa.,  Oct.  16,  1940;  born  in 
Brownville,  N.Y.,  Oct.  30,  1861.  At  the  age  of  15  he 
clerked  alongside  of  Frank  W.  and  Charles  S.  Woolworth 
in  the  general  store  of  Moore  and  Smith  at  Watertown, 
N.Y.  In  1884  he  started  a  string  of  five-and-ten  cent  stores 
in  partnership  with  Charles  S.  Woolworth  He  bought  out 
his  partner  in  1887;  and  eventually  (in  1912)  merged  the 
company — consisting  of  96  stores — with  similar  chains  to 
form  the  F.  W.  Woolworth  Co.,  of  which  he  became  vice- 
president 

KUuber,  Boslna.  American  pianist,  died  on  May  11, 
1940;  born  in  Budapest,  Nov.  1,  1861.  A  pupil  of  Liszt, 
she  played  in  concert  from  1900  to  1910  when  she  became 
head  of  the  piano  department  of  the  Institute  of  Musical 
Art,  New  York,  later  taken  over  by  the  Juilhard  School 
of  Music.  She  retired  in  1930 

Kloeekner,  Peter.  German  industrialist;  died  in  Essen, 
Germany,  Oct.  5,  1940;  born  in  1864.  Founder  of  the 
Kloeekner  Iron  Trading  Co ,  he  was  virtually  stripped  of 
his  possessions — including  81,000,000  tons  of  ore,  ten  blast 
furnaces,  a  steel  plant,  and  two  rolling  mills  in  Lorraine — 
by  the  terms  of  the  Versailles  treaty.  After  the  World 
War,  he  formed  the  Kloeckner  Werke,  a  combination  of 
coal  and  steel  companies.  Little  had  been  heard  of  him, 
however,  since  the  Nazification  of  Germany 

Knopf,  Sigard  Adolphns.  American  physician;  died  in 
New  York  City,  N.Y.,  July  15,  1940;  born  in  fealle-on- 
the-Sallc.  Germany.  Nov.  27,  1857  He  was  graduated 
from  Betlevue  Medical  College  (1888)  and  settled  perma- 
nently in  New  York  City  in  1896.  He  was  professor  of 
phthisiotherapy  at  the  New  York  Post-Graduate  Medical 
School  and  Hospital  (1908-20) :  was  the  founder  of  the 
New  York  and  the  National  Tuberculosis  Associations; 
and  was  the  recipient  of  several  awards  for  his  work  in 
combating  tuberculosis. 

Kohler,  Walter  J.  American  manufacturer,  president 
of  Kohler  Co.,  from  1905  to  1937  and  thereafter  chairman 
of  the  board;  died  in  Kohler,  Wis.,  Apr.  21,  1940;  born 
in  Sbeboygan,  Wis.,  Mar.  3,  1875.  He  was  elected  gover- 
nor of  Wisconsin  on  the  Republican  ticket  for  the  term 
1929-30. 

Xoroiaetf,  Anton.  Yugoslavian  Roman  Catholic  clergy- 
man and  statesman;  died  in  Belgrade,  Yugoslavia,  Dec. 
14,  1940;  born  in  1872.  He  headed  the  Slovene  Catholic 
party;  was  at  one  time  Minister  to  the  Vatican:  held  sev- 
eral cabinet  posts:  and  was  Premier  of  Yugoslavia  from 
July  27  to  pec.  30,  1928. 


Kotae,  Sir  John  O.  South  African  jurist;  died  in  Leeu- 
wenhof.  Cape  Town.  Apr.  1.  1940;  born  there,  Nov.  5, 
1849.  He  was  chief  justice  of  the  South  African  Republic 


tired  in  1927. 

Kress,  Claude  Washington.  American  merchant;  died 
in  New  York  City,  N.Y.7Nov.  18,  1940;  born  in  Slating- 
ton,  Pa.,  Apr.  4,  1876.  With  his  brother,  Samuel  H.  Kress, 
he  was  co-founder  of  a  mercantile  business  in  1893  at 
Nanticoke,  Pa.,  which  developed  into  S.  H.  Kress  and  Co., 
operators  of  some  240  five-ten-and-twenty-five  cent  stores 
m  the  United  States  and  Hawaii.  He  was  vice-president  of 
the  company  (1916-25)  and  president  (1925-39).  He  was 
trustee  of  the  Harvard  Graduate  School  of  Business  Ad- 
ministration, to  which  he  donated  the  Kress  Library  of 
Business  and  Economics.  With  his  brothers,  Samuel  H. 
and  Rush  H.  Kress,  he  contributed  toward  the  erection  of 
Kress  Hall  on  the  grounds  of  the  Warm  Springs  Founda- 
tion at  Warm  Springs,  Ga. 

XnbeUk,  Jan.  Czech  violinist;  died  in  Prague,  Bohemia, 
Dec.  5,  1940;  born  in  Michle,  near  Prague,  July  5,  18RO 
He  began  the  study  of  music  at  the  age  of  six;  attended 
the  Prague  Conservatoire;  made  his  first  concert  tour  in 
1898;  played  in  the  United  States  many  times,  the  first  in 
1901,  the  last  in  1935.  He  was  said  to  have  made  and 
spent  $3,000,000.  Each  of  his  fingers  was  insured  for  $23,- 
500;  his  Stradivanus  violin  for  $125,000.  In  1921  he  was 
shipwrecked  traveling  from  Ostend,  Belgium,  to  London, 
ana  before  getting  into  a  lifeboat  he  put  a  life  preserver 
around  his  violin.  He  was  married  in  1903  to  Countess 
Marianne  Czaky  .daughter  of  the  ex-president  of  the  Hun- 
garian Senate.  Their  daughter,  Anita,  is  a  well-known 
violinist  and  their  son  Rafael  is  a  noted  composer  and 
orchestra  conductor 

Kyte,  George  William.  Canadian  legislator  and  gov- 
ernment official:  died  m  St.  Peters,  N.S.,  Can.,  Nov.  16, 
1940;  born  in  St  Peters,  July  10,  1864.  He  served  as  a 
Liberal  member  of  the  House  of  Commons  for  many  years, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  International  Joint  Commission 
since  1928. 

Ladenze,  Panlin  Belgian  ecclesiastic,  Titular  bishop 
of  Tiberius  from  1926  and  professor  of  Scripture  and 
Early  Christian  Literature  (1898-1940)  and  Rector  (1909- 
40)  of  Louvain  University;  died  in  Brussels,  Feb  10, 


Lagerlbf,  Selma.  Swedish  novelist,  died  in  M&rbacka, 
Mar.  16,  1940:  born  there,  Nov  20,  1858  Her  first  novel, 
Costa  Berlinq  s  Saga,  long  considered  one  of  her  best 
workSj  appeared  in  1891  Her  best  known  works  compose 
the  trilogy  The  Ring  of  the  D o wen sk olds — The  General's 
Rinff  (1925),  Charlotte  Lowenskold  (1925)  and  Anna  Svard 
(1928).  In  1909,  after  publishing  From  a  Swedish  Home- 
stead (1899),  Queens  of  Kungahalla  and  Other  Sketches 
(1899).  Jerusalem  (1901-03),  Legends  of  Christ  (1904), 
The  Girl  from  the  Marsh  Croft  (1908),  she  was  awarded 
the  Nobel  Pnze  for  literature  Her  later  works  included 
From  My  Childhood  (1930-32),  Harvest  (1933).  and  The 
Diary  of  Selma  Lagerlof  (1937).  She  visited  the  United 
States  in  1924  as  a  delegate  to  the  Women's  Congress  in 
Washington. 

Laldlaw,  Sir  Patrick  P.  British  scientist:  died  in  Lon- 
don, Mar.  20,  1940;  born  Sept  26,  1881  He  discovered 
the  virus-cause  of  distemper  m  dogs  and  identified  for  the 
first  time  the  virus-cause  of  influenza.  He  received  the 
Royal  Medal  in  1933,  was  knighted  in  1935,  and  made  di- 
rector of  the  department  of  experimental  pathology  and 
deputy  director  of  the  National  Institute  for  Medical  Re- 
search in  1936. 

Lainei,  Juan  J.  See  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITFRATURKS 
under  El  Salvador. 

Lake,  Sir  Percy  Henry  Noel.  British  general;  died  on 
Nov.  16,  1940:  born  in  Tenby,  Wales,  June  29,  185 S.  Join- 
ing  the  British  army  as  a  subaltern  at  the  age  of  18.  he 
rose  through  the  ranks;  was  Quartermaster-General  in 
Canada  (1893-98);  chief  of  the  Canadian  General  Staff 
(1905-08):  Inspector-General  (1908-10);  and  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  the  Mesopotamian  Expeditionary  Force  in  the 
World  War. 

Lainington,  2d  Baron,  Charles  Wallace  Alexander 
Kapler  Ooonrane  Balllle.  British  politician;  died  in  Eng- 
land, September,  1940;  born  on  July  29,  1860.  He  served 
as  Governor  of  Queensland,  Australia  (1895-1901);  and 
Governor  of  Bombay  (1903-07);  and  at  the  time  of  his 
death  was  President  of  the  East  India  Association.  He  was 
wounded  in  the  hand  on  Mar.  13,  1940,  at  Caxton  Hall, 
London,  when  an  Indian  assassin  killed  Sir  Michael 
O'Dwyer,  a  former  lieutenant-governor  in  India. 

Lamport,  Arthur  Mathew.  American  investment  bank- 
er, philanthropist,  and  economist;  died  in  New  York  City, 
N.Y.,  Nov.  8,  1940;  born  in  Franklin  Falls,  N.Y.,  Nov! 
21,  1883.  A  graduate  of  the  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York,  he  entered  the  banking  business;  was  president  of 
A,  M.  Lamport  and  Co.  (1923-36);  and  senior  partner 


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521 


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•face  that  time.  He  was  national  treasurer  of  the  United 
Palestine  Appeal. 

e,  John  WlUlam.  American  .clergyman:  died  in 


eluding  the  New  York  Avenue  M.  E.  Church,  Brooklyn, 
from  which  he  resigned  in  1925  to  become  book  editor  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  and  editor  in  chief  of  Re- 
ligion in  Life,  a  Methodist  quarterly.  He  was  the  author 
of  Citutenship  and  Moral  Reform,  published  in  1918. 

Lansbury,  George.  British  labor  leader,  died  in  Lon- 
don, May  7,  1940;  born  in  Suffolk.  Feb.  21,  1859.  A 
printer  by  trade,  and  later  in  the  lumber  business,  he  was 
elected  to  Parliament  as  a  Labor  candidate  from  the  East 
End  of  London  m  1910,  but  resigned  in  1912  to  work  for 
woman  suffrage.  He  was  re-elected  in  1922  and  served  as 
First  Commissioner  of  Works  in  the  cabinet  of  Ramsay 
MacDonald  during  1929-31  He  aided  in  founding  the 
national  Labor  paper,  The  Daily  Herald  in  1912  and  for 
many  years  was  its  editor.  He  wrote  What  I  taw  in  Rus- 
sia (1920),  My  Life;  My  Enaland  (1934):  Looking  Back- 
wards— and  Forwards  (1935),  and  My  Quest  for  Peace 
(1938)  as  well  as  many  pamphlets  on  social  questions. 

Latham,  Orval  B.  American  educator;  died  in  Iowa 
City,  la.,  July  9,  1940;  born  in  Boone,  la.,  Apr.  13,  1890. 
A  teacher  from  1911,  he  was  professor  of  education  (1924- 
26)  and  director  of  teacher  training  (1926-27)  at  Ohio 
University,  and  president  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers  Col- 
lege after  1928. 

Lavedan,  Henri  Leon  Emile.  French  author;  died  in 
France,  August,  1940;  born  in  Orleans,  April  9,  1859  His 
first  long  play  was  Une  Famille,  produced  at  the  Comedie 
Francaise  in  1891.  Five  of  his  later  plays  were  produced 
here  by  Otis  Skinner — Le  Duel,  Le  Bon  Temps,  Sire,  Le 
Gout  du  Vice,  and  Service  Lavedan  was  a  regular  con- 
tributor of  Parisian  periodical*. 

Lawford,  Ernest.  English  character  actor;  died  in  New 
York  City  on  Dec.  27,  1940;  bom  in  England,  1870  He 
made  his  first  London  appearance  at  St.  James's  Theater 
on  Feb  24.  1890,  as  Le  Beau  with  Lily  Langtry  in  As 
You  Like  It i  played  many  notable  roles  since  that  time; 
and  was  identified  almost  continuously  with  the  New  York 
stage  since  1903.  His  last  appearance  was  in  The  Brown 
Danube  in  the  spring  of  1939 

Lee,  John  Clarence.  American  Universalist  clergyman 
and  educator;  died  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Sept.  16,  1940: 
horn  in  Woodstock,  Vt ,  Get  15,  1856  He  was  graduated 
in  1876  from  St.  Lawrence  University,  of  which  his  father 
was  the  first  president;  became  professor  of  homiletics 
(1884)  and  later  president  of  Lombard  College,  Galesburg, 
111  He  was  president  of  St.  Lawrence  University  from 
1896  to  1900,  and  pastor  of  Philadelphia  Church  from 
1900  to  1920,  when  he  was  called  to  the  mother  church  of 
the  Universalists  in  Gloucester,  Mass. 

Leasing,  Bruno.  See  BLOCK,  RUDOLPH. 

Levene,  Phoebus  Aaron  (Theodore).  American  bio- 
chemist; died  m  New  York  City,  NY.,  Sept  6,  1940; 
born  in  Sagor,  Russia.  Feb  25,  1869  Educated  at  the 
Imperial  Military  Medical  Academy,  St  Petersburg  and 
at  Columbia  University,  he  was  chemist  at  the  Saranac 
Laboratory  for  the  Study  of  Tuberculosis  (1900-02); 
Herter  lecturer  in  pathological  chemistry  at  New  York 
University  (1905-06)  and  member  of  the  Rockefeller  In- 
stitute for  Medical  Research  from  1907^0  1939.  He  won 
wide  recognition  in  the  field  of  biochemistry  and  was  the 
recipient  of  the  William  Gibbs  Medal  (1931)  and  the  Wil- 
liam H  Nichols  Medal  (1938)  for  his  chemical  discoveries. 

Lever,  Asbury  F.  American  politician;  died  near  Colum- 
bia, S  C.,  Apr.  28,  1940;  born  in  Spring  Hill,  SC,  Jan. 
5,  1875  Elected  to  the  57th  Congress  from  South  Carolina 
in  1901.  he  was  re-elected  to  the  58th  to  66th  Congresses 
(1903-21),  resigning  on  Aug.  1,  1919  to  join  the  Federal 
Farm  Loan  Board.  He  was  co-author  of  the  Smith-Lever 
Farm  Act. 

Levin,  Abraham  Louis.  American  physician  and  inven- 
tor; died  in  Louisiana,  Sept.  15,  1940;  born  in  Poland, 
1881  A  professor  at  the  Louisiana  State  University  Medi- 
cal Center,  Dr.  Levin  was  noted  for  his  invention  of  the 
Levin  stomach  tube,  used  in  the  treatment  of  gastro-entero- 
logical  diseases. 

Lewis,  Albert  Bnell.  American  anthropologist;  died  in 
Chicago,  HI..  Oct.  10,  1940:  born  in  Clifton,  O ,  June  21, 
1867  Educated  at  the  University  of  Wooster,  Ohio,  be 
taught  anthropology  at  the  Universities  of  Chicn*o  and 
Nebraska  (18^4-1908);  was  assistant  curator  of  Melane- 
sian  ethnology  for  the  Field  Museum  (1908-37);  and  cura- 
tor since  1937.  He  was  head  of  the  Joseph  N.  Field  South 
Pacific  Expedition  of  1909-13. 

Lewis,  rCrancis)  Park.  American  oculist:  died  in 
Brookhaven,  L.I.,  Sept.  10,  1940;  bom  in  Hamilton,  Ont., 
Can.,  May  19,  1855.  Educated  in  London,  Berlin,  and 
Vienna,  he  practiced  medicine  in  Buffalo,  N.Y.,  from 
1876  until  his  death.  He  was  a  founder  and  vice-president 
of  the  National  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Blindness 
and  the  International  Association  for  Prevention  of  Blind- 
nets;  editor  of  The  American  Journal  of  Ophthalmology 


and  the  author  of  several  books  on  the  protection  of  eye- 
Lie,  Jonas.  American  painter,  died  in  New  York.  Jan. 
10,  1940;  born  in  Moss,  Tforway,  Apr.  29,  1880.  £nown 
for  his  sea-  and  landscapes,  his  work  is  found  in  museums 
throughout  the  United  States  and  he  was  awarded  many 
prizes,  including  the  Saltus  medal  (1936)  and  the  Orbig 
prize  (1937)  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design.  He 
served  as  president  of  the  latter  institution  during  1934-39. 

LiUard,  George  W.  American  educator;  died  in  Hart- 
ford,  Conn.,  Oct.  24,  1940;  born  m  Washington,  Va.,  1884. 
A  graduate  of  Georgetown  Law  School  and  a  former  in- 
vestigator  for  the  U  S.  Department  of  Justice,  he  founded 
the  Hartford  College  of  Law  in  1916.  During  the  World 
War  he  headed  a  staff  of  13  FBI  men  assigned  to  investi- 
gate anti-war  activities  in  Connecticut. 

Llndley,  Ernest  Hiram.  American  educator;  died  while 
en  route  from  Shanghai,  China,  to  San  Francisco,  Calif.. 
Au«.  21,  1940;  born  m  Paoli,  Ind.,  Oct.  2,  1869.  Educated 
at  Indiana  University,  he  was  a  teacher  (1893-1902)  and 
Professor  of  Philosophy  there  (1902-17);  president  of  the 
University  of  Idaho  (1917-20);  and  chancellor  of  Kansas 
University  from  1920  to  1939,  except  for  an  exciting  three 
weeks  beginning  Dec.  26,  1924,  when  he  was  removed  by 
Gov.  Jonathan  M.  Davis  and  reinstated  by  Gov.  Ben.  S. 
Paulen.  He  was  chancellor  emeritus  at  the  time  of  his 
death. 

Lipplncott,  J(oshua)  Bertram.  American  publisher, 
president  (1911-26),  and  chairman  of  the  board  after  1926 
of  J  B.  Lippincott  Co.;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  19, 
1940;  born  in  Huntmgton  Valley,  Pa.,  Aug  24,  1857. 

Ldsman,  Frederick  J.  American  investment  banker, 
president  (1895-1930),  and  chairman  of  the  board  of  di- 
rectors thereafter  of  F.  J.  Lisman  &  Co  ;  died  in  Manhas- 
set,  LI.,  NY.,  Feb  14,  1940;  bom  in  Budmgen,  Ger- 
many, July  21,  1865  He  was  an  expert  on  railroad  finance. 

Liyermore.  Jesse  Laurlstan.  American  stock  market  op- 
erator; died  by  suicide  in  New  York  City,  N  Y  ,  Nov.  28, 
1940;  born  m  West  Acton,  Mass.,  1877.  He  began  his 
financial  career  in  1894  as  a  board  boy.  at  $6  a  week,  for 
the  brokerage  house  of  Paine,  Weber  and  Co.,  in  Boston; 
took  to  speculating  on  his  own  account,  and  went  to  New 
York  with  $25,000  in  1902,  where  he  established  himself 
in  Wall  Street  He  made  and  lost  four  fortunes.  In  1934 
he  went  into  his  last  bankruptcy,  listing  $2,259,212  in  lia- 
bilities. He  was  married  three  times. 

Llewellyn,  Sir  David  Elchard.  Welsh  coal  operator  and 
sportsman;  died  in  Aberdare,  Glamorganshire,  Wales,  Dec. 
15,  1940;  born  in  Aberdare,  Mar  9,  1879.  He  was  chair- 
man of  the  Welsh  Associated  Collieries  from  1930  until  his 
death 

Lodge,  Sir  Oliver  (Joseph).  British  physicist,  inventor, 
and  spiritualist;  died  in  Amesbury,  Wiltshire,  Eng ,  Aug. 
22,  1940,  born  in  Penkhull,  Staffordshire,  June  12,  1851. 
He  attended  Newport  (Salop)  Grammar  School,  and  his 
father  intended  him  to  enter  the  family  pottery  business,  a 
vocation  for  which  the  son  showed  no  affection.  While  on  a 
visit  to  London,  he  heard  a  series  of  lectures  by  Tyndall, 
became  interested  in  elementary  chemistry,  matriculated  at 
Wedgwood  Institute  and  then  took  a  winter's  course  (1872) 
at  the  South  Kensington  Chemical  Laboratory.  By  working 
at  odd  jobs,  he  was  able  to  continue  his  studies  through  the 
University  of  London  and  the  University  College,  London. 
In  1875,  in  collaboration  with  his  teacher.  Prof  Carey 
Foster,  he  published  several  papers  on  the  flow  of  electric- 
ity Bm  plane  conductors,  which  attracted  wide  scientific 
notice  In  June,  1877,  he  published  a  paper  on  electrical 
measurements  and  subsequently  brought  out  a  research  on 
the  standard  of  electro-motive  force,  taking  for  this  pur- 
pose the  Daniell  cell.  Later  he  produced  a  mathematical 
theory  of  intermittent  currents  in  the  induction  balance. 
He  conducted  a  series  of  experiments  that  did  much  to 
confirm  Maxwell's  electromagnetic  theory  of  light  He  be- 
came professor  of  physics  and  mathematics  in  the  Univer- 
sity College.  Liverpool,  in  1881;  Romanes  lecturer  at  Ox- 
ford in  1903;  and  principal  of  Birmingham  University 
from  1900  to  1919. 

After  about  1910  Sir  Oliver  publicly  embraced  spiritual- 
ism, although  his  interest  in  the  subject  first  manifested 
itself  seriously  in  1889  He  wrote  and  lectured  at  great 
length  on  the  topic,  attended  seances,  and  claimed  to  have 
been  in  communication  with  the  dead.  After  his  son's  death 
in  the  World  War  he  wrote  Raymond ,  or  Life  and  Death, 
a  memoir  with  an  account  of  supernatural  communications 
believed  to  have  been  received  from  his  son.  When  Sir 
Oliver  was  80.  he  announced  that  he  would  communicate 
with  the  world  after  his  death  and  prepared  for  that  im- 
portant eventuality  by  placing  a  sealed  document  in  the 
custody  of  the  English  Society  of  Psychical  Research,  say- 
ing that  his  message  from  the  beyond  would  correspond 
with  what  he  had  recorded  in  the  document  Among  the 
better  known  published  works  of  Sir  Oliver  were: 

Lightning  Conductors  and  Lightning  Guards ;  Life  and 
Matter;  Modem  Views  of  Matter;  The  Substance  of  Faith- 
Man  and  the  Universe:  The  Ether  of  Space;  Atoms  and 
Rayt,  1924;  Why  I  Believe  in  Personal  Immortality,  1928; 
Phantom  Walls,  1928;  The  Reality  of  a  Spiritual  World, 


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mo;  Btyond  PAytfcj,  1930;  and  Pntt  Y**rt,  m  aato- 


'  German  soldier;  death  "in  the  air"  an- 
nounced  on  June  25.  1940;  born  in  1895.  He  terved  ae 
chief  of  raw  materials  and  foreign  exchange  for  the  exe- 
cution of  the  German  four-year  plan  from  1934-38  and  was 
instrumental  in  building  up  Germany's  air  forces.  He  was 
made  a  major  general  In  the  Air  Force  in  1938. 

liOefgrsn,  BUaL  Swedish  lawyer,  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs  (1926-28)  and  Swedish  representative  on  the 
League  of  Nations  (1922-30);  died  in  Stockholm,  Apr. 
8,  1940;  born  in  Pitea  in  1862. 

Lolsy,  Alfred.  French  orientalist  and  historian;  died  in 
Ceffond,  Haute-Marne,  France,  June,  1940;  born  in  Ara- 
brieres,  Marne,  Feb.  28.  1857.  He  was  a  leader  of  the 
modernist  movement  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  Edu- 
cated at  the  Seminary  of  Chalons-snr-Marne,  he  was  or- 
dained a  priest  and  taught  at  the  Catholic  Institute  from 
1881  to  1893.  His  unorthodox  views  led  to  his  excom- 
munication in  1908.  He  was  professor  of  religious  history 
at  the  College  of  France  from  1909  to  1932,  and  professor 
emeritus  since  that  time.  He  wrote  numerous  books  in- 
cluding Let  engines  du  Nouveau  Testament,  1936. 

Longman,  Sir  Hubert  H.  British  publisher,  a  partner  in 
the  firm  of  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  from  1880  to  1933; 
died  in  London,  Mar.  18,  1940;  born  Nov.  29,  1856. 

Loram,  Charles  T.  South  African  educator;  died  in 
Ithaca,  N.Y.,  July  8,  1940;  born  in  Pietermantzburg, 
South  Africa,  May  10,  1879.  Active  in  South  African  edu- 
cational fields  from  1896,  he  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1931  as  Sterling  professor  of  education  at  Yale  University 
and  after  1933  he  served  also  as  director  of  studies,  de- 
partment of  culture  contacts  and  race  relations  at  the 
Graduate  School.  He  wrote  Education  of  the  South  African 
Native  (1919). 

Loree,  Lsonor  FrtmeL  American  railroad  executive; 
died  in  Bowood,  N.J.,  Sept  6,  1940;  born  in  Fulton  City, 
111.,  Apr.  23,  1858.  He  was  graduated  from  Rutgers  Col- 
lege in  1877,  went  to  work  as  a  survey  engineer  for  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  and  rose  to  a  vice-presidency  of  the 
road's  Western  lines  in  1901.  In  Tune,  1901,  he  resigned 
from  the  Pennsylvania  system  to  become  president  of  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  where  he  remained  until 
Jan.  1,  1904.  He  then  became  president  of  the  Rock  Island 
Co.  of  New  Jersey  at  a  salary  of  $75,000  a  year,  but  re- 
signed within  nine  months  following  a  clash  with  control- 
ling financial  interests,  although  he  compelled  the  company 
to  pay  him  his  full  salary  for  five  years,  under  contract. 
In  1907  when  Edward  H.  Hamman  bought  the  Delaware 
and  Hudson  Railroad,  he  made  Loree  president,  a  position 
he  held  for  31  years  until  his  retirement  at  the  age  of  80 
on  Mar.  30,  1938.  He  was  president  of  the  New  York 
State  Chamber  of  Commerce  from  1928  to  1930. 

Lorlllard.  Pierre.  American  tobacco  capitalist;  died  in 
Tuxedo  Park,  N.Y  ,  Aug  6.  1940;  bom  in  New  York  City. 
N.Y  ,  Jan.  28,  1860.  He  did  not  attend  college,  but  entered 
the  P  Lorillard  Co.  as  a  young  man  and  eventually  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  president  of  the  company  and  as  treas- 
urer of  the  Continental  Tobacco  Co  ,  an  affiliate.  When  the 
American  Tobacco  Co.,  which  had  no  connection  with  the 
present  company  of  the  same  name,  was  formed  out  of  the 
Lorillard  properties,  he  became  treasurer.  He  remained  in 
that  capacity  until  the  company  was  dissolved  by  the  gov- 
ernment under  the  anti-trust  laws.  The  company  was  then 
reorganized  and  passed  out  of  the  ownership  of  the  Loril- 
lard family.  Mr.  Lorillard,  like  his  father,  was  a  sports 
enthusiast  and  worked  tirelessly  to  keep  Tuxedo  Park, 
N.Y.,  the  exclusive  society  colony  his  father  founded  it 
to  be. 

Lothian,  llth  Marquess  of,  Philip  Henry  Kerr.  Brit- 
ish statesman;  died  in  Washington,  DC.,  Dec  12,  1940; 
born  on  Apr  18.  1882.  Through  his  mother,  Lady  Anne 
Fitzalan  Howard,  daughter  of  the  fourteenth  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  he  was  a  member  of  one  of  England's  most  prom- 
inent Roman  Catholic  families;  was  educated  at  Oratory 
School,  Birmingham,  and  at  New  College,  Oxford.  He  was 
the  son  of  Maj.  Gen.  Lord  Ralph  Kerr,  third  son  of  the 
seventh  Lord  Lothian,  and  received  his  title  on  the  death  of 
his  cousin,  the  tenth  Marquess  of  Lothian  on  Mar  16, 
1930.  In  later  life,  Lord  Lothian  gave  up  the  religious 
faith  of  his  childhood  and  became  a  Christian  Scientist,  a 
subject  on  which  he  wrote  many  articles. 

From  1905  to  1908  young  Kerr  worked  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  Lord  Milncr,  governor  of  the  Transvaal;  later 
he  was  editor  of  The  State^  a  South  African  political  t 
paper,  and  c  "  """ 
that  spoke 

private  tecretary  t  —  „_  ----  „_  ,  __,  —  —  ---- 
was  the  World  War  Premier's  principal  adviser  on  foreign 
affairs;  was  director  of  United  Newspapers,  Ltd.,  (1921;; 
secretary  of  the  Rhodes  Trust  (1925-39),  a  post  that 
brought  him  to  the  United  States  14  times  and  into  44  of 
the  States  of  the  Union.  He  became  Parliamentary  Under- 
secretary of  the  India  Office  in  1931  and  chairman  of  the 
Indian  Franchise  Committee  two  years  later  His  service 
in  the  House  of  Lords  was  marked  by  a  tendency  to  be- 
lieve that  Adolf  Hitler  was  fundamentally  a  man  of  peace 


an*  good  win  who  waa  merely  trying  to  rectify  the 
of  the  Versailles  Treaty. 

He  became  Ambassador  to  the  United  States  on  Aug. 
30,  1939,  succeeding  Sir  Ronald  Lindsay.  Four  day*  later 
his  country  was  at  war,  and  his  post  thereafter  was  one  of 
the  most  difficult  diplomatic  assignments  m  the  world,  re- 
quiring sharp  thinking  and  acting  and  tact  of  the  smoothest 
quality.  The  evening  before  he  died  an  associate  of  his  at 
the  embassy  read  to  a  Baltimore  audience  a  dramatic  ap- 
peal for  greater  material  aid  to  Great  Britain,  written  by 
Lord  Lothian  some  days  before.  American  response  to  the 
plea  was  instantaneous  and  the  tempo  of  American  aid  was 
in  consequence  accelerated. 

Louis-Dreyfus,  Louis.  French  Senator  and  financier, 
died  in  Cannes.  France,  Nov.  10,  1940.  He  headed  the 
Dreyfus  family  bank  in  Paris,  one  of  the  wealthiest  private 
banks  in  the  world 

Lowman,  Seymour.  American  lawver  and  banker;  died 
in  Elmira,  N.Y.,  Mar  13,  1940:  born  near  Chemung, 
N.Y.,  Oct.  7,  1868.  Active  in  Republican  politics  he  served 
in  the  New  York  State  Legislature  and  during  1925-26 
he  was  lieutenant  governor.  From  Aug.  1,  1927  to  Mar.  15, 
1933,  he  was  assistant  secretary  of  the  U.S  Treasury  in 
charge  of  prohibition  enforcement,  customs,  and  Coast 
Guard. 

Lulsl,  Lniaa.  See  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES 
under  Uruguay. 

Luland,  John  0.  American  inventor;  died  in  Newark, 
N.J.,  on  Dec  23,  1940;  born  m  London,  Eng.,  1853  From 
1872  to  1939  he  was  employed  in  a  steel  plant  at  Harrison, 
N  J.j  originally  owned  by  Benjamin  Atha  but  now  a  part 
of  tne  Crucible  Steel  Co  of  America.  An  inventor  of 
processes  in  the  heat  treatment  of  steel,  he  developed  a 
shell  that  was  capable  of  penetrating  "Krupp"  armor  plate 

Lundeen,  Ernest.  American  senator;  died  in  an  airplane 
accident  near  Lovettsville,  Va.,  Aug  31,  1940;  born  in 
Bcresford,  S.D.,  Aug.  4,  1878.  A  graduate  of  Carlton  Col- 
lege and  the  University  of  Minnesota,  he  practiced  law  in 
Minneapolis,  joined  the  La  Follete  wing  of  the  Republican 
party,  and  was  a  member  of  the  U  S  House  of  Representa- 
tives from  1917  to  1919.  He  distinguished  himself  in 
Washington  by  opposing  America's  entry  into  the  World 
War,  by  voting  against  the  1917  conscription  act,  and  by 
fighting  against  American  entry  into  the  League  of  Na- 
tions As  a  Congressman,  he  went  to  France  in  an  official 
capacity  dunng  the  World  War,  but  was  refused  permis- 
sion to  tour  the  front.  In  1919  he  was  run  out  of  Orton- 
ville,  Minn.,  in  a  locked  refrigerator  car  after  he  had  at- 
tempted to  make  a  speech.  He  reappeared  in  Congress  as 
a  Farmer-Laborite  (1933-37)  and  in  1936  was  elected  to 
the  U.S.  Senate.  He  was  an  isolationist  all  his  life  and 
opposed  the  selective  service  act  of  1940 

Lyon,  Oeorg«  F.  American  jurist;  died  in  Binghamton, 
N.Y.,  May  21,  1940;  born  in  Barker,  N.Y.,  July  13,  1849. 
He  served  on  the  New  York  Supreme  Court  bench  from 
Tan.  1,  1896,  until  his  retirement  upon  reaching  the  age 
limit  in  1920.  Thereafter  he  was  an  official  referee  of  the 
Third  Judicial  Department 

MeOarl,  John  Raymond.  American  ex-comptroller  gen- 
eral; died  in  Washington,  D  C,  Aug.  2,  1940;  born  near 
Des  Moines,  la.,  Nov.  27,  1879  A  graduate  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Nebraska  (1903),  he  practiced  law  for  some 
years;  was  private  secretary  to  Sen  George  W.  Norris 
(1914-18)  and  executive  secretary  of  the  National  Repub- 
lican Congressional  Campaign  Committee  (1918-21)  He 
served  as  Comptroller  General  by  appointment  of  President 
Harding  from  1921,  when  the  office  was  created  by  Con- 
gress, until  his  term  expired  in  1936.  Popularly  known  as 
the  "watchdog  of  the  Treasury,"  he  effected  hupe  savings 
in  governmental  expenditures,  and  applied  his  blue-pencil 
to  biff  and  small  items  alike,  with  an  impartiality  that 
brought  him  many  enemies  and  many  friends.  On  one  oc- 
casion he  refused  to  let  the  government  pay  $1.50  for  a 
lunch  bought  by  a  Federal  employee  because,  he  said: 
"There  is  nowhere  in  Virginia  wnere  one  can  buy  a  lunch 
worth  $1.50  " 

McOlellan,  George  Brinton.  American  educator;  died  in 
Washington,  D.C.,  Nov.  30,  1940;  born  in  Dresden,  Ger- 
many, Nov.  23,  1865,  the  son  of  Gen.  George  B.  McClellan 
of  Civil  War  fame.  He  was  graduated  from  Princeton 
University  in  1886,  worked  as  a  reporter  on  several  New 
York  newspapers,  in  which  capacity  he  became  a  friend  of 
Richard  Croker,  leader  of  Tammany  Hall;  was  treasurer 
of  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  when  it  was  operated  under  a  toll 
system  (1889-92) ;  president  of  the  Board  of  Aldermen  of 
New  York  City  (1893-94):  Democratic  member  of  the 
U.S.  House  of  Representatives  (1895-1903);  Democratic 
Mayor  of  New  York  (1903-09);  lecturer  at  Princeton 
(1908-12)  and  professor  of  economic  history  there  from 
1912  to  1931. 

McClellan's  relations  with  Tammany  Hall  were  cordial 
until  be  began  to  clean  the  municipal  government  of  graft 
and  the  city  itself  of  gambling  Under  his  administration 
the  Catskill  water  supply  was  made  available  to  the  city, 
at  a  cost  of  $120,000.000;  the  Williamsburgh,  Manhattan, 


Bridge  to  link 


'v.v\/v,    wit    TT  uiiaiuaijui  gu,    jMAiituftiuiu, 

bridges  were  added  to  the  Brooklyn 
with  Long  Island;  two  subway 


NECROLOGY 


523 


NECROLOGY 


tunnels  to  Brooklyn  and  three  to  New  Jeney  were  bttflt 
by  private  companies;  and  municipal  ferries  were  put  in 

°PlSlSo'nald.  Edward  Mortimer.  Canadian  lawyer;  died 
in  Pictou,  N.S.,  May  25.  1940;  born  there,  Aug.  16,  1865. 
A  Liberal  Member  of  Parliament  from  Pictou  Co..  Nova 
Scotia  from  1904  to  1925.  be  became  minister  of  National 
Defense  of  Canada  (1923-26)  and  minister  without  port- 
folio in  1923.  In  1924  he  represented  Canada  at  the 
League  of  Nations.  He  retired  in  1926  and  in  1938  pub- 
lished Reminiscences  Political  and  Personal. 

McGarrah.  Gates  W.  American  banker;  died  in  New 
York  City,  N.Y.,  Nov.  5,  1940;  born  in  Monroe,  N  Y., 
1863.  After  finishing  high  school  he  got  his  first  job  sweep- 
ing the  sidewalk  in  front  of  the  Goshen  (N.Y.)  National 
Bank  (1881);  held  minor  positions  with  the  New  York 
Produce  Exchange  Bank  (1883-98);  became  cashier  of  the 
Manufacturers  National  Bank  (1898)  and  president  (1902) 
and  remained  at  the  head  of  the  company  after  it  was 
merged  into  the  Mechanics  National  Bank.  When  the 
Chase  National  Bank  absorbed  the  Mechanics  in  1926  he 
was  made  chairman  of  the  executive  committee.  From  1923 
to  1926  he  was  a  director  of  the  New  York  Federal  Re- 
serve Bank,  and  in  1927  became  chairman  of  the  Federal 
Reserve  Board  in  New  York  City.  In  1930  he  was  ap- 
pointed president  and  chairman  of  the  board  of  the  Bank 
tor  International  Settlements  at  Basle,  Switzerland,  a  posi- 
tion he  held  for  three  years,  in  a  period  marked  by  frequent 
international  financial  crises. 

McOulre,  William  Anthony.  American  writer;  died  in 
Calif.,  Sept.  16,  1940:  born  in  Chicago.  111.,  July  9,  1887. 
He  was  the  author  of  many  successful  plays  produced  in 
New  York  City,  including:  The  Walls  of  Wall  Street 
(1908);  The  Heights  (with  Frank  Keenan)  in  1910;  The 
Divorce  Question  (1912) ;  Everyman's  Castle  and  The  Man 
Without  a  Country  (1916);  A  Good  Bad  Woman,  In  and 
Out  of  Bed,  and  Mary  Be  Careful  (1919);  Fnvoloties  of 
1920,  Six  Cylinder  Love  (1921).  During  the  next  few 
years  he  was  associated  with  Ziegfeld  in  writing  and  pro- 
ducing the  Follies;  but  he  also  composed  It's  a  Boy;  Tin 
Gods;  Twelve  Miles  Out;  If  I  Were  Rich;  Trial  Divorce; 
and  (with  Guy  Bolton)  Rosalie,  1927  Since  1930  he  was 
engaged  in  scenario  writing  for  the  motion  pictures  and  in 
this  connection  penned  some  of  the  greatest  screen  hits  of 
recent  years,  including  The  Great  Ziegfeld. 

Ms/cLachlan,  Alexander.  Canadian  educator;  died  in 
Kingston,  Ont.  Can.,  Sept.  8,  1940;  born  in  Erin,  Peel 
Co.,  Ont.,  1859.  A  graduate  of  Union  Theological  Semi- 
nary, New  York,  he  went  to  Smyrna,  Turkey,  in  1897  for 
the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions and  there  founded  a  school  which  in  1903  was  char- 
tered as  the  International  College  He  was  a  technical  mili- 
tary prisoner  during  the  World  War,  was  wounded  by 
brigands  in  1922,  and  was  said  to  have  installed  the  first 
electric  lighting  plant  in  Turkey. 

McBae,  James  H.  American  soldier;  died  in  Berkeley, 
Calif.,  May  1,  1940;  born  in  Lumber  City,  Ga.,  Dec.  24, 
1863.  In  the  army  from  1886  he  was  promoted  through  the 
ranks  to  major  general  in  the  regular  army  in  1922  and 
served  in  the  Indian  campaigns,  the  Spanish-American 
War,  the  Philippine  Insurrection,  and  in  the  i  World  War, 
during  which  ne  commanded  the  78th  Division  and  took 
part  in  the  St  Mihiel  and  the  Meuse-Argonne  offensives. 
He  retired  in  1927. 

Maher,  Peter.  Irish  pugilist;  died  in  Baltimore,  Md., 
July  22,  1940;  born  in  Galway,  Ireland,  Mar  16,  1869. 
Beginning  as  a  prize-fighter  about  1882,  he  won  the  welter, 
middle,  and  heavy  weight  championship  of  England  and 
Ireland:  boxed  an  exhibition  bout  with  John  L  Sullivan 
in  Dublin;  came  to  the  United  States  in  1891  and  was 
knocked  unconscious  by  such  dilettantes  as  Bob  Fitzsira- 
mons,  Joe  Choynski,  Tom  Sharkey,  and  Al  (The  Real) 
McCoy. 

Mamlok,  Hans  J.  German  dental  leader;  died  in  New 
York  City,  N.Y..  Nov.  11,  1940;  born  in  Silesia,  Germany, 
1875.  Formerly  head  of  the  dental  school  of  the  University 
of  Berlin  and  for  20  years  editor  of  one  of  Germany's 
leading  dental  publications,  his  researches  resulted  in  many 
improvements  in  technique,  notably  the  so-called  "Mamlok 
fixation"  for  tightening  loose  teeth.  Following  the  produc- 
tion in  Switzerland  in  1937  of  Friedrich  Wolf's  play, 
Professor  Mamlock,  depicting  the  persecution  of  a  Jewish 
surgeon  in  Germany,  Dr.  Mamlok  fell  from  Nan  grace, 
although  he  disclaimed  any  responsibility,  directly  or  in- 
directly, for  the  drama.  He  arrived  in  the  United  States 
on  Apr.  16,  1937,  when  Wolf's  play  was  being  produced  in 

Mansell-MotiW    Charles   William,   British   surgeon; 
died  in.  London,  Engv  Nov.   10,   1940;  born  in  October, 
i  Huntenan  Professor  and  Vice-President  of 


)  of  Surgeons  of  EnrianoTan"^  Examiner 
\  Universities  of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and 


1851.  He  was 
the  Royal  Coll 

Glasgow.  An  acknowledged  ., 

many  treatises  and  books,  including  The  Biology  of  Tu> 

died  on 
party 


,* 
May  4,  1940.  The  leader  of  the 


he  was  active  in  that  organization  from  1920  and  in  1924 
became  the  first  president  of  the  All  Peasants'  Union.  He 
commanded  a  Red  army  in  the  uprising  at  Nanchang  on 
Aug.  1,  1927,  and  thereafter  fought  with  the  Kuomintang. 
However,  he  joined  the  Kuomintang  in  1937  to  fight  the 
Japanese  invasion  and  was  political  head  of  the  border  re- 
gional government  at  Yenan,  Shensi. 

March,  Harry  A.  American  physician;  died  in  Canton, 
O.,  June  10,  1$40:  born  in  New  Franklin,  O.,  in  1876 
The  "father  of  professional  football,"  in  1924  he  organized 
the  New  York  Football  Giants  and  served  as  the  club's 
president  during  1928-33.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the 
American  Professional  Football  League  (1935-36). 

Marcnesi,  Blanche  (Blanche  Baxonne  Anton  Oae- 
camisij.  French  opera  and  concert  singer;  died  in  London, 
Eng.,  Dec.  15,  1940:  born  in  Paris,  France,  Apr.  4,  1863. 
The  daughter  of  Safvatore  Castrone  Marchesi  of  Palermo 
and  the  former  Matilde  Graumann,  both  noted  singers,  she 
made  her  operatic  debut  as  Bruennhilde  in  Die  Wolk**r* 
at  the  Prague  Opera  House  in  1900.  She  toured  the  United 
States  in  1899  and  1909,  and  was  a  special  favorite  of 
Queen  Victoria,  by  whom  she  was  twice  decorated.  In  1927 
she  gave  a  hint  to  the  British  royal  family  that  "if  they 
took  more  interest  in  music,  things  in  the  musical  world  in 
England  would  be  better/;  adding:  "Society  people  are 
like  monkeys,  and  if  the  King  showed  a  greater  desire  for 
music  everyone  would  follow  suit."  Her  reminiscences,  A 
Singer's  Pilgrimage,  was  published  in  1923. 

Maria,  Princess.  Greek  noblewoman,  sister  of  the  late 
Km^  Constantme,  aunt  of  King  George  II  and  aunt  of 
Marina,  Duchess  of  Kent,  died  on  Dec  13,  1940;  born  in 
Athens,  Greece,  Feb.  20,  1876.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Pnnce  William  of  Denmark  who  as  George  I  was  King  of 
Greece  from  1863  until  his  assassination  in  1913  Her  first 
husband,  Georges  Michailovitch,  Grand  Duke  of  Imperial 
Russia,  whom  she  married  in  1900,  was  killed  by  Bolshe- 
vists in  1919.  Her  brother,  King  Constantme,  ruled  Greece 
from  1913  to  1917  and  from  1920  to  1922.  In  1922,  Prin- 
cess Maria  married  a  retired  Greek  admiral,  Perciles 
Joannides.  Princess  Xenia,  a  daughter  of  Princess  Maria 
by  her  first  marriage,  was  married  in  1921  to  William  B. 
Leeds,  Jr.,  of  New  York.  They  were  divorced  in  1930 

Marknam,  Edwin.  American  poet;  died  in  Wcsterleigh, 
S.I.,  N.Y.,  Mar.  7,  1940;  born  inOregon  City,  Ore.,  Apr 
23,  1852.  His  parents  settled  in  California  in  1857  and 
his  young  manhood  was  spent  in  farming.  He  attended 
San  Jose  Normal  School  and  became  a  school  teacher.  In 
1899  his  poem,  The  Man  with  the  Hoe.  won  world-wide 
attention  and  he  devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  litera- 
ture. His  other  works  include  Lincoln,  and  Other  Poems 
(1901),  The  Children  in  Bondage  (1909).  The  Shoes  of 
Happiness  and  Other  Poems  (1915),  California  the  Won- 
derful (1915),  Gates  of  Paradise  (1920),  The  Ballad  of 
the  Gallows  Aird  (1926),  New  Poemt—kighty  Songs  at 
Eighty  (1932),  The  Star  of  Araby  (1937).  In  addition  he 
edited  Foundation  Stones  of  Success  (4th  ed.,  1925).  The 
Book  of  Poetry  (2  vol.,  1927),  covering  1000  years  of  Eu- 
ropean and  American  poetry;  California  in  Song  and  Story 
(1930),  and  Poetry  of  Youth  (1935J,  an  anthology.  He 
was  awarded  the  priee  of  the  Poetry  Review  of  London  for 
the  best  poem  on  Edgar  Allen  Poe  in  1928  for  his  poem 
Israfel,  and  in  1929  he  was  co-winner  with  nine  others 
of  a  prize  for  a  new  competition  for  a  national  anthem, 
his  contribution  being.  New  America.  In  1938  he  had  re- 
cordings made  of  his  interpretations  of  his  principal  poems 
entitled  Edwin  Mark  ham.  Himself. 

Maxler,  Sir  Herbert.  Canadian  diplomat,  died  in  Mont- 
real, Jan.  31,  1940;  born  there.  Mar.  7,  1876  Privy  Coun- 
cillor and  a  member  of  the  Cabinet  in  1925,  in  1929  he 
was  named  envoy  extraordinary  and  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary in  respect  to  the  Dominion  of  Canada  in  Japan.  He 
was  appointed  minister  to  the  United  States  in  1936  but 
resigned  in  1939  because  of  ill  health. 

Martel,  Damien  de.  French  diplomatist:  died  in  Paris 
Jan.  21,  1940;  born  in  1878.  In  the  diplomatic  service 
from  1901,  he  was  ambassador  to  Tokyo  during  1929-33 
and  High  Commissioner  for  Lebanon  and  Syria  during 
1933—38. 

Martin,  Edgar  Stanley.  American  editor,  educator,  and 
Boy  Scout  official;  died  in  East  Orange,  N.J.,  Aug.  9, 
1940;  born  in  Gorham,  N  Y.,  Mar.  8,  1873.  A  school  teach- 
er  by  profession,  he  joined  the  Boy  Scout  movement  in 
1910;  was  a  paid  organizer  for  many  years;  editor  of  the 
official  magazine  Scouting  since  1927;  and  national  director 
of  publications  since  1931. 

Marvin,  Harry  N.  American  inventor;  died  near  Sara- 
sota.  Flav  Jan.  12,  1940;  bom  in  Jordan,  N.Y.,  in  1863. 
An  associate  of  Thomas  Edison,  he  was  a  founder  of  the 
Biograph  Co.,  and  the  Motion  Picture  Patents  Co  ,  retiring 
in  1912.  His  inventions  dealt  with  motion  pictures  and 
radio,  the  latest  one  being  an  automatic  radio-tuning  sys- 
tem. 

Masferrer,  Alberto.  See  SFANISB-AMERICAN  LITERA- 
TURES under  El  Salvador 

Mason,  William  Harris.  American  legal  editor;  died  on 
Sept.  11,  1940;  born  in  Kansas  City.  Mo.,  1872.  As  presl- 
*  '  "  Publishing  Co.,  St  Paul, 


tj^pb.  A  A,  Ay«tu;  corn  iu 

dent  since  1925  of  the 


NECROLOGY 


524 


NECROLOGY 


Minn*,  he  edited  numerous  law  bodes  including  Mason  on 
Negligence,  a  recognized  authority  on  the  subject. 

Matthews,  Harold  H.  Canadian  soldier:  died  in  Ottawa, 
May  12.  1940;  born  in  Lower  Harford,  England,  in  1877. 
In  the  Canad^  army  from  1910  he  saw  service  during  the 
World  War.  and  m  1938  was  appointed  adjutant  general 
Defense  Forces  with  the  rank  of  major 


gyman 
born  in 


of  the 
general* 

Mayo.  Katharine.  American  author  and  reformer;  died 
in  Bedford  Hills,  N.Y.,  Oct.  9,  1940;  born  in  Ridgeway, 
Pa,.  1867.  She  was  educated  in  private  schools  in  Cam- 
bridge and  Boston,  Mass.,  and  then  lived  in  Dutch  Guiana 
for  eight  years  with  her  father,  a  mining  engineer.  In  1910 
she  assisted  Oswald  Garrison  Villard  in  the  preparation 
of  his  book  John  Brown  and  she  also  helped  Horace  White 
of  the  New  York  Evening  Post  on  his  Lift  of  Lyman 
Tmmbnlt.  In  1927  she  published  Mother  India,  a  book 
dealing  with  social  and  economic  conditions  in  that  country, 
in  which  she  reported  that  girls  were  sold  in  marriage  at 
the  age  of  3,  became  wives  at  12.  and  mothers  at  13  or 
sooner.  Sales  of  the  book  reached  fantastic  proportions; 
and  the  allegations  were  followed  by  reforms  in  India,  al- 
though the  author  was  burned  in  effigy  in  various  parts 
of  that  country. 

MtcheHn,  iJdouard.  French  inventor  and  tire  manufac- 
turer; died  in  Orcmes,  France.  Aug.  25.  1940;  born  in 
1856.  With  his  brother.  Andre/he  established  the  Michelin 
Tire  Co.  in  1888,  which  was  the  first  company  to  apply 
pneumatic  tires  to  motor-driven  vehicles.  In  1931  their  only 
American  factory,  at  New  Brunswick,  N.J.,  closed  after 
operating  23  years. 

Millar,  Alexander  Oopeland.  American  Methodist  cler- 
n and  editor;  died  in  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  Nov.  9,  1940; 
in  McKeesport,  Pa.,  May  17,  1861.  He  studied  at 
Central  College  in  Missouri  and  was  president  and  pro- 
fessor of  Latin  and  philosophy  (1888-1902)  at  the  Neosha 
(Mo.)  Collegiate  Institute  (which  later,  as  Hendrix  Col- 
lege, was  moved  to  Conway,  Ark.);  professor  of  history 
and  economics,  Central  College  (1902-04);  president  of 
Hendrix  College  for  the  second  time  (1910-13),  president 
of  Oklahoma  Methodist  College  (1913-14);  and  editor  of 
the  Arkansas  Methodist  since  that  time 

Miller,  Webb.  American  journalist;  killed  in  a  fall  from 
a  railroad  train  in  London,  May  7,  1940;  born  near 
Pokagon,  Mich.,  in  1892.  A  newspaper  reporter  from  1912, 
he  joined  the  United  Press  in  1916  and  covered  the  World 
War,  the  Peace  conferences,  the  Riff  revolt  (1925),  the 
Ethiopian  campaign  (1935),  the  Spanish  War,  the  Finnish 
War  (1939),  and  was  preparing  to  go  to  Norway.  In  1936 
he  published  /  Found  No  Peace,  a  book  of  reminiscences. 

Miro,  Blcardo.  See  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES 
under  Panama. 

Mix,  Tom.  American  cowboy-actor;  died  in  an  auto  ac- 
cident near  Florence,  Ariz..  Oct.  12,  1940;  born  in  Mix 
Run,  near  Dubois,  Clearfield  Co.,  Pa.,  Jan.  6,  1880.  He 
had  an  exciting  career  both  in  and  out  of  the  movies  :  was 
a  cowboy  in  Texas,  Arizona,  Wyoming,  and  Montana; 
served  in  the  U.S.  Army  in  the  Philippines,  the  Spanish- 
American  War  and  in  the  Boxer  trouble  in  China;  fought 
with  the  British  in  the  Boer  War;  did  patrol  and  ponce 
duty  with  the  Texas  Rangers;  was  foreman  of  the  Miller 
Brothers'  101  Ranch,  Bliss,  Okla.  (1906-09);  won  several 
national  riding  and  roping  contests;  was  a  star  circus  per- 
former; and  since  1910  was  one  of  the  most  spectacular 
cowboy-heroes  of  the  screen 

Modleski,  Ralph.  American  engineer;  died  in  Los  An- 
geles, June  26,  1940;  born  in  Cracow.  Poland,  Jan.  27, 
1861,  the  son  of  Helen  Modjeska,  the  famous  actress.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  with  his  mother  in  1876;  was 
educated  in  France,  and  by  1892  was  established  as  a  con- 
sulting engineer  on  bridge  design.  Among  the  many  bridges 
with  which  his  name  is  associated  are  the  McKinley  Bridge, 
St  Louis;  Broadway  Bridge,  Portland,  Ore  ;  the  Quebec 
Bridge  over  the  St  Lawrence  River  at  Quebec,  the  longest 
truss-span  bridge  in  the  world;  Delaware  River  Bridge. 
Philadelphia;  Huey  P.  Long  Bridge  over  the  Mississippi 
at  New  Orleans:  the  Iowa-Illinois  Memorial  Bridge,  and 
the  Calvert  St.  Bridge,  Washington.  He  also  was  chairman 
of  the  board  of  consulting  engineers  on  the  Trans-Bay 
Bridge,  San  Francisco.  His  work  brought  him  the  John 
Scott  medal  (1924);  the  John  Fritz  medal  (1930)  for 
"notable  achievements  as  an  engineer  of  great  bridges, 
combining  the  principles  of  strength  and  beauty,"  and  the 
Washington  Award  (1931).  He  retired  in  1935. 

Moore,  Thomas  Albert.  Canadian  clergyman;  died  in 
Toronto,  Mar.  31,  1940;  born  in  Acton,  Ont..  June  29, 
1860.  Ordained  a  Methodist  in  1880,  he  played  a  leading 
part  in  the  union  of  the  Methodist,  Presbyterian,  and 
Congregational  churches  in  Canada  in  1925  and  was  named 
secretary  of  the  General  Council  of  the  United  Church. 
He  retired  In  1934. 

Mora,  P(rancls)  Luis.  American  artist;  died  in  New 
York,  June  5,  1940;  born  in  Montevideo,  Uruguay,  July 
27.  1874.  Good  examples  of  his  work  are  "The  Letter/' 
•T?he  American  Gladiators,"  "After  the  Bull  Fight,"  "The 
Cruise  of  the  Ellira."  His  later  works  include  the  portrait 
of  President  Harding  in  the  White  House  (1930),  post 


office  murals  in  Clarketville,  Tenn.,  and  Catasauqua,  Pa.. 
and  the  painting  "Our  Christian  Era"  for  the  Dun  ft 
Bradstreet  office  at  the  New  York  World's  Fair  (1939). 
He  was  awarded  the  1st  Hallgarten  price,  National  Acad- 
emy of  Design  (1905)  and  the  Carnegie  prize  of  the  Na- 
tional Academy  (1930). 

Morgan,  Truman  Spencer.  American  publisher;  died  in 
New  York  City,  Dec.  21,  1940;  born  in  Rockton,  111.,  in 
1868.  From  1902  to  1920  he  was  treasurer,  and  from  1920 
until  his  death  he  was  president,  of  the  F.  W.  Dodge  Corp., 
publishers  of  trade  journals. 

Morris,  Lewis.  American  ex-naval  captain  and  surgeon; 
died  in  New  York  City,  N.Y.,  Nov.  15,  1940;  born  in 
Caen,  France,  Jan.  26,  1867.  A  great-great  grandson  of 
Lewis  Morris,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
he  lived  in  Europe  until  he  was  12;  studied  medicine  at  the 
University  of  Maryland;  and  was  a  U.S.  naval  surgeon 
for  28  years.  His  ancestors  founded  Morrisama,  now  a  part 
of  The  Bronx,  N.Y. 

Moslman,  Samuel  X.  American  educator,  president  of 
Bluffton  College,  Ohio,  from  1909  to  1935  when  he  was 
retired  as  emeritus;  died  in  Bluffton,  O.,  Jan.  24,  1940; 
born  in  Middletown,  O..  Dec.  17,  1867. 

Moton,  Robert  R.  American  Negro  educator;  died  in 
Capahoosic,  Va.,  May  31,  1940;  born  in  Amelia  Co.,  Va., 
Aug.  26,  1867.  He  was  commandant  at  Hampton  Institute 
from  1890  to  1916  when  he  was  elected  to  succeed  Booker 
T.  Washington  as  its  president.  He  retired  in  1935.  Active 
in  Negro  affairs,  he  was  awarded  the  Harmon  Award  in 
Race  Relations  (1930)  and  the  Spmgarn  Medal  (1932). 
His  autobiography,  Finding  a  Way  Out,  appeared  in  1920 
and  in  1929  he  published  What  the  Negro  Thinks. 

Motta,  Giuseppe.  Swiss  politician;  died  in  Berne,  Tan. 
22,  1940;  born  in  Airolo,  Dec.  29,  1871.  A  member  of  the 
Federal  Council  from  1912,  he  was  elected  president  of 
the  republic  in  1915,  1920,  1927,  1932,  and  1937.  At  his 
death  he  was  chief  of  the  Swiss  Political  Department. 

Mountain,  Arthur  Reginald.  British  insurance  execu- 
tive; died  on  Aug.  20,  1940:  born  on  July  22,  1877.  He 
became  chairman  of  Lloyd's,  London,  in  1929,  having  been 
associated  with  the  famous  firm  of  underwriters  since  1903. 

Mundy,  Talbot  Ohetwynd.  Anglo-American  author; 
died  in  Bradenton  Beach,  Fla  ,  Aug  5,  1940;  born  in  Lon- 
don. Eng.,  Apr.  23,  1879.  He  was  educated  at  Rugby; 
worked  his  way  on  ships  to  far-away  places,  lived  in 
India,  Africa,  and  Australia;  and  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1911.  Among  his  many  novels  of  adventure  was 
King  of  the  Khybcr  Rifles,  published  in  1916,  and  more 
recently  converted  into  a  motion  picture  called  The  Black 
Watch,  with  Victor  MacLaglen. 

Murphy,  Frederick  E.  American  newspaper  publisher, 
president  of  the  Minnesota  Tribune  Co ,  publishers  of  The 
Minneapolis  Tribune  and  the  Minneapolis  Times-Tribune, 
after  1921;  died  in  New  York,  Feb  14,  1940;  born  in 
Troy;  Wis  ,  Dec.  5,  1872.  He  was  an  advocate  of  crop 
rotation,  diversified  agriculture,  and  the  importance  of 
dairying  and  served  as  a  delegate  to  the  World  Wheat 
Conference  (1933)  and  the  International  Wheat  Advisory 
Committee  of  the  International  Monetary  and  Economic 
Conference,  Rome  (1934). 

Murray,  J.  Harold.  American  actor,  vocalist,  and  busi- 
ness executive;  died  in  Killmgworth,  Conn.,  Dec.  11,  1940; 
born  in  South  Berwick,  Me.,  Feb.  17,  1891.  He  appeared 
in  vaudeville  (1918-20),  and  then  from  1921  to  1935 
played  as  a  baritone  in  an  almost  unbroken  series  of  New 
York  City  musical  comedies,  including  Caroline  (1923); 
China  Rose  (1925);  and  Rio  Rita  (1927-29).  He  retired 
in  1936  to  become  president  of  the  New  England  Brew- 

m|inrray,  Sir  (John)  Hubert  (Plnnkett).  Australian 
politician;  died  in  Samarai,  February,  1940;  born  in  Syd- 
ney. Dec.  29,  1861.  He  was  lieutenant  governor  and  chief 
judicial  officer  of  Papua  from  1906,  and  was  the  first  gov- 
ernor of  the  first  Australian  dependency. 

Myers,  Jerome.  American  artist;  died  in  New  York, 
June  19.  1940;  born  in  Petersburg,  Va..  Mar.  20,  1867. 
Known  tor  his  scenes  of  New  York  City,  his  work  is  found 
in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art.  the  Brooklyn  Mu- 
seum, the  Chicago  Art  Museum,  and  the  Whitney  Museum 
of  American  Art.  He  received  the  Carnegie  prize  (1936) 
and  the  Altman  prize  (1937)  as  well  as  the  Isador  gold 
medal  (1938)  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design.  An 
exhibition  of  his  drawings  was  held  in  New  York,  Mar. 
20,  1940.  His  autobiography,  Artist  in  Manhattan,  also 
was  published  on  that  date. 

Mysore,  Maharaja  of,  Sir  Shrl  Krishnaraja  Wadiyar 
Bahadur.  Indian  ruler;  died  on  Aug.  3,  1940;  born  on 
June  4,  1884.  His  personal  fortune  was  estimated  at  $400,- 
000,000.  He  ascended  the  throne  in  1895;  was  a  polo  and 
tennis  player  and  a  good  violinist.  A  devout  Hindu,  he 
refused  for  years  to  visit  Europe  because  to  cross  water 
would  lower  his  caste;  in  1936,  however,  his  curiosity  over- 
whelmed .his  scruples  and  he  undertook  a  trip  to  Europe, 
taking  with  him  special  food,  special  water,  and  a  special 
chef. 

tfagel,  Charles.  American  lawyer,  Secretary  of  Com- 
merce and  Labor  in  the  cabinet  of  President  Taft  (1909- 


NECROLOGY 


525 


NECROLOGY 


13);  died 
radp  Co., 


te  St.  Louis.  Mo.,  Jan.  5.  1940;  born  in  Colo-      of  minor  Judicial  assignments  ijtice  1910._he  was  appointed 


Tex.,  Au*.  9,  1849.' 
Anderson 


Navarro,  Mar/  Anderson  de  (Mrs.  Antonio).  Ameri- 
can actress;  died  in  Broadway,  Wore.,  England,  May  29, 
1940;  born  in  Sacramento,  Calif.,  July  28,  1859.  On  the 
stage  from  1875,  she  appeared  as  Juliet  in  Romeo  and 
JuKet;  Lady  Macbeth  in  Macbeth;  Julia  in  The  Hunch- 
back;  Galatea  in  Pygmalion  and  Galatea;  Desdemona  in 
Othello-,  Rosalind  in  As  You  Like  It;  and  in  The  Winter's 
Tale.  She  retired  because  of  ill  health  in  1889  and  in  the 
following  year  was  married  to  Mr.  de  Navarro  who  died 
in  1932  She  did  not  appear  on  the  stage  again  until  1916 
when  in  aid  of  war  charities  she  was  seen  in  Comedy  and 
Tragedy;  Pygmalion  and  Galatea;  and  in  the  balcony  scene 
from  Romeo  and  Juliet.  With  Robert  Hichins  she  drama- 
tized his  The  Garden  of  Allah  (1911)  and  she  was  the 
author  of  A  Few  Memories  (1896)  and  A  Few  More 
Memories  (1936).  She  was  considered  one  of  the  fore- 
most actresses  of  the  American  stage. 

Neal,  Thomas.  American  manufacturer;  died  in  De- 
troit, Mich.,  Oct  6,  1940;  born  in  Corunna,  Ont.,  Can., 
Sept.  27,  1858.  At  the  age  of  15  he  went  to  work  as  an 
oiler  in  a  Detroit  pin  factory;  was  a  founder  (1884)  and 
official  of  the  Acme  White  Lead  and  Color  Works,  retiring 
in  1921;  was  connected  with  the  General  Motors  Corp. 
(1910-15),  serving  as  president  and  chairman  of  the 
board. 

Neill,  Paul.  American  newspaperman;  died  on  Mar.  9, 
1940;  born  in  Joplin,  Mo.,  Apr.  16,  1892.  Beginning  as  a 
reporter  in  1917,  he  edited  the  Yakima  Morning  Herald 
from  1921  to  1938,  and  the  Yakima  Daily  Republican 
thereafter. 

Newton,  Alfred  Edward.  American  bibliophile  and  es- 
sayist: died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  29,  1940;  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Aug  26,  1863.  A  recognized  authority  on 
Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  he  was  elected  president  of  the  John- 
son Society  of  Great  Britain  in  1930,  the  first  American 
to  be  so  honored  In  1935-36  he  was  Rosenbach  lecture 
fellow  in  bibliography  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
His  library  of  10,000  books  contained  many  rare  volumes, 
including  the  Earl  of  Carvsfort's  copy  of  the  first  folio  of 
Shakespeare,  for  which  Newton  paid  $62,000  in  1927  He 
was  the  author  of  several  books  including  The  Amenities 
of  Book-Collecting  and  Kindred  Affinities  (1918);  A  Mag- 
nificent Farce  (1931),  Dr.  Johnson,  a  play  (1933);  and 
End  Paper  (1935)  In  the  electrical  business  since  1895, 
he  was  president  of  the  Cutter  Electrical  and  Manufac- 
turing Co.  and  chairman  of  its  successor,  the  I-T-E  Cir- 
cuit Breaker  Co 

Nichols,  John  W.  American  Protestant  Episcopal  bish- 
op; died  in  Palo  Alto,  Calif ,  Sept.  10,  1940:  born  in  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  1878  A  graduate  of  Trinity  College  and  the 
Divinity  School  of  the  Pacific,  he  served  as  a  missionary 
in  China  and  was  consecrated  suffragan  bishop  of  Shanghai 
on  Nov.  1,  1934.  His  father,  William  F.  Nichols,  was 
Episcopal  bishop  of  California  from  1890  to  1924. 

Nipkow,  Panl  Gottlieb.  German  inventor,  died  in  Ber- 
lin, Germany,  Aug.  24,  1940;  born  in  Lauenburg,  Aug. 
22,  1860.  His  invention  in  1884  of  the  "Nipkow  disk,"  or 
electrical  telescope,  played  an  indispensable  part  in  the 
early  development  of  television. 

Nixon,  Lewis.  American  naval  architect  and  former 
leader  of  Tammany  Hall ;  died  in  Long  Branch,  N  J ,  on 
Sept  23,  1940;  born  in  Leesburg,  Va.,  Apr.  7,  1861  A 
graduate  of  the  U  S.  Naval  Academy  (1882).  he  studied 
also  at  the  Royal  Naval  College,  England,  where  he  was 
a  classmate  of  King  Edward  VII;  designed  the  American 
battleships  Oregon,  Indiana,  and  Massachusetts  in  1890; 
organized  and  Beaded  the  Crescent  Shipyard,  Elizabeth, 
N.J.,  where  he  built  100  vessels  including  submarines; 
was  president  of  Lewis  Nixon's  Shipyards  (1895-1904); 
and  leader  of  Tammany  Hall,  New  York  City,  from  No- 
vember, 1901.  to  May,  1902.  Later  he  worked  for  Czar 
Nicholas  II  of  Russia  as  designer  of  ships  for  the  Russian 
Navy  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  head  of  the  Nixon 
Nitration  Co  and  the  Rantan  Sand  Co.  of  Nixon,  N  J. 

Noble,  Oladwyn  Kingsley.  American  curator,  biologist, 
and  explorer:  died  in  Englewood,  N.J.,  Dec.  9,  1940;  born 
in  Yonkers,  N.Y..  Sept.  30,  1894.  He  was  graduated  from 
Harvard  University  (1917)  and  was  a  member  of  scientific 
expeditions  to  Guadeloupe,  Newfoundland.  Peru,  and  San- 
to Domingo.  In  1924  he  became  curator  of  herpetology  and 
in  1928  curator  of  experimental  biology  at  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History.  His  zoological  findings,  as 
published  in  the  newspapers  from  time  to  time,  made  in- 
terestmg  reading.  He  contradicted  Charles  Darwin  to  the 
extent  of  maintaining  that  color,  in  the  animal  kingdom, 
is  used  to  terrorize  other  males  rather  than  lure  the  op- 
posite sex.  At  other  times  he  spoke  of  Santo  Domingo 
frogs  that  bark  like  dogs  and  squeal  like  pigs;  of  snakes 
with  thermometers  who  locate  their  prey  by  temperature; 
of  fish  .that  spawn  on  dry  and  and  of  certain  glandular 
aberrations  which  produce  dinosaurs.  He  presented  a  note- 
worthy exhibit  at  the  museum  of  scenes  from  life  a*  they 
appear  through  the  eyes  of  some  of  our  common  animals 

Hoonan,  Thomas  P.  American  Jurist;  died  in  New  York 
City,  Dec.  6,  1940;  born  there  on  June  16.  1877.  A  holder 


of  minor  judicial  assignments  since  mo,  he  was  appointed 
New  York  State  Supreme  Court  Justice  in  1936  and  elected 
for  the  full  14-year  term  in  1937. 

Norris,  James  Flaek.  American  chemist;  died  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Aug.  3,  1940;  born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Jan.  20, 
1871.  He  was  graduated  from  Johns  Hopkins  University 
in  1892;  was  professor  of  chemistry  at  Simmons  College 
(1904-15);  and  professor  of  organic  chemistry  at  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology  since  1916.  In  1925-26 
he  was  president  of  the  American  Chemical  Society.  Dur- 
ing the  World  War  be  was  a  lieutenant  colonel  in  the  U.S. 
Army  in  charge  of  the  Chemical  Warfare  Service,  with 
headquarters  in  England 

Northrnp,  Edwin  Fitch.  American  electrothermic  engi- 
neer; died  in  Pnnceton,  N.J.,  Apr.  29,  1940:  born  In 
Syracuse,  NY.,  Feb  23,  1866.  He  received  his  Ph.D. 
from  Johns  Hopkins  in  1895  and  in  the  following  year 
was  professor  of  physics  at  the  University  of  Texas  when 
he  became  associated  with  Prof.  H.  A.  Rowland.  Subse- 
quently he  became  chief  engineer  with  the  Rowland  Print- 
ing Telegraph  Co.,  and  in  1903  became  a  member  of  the 
firm  of  Leeds  &  Northrup  Co.,  manufacturers  of  electrical 
instruments.  From  1910  to  1920  he  was  a  member  of  the 
physics  faculty  at  Princeton  University,  and  thereafter 
was  vice-president  and  technical  adviser  to  the  Ajax  Elec- 
trothermic Corporation.  Trenton,  N  J  His  work  in  electri- 
cal research  brought  mm  the  Edward  Longstreth  medal 
in  1912,  the  Elliott  Cresson  medal  in  1916,  and  the  Edward 
Goodrich  Acheson  gold  medal  and  $1000  in  1931.  He  in- 
vented the  Ajax-Northrup  high  frequency  induction  fur- 
nace and  held  over  100  patents  on  high-temperature  meas- 
urement instruments.  He  wrote  Methods  of  Measuring 
Electrical  Resistance  (1912),  Laws  of  Physical  Science 
(1917),  and  Zero  to  Eighty  (1937). 

Northumberland,  9th  Duke  of,  Henry  George  Alan 
Percy.  British  peer,  killed  in  action  in  France,  June, 
1940;  born  July  15,  1912.  He  had  served  as  parliamentary 
secretary  to  Lord  Privy  Seal  (1935)  and  to  the  Secretary 
of  State  for  Air  (1936). 

O'Connor,  Sir  Terence.  British  lawyer  and  politician; 
died  in  London,  May  7,  1940:  born  in  Bridgnorth  in  1891. 
After  service  in  the  World  War  he  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1919,  and  in  1924  was  elected  a  Unionist  Member  of 
Parliament  from  Luton,  and  in  1930  from  Central  Not- 
tingham. After  1936  he  was  Solicitor  General. 

OnetU,  Carlos  Maria.  See  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERA- 
TURFS  under  Argentina. 

Osborn,  Henry  L.  American  zoologist ;  died  in  St  Paul, 
Minn.,  Jan.  2.  1940;  born  in  Newark,  N  J.,  July  5,  1857. 
Associated  with  Hamline  University,  St  Paul,  Minn., 
from  1887,  he  was  professor  of  biology,  dean  of  the  faculty 
(1918-31),  acting  president  (1923;  1932-35).  He  was  re- 
tired as  emeritus  in  1935. 

Osborne,  Oliver  Thomas.  American  physician;  died  in 


ocmiui   in   loot,  rciurncu  iu  icucn  mere  in   xo^i.   was  yiu- 

fessor  of  therapeutics  from  1911  to  1925,  and  emeritus 
thereafter.  An  arduous  worker  in  the  fight  against  tuber- 
culosis, he  was  chairman  of  the  New  Haven  County  Anti- 
Tuberculosis  Association — now  the  Gaylor  Farm  Associa- 
tion of  Wallmgford,  Conn. — from  its  creation  in  1902  un- 
til his  death;  was  a  founder  of  the  American  Tuberculosis 
Association  in  1904;  and  was  instrumental  in  bringing 
about  legislation  for  the  care  of  tubercular  persons. 

Owens,  Robert  Bowie.  American  electrical  engineer; 
died  in  Sykesville,  Md.,  Nov.  1,  1940,  born  in  Anne  Arun- 
dcl  Co.,  Md.,  Oct.  29,  1870.  He  was  graduated  from  Co- 
lumbia  University  in  1891;  was  professor  of  electrical  and 
steam  engineering  at  Nebraska  University  (1891-98)  and 
of  electrical  engineering  at  McGill  University  (1898- 
1909).  From  1910  to  1924.  with  the  exception  of  the  war 
years,  when  he  was  a  major  in  the  signal  corps,  he  was 
secretary  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia.  He  is 
known  especially  for  his  discovery  of  the  Alpha  ray  and 
for  his  invention  of  an  electromagnetic  system  for  guiding 
ships  and  airplanes,  a  differentiating  machine,  and  an 
electric  accelerometer 

Pace,  Charles  A.  American  educator,  lawyer,  and  bank- 
;  died  in  New  York  City,  N.Y.,  Dec.  12,  1940;  born  in 


was  incorporated  in  1933  under  the  name  of  the  Pace  In- 
stitute. 

Paget,  Sir  Balpn  8.  British  diplomat;  died  at  St 
Raphael,  France,  May  11,  1940;  born  Nov.  26.  1864.  In 
the  diplomatic  service  from  1888,  he  was  British  minister 
to  Denmark  (1916-18)  and  first  Ambassador  to  Brazil 
(1918-20),  when  he  retired. 


Cleveland  Penny  Press;  general  manager  of  the  Scripps- 
McRae  Press  Association  (1897-1905),  which  afterward 
became  the  United  Press  Association;  and  was  later  edi- 
torial secretary  of  the  Scripps  papers,  chief  editorial  writer 


NECROLOGY 


526 


NECROLOGY 


Pftlmblad,  Harry  Victor  BmmanueL  American  ednca- 
tor;  died  in  Siloam  Springs,  Ark.,  Mar.  17,  1940:  born 
in  Skofde,  Sweden,  Apr.  27,  1882.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  at  the  age  of  16;  was  graduated  from  Columbia 
University  (1907);  held  various  teaching  positions;  was 
professor  of  modem  languages,  Carthage  College  (1917- 
20) :  professor  of  French  and  German,  Phillips  University 
(1920-37),  and  professor  of  French  and  German  and  head 
of  the  modern  language  department  of  John  Brown  Uni- 
versity from  1938  until  his  death.  He  was  the  author  of 
many  learned  works  including  the  volume  Strindberg's 
Conception  of  History  (1927)  and  contributed  the  annual 
review  of  Scandinavian  literature  to  THE  NEW  INTER- 
NATIONAL YHAE  BOOK  since  1913. 

Parker,  Henry  Wise.  British  admiral;  died  in  Devon, 
Eng.f  Aug.  1,  1940:  born  on  June  15,  1875.  He  entered 
the  navy  In  1889;  became  rear  admiral  (1925),  and  ad- 
miral (1933).  He  commanded  the  warship  Benbow  at  the 
battle  of  Jutland. 

Pastyrnack.  Josef  A.  American  musician;  died  in  Chi- 
cago,  Apr.  29,  1940;  born  in  Czenstochowa,  Poland,  in 
1881  He  was  solo  viola  player  in  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
orchestra  for  a  time  and  subsequently  conductor  of  that 
orchestra,  the  Philadelphia  Philharmonic,  and  the  Boston 
"Pops"  Orchestra.  From  1916  to  1928  he  was  chief  musi- 
cal director  of  the  Victor  Talking  Machine  Co.,  and  there- 
after was  engaged  in  radio  work. 

Patrick,  Mary  M.  American  educator:  president  of  the 
American  College  for  Girls  in  Constantinople  from  1890 
until  her  retirement  as  emeritus  in  1924;  died  in  Palo 
Alto,  Calif,  Feb.  25,  1940;  born  in  Canterbury.  N.H., 
Mar.  10,  1850.  Her  latest  book  was  A  Bosporus  Adventure 

Pearl,  Raymond.  American  biologist;  died  in  Hersbey, 
Pa.,  Nov.  17,  1940;  born  in  Farmington,  N  H..  June  3, 
1879.  A  graduate  of  Dartmouth  College  (1899),  he  headed 
the  department  of  biology  at  the  Maine  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station  from  1907  to  1918;  was  director  of  the 
Institute  for  Biological  Research  at  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity (1925-30);  and  professor  of  biology  at  the  medical 
school  since  1923.  He  wrote  many  treatises  and  books  on 
scientific  subjects,  including  the  one-volume  Natural  His- 
tory of  Population  (1939).  In  his  book  Alcohol  and  Lon- 
gevity (1926),  Dr.  Pearl  provoked  a  lively  controversy  by 
indicating  that  moderation  in  some  cases  was  more  effec- 
tive than  total  abstinence  in  prolonging  life. 

Pedro  Alcantara  Lull  Felippa,  pretender  to  the  throne 
of  Brazil;  died  in  Petropolis,  Brazil,  Jan.  29,  1940;  born 
there.  Oct.  IS,  1875. 

Pelrse,  Sir  Richard  Henry.  British  admiral;  died  near 
Bath,  Ene.,  July  10,  1940;  born  in  York,  Sept.  4,  1860 
He  joined  the  navy  in  1873,  rose  through  the  ranks,  and 
commanded  the  Allied  naval  forces  on  the  Suez  Canal  in 
the  first  two  years  of  the  World  War 

Peixotto,  Ernest  Clifford.  American  artist  and  writer; 
died  in  New  York  City,  N.Y.,  Dec  6,  1940;  born  in  San 
Francisco,  Calif.,  Oct.  15,  1869.  He  studied  art  at  the 
Academic  Julian  in  Paris;  was  for  awhile  a  magazine  and 
book  illustrator  and  did  the  pictures  for  Theodore  Roose- 
velt's Life  of  Cromwell;  and  attracted  wide  attention  with 
his  La  Mart  d*  Arthur,  a  mural  painting  executed  for  the 
Public  Library  of  Cleveland  in  1911  He  served  as  art 
instructor  in  the  A.E.F.  in  France  in  a  headquarters  which 
later  (1923)  developed  into  the  Fontamebleau  School  of 
Fine  Arts.  He  was  the  creator  of  many  noteworthy  murals ; 
the  author  of  several  books  on  travel;  and  a  member  of 
the  New  York  City  Art  Commission  from  1935  until  Jan. 
18,  1940. 

Perkins,  James  Handasyd.  American  banker;  died  in 
Mount  Kisco,  N.Y.,  July  12,  1940;  born  in  Milton,  Mass., 
Jan.  11,  1876.  He  was  graduated  from  Harvard  University 
in  1898  and  worked  for  five  years  with  Walter  Baker  and 
Co.,  chocolate  manufacturers;  was  vice-president  of  the 
American  Trust  Co.  of  Boston  (1905-08);  vice-president 
of  the  National  Commercial  Bank  of  Albany  (1908)  and 
president  (1912-14),  resigning  to  serve  as  vice-president 
of  the  National  City  Bank  (1914-19).  In  the  World  War 
he  had  charge  of  all  American  Red  Cross  organizations  in 
France.  He  was  president  of  the  Farmers'  Loan  and  Trust 
Co.  from  1921  until  its  affiliation  with  the  National  City 
Bank,  and  thereafter  a  director  of  the  latter  bank  and 
chairman  of  its  board  of  directors  since  1933. 

Perla,  David.  American  pathologist;  died  in  New  York, 
Tune  14,  1940;  born  there  July  13,  1900.  One  of  the  lead- 
ing investigators  and  writers  on  the  mechanism  of  im- 
munity to  infection  in  the  human  body,  he  had  worked  at 
Montefiore  Hospital,  New  York,  from  1927  as  associate 
pathologist  and  immunologist.  In  March,  1940,  he  an- 
nounced a  method  for  the  prevention  and  treatment  of 
surgical  shock  which  had  been  developed  at  the  Hospital. 
The  experimentation  on,  development,  and  results  of  the 


Distance  (1935). 


Peynado,  Jadnto  B.  Dominican  politician,  president  of 
the  Dominican  Republic  after  1938:  died  in  Ciudad  Trujil- 
lo,  Mar.  7,  1940;  born  Feb.  15,  1878. 

Philippi,  Sir  Ivor.  British  general;  died  on  Aug.  15, 
1940:  born  on  Sept.  9,  1861.  He  was  the  son  of  Canon 
Sir  J.  Erasmus  Philipps,  12th  baronet  of  Picton,  and  direct 
descendant  of  Sir  Aaron  ap  Rhys,  who  accompanied  Rich- 
ard I  to  the  Holy  Land  in  1190  and  fought  with  conspicu- 
ous gallantry  against  the  Saracens.  He  was  educated  at 
Felsted  School  and  Staff  College;  entered  the  army  in 
1883  and  was  decorated  for  bravery  in  China,  India,  and 
Europe  during  his  long  military  career.  As  major  general, 
he  commanded  the  38th  Welsh  Division  in  France  in  1915- 
16.  He  was  a  Liberal  member  of  Parliament  from  South- 
ampton (1906-22)  and  Parliamentary  Secretary  to  the 
Ministry  of  Munitions  of  War  (1915). 

Phfflimore,  Sir  Richard  Fortescne.  British  admiral; 
died  in  November,  1940;  born  on  Dec.  23,  1864.  He  was 
commander  of  the  cruiser  Inflexible  in  the  battle  of  the 
Falkland  Islands,  Dec.  8.  1914,  and  in  the  bombardment 
of  the  Dardanelles  in  1915.  During  1916-18  be  was  com- 
mander of  Britain's  First  Battle  Cruiser  Squadron. 

Phillips,  Charles  J.  American  philatelist ;  died  in  New 
York,  June  2,  1940,  born  in  Birmingham,  Eng.,  May  16, 
1863.  Owner  of  Stanley  Gibbons  &  Co.,  from  1890  to  1922, 
when  he  settled  in  New  York,  he  was  one  of  the  foremost 
stamp  dealers  in  the  world.  He  was  the  author  of  Stamp 
Collecting  (1936)  „  . 

Pierce,  Henry  H.  American  lawyer;  died  in  New  York, 
Mar.  18,  1940;  born  in  Portland,  Me.,  Nov.  7.  1875  A 
trustee  of  Bowdoin  College,  in  1929  he  gave  $181,500  to 
the  college  to  endow  a  chair  in  English  known  as  the 
Pierce  Professorship. 

Pierce,  Lyman  I*.  American  institutional  financier;  died 
on  July  20.  1940;  born  in  Stockton.  N.Y.,  May  14,  1868. 
A  Y.M.C.A.  worker  since  his  graduation  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Minnesota  in  1892,  he  became  national  director 
of  the  war  campaigns  of  the  Red  Cross  in  1916,  a  position 
he  held  until  the  end  of  the  World  War.  Since  that  time 
he  has  been  identified  with  fund-raising  campaigns  for 
numerous  colleges,  institutions,  and  charities. 

Pierce,  Wallace  E.  American  Republican  Congressman, 
elected  to  the  76th  Congress  from  the  31st  New  York  Con- 
gressional District  in  1938;  died  in  Washington,  D.C., 
Jan.  3,  1940.  born  in  Black  Brook.  N  Y.,  Dec  9,  1881. 

Pinto.  Miguel.  See  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES 
under  El  Salvador 

Pintor,  Pietro.  Italian  general;  died  in  an  airplane  ac- 
cident en  route  from  Turin,  Italy,  to  Rome,  Dec  7,  1940; 
born  in  1880.  He  was  a  veteran  of  the  World  War,  the 
Libyan  War,  1926-28,  and  the  Ethiopian  War{  1935-36, 
and  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  head  of  the  Italian  section 
of  the  Armistice  Commission  growing  out  of  France's  mil- 
itary capitulation  in  June,  1940 

Pittman,  Key.  American  senator;  died  in  Reno,  Nov., 
Nov  10,  1940;  born  in  Vicksburg,  Miss,  Sept  19,  1872. 
He  was  the  son  of  William  Buckner  Pittman.  an  attorney, 
and  Catherine  Key  Pittman,  a  descendant  of  Francn  Scott 
Key  After  taking  a  law  degree  at  the  Southwestern  Pres- 
byterian University  in  Clarksville,  Tenn.  he  settled  in 
Seattle,  Wash.,  in  1892;  but  went  to  Alaska  in  search  of 
gold  in  1898;  returning  to  the  United  States  in  1901  and 
taking  up  residence  at  Tonapah,  Nev  ,  where  he  later  be- 
came president  of  the  First  National  Bank.  In  1900  he 
was  married  to  Miss  Mimosa  June  Gates  of  Eureka,  Calif. 
He  was  elected  United  States  Senator  on  the  Democratic 
ticket  in  1916,  1922,  1928,  and  1934;  was  secretary  of  the 
platform  committee  of  the  Democratic  National  Convention 
in  1924  and  chairman  of  the  same  committee  in  1928  In 
1933,  on  the  death  of  Sen.  Thomas  Walsh  of  Montana, 
he  became  chairman  of  the  powerful  Foreign  Affairs  Com- 
mittee, a  post  he  held  until  his  death  In  this  last  position 
he  was  frequently  a  mouthpiece  for  President  Roosevelt. 
He  was  an  outspoken  foe  of  Hitler,  Mussolini,  and  the 
military  clique  in  Japan  and  toward  the  end  of  his  career 
was  an  ardent  interventionist. 

PiEsi,  Bxnilio.  Italian  composer;  died  in  Milan,  Italy, 
Nov.  27,  1940.  He  was  the  composer  of  several  operas, 
one  of  which,  Gabriella,  written  for  Adelina  Patti,  was 
staged  in  Boston  in  1893. 

Poblate  Bscudero,  Egidio.  See  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LIT- 
ERATURES under  Chile 

Polachak,  Victor  H.  American  newspaperman;  died  in 
Great  Neck.  L.I.,  June  11,  1940:  born  in  Chicago,  Aug. 
24.  1876.  Associated  with  the  Hearst  oublications  from 
1899  to  1919,  he  was  publisher  of  The  Sun  and  The  Eve- 
ning Sun.  New  York  (1919-20).  He  rejoined  the  Hearst 
interests  in  1922  as  editor  and  member  of  the  executive 
council,  and  thereafter  was  manager  of  the  Hearst  Sunday 
newspapers  (1928-30),  member  of  the  general  manage- 
ment of  the  Hearst  Newspapers  after  1931,  and  business 
manager  of  The  American  Weekly  (1937-38).  He  retired 
in  1939. 

Pollak.  Walter  Heilprin.  American  lawyer;   died  in 


New  York  City,  N.Y.,  Oct.  2,  1940;  born  in  Summit,  N.J.. 
June  4,  1887.  He  was  graduated  from  Harvard  University 
in  1907;  was  special  assistant  to  the  U.S.  Attorney  Gen- 


NECROLOGY 


527 


NECROLOGY 


era!  In  the  prosecution  of  Nicky  Arnstdn,  leader  of  a 
bond-theft  rinr,  in  1923-24;  was  special  master  in  the 
Interborough  Rapid  Transit  Co.  receivership  in  1936;  at- 
torney to  Robert  Moses,  Moreland  Act  Commissioner,  in 
his  investigation  of  the  defunct  City  Trust  Co..  which 
failed  on  Feb.  11,  1929,  with  liabilities  of  $7.000.000.  He 
played  a  prominent  role  in  many  important  legal  matters 
and  twice  obtained  review  of  the  Scottsboro  trials  by  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court,  in  1932  and  1935. 

Poore,  Benjamin  Andrew.  Amencan  general;  died  on 
Aug.  27.  1940;  born  in  Centre,  Ala..  June  22,  1863.  He 
was  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1886:  was  appointed  a 
brigadier  general  in  1917  and  assigned  to  the  Seventh 
Bngade  of  the  Fourth  Division  which  saw  action  at  Cha- 
teau-Thierry, the  Aisne-Marne  offensive,  St.  Mihiel,  and 
the  Meuse-Argonne.  He  became  a  major  general  in  1925, 
and  retired  in  1927. 

Poore,  Henry  Bankln.  American  artist  and  author;  died 
in  Orange,  N  f.,  Aug.  15,  1940;  born  in  Newark,  N.J., 
Mar.  21,  1859.  He  studied  under  Peter  Moran  at  the 
Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  under  Luminais  and 
Bougereau  in  Paris,  and  at  the  National  Academy  of  De- 
sign in  New  York.  Best  known  for  his  animal  and  hunting 
scenes,  he  was  awarded  prizes  by  the  National  Academy  of 
Design,  the  American  Art  Association  and  many  other  art 
groups,  and  his  work  has  been  shown  at  expositions  in 
Buffalo,  St.  Louis,  Buenos  Aires,  Panama,  and  New  Zea- 
land. 

Post,  William  8.  American  architect;  died  in  Bernards- 
vine,  NJ..  July  8,  1940;  born  in  New  York,  May  10, 
1866  A  partner  in  George  B  Post  &  Sons  until  1930  when 
he  retired,  his  best-known  works  are  the  New  York  Stock 
Exchange,  with  which  he  collaborated  with  his  father;  sev- 
eral buildings  of  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York; 
the  Wisconsin  State  Capitol,  and  many  hotels. 

Potter,  William  W.  American  jurist;  died  in  Lansing, 
Mich  ,  July  21,  1940;  born  in  Maple  Grove  Township, 
Barry  Co.,  Mich  ,  Aug.  1,  1869.  Admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1894,  he  was  active  in  Republican  politics,  was  appointed 
Michigan  Supreme  Court  Justice  in  1928,  and  was  thrice 
elected  since  that  time 

Prltchard,  Stuart.  American  tuberculosis  expert;  died 
in  Battle  Creek,  Mich,  AUK  4,  1940;  born  in  Auburn, 
Ont ,  Can ,  Mar.  31,  1882  He  received  his  medical  degree 
from  the  University  of  Toronto  in  1905;  was  in  charge 
of  the  chest  department  of  the  Battle  Creek  Sanitarium 
(1913-30)  and  president  and  general  director  of  the  W  K 
Kellogg  Foundation  at  Battle  Creek  since  that  time  He 
was  a  delegate  to  The  Hague  (1932)  and  Rome  (1928) 
conventions  on  pulmonary  diseases  and  tuberculosis;  and 
president  of  the  National  Tuberculosis  Association  during 
1933-34 

Pngslev,  Charles  W.  American  agriculturist  and  educa- 
tor; died  in  Omaha,  Neb.,  on  Dec  17,  1940;  born  in  Wood- 
bine, la.,  1878  A  graduate  of  the  University  of  Nebraska, 
he  was  editor  of  The  Nebraska  Fanner  (1918-22);  As- 
sistant Secretary  of  Agriculture  (1921-23);  and  president 
of  South  Dakota  State  College  of  Agriculture  from  1923 
until  his  death 

Pnsey,  William  Allen.  American  dermatologist;  died 
in  Chicago,  111  .  Aug.  29,  1940;  born  in  Ehzabethtown. 
Ky..  Dec  1,  1865  He  was  graduated  from  the  medical 
collepe  of  New  York  University  in  1888;  was  professor 
of  dermatology  at  the  University  of  Illinois  from  18°4  to 
191S;  president  of  the  American  Medical  Association 
(1924);  and  the  author  of  numerous  scientific  books  in- 
cluding a  History  of  Syphilis,  published  in  1933. 

Putnam.  James  W.  American  educator,  died  in  Indian- 
apolis, Ind.,  Jan.  23,  1940;  born  in  Hersraan,  HI.  Jan. 
18,  1865.  Associated  with  Butler  University  from  1°09  as 
professor  of  economics,  he  served  as  president  during 
1934-39,  when  he  retired. 

Putti,  Vittorio.  Italian  orthopedist;  died  on  Nov  1, 
1940;  born  in  Bologna,  Italy,  1880.  He  was  the  inventor 
of  a  combination  X-ray  machine  and  motion  picture  camera 
used  to  photograph  the  human  heart  and  the  digestive  sys- 
tem at  work,  the  originator  of  a  technique  of  improving 
crippled  legs  by  lengthening  them,  and  the  inventor  of  a 
device  to  prevent  hip  dislocation  among  infants  He  was 
dean  of  the  medical  school  of  the  University  of  Bolopna 

Qulnn,  Daniel  Joseph,  S.J.  Amencan  Roman  Catholic 
clergyman;  died  in  New  York,  Mar.  9,  1940;  born  there, 
May  12,  .1864.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1888, 
w*as,»oriun  TTnj  189?»  *nd  during  1906-11  was  president 
of  Fordham  Univers  ty  in  New  York  City.  Thereafter  he 
was  engaged  in  mission  and  parish  work 

Bagon,  HeartjilL  American  Jurist;  died  in  Fort  Smith, 
Ark.,  Sept.  IS,  1940:  bora  in  Dublin,  Ark.,  Mar.  20,  1885. 
A  lawyer  by ^profession,  he  served  in  the  Arkansas  House 
of  Representatives  (1911-13)  and  as  district  prosecuting 
attorney  (1916-20).  He  was  a  Democratic  member  of  the 
U.S.  House  of  Representatives  from  1923  to  1933,  re- 
signing to  accept  appointment  by  President  Roosrvelt  as 
Federal  Judge  of  the  Western  District  of  Arkansas  In 
Congress  he  was  regarded  as  an  expert  on  tax  matters 

Bajawangsan,  Admiral  Phya.  Thailand  (Siam)  diplo- 
mat, minister  to  France  (1934-35)  and  to  Great  Britain 


thereafter;  died  in  London,  Feb.  22.  1940;  born  in  1886. 

Beeat,  Oharlei  Lee.  American  chemist:  died  in  Ponte 
Verde,  Fla.,  Apr.  12,  1940;  born  in  Baltimore,  Md., 
Nov.  4.  1862.  After  teaching  from  1886  to  1900,  he  en- 
tered the  field  of  industrial  chemistry  and  in  1902  joined 
the  E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  Powder  Co.  He  retired  in 
1931.  A  leader  in  his  field  he  was  president  of  the  Ameri- 
can Chemical  Society  in  1934. 

Beiiner,  Christian  Fichthorne.  American  Methodist 
clergyman,  died  in  New  York  Cit/,  N.Y.,  July  17,  1940; 
born  in  Atchison,  Kan  ,  June  3,  1872.  He  worked  on  the 
Atchison  Daily  Champion  as  a  reporter  in  1893;  was  grad- 
uated from  Boston  University  Theology  School  in  1896; 
became  pastor  of  Grace  M.  E.  Church,  Mew  York  City,  in 
1910  and  of  Chelsea  Church,  also  in  New  York,  in  1920. 
It  was  this  latter  church  that  Dr,  Reisner  developed  into 
Broadway  Temple,  his  last  charge.  It  had  been  his  inten- 
tion to  build  a  skyscraper  church,  with  apartments,  com- 
munity center,  swimming  pool,  basketball  courts,  and  other 
recreational  facilities  built  around  the  church,  all  at  a 
cost  of  $6,000,000.  Some  $3,000,000  was  raised  and  used 
to  erect  a  tower  and  two  12-story  apartment  houses  and  a 
partially  completed  social  center,  but  the  44-story  building 
remained  a  dream  A  master  of  showmanship,  Dr.  Reisner 
publicized  and  advertised  his  religious  wares  in  many 
novel  ways.  He  dramatized  the  Gospel  in  motion  pictures 
projected  from  the  pulpit;  in  sermons  preached  in  costume, 
including  the  regalia  of  Washington  and  Jeremiah  the 
Prophet;  in  sermons  preached  from  a  pulpit  of  snow:  in 
services  in  which  the  congregation  whistled  from  their 
hymnbooks. 

Bevel.  Bernard.  American  educator;  died  in  New  York 
City,  N  Y.,  Dec.  12,  1940;  born  in  Kovno,  Lithuania,  Sept. 
17,  1885.  He  was  graduated  from  New  York  University  in 
1909;  and  was  president  of  Rabbi  Isaac  Elchanan  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  New  York  Citv  (1915-28)  and  of  Yeshi- 
va  College  from  that  time  on.  He  founded  the  Talmudical 
Academy  in  New  York  in  1916  and  was  associate  editor  of 
O*ar  Israel,  the  Hebrew  Encyclopedia. 

Bevneltas,  Bilvestre.  Mexican  composer;  died  in  Mexico 
City,  Mex,,  Oct  4,  1940;  born  in  1900.  He  toured  the 
United  States  as  a  concert  violinist  before  he  was  20  and 
in  1919  played  first  violin  with  the  Chicago  Symphony  Or- 
chestra He  wrote  several  musical  compositions  including 
the  songs  for  the  Mexican  film.  The  Wave. 

Reynolds,  George  McClelland.  American  banker;  died 
in  Pasadena,  Calif..  Feb  26,  1940;  born  in  Panora,  la., 
Jan  15,  1865.  In  the  banking  business  from  1888,  he  be- 
came president  and  director  of  the  Continental  National 
Bank  of  Chicago  in  1906.  He  continued  in  these  offices 
after  the  consolidation  of  this  bank  with  the  Commercial 
National  Bank  of  Chicago  in  1910.  In  1921  he  became 
president  of  the  board  of  directors  and  continued  as  such 
after  the  consolidation  of  this  and  other  banks  into  the 
Continental  National  Bank  and  Trust  Co.,  in  1927.  Two 
years  later  a  merger  of  this  batik  and  the  Illinois  Mer- 
chants Trust  Co  ,  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Continental 
Illinois  Bank  and  Trust  Co.,  of  which  he  was  chairman  of 
the  executive  committee.  He  retired  Jan  13,  1933. 

Bhoads,  Thomas  L.  American  colonel  and  surgeon  ,  died 
in  Boyertown,  Pa.,  Aug.  20,  1940;  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Apr.  10,  1870  A  graduate  of  Jefferson  Medical  Col- 
lege (1893),  he  entered  the  army  as  a  contract  surgeon 
in  1898:  and  served  as  military  aide  to  Presidents  Taft 
and  Wilson  and  personal  physician  to  the  former  During 
the  World  War  he  was  chief  surgeon  of  the  1st  Army, 
American  Expeditionary  Forces. 

Biee,  John  Hodgen.  American  army  officer;  died  in 
Pelham  Manor,  N.Y.  Jan  7,  1940;  bom  in  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  Jan.  6.  1870.  In  the  Army  from  1893,  he  was  ap- 
pointed chief  of  the  ordnance  office  of  the  American  Ex- 
peditionary Forces  in  1918  After  the  War  he  continued 
in  the  Ordnance  Department  and  retired  July  1,  1921,  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier  general 

Bicnman,  Charles  J.  American  actor:  died  in  Bronx, 
N.Y.,  Dec,  1,  1940;  born  in  Chicago,  111,  Jan  12,  1870. 
After  a  brief  experience  in  a  semi-amateur  stock  company, 
he  made  his  first  important  stage  appearance  in  New  York 
in  the  play  Margaret  Flemma  (1894)  and  thereafter  for 
42  years  he  was  one  of  America's  leading  actors,  at  one 
time  playing  opposite  Lily  Langrry  in  Gossip.  He  was 
with  Augustin  Daly's  company  from  1896  until  1899; 
acted  under  the  management  of  Charles  Frohman  during 
1901-05  and  with  William  A  Brady  sometime  afterward; 
played  in  the  silent  motion  picture  The  Battle  Cry  of  Peace 
opposite  Hudson  Maxim;  returned  to  the  New  York  stage 
in  many  subsequent  leading  roles  until  1936  when  he  left 
the  stage  for  Hollywood.  Since  then  he  has  appeared  in 


. 

several  well-known  films,  notably  In  Old  Kentucky  and 
The  Life  of  Bmile  Zola 

lohmond,    Charles   Alexander.    American   educator; 
in  Washington,  DC,  July  12.  1940;  bom  in  New 
City,   N.Y.,  Jan    7,   1862.  He  was  a  graduate  of 
ceton   University   (1883)    and  Princeton  Theological 


Blohmond,    Charles   Alexander.    American   educator; 
died  i 
York          , 
Princeton 

Seminary  (1885);  pastor  of  the  Madison  Avenue  Presby- 
terian Church.  Albany,  N.Y.  (1894-1909);  and  president 
of  Union  College,  Schenectady,  and  chancellor  of  Union 


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University  from  1909  until  his  retirement  In  1929.  He  in- 
clined toward  moderate  progressivism  in  education;  and 
was  a  perennial  defender  of  the  volatile  young.  A  sports- 
man himself,  he  had  this  to  utter  about  football:  'The 
contribution  of  a  college  to  the  nation  is  not  measured  by 
its  football  record;  nevertheless  it  is  a  good  thing  to  know 
how  to  play  the  game  well.  Every  man  should  have  at 
least  one  drop  of  sporting  blood  in  his  veins."  In  1891  he 
married  Miss  Sarah  Cooper  Locke  of  Buffalo,  grand* 
daughter  of  the  philosopher,  John  Locke. 

Ridgely,  Henry.  American  lawyer  and  banker:  died  in 
Dover,  Del.,  July  13,  1940;  born  in  Dover,  Jan.  19,  1869. 
He  was  educated  at  Wesley  Collegiate  Institute  and  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  law  school:  lost  his  eyesight 
in  his  late  twenties;  was  president  of  the  Delaware  State 
Board  of  Education  (1914-16.  1935-36,  and  1939-40); 
president  of  the  Farmers  Bank  of  Delaware  from  1917 


served  as  professor  of  history  at  Acadia  University  (1922- 
27),  and  entered  politics  as  secretary  to  Prime  Minister 
Mackenzie  King  (1927-29).  Thereafter  he  was  professor 
of  political  science  at  Queen's  University  (1929-35)  when 
he  was  elected  to  Parliament.  He  served  as  minister  of 
Labor  for  Canada  after  1935  and  in  September,  1939  was 
appointed  minister  of  National  Defense. 

Roper,  J.  Charles.  Canadian  Anglican  clergyman;  died 
in  Toronto,  Jan.  26,  1940;  born  in  Frant,  Sussex.  Nov.  8, 
1858.  Ordained  in  1882,  he  was  Bishop  of  Columbia  (1912- 
15),  Bishop  of  Ottawa  (1915-33),  and  thereafter  Arch- 
bishop of  Ottawa  and  Metropolitan  of  Ontario 

Boaewater.  Victor.  American  publisher,  politician,  and 
journalist;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  12,  1940;  born 
in  Omaha,  Nebr.,  Feb.  13,  1871.  He  was  graduated  from 
Columbia  university  in  1891.  Beginning  as  a  reporter  on 
the  Omaha  Bee  in  1893,  he  became  editor  in  1906  and 


until  his  death;  and  president  of  the  Delaware  State  Bar       publisher  in  1917.  retiring  in  1920.  In  1912  he  was  chair- 
Association  (1938-40).  He  wrote  the  Delaware  legislative       man  of  the  Republican  National  Committe.  He  wrote  sev- 


statutes  relating  to  public  libraries,  agriculture,  estate  tax, 
registration,  and  elections. 

Biggs,  Austen  Fox.  American  neuropsychiatrist;  died 
in  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  Mar.  5,  1940;  born  in  Germany, 
Dec.  12.  1876.  He  served  on  the  faculties  of  Columbia 
University  and  Vassar  and  Williams  Colleges,  and  in 
1919  founded  the  Austen  Riggs  Foundation,  Inc.,  for  the 
free  treatment  of  psychoneurotic  patients  without  means. 

Biggs,  Lawrason.  American  general;  died  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  Nov.  21.  1940;  born  in  New  York  City,  1861.  He 
was  graduated  from  Princeton  University  (1883)  and  the 
University  of  Maryland  law  school  (1886);  commanded 
the  State  militia  at  the  time  of  the  1904  fire  and  was 
president  of  Peabody  Institute  from  1917  to  1937. 

Blbaal,  Ameen.  Arab  lecturer,  poet,  and  publicist;  died 
in  Freike,  Lebanese  Republic,  Sept.  16,  1940,  born  in 
Freike,  1877.  He  came  to  New  York  City  in  1889,  clerked 
in  his  father's  store  in  Washington  Street;  became  a  natu- 
ralized citizen  in  1903;  and  translated  into  English  The 
Quatrains  and  The  Luzumiyat  of  the  Arab  poet-philoso- 
pher, Abu'1-Ala.  He  wrote  several  descriptive  books  about 
Arabia,  lived  most  of  his  life  after  1900  in  Lebanon  and, 
as  spokesman  for  the  Arabs,  urged  limitation  of  Jewish 
immigration  to  Palestine  and  advocated  a  national  govern- 
ment, instead  of  a  mandate,  in  the  Holy  Land 

Robinson,  Walter.  American  soldier,  Adjutant  General 
of  the  New  York  National  Guard  with  the  rank  of  Major- 
General  after  1934;  died  in  New  York,  Jan.  25,  1940; 
bom  in  Auburn,  N.Y.,  Apr.  11,  1879 

Rodman,  Hugh.  American  naval  officer;  died  in  Wash- 
ington, June  7,  1940;  born  in  Frankfort,  Ky..  Jan.  6, 
1859.  In  the  navy  from  1880,  he  was  promoted  through 
the  ranks  to  rear  admiral  on  May  23,  1917,  to  admiral  on 
July  1,  1919,  and  was  retired  on  Jan.  6,  1923.  He  saw 
service  in  the  Spanish-American  War  (1898),  was  super- 
intendent of  transportation  at  the  Panama  Canal  and  di- 
rector of  the  Panama  Railroad  Co.  (1914-15),  commanded 
the  New  York  (1915-16);  was  a  member  of  the  General 
Board  of  the  Navy  Department  (1916-17),  and  in  Sep- 
tember, 1917  was  given  command  of  Division  Three  of  the 
Atlantic  Fleet.  In  November  he  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  9th  Division  of  the  battleship  force  and  with  it 
served  in  the  British  Grand  Fleet  For  a  year,  he  was 
commander  of  the  6th  Battle  Squadron  of  the  British 
Grand  Fleet  in  the  North  Sea  On  July  1,  1919  he  was 
named  commander-in-chief  of  the  Pacific  Fleet,  and  at  the 
time  of  his  retirement  was  commandant  of  the  Fifth  Naval 
District  at  Hampton  Roads,  Va  He  was  a  delegate  from 
the  United  States  at  the  coronation  of  King  George  VI  in 
May,  1938.  He  wrote  Yams  of  a  Kentucky  Admiral 
(1929), 

Rodriguez,  Nicolas.  Mexican  general  and  Fascist  lead- 
er; died  in  Juarez.  Mexico,  Aug.  10,  1940,  born  in  1897. 
In  March,  1934,  he  organized  the  Gold  Shirts,  Mexican 
fascist  organization;  was  exiled  by  President  Cardenas  on 
Aug.  11,  1936,  but  permitted  to  return  to  his  mother's 
home,  Aug.  4,  1940,  where  he  died  of  aplastic  anemia.  In 
1937  he  was  sentenced  to  16  months  in  prison  and  fined 
$5000  in  Federal  Court  in  Los  Angeles  for  violation  of 
the  neutrality  laws  of  the  United  States  by  fostering  a 
revolution  in  Mexico. 

Boemer,  John  Lincoln.  American  educator:  died  in  St. 
Louis.  Mo.,  Aug.  9,  1940;  born  in  Wheeling,  W  Va ,  May 
2,  1865.  Graduated  from  West  Virginia  University  6  889) 
and  Western  Theological  Seminary,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  (1892). 
he  was  ordained  a  Presbyterian  minister  (1892),  served 
several  pastorates,  and  was  president  of  Lmdenwood  Col- 
lege for  Women,  St.  Charles,  Mo.,  from  1914  until  his 
death. 

Bogers.  Brskine  Clark.  American  jurist;  died  in  Glens 
Falls,  N.Y.,  Nov.  3,  1940;  bom  in  Sandy  Hill  (now  Hud- 
ion  Falls),  N.Y.,  Sept.  17,  1878.  A  graduate  of  Union  Col- 
lege  and  Albany  Law  School,  he  was  a  New  York  State 
Supreme  Court  Justice  from  1928  to  1940. 

Bogers,  Woman  McLeod.  Canadian  politician:  died  in 
an  airplane  crash  near  Newtonville.  Ont.,  June  10,  1940; 
born  in  Amherst,  N.S.  July  25,  1894.  After  service  dur- 
ing the  World  War,  he  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1924, 


eral  books  including  History  of  Co-operative  News  Gather- 
ing  in  the  United  States  <J_9JO). 

Rosny,  J.  H.  (Joseph  Henri  Honor6  Bottx).  French 
author;  died  in  Pans,  Feb.  14,  1940;  born  in  Brussels  in 
1856  His  early  work  was  not  written  in  collaboration,  but 
from  1891  until  1910  he  and  his  brother  collaborated  under 
the  same  name.  Thereafter  he  wrote  under  the  name  of 
/  H.  Rosny,  aine.  Le  bilateral  (1886)  is  considered  his 
masterpiece.  President  of  the  Academic  Goncourt  from 
1926,  his  later  works  included  La  Sauvage  A  venture 
(1935),  Dans  le  Calme  et  dans  la  Tempete  (1936),  and 
Un  banguicr  (1937). 

Boss,  Sir  Edward  Denlson.  British  orientalist;  died  in 
Istanbul,  Turkey,  Sept.  20,  1940;  born  in  Stepney,  Eng . 
June  6,  1871  A  master  of  30  languages,  he  was  principal 
of  the  Madrassah,  the  Mohammedan  college  at  Calcutta, 
India,  from  1901  to  1911;  and  director  of  the  School  of 
Oriental  Studies  and  Professor  of  Persian  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  London  from  1911  to  1937.  He  wrote  a  score 
or  more  of  books,  principally  on  Indo-Iranian  culture  and 
lectured  in  the  United  States  at  Pnnceton  and  Northwest- 
ern Universities  during  1931. 

Bostron,  Sir  Arthur  Henry.  British  maritime  captain; 
died  in  Chippenham,  Eng.,  Nov.  4.  1940,  born  in  Bolton, 
Lancashire,  May  14,  1869.  He  followed  the  sea  smc<  the 
age  of  16  and  was  in  command  of  the  Cunard  liner  Car- 
pathia  in  April,  1912,  when  it  rescued  700  survivors  from 
the  5.  5.  Titanic,  one  hour  and  a  half  after  the  stricken 
vessel  had  gone  under.  He  commanded  the  Maurctama 
from  1915  to  1926  and  the  Berengana  from  1928  to  1931, 
and  in  the  latter  assignment  he  was  also  Commodore  of 
the  Cunard  Fleet 

Bothermero,  Lord,  Harold  Sidney  Hannsworth.  Brit- 
ish newspaper  proprietor;  died  in  Hamilton,  Bermuda, 
Nov.  26,  1940;  born  in  London,  Eng ,  Apr.  26,  1868,  the 
second  son  of  Alfred  Harmsworth,  barrister  and  member 
of  the  Middle  Temple  With  his  older  brother,  Alfred  Jr., 
he  founded  a  newspaper  called  Answers  which  soon  com- 
manded a  circulation  of  80,000;  and  with  the  profits  thus 
derived  they  acquired  the  London  Evening  News  (Aug. 
31,  1894).  Under  their  direction,  the  News  skyrocketed  to 
prosperity,  more  than  600,000  copies  a  day  were  sold  and 
the  two  brothers  founded  or  acquired  a  string  of  news- 
papers, including  The  Daily  Mirror,  which  they  created 
in  1905.  In  this  vast  newspaper  empire.  Harold  Harms- 
worth  concentrated  on  the  financial,  while  his  brother  de- 
voted himself  to  the  journalistic,  side  of  the  business. 
Harold  became  Lord  Kotherraere  in  1914  and  served  as 
British  Air  Minister  in  the  World  War.  In  his  latter  years 
he  was  a  strong  believer  in  friendship  with  Germany,  albeit 
Hitler,  and  Mussolini.  He  sought  to  improve  the  political 
and  economic  position  of  Hungary  through  revision  of  the 
Treaty  of  Trianon,  which,  he  contended,  subjugated  several 
million  Hungarians  to  nations  of  inferior  culture.  A  book 
published  in  1933  by  Dr  Josef  Schiller  indicated  that  Lord 
Rothermere  had  been  suggested  as  a  king  for  Hungary  and 
that  Lord  Rothermere  had  expressed  a  willingness  to  wear 
the  crown.  Lord  Rothermere  published  his  version  of  the 
episode  in  a  book  called  My  Campaign  for  Hungary 
(1939).  He  was  reputed  to  be  the  second  richest  man  in 
England,  the  Duke  of  Westminster  alone  exceeding  him 
in  wealth. 

Rowan,  Charles  A.  American  industrialist;  died  on 
Sept.  13,  1940;  born  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Sept.  27,  1874. 
He  went  to  the  Westinghouse  Air  Brake  Co.  in  1903  as 
assistant  auditor;  was  named  controller  in  1919  and  chair- 
man in  1936. 

Bute  7  Bodrignec,  Manual  Damata,  Cuban  Roman 
Catholic  clergyman,  Archbishop  of  Havana  from  1925; 
died  in  Havana,  Jan.  3,  1940;  born  in  Corralillo,  Cuba, 
in  1875. 

Bumpier,  Edmund,  German  airplane  and  automobile 
construction  engineer;  died  in  a  Mecklenburg  summer 
resort.  Germany,  Sept.  9,  1940;  born  in  Vienna,  Austria, 
Jan.  4,  1872.  An  engineer  by  profession,  he  built  the  first 
German  motorcar  for  the  Brand  and  Lhulier  Machine 
Factories  in  1897;  later  headed  the  Rumpler  Works  of 
Johannisthal,  Augsburg,  and  Berlin,  manufacturers  of  air- 


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529 


NECROLOGY 


planet.  In  1911  he  produced  the  "Taube"  plane  that  made 
the  first  flight  from  Munich  to  Berlin.  During  the  World 
War  he  constructed  hundred!  of  high-speed  "Taube" 
planes,  often  referred  to  as  "Doves,  for  the  German 
armies  and  at  the  end  of  the  war  was  manufacturing  them 
at  the  rate  of  1400  per  year. 

Busby,  Henry  Kurd.  American  botanist  and  explorer; 
died  in  Sarasota,  Fla ,  Nov.  18.  1940;  born  in  Franklin, 
N.J.,  Apr.  26,  1855.  An  avid  botanist  from  early  child- 
hood, he  sold  his  private  herbarium  to  Parke,  Davis  and 
Co.,  Detroit  drug  manufacturers,  as  a  means  of  financing 
his  matriculation  at  the  New  York  University  medical 
school,  from  which  he  was  graduated  in  1884.  Previously 
and  subsequently  he  headed  plant-collecting  expeditions  to 
various  western  States  and  to  South  America.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  botany,  physiology,  and  materia  medica  at  Co- 
lumbia University's  department  of  pharmacy  (1888-1930) 
and  dean  of  the  faculty  (1905-30). 

Bussell,  William.  British  physician  and  author:  died  on 
Aug.  12,  1940;  born  on  the  Isle  of  Man,  1852.  He  was  at 
one  time  president  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  and 
first  editor  of  The  Scottish  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal-, 
and  at  the  time  of  his  death,  emeritus  professor  of  clinical 
medicine  at  Edinburgh  University.  He  was  awarded  the 
Cartwright  Prize  of  Columbia  University  in  1885  and  was 
the  author  of  noted  medical  books  including  Investigations 
Into  Some  Morbid  Cardiac  Conditions  (1886);  Arterial 
Hyperion**,  Sclerosis  and  Blood  Pressure  (1907);  The 
Sphygometer  (1921);  The  Stomach  and  the  Abdomen 
(1921);  Old  Beliefs  and  New  Knowledge  (1932) 

Rutland,  9th  Duke  of,  John  Henry  Montague  Man- 
ners. British  medieval  art  expert;  died  in  Grantham.  Line., 
Apr  21,  1940;  born  Sept  21,  1886.  Owner  of  historic 
Haddon  Hall,  he  was  an  honorary  member  of  the  Royal 
Institute  of  British  Architects  and  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Commission  on  Historical  Manuscripts 

Ryan,  Allan  A.  American  financier:  died  in  San  Fran- 
cisco. Calif.,  Nov.  26,  1940,  born  on  May  5,  1880  A  son 
of  Thomas  Fortune  Ryan,  he  became  a  member  of  the  New 
York  Stock  Exchange;  and  in  March,  1920,  when  Stutz 
was  selling  around  $113  per  share,  he  cornered  the  stock 
and  resold  it  to  brokers,  who  were  caught  short,  at  $550 
a  share,  netting  a  profit  to  himself  of  $1,650,000  He  went 
bankrupt  in  1922  listing  liabilities  of  $18,000,000  and 
assets  of  $16  In  October,  1917,  he  opposed  his  father's 
haste  in  re-marrying  13  days  after  the  younger  Ryan's 
mother  died:  the  breach  widened  with  the  years;  and  in 
1928,  when  his  father's  will  was  filed,  the  younger  Ryan 
found  his  inheritance  to  consist  of  one  pair  of  pearl  shirt 
studs. 

Ryan,  Paul  A.  American  statistician,  chief  analyst  of 
the  American  Gas  Association  since  1927;  died  in  New 
York  City  on  Dec.  25,  1940;  born  on  Feb  21.  1900  A 
graduate  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
(1923)  and  the  Harvard  School  of  Business  Administra- 
tion (1926)  he  became  a  member  of  the  economics  research 
staff  of  the  latter  institution;  and  was  for  awhile  chief 
statistician  of  the  American  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Co  , 
preparing  forecasts  of  general  business  and  economic  con- 
ditions. He  was  a  contributing  editor  to  THE  NEW  INTER- 
NATIONAL YEAR  BOOK. 

Sabin,  Alvah  Horton.  American  chemist  and  engineer; 
died  in  Flushing,  Queens.  N.Y  ,  July  10,  1940,  born  in 
Norfolk,  N  Y.,  Apr.  9,  1851.  He  was  graduated  from  Bow- 
doin  College  in  1876;  was  professor  of  chemistry  at  the 
University  of  Vermont  (1880-86);  Vermont  State  Chemist 
(1882-86);  president  of  the  American  Milk  Sugar  Co. 
(1885-87)  and  lecturer  at  New  York  University  (1896- 
1925).  In  1883  he  invented  a  process  for  extracting  lactose 
from  whey 

Sabry,  Hassan,  Pasha,  Egyptian  statesman;  died  in 
Cairo,  Egypt,  Nov.  14,  1940;  born  in  1879.  A  maternal 
uncle  of  King  Farouk,  he  was  Egyptian  minister  to  Lon- 
don (1934-35);  minister  of  communications,  commerce, 
and  industry  (1936):  minister  of  war  (1939)  and  premier 
of  Egypt  since  June  27.  1940,  succeeding  All  Maher  Pasha. 
In  his  foreign  policy,  he  was  pro-British. 

Salonji,  Prince  Klmmoehi.  Japanese  statesman,  died  in 
Okitsu,  Japan,  Nov.  24,  1940;  born  in  Kyoto,  1849  A 
patrician  by  birth  and  culture,  he  lived  in  Paris  from  1869 
to  1890;  studied  the  parliamentary  system  of  government 
in  Europe  and  America;  became  vice-president  of  the 
House  of  Peers  (1893);  minister  of  education  (1894-96 
and  again  in  1898) ;  president  of  the  privy  council  (1903) 
and  leader  of  the  Seiyukai  party;  premier  from  1905  to 
1907  and  from  1910  to  1912.  As  premier  he  effected  the 
nationalization  of  Japanese  railroads  and  in  other  ways 
modernized  the  economy  of  the  country.  The  Emperor  Meiji 
made  him  one  of  the  Genro,  or  Elder  Statesmen,  who, 
without  any  constitutional  powers,  exercised  a  somewhat 
hidden  power  behind  the  various  governments.  As  the  last 
of  the  Elder  Statesmen,  he  was  a  chief  adviser  to  the 
Japanese  Emperor  until  old  age  curtailed  his  activities  in 
1936.  He  was  generally  regarded  as  responsible  for  Japan's 
withdrawal  from  the  League  of  Nations. 

Saadafer,  Jefferson  Davis.  American  educator,  presi- 
dent of  Simmons  College  (now  Hardin-Simmons  Univer- 


sity), Abilene.  Tex.,  from  July.  1909;  died  in  Abilene, 
Tex.,  Mar.  22,  1940;  born  in  Sharp  Co.,  Ark.,  Mar.  13, 

San  Miguel,  Antonio.  Cuban  railway  executive;  died 
near  Havana,  Cuba,  Aug.  9,  1940;  born  in  Spain,  1852. 
He  was  for  many  years  editor  and  publisher  of  La  Lucka, 
a  vigorous  newspaper  under  the  Gomez  regime;  president 
of  the  Guantanamo  and  Western  Railroad  and  director  of 
the  Havana  Electric  Co.  He  was  kidnapped  June  5,  1935, 
by  men  disguised  as  soldiers,  who  demanded  $286,000  in 
ransom  money,  but  released  him  on  his  promise  to  pay. 

Sargent,  Fred  Wesley.  American  lawyer,  president  of 
the  Chicago  &  North  Western  Railway  Co.  and  of  the 
Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  &  Omaha  Railway  Co. 
from  1925  to  1939;  died  m  Evanston,  111..  Feb.  4,  1940: 
born  in  Akron,  O.,  May  26,  1876.  In  1933  he  was  awarded 
the  Rosenthal  Foundation  medal. 

Savage,  Michael  Joseph.  New  Zealand  politician,  died 
in  Wellington,  Mar.  26,  1940;  born  in  Victoria,  Australia, 
Mar.  7.  1872.  Leader  of  the  New  Zealand  Labor  Party 
from  1923.  when  that  Party  came  into  power  in  1935  he 
became  Prime  Minister.  In  addition  he  held  the  posts  of 
minister  of  external  affairs,  native  minister,  minister  for 
Cook  Islands,  minister  in  charge  of  the  native  trust,  legis- 
lative, electoral,  audit,  and  high  commissioner's  depart- 
ments. Because  his  ministry  established  the  40-hour  week, 
initiated  fixed  prices  for  the  farmer,  and  launched  an  enor- 
mous public  works  drive  and  national  housing  plan  it  be- 
came known  as  the  New  Zealand  "New  Deal."  See  NEW 
ZEALAND  under  History. 

Schereachewsky,  Joseph  Williams.  American  physi- 
cian; died  in  West  Harwich,  Mass.,  July  9,  1940;  born  in 
Peiptng,  China.  Mar.  6,  1873.  He  was  graduated  from 
Dartmouth  Medical  School  in  1899  and  served  in  the  U.S. 
Public  Health  Service  from  that  time  until  his  death,  be- 
coming chief  medical  director  in  1930  A  noted  authority 
on  cancer,  he  founded  the  Cancer  Research  Center  at 
Harvard  University  and  conducted  a  series  of  experiments 
which  he  said  tended  to  show  that  transplanted  cancer  had 
been  cured  in  some  mice  by  the  use  of  short  radio  waves 

Schllder,  Paul  Ferdinand.  Austrian  psychiatrist:  died 
in  New  York  City,  N.Y,  Dec.  8,  1940;  born  m  Vienna, 
Austria,  Feb.  15,  1886  He  was  educated  at  the  Universi- 
ties of  Vienna  and  Halle,  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1929,  and  since  that  time  was  clinical  director  of  the  psy- 
chiatric division  of  Bellevue  Hospital  and  research  pro- 
fessor of  psychiatry  at  New  York  University  He  provoked 
a  mild  contioversy  in  1936  by  declanng  that  Lewis  Car- 
roll's Alice  in  Wonderland  was  "full  of  oral  sadistic  trends 
of  cannibalism"  and  that  its  suitability  as  child  literature 
was  "extremely  Questionable  "  He  also  deplored  the  "un- 
wholesome instability  of  space"  manifested  in  "the  stretch- 
ing and  shrinkage  of  Alice."  He  was  the  author  of  several 
books  on  psychiatry  including  Psychotherapy,  published 
in  1938 

Schoff,  Hannah  Kent  (Mrs.  Frederic  Schoff).  Ameri- 
can social  worker,  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Dec  10,  1940; 
born  in  Upper  Darby,  Pa.,  1853.  She  was  founder  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Congress  of  Mothers  and  its  president  from 
1899  to  1902;  vice-president  (1897-1902)  and  president 
(1902-20)  of  the  National  Congress  of  Mothers,  now 
known  as  the  National  Congress  of  Parents  and  Teachers. 

Schroder,  Baron  Bruno.  British  international  banker; 
died  in  Engleneld  Green,  Surrey,  Eng  Dec  10.  1940; 
born  in  Hamburg,  Germany,  Mar.  14,  1867  In  1895  he 
joined  the  London  banking  firm  of  J  Henry  Schroder  and 
Co  ,  founded  by  his  grandfather  in  1804  He  organized  the 
J.  Henry  Schroder  Banking  Corp  of  New  York  in  1923 
and  served  as  chairman  of  the  board  of  that  company  until 
his  death. 

Scott,  Arthur  Carroll.  American  surgeon;  died  on  Oct 
27,  1940;  born  in  Gainesville,  Tex,  July  12,  1865.  He 
was  a  founder  of  the  Scott  and  White  Hospital,  Temple, 
Tex.,  in  1904,  and  president  of  the  institution  since  that 
time.  He  was  especially  known  for  his  use  of  the  hot 
(cautery)  knife  in  the  removal  of  cancer  and  developed 
the  "shadow"  test  in  diagnosis  of  cancer  of  the  breast. 

Scriven,  George  P.  American  army  officer:  died  in 
Southern  Pines,  5. C.,  Mar  7,  1940;  born  in  Philadelphia. 
Feb.  21,  1854.  In  the  army  from  1878,  he  retired  as  chief 
signal  officer  of  the  army  with  the  rank  of  brigadier  gen- 
eral on  Feb.  3,  1917.  He  was  recalled  to  service  during 
the  World  War  and  again  retired  in  1918. 

Scudder,  Janet.  American  sculptor;  died  in  Rockport, 
Mass.,  June  9,  1940;  born  in  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  Oct.  27. 
1873.  Known  for  her  medallions  and  relief  portraits  ana 
especially  for  her  fountains,  notable  examples  of  her  work 
are  the  "Frog  Fountain"  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum, 
New  York,  and  the  "Fighting  Boy  Fountain"  in  the  Chi- 
cago Art  Institute.  Her  paintings  were  exhibited  in  New 
York  in  1933.  She  wrote  Modeling  My  Life  (1925). 

Seaman,  Henry  Bowman.  American  engineer;  died  in 
Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  Oct.  24,  1940;  born  in  New  York  City, 
N.Y..  Jan.  20,  1861.  A  graduate  of  Swarthmore  College 
O 881),  he  was  engaged  for  many  years  in  bridge  construc- 
tion and  grade  crossing  elimination  for  railroads,  and  was 
chief  engineer  for  the  New  York  Public  Service  Commit- 


NECROLOGY 


590 


NECROLOGY 


to  1910.  In  the  building  of  the  Fourth 
,  Brooklyn,  N.Y..  he  applied  the  pneu- 
ammer, the  first  time  it  had  been  go  used 


•ion  from  1907 
Avenue  subwa 
matic  riveting 
in  field  work. 

Seger,  Charles  Bronson.  American  railway  executive; 
died  near  Lynchburg,  Va.,  Nov.  11,  1940;  born  in  New 
Orleans,  La..  Aug.  29,  1867.  He  began  as  an  office  boy 
in  the  Louisiana  and  Texas  Railway  and  Steamship  Co.; 
was  vice-president  and  controller  of  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad  (1913-18);  president  (1918-19)  and  thereafter 
a  director  until  1929.  He  was  president  of  the  U.S.  Rub- 
ber Co.  (1918-21)  and  chairman  of  the  board  (1921-29). 

Beger,  George  N.  American  congressman;  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  Aug.  26,  1940;  born  in  New  York  City.  Jan. 
4,  1866.  A  Republican,  he  served  as  Mayor  of  Passaic, 
N.J.,  from  1911  to  1919  and  thereafter  was  a  member  of 
the  U  S.  House  of  Representatives. 

Bellman,  Charles  OabritL  British  anthropologist;  died 
in  Oxford,  Eng.,  Sept.  19,  1940;  born  in  1873  He  was 
Huntlerian  Professor  and  Arris  and  Gale  lecturer  at  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons;  Lloyd-Roberts  lecturer  at  the 
~  "  College  of  Physicians;  professor  emeritus  of  eth- 
r  at  the  University  of  London;  and  the  author  of 
scientific  works  including  The  Races  of  Africa 

ftougabarg,  Alice  L.  American  welfare  worker  and  Zion- 
ist leader:  died  in  New  York  City,  N.Y.,  Aug.  27,  1940; 
born  in  New  York  City,  Aug.  8,  1873.  She  was  graduated 
from  Barnard  College  in  1895;  was  one  of  the  founders  in 
1912.  with  Henrietta  Szold,  of  Hadassah,  the  Women's 
Zionist  Organisation  of  America;  was  founder  and  presi- 
dent from  1913  to  1918  of  Fellowship  House  m  New  York 
City:  organizer  and  executive  in  1917  of  the  American 
Zionist  Medical  Unit  which  sent  a  hospital  ship  in  Miss 
Seligsberg's  charge  to  Palestine  in  1918  equipped  with  a 
medical  corps  and  400  tons  of  medical  supplies,  and  estab- 
lished hospitals  at  Jerusalem,  Jaffa,  Tiberias,  Safed,  and 
Haifa. 

Seymour,  Jr..  James  M.  American  consulting  engineer 
and  inventor;  died  in  Newark,  N  JM  Sept  2.  1940;  born 
in  Newark,  1860.  A  graduate  of  Newark  High  School  and 
tutored  in  engineering  by  private  teachers,  he  was  associ- 
ated with  Thomas  A.  Edison  in  the  development  of  the 
incandescent  lamp,  phonograph,  and  carbon  telephone  trans- 
mitter; supervised  the  installation  of  telephone  systems  in 
four  European  countries;  and  in  1884,  at  the  request  of 
the  Russian  Czar,  he  strung  wires  from  the  St  Petersburg 
Opera  House  to  the  palace  21  miles  away  so  that  the  roval 
family  could  listen  to  the  opera  over  the  telephone  After 
1900  he  maintained  an  office  in  Newark  and  specialized  in 
ventilation  problems 

Shanks,  David  Carey.  American  soldier;  died  in  Wash- 
ington, Apr.  10,  1940;  born  in  Salem,  Va.,  Apr.  6.  1861. 
In  the  army  from  1884,  he  was  promoted  to  major  general 
on  May  7,  1921,  and  retired  Jan  17,  1925.  During  the 
World  War  he  was  commander  of  the  Port  of  Embarka- 
tion, Hobofcen,  N.J.  (1917-18).  In  1927  he  published  As 
They  Passed  Through  the  Port 

Sharp,  Harry  O.  American  public  health  official  ;  died  in 
Lyons,  N.J.,  Oct.  31,  1940;  born  in  Charleston,  Ind  ,  1871. 
He  was  graduated  from  the  University  of  Louisville,  Ky., 
in  1893;  and  in  1899  devised  a  method  of  sterilization 
of  defectives  which  subsequently  was  adopted  in  several 
States.  Since  1931  he  was  chief  medical  officer  of  the  U.S. 
Veterans'  Administration  Hospital  at  Lyons,  N  J. 

Shaw,  Louis  Agmisil.  American  inventor  and  respirator 
expert;  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Aug  27,  1940;  born  in 
Chestnut  Hill,  Mass.,  1886.  A  graduate  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity in  1909  and  afterward  a  member  of  the  faculty 
there,  he  collaborated  with  Professor  Philip  Drinker,  also 
of  Harvard,  m  the  development  of  the  Drinker  respirator, 
described  as  the  nearest  approach  to  the  natural  method  of 
human  breathing  yet  devised.  In  1931  he  received  the  John 
Scott  medal  awarded  annually  for  the  invention  "most 
conducive  to  the  comfort,  welfare,  and  happiness  of  man- 
kind." 

Sherman,  Frederic  Fairchild.  American  art  collector, 
writer,  and  publisher;  died  in  Westport,  Conn  ,  Oct.  23, 
1940;  born  in  Peekskill,  N.Y.,  1874.  He  was  publisher  of 
the  magazine  Art  in  America,  a  quarterly,  since  1913,  and 
the  author  of  several  books  on  the  subject. 

flhlnn,  Millcent  Washbnrn.  American  psychologist  and 
author;  died  in  Niles,  Calif.,  Aug.  14,  1940;  born  in  Niles. 
Apr.  15,  1858  She  was  graduated  from  the  University  of 
California  (1880);  was  editor  of  The  Overland  Monthly 
(1883-94),  in  which  position  she  was  said  to  be  the  first 
to  recognize  the  talent  of  Jack  London  Basing  her  studies 
on  the  behavior  of  her  brother's  child,  she  published  The 
Biography  of  a  Baby  m  1907,  a  book  which  received  lavish 
praise  from  many  educators  and  philosophers,  including 
Herbert  Spencer,  and  eventually  became  a  standard  college 
textbook.  She  was  also  the  author  of  Development  of  the 
Senses  in  the  First  Three  Years  fff  Childhood  (1907)  and 
Notes  on  the  Development  of  a  Child  (1894-99). 

Bhonp,  Oliver  Henry.  American  industrialist  and  ex- 
governor:  died  in  Santa  Monica,  Calif.,  Sept.  30,  1940; 
bora  in  Champaign  Co.,  111.,  Deo.  13,  1869.  He  was  edu- 


cated at  Colorado  College;  became  first  president  of  the 
Midwest  Oil  Co.  and  associated  with  other  industrial  con- 
cerns;  and  served  as  Republican  governor  of  Colorado  from 
1919  to  1923. 

Bidebotham,  Herbert.  British  journalist:  died  in  Lon- 
don, Mar.  19.  1940:  born  in  Manchester.  Dec.  21,  1872. 
He  was  on  the  staff  of  the  Manchester  Guardian  (1895- 
1918),  the  London  Times  (1918-21),  the  London  Daily 
Chronicle  (1922-23),  and  thereafter  he  wrote  for  the  5"«n- 
day  Ttmes  and  the  Daily  Sketch.  His  latest  work  was 
Great  Bntain  and  Palestine  (1937). 

flilva  Vilddsola,  Carlos.  See  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LIT- 
EIATURES  under  Chile. 

Silaer,  George  Sebastian.  American  ex-governor;  died 
in  Newark,  N.J..  Oct.  16,  1940;  born  in  New  Brunswick, 
N.J.,  Apr.  14,  1870  A  lawyer  by  profession,  he  was  judge 
of  the  N.J.  Circuit  Court  (1914-22);  Democratic  governor 
of  the  State  (1923-26);  and  chairman  of  the  Port  of  New 
York  Authority  (1926-27).  He  was  a  constant  friend  of 
national  prohibition,  a  banker  of  distinction,  and  a  prop 
in  the  campaign  to  link  New  Jersey  and  New  York  with 
the  George  Washington  Bridge. 

Simmons,  Furnlfold  McLendel.  American  lawyer;  died 
in  New  Bern,  S  C.,  Apr.  30,  1940;  born  in  Jones  Co., 
N.C.,  Jan.  20,  1854.  Admitted  to  the  bar  in  1875  he  en- 
tered  politics  and  m  1887  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a 
Democratic  Representative  from  North  Carolina.  He  served 
until  1889  and  during  1893-97  was  collector  of  internal 
revenue  for  N  C.  In  1901  he  was  elected  to  the  Senate, 
serving  five  terras  until  1931.  He  served  as  chairman  of 
the  Senate  Finance  Committee  (1913-19)  and  was  co- 
author of  the  Underwood-Simmons  Tariff  Act  (1913-21). 

Simpson,  Helen  de  Ouerry.  British  writer;  died  in 
October,  1040,  horn  in  Sydney,  Australia,  Dec.  1,  1897 
She  went  to  England  in  the  World  War  as  an  interpreter 
in  the  Women's  Royal  Naval  Service;  studied  music  at  Ox- 
ford University;  acted  in  amateur  theatricals  at  the  home 
of  John  Masefield,  the  poet;  and  wrote  novels  with  astonish- 
ing rapidity,  completing  Acquittal  (1925)  in  three  weeks 
Among  her  other  novels  were  Saraband  for  Dead  Lovers 
(1935);  Boomerang  (1932),  which  won  the  James  Tait 
Black  Memorial  Pnre;  The  Woman  and  the  Beast  (1933); 
Under  Capricorn  (1937)  and  Maid  No  More  (1940). 

Slater,  Sir  (Alexander)  Bansford.  British  colonial  ad- 
ministrator, Governor  of  Jamaica  (1932-34);  died  in  Cook- 
ham  Dean,  En?,  Apr.  23,  1940;  born  Nov  28,  1874. 

Sloane.  (T)nomas  O' Conor.  American  scientific  expert; 
died  in  South  Orange,  NJ,  Aug  7,  1940;  horn  in  New 
York  City,  N.Y.,  Nov.  24,  1851.  A  graduate  of  St.  Francis 
College,  New  York  City  (1869),  he  was  professor  of  natu- 
ral sciences  at  Seton  Hall  College,  NT  (1888-89);  a 
prolific  writer  on  scientific  subjects;  and  inventor  of  the 
self-recording  photometer,  first  device  to  record  mechanical- 
ly on  an  index  card  the  illuminating  power  of  gas.  He  was 
for  some  years  editor  of  Amasing  Stories  and  other  scien- 
tific journals. 

Smillie,  Robert.  British  labor  leader,  president  of  the 
Scottish  Miners'  Federation  (1894-1918;  1921-40),  of  the 
Miners'  Federation  of  Great  Britain  (1912-21),  and  a 
Labor  member  of  Parliament  from  1923  to  1929;  died  in 
London,  Feb  16,  1940;  born  in  Belfast  in  1857. 

Smith,  Clyde  H.  American  Republican  Congressman, 
elected  to  the  75th  Congress  from  the  2d  Maine  District  in 
1936;  died  in  Washington,  Apr.  8,  1940,  born  in  Harmony, 
Me ,  June  9,  1876.  He  was  a  member  of  the  House  Labor 
Committee. 

Smith,  Mrs.  Harry  B.  See  BENTLEY,  IRENE 

Smith,  Wilbur  Fisk.  American  educator;  died  in  Balti- 
more, MxL  Aug  9,  1940;  bom  in  Lovettsville,  Loudoun 
Co.,  Va.,  May  21,  1856  A  graduate  of  Richmond  College, 
he  was  principal  of  Baltimore  City  College  (1911-26)  and 
president  of  the  University  of  Baltimore  thereafter  until 

1935,  when  he  became  emeritus. 

Sonneborn,  Siegmnnd  B.  American  clothing  manufac- 
turer; died  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Sept.  19,  1940;  born  in 
Germany,  1872.  He  came  to  America  as  a  boy;  was  gradu- 
ated from  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  1893;  entered  the 
clothing  business;  and  eventually  became  president  of 
Henry  Sonneborn  and  Co ,  at  one  time  the  largest  clothing 
manufacturing  business  in  the  world.  He  retired  in  1930 
to  study  the  philosophy  of  the  Book  of  Psalms,  publishing 
privately  his  interpretation  of  the  subject  in  1931,  1933, 
and  again  shortly  before  his  death. 

Spaulding,  Edward  Oleason.  American  philosopher; 
died  at  Princeton,  NT.,  Jan.  31,  1940:  born  in  Burlington, 
Vt..  Aug.  6,  1873  Professor  of  philosophy  at  Princeton 
University  from  1914,  in  1936  he  was  appointed  McCosh 
professor.  He  was  president  of  the  American  Philosophical 
Association  in  1932.  His  latest  work  was  A  World  of 
Chance  (1936). 

Spear.  Walter  Evans.  American  engineer;  died  in  New 
York,  Mar.  29,  1940;  born  in  Lawrence,  Mass.,  Nov.  24, 
1874.  With  the  New  York  City  Board  of  Water  Supply 
from  1906,  he  was  appointed  chief  engineer  on  Aug.  I, 

1936,  and  as  such  directed  the  work  of  constructing  the 
ciry/s  new  $300,000,000   Delaware  water-supply  system. 

Squires,  Ernwt  fer.  A  British  soldier;  died  in  Mel- 


NECROLOGY 


531 


NECROLOGY 


bourn*,  Mar.  3,  1*40:  bora  In  Poola,  India,  Dee.  18, 1882.      Ur 


In  the  Army  from  1903  he  taw  service  during  the  World 
War.  He  wai  on  the  General  Staff  of  the  Southern  Com- 
mand (1932-36)  and  director  of  staff  duties  at  the  War 
Office  (1936-38)  when  he  was  made  a  lieutenant  general. 
Thereafter  he  was  inspector  general  of  the  Australian  Mili- 
tary Forces. 

Squires,  Sir  Eichard  Anderson.  Newfoundland  politi- 
cian; died  in  St.  John's,  Mar.  26.  1940:  born  in  Harbour 
Grace.  Jan.  18,  1880.  Leader  of  the  Liberal  Party,  he 
served  as  prime  minister  from  1919  to  1923  and  again  from 
1928  to  1932. 

Stanislaus,  Mother  Mary  (Kostka  Schilling).  Ameri- 
can educator;  founder  of  Mount  Mary  College,  Milwaukee, 
Wit.,  and  Commissary  General  of  the  Catholic  School  Sis- 
ters of  Notre  Dame  (1917-35);  died  in  Elm  Grove,  Wis., 
Mar.  11,  1940;  born  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in  1856. 

Stanley,  Freelaa  O.  American  inventor:  died  in  New- 
ton, Mass.,  Oct.  2,  1840;  born  in  Kingfield,  Me.,  June  1, 
1849.  He  and  his  twin  brother,  the  late  Francis  Stanley, 
invented  the  Stanley  Steamer  motorcar  in  1896;  sold  their 
business  in  1898  to  a  New  York  group  for  $250,000; 
bought  it  back  in  1899  for  $20,000;  and  made  some  10,000 
cars  before  finally  selling  out  again  in  1918.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Bowdoin  College. 

Staples,  Arthur  Qray.  American  journalist;  died  in 
Lewiston,  Me,  Apr.  2,  1940;  born  in  Bowdomham,  Me., 
July  4,  1861.  With  the  Lewiston  Journal  from  1883,  he 
was  its  editor-in-chief  after  1919 

Starr,  Ellen  O.  American  sociologist,  founder  with  Jane 
Addaras  of  Hull  House,  Chicago,  in  1889,  died  in  Suf- 
fern,  N.Y.,  Feb.  10,  1940;  born  in  Laona,  111.,  Mar  19, 
1859. 

Stekel,  Wilhelm.  Austrian  psychoanalyst;  died  in  Lon- 
don, June  27.  1940;  born  in  Bojan,  Mar.  18,  1868.  One  of 
the  earliest  duciples  of  Freud,  he  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  Zcntralblatt,  the  first  psychoanalytical  periodical,  but 
in  the  1920's  he  broke  with  the  master  over  a  difference 
in  methods  of  treatment  In  1938  after  the  Anschluss  he 
fled  to  England.  A  prolific  writer,  his  later  works  were 
Psychosexuclle  Jnfantilismus  (1922),  Peculiarities  of  Be- 
haviour (1924),  and  Technique  of  Analytical  Psychother- 
apy (1940) 

Steuer,  Max  D.  American  lawyer;  died  in  Jackson, 
N.H.,  AUK  21,  1940,  born  in  Austria,  Sept  6,  1871.  He 
came  to  New  York  City  as  a  boy  with  his  parents,  sold 
newspapers  and  worked  in  a  tailoring  shop;  was  graduated 
from  Columbia  University  Law  School  in  1893;  and  rose 
rapidly  in  the  practice  of  law  He  became  known  as  one 
of  the  leading  criminal  lawyers  in  the  United  States  Long 
a  member  of  Tammany  Hall,  he  was  frequently  called 
upon  to  pilot  that  organization  through  turbulent  legal 
waters;  and  he  was  an  important  figure  in  some  of  the 
most  famous  court-room  dramas  of  his  time  Among  his 
many  noted  clients  were  —  Charles  E.  Mitchell,  former 
president  of  the  National  City  Bank,  acquitted  of  income 
tax  evasion  (1933);  Harry  M.  Daugherty.  former  US 
Attorney  General,  acquitted  of  defrauding  the  government 
in  the  sale  of  German  property  seized  during  the  World 
War  by  the  Alien  Property  Custodian  (1926);  Maurice 
E.  Connolly,  former  Borough  President  of  Queens  County, 
N.Y  ,  convicted  on  conspiracy  charges  growing  out  of  the 
Queens  Sewer  Scandal  (1928). 

Stevens,  Rebecca  Louisa,  Mrs.  American  centenarian, 
died  in  San  Diego,  Calif.,  on  Dec.  29,  1940,  at  the  mature 
age  of  107,  having  been  born  on  June  12,  1833  As  a 
young  woman,  she  wrote  a  column  for  the  New  York 
Evening  Post 

Stewart,  Athole  Chalmers.  British  actor  and  producer; 
died  in  Buckinghamshire,  Eng.,  Oct  22,  1940;  born  in 
Ealing,  June  25,  1879.  He  began  his  stage  careei  in  Lon- 
don m  1901;  and  had  important  roles  in  many  plays  in- 
cluding Hedda  Gabler  (1922)  and  What  Every  Woman 
Knows  (1923).  In  1926  he  directed  the  New  York  produc- 
tion of  On  Approval  and  he  returned  to  America  in  1930 
to  make  his  first  appearance  on  the  New  York  stage  in 
Canaries  Sometimes  Siny. 

Stewart,  George  Craig.  American  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman;  died  m  Chicago,  May  2,  1940;  born  in  Sagi- 
naw,  Mich.,  Aug.  18,  1879.  Ordained  in  the  Methodist 
ministry  in  1900,  three  years  later  he  was  ordained  a 
priest  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  and  in  1904 
he  was  appointed  rector  of  St.  Luke's  Church  in  Evans- 
ton,  111.,  which  post  he  held  until  1930  when  he  was  con- 
secrated  bishop  of  Chicago.  During  his  ministry  he  was  a 
delegate  to  the  General  Convention  of  the  Protestant  Ems- 
copal  Church  six  times,  served  in  France  as  a  chaplain 
during  the  World  War,  lectured  at  Western  Theological 
Seminary,  and  was  associate  editor  of  the  Anglican  Theo- 


on  other  1 


ag  the  New  York 


Globe  and  the  New  York  Herald:  founded  the  American 
Home  Magasine  in  1901;  edited  Popular  Mechanics  maga- 
zine (1913-15);  and  was  president  and  managing  editor 
of  the  New  York  Evening  MaU  from  1915  to  1917.  In 
March,  1911,  with  the  late  Walter  Hines  Page,  he  inau- 
gurated the  campaign  which  ended  in  the  nomination  of 
Woodrow  Wilson  for  the  Presidency.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  books  including  Hedging  Against  Inflation 
(1939). 

Stockton,  Philip.  American  banker,  president  of  the 
Old  Colony  Trust  Co.,  (1910-34)  and  of  the  First  Na- 
tional Bank  of  Boston  from  1929  to  1938;  died  in  Boston, 
Feb.  11,  1940;  born  in  Brookhne,  Mass.,  Mar.  20,  1874. 
He  was  director  of  more  than  30  corporations. 

Stone.  John  0.  American  educator;  died  in  St  Peters- 
burg, Fla.,  May  21,  1940;  born  in  Albion,  111.,  Jan.  11, 
1867.  A  teacher  of  mathematics  from  1885,  m  1909  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at  State  Teachers 
College,  Montclair,  N  J.  He  was  retired  as  emeritus  in 
1935.  His  many  textbooks  on  all  branches  of  mathematics 
were  used  by  schools  throughout  the  United  States. 

Storey,  William  Benson.  American  railway  official; 
died  in  Chicago,  III.,  Oct.  24,  1940;  born  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, Calif.,  Nov.  17,  1857.  An  engineer  by  profession, 
he  became  manager  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa 
Fe  Railroad  when  it  was  taken  over  by  the  government 
in  the  World  War,  and  served  as  president  of  the  same 
system  from  1920  to  1933. 

Street,  Geoffrey  Austin.  Australian  brigadier;  died  in 
an  airplane  accident  8  miles  from  Canberra,  Australia, 
Aug  13,  1940;  born  in  Sydney,  Jan.  21,  1894  A  member 
of  the  Australian  House  of  Commons  since  1934.  he  was 
minister  of  state  for  defense  from  1938  until  Nov.  12, 
1939,  when  he  was  appointed  minister  for  the  army.  He 
served  in  the  World  War  in  France,  Belgium,  and  Gal- 
hpoh. 

Strickland,  1st  Baron,  Gerald  Strickland.  British  ad- 
ministrator and  constitutional  lawyer;  died  in  Malta,  Aug 
22,  1940:  born  in  Malta,  May  24,  1861,  the  son  of  Capt. 
Walter  Strickland  and  Louisa  Bonici.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Maltese  Council  of  Government  (1886);  was  gradu- 
ated from  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  (1887);  served  as 
Governor  of  the  Leeward  Islands  (1902-04),  of  Tasmania 
(1904-09),  of  Western  Australia  (1909-13),  and  of  New 
South  Wales  from  1912  to  1917.  Elected  to  the  Malta 
Legislative  Assembly  in  1921,  he  assumed  leadership  of 
the  Constitutional  Party  and  was  Prime  Minister  of  Malta 
from  1927  to  1932.  A  Roman  Catholic  himself,  he  was 
engaged  in  a  bitter  jurisdictional  dispute  with  the  Vatican 
from  1928  to  1932.  An  official  inquiry  in  London  found 
that  Lord  Strickland's  "aggressive  manner"  had  aroused 
"animosity"  and  he  apologized  to  the  Pope  on  June  3, 
1932. 

Stupart,  Sir  Robert  Frederic.  Canadian  meteorologist; 
died  on  Sept.  27,  1940,  born  near  Toronto,  Ont..  Can., 
Oct.  24,  1857.  He  was  director  of  the  Dominion  Meteoro- 
logical Service  from  1894  to  1929 

Sung  Chen-yuan.  Chinese  soldier;  died  in  Mienyang, 
Szechwan,  Apr.  4,  1940;  born  in  1885.  In  1927  he  was 
made  chairman  of  the  Shensi  Provincial  Government,  and 
in  1931  was  given  command  of  the  29th  Army  and  named 
chairman  of  the  Chahar  Provincial  Government  In  1935 
he  was  transferred  to  the  Peipmg-Tientsin  Area  as  gar- 
rison commander,  and  subsequently  became  chairman  of 
the  Hopei-Chahar  Political  council  and  the  Hopei  Provin- 
cial government.  In  1937  upon  the  outbreak  of  war  with 
Japan  he  was  forced  to  relinquish  his  chairmanship. 

Suydam,  Edward  Howard.  American  illustrator;  died 
in  Charlottesville,  Va.,  on  Dec  24,  1940;  born  in  Vine- 
land,  N.J.,  in  1885.  His  sketches  of  New  York  Citjr  for 
The  Designer,  a  magazine,  in  1921,  were  widely  praised; 
and  since  then  his  pencil  drawings,  etchings,  and  block 
prints  have  found  relative  permanence  in  museums,  li- 
braries, and  private  collections 

Suzuki,  Klsaburo.  Japanese  politician;  died  in  Tokio. 
June  25,  1940;  born  in  1867.  A  member  of  the  House  of 
nd  president  of  Seiyukai  political  party  (1932- 
was  Minister  of  Justice  (1924-28;  1931-32)  and 


journalist;  died  Dec.  7,  1940;  born  n  ardiner  e., 
June  11.  1870.  After  attending  National  University  now 
George  Washington  University  (1888-91),  K  became  a 
reporter  for  theWalo  Express  (1894);  w 


Peers  and  president  of  Seiyukai  political  party  (1932- 
39),  he  was  Minister  of  Justice  (1924-28;  1931-32)  and 
Home  Minister  (1928-29,  1932). 

Sweeny,  James  Fielding.  Canadian  Anglican  archbish- 
op; died  in  Toronto,  Ont.,  Can  ,  Sept.  18,  1940;  born  in 
London,  Eng.,  Nov.  15.  1857  He  was  educated  in  Cana- 
da, ordained  a  priest  in  1881,  and  served  as  Anglican 
Archbishop  of  Toronto  from  1909  to  1932. 

Talnter,  Charles  Sunmer.  American  physicist;  died  in 
San  Diego,  Calif ,  Apr  20,  1940;  born  in  Watertown, 
Mass..  Apr.  25,  1854  An  associate  of  Alexander  Graham 
Bell,  by  his  invention  of  the  graphophone  he  was  credited 
with  having  made  the  phonograph  commercially  possible. 
Also,  he  invented  the  dictograph  and  was  associate  in- 
ventor of  the  radiophone.  He  received  the  John  Scott 
medal  in  1900  and  a  gold  medal  at  the  Panama  Pacific 
Exposition  in  1915. 

Tait,  Sir  Thomas.  Canadian  railway  executive;  died  in 

•„  uc  DCV«UC  -       St.  Andrews,  N.B.,  Can.,  July  25,   1940;  born  in  Md- 
worked  in  a  simi-      bourne,  Que.,  July  24,  1864.  Employed  for  many  years  by 


NECROLOGY 


532 


NECROLOGY 


the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway*  he  became  transportation 
manager  in  1901;  and  was  chairman  of  the  Victorian 
State  Railways  of  Australia  from  1902  to  1911. 

Tallmadge,  Thomas  B.  American  architect;  killed  in  a 
train  wreck  near  Arcola,  111.,  Jan.  1,  1940;  born  in  Wash- 
ington, B.C.,  Apr.  24,  1876.  Known  for  his  many  ec- 
clesiastical buildings,  he  had  lectured  on  architectural  his- 
tory at  the  Art  Institute  of  Chicago,  and  at  Armour  In- 
stitute of  Technology.  He  was  a  member  of  the  architec- 
tural commission  for  the  restoration  of  Williamsburg.  Va , 
and  was  associate  architect  for  the  Julia  Lathrop  Homes, 
a  Federal  Housing  Project  in  Chicago.  He  wrote  The 
Story  of  Architecture  in  America  (1927)  and  The  Story 
of  England's  Architecture  (1934). 

Tanomogl,  Keittchi.  Japanese  politician;  died  in  Tokyo, 
Feb.  19,  1940;  bop  in  1867.  Head  of  the  newspaper 
Hochi,  he  served  nine  terms  in  Parliament,  was  minister 
of  communications  in  the  Hirota  Cabinet  (1936-37),  and 
Mayor  of  Tokyo  after  1939. 

Tarboux,  John  W.  American  Methodist  clergyman; 
died  in  Miami,  Fla ,  May  2,  1940;  born  in  1859.  A  Meth- 
odist missionrr  in  South  America  for  fifty  years,  in  1930 
he  was  consecrated  the  first  bishop  of  the  independent 
Methodist  Church  of  Brazil  at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  He  retired 
in  1935. 

Tate,  Haxry  (Ronald  Xaodonald  Hutchison).  British 
actor,  died  in  button,  Surrey,  Feb  14,  1940;  born  in 
Scotland,  July  4,  1872.  He  made  his  debut  as  a  mimic  at 
a  music  hall  in  1895  and  subsequently  introduced  his  fa- 
mous sporting  sketches,  the  first  being  the  popular  "Mo- 
toring. He  appeared  in  several  revues  and  motion  pic- 
tures and  until  recently  was  still  playing  in  variety  thea- 
ters. 

TauBBig,  Frank  William.  American  economist;  died  in 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  Nov  11,  1940:  born  in  St  Louis,  Mo., 
Dec.  28,  1859.  After  graduation  from  Harvard  University 
(1879),  he  served  there  as  secretary  to  President  Charles 
W.  Eliot  (1880-82)  and  professor  of  economics  from  1892 
to  1935,  retiring  with  the  title  of  emeritus  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Harvard  Graduate  School  of  Busi- 
ness Administration  (1906-07)  and  personally  obtained 
pledges  of  $25,000  a  year  for  five  years  toward  its  launch- 
ing. He  headed  the  United  States  Tariff  Commission  as 
chairman  from  1917  to  1919;  was  author  of  many  books 
on  economics  and  international  trade;  and  went  to  Paris 
in  1919  as  a  member  of  President  Wilson's  advisory  com- 
mittee on  peace.  He  was  editor  of  The  Quarterly  Journal 
of  Economics  from  1896  to  1937;  and  the  author  of  Prin- 
ciple* of  Economics  (1911,  revised  in  1939),  Tariff  His- 
tory of  the  United  States  (1888),  Stiver  Situation  in  the 
United  States  (1892),  and  Wages  and  Capital  (1896). 

Taylor,  David  Watson.  American  admiral  and  naval 
constructor;  died  in  Washington,  D  C.,  July  28,  1940: 
born  in  Louisa  Co  ,  Va.,  Mar.  4,  1864  He  was  graduated 
from  the  U.S.  Naval  Academy  in  1885  at  the  head  of  his 
class  and  in  June,  1888,  he  won  the  same  honors  at  the 
Royal  Naval  College  at  Greenwich,  Eng,  his  record  there 
being  the  highest  ever  attained  by  an  English  or  foreign 
student.  As  chief  of  the  naval  bureau  of  construction  and 
repair  from  1914  to  1922,  which  included  the  feverish 
activity  of  the  wartime  naval  program,  he  was  responsible 
for  construction  or  repair  of  1005  vessels  totaling  1,183,- 
000  tons  displacement.  He  retired  on  Jan.  15,  1923.  He 
initiated  many  improvements  in  the  designs  of  ships,  was 
an  expert  on  marine  resistance  and  propulsion,  ship  venti- 
lation and  water-tight  doors,  and  provided  the  first  and 
most  complete  mathematical  analysis  of  the  S perry  gyro- 
scope when  it  was  offered  to  the  Navy.  He  was  the  author 
of  Resistance  of  Ships  and  Screw  Propulsion  (1893)  and 
Speed  and  Power  of  Ships  (1910). 

Temperley,  Arthur  0.  British  general;  died  in  London, 
Apr.  7,  1940;  born  in  Cambridge,  Aug.  31,  1877.  In  the 
army  from  1900  to  1935.  he  saw  service  during  the  World 
War  and  was  deputy  director  of  military  operations  and 
intelligence  at  the  War  Office  (1928-33)  and  a  member 
of  the  British  delegation  to  the  Disarmament  Conference 
(1932-35).  During  1935-39  he  was  military  correspondent 
of  the  London  Daily  Telegraph.  He  published  The  Whis- 
pering Gallery  of  Europe  (1928). 

Tetrasslnl,  Luisa.  Italian  singer;  died  in  Milan,  Italy, 
Apr.  28,  1940;  born  in  Florence,  June  29,  1871.  She  made 
her  debut  m  L'Africaine  at  Florence  in  1895  and  subse- 
quently sung  in  Rome,  South  America,  Portugal,  Russia, 
and  San  Francisco,  where  in  1904  she  made  her  American 
debut.  Her  first  international  success  was  made  at  Covent 
Garden,  London,  in  1907,  and  in  1908  she  came  to  New 
York,  making  her  debut  as  Violetta  in  Tratnata.  During 
the  season  of  1910-11  she  sang  with  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  Co.,  notably  in  Rigoletto  and  in  Lucia  di  Lam- 
mermoor.  During  1913-14  she  sang  with  the  Chicago  Op- 
era Association.  Thereafter  she  engaged  in  concert  wort, 
making  a  successful  tour  of  the  United  States  and  Cana- 
da in  1921.  Her  last  public  appearance  was  in  1938  when 
she  made  a  recording  which  was  broadcast  to  the  United 
States.  A  coloratura  soprano,  her  voice,  though  not  power- 
ful, was  in  the  higher  registers  clear  and  sweet  Her 
favorite  operas  were  Lucia  di  Lammtrmoor  and  La  Son- 


nambula.  She  published  her  reminiscences,  My  Lift  of 
Song,  in  1921. 

Thakore  Baheb  Shri  Dnannendrasinliji.  Ruler  of  Raf- 
kot,  died  in  the  Gir  Forest,  June  12.  1940;  born  Mar.  4, 
1910.  Ruler  of  Rajkot  State  from  1931,  his  administration 
was  opposed  by  Mohandas  Gandhi  on  Mar.  3,  in  1939. 

Thayer,  Ernest  Lawrence.  American  writer:  died  in 
Santa  Barbara,  Calif.,  Aug.  21,  1940;  born  in  Lawrence, 
Mass.,  Aug.  14,  1863.  He  was  the  author  of  an  indomita- 
ble masterpiece  of  poetic  and  dramatic  fancy  entitled  Ca- 
sey at  the  Bat,  first  published  in  the  San  Francisco  Ex- 
aminer m  1888. 

Thomas.  James  Augustus.  American  tobacco  merchant: 
died  in  White  Plains,  N.Y.,  Sept  10,  1940;  born  in  Law- 
sonville.  N.C.,  Mar.  6,  1862.  He  spent  most  of  his  time 
from  1888  to  1923  in  China  and  other  parts  of  the  Far 
East  establishing  factories  and  warehouses  and  otherwise 
facilitating  the  sale  and  cultivation  of  cigarettes  After 
1914  he  was  managing  director  in  China  of  the  British- 
American  Tobacco  Co.  Ltd.,  which  be  joined  in  1902. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  Chinese-American  Bank  of 
Commerce  and  two  schools  for  Chinese;  and  the  author  of 
Trailing  Trade  a  Million  Miles  (1931). 

Thompson,  Holland.  American  educator  and  author; 
died  in  New  York  City.  N.Y.,  Oct.  21,  1940;  born  in 
Randolph  Co.,  N.C.,  July  30,  1873.  He  was  graduated 
from  the  University,  of  North  Carolina  (1895)  and  held 
several  minor  teaching  posts  before  serving  as  professor 
of  history  at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York  (1920- 
40).  He  was  widely  known  for  his  writings  on  the  eco- 
nomics of  the  South ;  was  editor-in-chief  of  The  Book  of 
Knowledge f  a  children's  encyclopedia  first  published  in 
1910-11  and  revised  frequently  since  that  time;  and  au- 
thor of  Prisons  of  the  Civil  War  (1911),  The  People  and 
the  Trusts  (1912);  The  New  South  (1919)  and  The  Age 
of  Invention  (1921).  He  was  a  contributor  to  the  New 
International ,  the  Bntannica,  and  Nelson's  encyclopedias. 

Thompson,  John  T.  American  mechanical  engineer; 
died  in  Great  Neck,  L  I ,  June  21,  1940;  born  in  New- 
port, Ky.,  Dec.  31,  1860.  In  the  U.S.  Army  from  1882, 
he  was  promoted  through  the  ranks  to  colonel  in  1913, 
but  in  1914  resigned  to  become  chief  engineer  of  the  Rem- 
ington Arms  Corporation.  He  returned  to  the  Army  upon 
the  entry  of  the  United  States  into  the  War  and  he  was 
appointed  Director  of  Arsenals  in  charge  of  all  small 
arms  production  and  for  his  services  he  received  the  Dis- 
tinguished Service  Medal  in  1919.  He  retired  in  1920  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier  general  and  served  in  the  Officers 
Reserve  Corps  until  1930.  With  Capt.  John  N.  Bhsh, 
U.S.N..  he  developed  in  1920  the  Thompson  .45  caliber 
submachine  gun,  light,  portable,  and  automatic,  and  capa- 
ble of  being  fired  from  the  shoulder  After  1920,  he  was 
president  of  John  T.  Thompson  Co  He  was  the  author  of 
Art  of  Designing  and  Constructing  Small  Arms,  Modern 
Weapons  of  War,  and  American  Small  Arms. 

Thomson,  Sir  Joseph  (John).  British  physicist;  died 
in  Cambridge,  Eng.,  Aug  30,  1940,  born  near  Manches- 
ter, Dec.  18,  1856  Educated  at  Owens  College,  Manches- 
ter, and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  he  was  appointed 
fellow  (1880)  and  lecturer  (1883)  at  Trinity;  and  served 
as  Cavendish  professor  of  experimental  physics  at  Cam- 
bridge University  from  1884  to  1918.  Since  1918  he  was 
master  of  Trinity  College  and  honorary  professor  of  phys- 
ics at  Cambridge.  He  was  awarded  the  Nobel  Prize  in 
physics  in  1906,  exactly  31  years  before  his  son,  Prof. 
Paget  Thomson,  received  the  same  distinction.  He  became 
a  fellow  (1884)  and  president  of  the  Royal  Society 
(1916-20). 

Frequently  called  the  "discoverer  of  the  electron,"  he 
was  at  least  one  of  the  very  small  group  of  scientists 
whose  experiments  in  electrical  charges  in  rarefied  gases 
and  cathode  rays  brought  the  theory  of  the  electrical  con- 
stitution of  matter  into  general  acceptance.  In  this  re- 
spect he  was  a  contemporary  of  the  German  scientist 
Lennard.  Although  his  investigations  concerned  chiefly 
the  conduction  of  electricity  through  gases,  the  determina- 
tion of  the  charge  and  mass  of  the  electron  and  analysis 
by  means  of  positive  rays,  he  was  identified  with  many 
other  important  discoveries  in  ballistics,  X-rays,  and  other 
fields  of  physics. 

His  numerous  books  included:  A  Treatise  on  the  Mo- 
tion of  Vortex  Rings  (1884);  Application  of  Dynamics 
to  Physics  and  Chemistry  (1886);  Recent  Researches  in 
Electricity  and  Magnetism  (1892);  Elements  of  the  Math- 
ematical Theory  of  Electricity  and  Magnetism  (1895); 
Discharge  of  Electricity  Through  Cases  (1897);  Conduc- 
tion of  Electricity  Through  Cases  (1903);  The  Structure 
of  Light;  The  Corpuscular  Theory  of  Matter  (1907); 
Rays  of  Positive  Electricity  and  Their  Application  to 
Chemical  Analysis  (1913)  and  The  Electron  in  Chemistry 
(1923).  Professor  Thomson  was  the  recipient  of  numerous 
honorary  degrees  and  medals. 

Thorndike  Augustus.  American  orthopedic  surgeon; 
died  in  Bar  Harbor,  Me..  Aug  23,  1940:  born  in  Paris, 
France,  Apr.  27,  1863.  A  graduate  of  Harvard  (1884). 
he  helped  found  the  Industrial  School  for  Cnppled  and 
Deformed  Children  and  aided  in  the  establishment  of  the 


NBCROLOOY 


533 


NECROLOGY 


State  Hospital  School  for  Cripples  at  Canton.  Mass.  He 
wai  the  author  of  A  Manual  of  Orthopaedic  Surgery 
(1907),  a  textbook  used  by  many  medical  schools. 

TfenrlQW,  Louis  X.  American  steamship  owner:  died  in 
Brookline,  Mass.,  on  Dec.  31,  1940;  born  in  Cutler,  Me., 
in  1888.  He  founded  the  Crowell  and  Thurlow  Steamship 
Co..  with  shipyards  in  Boothbay  and  Bar  Harbor,  Me., 
in  1896  and  was  elected  president  of  the  Cape  Cod  Steam- 
ship Co.  in  1932. 

Tighe.  Michael  F.  American  labor  leader;  died  in  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.,  Aug.  5,  1940;  born  in  Boon  ton,  N.J.,  1858. 
An  employee  for  29  years  of  the  Wheeling  (WVa.) 
Iron  and  Nail  Co.,  he  was  president  of  the  Amalgamated 
Association  of  Iron,  Steel  and  Tin  Workers  from  1920 
to  1937.  He  retired  to  make  way  for  the  Steel  Workers 
Organizing  Committee  of  the  C.I.O. 

Tlhen,  John  Henry.  American  Roman  Catholic  clergy- 
man; died  in  Wichita,  Kans.,  Jan.  14.  1940;  born  in 
Oldenburg.  Ind.,  July  14,  1861.  Ordained  in  1886{  he  was 
named  bishop  of  Lincoln,  Neb.,  in  1911,  and  bishop  of 
Denver  in  1917.  He  retired  in  1931. 

Tlmken,  Henry  H.  American  industrialist;  died  in  Can- 
ton, O.j  Oct.  14,  1940;  born  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Apr.  19, 
1868.  A  graduate  of  the  University  of  California  Law 
School,  he  entered  the  carriage  trade  with  his  father, 
with  whom  he  later  founded  (1901)  the  Canton  Roller 
Bearing  Axle  Co.  which  eventually  became  the  Detroit- 
Timken  Axle  Co.  of  Detroit.  He  played  a  major  role  in 
the  development  of  the  automobile. 

Tlnney,  Frank.  American  actor;  died  in  Northport, 
L.I,  Nov.  28,  1940;  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Mar.  29. 
1878.  He  first  appeared  in  New  York  in  the  Follies  of 
1910,  in  the  role  of  a  black-face  comedian;  played  vari- 
ously in  vaudeville  and  on  the  musical  comedy  stage;  and 
fell  from  popularity  in  1924  following  a  highly-publicized 
quarrel  between  himself  and  Imogene  Wilson,  the  actress, 
who  later  starred  in  motion  pictures  under  the  name  of 
Mary  Nolan. 

Todd,  Barle  M.  American  clergyman;  died  in  Har- 
lingen,  Tex.,  Tan.  13,  1940,  born  in  Vcrnon,  Ind,  Oct. 
17,  1863.  Ordained  in  the  ministry  of  the  Disciples  of 
Christ  in  1888,  he  served  in  many  pastorates  and  during 
1914-17  was  president  of  Christian  University,  now  Cul- 
ver-Stockton College,  in  Missouri 

Toral,  Eemigio  Orespo.  See  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LIT- 
ERATURES under  Ecuador. 

Tovey,  Sir  Donald  Francis  British  composer  and  mu- 
sician, died  in  Edinburgh,  Scot,  July  19,  1940;  born  in 
Eton,  Eng,  July  17,  1875  Educated  privately  and  at  Bal- 
hoi  College,  Oxford,  his  first  series  of  concerts  of  cham- 
ber music  in  London  were  given  in  1900  and  followed  by 
similar  appearances  in  Berlin  and  Vienna  Since  1914  he 
was  Reid  professor  of  music  at  Edinburgh  University, 
where  he  organized  and  led  the  Reid  Orchestra.  He  visited 
the  United  States  in  a  series  of  concerts  in  1928;  was  the 
author  of  the  opera  The  Bride  of  Dionysius  as  well  as 
many  concertos;  and  wrote  prodigiously  on  musical  analy- 
sis. 

Trancn-Jasi,  Grlgore.  Rumanian  economist,  died  in 
Bucharest,  Jan.  8.  1940;  born  in  Jassy,  in  1873.  The  au- 
thor of  the  Social  Law  of  1920.  he  was  Rumania's  first 
minister  of  labor  and  founder  of  the  department  of  labor. 

Troths,,  Adolf  von.  German  admiral  and  author;  died 
in  Berlin,  Germany,  Oct.  11,  1940;  born  in  Coblenz,  1868. 
A  graduate  of  the  German  Naval  Academy  (1900),  he 
became  chief  of  staff  to  Admiral  Scheer  in  1916,  com- 
manded the  battleship  Kaiser  at  the  Battle  of  Jutland, 
and  was  Chief  of  the  German  Admiralty  from  March, 
1919,  to  September,  1920. 

Trotsky,  Leon  (Lev  Davidovich  Bronstein).  Russian 
revolutionist  and  leader  {  died  in  Mexico  City,  Aug  21, 
1940,  from  wounds  inflicted  by  an  assassin  on  the  pre- 
ceding day;  bom  in  Kherson,  Russian  Ukramia,  1879. 
After  attending  local  schools  in  Russia,  he  embraced 
Marxism,  and  was  exiled  (1901)  to  Siberia  for  four  years 
for  participating  in  a  workmen's  revolutionary  move- 


months,  on  a  false  passport  made  out  in  the  name  of  one 
Trotsky,  and  took  asylum  successively  in  France,  Switzer- 
land,  Austria,  and  Germany,  earning  sustenance  by  the 
strength  of  his  pen. 

He  was  editing  a  newspaper  in  Berlin  when  the  World 
War  broke  out;  and  was  thereupon  viewed  with  immedi- 
ate suspicion  and  finally  exiled  as  a  "dangerous  anar- 
chist."  After  hesitant  stops  in  Austria  and  Switzerland, 
he  took  refuge. in  Pans;  but  here  he  was  suspected  of 
pro-German  activities,  and  found  it  advisable  to  seek  a 
haven  in  the  New  World,  arriving  (with  his  wife  and  two 
sons)  in  New  York  City  on  Jan.  14,  1917.  He  rented  a 
three-room  flat  on  Vyse  Avenue,  the  Bronx;  wrote  edi- 
torials for  radical  publications;  and  delivered  lectures  in 
which  he  predicted  that  the  war  would  be  followed  by 
proletarian  revolutions  in  the  countries  involved.  Follow- 
ing the  dethronement  of  the  Czar,  he  left  New  York  on 
the  S.S.  Krutianiafjord  (Mar.  27,  1917)  and  arrived  in 


Russia  the  next  month;  allied  himself  with  the  provisional 
Kerensky  government;  but  played  a  leading  role  in  the 
October  Revolution  that  brought  the  Bolshevists  and  Len- 
in into  power. 

Lenin  rewarded  him  with  the  post  of  Foreign  Minister, 
in  which  capacity  he  negotiated  the  Brest-Litovsk  treaty, 
thus  taking  Russia  out  of  the  World  War.  Later  he  was 
made  Minister  of  War  and  distinguished  himself  by  re- 
organizing and  revitalizing  the  shattered  army  and  de- 
feating the  ant  i -Bolshevist  Russian  forces  under  the  com- 
mands of  Yudenitch,  Kolchak.  Denikin,  and  Wrangel. 
He  remstituted  compulsory  military  training,  was  a  se- 
vere disciplinarian,  and  made  his  headquarters  in  a  spe- 
cial armored  railway  tram.  His  passion  for  all-out  ef- 
ficiency caused  discontent  in  the  ranks  of  workers  as  well 
as  the  soldiers;  he  had  several  collisions  with  Lenin;  his 
popularity  and  power  began  to  wane:  and  when  Lenin  be- 
came  ill  in  1923,  the  All-Russian  Congress  named  a  tri- 
umvirate of  Kameneff,  Zinoviefr,  and  Stalin,  the  General 
Secretary  of  the  Communist  Party,  to  assume  the  leader- 
ship of  the  State. 

Lenin  died  in  1924  and  Trotsky  steadily  slipped  from 
power.  He  was  removed  as  chairman  of  the  Revolutionary 
War  Council  (1925):  and  was  ousted  from  the  Political 
Bureau  (October,  1926),  from  the  Supreme  Economic 
Council  (November,  1926),  and  from  the  Central  Com- 
mittee of  the  Communist  party  in  October,  1927.  In  Jan- 
uary. 1928,  it  became  known  that  Trotsky  had  been  exiled 
to  Siberia;  in  February,  1929,  he  was  expelled  from  the 
country. 

He  lived  in  Turkey  from  1929  to  1933,  seeking  the 
while  to  obtain  asylum  in  surroundings  more  conducive  to 
his  health,  already  undermined  by  asthma  and  threatened 
with  tuberculosis.  France  granted  him  a  home  in  1933 
but  pushed  him  out  in  1935  for  not  "observing  the  duties 
of  neutrality."  He  stayed  in  Norway  from  June,  1935,  to 
January,  1937,  when  the  mass  treason  trials  in  Russia, 
coupled  as  they  were  with  Trotsky's  name,  impelled  the 
Norwegian  government  to  ease  him  out  of  their  domain. 
Thereafter  he  lived  in  Mexico  until  his  death 

The  Trotsky-Stalin  feud  was  more  than  a  clash  of  per- 
sonalities struggling  for  personal  power,  it  represented  a 
fundamental  difference  of  opinion  concerning  Communist 
doctrine  and  method.  Trotsky  was  the  arch-extremist,  the 
believer  in  communism  pure  and  simple  without  compro- 
mise; the  enemy  of  the  capitalist  governments;  the  con- 
stant  instigator  of  the  world  revolution.  He  urged  an  ag- 
gressive policy  toward  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  and  a  friendly  hand  to  China.  He  wrote  for  many 
periodicals  and  pamphlets  and  was  the  author  of  the  fol- 
lowing books:  Literature  and  Revolution  (1925);  My 
Life  (1930);  History  of  the  Russian  Revolution  (1932- 
34);  and  The  Revolution  Betrayed.  See  the  article  on 
COMMUNISM:  also  MEXICO  under  History. 

Trotter,  Frank  Butler.  American  educator;  died  in 
Morgantown,  W.Va ,  Mar.  7,  1940;  born  in  Washington 
Co.f  Ohio,  Feb.  27,  1863.  Associated  with  West  Virginia 
University  as  piofessor  of  Latin  from  1907,  he  was  dean 
of  the  College  of  Arts  and  Sciences  (1911-16),  acting 
president  (1914-16),  and  president  (1916-23). 

Trotter,  Melvlu  B.  (Mel  Trotter).  American  evange- 
list, died  in  Macatawa  Park  near  Holland,  Mich.,  Sept. 
llt  1940;  born  in  Orangeville,  III.  May  16,  1870.  Or- 
darned  a  Presbyterian  minister  in  1905,  he  founded  more 
than  67  city  missions  in  the  United  States 

Trunk,  Joseph  V.  American  educator,  president  of 
Trinity  College,  Sioux  City,  la.,  since  1938;  died  on  Ju- 
ly 9,  1940;  born  in  1899. 

Tryon,  Baron,  George  Clement  Tryon.  British  officer 
and  politician;  died  in  Sunmngdale,  Berkshire,  Eng., 
Nov.  24,  1940;  born  on  May  15,  1871  A  member  of  Par- 
liament from  Brighton  since  1910.  he  was  Postmaster 
Genera]  of  England  fiom  1935  until  April,  1940. 

Tsal  Yuan-pel.  Chinese  educator;  died  in  Hongkong, 
Mar.  5,  1940;  born  in  1867.  A  member  of  Sun  Yat-SenTs 
revolutionary  party  from  1905,  he  was  minister  of  edu- 
cation in  the  first  republican  government  in  1912  and 
again  in  General  Chiang  Kai-shek's  first  nationalist  gov- 
ernment in  1926.  During  1917-23  he  was  chancellor  of 
Peking  National  University  and  after  1928  was  president 
of  Acaderaia  Smica 

Tnrpin,  Ban.  American  motion  picture  actor;  died  in 
Hollywood,  Calif.,  July  1,  1940,  born  in  New  Orleans, 
La.,  in  1869.  He  was  one  of  the  first  slapstick  comedians 
in  motion  pictures  and  built  his  comedy  act  around  his 
crossed  eyes.  He  was  one  of  the  mainstays  of  the  Mack 
Sennett  comedies  but  had  not  appeared  in  recent  years 
except  in  "bit"  parts. 

Tweed,  Thomas  F.  British  politician;  died  in  London, 
Apr.  30,  1940;  born  in  Liverpool  in  1890  A  Liberal  in 
politics,  he  served  as  secretary  of  the  Manchester  Liberal 
Federation  (1918-26).  was  chief  organizer  of  the  Liberal 
Party  (1927-31),  and  secretary  of  the  Liberal  Organisa- 
tion Committee  (1930-31).  He  was  a  political  advisor  to 
Lloyd  George  after  1926.  He  wrote  Gabriel  Over  the 
White  House,  published  anonymous! v  in  1933 

Tweed!*,  Mrs.  Alec.  British  author;  died  in  London, 


NECROLOGY 


534 


NECROLOGY 


Apr.  15,  1940.  Active  on  philanthropic  sad  charitable  com- 
mittees,  she  wrote  many  books,  including  Porfno  DiaM 
(1906),  America  at  1  taw  It  (1913),  Ttok*  Comers  of 
My  Adventurous  Life  (1933),  etc.  Several  exhibitions  of 
her  water  colors  have  been  held. 

Tweedamnir,  1st  Baron,  of  Blifleld,  Sir  John  Bnchaa. 
British  writer  and  politician,  died  in  Montreal,  Feb.  11. 
1940;  born  in  Perth,  Scotland,  Aug.  26,  1875.  Educated 
at  Oxford  where  he  won  many  honors,  he  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1901  and  then  became  secretary  to  the  High 
Commissioner  for  South  Africa  (1901-03).  Upon  his  re- 
turn he  became  a  partner  in  the  publishing  firm  of  Thom- 
as Nelson  &  Sons,  and  upon  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War  in  1914  he  went  to  France  as  a  correspondent  for 
the  London  Ttmes  and  subsequently  became  attached  to 
the  headquarters  staff  of  the  British  Army  in  France.  In 
1917  he  was  recalled  to  act  as  Director  of  Information. 
Elected  to  Parliament  as  a  Conservative  from  the  Scottish 
Universities  in  1927,  he  held  this  post  until  1935  when  he 
was  appointed  Governor  General  of  Canada  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage.  During  1933-34  he  was  Lord  High 
Commissioner  to  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  in  1937  he 
was  named  Chancellor  of  Edinburgh  University.  A  noted 
man  of  letters,  Lord  Tweedsmuir  was  the  author  of  many 
popular  novels,  a  biographer,  and  a  historian.  Chief  among 
his  works,  which  number  over  fifty  and  were  begun  in 
1896  are:  A  Htstory  of  Brasenose  College  (1898),  The 
Thirty-Nine  Stept  (1915),  Greenmantle  (1916),  Mr. 
Standfast  (1919),  A  History  of  the  Great  War  (1921- 
22),  Sir  Walter  Scott  (1932),  Gordon  at  Khartoum 
(1934),  Oliver  Cromwell  (1934),  The  King's  Grace 
(1935),  Augustus  (1937).  Pilgrim's  Way,  an  autobiogra- 
phy (1940).  and  Mountain  Meadow  (published.  1941). 

tJlmanis,  KarL  Latvian  statesman;  died  of  injuries  in- 
flicted by  political  enemies  on  July  22,  1940;  born  on  Sept. 
4,  1877.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1907.  studied 
agriculture  at  the  University  of  Nebraska,  and  was  after- 
ward an  instructor  there;  returned  to  Latvia  (then  a  part 
of  Russia)  at  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War;  was  one  of 
the  authors  of  the  Latvian  Declaration  of  Independence 
in  1918  and  first  Prime  Minister  of  the  new  republic.  He 
was  Prime  Minister  again  from  March,  1931,  to  Decem- 
ber, 1932.  In  1934  he  dissolved  Parliament  and  founded  a 
totalitarian  regime  with  himself  as  President  and  Prime 
Minister,  positions  he  held  until  July  20,  1940,  when  he 
was  ejected  from  office  as  a  prelude  to  Soviet  Russia's 
absorption  of  the  country 

TJntannyer,  Samuel.  American  lawyer;  died  in  Palm 
Springs,  Calif.,  Mar.  16,  1940;  born  in  Lynchburg,  Va., 
June  6,  1858.  Admitted  to  the  bar  in  1879,  he  went  into 
partnership  with  his  half-brother  in  the  firm  of  Guggen- 
neimer  &  Untermyer,  which  in  1895  became  known  as 
Gnggenheiraer,  Untermyer  &  Marshall  During  his  long 
career  he  became  known  as  the  "money  trust"  inquisitor, 
the  counsel  for  the  Lockwood  legislative  investigating 
committee,  the  critic  of  Wall  Street,  the  defender  of  the 
rights  of  minority  stockholders,  the  transit  investigator, 
and  the  supporter  of  the  five-cent  fare.  One  of  the  most 
sought  after  lawyers  in  the  country,  he  devoted  a  good 
deal  of  his  time  to  non-profitable  civic  service  and  was 
counsel  for  the  Committee  on  Banking  and  Currency  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  in  the  'Tujo  Money  Trust 
Investigation"  (1912);  counsel  for  the  Joint  Legislative 
(N.Y.J  Committee  on  Housing,  the  "Lockwood  Commit- 
tee," in  its  investigation  of  the  building  trades  and  also 
as  special  attorney  general  in  the  prosecution  disclosed  by 
the  Committee  (1919-20);  and  from  1927  to  1931  he  was 
special  counsel  for  the  New  York  Transit  Commission  in 
formulating  unification  plans  for  the  rapid  transit  lines 
and  as  counsel  for  the  Commission  and  the  City  in  suits 
by  and  against  the  Interborough  Rapid  Transit  Co,  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  five-cent  fare.  Subsequently  (1935- 
38),  he  was  counsel  for  the  Interborough  and  Manhat- 
tan Railroads  in  the  negotiations  and  proceedings  for  the 
unification  of  the  New  York  City  subway  lines  A  Demo- 
crat, he  took  an  active  part  in  politico  and  was  a  delegate 
to  the  national  conventions  of  1904,  1908,  1916,  1932,  and 
1936,  and  was  a  delegate-at-large  to  the  New  York  State 
Constitutional  Convention  in  1938.  After  1933  he  was  ac- 
tively interested  in  antl-Naai  organizations  and  was  pres- 
ident of  the  Non-Sectarian  Anti-Nazi  Council,  the  World 
Jewish  Economic  Federation,  and  the  International  Non- 
Sectarian  Anti-Nazi  League  for  Human  Rights.  Deeply 
interested  in  horticulture,  the  gardens  at  his  estate  "Grey- 
stone,"  Yonkers,  N  Y.,  were  famous. 

TTnwln,  Sir  Baymond.  British  architect;  died  in  Lyme, 
Conn..  June  28,  1940;  bom  in  Rotherham,  Yorks ,  Nov. 
2,  1863.  Known  as  a  town  planner  and  housing  expert, 
he  laid  out  the  First  Garden  City,  Letchworth  and  the 
Hampstead  Garden  Suburb,  and  from  1915  to  1929  was 
the  chief  technical  officer  for  Building  and  Town  Plan- 
ning in  the  Ministry  of  Health.  He  served  as  chief  ad- 
viser to  the  Greater  London  Rexfonal  Town  Planning 
Committee  (1929-33)  and  after  1936  was  visiting  profe 


Royal  Society  (1937).  and  anther  of  7> 

Practice   (1932).  In   March,    1940,   he  was  appointed  a 


member  of  a  committee  of  the  Twentieth  Century  Fund 
to  conduct  a  survey  of  housing  needs  in  the  United  States. 

Upson,  Norton  L.  American  oil  financier;  died  in  Buf- 
falo, N.Y.,  oa  Dec.  29,  1940:  born  in  Greenwich,  O.,  in 
1847.  He  formerly  headed  the  Commercial  Oil  Co.  and 
the  Upson  Oil  and  Soap  Co.  of  Parkersburg,  W.Va.,  and 
the  Pease  Oil  Co.  of  Buffalo,  N.Y.  His  son,  Henry,  sue- 
ceeded  him  as  president  of  the  Pease  Oil  Co.  in  1903.  In 
the  1870's  the  elder  Upson  refused  an  offer  of  the  late 
John  D.  Rockefeller  to  merge  their  oil  companies. 

Vance,  William  Reynolds.  American  insurance  law  au- 
thority; died  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Oct.  23,  1940:  born 
in  Middletown,  Ky.,  May  9,  1870.  He  was  graduated  from 
Washington  and  Lee  University  (1892),  receiving  his  law 
degree  in  1897  and  serving  as  professor  of  law  there  un- 
til 1903.  He  was  thereafter  professor  of  law  at  George 
Washington  University  (1903-10)  and  dean  of  the  law 
school  (1905-10);  Lines  professor  at  Yale  University 
(1910-12);  dean  of  the  law  school  of  the  University  of 
Minnesota  (1912-20);  and  Sterling,  Foster,  and  Carver 
professor  of  law  at  Yale  University  from  1920  until  he 
retired  as  emeritus  in  1938.  He  was  the  author  of  Slavery 
in  Kentucky  (1895),  Vance  on  Insurance  (1904),  Early 
History  of  Insurance  Law  (1909),  and  Cases  on  Insur- 
ance (1914),  a  widely  used  college  textbook. 

Vanderbilt,  Anne  Harrtman  (Mrs.  William  K.,  8r.). 
American  social  leader;  died  in  New  York,  Apr.  20,  1940. 
She  was  married  to  Mr.  Vanderbilt  in  1903,  and  was 
known  for  her  work  in  the  Protestant  Rig  Sisters,  the 
American  Red  Cross,  the  American  Woman  s  Association, 
and  other  charitable  organizations  During  the  World  War 
she  was  a  founder  of  the  American  Ambulance  at  Ncuilly, 
France,  which  subsequently  became  Military  Hospital  No.  1. 

Vann,  Robert  L.  American  Negro  editor  and  publisher; 
died  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Oct.  24,  1940;  born  near  Ahoskie, 
N.C..  Aug.  29,  1879.  A  graduate  of  the  University  of 
Pittsburgh  (1906),  he  practiced  law  since  1910,  founded 
the  Pittsburgh  Courier,  a  weekly  newspaper  devoted  to 
the  interests  of  the  Negro  race,  and  was  editor  from  1912 
until  his  death  He  was  Special  Assistant  Attorney  Gen- 
eral of  the  United  States  during  1933-36  and  was  Repub- 
lican national  director  of  Negro  publicity  in  the  campaigns 
of  Warren  G.  Harding,  Calvin  Coolidge,  and  the  first  cam- 
paign of  Herbert  Hoover,  thereafter  throwing  his  support 
to  Franklin  D  Roosevelt  and  latterly  to  Wendell  Willkie. 

Vauclaln,  Samuel  Matthews.  American  industrialist; 
died  in  Rosemont.  Pa  .  Feb.  4,  1940.  born  in  Philadelphia, 
May  18,  1856  With  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works  from 
1883,  he  was  elected  its  president  in  1919  and  chairman 
of  the  board  of  directors  in  1929.  In  1889  he  designed  the 
first  compound  locomotive  for  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  R  R. 
During  the  World  War  his  organization  manufactured 
ordnance  and  munitions  to  the  amount  of  $250,000,000 
and  he  served  as  a  member  of  the  Council  of  National 
Defense  and  of  the  War  Industries  Board.  He  received 
honors  from  Italy,  Poland,  France,  and  the  United  States 
and  was  awarded  the  John  Scott  Medal  in  1891  and  in 
1931. 

Valado,  Oalixto.  See  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES 
under  Puerto  Rtco 

Verdier.  Jean.  Cardinal  French  Roman  Catholic  prel- 
ate; died  in  Paris.  Apr.  9,  1940:  born  in  1864.  Ordained 
in  1887,  in  1929  he  was  named  superior  general  of  the 
Saint-Sulpice  Congregation  and  Archbishop  of  Paris. 
Shortly  after  he  was  made  a  Cardinal  He  was  a  foe  of 
dictatorships  and  a  champion  of  the  oppressed. 

Vernon,  Frank.  British  actor  and  producer;  died  some- 
where in  France,  Mar.  18,  1940;  born  in  Bombay,  Mar. 
6,  1875.  He  made  his  first  appearance  as  an  actor  in  1894 
and  was  seen  in  Trelawney  of  the  Wells  (1898);  Romeo 
and  Juliet  (J904):  The  Pigeon  (1912)  His  first  produc- 
tions were  The  Winter's  Tale  (1905),  Cymbeline  (1908), 
and  King  Lear  (1909).  After  the  World  War  he  continued 
producing  plays,  one  of  the  latest  being  Red  Rust  (1929). 
During  the  World  War,  he  saw  service  in  the  Array 
Ordnance  Department  being  promoted  to  major  With  the 
outbreak  of  the  European  War  in  September,  1939,  he  re- 
joined the  Army  and  at  his  death  was  serving  with  the 
British  Expeditionary  Forces  in  France. 

Vestey,  of  Kingswood,  1st  Baron,  William  Vestey. 


uurn    IM    *rf»»«.»K"wi,    JO.H.    *it    lojjr.     wim    HID    uroincr    oir 

Edmund  Vestey,  he  founded  and  headed  the  Union  Cold 
Storage  Co.  and  operated  the  Blue  Star  steamship  line. 
He  was  created  a  baronet  in  1913  with  a  coat  of  arms  that 
included  an  iceberg,  a  bull,  a  sheep,  and  a  row  of  three 
eggs  to  represent  his  interests  in  cold  storage,  shipping, 
and  meat  packing. 

Veil!,  Josef.  Hungarian  journalist,  editor-in-chief  of 
Pester  Lloyd  (1913-37);  died  in  Budapest,  Jan.  29,  1940; 
born  in  Arad,  1858. 

Voltanann,  Helmnth.  German  general,  head  of  the  Ger- 
man Air  Academy  and  commander  of  the  Condor  Legion, 
the  German  expeditionary  force  which  fought  with  Gen- 


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535 


NECROLOGY 


eratissimo  Francisco  Franco  in  the  Spanish  Civil  War; 
died  la  August,  1940,  of  injuries  received  in  an  attto* 
mobile  accident,  according  to  a  German  radio  broadcast 
beard  in  New  York  City  in  August,  1940. 

Volpt,  Arnold.  American  orchestral  conductor;  died  in 
Miamii  Fla.,  Feb.  2,  1940;  born  in  Kovno.  Russia,  July 
9.  1869.  In  1918  he  originated  the  New  York  Stadium 
Concerts  which  he  conducted  for  the  first  two  years  and 
of  which  be  was  guest  conductor  in  1924,  1927,  and  1936. 
In  1926  he  became  conductor  of  the  Miami  Symphony 
Orchestra,  in  1931  he  organized  an  orchestra  in  Kansas 
City,  and  in  1934  he  founded  the  University  of  Miami 
Symphony  Orchestra. 

Volterra,  Vlto.  Italian  senator,  mathematician,  and  bi- 
ologist: died  on  Oct.  11,  1940;  born  in  Ancona,  Italy, 
1860.  Professor  of  mathematics  at  the  University  of  Rome 
since  1900,  he  was  dismissed  in  1931  because  he  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Fascism.  Since  then  he 
was  invited  by  Pope  Pius  XI  to  join  the  Papal  Academy 
and  was  one  of  the  few  Jews  to  be  thus  honored. 

VulUard,  Edouard.  French  painter;  died  in  La  Baule, 
France,  June  21.  1940:  born  in  Cuiscaux,  1868.  Although 
best  known  for  his  still  hfes  and  interiors,  he  did  recent 
portraits  of  Camille  Chautempa  and  Yvon  Deltas  and  was 
regarded  as  a  link  between  the  impressionist  and  post- 
impressionist  schools.  Some  of  his  paintings  hang  in  the 
Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  the  Cleveland  Museum,  the 
Buffalo  Museum,  and  in  noted  private  collections. 

Wagner- Jauregg,  Julius.  Austrian  pathologist;  died  in 
Vienna,  Oct.  1,  1940;  born  in  Wels,  Upper  Austria,  Mar 
7,  1857  He  was  a  member  of  the  faculty  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Vienna,  his  alma  mater,  from  1881  to  1928,  except 
for  a  brief  interlude  as  professor  of  psychiatry  and  neu- 
rology at  the  Graz  University  (1883-89).  In  1887  he 
discovered,  purely  by  accident,  that  a  victim  of  paresis 
showed  a  marked  mental  improvement  following  an  at- 
tack of  fever.  He  experimented  for  many  years  and  an- 
nounced in  1917  that  he  bad  found  a  safe  arresting  agent 
for  syphilitic  paralysis,  namely  the  fever  induced  T>y  ter- 
tiara  malaria.  lie  received  the  Nobel  Prize  in  Medicine  in 
1927. 

Wald,  Lillian  D.  American  social  worker  and  publicist; 
died  in  Westport.  Conn.,  Sept.  1,  1940;  tarn  in  Cincin- 
nati, 0.,  Mar.  10,  1867.  The  daughter  of  a  well-to-do 
optician,  she  was  educated  at  private  schools;  was  grad- 
uated from  the  New  York  Hospital  Training  School  for 
Nurses  and,  with  Miss  Mary  Brewster,  founded  a  visit- 
ing nurse  association  with  headquarters  in  a  tenement  on 
Jefferson  Street.  New  York  City  (1893).  With  money 
donated  by  Jacob  Schiff  she  purchased  in  1895  a  building 
at  265  Henry  Street  which  became  known  as  the  Henry 
Street  Settlement,  a  free  nursing  association  which  tends 
to  an  average  of  100,000  persons  in  New  York  City  an- 
nually. Miss  Wald  retired  m  from  active  direction  in  1933 
and  resigned  as  president  in  1937. 

Walsh,  Mainwaring  B.  British  brigadier;  killed  in  ac- 
tion in  France,  May,  1940;  tarn  in  1876.  In  the  army 
from  1899,  he  saw  service  in  the  South  African  War 
(1899-1902),  the  European  War  (1914-19),  in  India 
(1924-27),  with  the  Territorial  Army  (1928-30),  and 
with  the  Scottish  Command  (1930-33)  when  he  retired 

Wambaugh,  Eugene.  American  lawyer  and  educator; 
died  in  Dublin,  N  H.,  Aug.  6,  1940,  tain  near  Brook- 
ville,  O.,  Feb  29,  1856.  He  was  professor  at  the  Harvard 
Law  School,  his  alma  mater,  from  1892  to  1925,  when  he 
retired  with  the  title  emeritus.  He  wrote  many  articles 
and  books  on  legal  matters. 

Ward,  George  8.  American  bakery  executive;  died  in 
Havana,  Cuba,  Sept.  3,  1940;  bom  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa., 
1867.  One  of  the  founders  of  the  Ward  Baking  Co.  in 
1911,  he  was  its  president  from  1915  to  1926 

Waring,  1st  Baron,  Samuel  James  Waring.  British 
decorative  authority;  died  in  London,  Jan  9,  1940;  tarn 
in  Liverpool,  Apr.  19,  1860.  In  1893  he  founded  Waring 
&  Sons  and  subsequently  was  chairman  of  Wanng-Gillow, 
Ltd.,  specialists  in  furnishing  luxury  liners,  hotels,  etc. 
He  retired  in  1930 

Warren,  Harry  M.  American  Baptist  clergyman  and 
crusader;  died  in  Chappaqua,  N.Y.,  on  Dec  21,  1940; 
tarn  in  Hudson,  N.Y..  Apr.  19,  1867.  After  attending 
Colgate  University  and  Union  Theological  Seminary,  he 
was  ordained. in  1891;  held  several  pastorates;  and  was 
the  founder  in  1906,  and  president  thereafter,  of  the 
National  Save-a-Life  League,  an  organization  devoted  to 
the  rescue  of  persons  contemplating  suicide. 

Waste,  William  H.  American  jurist;  died  in  Berkeley, 
Calif.,  June  6,  1940;  born  in  Chico,  Calif.,  Oct.  31,  1868. 
A  member  of  the  bar  from  1894,  he  was  associate  justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  California  during  1921-26,  and 
chief  justice  thereafter.  * 

Watroui,  Henry  WlUm.  American  artist;  died  in 
New  York,  May  9,  1940;  bom  in  San  Francisco,  Sept. 
17,  1857.  Well  known  as  a  genre  painter,  his  works  re- 
ceived the  Clark  prize  (1894),  the  Altman  S1000  prize 
0929).  the  GanMrie  prize  (1931),  and  AeValtus  medal 
(1934),  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design:  and  the 
—  prise  of  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  (1935). 


He  was  secretary  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design  dor- 
ing  1898  to  1920,  and  its  president  in  1933.  He  held  his 
first  one-man  showing  in  1937. 

Watson,  Olarsnot  W.  American  industrialist  and  pol- 
itician: died  in  Cincinnati.  May  24,  1940;  born  in  Fair- 
mont,  W.Va.,  May  8,  1864.  A  former  coal  miner,  he  was 
president  of  the  Consolidation  Coal  Co.,  until  1911  and 
again  during  1919-28,  and  was  chairman  of  the  board  dur- 
ing 1911-18.  He  served  in  the  U.S.  Senate  as  Democratic 
Senator  from  West  Virginia  from  1911  to  1913  to  fill  an 
unexpired  term. 

Wangh,   Frederick   Jndd.   American   artist;    died   in 
Provincetpwn,   Mass,   Sept.   10,    1940:   born  in  Borden- 
pt  13,  1861.  He  studied  at  the  Pennsylya- 

„     t  Fine  Arts  and  the  Julian  Academy,  Paris; 

lived  abroad  from  1892  to  1907,  exhibiting  bis  work  at 
the  Salon,  Paris,  and  the  Royal  Academy  in  London.  He 
returned  to  this  country  in  1908  to  become  one  of  the 
most  successful  marine  painters  of  his  generation.  He  pro- 
duced an  average  of  50  seascapes  a  year  for  an  annual 
income  of  approximately  $30,000  Some  of  his  works  hang 
in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  the  Art  Institute  of 
Chicago,  the  National  Gallery  in  Washington,  and  the 
Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

Webb,  Bobert  Thomas.  American  clergyman;  died  in 
Petersburg,  Va.,  Mar.  19,  1940;  born  near  Louisburg. 
NC,  Aug.  30,  1866  Ordained  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister  in  1895.  he  served  in  various  pastorates,  his  last 
one  beme  at  Pikeville,  Ky.  (1931-37)  Associated  with 
Morris  Harvey  College  from  1912,  he  served  as  its  presi- 
dent and  secretary  of  education  (1920-22),  as  professor 
of  theology  (1923),  and  as  financial  secretary  (1929-31). 

Weicker,  Theodore.  American  manufacturer;  died  in 
Greenwich,  Conn.,  Aug.  7,  1940;  born  in  Darmstadt,  Ger- 
many, June  6,  1861.  He  came  to  New  York  in  1885  to 
become  a  partner  in  the  American  branch  of  the  German 
firm  of  Merck  and  Co  In  1905,  with  Lowell  M.  Palmer, 
he  purchased  the  pharmaceutical  business  of  E.  R  Squibb 
and  Sons,  of  which  he  was  a  director  for  many  years  be- 
fore becoming:  chairman  of  the  board  in  1936 

Weil,  Arthur  W.  American  lawyer,  an  authority  on 
copyright  law  and  author  of  W*\l  on  Copyright,  a  stand- 
ard work,  died  in  New  York,  Apr.  29,  1940,  born  in  St 
Louis,  Mo,  in  1881 

Wenckebacb,  Karel  Frederik.  Austrian  physician  and 
noted  heart  specialist;  died  in  Vienna,  Austna,  Nov.  11, 
1940:  born  in  the  Netherlands,  1864. 

Wheeler,  Alvin  8.  American  chemist,  Kenan  professor 
of  organic  chemistry  at  the  University  of  North  Carolina 
from  1912  until  1936,  when  he  was  retired  as  emeritus; 
died  in  Chapel  Hill,  N.C.,  May  12,  1940;  bom  in  Holyoke, 
Mass ,  Nov.  2,  1866.  He  was  an  international  authority 
on  dyes. 

White,  Sir  (Cyril)  BrudeneU  (Bingham).  Australian 
general;  died  in  an  airplane  accident  8  miles  from  Can- 
berra, Australia,  Aug.  13,  1940;  born  in  St.  Arnaud, 
Victoria,  Sept  23,  1876.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  Boer  and  World  Wars ;  was  chief  of  the  General  Staff 
of  the  Australian  military  forces  from  1920  to  1923  when 
he  retired  to  enter  pnvate  business,  and  was  recalled  as 
chief  of  staff  following  the  death  of  Lieut  Gen  E  K. 
Squires  in  March,  1940 

White,  Frank.  American  politician;  died  in  Washing- 
ton, Mar.  23,  1940;  born  in  Stillraan  Valley,  111 ,  Dec  12, 
1856.  He  was  Republican  governor  of  North  Dakota 
(1901-05)  and  Treasurer  of  the  United  States  (1921-28). 
Thereafter  he  was  in  the  banking  business 

Wild,  Horace  B.  American  pioneer  aeronaut;  died  in 
New  York  City,  N.Y.,  July  23,  1940;  born  in  Chicago, 
111 ,  1879.  He  made  his  first  aerial  trip  on  July  4,  1892, 
clinging  to  a  man-carrying:  kite  that  pulled  him  150  ft. 
into  the  air  and  dumped  him  into  a  tree  top;  as  a  pro- 
fessional balloonist  and  parachute  plunger  in  the  1890's 
he  earned  $50,000  annually;  he  ascended  4000  ft  in  an 
airship  of  his  own  making  on  Dec.  28.  1905;  set  a  world's 
record  in  1906  by  staying  aloft  in  his  dirigible  for  six 
hours;  became  an  airplane  pilot  in  1910,  and  sometime 
afterward  founded  a  flying  school  at  Lincoln,  Neb ,  where 
a  lad  by  the  name  of  Lindbergh  learned  to  fly  in  1922. 

Wilgus,  Sidney  D.  American  psychiatrist;  died  in  Rock- 

rd,  111.,  Feb.  22,  1940,  born  in  Bu~  '          "    " 


JkWAU,       J.U.,       f^U.      ftft\       17TU,       UUt  U       tU       JVUA1CMU,       A^.l.,  .        16, 

1872.  Psychiatrist  with  New  York  and  Illinois  Hospitals 
until  1913  when  he  founded  the  Wilgus  Sanitarium,  he 
was  also  an  alienist  for  the  Illinois  State  Board  of  Public 
Welfare  (1929-33)  and  head  of  the  Department  of  Psy- 
chiatry at  the  University  of  Chicago  Medical  School  from 
1936. 

Wilhelm,  Prince  of  Prussia;  died  from  wounds  in 
Flanders,  May  26,  1940,  born  in  Marmor-palace,  Ger- 
many, July  4,  1906  The  eldest  son  of  the  former  Crown 
Prince  of  Germany,  he  served  with  the  German  Army  in 
the  Polish  Campaign  (1939)  and  was  a  fiist  lieutenant 
and  a  commander  of  an  infantry  company  in  the  German 

WUkina,  Thomas  Russell.  American  physicist;  died  in 
Rochester,  N.Y.,  on  Dec  10,  1940;  born  in  Toronto,  Ont., 
June  6,  1891.  A  graduate  of  McMaster  University,  HamU- 


NECROLOGY 


536 


NECROLOGY 


ton.  Out.  (1912),  he  was  professor  of  physics  at  Brandon 
dotage.  Canada  (1918-25)  and. at  the  University  of  Roch: 


ester  since  that  time.  Dr.  Wilkins  was  the  originator  of 
a  highly-successful  process  for  photographing  the  changes 
resulting  from  the  smashing  of  the  atom;  and  in  October, 
1940.  he  announced  the  development  of  a  camera  that  made 
possible  the  determination  of  energy  levels  inside  the  nuclei 
of  stable  chemical  elements.  In  penetrating  the  mysteries 
of  the  cosmic  rays,  he  sent  balloons  into  the  stratosphere 
with  photographic  plates  arranged  to  capture  pictures  of 
the  paths  of  100,000,000-volt  alpha  particles.  He  was  the 
recipient  of  numerous  awards  and  commendations  for  his 
contributions  to  the  science  of  physics. 

Wilkinson,  Sir  Nevllo  EodwelL  British  soldier  and 
architect;  died  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  on  Dec.  22,  1940;  born 
Oct.  26,  1869.  He  was  designer  and  builder  of  Titama's 
Palace,  a  miniature  which  was  exhibited  all  over  the  world 
in  the  interest  of  charity,  and  featured  at  the  New  York 
World's  Fair  in  the  Children's  World.  A  master  of  what 
he  called  "tinycraft,"  Sir  Nevile  took  16  years  in  building 
the  miniature  palace,  which  stood  7  inches  high,  9  ft.  long, 
and  7  ft.  wide  and  was  so  faithful  to  detail  that  its  in- 
finitesimal piano  could  be  played  with  the  average  new 
toothpick.  He  put  4000  pieces  of  furniture  and  decorative 
objects  into  the  palace,  none  more  than  4  inches  high, 
including  a  copy  of  Murillo's  masterpiece,  The  Assump- 
tion. 

Willcox.  William  B.  American  lawyer:  died  in  Bay 
Shore,  L.I.,  N.Y.,  Apr.  9,  1940;  born  in  Smyrna,  NY., 
Apr.  11,  1863.  Active  in  Republican  politics,  he  served  as 
postmaster  of  New  York  City  (1905-07).  as  chairman  of 
the  Public  Service  Commission  of  New  York  City  (1907- 
13),  and  as  Chairman  of  the  Republican  National  Com- 
mittee (1916-18)  and  as  such  managed  the  presidential 
campaign  of  Charles  Evans  Hughes 

Williams,  Thomas  8.  American  jurist;  died  in  Wash- 
ington, Apr.  5,  1940;  born  in  Louisville,  111.,  Feb  14, 
1872.  Republican  member  from  Illinois  of  the  64tb  to 
71st  Congresses  (1915-31),  he  was  appointed  judge  of 
the  U.S.  Court  of  Claims  in  October,  1929 

Wills.  O.  Harold.  American  automobile  manufacturer; 
died  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  on  Dec.  30,  1940;  born  in  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.,  1878.  He  was  chief  engineer  and  manufac- 
turing manager  of  the  Ford  Motor  Co.  from  1903  to  1919; 
and  founder  and  head  of  the  Wills-St.  Clair  Co  from 
1920  to  1926  Since  1933  he  was  consulting  metallurgist 
for  the  Chrysler  Corn. 

Wilson,  Albert  F.  American  editor;  died  at  Lake 
George,  N.Y.,  June  25,  1940;  bom  in  Greenfield  Hill, 
Conn..  Aug.  28,  1883.  He  was  on  the  editorial  staff  of 
Tk€  Literary  Digest  (1908-11),  Leslie's  Weekly  (1912- 
14),  and  numerous  publishing  firms  and  was  professor  of 
journalism  at  New  York  University  from  1914  to  1926 

Wilson,  J(ames)  Edgar.  American  clergyman;  died  in 
Lakeland.  Fla ,  Jan  29,  1940;  born  near  Martmsburg, 
W.Va.,  Oct  19,  1860  Ordained  in  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church  in  1881,  be  served  in  various  pastorates  until 
1913  when  he  became  editor  of  the  Florida  Christian  Ad- 
vocate. Thereafter  he  was  editor  of  The  Florida  Watchman 
(1926-32),  publicity  agent,  new  Florida  Christian  Advo- 
cate (1929-34),  and  after  1938,  president  emeritus  of  the 
Florida  Methodist  Publishing  Co,  Inc 

Winter,  Ctoorge  B.  American  dentist,  developer  of  P 
new  technique  for  extraction  of  impacted  third  molars  in 
1918  and  president  of  the  American  Dental  Association 
in  1934;  died  in  St.  Louis,  Mo,  Mar  28,  1940;  born  in 
Brooklyn,  N.Y..  Apr.  19,  1878 

Wlnterfeld,  Bans  3L  A.  von.  German  general;  died  in 
Berlin,  July  3,  1940.  In  the  Army  from  1884  to  1919,  he 
was  a  military  representative  of  the  German  government 
at  the  first  Compiegne  Forest  armistice  conference  in  1918. 

Winthrop,  Beekman.  American  banker  and  public  of- 
ficial; died  in  New  York  City,  NY,  Nov.  10,  1940;  born 
in  Orange,  N.J.,  Sept.  18,  1874.  He  was  graduated  from 
Harvard  University  in  1897  and  became  private  secretary 
to  William  Howard  Taft,  at  that  time  governor  of  the 
Philippines;  was  governor  of  Puerto  Rico  (1904-07);  as- 
sistant secretary  of  the  U.S.  Treasury  (1907-09);  assist- 
ant secretary  of  the  Navy  (1909-13),  and  since  1914 
senior  partner  of  the  banking;  firm  of  Winthrop  and  Co., 
New  York  He  was  a  direct  descendant  of  John  Winthrop, 
first  governor  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony. 

Wise,  Frederic  May.  American  general;  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  July  24,  1940:  born  in  New  York,  Oct.  6, 
1877.  He  was  commissioned  a  lieutenant  in  the  Marine 
Corps  in  1899,  saw  action  in  the  Philippines,  China,  Mex- 
ico, and  the  World  War  during  27  crowded  years  and 
published  an  account  of  his  adventures  under  the  title  A 
Marine  Tells  It  to  You. 

Wolfe,  Humbert.  British  poet;  died  in  London,  Jan.  5, 
1940;  born  in  Italy,  Jan  5,  1886.  He  served  in  the  Brit- 
ish  Ministry  of  Labor;  his  published  works  included  Stings 
and  Wings.  The  Fourth  of  August,  The  Silent  Knight, 
and  Out  of  Great  Tribulation. 

Wood,  Edwin  B.  American  educator,  president  of  Wil- 
liamsburg  Institute  (Cumberland  College  after  1914)  from 
1898  to  1922  when  he  was  retired  as  emeritus;  died  in 


WUUamsburg,  Ky..  Jan.  23,  1940;  born  in  Adams  Co*, 
Ind..  Sept.  8,  1863. 

Woodbrtdgs,  Frederick  J.  B.  American  educator;  died 
in  New  York,  June  1,  1940;  born  in  Windsor.  Ont.,  Can- 
ada, Mar.  26,  1867.  After  teaching  at  the  University  of 
Minnesota  during  1894-1902,  he  joined  the  faculty  of  Co- 
lumbia University  as  professor  of  philosophy.  Thereafter 
he  was  Johnsonian  professor  (1904-39),  when  he  was  re- 
tired as  professor  emeritus  in  residence.  During  1912-29 
he  was  dean  of  the  faculties  of  political  science,  philoso- 
phy, and  pure  science  and  during  1931-32  was  Roosevelt 
professor  in  Berlin.  A  co-founder  and  the  editor  of  The 
Journal  of  Philosophy  (from  1923).  he  wrote  Contrasts 
in  Education  (1929);  Hobbes  Selections  (1930),  and  No- 
ture  and  Mind  (1937).  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  in  the 
neorealistic  movement  inphilosophy. 

Woodbury,  Charles  H.  American  marine  painter  and 
etcher;  died  in  Boston.  Jan.  21.  1940:  born  in  Lynn, 
Mass.,  July  14,  1864.  Known  for  his  vivid  representations 
of  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  his  later  work  received  the  Palm- 
er prize  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design  (1932)  nnd 
the  Noyes  prize  of  the  Society  of  American  Etchers  (1933). 

Worcester,  Elwood.  American  Episcopal  clergyman,  au- 
thor, and  philosopher;  died  on  July  19,  1940;  born  in 
Massillon,  O.,  1862.  A  graduate  of  Columbia  University, 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  and  the  University  of  Leip- 
zig, he  was  professor  of  psychology  and  philosophy  at  Le- 
high  University  (1890-96);  and  pastor  of  Emmanuel 
Church,  Boston  from  1904  to  1929,  where  he  founded  the 
"Emmanuel  movement"  of  religious  psycho-therapy,  which 
he  carried  on  with  the  co-operation  of  eminent  physicians 
He  believed  that  religion  and  medicine  together  could  cure 
physical  ailments  that  neither  could  conquer  alone;  and 
his  clinic  in  Emmanuel  Church  was  crowded  with  persons 
seeking  relief  from  real  or  imaginary  illnesses.  He  wrote 
many  books  including  Life's  Adventure,  an  autobiography 
published  in  1932 

Worden,  Edward  Cfcauncey,  1  American  chemist,  died 
in  Millburn,  N.J.,  Sept.  22,  1940,  born  in  Ypsilanti 
Mich.,  Apr.  17,  1875  A  graduate  of  the  Ann  Arbor  School 
of  Pharmacy  and  New  York  University  he  established  in 
1914  the  Worden  Laboratory  and  Library,  Millburn,  N  J  . 
which  was  consulted  by  private  industries,  governmental 
agencies,  and  chemists  the  world  over  on  matters  pertain- 
ing to  cellulose  As  an  expert  on  airplane  wing-coating,  he 
made  14  trips  to  Europe  for  the  United  States  in  the 
World  War 

Wright,  Sir  Charles  Theodore  Hagberg.  British  li- 
brarian; secretary  and  librarian  of  the  London  Library 
from  1893;  died  in  London,  Mar.  7,  1940;  born  in  York- 
shire, Nov.  17,  1862 

Wright,  James  Franklin.  American  humanitarian ;  died 
in  Detroit,  Mich.,  Sept  8,  1940;  born  in  Muscatme,  la., 
1862  A  former  railroad  worker  and  life  insurance  sales- 
man, he  founded  in  1914  the  Pathfinders  of  America,  Inc.. 
a  social  service  organization  devoted  to  the  reformation  of 
criminals  and  the  protection  of  children  from  criminal  en- 
vironment In  1927  the  prisoners  in  the  penitentiary  at 
Walla  Walla,  Wash ,  bestowed  on  their  benefactor  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Common  Sense,  which  explains  the 
letters  D.S.C  after  his  name  m  many  publications,  in- 
cluding the  Who's  Who  In  America 

Wyfle,  Dwight  Witherspoon.  American  clergyman, 
pastor  of  the  Central  Presbyterian  Church,  New  York 
City,  from  1920  to  1935;  died  in  New  York  on  Dec.  30, 
1940;  born  in  Condit,  O,  July  16,  1876,  and  ordained  in 
1899 

Yamanuro,  Ounpei.  Japanese  Salvation  Army  leader; 
died  in  Tokio,  Mar.  13,  1940;  born  in  1872  He  joined  the 
Salvation  Army  in  1895  and  after  holding  various  posts 
was  appointed  Territorial  Commander  of  the  Army  in 
Japan  in  1926.  He  retired  in  1938 

Yainaya,  Tanin.  Japanese  admiral;  died  on  Sept.  10, 
1940;  born  in  1866.  He  was  commander  of  the  Japanese 
fleet  that  seized  Germany's  possessions  in  the  Equatorial 
Pacific  during  the  World  War. 

Yancey,  Lewis  Alonso.  American  aviator:  died  in  Yon- 
kers,  N.Y.,  Mar.  2,  1940;  born  in  Chicago,  Sept.  16,  1895. 
After  serving  in  the  U.S.  Navy  (1911-21)  and  in  the 
Coast  Guard  (1925-26),  he  became  interested  in  aviation, 
becoming  a  noted  navigator.  In  1929,  with  Roger  0  Wil- 
liams, in  the  Pathfinder,  he  made  a  transatlantic  flight  to 
Rome.  He  was  navigator  for  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History's  air  expedition  to  New  Guinea  in  1938 

Tallin,  Samuel.  American  metal  artist;  died  in  New 
York  City,  N.Y.,  Oct  3,  1940;  born  in  Poland,  Mar  2, 
1885.  He  began  studying  art  when  he  was  11  years  old, 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1906,  was  instructor  in  metal 
art  work  at  the  Pennsylvania  School  of  Industrial  Art, 
and  then  went  into  business  as  one  of  the  leading  design- 
ers and  executors  of  decorative  metal  work  in  the  world. 
He  won  the  $10.000  Bok  Civic  Award  as  "outstanding 
citizen'1  of  Philadelphia  in  1925  and  was  the  recipient  of 
numerous  medals  and  other  decorations.  He  did  the  hand- 
wrought  grilles  and  other  decorative  ironwork  of  the  Fed- 
eral Reserve  Bank,  New  York,  and  examples  of  his  work 
adorn  the  Cathedral  of  St  John  the  Divine,  the  Cloisters 


International 

SIR  OLIVER  LODGE 
British  Scientist.  1851-1940 


International 

LEONOH  FBLSNEL  LOREE 

American  Railway  Executive,   1858- 

1940 


International 

LORD  LOTHIAN 
British  Statesman,  1882-1940 


1  nter national 

EDWIN  MAHKHAM 
American  Poet,  1852  1940 


H  ide  World 

RALPH  MODJESKI 
American  Engineer,  1861-1940 


Acme 

HUGH  RODMAN 
American  Admiral,  1859  1940 


Wide  World 

LORD    ROTHERMERE 

British  Publicist,  1868-1940 


International 

PRINCF  KIMMOCHI  SAIONJI 
Japanese  Statesman,  1849-1940 


Wide  World 

LTTISA  TFTRAZZINI 
Italian  Singer,  1871-1940 


Acme 


Snt  JOSEPH  THOMSON 


International 

LEON  TROTSKY 


International 

LlT.TTANT    D 


International 


GERMAN  TROOPS  AND  GUNS  CROSSING  THE  MAAS  RIVER,  HOLLAND 


International 


THE  GERMAN  ARMY  TAKES  OVER  THE  NETHERLANDS 
A  Urman  officer,  assisted  by  a  Dutch  policeman,  hands  out  instructions  to  the  civilian  population 


NSQRI  SEMBILAN 


537 


NEPAL 


branch  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  the  New  York 
University  Hall  of  Fame.  Columbia  University,  and  the 
J.  P.  Morgan  Library*  The  volume  of  his  work  required 
45  forges  and  an  average  of  200  employees. 

Tounes  Pasha,  Baleh.  Egyptian  statesman,  minister  of 
war  m  the  cabinet  of  Premier  Hassan  Sabry  Pasha;  died 
in  a  train  in  Cairo,  Egypt,  Nov.  27,  1940,  as  he  was  about 
to  embark  on  an  official  tour  with  King  Farouk. 

Young,  O(harles)  Joe.  American  etcher;  died  in  Wee- 
hawken,  N.J.,  Mar  4,  1940;  born  in  Bavaria,  Dec.  21, 
1880.  Known  for  his  etchings  of  snow  scenes,  his  work  is 
in  many  museums  and  was  awarded  the  Kate  W.  Arms 
prize  of  the  Brooklyn  Society  of  Etchers  in  1928  and  the 
Shaw  prize  of  the  Salmagundi  Club  in  1929 

Zimmerman.  Alfred.  German  politician;  died  in  Berlin, 
June  6,  1940;  born  in  Frankenstein,  May  8,  1859.  A  mem- 
ber of  the  Foreign  Office  from  1902,  he  became  Foreign 
Secretary  in  1916,  and  as  such  attempted  to  incite  Mexico 
to  an  attack  on  the  United  States  and  suggested  that  Mex- 
ico should  be  rewarded  by  the  gift  of  New  Mexico,  Texas, 
and  Arizona.  Disclosures  concerning  his  activities  through 
the  "Zimmerman  note"  caused  his  downfall  and  he  was 
forced  to  retire  on  Aug.  5,  1917.  It  was  erroneously  re- 
ported that  he  had  died  in  1925. 

Zinsser,  Hans.  American  bacteriologist  and  author;  died 
in  New  York  City,  Sept.  4,  1940;  born  in  New  York  City., 
November,  1878.  He  was  graduated  from  Columbia  Uni- 
versity medical  school  in  1903  and  was  professor  of  bacte- 
riology there  from  1913  to  1923,  was  sanitary  commission- 
er for  the  League  of  Nations  in  Russia  (1923),  exchange 
professor  in  Pans  (1935),  and  on  the  faculty  of  the 
Peipmg  Union  Medical  College  (1938).  Considered  by 
many  to  be  the  world's  leading  authority  on  typhus,  his 
greatest  scientific  achievement  was  the  preparation  of  a 
vaccine  and  a  serum  to  combat  the  organisms  that  cause 
the  disease  and  the  development  of  a  method  that  made 
possible  mass  production  of  a  vaccine  against  the  European 
type  of  typhus  In  recent  years  he  was  the  author  of  two 
best-selling  books,  Rats,  Lice  and  History  (1935)  and 
As  I  Remember  Him  (1940),  the  latter  a  unique  auto- 
biography in  which  the  author's  impending  death  from 
leukemia  was  described  in  the  past  tense. 

NEGRI  SEMBILAN.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

NEGROES.  The  chief  issue  facing  twelve  mil- 
lion American  Negroes  during  1940  was  that  of 
participation  in  the  enormous  national  defense  pro- 
gram which  the  United  States  undertook  to  ward 
off  attack  from  the  warring  nations  of  Europe. 
Negroes  were  not  permitted  to  enlist  in  the  Army. 
Extensive  efforts  by  Negro  organizations  and  some 
white  ones  resulted  in  the  inclusion  of  an  amend- 
ment to  the  Burke- Wadsworth  conscription  bill 
which  forbade  discrimination  on  account  of  race, 
creed,  or  color.  But  another  provision  of  the  Act, 
which  said  that  no  person  should  be  admitted  into 
the  Army  or  Navy  unless  he  were  acceptable  to 
the  Army  and  Navy  heads,  negated  the  non-dis- 
crimination clause.  Yancey  Williams,  a  young  Ne- 
gro college  student,  brought  suit  against  the  War 
Department  when  he  was  denied  the  right  to  en- 
list in  the  Air  Corps.  Another  Negro,  Walter  L. 
Robinson,  who  finished  thirteenth  in  a  class  of  50 
in  a  CAA  course  at  the  University  of  Minnesota, 
enlisted  in  the  Royal  Canadian  Air  Force  when 
the  color  of  his  skin  barred  him  from  enlisting  in 
the  U.S.  Air  Corps.  In  the  U.S.  Navy  Negroes 
could  enlist  or  serve  only  as  members  of  the  Mess- 
man  or  servant  division 

Affecting  even  more  Negroes  was  the  widespread 
discrimination  by  employers  and  by  some  of  the 
A.F.L.  unions  against  Negroes  in  industrial  plants, 
Navy  yards,  and  Army  arsenals  filling  the  con- 
tracts for  the  seventeen-billion-dollar  national  de- 
fense program  voted  by  Congress. 

A  storm  of  protests,  in  which  many  white  Amer- 
icans joined,  mounted  as  the  facts  became  known. 
Magazines  with  large  circulations,  like  the  Satur- 
day Evening  Post,  opened  their  columns  to  the 
presentation  of  the  facts.  The  protests,  coinciding 
with  a  growing  concern  for  the  preservation  of 
democracy  and  with  a  presidential  election  in  which 
the  Negro  holding  the  potential  balance  of  power 
in  seventeen  pivotal  States  was  a  considerable  fac- 


tor, led  to  a  conference  at  the  White  House  late 
in  September  to  discuss  the  issue  of  Negro  par- 
ticipation in  national  defense.  Shortly  afterwards, 
William  H.  Hastie,  Dean  of  the  Howard  Univer- 
sity Law  School,  was  appointed  Civilian  Aide  to 
the  Secretary  of  War;  Col.  Benjamin  O.  Davis 
was  promoted  to  Brigadier  General,  the  first  time 
in  the  history  of  the  United  States  that  a  Negro 
has  attained  that  high  rank  in  the  Army ;  and  oth- 
er appointments  were  made  to  assist  in  the  integra- 
tion of  the  Negro  m  the  national  defense  program. 
The  end  of  1940  left  much  to  be  done  towards  the 
attainment  of  actual  democracy  in  the  national  de- 
fense program. 

Similar  difficulties  were  encountered  by  Negroes 
in  private  industry  but  persistent  effort  caused 
some  lessening  of  the  discrimination  in  a  few  iso- 
lated places.  But  these  instances  were  not  signifi- 
cant enough  and  a  Senate  investigation  of  the  na- 
tional defense  aspects  of  service  by  Negroes  both 
in  the  armed  forces  and  in  the  industrial  phases  of 
the  defense  program  was  sought 

The  House  of  Representatives  passed  by  a  vote 
of  252-131  the  Gavagan-Fish  anti-lynching  bill  on 
Jan.  10,  1940,  but  the  U.S.  Senate  failed  to  act  on 
the  measure.  See  LYNCHING. 

In  the  field  of  the  arts,  Marian  Anderson,  Doro- 
thy Maynor,  Paul  Robeson,  and  other  Negro  sing- 
ers continued  their  brilliant  careers  before  large 
and  appreciative  audiences.  One  of  the  outstanding 
books  of  the  year  was  Richard  Wright's  grim  and 
provocative  story  of  the  effect  of  injustice  and 
segregation  on  the  Negro.  His  Native  Son  was  a 
best-seller  and  evoked  vigorous  controversy  The 
distinguished  Negro  scholar,  Dr.  W.  E.  B  Du 
Bois,  published  his  interesting  biography,  Dusk  of 
Dawn',  while  a  younger  talented  Negro,  Langston 
Hughes,  published  also  a  fascinating  story  of  his 
life,  The  Big  Sea.  Other  contributions  in  book 
form  were  made  by  numerous  writers,  including 
Dr.  Charles  Wesley  (The  Negro  in  the  Amer- 
icas) ;  Prof.  Ira  DeA.  Reid  of  Atlanta  University 
(In  a  Minor  Key,  a  study  for  the  American  Youth 
Commission)  ;  Claude  McKay  (Harlem:  Negro 
Metropolis),  and  others,  such  as  The  Neqro  in 
Virginia,  written  by  Negro  writers  on  the  Virginia 
WPA  Writers'  Project 

In  the  field  of  sports  Joe  Louis  continued  to  meet 
all  comers  and  remained  undefeated  as  heavy- 
weight champion.  Henry  Armstrong,  whirling  der- 
vish of  the  prize  ring  and  former  holder  of  three 
championships,  neared  the  end  of  his  pugilistic  ca- 
reer. Kenney  Washington,  the  U.CL.A.  football 
star,  and  other  Negro  football  players  gained  na- 
tion-wide publicity  although  the  number  of  out- 
standing Negro  stars  in  both  football  and  track 
declined  in  number  somewhat  during  1940. 

See  BENEFACTIONS  under  Rosenwald  Fund; 
BRITISH  WEST  INDIES  under  History;  COMMU- 
NISM; FAIRS,  EXPOSITIONS,  AND  CELEBRATIONS; 
LYNCHING;  MARYLAND;  SUPREME  COURT;  TEXAS. 

WALTER  WHITE. 

NEJD.  See  ARABIA  under  Saudi  Arabia. 

NEPAL.  An  independent  kingdom  in  the  Hi- 
malayas, between  Tibet  and  India.  Area,  54,000 
square  miles ;  population,  5,600,000.  Capital,  Kat- 
mandu, 80,000  inhabitants.  Chief  exports:  jute, 
rice,  hides,  oilseeds,  ghee,  cattle,  and  lumber  Chief 
imports :  cotton  goods,  yarn,  sugar,  salt,  spices,  and 
metals.  Revenue  (1940)  :  estimated  to  total  12,- 
500,000  rupees  (British  Indian  rupee  =  1.24  Nepal- 
ese  rupees).  Nepal's  government  is  a  military  aris- 


NETHERLANDS 


538 


NETHERLANDS 


tocracy  based  on  birth.  The  prime  minister,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  ruling  family,  is  the  de  facto  ruler  of 
the  State.  Ruler,  King  Tribhubana  Bir  Bikram 
(acceded  Dec.  11,  1911)  ;  Prime  Minister,  Gen. 
Joodha  Shum  Shere  Jung  Bahadur  Rana  (in- 
stalled Sept.  1,  1932). 

NETHERLANDS,  THE.  A  constitutional 
monarchy  of  northwestern  Europe.  Capital,  Am- 
sterdam. Seat  of  the  government,  The  Hague 
('s  Gravenhage).  Sovereign  in  1940,  Queen  Wil- 
helmina,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  Nov.  23, 
1890. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area,  including  wa- 
ter belonging  to  municipal  territories,  is  13,515 
square  miles.  The  population  on  Feb.  28, 1940,  was 
estimated  at  8,833,000  (7,935,565  at  the  1930  cen- 
sus). About  94  per  cent  of  the  people  dwell  in 
communities  of  2000  or  more.  Living  births  in 
1939  numbered  180,913  (20.7  per  1000)  ;  deaths, 
75,863  (8.7  per  1000) ;  marriages  (1938),  67,040. 
Estimated  populations  of  the  chief  cities  on  Jan.  1, 
1939,  were :  Amsterdam,  793,222 ;  Rotterdam,  612,- 
375 ;  The  Hague  ('s  Gravenhage) ,  494,773 ;  Utrecht, 
163,589;  Haarlem,  137,507;  Groningen,  120,010; 
Eindhoven,  111,188;  Tilburg,  95,142;  Nijmegen, 
94,102 ;  Enschede,  90,291 ;  Arnhem,  88,996 ;  Leiden, 
77,009. 

Colonial  Empire.  The  colonial  possessions  of 
the  Netherlands  are  situated  in  Asia,  South  Amer- 
ica, and  the  Caribbean  Sea;  and  are  treated  else- 
where in  the  YEAR  BOOK  under  the  headings  of 
NETHERLANDS  INDIES,  CURACAO,  and  SURINAM. 
The  total  area  is  793,354  square  miles ;  total  popu- 
lation was  estimated  at  70,000,000  in  1939. 

Education  and  Religion.  There  is  practically 
no  illiteracy.  The  school  enrollment  in  1938-39 
was:  Infant  schools,  213,338;  elementary,  1,242,- 
778;  secondary,  technical,  and  vocational,  271,298; 
high  schools,  3199;  universities,  9395  According 
to  the  1930  census,  there  were  2,890,022  Roman 
Catholics,  2,732,333  members  of  the  Dutch  Re- 
formed Church,  876,958  other  Protestants,  111,- 
917  Jews,  10,182  Jansenists,  169,575  belonging  to 
other  creeds,  and  1,144,393  professing  no  religion. 

Production.  Agriculture,  manufacturing,  com- 
merce, and  mining  are  the  principal  industries. 
Yields  of  the  chief  crops  in  1939  (in  metric  tons) 
were:  Wheat,  416,500;  barley,  146,000;  rye,  603,- 
500 ;  oats.  449,200 ;  potatoes,  3,000,000 ;  beet  sugar 
(1939-40),  217,600;  linseed,  22,500;  flax,  21,300. 
Livestock  (1939)  :  2,817,314  cattle,  1,553,413  swine, 
322,152  horses,  and  689,500  sheep.  Mineral  produc- 
tion in  1939  was  (in  metric  tons)  :  Coal,  12,861,000, 
pig  iron,  276,000  (1938)  ;  zinc  (smelter),  20,500. 
The  1939  output  of  rayon  and  staple  fiber  was 
about  11,000  metric  tons;  wood  and  straw  pulp, 
108,000;  margarine,  71,000;  shipping  tonnage 
launched,  117,000.  Bricks,  clothing,  boots  and  shoes, 
engines,  boilers,  machinery,  cotton  and  linen  fab- 
rics, alcoholic  beverages,  tobacco  products,  are 
other  leading  manufactures. 

Foreign  Trade.  Merchandise  imports  in  1939 
were  valued  at  1,516,651,000  florins  (1,414,768,000 
in  1938)  ;  exports,  966,215,000  florins  (1,039,156,- 
000).  Textiles,  iron  and  steel,  cereals  and  flour, 
and  wood  were  the  chief  1939  imports,  while  tex- 
tiles, coal,  coke  and  briquets,  butter,  and  tin  were 
the  main  export  items.  The  principal  sources  of 
1939  imports  were  (in  1000  florins) :  Germany  in- 
cluding Austria,  357,793;  Belgium  and  Luxem- 
burg, 219,913;  United  States,  146,127;  Great  Brit- 
ain, 117364;  Netherlands  Indies,  91,350.  The  dis- 
tribution of  exports  was  (in  1000  florins)  :  Great 


Britain,  226,482;  Germany,  136,138;  Netherlands 
Indies,  100,701 ;  Belgium  and  Luxemburg,  90,489; 
France,  50,559.  For  U.S.  trade  in  1940,  see  TRADE, 
FOREIGN. 

Finance.  The  1940  budget  estimates  placed  to- 
tal receipts  exclusive  of  loans  at  770,005,000  florins 
(742,069,000  in  1939)  and  expenditures  at  1,015,- 
599,000  (1,008,790,000  in  1939).  Direct  tax  receipts 
in  1939  were  135,182,000  florins;  indirect  tax  re- 
ceipts, 475,482,000  florins.  The  public  debt  on  June 
30, 1939,  was  3,911,900,000  florins,  all  internal.  The 
average  exchange  rate  of  the  florin  was  $0.5501  in 
1938,  $0.5334  in  1939.  With  the  German  occupation 
in  May,  1940,  the  official  exchange  rate  of  the 
German  and  Dutch  currencies  was  fixed  at  1  florin 
(guilder)  equals  1.33  reichsmarks.  Also  see  His- 
tory below. 

Transportation.  At  the  beginning  of  1940, 
there  were  about  2278  miles  of  railway  line,  16,031 
miles  of  highways,  4817  miles  of  navigable  rivers 
and  canals,  and  air  lines  connecting  Amsterdam 
with  the  principal  European  capitals  and  with  the 
Netherlands  Indies.  The  Royal  Dutch  Air  Line 
(K.L.M.),  operating  in  Europe,  and  the  West  and 
East  Indies,  in  1939  carried  136,588  passengers, 
1,927,606  Ib.  of  mail,  and  4,586,138  Ib.  of  express. 
With  the  German  occupation  of  the  Netherlands, 
headquarters  of  the  line  were  transferred  to  Ba- 
tayia  and  air  services  from  Batavja  were  main- 
tained onlv  as  far  as  Lydda,  Palestine.  A  total  of 
12,026  ships  of  19,392,128  net  tons  entered  the 
port  of  Rotterdam  in  1939  (15,366  of  24,744,472 
net  tons  in  1938).  The  shipping  trade  came  to  an 
almost  complete  stoppage  in  1940 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  1814,  with 
its  various  amendments,  vests  executive  power  ex- 
clusively in  the  sovereign  while  legislative  author- 
ity rests  conjointly  in  the  sovereign  and  the  States- 
General  (parliament).  The  States-General  con- 
sisted of  an  upper  chamber  of  50  members,  chosen 
by  elected  representative  bodies  in  the  several 
provinces  for  terms  of  six  years ;  and  of  a  lower 
chamber  of  100  members  elected  for  four  years  by 
general  adult  suffrage.  In  practice  the  cabinet  was 
responsible  to  the  States-General  and  the  Premier 
was  normally  chosen  by  the  sovereign  from  a  po- 
litical group  commanding  a  parliamentary  major- 
ity. The  Premier  proposed  the  members  of  his 
ministry  to  the  sovereign.  Premier  at  the  begin- 
ning of  1940,  Jonkheer  Dr.  D.  J.  de  Geer  (Chris- 
tian Historical  party),  heading  a  coalition  govern- 
ment formed  by  the  Roman  Catholic,  Christian 
Historical,  Social  Democratic,  and  Liberal  Demo- 
cratic parties  on  Aug.  9,  1939. 

HISTORY 

Adolf  Hitler's  great  German  war  machine  fell 
like  an  avalanche  upon  the  Netherlands  before 
dawn  of  May  10,  1940.  In  five  terrible  days,  the 
Dutch  defenses  were  shattered,  the  army  deci- 
mated, the  transportation  and  communications  sys- 
tem wrecked,  many  cities  and  towns  laid  in  ruins, 
and  another  brave  and  independent  people  added 
to  the  rapidly  growing  list  of  the  subjugated  na- 
tions of  Europe.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR  under  The 
Western  Front  for  an  account  of  the  military 
struggle. 

The  Prelude  to  War.  When  war  engulfed  the 
Netherlands  for  the  first  time  since  French  revo- 
lutionary armies  swept  through  the  country  nearly 
a  century  and  a  half  before,  it  was  not  unexpected. 
Fear  of  a  German  invasion  had  mounted  steadily 
since  the  outbreak  of  the  European  conflict  the 


NETHERLANDS 


539 


NETHERLANDS 


preceding  September  (see  YEA*  BOOK.  1939,  pp. 
550-551).  The  crisis  of  November,  1939,  was  fol- 
lowed on  January  14  by  another  alarm  caused  by 
reports  of  German  troop  movements  near  the 
Netherland  frontier.  Military  furloughs  were  can- 
celled, fortifications  strengthened,  and  other  prep- 
arations made  to  back  the  Netherland  Govern- 
ment's warning  of  January  6  that  "each  violator 
of  Dutch  territory  will  be  met  with  the  most  severe 
power  of  our  weapons,  from  whatever  side  attack 
may  come."  At  the  same  time  there  were  further 
indications  that  the  Dutch  and  Belgian  Govern- 
ments had  concluded  an  agreement  for  mutual  sup- 
port in  case  of  a  German  attack  upon  either  coun- 
try. 

Nor  was  the  danger  of  a  Japanese  attack  upon 
the  Netherlands  East  Indies  (q.v.)  lost  sight  of. 
On  February  10  the  Netherland  Government  an- 
nounced plans  for  immediate  construction  of  three 
battle-cruisers  to  reinforce  the  fleet  guarding  the 
East  Indies. 

Neutrality.  Meanwhile  the  problem  of  main- 
taining Dutch  neutrality  became  increasing  diffi- 
cult, but  neither  the  government  nor  majority  pub- 
lic opinion  wavered  from  this  course.  It  was 
reaffirmed  by  Foreign  Minister  van  Kleffens  be- 
fore the  Upper  Chamber  of  the  States-General  on 
January  25.  He  added  that  membership  in  the 
League  of  Nations  might  become  impossible  for 
the  Netherlands  if  it  remained  "a  body  with  a 
political  tendency."  The  Foreign  Minister  urged 
an  early  end  of  the  war  in  order  that  Western  and 
Central  Europe  might  not  "perish  in  pauperism 
and  bolshevism." 

In  furtherance  of  its  neutrality  policy,  the  gov- 
ernment on  February  5  forced  the  resignation  of 
Gen.  F.  E.  Reynders,  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Dutch  armed  forces,  who  was  reportedly  sympa- 
thetic toward  the  Nazi  movement.  Lt.  Gen.  Henri 
Gerard  Winkelman  succeeded  him.  On  April  19 
Premier  de  Geer  again  affirmed  the  government's 
determination  to  maintain  strict  neutrality.  Re- 
calling that  Germany  and  the  Allies  had  all  prom- 
ised to  respect  Holland's  neutrality,  he  declared 
the  government  would  not  consider  suggestions 
for  secret  discussions  with  any  of  the  belligerents. 
There  had  been  some  agitation,  notably  in  former 
Premier  Hendryk  Colijn's  newspaper,  for  an  ar- 
rangement with  the  Allies  to  insure  their  prompt 
aid  to  Dutch  forces  in  the  event  of  a  German  at- 
tack. To  finance  defense  preparations  and  check 
the  adverse  effects  of  the  European  conflict  upon 
Holland's  economy,  additional  economic  controls 
were  jplaced  in  effect. 

Friction  with  Belligerents.  Meanwhile  fric- 
tion between  the  Netherlands  Government  and  the 
belligerents,  particularly  Germany,  was  steadily 
increasing.  The  Orange  Book  issued  by  the  Neth- 
erlands authorities  on  April  12  listed  numerous 
instances  m  of  alleged  violation  of  the  country's 
neutral  rights.  German  submarines  torpedoed  the 
Dutch  steamship  Arendskerk  on  January  15  and 
the  Burgerdtjk  in  February  under  circumstances 
provoking  strong  Netherland  protests.  During 
March  there  were  13  successive  cases  of  attacks 
on  Netherland  fishing  boats  by  airplanes  believed 
to  be  German. 

The  holding  up  of  Netherland  ships  by  the  Brit- 
ish blockade  officials  caused  a  number  of  formal 
protests.  The  Dutch  alleged  that  the  British  on 
several  occasions  confiscated  goods  not  included 
in  the  Allied  contraband  list.  They  protested  the 
removal  of  a  number  of  persona  from  Netherland 


ships  and  the  confiscation  of  mail  carried  by  Neth- 
erland ships  and  aircraft  In  some  cases,  the 
Orange  Book  showed,  the  Dutch  protests  brought 
the  release  of  prisoners  and  goods  taken  by  the 
British.  Partly  in  response  to  British  pressure,  the 
Netherland  Government  on  Mar.  1,  1940,  placed 
severe  restrictions  on  shipments  of  food  parcels 
into  the  Reich  from  the  Netherlands.  This  action 
curtailed  an  organized  traffic  that  had  grown  to 
large  proportions  In  response  to  these  and  other 
neutrality  measures,  the  German  attitude  toward 
the  Netherlands  became  more  threatening. 

Internal  Security  Measures.  The  defense 
measures  of  the  government  and  its  efforts  to 
maintain  strict  neutrality  were  hampered  by  Ger- 
man and  Allied  espionage  and  by  the  openly  pro- 
German  activities  of  Netherland  Nazi  groups. 
Martial  law  had  been  established  in  all  strategic 
military  and  naval  areas  on  Nov.  1,  1939,  without 
suspending  the  civil  authority.  On  Mar.  8,  1940, 
extension  of  martial  law  to  the  greater  part  of  the 
Netherlands  was  announced  On  the  same  day  the 
Dutch  Nazi  youth  organization,  Nationale  Jeugd- 
storm,  was  dissolved  to  forestall  repressive  action 
by  the  government. 

The  success  of  the  German  "fifth  column"  and 
"Trojan  horse"  tactics  during  the  invasion  of  Den- 
mark and  Norway  commencing  April  9  aroused 
further  alarm  in  the  Netherlands.  During  April 
there  were  numerous  arrests  of  Germans  and 
Netherlanders  accused  of  espionage  for  Berlin. 
Among  them  were  some  of  the  Dutch  Nazi  lead- 
ers. A  series  of  decrees  curbed  most  of  the  activi- 
ties of  the  Dutch  Nazi  party  and  the  movement, 
with  its  50,000  members,  went  underground.  On 
April  20  Premier  de  Geer  extended  the  state  of 
siege  to  the  entire  country,  permitting  further  re- 
strictions on  foreigners  and  Dutch  sympathizers 
with  the  belligerents.  Effective  April  27,  freedom 
of  the  press  was  suspended  by  a  decree  prohibiting 
publication  of  any  printed  matter  without  a  license. 
On  May  4  the  government  announced  the  arrest 
of  21  Netherlanders,  including  Nazis  and  Com- 
munists, accused  of  "fifth  column"  activities. 
Among  them  was  Rost  van  Tonningen,  chief  edi- 
tor of  the  Dutch  Nazi  newspaper. 

The  German  Invasion.  Although  Chancellor 
Hitler's  attack  of  May  10  came  without  a  declara- 
tion of  war  or  other  formal  warning,  it  was  not 
unexpected.  The  Netherland  army  was  ordered  on 
the  alert  as  early  as  April  9  due  to  the  presence  of 
large  forces  of  crack  German  troops  along  the 
border.  The  steady  increase  in  the  number  of  offi- 
cial German  representatives  in  Holland,  their  ac- 
tivities among  some  100,000  German  citizens  resid- 
ing there,  and  the  discovery  of  several  pro-German 
espionage  rings  and  conspiracies  in  which  promi- 
nent Dutch  business  men  and  even  government 
officials  were  implicated  gave  the  Netherland  Gov- 
ernment sufficient  warning.  On  May  8  the  Nether- 
land Minister  in  Washington  announced  that  he 
had  been  instructed  to  act  as  paymaster  abroad 
for  his  government  in  case  of  an  emergency.  The 
previous  day  all  army  leaves  were  cancelled,  guards 
augmented  at  all  public  buildings,  and  other  ex- 
tensive precautions  taken  against  an  invasion  and 
a  simultaneous  rising  of  subversive  elements. 

Immediately  after  the  German  attack  began  on 
May  10  the  defense  forces  and  police  placed  in 
effect  comprehensive  security  measures  planned 
long  in  advance.  Nearly  a  thousand  German  agents 
and  Netherlanders  suspected  of  treasonable  de- 
signs were  immediately  arrested.  Other  German 


NETHERLANDS 


540 


NETHERLANDS 


citizens  and  foreigners  of  German  origin  were 
ordered  to  remain  indoors.  But  these  measures 
failed  to  prevent  "fifth  column"  activities  on  a 
scale  that  materially  aided  the  quick  success  of  the 
German  onslaught.  Neutral  correspondents  re- 
ported numerous  cases  of  defection  within  the 
home  front.  Some  Dutch  officers  betrayed  their 
trust.  There  was  extensive  sabotage,  even  within 
the  fortified  defense  lines.  In  Rotterdam,  Amster- 
dam, and  The  Hague  armed  civilian  terrorists 
sniped  at  loyal  Dutch  police  and  troops  from  roof- 
tops and  windows,  thus  aiding  the  work  of  German 
parachute  troops  dropped  behind  the  front  lines. 
Spies  and  saboteurs  spread  wild  rumors  and  de- 
moralization among  the  Dutch  civilian  population 
and  the  army  alike,  disrupted  communications,  and 
guided  the  invading  air  and  land  forces  in  their 
work  of  destruction.  In  Rotterdam,  German  para- 
chutists and  "fifth  column"  elements  were  aided  by 
German  troops  who  had  arrived  in  the  city  several 
days  before,  concealed  in  Rhine  river  barges. 

Dutch  Resistance.  At  6  a.m.  on  the  morning 
of  May  10,  about  three  hours  after  the  German 
attack  began,  the  German  Minister  at  The  Hague 
called  on  the  Netherland  Foreign  Minister,  E.  N. 
van  Kleffens,  and  presented  a  memorandum  and 
note.  The  memorandum,  identical  with  that  sub- 
mitted to  the  Belgian  Government  at  about  the 
same  time  (see  BELGIUM  under  History),  elabo- 
rated the  German  contention  that  the  invasion  was 
intended  to  forestall  an  Allied  attack  upon  the 
Ruhr  region. 

The  accompanying  note  called  upon  the  Nether- 
land  Government  to  surrender  and  permit  German 
military  occupation  of  the  country.  Stating  that 
resistance  against  the  "enormous  German  army" 
was  "absolutely  useless,"  the  note  continued : 

Germany  guarantees  the  present  status  of  possessions 
[of  the  Netherlands]  in  Europe  as  well  as  overseas,  as 
well  as  the  dynasty,  if  every  resistance  is  dropped.  If  not, 
then  there  is  danger  of  complete  annihilation  of  the  coun- 
try and  of  the  State's  government. 

The  Netherland  Foreign  Minister  firmly  re- 
jected the  German  demand  for  capitulation.  Deny- 
ing "the  supposition  that  any  hostile  agreement  has 
been  brought  about  with  any  foreign  power  against 
Germany,"  he  said  that  "on  account  of  this  un- 
exampled assault,  undertaken  without  warning  on 
Germany's  part  against  the  Netherlands,  the  Neth- 
erland Government  considers  itself  to  be  at  war 
with  the  German  Reich." 

But  the  valiant  resistance  offered  by  Dutch  de- 
fense forces  was  soon  shattered.  At  8  p.m.  on  May 
14  General  Winkelman,  the  Commander-in-Chief, 
ordered  his  troops  in  the  key  defense  belt  around 
Rotterdam  and  Utrecht  to  lay  down  their  arms  "to 
prevent  further  bloodshed  and  annihilation."  His 
order  did  not  prevent  the  devastation  by  the  Ger- 
man air  force  on  the  same  day  of  a  large  section 
in  the  heart  of  Rotterdam,  with  extremely  heavy 
loss  of  life. 

German  troops  peacefully  occupied  The  Hague 
and  the  other  Netherland  cities  the  following  day. 
They  were  reported  to  have  seized  great  spoils  of 
war,  including  much  gold  bullion;  over  35  ship- 
yards with  3  cruisers,  4  destroyers,  7  submarines, 
and  10  minesweepers  under  construction;  several 
thousand  tons  of  tin  and  other  vital  war  minerals, 
and  large  supplies  of  foodstuffs.  On  the  other  hand 
the  Allies  gained  the  support  of  the  bulk  of  the 
Netherland  war  and  merchant  fleet  and  the  major 
part  of  the  Netherland  gold  reserves,  valued  at 
about  $690,000,000.  Large  quantities  of  diamonds 


and  valuable  securities  were  saved.  On  May  15  the 
Dutch  merchant  marine  of  some  1500  ships  total- 
ing about  3,000,000  gross  tons  was  placed  under 
the  control  of  two  shipping  committees  formed  in 
New  York  and  London.  TThey  co-operated  with 
the  British  Ministry  of  Shipping  in  placing  their 
ships  in  the  joint  service  of  the  Allies. 

The  Government  in  Exile.  Narrowly  escap- 
ing capture  by  the  invaders,  Queen  Wilhelmina 
crossed  to  England  on  board  a  British  warship  and 
arrived  in  London  on  May  13.  She  was  preceded 
by  Crown  Princess  Juliana,  the  latter 's  German- 
born  husband,  Prince  Bernhard  zu  Lippe-Beister- 
feld,  and  their  two  children.  On  May  14  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Netherland  Cabinet  reached  London 
along  with  numerous  other  refugees.  That  after- 
noon the  Queen  issued  a  proclamation  declaring 
London  the  seat  of  the  Netherland  Government 
pending  re-establishment  of  the  regime  in  the 
Netherlands.  Wilhelmina  delegated  authority  in 
the  Netherlands  to  the  military  command  but  re- 
tained direct  control  of  the  overseas  colonies 

On  May  15  the  Queen  made  two  broadcasts,  in 
Dutch  to  her  overseas  empire  and  in  English  to 
the  British  Empire,  stating  that  the  conscience  of 
the  Netherlands  was  clear  and  its  spirit  unbroken. 
She  urged  support  of  the  Allied  cause  to  speed 
"the  day  when  freedom  will  be  restored  to  the 
Netherlands  and  to  other  victims  of  German  ag- 
gression." The  same  day  Foreign  Minister  van 
Kleffens  announced  in  Paris  that  the  Netherlands 
was  still  at  war  with  the  Reich,  that  the  struggle 
would  be  continued,  and  that  the  resources  of  the 
rich  Dutch  overseas  possessions  "have  been  placed 
at  the  disposition  of  the  Allies  " 

On  May  24  Wilhelmina  told  newspaper  corre- 
spondents in  London  that  she  had  taken  refuge 
there  to  frustrate  German  attempts  to  capture  her 
and  to  lead  the  struggle  for  freedom  of  the  Neth- 
erlands The  Germans,  she  pointed  out,  "apparent- 
ly considered  my  person  as  a  promising  hostage 
with  which  to  paralyze  every  resistance  of  my 
people  in  the  Netherlands  and  overseas  territories." 
She  continued: 

I  have  deemed  it  my  duty  to  choose  the  active  leader- 
ship of  a  continued  struggle  at  the  head  of  my  govern- 
ment. This  struggle  is  being  waged  by  Dutchmen  who 
have  escaped  from  the  now-occupied  territory  and  recruited 
abroad  at  the  side  of  the  Allies;  also  by  the  Dutch  fleet 
with  its  proud  traditions  which  has  been  able  to  join  Allied 
fleets  almost  unscathed. 

It  is  my  task  to  give  leadership  and  confidence  to  these 
forces  and  Hollanders  in  overseas  territories  who  are 
willing  and  keen  to  make  any  sacrifices  for  the  liberation 
of  the  motherland. 

It  is  my  task  also  freely  to  carry  on  the  constitutional 
leadership  of  those  65,000,000  native  inhabitants  of  our 
empire  whose  allegiance  to  the  crown  has  been  so  force* 
fully  demonstrated  in  these  fateful  days.  .  .  . 

The  Queen  and  government  remained  in  Lon- 
don during  the  remainder  of  the  year,  working  in 
close  collaboration  with  Britain.  By  a  financial  ac- 
cord signed  June  14,  the  government  in  exile  en- 
tered the  Franco-Belgian-British  currency  union. 
'  With  the  aid  of  a  voluntary  income  tax  adopted 
in  the  Netherland  colonies,  the  government  con- 
tinued to  meet  its  financial  obligations.  Premier 
de  Geer  resigned  because  of  ill  health  on  Septem- 
ber 3  and  was  replaced  by  Dr.  P.  S.  Gerbrandy. 
Princess  Juliana  and  her  two  children  arrived  in 
Canada  on  June  11  for  the  duration  of  the  war. 
Prince  Bernhard  remained  in  Britain  with  the 
Dutch  military  force. 

The  German  Occupation.  On  May  20  Gen. 
Baron  Alexander  von  Falkenhausen  was  appointed 
to  organize  a  military  administration  in  the  Neth- 


NETHERLANDS 


541 


NETHERLANDS  INDIES 


erlands  and  Belgium.  At  Hitler's  orders,  he  trans- 
ferred his  powers  on  May  30  to  Dr.  Arthur  Seyss- 
Inquart,  Reich  Cabinet  Minister  and  former  gov- 
ernor of  conquered  Austria,  who  assumed  control 
of  the  Dutch  civil  administration,  and  to  Maj.  Gen. 
Friedrich  Christiansen,  the  new  German  military 
commander.  The  transfer  was  made  ceremoniously 
in  the  Ridderzaal  in  Amsterdam  where  Queen 
Wilhelmina  customarily  opened  the  annual  sessions 
of  the  States-General.  Dr.  Seyss-Inquart  pro- 
claimed that  existing  Dutch  laws  would  remain  in 
force  "as  far  as  possible/'  that  Dutch  officials 
would  be  "the  instruments  of  power  in  the  new 
administration,"  that  the  independence  of  the  Dutch 
legal  jurisdiction  was  to  be  preserved,  and  that  the 
country  would  not  be  subjected  "to  further  living 
discomforts  other  than  those  rendered  necessary 
by  the  enforced  communal  relations  with  the  Reich 
and  the  destructive  will  of  Germany's  enemies." 
He  said  that  reconstruction  of  all  war  damage 
would  commence  immediately  from  a  reconstruc- 
tion fund  created  through  sayings  on  State  ex- 
penses and  voluntary  contributions. 

The  Dutch  Nazis  at  first  played  no  part  in  the 
new  administration,  and  the  German  officials  made 
an  effort  to  win  the  good  will  of  the  Dutch  people. 
However,  the  Germans  took  over  all  agencies  of 
public  information,  established  censorship  of  the 
newspapers,  forbade  the  Dutch  to  listen  to  foreign 
radio  stations,  forced  the  dismissal  of  Jewish 
journalists,  and  pegged  the  florin  to  the  German 
mark  at  a  rate  that  gave  the  occupationary  forces 
and  Germany  a  great  trading  advantage  over  the 
Netherlands  The  blackout  was  rigidly  enforced. 
All  Dutch  military  forces  were  ordered  demobi- 
lized in  July  and  the  country  was  reorganized  po- 
litically and  economically  as  a  part  of  the  German 
living  space. 

The  German  rulers  encountered  an  unyielding 
spirit  of  passive  resistance  that  broadened  and 
deepened  as  the  months  passed,  according  to  re- 
ports from  both  German  and  Dutch  sources.  Dr. 
Seyss-Inquart  and  his  advisory  staff  of  German 
experts  undertook  to  rule  through  a  Dutch  admin- 
istrative committee  composed  of  the  general  sec- 
retaries of  the  cabinet  ministries  and  through  the 
existing  Dutch  provincial  authorities.  Before  long 
they  found  it  necessary  to  replace  many  of  these 
officials  by  members  of  the  Dutch  Nazi  movement, 
the  only  element  ready  to  collaborate  with  the  in- 
vaders. 

On  September  13  Anton  Mussert,  leader  of  the 
Netherland  Nazi  party,  established  a  militia  or- 
ganization patterned  on  the  German  Elite  Guard. 
Receiving  increasingly  open  German  support,  Mus- 
sert launched  a  campaign  of  violence  and  propa- 
ganda to  Nazify  the  country.  This  campaign,  and 
the  prospect  that  Mussert  and  his  followers  would 
soon  be  entrusted  with  the  government,  led  to  the 
formation  of  a  Netherland  Union  party,  which 
offered  economic  collaboration  to  Germany  but  de- 
manded spiritual  independence  and  the  end  of  anti- 
Jewish  and  similar  measures  and  decrees.  A  series 
of  violent  clashes  between  Nazis  and  Unionists 
followed 

Meanwhile  the  German  authorities  increased 
their  efforts  to  curb  all  anti-Nazi  groups  and  force 
the  country  into  peaceful  acceptance  of  its  new 
role.  Freemasonry  was  outlawed  on  September  5. 
The  Ma."«st  Parties  were  placed  under  German 
supervision  and  forced  to  drop  political  activities, 
while  other  anti-Nazi  parties  were  pressed  to  con- 
form to  German  wishes.  Jews  were  progressively 


barred  from  government  services  and  other  occu- 
pations, despite  wide  protests.  The  Dutch  people 
were  forbidden  publicly  to  display  loyalty  to  the 
Queen  and  government  in  exile. 

By  the  end  of  November  some  2000  civilians 
were  reported  in  concentration  camps  and  prisons 
on  charges  ranging  from  sabotage  and  espionage 
to  insulting  Hitler  or  showing  disrespect  for  oc- 
cupationary officials.  There  were  a  number  of  ex- 
ecutions General  Wmkelman  was  sent  to  Germany 
as  a  military  prisoner  early  in  July.  Student  anti- 
German  demonstrations  caused  the  closing  of  some 
schools  and  universities  and  the  arrest  of  students 
and  professors.  Fines  were  levied  on  towns  where 
sabotage  or  other  anti-German  acts  occurred.  The 
unemployed,  who  numbered  420,000  on  July  31  ac- 
cording to  one  of  Dr  Seyss-Inquart's  German 
experts,  were  given  the  choice  of  accepting  work 
in  Germany  or  being  removed  from  the  dole. 

Beginning  in  July,  hundreds  of  prominent  Neth- 
erlanders  were  arrested  and  interned  in  reprisal 
for  the  alleged  mistreatment  of  German  subjects 
in  the  Netherlands  Indies  (q.v.).  Many  of  them 
were  supporters  of  former  Premier  Hendrik 
Colijn,  who  was  one  of  the  most  influential  leaders 
of  the  anti-German  groups.  These  measures  failed 
to  break  the  independent  spirit  of  the  Netherland- 
ers.  By  the  end  of  1940,  relations  between  the 
Dutch  people  and  their  conquerors  had  become  ex- 
tremely strained. 

German  Economic  Measures.  Economic  ex- 
ploitation was  another  principal  reason  for  the 
rising  hostility  of  the  Dutch  people.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  foodstuff,  livestock,  and  other  supplies  were 
shipped  to  the  Reich.  This,  together  with  the  Brit- 
ish blockade,  forced  the  extension  of  the  rationing 
system  and  by  mid- winter  considerable  suffering 
from  the  shortage  of  food  and  fuel  was  reported. 
Under  German  guidance,  the  Netherlands  adminis- 
tration concluded  a  trade  accord  with  Sweden  and 
undertook  barter  negotiations  with  other  German 
vassal  States.  Dutch  labor  was  organized  along 
the  lines  of  the  German  Labor  Front  to  maintain 
production  of  war  materials  and  other  needed  sup- 
plies. The  Netherlands  was  also  saddled  with  the 
cost  of  the  German  army  of  occupation,  amount- 
ing to  more  than  100,000,000  florins  during  June- 
September  inclusive.  Heavy  new  taxes  were  intro- 
duced. The  net  floating  debt  was  increased  from 
492,947,000  to  1,112,128,000  florins  during  the  first 
five  months  of  the  occupation,  mostly  through  the 
issuance  of  Treasury  notes.  Free  trade  between 
the  Reich  and  the  Netherlands  was  introduced  in 
December.  Indemnification  of  all  war  damage  at 
90  to  100  per  cent  as  soon  as  the  owner  started  re- 
building was  announced  December  4. 

Foreign  diplomats  and  their  staffs,  including  the 
Papal  Nuncio,  were  required  to  leave  the  Nether- 
lands before  July  15.  Consult  E.  N.  van  Kleffens, 
The  Rape  of  the  Netherlands  (New  York,  1940). 

See  BELGIUM  and  GERMANY  under  History} 
JEWS  under  France  and  the  Lowlands ;  LEAGUE  OF 
NATIONS;  NAVAL  PROGRESS;  TUNNELS. 

NETHERLANDS  GUIANA.  See  SURINAM. 

NETHERLANDS  INDIES.  A  group  of 
large  islands  in  the  East  Indies  forming  a  colony 
of  the  Netherlands.  Capital,  Batavia,  on  the  island 
of  Java. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area,  population  at 
the  1930  census,  and  population  density  of  the  vari- 
ous islands  is  shown  in  the  table  on  page  542 

The  estimated  population  on  Dec.  31,  1939,  was 
69,435,000.  Over  92  per  cent  of  the  population  is 


NETHERLANDS  INDIES 


542 


NETHERLANDS  INDIES 


Gromp  ^f  islands 

Ana, 

so.  mitu, 
1930 

51,032 

Po*»- 
lo&n, 
1930 

41,718,364 

Density 
817 

Sumatra  
Riouw-Lingga  
Bangka                     

164,148 
12,235 
4,611 

7677,826 
298,225 
205363 

47 
24 
45 

Billiton  

I;866 

73,429 

39 

Borneo: 
West  district    
South  and  east  districts 
Island  of  Celebes: 
Celebes  

56,664 
151,621 

38,786 

802,447 
1,366,214 

3,093,251 

14 
9 

80 

Manado          

34,200 

1,138,655 

33 

Molucca  Islands  and  New 
Guinea  
Timor  Archipelago  
BaUandLombok       ... 

191,682 
24,449 
3,973 

893,400 
1,657,376 
1,802,683 

68 
454 

Total  

735,268 

60,727,233 

83 

rural.  Living  births  among  the  natives  of  Java  and 
Madoera  in  1938  numbered  1,263,404;  deaths,  846,- 
331 ;  among  the  European  population,  births  num- 
bered 6492,  deaths  2433.  The  1930  census  popula- 
tions of  the  chief  cities,  all  of  which  were  in  Java 
except  as  noted,  were :  Batavia,  including  Meester 
Cornells,  533,015;  Soerabaja  (Surabaya), 341, 675; 
Semarang,  217,796;  Bandoeng,  166,815;  Soerakar- 
ta,  165,484;  Djokjakarta  (Jogjakarta),  136,649; 
Palemban^,  in  Sumatra,  109,069. 

Education  and  Religion.  According  to  the 
1930  census,  there  were  4,296,579  literate  persons, 
of  whom  400,877  were  able  to  write  Dutch.  School 
attendance  in  1938  was :  Primary  vernacular,  1,996,- 
443;  elementary  (in  Dutch  language),  146,826; 
advanced  elementary  and  secondary,  18,571.  Higher 
education  is  given  in  the  Technical  College,  Ban- 
doeng, and  in  colleges  of  law,  medicine,  and  pub- 
lic service  at  Batavia. 

The  natives  are  predominantly  Moslem,  but 
there  are  several  million  converted  Christians  and 
Animists  and  about  a  million  Buddhists. 

Defense.  See  below  under  History. 

Production.  Agriculture  and  mining  are  the 
chief  occupations.  In  1938  the  area  cultivated  by 
natives  was  21,687,584  acres ;  by  European  estate 
owners,  about  2,893,232  acres.  Estimated  produc- 
tion of  the  chief  crops  (in  metric  tons)  :  Cane 
sugar,  1,550,000  in  1939-40  (Java  only) ;  rubber, 
378,000  in  1939  (net  exports,  371,849  long  tons)  ; 
rice,  6,136,800  in  1938-39  (Java  and  Madoera 
only) ;  coffee,  107,100  in  1939-40;  cacao,  1300  in 
1938-39;  tobacco,  51,900  in  1938-39  (excluding 
that  produced  and  consumed  by  natives)  ;  tea,  83,- 
800  in  1939;  copra,  537,100  in  1939;  ground  nuts, 
270,800  in  1939-40  (Java  and  Madoera) ;  palm 
kernels,  19,700  in  1939  (net  exports).  Livestock 
(1938) :  4,463,439  cattle,  3,199,944  buffaloes,  693,- 
594  horses.  Mineral  production  in  1939  was  (in 
metric  tons)  :  Crude  petroleum,  7,943,000 ;  coal  and 
lignite,  1,666,000  (about  1,200,000  jn  1940) :  man- 
ganese, 5000:  tin  ore  (metal  content),  28,200; 
bauxite  (crude  ore),  245,400  in  1938.  Gold  output 
was  2373  kilograms  in  1938.  There  are  more  than 
6000  workshops  and  factories,  mostly  engaged  in 
processing  agricultural  and  mineral  products  for 
export. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1939  totaled  469,- 
400,000  florins  (485,520,000  in  1938) ;  exports,  739,- 
600,000  florins  (652,660,000).  For  distribution  of 
trade  by  countries  in  1938,  see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939, 
p.  549.  For  commerce  with  United  States,  see 
TRADE,  FOWMGN. 

Finance.  Actual  governmental  receipts  in  1939 
totaled  413,537,000  florins  (379,374,000  in  1938) ; 


expenditures,  479,800,000  (431,759,000).  For  1940. 
final  budget  estimates  were:  Receipts,  607,489,359 
florins ;  expenditures,  675,815,398.  The  public  debt 
on  Dec.  31,  1939,  was  1,373,703,000  florins  (fund- 
ed, 1,249,929,000;  floating,  123,744,000).  The  florin 
averaged  $0.5501  in  1938,  $0.5334  in  1939.  On  June 
14,  1940,  the  Netherlands  Indies  entered  the  "ster- 
ling bloc"  and  an  exchange  rate  of  7.60  florins  for 
one  £  sterling  was  fixed  for  commercial  transac- 
tions within  the  bloc.  At  the  same  time  the  rate  for 
United  States  dollar  exchange  was  pegged  at  1.8925 
florins  for  $1. 

Communications.  Steam  raliways  in  1940  ex- 
tended 4070  miles  (2701  miles  State-owned),  the 
greater  part  in  Java;  highways  (1939),  42,506 
miles;  inter-island  airways  (K.N.I.L.M.),  8065 
miles  of  route  (1939)  covered  by  nine  services. 
In  1939  these  airlines  carried  22,337  passengers, 
131,863  Ib.  of  mail,  and  251,757  Ib.  of  freight.  The 
Amsterdam-Batavia  service  of  K.L.M.  (Royal 
Aviation  Co.)  was  ended  with  the  German  invasion 
of  the  Netherlands  May  10,  1940.  The  following 
July  22,  the  company  started  a  new  weekly  service 
between  Batavia  and  Lydda,  Palestine.  Work  on  a 
new  375-mile  highway  in  South  and  East  Borneo 
costing  about  5,340,000  United  States  dollars  was 
begun  in  1940. 

Government.  The  Governor  General  and  his 
advisory  council  are  appointed  by  the  Queen  of  the 
Netherlands.  The  Volksraad  (assembly  of  elected 
and  appointed  delegates)  has  limited  legislative 
powers.  Governor  General  in  1940,  Jhr.  Dr.  A.  W. 
L.  Tjarda  van  Starkenborgh  Stachouwer  (ap- 
pointed June  8,  1936). 

HISTORY 

War  Measures.  Germany's  blitzkrieg  against 
the  Netherlands  commencing  May  10, 1940,  and  the 
flight  of  the  Dutch  Queen  and  her  government  to 
London  inaugurated  a  critical  period  in  the  history 
of  the  Netherlands  Indies.  Chancellor  Hitler's  ac- 
tion had  been  anticipated  in  the  Netherlands  Indies 
as  well  as  in  the  mother  country,  and  protective 
measures  were  promptly  taken. 

On  May  10,  immediately  following  news  of  the 
German  attack  upon  Holland,  the  government  pro- 
claimed martial  law  over  all  the  islands,  confiscat- 
ed some  300  German  enterprises,  and  arrested  and 
interned  about  3000  German  residents  including  the 
crews  of  19  German  cargo  ships  that  had  taken 
refuge  in  Netherlands  Indies  ports.  The  German 
ships  were  seized  before  the  crews  could  carry  out 
orders  to  scuttle  them.  About  100  Dutch  Nazis 
were  also  arrested. 

In  a  broadcast  to  the  colony  on  the  same  day,  the 
Governor  General  said  that  while  the  Netherlands 
Indies,  as  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands, 
were  at  war  with  the  Reich,  their  status  was  oth- 
erwise unchanged.  He  declared  his  government 
was  able  to  guard  the  colony  and  that  no  aid  from 
other  nations  was  wanted.  Following  the  surrender 
of  the  Netherlands  Army  to  the  Germans,  the  na- 
tive rulers  and  representatives  of  the  Chinese,  Ar- 
abs, and  other  nationalities  in  the  Netherlands 
Indies  declared  their  loyalty  to  Queen  Wilhelmina. 
The  Volksraad  on  Tune  15  empowered  the  colonial 
government  to  take  all  necessary  measures  to 
maintain  the  existing  status  of  the  empire.  In  a 
broadcast  to  the  islands  on  May  24  Queen  Wil- 
helmina asked  her  subjects  there  to  "set  all  differ- 
ences aside"  and  rally  around  the  Governor  Gen- 
eral. 

Politico-Economic  Consequences.  Although 


NETHERLANDS  INDIES 


543 


NETHERLANDS  INDIXI 


remaining  in  close  touch  with  the  exiled  Nether- 
lands Government  in  London,  the  colonial  govern- 
ment was  to  all  practical  purposes  placed  upon  its 
own  resources.  It  was  obliged  to  conduct  important 
and  delicate  negotiations  with  Japan,  the  United 
States,  and  the  Allied  governments ;  to  strengthen 
the  islands'  defenses  with  the  greatest  possible 
speed ;  and  to  adjust  their  economic  life  to  the  cut- 
ting of  all  commercial  relations  with  the  mother 
country  and  with  most  of  the  European  continent 
The  colony  also  undertook  to  lend  all  possible  eco- 
nomic aid  to  the  Allied  cause. 

These  circumstances  produced  a  rapid  extension 
of  government  control  over  industry^  commerce, 
finance,  and  other  aspects  of  the  colonial  economy. 
A  wide  range  of  civil  powers  were  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  military  command.  Censorship  of  all 
branches  of  communication  was  established.  The 
supply  of  foodstuffs  was  conserved  and  their  prices 
controlled.  Exports  and  export  prices  were  regu- 
lated. Foreign  exchange  control  was  established 
and  the  Netherlands  Indies  entered  the  sterling 
bloc  (see  Finance).  Effective  May  25  the  govern- 
ment assumed  authority  to  regulate  or  control  pri- 
vate undertakings.  Heavy  new  taxes  were  imposed 
to  meet  defense  and  other  emergency  costs. 

A  considerable  cargo  tonnage  was  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Allies  and  the  British  Government 
was  extended  credits  for  the  purchase  of  Nether- 
lands Indies  products.  The  British  Empire  in  turn 
took  many  of  the  islands'  commodities  excluded 
from  European  markets  and  helped  to  maintain 
prices.  Other  surpluses  found  an  outlet  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  and  Japan.  The  industrialization  pro- 
gram, recorded  in  previous  YEAR  BOOKS,  was 
speeded  up  to  supply  commodities  that  were  for- 
merly imported.  As  a  result,  the  year  end  found 
most  industrial  enterprises  and  the  export  of  tin, 
oil,  and  other  vital  war  materials  booming,  while 
those  parts  of  the  islands  producing  other  materials 
experienced  severe  depression. 

Another  notable  consequence  of  the  war  was  the 
transfer  to  the  Netherlands  Indies  of  the  head- 
quarters of  many  Dutch  firms.  The  result  was 
that  much  of  the  islands1  wealth  that  formerly 
flowed  to  the  Netherlands  in  the  form  of  dividends 
and  profits  was  retained  in  the  colony.  These  de- 
velopments were  accompanied  by  the  rapid  growth 
of  a  demand  for  wider  autonomy  among  natives 
and  colonial  officials  alike.  It  was  indicated  that 
they  would  insist  upon  a  semi-independent  domin- 
ion status  for  the  Netherlands  Indies  if  the  war 
ended  with  the  Dutch  still  in  control. 

Japan  Stakes  Her  Claim.  When  the  outbreak 
of  the  European  War  raised  the  possibility  that 
Germany  would  invade  the  Netherlands,  Japan  dis- 
played a  growing  interest  in  the  future  of  the 
Netherlands  Indies  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  394). 
On  Feb.  12,  1940,  the  Japanese  Government  de- 
nounced the  Netherlands- Japanese  arbitration  trea- 
ty. On  April  16  the  Japanese  Foreign  Minister  is- 
sued a  formal  statement  which  the  Netherlands' 
Ambassador  was  requested  to  transmit  to  The 
Hague.  Apparently  intended  as  a  warning  to  the 
Western  powers,  it  asserted  that  Japan  and  "other 
countries  of  East  Asia"  maintained  "close  econom- 
ic relations"  with  the  Netherlands  Indies.  Should 
extension  of  European  hostilities  to  the  Nether- 
lands "produce  repercussions"  in  the  islands,  the 
statement  continued,  it  would  not  only  interfere 
with  these  relations  but  would  also  "give  rise  to  an 
undesirable  situation  from  the  standpoint  of  peace 
and  stability  in  East  Asia.  In  view  of  these  con- 


siderations, the  Japanese  Government  cannot  but 
be  deeply  concerned  over  any  development  accom- 
panying the  aggravation  of  the  war  in  Europe 
that  may  affect  the  status  quo  of  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies." 

The  Netherlands  Government  replied  that  in 
case  it  became  involved  in  the  European  War,  it 
would  neither  ask  nor  accept  aid  from  any  power 
in  defending  the  East  Indies.  Moreover  Secretary 
of  State  Hull  warned  the  Japanese  Government  on 
April  17  that  the  United  States  as  well  as  other 
countries  were  to  a  considerable  degree  dependent 
upon  some  of  the  islands'  products  and  that  "inter- 
vention in  the  domestic  affairs  of  the  Netherlands 
Indies  or  any  alteration  of  their  status  quo  by 
other  than  peaceful  processes"  would  jeopardize 
peace  "in  the  entire  Pacific  area."  On  April  19  the 
Japanese  Ambassador  to  Washington  disclaimed 
any  "special"  interest  of  Japan  m  the  East  Indies 
and  said  that  Japan  was  satisfied  with  the  Dutch 
statement. 

The  day  following  the  German  attack  upon  the 
Netherlands,  the  Japanese  Foreign  Minister  in- 
formed the  Dutch,  German,  British,  French,  Amer- 
ican, and  Italian  diplomatic  representatives  in  To- 
kyo that  Japan  would  not  permit  the  Netherlands 
Indies  to  change  hands,  or  sanction  any  interfer- 
ence with  Japan's  supplies  of  rubber,  ore,  and  oil 
from  those  islands.  On  the  same  day  (May  11) 
Secretary  of  State  Hull  reiterated  the  American 
Government's  opposition  to  any  alteration  of  the 
status  of  the  Netherlands  Indies.  The  British  Gov- 
ernment stated  that  it  had  no  intention  of  "inter- 
vening" and  Dutch  authorities  assured  Japan  that 
Allied  military  support  similar  to  that  extended  in 
the  Dutch  West  Indies  was  "not  required  or  in- 
tended" in  the  East  Indies.  The  German  Govern- 
ment also  declared  it  had  no  interest  in  the  islands. 

Setting  forth  a  thinly  veiled  claim  to  future  con- 
trol of  the  colony,  Japanese  officials  in  June  began 
to  press  for  larger  supplies  of  essential  commodi- 
ties from  the  Netherlands  Indies,  tariff  conces- 
sions, and  other  increased  opportunities  for  Japa- 
nese economic  penetration.  A  Japanese  economic 
mission,  headed  by  Minister  of  Commerce  Ichizo 
Kobayashi,  arrived  in  Batavia  September  12.  The 
members  demanded  an  increase  in  shipments  of  oil 
and  oil  products  to  Japan  from  the  existing  level 
of  495,000  tons  annually  to  4,000,000  tons,  includ- 
ing a  large  proportion  of  high-octane  aviation  gas- 
oline. Similar  demands  were  made  regarding  rub- 
ber, tin,  and  other  strategic  minerals  and  raw 
materials. 

Although  the  negotiations  were  conducted  under 
the  threat  of  Japanese  invasion,  the  Batavia  au- 
thorities proved  both  obdurate  and  evasive.  The 
demands  regarding  oil  were  referred  to  the  British 
and  American  companies  operating  the  Nether- 
lands Indies  oil  concessions  An  agreement  reached 
between  the  oil  companies  and  Japanese  oil  im- 
porters, announced  November  13,  was  later  termed 
entirely  unsatisfactory  by  Japanese  officials.  It 
provided  for  the  shipment  to  Japan  of  about  1,800,- 
000  tons  of  oil  and  oil  products  annually  for  five 
years,  including  the  normal  quota  of  494,000  tons. 
The  additional  shipments  were  to  include  no  high- 
octane  aviation  gasoline  and  only  120,000  tons  of 
aviation  crude. 

No  agreement  was  reached  on  the  other  Japa- 
nese economic  demands,  and  their  efforts  to  intro- 
duce political  issues  were  firmly  rebuffed.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  year  the  Tokyo  government  adopted 
a  more  threatening  tone,  while  making  military 


NETHERLANDS  WEST  INDIES       544 


NEUTRALITY 


and  naval  preparations  for  a  further  advance  into 
southeastern  Asia  and  Malaya.  The  Tokyo  press 
complained  of  alleged  insults  and  outrages  to  Jap- 
anese subjects  in  the  Netherlands  Indies.  (As 
early  as  August  the  United  States  consulate  in 
Batavia  had  reported  a  steady  increase  in  Japa- 
nese immigrants  into  the  colony.)  Then  on  Decem- 
ber 26  Kenkichi  Yoshizawa,  who  had  replaced 
Minister  Kobayashi  as  head  of  the  Japanese  eco- 
nomic mission,  arrived  in  Batavia  to  press  for 
further  and  prompt  concessions. 

Defense  Preparations.  Japan's  threatening  at- 
titude led  the  colonial  government  to  rush  defense 
preparations  throughout  1940.  An  extra  session  of 
the  Volksraad,  convened  April  9,  voted  funds  for 
enlargement  of  the  naval  base  at  Soerabaja,  forti- 
fication of  strategic  points,  and  other  defense  meas- 
ures. Oil  wells,  refineries,  pipelines,  and  offices 
were  mined  to  permit  their  prompt  destruction  in 
the  event  of  an  attack.  The  oil  refining  base  was 
removed  in  part  from  vulnerable  Balik  Papan  in 
Borneo  to  Palembang  in  Sumatra.  Harbors  and 
territorial  waters  were  mined.  Defense  units  were 
organized  and  air  raid  trenches  constructed  in  the 
principal  cities  and  towns.  Air  fields  and  other  pos- 
sible landing  grounds  were  guarded  against  sud- 
den attack.  The  regular  army,  navy,  and  air  force 
were  strengthened  as  rapidly  as  possible.  In  De- 
cember, 1940,  they  were  believed  to  comprise  over 
100,000  well-equipped  troops,  about  500  first-line 
military  aircraft,  a  large  force  of  naval  planes, 
and  a  fleet  of  at  least  3  cruisers,  9  destroyers,  14 
large  submarines,  and  many  small  coast  defense 
vessels. 

In  October  the  Netherlands  Government  in 
London  asked  Dutch  subjects  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  to  pay  a  voluntary  income-tax,  96  per  cent 
of  which  would  go  to  strengthening  Netherlands 
Indies  defenses.  The  shortage  of  materials  forced 
the  colonial  government  on  November  14  to  aban- 
don plans  for  the  construction  of  three  battle- 
cruisers  but  the  program  for  enlarging  the  Soe- 
rabaja naval  base  to  accommodate  battleships  was 
continued,  apparently  with  a  view  to  its  possible 
future  use  by  British  or  American  war  vessels. 

In  addition,  the  200,000  Netherlander^  residing 
in  the  colony  made  a  substantial  contribution  to 
the  British  war  effort.  Many  of  them  enlisted  in 
the  Netherlands  or  Allied  forces.  By  Nov.  15, 
1940,  a  fund  of  £650,000  had  been  raised  as  a  gift 
to  Britain  for  fighting  planes,  in  addition  to  other 
voluntary  contributions  totaling  more  than  £1,000,- 
000. 

See  AUSTRALIA,  BRITISH  MALAYA,  CHINA, 
FRENCH  INDO-CHINA,  JAPAN,  and  NETHERLANDS, 
under  History;  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL. 

NETHERLANDS  WEST  INDIES.  The 
colonial  possessions  of  the  Netherlands  in  the  West 
Indies,  consisting  of  (1)  CURACAO  and  (2)  SURI- 
NAM, or  Dutch  Guiana,  See  separate  article  on 
each  colony. 

NEUTRALITY.  The  neutral  countries  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere  became  in  an  increased  de- 
gree in  1940  the  main  group  maintaining  and  at 
liberty  to  maintain  the  observance  of  the  require- 
ments of  neutrality  as  understood  by  the  law  of 
nations  and  to  assure  its  observance,  toward  them, 
by  belligerents.  The  advance  of  the  German  forces 
removed  from  the  European  Continent  most  of  the 
lesser,  isolated  neutrals  of  the  northern  coasts. 
Sweden,  though  not  conquered  like  Norway,  Den- 
mark, Holland,  and  Belgium,  survived  through 
Germany's  tolerance  and  economic  domination. 


Russia  made  war  during  part  of  the  year  but  later 
took  a  neutral  position. 

Of  64  countries  generally  held  at  the  end  of  1938 
to  be  governed  by  their  own  authorities,  13  at  the 
close  of  1940  were  at  war  formally  or  in  fact ;  17 
had  been  suppressed,  had  fallen  under  military 
domination,  or  had  become  dependent  on  others' 
active  military  protection;  and  34  were  at  peace 
and  neutral.  Of  these  34  neutrals,  21  were  coun- 
tries in  the  Western  Hemisphere;  and  in  that 
hemisphere  only  one  country,  Canada,  was  at  war. 
Of  the  nine  European  neutrals,  Russia  and  Finland 
were  contiguous  but  mistrusted  each  other ;  Spain 
and  Portugal  were  contiguous  and  capable  of  tak- 
ing a  common  neutral  course ;  the  other  five  were 
scattered  and  little  able  to  do  so.  A  general  neutral 
policy  was  possible  only  in  the  Americas.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  United  States  in  these  lands  ren- 
dered U.S.  neutrality  important  beyond  that  of 
any  other  single  country,  with  Russia  possibly  ex- 
cepted. 

Statutory  Neutrality.  The  neutrality  of  the 
United  States  had  special  features  that  governed 
its  course  it  must  accord  with  the  function  of  ex- 
cluding other  governments  from  acquiring  further 
dominion  in  the  Americas,  an  obligation  assumed 
under  the  terms  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine ;  it  must 
accord  its  own  neutrality  with  a  policy  of  favor- 
ing the  liberally  governed  belligerents  as  against 
the  authoritarian  powers;  and  it  must  effect  cer- 
tain formal  safeguards  of  its  own  neutral  status, 
required  by  the  Neutrality  Act  of  1939. 

This  statutory  neutrality  required  a  specific  dec- 
laration of  U.S.  neutral  status  in  every  case  of  an 
outbreak  of  war;  a  determination  of  "combat 
areas,"  in  which  commerce  of  the  United  States 
might  by  its  presence  generate  incidents  liable  to 
give  occasion  for  the  United  States'  becoming  a 
belligerent  itself;  and  the  exclusion  of  the  coun- 
try's shipping  from  such  areas.  The  President,  on 
whom  these  duties  were  imposed,  issued  the  re- 
quired proclamations  as  further  warfare  developed 
in  1940.  On  April  10  he  extended  the  previously 
defined  combat  area  of  the  European  coast  to  in- 
clude the  waters  from  the  Russian  coast  east  of 
the  White  Sea  to  the  Spanish  coast  at  Bilbao.  On 
April  25  he  proclaimed  U  S.  neutrality  as  to  war 
between  Germany  and  Norway;  on  May  11;  he 
proclaimed  it  as  to  German  warfare  on  Belgium, 
the  Netherlands,  and  Luxemburg.  Upon  Italy's 
taking  the  field  against  France  and  Britain,  a 
a  proclamation  of  June  11  declared  neutrality  in 
this  case  as  well;  and  another,  June  11,  extended 
the  combat  area  to  seas  off  Morocco  and  part  of 
Portugal  and  virtually  to  the  whole  Mediterranean 
Sea.  On  November  15,  a  further  proclamation  of 
neutrality  dealt  with  Italy's  war  upon  Greece. 
Thus  a  uniform  and  rigid  code  of  neutral  conduct 
was  imposed  on  U.S.  citizens  and  interests,  regard- 
less of  cases. 

The  statutory  neutrality  had  the  effect  of  stop- 
ping much  of  the  activity  of  U.S.  merchant  ship- 
ping. As  early  as  March  it  appeared  that  about 
one-fourth  of  the  fleet  active  in  foreign  trade  had 
been  tied  up  by  the  proclamations  of  1939.  Idle 
ships  in  this  group  numbered  80 ;  their  gross  ton- 
nage aggregated  516,317 ;  six  principal  lines  were 
affected.  The  statute  of  1939  provided  no  com- 
pensation for  the  loss  of  the  business  needful  to 
the  continuance  of  affected  shipping  enterprises 
But  the  companies  resorted  to  selling  or  leasing 
idle  vessels,  often  to  foreign  ownership. 

Neutrality  and  Monroeism.  For  the  origin 


NEUTRALITY  PATROL 


545 


NEW  BRUNSWICK 


of  the  Pan-American  neutral  block,  see  1939  YEAR 
BOOK,  p.  555,  under  Neutrality. 

The  Foreign  Ministers  of  the  American  repub- 
lics held  at  Havana  in  July  their  second  meeting 
on  subjects  concerning  their  countries'  concerted 
neutrality.  They  drew  up  a  convention  to  permit 
safeguarding  any  territory  in  the  Americas  that 
should  lose  (as  through  consequences  of  the  war 
abroad)  its  governing  authority.  Belligerents  had 
not  accepted  the  earlier-proclaimed  neutral  belt  of 
sea  about  the  Americas,  as  an  area  closed  to  hos- 
tilities ;  the  Havana  conference  did  not  set  up  the 
sanctions,  desired  in  some  quarters,  against  hostili- 
ties in  such  waters.  By  negotiation  with  some  of 
the  other  American  republics  the  United  States 
obtained  privileges  to  use  a  number  of  places  on 
their  coasts  for  the  service  of  its  Navy  and  air- 
craft in  the  cause  of  the  common  protection.  For 
details,  see  PAN  AMERICANISM. 

Neutrality  vs.  Non-interference.  While  ob- 
serving in  many  respects  the  letter  of  the  accepted 
code  of  neutrality,  the  United  States  drew  away, 
during  1940,  from  its  original  attitude  of  imparti- 
ality as  between  contending  belligerents.  The  down- 
fall of  all  effective  resistance  to  Germany  on  land, 
the  crucial  event  of  the  European  warfare  in  1940, 
forced  upon  the  United  States  the  choice  between 
letting  Great  Britain  have  more  material  of  war 
and  inviting  German  domination  of  the  whole  of 
Europe.  By  a  series  of  steps  the  Government  ad- 
vanced along  the  road  that  it  had  taken  in  letting 
down  the  bars  to  the  British  and  French  importa- 
tion of  such  material  in  1939  (see  UNITED  STATES, 
under  The  President). 

Theory  of  Neutrality.  The  question  as  to  the 
validity  of  the  neutral  status,  with  one  belligerent, 
of  a  neutral  power  failing  to  vindicate  its  neutral- 
ity when  constrained  by  another  belligerent  came 
to  the  fore  in  Europe.  On  the  eve  of  the  German 
spring  campaign  certain  of  the  small  Scandinavian 
and  North-Sea  countries  were  in  this  plight  A 
reported  statement  from  the  French  Foreign  Office, 
March  26,  took  the  following  position :  "If  a  neu- 
tral state  shows  conclusively  that  it  is  not  capable 
of  enforcing  respect  for  its  neutrality  by  one  bel- 
ligerent, then  it  had  no  right  to  protest  if  another 
belligerent  takes  measures  to  force  observance  of 
that  neutral's  rights." 

See  INTERNATIONAL  LAW;  PAN  AMERICANISM; 
SHIPPING;  DENMARK,  IRELAND,  NORWAY,  SWE- 
DEN, etc.,  under  History.  For  United  States  neu- 
trality enforcement,  see  CUSTOMS.  BUREAU  OF. 

NEUTRALITY  PATROL.  See  COAST 
GUARD  U.S. 

NEVADA.  Area,  110,690  square  miles ;  includes 
water,  869  square  miles.  Population  (US.  Cen- 
sus), April,  1940,  110,247;  1930,  91,058.  Reno 
(1940),  21,317;  Carson  City  (the  capital),  2478. 

Agriculture.  Nevada's  harvest  of  1940  covered 
372,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Hay  predomi- 
nated. On  187,000  acres  were  gathered  382,000  tons 
of  tame  hay— over  two  tons  to  the  acre— estimated 
as  worth  about  $2,292,000  to  the  growers.  Wild 
hay,  on  138,000  acres,  made  152,000  tons  (value, 
about  $851,000)  ;  wheat,  on  19,000  acres,  483,000 
bu  ($377,000)  ;  barley,  15,000  acres,  540,000  bu. 
($275,000) ;  potatoes,  2300  acres,  391,000  bu.  ($250,- 
000).  Farms  numbered  3573  in  1940  and  averaged 
1059.4  acres. 

Mineral  Production.  The  yearly  value  of  Ne- 
vada's production  of  native  minerals,  as  stated  in 
1940  by  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  totaled  $27,031,- 
281  for  1938.  Of  each  year's  total  much  the  chief 


part  came  from  copper,  gold,  silver,  zinc,  and  lead 
One  other  mineral,  the  ore  of  tungsten,  is  pro- 
duced commonly  in  excess  of  $1,000,000;  concen- 
trates of  such  ore,  mined  in  1939,  came  to  2091 
short  tons  averaging  60  per  cent  of  tungsten  tri- 
oxide,  in  content ;  their  value  approximated  $2,100,- 
000 ;  they  formed  nearly  half  of  the  year's  produc- 
tion of  tungsten  in  the  United  States. 

Nevada,  in  1940,  mined  ores  of  gold,  silver,  cop- 
per, lead,  and  zinc  to  the  combined  metallic  value 
(preliminary  estimate)  of  $35,876,782,  as  against 
$30,480,870  for  1939.  Copper,  the  leading  metal, 
contributed  most  of  this  rise.  Copper  content,  esti- 
mated, in  the  yearly  totals  of  ore  rose  to  151,820,- 
000  Ib.  (1940),  from  133,194,000  (1939)  ;  by  value, 
to  an  approximate  $17,155,660,  from  $13,852,176. 
The  mined  gold  increased  to  some  367,400  Troy  oz. 
for  1940,  from  361,518  for  1939,  or  to  about  $12,- 
859,000,  from  $12,653,130.  Silver  similarly,  to  ap- 
proximately 5,105,000  oz.,  from  4,316,029 ;  by  value, 
to  the  neighborhood  of  $3,630,222,  from  $2,929,668. 
Zinc  and  lead,  while  in  smaller  total  values,  in- 
creased sharply  in  yearly  production:  zinc,  to 
$1,485,900  for  1940. 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40,  Ne- 
vada's public  schools  reported  20,746  enrollments 
of  pupils ;  14,914  of  these  were  in  the  kindergarten 
and  elementary  groups  and  5832  in  high  school. 
Expenditure  of  the  year,  for  public-school  educa- 
tion, amounted  to  $3,128,746.  The  914  teachers' 
yearly  salaries  averaged  $1433  for  elementary  and 
$1866  for  high-school  positions 

History.  While  Nevada's  population  had  in- 
creased, between  1930  and  1940,  at  thrice  the  rate 
for  the  Union  as  a  whole,  it  still  averaged  hardly 
one  inhabitant  to  the  square  mile.  Its  agriculture 
was  fairly  prosperous  but  limited  by  the  scarcity 
of  water ;  its  manufacturing  industry  occupied  only 
about  one  in  a  hundred  of  the  population.  The  peo- 
ple keenly  felt  the  desirability  of  introducing  some 
industry  that  would  augment  population  and  wealth. 
Mayor  Frohlich  of  Reno,  who  shared  with  others 
the  hope  of  solving  the  problem  by  attracting  the 
producers  of  moving  pictures,  made  a  statement  in 
February  advertising  the  State's  advantages  for 
their  industry.  He  pointed  put,  among  other  mat- 
ters, that  Nevada  had  "no  income  tax,  no  inherit- 
ance tax,  no  death-transfer  tax,  no  sales  tax,  no 
gift  tax,  nor  tax  on  intangibles."  See  RECLAMA- 
TION, BUREAU  OF. 

In  the  elections  of  November  5  the  popular  vote 
for  President  gave  Roosevelt  (Dem  )  31,945,  or  a 
superiority  of  3  to  2  over  Willkie  (Rep.),  who  got 
21,229.  Key  Pittman  (Dem.)  was  re-elected  U.S 
Senator,  defeating  Samuel  Platt  (Rep.).  Pittman 
died  (November  10)  a  few  days  after  his  re- 
election. 

Officers.  Nevada's  chief  officers,  serving  in  1940, 
were:  Governor,  E.  P.  Carville  (Dem.)  ;  Lieuten- 
ant Governor,  Maurice  J.  Sullivan ;  Secretary  of 
State,  Malcolm  McEachin;  Treasurer,  Dan  W. 
Franks;  Comptroller,  Henry  C.  Schmidt;  Attor- 
ney General,  Gray  Mashburn;  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  Mildred  Bray. 

NEVIS.  See  LEEWARD  ISLANDS. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK.  A  Canadian  maritime 
province.  Area,  27,985  square  miles;  population 
(1939  estimate),  451,000,  compared  with  (1931 
census),  408,219.  Vital  statistics  (1939):  11,259 
living  births,  5075  deaths,  3726  marriages.  Chief 
towns  (with  1931  populations)  :  Fredericton,  the 
capital  (8830),  Saint  John  (47,514),  Moncton  (20,- 
689),  Campbellton  (6505),  Edmundston  (6430). 


NSW  CALBDOKXA 


546 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


Education  (1938)  :  98,808  students  in  schooU  and 
colleges  of  all  kinds. 

Production.  The  gross  value  of  the  1939  agri- 
cultural output  was  $32,076,000.  Field  crops,  which 
covered  901,600  acres  in  1939,  were  valued  at  $19,- 
961,000.  Chief  field  crops  (1939)  :  oats  6,671,000 
bu.,  potatoes  251,950  tons,  roots  138,600  tons,  hay 
and  clover  844,000  tons.  Livestock  (1939)  :  220,- 
900  cattle,  107,600  sheep,  87,200  swine,  53,220 
horses.  Fisheries  (1939)  :  76,822  tons  (including 
shell  fish)  with  a  marketed  value  of  $5,082,393 
(sardines  $2,299.017;  lobsters  $1,003,070).  Fur 
production  (1938-39)  was  valued  at  $1,361,200 
($1,252,465  for  1937-38).  The  1939  output  of  the 
forests  were  equal  to  190,511  M  cu.  ft.  of  standing 
timber  and  was  valued  at  $12,670,798. 

Mineral  production  (1939)  was  valued  at  $3,949,- 
433  of  which  coal  (468,421  tons)  accounted  for 
$1,566,359,  natural  gas  (606,382  M  cu  ft.)  $292,- 
403,  gypsum  (29,765  tons)  $134,286.  Manufactur- 
ing (1939)  :  826  factories  13,967  employees,  $23,- 
865,877  net  value  of  products. 

Government.  Finance  (year  ended  Oct.  31, 
1939):  revenue,  $8.475,068;  expenditure,  $9,350,- 
154.  Estimates  (1 939-40 ):  revenue,  $9,996,600; 
expenditure,  $9,982,900.  The  King  is  represented 
by  a  lieutenant  governor,  advised  by  a  ministry 
whose  members  belong  to  the  legislative  assembly 
of  48  members  elected  for  a  five-year  term  by 
popular  vote.  At  the  provincial  general  election  of 
Nov.  20,  1939,  29  Liberals  and  19  Conservatives 
were  elected.  Ten  senators  (appointed  for  life) 
and  10  elected  commoners  represent  New  Bruns- 
wick in  the  Dominion  parliament  at  Ottawa.  Lieu- 
tenant Governor,  William  G.  Clark  (appointed 
Mar.  5,  1940) ;  Premier,  A.  A  Dysart  (Liberal). 
See  CANADA 

NEW  CALEDONIA.  A  French  insular  colo- 
ny in  the  western  Pacific.  Its  dependencies  include 
Be*lep  Archipelago,  Chesterfield  Islands,  Futuna 
and  Aloft,  Huon  Islands,  Isle  of  Pines,  Loyalty 
Islands,  Wallis  Archipelago,  and  Walpole  Island. 
Total  area,  7336  square  miles ;  population  (Jan.  1, 
1938),  55,000.  Capital,  Noumea.  Chief  agricultural 
products :  coffee,  copra,  cotton,  manioc,  maize,  to- 
bacco, bananas,  pineapples.  Nickel  is  the  main  ex- 
port. There  are  large  deposits  of  chrome,  cobalt, 
iron,  and  manganese.  Trade  (1938)  :  imports,  158,- 
571,000  francs;  exports,  146,453,000  francs  (franc 
averaged  $0.0288  for  1938;  $0.0251  for  1939). 
Budget  (1939)  :  balanced  at  44,100,000  francs.  The 
colony  was  administered  by  a  governor  assisted  by 
a  privy  council  and  an  elected  general  council. 

History.  From  the  collapse  of  France  until 
Sept.  23,  1940,  New  Caledonia  was  the  scene  of  a 
lively  struggle  between  officials  who  sought  to 
keep  the  colony  loyal  to  the  Vichy  regime  and  the 
inhabitants  who  overwhelmingly  favored  adher- 
ence to  Gen.  Charles  de  Gaulle's  "Free  French" 
movement.  The  General  Council  on  June  26  adopt- 
ed a  resolution  urging  continuance  of  the  struggle 
against  Germany  in  co-operation  with  the  British, 
and  this  was  ratified  by  a  mass  meeting  in  Nou- 
mea. Governor  Pelicier,  however,  remained  loyal 
to  the  Vichy  regime  and  called  two  French  naval 
vessels  to  Noumea  to  curb  the  anti- Vichy  move- 
ment 

The  British  Governor  of  Fiji  arrived  in  Noumea 
on  August  29  and  the  General  Council  took  advan- 
tage of  his  presence  to  demand  Governor  Pelicier's 
resignation.  The  Vichy  Government  then  replaced 
Pelicier  by  Colonel  Denis,  who  rejected  the  Coun- 
cil's demand  for  a  referendum  on  the  de  Gaulle- 


Petain  issue  and  sought  to  win  the  people  over  to 
Marshal  Petain.  He  failed  to  do  this,  and  a  battle 
between  the  pro-de  Gaulle  populace  and  the  pro- 
Vichy  Governor,  supported  by  a  destroyer,  ap- 
peared imminent  in  September.  At  this  crucial  time 
the  Australian  cruiser  Adelaide  entered  the  har- 
bor and  the  commander  apparently  lent  his  moral 
support  to  the  de  Gaulle  faction.  On  September  23 
Colonel  Denis  was  forced  to  resign.  He  and  100 
other  Petain  supporters  were  interned  and  later 
placed  on  board  a  ship  bound  for  French  Indo- 
China. 

Henri  Sautot,  French  Resident  Commissioner  in 
the  New  Hebrides,  assumed  the  governorship  of 
New  Caledonia  on  behalf  of  the  de  Gaulle  move- 
ment. With  Japan  expressing  an  interest  in  the 
colony's  future,  Governor  Sautot  sought  to  de- 
velop closer  political  and  economic  relations  with 
Australia  and  the  United  States. 

See  FRANCE  under  History. 

NEWFOUNDLAND.  An  island  lying  be- 
tween the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  Its  dependency,  Labrador,  lies  north  of  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  between  Quebec  and  the 
Atlantic.  Newfoundland,  with  Labrador,  forms  a 
part  of  the  British  Empire.  Capital,  St.  John's 
Area  (exclusive  of  Labrador),  42,734  square  miles 
Population,  291,000,  as  estimated  for  Dec  31,  1938. 
Chief  towns  and  their  populations  at  the  census  of 
1935:  St.  John's,  54,886;  Bonavista,  4022;  Har- 
bour Grace,  2215;  Grand  Falls,  4244;  Corner 
Brook,  6374 ;  Carbonear,  3367 ;  Twillingate,  3203 ; 
Burin,  2277;  Grand  Bank,  2209.  Area  of  Labra- 
dor, 118,400  square  miles;  population  (1935), 
4716;  chief  settlement,  Battle  Harbor. 

Education.  Among  adults,  between  7  and  10 
per  cent  are  illiterate.  Schools  (mainly  denomina- 
tional, with  public  support)  numbered  1166  in 
1938;  pupils,  64,272;  there  were  more  Anglican 
schools,  and  more  Roman  Catholic  pupils,  than  of 
any  other  single  denomination.  In  1935,  93,925  of 
the  population  were  reported  to  be  Roman  Catho- 
lic; 92,709,  Anglican;  76,134,  of  the  United 
Church;  18,054,  in  the  Salvation  Army;  1460, 
Presbyterian;  and  7306,  of  other  denominations. 

Production.  Of  some  55,000  whose  occupations 
were  reported  for  1935,  those  engaged  in  the  cod 
fishery  numbered  35,018.  The  taking  and  prepara- 
tion of  cod  is  the  leading  occupation.  In  1939  the 
maritime  fisheries  yielded  50,700  metric  tons,  in 
value  about  $4,400,000.  In  point  of  value  of  prod- 
ucts exported,  manufactures,  chiefly  paper  and 
woodpulp,  and  mineral  products,  largely  iron  ore, 
lead,  copper,  and  zinc,  outrank  products  of  the 
fisheries,  indicating  the  extent  of  industry  in  the 
exploitation  of  forests  and  mines.  Only  4226  were 
reported  in  1935  as  farmers.  The  crops  of  1937 
were  valued  at  $3,444,000 ;  livestock  was  valued  at 
$2,928,000. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  the  calendar  year 
1939  were  valued  at  $25,370,000  ($25,571,000  in 
1938)  ;  exports,  $31,384,000  ($31,128,000).  Of  the 

1939  imports  Canada  supplied  $9,857,000;  United 
States,  $8,770,000;   United  Kingdom,  $5,162.000. 
The  United  Kingdom  took  exports  valued  at  $13,- 
560,000;     United     States,    $8,599,000;     Canada, 
$4,027,000.  Estimated  imports  of  the  calendar  year 

1940  exceeded  by  $4,000,000  tlwse  of  1939;  ex- 
ports' corresponding  rise  was  estimated  at  $1,500,- 

Finance.  The  unit  of  money  is  the  Newfound- 
land dollar;  $1,  U.S.,  was  (1940)  worth  $1.10, 
Newf.,  at  the  official  rate;  the  Newfoundland 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


547 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


dollar  was  kept  at  par  with  the  Canadian  dollar. 
In  Newfoundland  money,  and  for  years  ended 
with  June  30,  public  revenue  and  expenditure, 
respectively,  were :  1941,  as  budgeted,  $13,500,000 
and  $15,400,000;  1940,  $12,551,000  and  $16,512,000. 
Public  debt,  June  30,  1938,  totaled  $99,868,700 ;  it 
came  to  some  $340  a  head.  Great  Britain  provided 
means  to  meet  deficiency  in  revenue  available  for 
payment  of  the  yearly  debt-service  of  about 
$4,000,000.  In  June,  1940,  however,  a  popular  loan 
raised  in  Newfoundland  brought  $1,500,000  to  help 
relieve  Great  Britain  of  this  burden,  as  an  act  of 
loyalty  in  time  of  war. 

Transportation.  The  railroads  aggregated 
(1938)  838  miles  of  line.  Of  this,  the  Newfound- 
land  Railway,  owned  by  the  government,  com- 
prised about  750  miles  The  Railway  also  operated 
steamships  and  dockyards  Highways  (1939)  to- 
taled 3692  miles.  Airfields  for  seaplanes  and  land- 
planes  respectively  are  situated  at  Cobb's  Arm, 
near  Botwood,  and  at  Hattie's  Camp,  30  miles 
farther  east ;  they  render  service  for  transatlantic 
flights.  Entries  at  the  ports  of  Newfoundland  to- 
taled 1729  vessels  in  the  year  1937-38 ;  these  en- 
tries' net  registered  tonnage  was  1,945,039. 

Government.  Newfoundland  held  until  the  end 
of  1933  the  status  of  a  self-governing  dominion 
of  the  British  Crown  By  arrangement  made  in 
1933  with  Great  Britain  this  status  and,  with  it, 
parliamentary  separate  government  were  suspend- 
ed. The  British  government  undertook  to  deal  with 
Newfoundland's  financial  difficulties — the  immedi- 
ate cause  of  the  change;  it  appointed  a  governor, 
responsible  to  the  British  Secretary  of  Dominion 
Affairs,  and  under  the  governor,  an  advisory  coun- 
cil of  six.  Half  of  these  were  selected  from  Great 
Britain,  half  from  Newfoundland;  each  of  them 
had  particular  charge  of  a  governmental  depart- 
ment. Governor,  Vice  Admiral  Sir  Humphrey 
Thomas  Walwyn 

History.  Governor  Walwyn  obtained  in  Sep- 
tember, 1940,  special  power  for  the  war's  emer- 
gency, to  make  regulations  necessary  to  public 
safety,  military  needs,  the  maintenance  of  neces- 
sary supplies,  and  the  requisition  of  needed  serv- 
ices and  property.  Walwyn's  term  as  governor 
was  extended  through  1941.  Under  the  influence 
of  war  some  of  the  leading  industries  of  the  island 
throve,  despite  a  dearth  of  shipping :  particularly, 
the  production  of  paper  for  the  British  market  and 
the  mining  of  iron  ore ;  in  less  degree,  the  fisheries. 
Heavy  additional  taxation  was  imposed  during 
1940 ;  notably,  a  duty  of  7^  per  cent  on  imports 
from  outside  of  the  sterling  area  and  an  increase 
in  corporate  surtax  to  the  rate,  in  some  cases,  of 
50  per  cent  of  the  regular  income  tax. 

In  connection  with  a  bargain  giving  Great  Brit- 
ain destroyers  from  the  U  S.  Navy  and  granting 
the  United  States  certain  leases  of  bases  for  its 
armed  services  in  British  territory  near  the  Amer- 
ican Atlantic  coast,  three  leases  of  areas  in  New- 
foundland, also,  were  designated  as  a  grift  (with- 
out specific  consideration)  for  U.S.  use:  on  the 
Argentia  Peninsula,  two  square  miles,  south  of 
Little  Placentia  harbor,  for  an  aerial  base  and 
military  training  ground ;  on  the  southern  side  of 
St.  John's  harbor,  22  acres,  with  wharfage,  for 
handling  naval  material ;  and  north  of  Quidi  Vidi 
Lake,  160  acres,  as  a  post  for  a  defensive  force. 
The  first  unit  of  the  U.S.  garrison  arrived  on  Jan. 
29,  1941. 

The  island  made  substantial  contributions  of 
men  during  1940  for  armed  service  in  Great  Brit- 


ain's war  with  Germany.  Many  of  the  seafaring 
Newfoundlanders  entered  British  naval  service; 
the  twelfth  contingent  of  such  men  reached  Eng- 
land on  November  5.  Another  group,  numbering 
1300,  volunteered  for  service  in  the  British  artil- 
lery; others  entered  the  Royal  Air  Force.  Some 
2000  Newfoundland  lumbermen  were  put  to  work 
cutting  English  timber  for  shoring  mines.  In  New- 
foundland were  kept  German  and  Italian  prisoners 
of  war,  but  ill  feeling  between  them  made  it  neces- 
sary to  send  the  Italians  to  Canada. 

In  Labrador,  according  to  a  report  published  in 
July,  were  found  indications  of  a  great  quantity  of 
iron  ore  carrying  in  some  instances,  a  substantial 
content  of  manganese.  The  deposit  was  in  the  tip- 
per basin  of  the  Grand  River,  on  lands  prospected 
under  concession  from  the  Newfoundland  Govern- 
ment. 

See  also  CANADA,  under  History. 

NEW  GUINEA,  Territory  of.  See  AUS- 
TRALIA under  Area  and  Population. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE.Area,9341square  miles; 
includes  water,  310  square  miles  Population  (U.S. 
Census),  April,  1940,  491,524;  1930,  465,293.  Man- 
Chester  (1940),  77,685 ;  Concord  (the  capital),  27,- 
171.  The  State's  whole  population  increased  (1930- 
40)  by  26,231;  the  urban  population  (those  in 
places  of  2500  or  more),  by  10,146,  to  283,225;  the 
rural  population,  by  16,085,  to  208,299 

Agriculture.  New  Hampshire  harvested  about 
428,000  acres  in  1940.  Hay  predominated  in  extent 
and  in  apparent  return  to  the  cultivator.  On  388,- 
000  acres,  tame  hay  made  427,000  tons,  estimated 
as  worth  $4,953,000  to  the  farmers.  Potatoes,  9900 
acres,  gave  1,634,000  bu.  (value,  about  $1,242,000). 
Apples  for  market  made  925,000  ba  ($925,000). 
Farms  numbered  16,554  in  1940  and  averaged  109.3 
acres. 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40  New 
Hampshire's  inhabitants  of  school  age  (from  5 
years  to  16)  were  reckoned  at  86,362.  The  year's 
enrollments  of  pupils  in  all  public  schools  num- 
bered 75,697;  this  comprised  53,051  in  elementary 
study,  21,517  in  high  school,  and  1129  in  evening 
classes.  The  year's  expenditure  for  public-school 
education  totaled  $8,472,833.  The  teachers  numbered 
2945.  Their  salaries  for  the  year  averaged,  for  men 
and  for  women  respectively,  $1902  and  $1421  in  the 
secondary  group;  in  the  elementary,  $1402  and 

History.  While  the  year's  economic  course  fa- 
vored manufacturing  industry  in  New  Hampshire, 
as  a  whole,  the  Pacific  Mills,  Inc,  producers  of 
rayon  on  a  considerable  scale,  announced  the  per- 
manent closing  of  operations  in  Dover,  N.H.,  as 
well  as  in  Lawrence,  Mass.  Their  employees  in 
Dover  numbered  about  1200.  The  establishment 
there,  formerly  a  maker  of  cotton  goods,  had  been 
in  business  for  nearly  a  century.  Closing,  announced 
November  5,  was  to  take  effect  in  about  two 
months,  after  orders  in  hand  had  been  filled. 

A  bridge  over  the  Piscataqua  River,  connecting 
Portsmouth,  N.H.,  and  Kittery,  Me.,  was  opened 
on  November  2 ;  its  construction  began  in  Decem- 
ber, 1938 ;  a  bypass  of  4  4  miles  around  Portsmouth 
was  built  to  give  it  access;  the  bridge  was  pro- 
vided with  two  decks,  the  upper  for  automobiles 
and  the  lower  for  railroad  trains,  and  a  224-foot 
lift;  it  cost  $3,155,000.  The  collapse  of  the  old 
bridge  in  September,  1939,  had  stopped  the  direct 
operation  of  trains  between  Portsmouth  and  Maine ; 
the  completion  of  the  new  bridge  restored  it. 

In  the  general  election  (November  5)  Roosevelt 


NEW  HEBRIDES 


548 


NEW  JERSEY 


(Dem.)  received  125,292  of  the  State's  popular 
vote  for  President,  thus  gaining  a  margin  of  15,165 
votes  over  Wilikie  (Rep.),  who  received  110,127. 
Robert  O.  Blood  (Rep.)  ,112,186  votes,  was  elected 
Governor,  defeating  F.  Clyde  Keefe  (Dem.),  109,- 
093  votes.  Both  the  Republican  U.S.  Representa- 
tives were  re-elected. 

NSW  HEBRIDES.  A  British-French  con- 
dominium comprising  a  group  of  islands  in  the 
South  Pacific.  Espiritu  Santo,  Malekula,  Efate, 
Ambrym,  Erromanga,  Epi,  Aoba,  Pentecost,  Mae- 
ovo,  Gaua,  and  Vanua  Lava  are  the  main  islands. 
Total  area,  5700  square  miles;  population  (1938), 
43,119,  including  3119  non-natives.  Chief  towns: 
Vila,  the  capital  (1200  inhabitants),  Malekula 
(9000  natives).  Chief  products:  copra,  cacao,  cof- 
fee, vanilla.  Trade  (1938)  :  imports  £111,867,  ex- 
ports £120,211.  Finance  (1938)  :  revenue  £27,614, 
expenditure  £23,917.  British  Resident  Commission- 
er, R.  D.  Blandy  (appointed  Mar.  12,  1940); 
French  Resident  Commissioner,  Henri  Sautot. 

Led  by  Resident  Commissioner  Sautot,  the 
French  citizens  in  the  New  Hebrides  repudiated 
the  Petain  Government  following  the  collapse  of 
French  resistance  and  threw  in  their  lot  with  Gen. 
Charles  de  Gaulle's  "Free  French"  movement.  M. 
Sautot  in  September  assumed  the  governorship  of 
the  near-by  French  colony  of  New  Caledonia 
(q.v.).  See  FRANCE  under  History. 

NEW  JERSEY.  Area,  8160  square  miles;  in- 
cludes (since  the  adjustment,  in  Delaware's  favor, 
of  the  States'  boundary  in  the  Delaware  River  es- 
tuary) 646  square  miles  of  water.  Population  (US. 
Census),  April,  1940,  4,160,165;  1930,  4,041,334 
Newark  (1940),  429,760;  Jersey  City,  301,173; 
Paterson,  139,656;  Trenton  (the  capital),  124,697. 
The  State's  whole  population  gained  (1930-40) 
118,831;  the  urban  population  (those  in  places  of 
2500  or  more)  rose  by  55,529,  to  3,394,773;  the 
smaller  rural  population  increased  faster,  by  63,- 
302,  to  765,392. 

Agriculture.  New  Jersey  harvested,  in  1940, 
about  734,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  The 
truck  crops  were  valued  around  $18,078,000.  Tame 
hay,  the  most  extensive  of  the  ordinary  field  crops, 
covered  219,000  acres  and  gave  367,000  tons,  hav- 
ing an  estimated  value  of  $4,991,000  to  the  farmer. 
Corn,  189,000  acres,  produced  7,371,000  bu.  (esti- 
mated value,  $5,749,000) ;  potatoes,  58,000  acres, 
10,150,000  bu.  ($5,176,000)  ;  apples  for  market, 
3,354,000  bu.  ($3,186,000)  ;  peaches,  1,494,000  bu. 
($1,270,000)  ;  sweet  potatoes,  15,000  acres,  1,800,- 
000  bu.  ($1,890,000).  Farms  numbered  25,835  in 
1940  and  averaged  72.6  acres. 

Mineral  Production.  New  Jersey's  yearly  pro- 
duction of  its  native  minerals,  as  determined  in 
1940  by  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  attained  $24,- 
408,545  for  1938,  a  year  of  depressed  activity.  The 
output  of  the  zinc  mines  furnished  somewhat  less 
than  half  of  this.  Clay  products  (exclusive  of  a 
great  production  of  pottery)  supplied  much  of  the 
remainder.  Apart  from  stone,  sand,  and  gravel  for 
concrete  and  roadbeds,  iron  ore  and  Portland  ce- 
ment were  the  only  other  substantial  items.  The 
output  of  zinc  rose  to  88,716  short  tons  for  1939, 
and  to  90,880  tons  (approximately)  for  1940, 
from  85,839  tons  for  1938;  in  value  of  the  metal 
obtainable  from  the  mined  ore,  to  $11,507,318  for 
1939,  from  $10,891,683  for  1938  Clay  products 
(exclusive  of  pottery  and  refractories)  attained 
$5,210,105  for  1938.  The  production  of  iron  ore 
recovered  sharply  to  399,289  long  tons  (1939), 
from  139,890  tons,  in  value  $760,929  (1938). 


Manufactures.  The  total  of  the  value  of  goods 
manufactured  yearly  in  New  Jersey  rose  to  $3,428,- 
947,188  for  1939,  from  $3,253,246,218  for  1937.  In 
either  year  the  total  was  the  sixth  highest  in  the 
Union.  The  State's  other  main  manufacturing  to- 
tals for  1939  follow  (each  with  that  for  1937  sub* 
joined)  :  establishments  numbered  7984  (7064)  ; 
they  employed  433,523  (436,745)  wage-earners, 
who  received  $521,568,632  ($523,504,132)  ;  mate- 
rials, etc.,  and  contract  work  cost  $1,901,925,965 
($1,890,538,525)  ;  to  which  the  process  of  manu- 
facture added  a  value  of  $1,527,021,223  ($1,362,- 
707,693). 

History.  The  economic  condition  of  New  Jer- 
sey improved  enough  during  the  year  to  ease  the 
pressure  that  the  State's  finances  had  undergone 
on  account  of  the  widespread  need  of  poor -aid.  The 
efforts  that  the  State  government  had  made  to 
avoid  new  taxation  in  connection  with  this  need 
seemed  warranted,  for  the  State's  Department  of 
Labor  reported  having  registered  5582  new  firms, 
employing  84,909  people,  during  approximately  four 
years  from  1936  to  1939.  In  divers  areas  of  ac- 
tivity— as  in  shipyards  at  Camden  and  around  New 
York  Harbor,  in  manufactories  of  explosives  in 
the  northern  interior,  and  in  works  making  air- 
planes in  some  of  the  larger  centers — the  Federal 
moves  to  increase  armament  and  the  foreign  orders 
for  war  material  augmented  employment.  See 
DAMS;  PORTS  AND  HARBORS. 

Legislation.  The  Legislature  met  in  annual  ses- 
sion on  January  9  and  continued,  with  the  usual 
temporary  adjournments,  beyond  election  day  It 
passed  a  measure  divorcing  leaders  in  politics  from 
public  employment  under  authority  of  the  State, 
in  the  manner  in  which  the  Hatch  Act  of  1939  had 
divorced  the  two  with  regard  to  Federal  employ- 
ment; the  law  made  itself  particularly  felt  among 
political  employees  of  the  local  Welfare  Depart- 
ments The  Financial  Assistance  Commission,  which 
had  administered  the  State's  contributions  to  poor- 
aid,  was  replaced  by  a  Director  of  Municipal  Aid. 
Stricter  regulation  of  the  labor  of  minors  was  en- 
acted; none  were  to  work  until  twelve  years  old; 
at  that  age  only  those  helping  on  farms  or  selling 
papers  in  residential  areas  after  school  hours;  at 
fourteen,  boys  might  do  such  tasks  as  bootblack- 
ing  and  selling  papers  generally;  at  sixteen,  boys 
might  work  in  industries  that  were  not  hazardous ; 
attendance  at  public  school  until  sixteen  was  re- 
quired, whereas  the  older  law  had  permitted  at- 
tendance at  continuation  schools  after  fourteen, 
instead. 

Horse  races  became  legal,  under  the  regulation  of 
a  bipartisan  Racing  Commission  of  four  appoint- 
ees of  the  Governor,  and  the  pari-mutuel  system 
of  wagers  at  such  races  was  established ;  the  State 
was  to  get  revenue  in  the  form  of  a  portion  of  the 
money  wagered;  but  little  was  effected  toward 
starting  race  tracks  in  1940,  and  this  anticipated 
revenue  was  delayed.  Nothing  decisive  was  done 
about  Governor  Moore's  recommendation  that  the 
system  of  taxation  be  modified,  to  lighten  the  ex- 
cessive burden  actually  borne  by  real  estate.  Local 
taxing  bodies  were  allowed  to  deed  tax-delinquent 
land  to  the  State,  thus  meeting  its  claim  as  to  the 
delinquency. 

Republicans  had  the  controlling  vote  in  both 
houses.  In  an  effort  to  cut  down  the  remarkably 
high  Democratic  vote  of  Jersey  City  and  the  sur- 
rounding area  under  the  political  domination  of 
Frank  Hague,  they  spent  much  of  the  session's 
time  in  devising  and  passing,  over  the  Governor's 


NEW  JERSEY 


549 


NEW  JERSEY 


veto,  a  set  of  restrictive  measures  (see  below,  tin- 
der Jersey  City). 

Administrative  Matters.  The  State  govern- 
ment continued  to  find  difficulty  in  obtaining  from 
its  share  of  the  localities'  ad-valorem  taxes  the 
sums  on  which  it  had  calculated.  Some  localities, 
where  values  had  declined,  cut  down  assessments : 
they  could  thus  automatically  lower  their  payments 
to  the  State,  while  by  raising  the  rates  of  their 
local  taxes  they  could  keep  up  their  own  revenues ; 
the  Legislature  tried  to  prevent  the  process  by 
means  of  a  bill  to  require  payments  to  the  State 
still  to  be  calculated  at  the  older  and  higher  assess- 
ments. Litigation  over  the  long-contested  payments 
of  about  $11,270,000  in  taxes  by  eight  railroad  com- 
panies progressed:  a  Federal  District  Court's  in- 
junction against  collection  of  the  payments,  ob- 
tained by  the  railroads  in  January,  was  upset  (No- 
vember 27)  by  the  Third  Circuit  Court,  which 
ordered  the  railroads  to  pay,  but  there  remained 
possibility  of  further  litigation. 

New  Jersey's  system  of  building-and-loan  as- 
sociations, formerly  prosperous  for  many  years, 
still  included  in  1940  many  members  that  had  not 
recovered  from  the  reverses  of  the  early  '30's.  At 
the  outset  of  1940,  309  had  gone  out  of  business  in 
seven  years :  of  these,  104  in  1939  alone ;  there  re- 
mained 1223  On  May  1,  1940,  the  Department  of 
Banking  and  Insurance  took  control  of  the  affairs 
of  46  of  the  remaining  associations.  The  46  were 
embarrassed  with  realty  obtained  by  foreclosure 
and  with  holdings  of  mortgages  far  in  arrears. 

Indigence  among  the  people  remained  high  early 
in  the  year.  The  State  government  took  care  of 
much  of  it  by  an  arrangement  under  which  it 
"sponsored"  many  local  projects  for  highways,  and 
the  WPA  did  the  work  and  paid  the  wages ;  the 
needy  workmen  thus  supported  exceeded  20,000  in 
February.  The  State  put  pressure  repeatedly  on 
localities  where  the  administration  of  poor-relief 
did  not  satisfy  requirements;  it  suspended  pay- 
ments temporarily,  in  March,  to  Camden.  After 
the  reorganization  of  the  State's  own  administra- 
tion of  poor-relief  (see  Legislation,  above),  the 
new  Director  of  Municipal  Aid  (Charles  R.  Erd- 
man,  Jr.,  of  Princeton)  warned  municipalities  that 
any  failing  to  eliminate  politicians  from  the  local 
relief  organization  by  July  1  would  forfeit  the 
State's  contributions  thereto.  With  regard  to  New 
Jersey's  anticipated  needs  for  additional  water  for 
the  population  and  industries,  Governor  Moore  had 
preliminary  discussions  with  the  heads  of  the  WPA 
and  the  RFC ;  he  sought  from  them  a  Fedei  al 
grant  of  part  and  a  loan  of  the  rest  of  $45,000,000 
for  works  to  bring  150,000,000  gal.  a  day,  via  the 
old  Delaware  and  Raritan  Canal,  from  the  Dela- 
ware River  at  Ravens'  Rock  and  impound  them  in 
Dock  Watch  Hollow 

Farmers  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey  had  been 
troubled  by  a  scarcity  of  migrant  helpers  for  har- 
vest and  other  busy  moments ;  the  State's  Depart- 
ment of  Labor  agreed  with  representatives  of  other 
Eastern  States  in  a  conference  at  Baltimore,  on  the 
need  of  treating  migrant  farm  labor  in  a  co-opera- 
tive spirit  as  a  regional  concern.  The  Department 
of  Conservation  and  Development  stated  (May  18) 
that  New  Jersey  had  succeeded  with  blight-resist- 
ing chestnut  trees ;  it  had  now,  in  the  Jenny  Jump 
State  Forest,  215  seedlings  from  7-year-old  trees 
grown  from  seeds  of  Asiatic  chestnut,  unaffected 
by  the  blight. 

New  Jersey  opened  in  December,  1939,  its  third 
Federal  proceeding  to  make  railroads  cease  pro- 


viding lighterage  free  between  their  terminals  on 
the  New  Jersey  shore  and  the  rest  of  New  York 
Harbor.  The  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 
chose  an  examiner  (Burton  Fuller),  who  took  tes- 
timony for  several  months  and  adjourned  (June 
26)  for  some  months  more,  to  permit  of  the  prep- 
aration of  briefs  and  a  report  New  York  and  the 
railroads  supplying  the  free  lighterage,  having  the 
most  to  lose  by  the  proposed  change,  were  the  chief 
opponents  of  New  Jersey^  demand. 

Jersey  City.  Mayor  Hague's  often  proved  fac- 
ulty of  eliciting  from  Hudson  County— chiefly, 
Jersey  City — a  Democratic  plurality  of  not  far 
from  130,000  and  thus  putting  Democrats  into  high 
offices  bestowed  by  the  whole  State's  vote  had  long 
galled  the  Republicans  who  commonly  controlled 
the  Legislature.  In  1940  it  appeared  that  Hague 
had  lost  some  of  his  influence  by  his  still-recent 
unsuccessful  fight  against  labor  unions,  and  that 
he  must  have  been  further  weakened  by  the  opera- 
tion of  the  new  laws  against  undue  use  of  political 
influence ;  the  time  seemed  ripe  for  a  purge  of  the 
voting  lists  in  Hague's  troublesome  domain.  Re- 
publicans in  both  houses  at  Trenton  united  on  a 
program  to  this  purpose.  Over  the  veto  of  the 
Democratic  Governor  they  put  through  a  series  of 
acts  designed  to  hinder  the  tactics  to  which  Hague's 
results  were  attributed.  The  use  of  voting  machines 
was  prescribed,  for  Hudson  County  in  particular ; 
special  courts  were  created  to  handle  cases  con- 
cerning voting  in  that  county,  and  the  judges  in 
these  courts  were  appointed  by  the  Legislature ;  a 
Republican  Superintendent  of  Elections  was  set  up 
in  the  county;  city  clerks  (in  any  county)  were 
required  to  make  the  poll  books  available  to  the 
Superintendent  of  Elections ;  a  small  force  of  State 
troopers  was  put  at  the  latter's  disposal. 

The  county  sought  to  kill  some  of  these  meas- 
ures by  resort  to  the  State  courts.  The  efforts  of 
Superintendent  of  Elections  Sewell  to  delve  into 
the  poll  books  of  several  years  back  met  with  an 
assertion  of  the  Clerk  of  Jersey  City  that  he  had 
burned  the  poll  books  up  to  and  including  those  of 
1937;  the  same  official  refused  to  permit  the  in- 
spection of  the  poll  books  still  in  existence.  Never- 
theless Sewell,  with  the  aid  of  investigators,  pre- 
pared a  "black  list"  of  some  40,000  names  of  per- 
sons whose  right  to  vote  was  dubious;  this  list 
contained  more  than  one  in  ten  of  all  those  regis- 
tered in  the  county  (381,000)  Listed  persons  were 
apprised  by  published  advertisement  and  by  letter 
and  were  allowed  to  appear  and  establish  their 
right  to  vote ;  comparatively  few  were  reported  to 
have  done  so.  The  U.S.  Senate's  committee  on 
campaign  costs  sent  Senator  Tobey  (Rep.,  New 
Hampshire)  to  conduct  a  separate  investigation 
of  the  voting  conditions  in  the  county,  but  his  op- 
erations were  postponed  (September  25)  by  fur- 
ther order  of  the  committee,  until  after  the  elec- 
tion. 

The  result  of  the  effort  to  reduce  the  Democratic 
vote  of  Hudson  County  was  a  drop  of  about  30,000 
votes  below  the  usual  Democratic  plurality.  The 
difference  might  have  sufficed  to  defeat  Democratic 
candidates  in  a  close  election,  but  it  had  small  ef- 
fect on  the  main  issues  in  November. 

Newark.  Mayor  Ellenstein  and  six  co-defend- 
ants, whose  trial  for  conspiracy  to  defraud  the  city 
of  Newark  in  certain  purchases  of  meadow  land 
for  resale  to  the  city  had  started  in  1939,  were 
acquitted  (January  6).  Soon  afterward,  in  a  refer- 
endum held  on  February  20,  the  voters  rejected  a 
proposal  to  put  the  city  under  a  council  and  city 


mew  MEXICO  sso 

manager  in  place  of  the  existing  commission;  53,- 
322  voted  against  and  only  32,596  in  favor.  The 
outcome  brought  victory  to  the  existing  political 
control,  by  Ellenstein  and  others,  over  the  Newark 
Citizens'  Union  and  the  Clean-Government  Repub- 
licans. The  Newark  airport,  having  lost  much  of 
its  business  to  the  recently  opened  LaGuardia  air 
field  in  New  York  City,  closed  on  May  31.  A 
bridge  with  ampler  clearance  was  built  over  the 
Passaic  River  between  Newark  and  Kearny,  to 
replace  a  bridge  that,  from  lack  of  headroom  for 
vessels,  was  obliged  to  lift  about  900  times  a 
month.  The  birthplace  of  Stephen  Crane,  donated 
to  the  city  by  the  Stephen  Crane  Association,  was 
razed;  the  site  was  adorned  with  commemorative 
bas-reliefs  and  made  a  playground. 

Elections.  The  State's  popular  vote  for  Presi- 
dent gave  Roosevelt  (Dem.)  1,016,404,  constituting 
a  moderate  plurality  over  Willkie  (Rep  ),  who  re- 
ceived 944,876  votes.  Charles  Edison  (Dem.)  ex- 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  was  elected  Governor,  de- 
feating R.  C.  Hendrickson  (Rep.).  U.S.  Senator 
W.  Warren  Harbour  (Rep.)  with  1,029.331  votes, 
was  re-elected,  by  a  big  plurality  of  205,438  votes 
over  J.  H.  R.  Cromwell  (Dem.),  who  got  823,893. 
Ten  Republicans  and  four  Democrats  were  elected 
U.S.  Representatives. 

Officer!.  New  Jersey's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  A.  Harry  Moore  (Dem.)  ; 
Secretary  of  State,  Thomas  A.  Mathis ;  Treasurer, 
William  H.  Albright ;  Comptroller,  Frank  J.  Mur- 
ray; Attorney  General,  David  T.  Wilentz;  Com- 
missioner of  Education,  Charles  H.  Elliott. 

NEW  MEXICO.  Area,  122,634  square  miles; 
includes  water,  131  square  miles.  Population  (U.S. 
Census),  April,  1940,  531,818;  1930,  423,317.  Santa 
Fe,  the  capital,  had  (1940)  20,325  inhabitants.  The 
State's  population  increased  (193(MO)  by  108,501, 
or  25  6  per  cent ;  the  rural  population  increased  by 
38.916,  to  355,417;  while  the  urban  population 
(those  dwelling  in  places  of  2500  or  more)  in- 
creased by  69,585,  to  176,401. 

Agriculture.  New  Mexico  harvested,  in  1940, 
1,372,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Cotton,  on 
105,000  acres,  grew  123,000  bales-^n  exceptional 
yield,  over  560  Ib.  to  the  acre — estimated  as  worth 
$5,966,000  to  the  growers.  Tame  hay,  146,000  acres, 
gave  303,000  tons  (about  $2,848,000) ;  grain  sor- 
ghums, 350,000  acres,  3,150,000  bu  ($1,544,000) ; 
dry  beans,  193,000  acres,  656,000  100-lb.  bags 
($1,589,000);  corn,  176,000  acres,  2,376,000  bu. 
($1,473,000)  ;  wheat,  211,000  acres,  1,720,000  bu. 
($1,118,000). 

Mineral  Production.  New  Mexico's  produc- 
tion of  its  native  minerals,  as  stated  in  1940  by  the 
Bureau  of  Mines,  totaled  $63,568,953  for  1938.  an 
off  year.  Petroleum  furnished  more  than  half  of 
the  amount;  natural  gas,  nearly  one-eighth;  cop- 
per, gold,  and  zinc,  much  of  the  remainder;  and 
coal  a  considerable  sum. 

Prospects  of  an  important  supply  of  potash  from 
the  State  drew  attention  in  1940,  when  the  United 
States  could  not  count  on  getting  normal  imports 
of  this  necessary  chemical.  New  Mexico,  the  Un- 
ion's principal  producer  of  potash  in  1938,  main- 
tained its  output  around  the  same  level  in  1939, 
from  mines  near  Carlsbad.  The  development  of  the 
International  Agricultural  Corporation's  deep  de- 
posit and  refinery  continued  in  1939  and  1940  ac- 
cording to  the  plan  to  begin  commercial  produc- 
tion from  this  deposit  around  the  end  of  1940. 

The  yield  of  petroleum  increased  to  37,323,000 
bbl.  for  1939,  from  35,759,000  (value,  $33,250,000) 


NEW  SOUTH  WALES 


for  1938,  but  did  not  reach  the  total  of  1937.  For 
12  months  of  1940  the  output  was  estimated  at  39,- 
001,000  bbl.  A  number  of  new  fields  were  discov- 
ered in  1939.  The  yearly  total  of  natural  gas  de- 
livered to  consumers  attained  21,216  million  cu.  ft. 
for  1938 ;  in  value  at  points  of  consumption,  $6,132,- 
000.  The  production  of  gasoline  from  natural  gas 
rose  to  some  54,555,000  gal.  H939),  from  49,596,- 
000  gal.,  value  $1,415,000  (1938).  The  mining  of 
coal  fell  oft  somewhat,  to  1,206,000  net  tons  (1939) , 
from  1,239,037  tons,  $3,406,000  in  value  (1738) ;  in 
1940  the  output  was  1,081,000  tons. 

Of  copper,  the  mines  yielded  ore  containing  about 
143,728,000  Ib.  (1940),  as  against  92,284,000  Ib. 
(1939) ;  by  value  of  metal,  $16,241,264  (approxi- 
mated for  1940)  and  $9,597,536  (1939).  Mines' 
production  of  zinc,  similarly  calculated,  rose  to 
59,388,000  Ib.  (1940),  from  58,712,000  (1939)  and 
to  $3,860,220,  from  $3,053,024.  The  yield  of  gold 
rose  to  39,374  fine  oz.  ($1,378,090)  for  1940,  from 
36,979  ($1,294,265)  for  1939;  the  minor  produc- 
tion of  silver  attained  $975,739  (1940);  that  of 
lead,  $404,400  (1940).  The  value  of  all  five  metals 
approximated  $22,859,713  for  1940. 

Education.  New  Mexico's  inhabitants  of  school 
age  were  reckoned,  for  the  academic  year  1938-39, 
at  173,799.  Enrolled  pupils  numbered  115,832;  in 
elementary  study  97,121,  and  in  high  schools  18,- 
711.  The  year's  operating  expense  of  the  public 
schools  was  $7,444,648.  Teachers'  yearly  salaries  av- 
eraged $871.60  in  common  schools ;  in  high  schools, 
$1292  11.  An  act  of  1939  required  that  all  intended 
public-school  structures  be  approved  by  the  State 
Board  of  Education  before  erection. 

History.  Economic  needs  caused  by  the  inter- 
ruption of  trade  with  most  of  Europe  heightened 
producers'  activity.  In  one  rising  industry,  the  min- 
ing of  potash,  tapping  new  sources  of  wealth, 
about  450  employees  in  the  United  States  Potash 
Company's  works  at  Carlsbad  threatened  to  strike 
and  gained  an  increase  (April  7)  of  7%  per  cent 
in  their  pay.  The  State  shared  with  Arizona  and 
Texas  in  a  series  of  celebrations,  extending  from 
July  into  the  autumn,  of  the  400th  anniversary  of 
Coronado's  exploration  of  the  area  (See  FAIRS.) 
Mrs.  Oliver  Harriman  of  New  York,  an  agitator 
for  the  repeal  of  the  Federal  ban  on  lotteries,  was 
tried  in  the  Federal  District  Court  at  Santa  Fe  for 
conspiracy  to  run  a  lottery.  She  was  acquitted 
(April  17),  but  four  persons  who  had  worked  with 
her  were  found  guilty  on  the  testimony  of  a  fifth. 
Mrs.  Harriman  was  represented  by  the  defense  as 
having  helped  promote  a  lottery  without  profit  to 
her,  to  raise  money  for  the  State  hospital  for  crip- 
pled children. 

In  the  general  election  (November  5)  New  Mex- 
ico's popular  vote  for  President  gave  Roosevelt 
(Dem.)  103,699  votes,  making  a  plurality  of  24,- 
084  over  Willkie  (Rep.),  who  got  79,615  votes. 
U.S.  Senator  Dennis  Chavez  (Dem.)  was  re-elect- 
ed, defeating  Albert  K.  Mitchell  (Rep.).  Gov.  John 
£.  Miles  (Dem.)  won  re-election,  against  Maurice 
Miers  (Rep.). 

Officers.  New  Mexico's  chief  officers,  serving 
in  1940,  were:  Governor,  John  E.  Miles  (Dem.)  ; 
Lieutenant  Governor,  James  M.  Murray;  Secre- 
tary of  State,  Jessie  M.  Gonzales ;  Auditor,  E.  D. 
Trujillo;  Treasurer,  Rex  French;  Attorney  Gen- 
eral, Filo  Sedillo;  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction, Mrs,  Grace  J.  Corrigan. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES.  A  State  of  Austra- 
lia. Area,  309,433  square  miles;  population  (Mar. 
31, 1940),  2,775,871,  exclusive  of  fufi-blood  aborig- 


NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAGAZINES      551     NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAGAZINES 


intls.  Vital  statistics  (1939)  :  48,003  births,  26,815 
deaths,  25,471  marriages.  Chief  cities :  Sydney,  the 
capital  (1,302,890  inhabitants  in  1939),  Newcastle 
and  suburbs  (115,660),  Broken  Hill  (28,100),  Wol- 
longong  (16,800),  Goulburn  (15,360). 

Production.  Chief  agricultural  products :  wheat 
(76,551,000  bu.  in  1939-40),  barley,  oats,  maize, 
rice,  sugar,  tobacco,  bananas,  oranges,  grapes,  and 
apples.  Chief  dairy  products  (1938-39):  butter 
(118,820,717  lb.),  cheese  (7,485,907  lb.),  bacon  and 
ham  (26,418,687  lb.).  Livestock:  52,500,000  sheep, 
2,811,884  cattle,  548,355  horses,  377,344  swine.  Wool 
production  (as  in  the  grease)  for  1940  totaled 
534,000,000  lb.  Chief  minerals  (1939  values  are 
given  where  available) :  gold  £848,985,  silver  and 
lead,  copper,  tin.  and  coal  (£6,768,659).  Manufac- 
turing (1938-39) :  9464  factories,  228,781  employ- 
ees, £90,265,891  net  value  of  production.  The  Aus- 
tralian £  averaged  $3.5338  for  1939.  On  June  30, 
1939,  there  were  6114  miles  of  railway. 

Government.  Finance  (1939-40)  :  revenue  £63,- 
261,000,  expenditure  £65,506,000.  The  public  debt 
on  June  30,  1940,  had  a  "book"  value  of  £363,326,- 
000.  A  governor,  aided  by  an  executive  council,  is 
the  executive  head  of  the  State.  There  are  two 
legislative  houses :  ( 1 )  the  legislative  council  of  60 
members  (elected  jointly  by  both  houses)  and  (2) 
the  legislative  assembly  of  90  members  elected  by 
universal  adult  suffrage  Governor,  Lord  Wake- 
hurst  (assumed  office  April,  1937)  ;  Premier,  Alex- 
ander Mair  (United  Australia  Party).  See  AUS- 
TRALIA under  History 

NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAGAZINES. 
Newspapers  in  the  United  States  in  1940  faced  ris- 
ing circulations,  a  small  increase  in  advertising 
lineage,  greatly  increased  news  costs  owing  to  the 
war  and  the  national  election  in  the  United  States, 
and  difficulties  with  censorship  in  many  countries 
The  nations  in  which  newspapers  enjoyed  freedom 
of  the  press  became  fewer  as  Germany  over- 
whelmed Denmark,  Norway,  Belgium,  Holland, 
and  France  and  Japan  moved  to  control  its  press. 
In  the  United  States  a  lively  debate  on  the  relation 
of  newspapers  and  the  popular  will  was  aroused 
after  the  defeat  of  Wendell  L.  Willkie,  Republi- 
can candidate,  who  had  been  supported  by  the  ma- 
jority of  newspapers 

Although  newsprint  prices  remained  unchanged 
in  the  year,  other  expenses  (payrolls,  news  cover- 
age, and  taxes)  rose  substantially.  This  condition 
led  some  authorities  to  look  for  a  trend  in  the^  di- 
rection of  fewer  daily  newspapers,  to  consolidations 
which  would  leave  a  number  of  smaller  cities  with 
only  one  newspaper.  In  Richmond,  Va.,  the  two 
newspapers  followed  the  earlier  example  of  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  and  merged  their  publishing  plants 
and  certain  business  operations  in  the  interests  of 
economy. 

However,  the  number  of  daily  newspapers  in  the 
United  States  showed  a  smaller  decline  than  in  the 
previous  year.  The  total  at  the  beginning  of  1941, 
according  to  N.  IV.  Ayer's  Directory,  was  1998, 
or  17  fewer  than  in  1940.  Of  these  1559  were  eve- 
ning newspapers,  427  morning,  and  12  "all  day." 
Sunday  editions  totaled  568.  Foreign  language 
daily  newspapers  (included  in  the  grand  total 
above)  numbered  119,  a  decrease  of  4  in  the  year. 
Editor  and  Publisher,  the  newspaper  trade  publi- 
cation, listed  1878  English  language  daily  news- 
papers, as  compared  with  1888  the  year  before. 
Eighty-three  of  the  daily  newspapers  were  tabloid 
in  size.  Aggregate  circulations  were  said  to  be  as 
follows: 


Bvening 
Morning 
All  Day  . 

Totals 


15,368,124 
899,262 

40,772,937 


Editor  (f  Publisktr 
24,017,59? 
16,114,018 


41,131,611 


One  result  of  the  Wage  Hour  Bill  was  declared 
by  the  Inland  Press  Association  to  be  a  growing 
tendency  of  six-day  evening  newspapers  to  drop 
their  Saturday  editions  and  become  five-day  publi- 
cations. The  number  of  such  five-day  newspapers 
was  estimated  to  be  nearly  100. 

Weekly  newspapers  in  the  United  States  totaled 
10,796,  a  decline  of  64  in  the  year.  Probably  owing 
to  the  interest  in  the  war  news,  daily  newspapers 
m  Canada  and  Newfoundland  increased  from  106 
to  108,  and  weekly  newspapers  from  769  to  780, 

In  ten  cities  newspapers  were  merged,  the  most 
important  ones  being  Reading,  Pa ,  and  Montgom- 
ery, Ala.  Twenty-three  suspensions  took  place,  in- 
cluding three  newspapers  founded  only  a  few 
months  before;  the  Hartford,  Conn.,  Newsdaily, 
the  Chattanooga  Tribune,  and  the  Nashville  Times. 
Other  suspensions  were  in  smaller  cities. 

The  Chattanooga  Evening  Times  began  publica- 
tion on  October  14,  the  most  important  new  daily 
journal  of  the  year  except  for  PM  in  New  York. 
For  the  first  time  the  Ochs  interests,  controlling 
The  New  York  Times  and  the  Chattanooga  Times, 
entered  the  evening  newspaper  field. 

The  effects  of  the  Wages  and  Hours  Act  led  to 
the  argument  in  court  by  counsel  for  the  American 
Newspaper  Publishers  Association,  in  the  case  of 
the  Easton,  Pa.,  newspapers,  that  application  of 
this  law  to  newspapers  might  abridge  the  freedom 
of  the  press  by  making  it  impossible  for  many 
newspapers  to  continue  their  existence.  The  case 
involved  the  right  of  the  Wage  and  Hour  Division 
of  the  Department  of  Labor  to  inspect  the  books 
of  the  newspapers  to  determine  their  compliance 
with  the  law.  Dean  Ackerman,  of  the  Columbia 
School  of  Journalism,  echoed  the  same  views,  see- 
ing in  the  Wages  and  Hours  Act  the  culmination 
of  "a  long  series  of  moves  by  the  Federal  govern- 
ment to  control  the  press  of  this  country" ;  but  it  is 
worth  noting  that  The  New  York  Times,  in  com- 
menting on  argument  in  the  Easton  case,  stated 
editorially  that  newspapers  should  properly  be  sub- 
ject to  all  social  legislation  generally  applied  to 
employers. 

Charges  concerning  alleged  control  of  the  press, 
by  Government  or  by  certain  class  interests,  pro- 
voked widespread  argument  Arthur  Krock  told 
the  New  York  Society  of  Newspaper  Editors  that 
he  saw  evidences  of  efforts  of  the  Administration 
to  restrict  the  freedom  of  the  press,  by  extolling 
the  radio  and  news  reels,  encouraging  a  class  war 
against  the  press  and  "official  favors  surreptitiously 
extended  to  syndicated  columnists  who  are  'sym- 
pathetic.' "  On  the  Administration  side  Harold  L. 
Ickes,  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  said  that  the  fact 
that  only  23  per  cent  of  the  daily  newspapers  had 
supported  Roosevelt  in  the  campaign  showed  that 
the  United  States  press  was  not  "truly  free,"  and 
that  the  nation  needed  newspapers  that  represented 
"no  class  or  economic  group."  During  the  cam- 
paign, Edward  Flynn,  Democratic  National  Chair- 
man, had  charged  that  "financial  interests"  dictated 
the  views  and  news  of  the  press. 

Analysis  of  the  political  views  of  the  press  had 
been  an  important  issue  in  the  national  campaign. 
Largely  on  the  third  term  issue  a  number  of  news- 


NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAGAZINES      552     NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAGAZINES 


papers  had  abandoned  Democratic  party  allegiances 
of  long  standing;  only  one  of  the  eight  leading 
newspapers  in  Tennessee  supported  Mr.  Roosevelt, 
and  the  New  Orleans  Item,  after  63  years  of  Dem- 
ocratic support,  turned  to  the  Republican  candi- 
date. In  Chattanooga  The  Times,  declaring  for 
Mr.  Willkie,  granted  its  two  editors  leaves  of  ab- 
sence from  their  customary  duties  because  they 
were  not  in  accord  with  the  paper's  political  pol- 
icy. Charges  that  even  newspapers  known  for  strict 
nonpartisanship  had  favored  Mr.  Willkie  in  the 
amount  of  space  given  him  in  their  news  columns 
were  fairly  met  by  the  answer  that  Mr.  Willkie 
had  been  an  active,  dynamic  campaigner  while  Mr. 
Roosevelt  was  silent,  and  that  in  1932  the  space 
given  Mr.  Roosevelt  as  against  Mr.  Hoover,  in 
similar  circumstances,  had  shown  the  same  pre- 
ponderance. 

Advertising  rates  generally  remained  unchanged 
throughout  the  year  despite  the  increase  in  circu- 
lation. Subscription  rates  and  single  copy  sales 
prices  tended  to  rise  in  keeping  with  a  long  time 
trend  toward  newspapers  obtaining  a  greater  share 
of  their  revenue  from  this  source. 

Advertising  in  newspapers  in  the  United  States 
gained  approximately  2  per  cent  over  1939,  which 
had  shown  an  increase  of  1.5  per  cent  over  1938. 
The  upturn  of  the  automotive  industry  led  to  a 
gain  of  17.7  per  cent  in  this  classification  in  fifty- 
two  leading  cities.  Classified  and  retail  advertising 
also  gained  in  the  year,  but  financial  reflected  the 
lack  of  activity  in  Wall  Street,  and  national  ad- 
vertisers were  hesitant  because  of  uncertain  condi- 
tions to  plan  and  release  large  schedules.  National 
and  automotive  advertising  combined,  in  1350  news- 
papers in  754  cities,  showed  a  dollar  total  of  $151,- 
861,463,  an  increase  of  2  per  cent  over  1939. 

The  most  notable  innovation  in  the  newspaper 
field  was  the  inauguration  of  PM,  an  afternoon 
and  Sunday  publication,  in  New  York  on  June  18, 
1940.  This  journal  announced  that  it  would  accept 
no  advertising,  and  hoped  to  become  a  financial 
success  through  circulation  revenue  at  5  cents  a 
copy  weekdays,  10  cents  Sundays.  Tabloid  in  size, 
PM  also  embodied  a  mechanical  innovation  in  the 
use  of  solidified  ink.  PM  sought  to  present  the 
news  in  briefer  form,  to  intensify  news  coverage 
in  labor  and  in  departments  devoted  to  home  eco- 
nomics, and  to  allow  its  staff  more  freedom  in  re- 
porting. Starting  with  capital  said  to  total  $1,500,- 
000,  the  newspaper  reorganized  on  Oct.  17,  1940, 
one  of  the  owners,  Marshall  Field,  buying  out  all 
other  stockholders.  The  success  of  the  venture  was 
yet  to  be  determined  as  the  year  ended. 

For  correspondents  covering  a  war  fought  so 
largely  in  the  air  and  numbering  so  many  civilian 
casualties  it  was  a  time  of  personal  danger  exceed- 
ing any  before  experienced.  Ralph  Barnes,  of  the 
New  York  Herald  Tribune  was  killed  in  an  air- 
plane wreck  in  Yugoslavia  on  Nov.  18,  1940,  and 
Guy  Murchie,  Chicago  Tribune,  was  hurt  when 
a  bomb  struck  his  hotel  in  Dover  P  J.  Philip,  of 
The  New  York  Times,  narrowly  escaped  being 
killed  by  a  French  mob  which  mistook  him  for  a 
German  parachute  trooper. 

Stringent  censorship  in  the  dictator  controlled 
countries  led  to  the  expulsion  of  many  correspond- 
ents. Otto  D.  Tolischus,  of  The  New  York  Times, 
winner  of  the  Pulitzer  Prize  for  foreign  corre- 
spondence, was  expelled  from  Germany ;  Herbert 
Matthews,  of  the  same  paper,  was  compelled  to 
leave  Rome  because  of  a  dispatch  saying  that  the 
Axis  powers  wanted  President  Roosevelt  defeated, 


but  was  later  allowed  to  return.  Walter  Duranty, 
also  of  The  Times  was  ordered  to  leave  Rumania ; 
the  regular  correspondent,  Jerzy  Szapiro,  already 
had  been  ousted  by  reason  of  a  new  law  forbidding 
any  one  with  Jewish  blood  to  send  news  abroad. 
Other  correspondents  expelled,  or  suffering  revo- 
cation of  their  news  licenses,  were  Maurycy  Or- 
zech,  Jewish  Daily  Forward,  from  Poland;  Sey- 
mour Beach  Conger,  Ralph  Barnes,  and  Russell 
Hill,  New  York  Herald  Tribune,  from  Germany ; 
Frank  Smothers,  Chicago  Daily  News,  from  Italy. 

New  regulations  of  the  Soviet  government  con- 
trolling correspondents  led  to  the  withdrawal  of 
every  foreign  newspaper  man  except  those  of  the 
news  agencies.  Correspondents  were  allowed  to 
send  only  approved  excerpts  of  official  statements, 
without  comment  or  interpretation;  under  such 
conditions  it  was  useless  for  newspapers  to  main- 
tain bureaus  in  Moscow. 

In  countries  other  than  the  United  States  news- 
papers faced  difficulties  surpassing  those  of  any 
other  period.  Many  newspaper  plants  in  London 
were  damaged  by  bombs,  and  distribution  was  con- 
stantly a  problem.  English  newspapers  were  re- 
duced in  size  to  conserve  paper,  but  continued  to 
furnish  all  essential  services.  In  the  dictator  con- 
trolled countries  the  newspapers  remained  the  will- 
ing or  unwilling  mouthpieces  of  the  governments 
In  the  conquered  nations  (Norway,  Denmark,  Bel- 
gium, Holland,  and  France)  the  press  was  immedi- 
ately put  under  strictest  control,  and  temporary  or 
permanent  suspensions  of  publication  were  or- 
dered. Daily  newspapers  in  Paris  dropped  in  num- 
ber from  25  morning  and  6  evening  to  6  morning 
and  2  evening;  and  all  were  subject  to  German  cen- 
sorship, favored  Franco-German  collaboration,  and 
were  hostile  to  England.  They  published  only  Ger- 
man and  Italian  war  communiques.  Newspapers 
were  not  permitted  to  be  circulated  between  the  oc- 
cupied and  unoccupied  portions  of  France.  In  the 
unoccupied  portion  the  press  had  an  extremely  lim- 
ited liberty,  and  existed  in  fear  of  offending  the 
Germans.  Some  Paris  newspapers  transferred  their 
places  of  publication  to  other  towns  in  France 
Germany  also  sought,  by  representations  to  the 
Swedish  Government,  to  control  to  some  extent 
the  newspapers  of  that  country  In  Japan  the  one 
remaining  newspaper  under  American  ownership, 
the  50-year  old  Japan  Advertiser  was  sold,  under 
pressure,  to  native  interests,  and  merged  with  an- 
other journal  said  to  speak  for  the  Foreign  office 
Correspondents  in  Japan  were  subjected  to  great 
annoyances  and  strict  censorship,  and  James  Young, 
of  the  International  News  Service,  was  imprisoned 
for  several  weeks  on  charges  of  violating  military 
secrets. 

Advertising  in  England  was  drastically  reduced, 
dropping  30.89  per  cent  in  the  first  six-months  of 
1940  as  compared  with  the  corresponding  period  in 
1939,  before  the  war  began.  Automotive  declined 
80  per  cent,  tobacco  42  per  cent,  and  radio  mer- 
chandise 41  per  cent. 

An  estimate,  made  by  Arthur  Robb,  leading  au- 
thority on  newspapers,  of  the  investment  in  daily 
newspapers  in  the  United  States  revealed  some  in- 
teresting figures.  Mr.  Robb  calculated  the  mechan- 
ical total  to  be  $160,000,000  (composing  rooms 
$70,000,000,  press  rooms  $70,000,000,  and  stereo- 
type $20,000,000)  ;  the  value  of  land  and  buildings 
to  be  $327,500,000;  delivery  equipment  $10,000,- 
000.  Editorial  salaries  were  estimated  to  be  $65,- 
000,000  annually,  with  $7,500,000  more  for  syndi- 
cated writers  and  artists,  and  $12,000,000  for  the 


NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAGAZINES      553 


NEW  YORK 


wire  press  services.  Mechanical  departments  pay- 
rolls were  set  at  $127,000,000,  circulation  at  $100,- 
000,000,  advertising  at  $50,000,000,  and  administra- 
tion at  $40,000,000,  a  total  of  more  than  $400,000,- 
000  annually.  Paper  used  annually  was  said  to  be 
of  the  value  of  $140,000,000,  ink  $6,000,000,  and 
other  raw  materials  $10,000,000,  bringing  the  total 
up  to  $156,000,000. 

In  typography  there  was  a  tendency  toward  the 
use  of  larger  body  type  and  "streamlined"  heads. 
Increased  use  of  color  in  advertising  was  noted.  A 
survey  showed  511  newspapers  offering  run  of 
paper  color  advertising,  compared  with  300  in  1935. 
Printing  effects  of  such  advertising  were  still 
crude,  however,  and  only  moderate  progress  had 
been  made  in  improving  its  use. 

The  first  daily  newspaper  in  an  important  city 
to  be  printed  by  offset  photo-lithography  was  the 
Hartford  Newsdaily,  begun  March  4.  According 
to  the  publisher  the  savings  in  cost  by  this  method 
approximated  25  per  cent.  Offset  printing  had  been 
used  by  a  number  of  weekday  newspapers  and  for 
occasional  special  supplements.  The  Newsdaily  sus- 
pended, however,  in  June,  1940. 

Among  deaths  of  newspaper  men  in  1940  were 
those  of  Frank  Parker  Stockbridge  of  New  York, 
Viscount  Rothermere,  of  the  Daily  Mail,  of  Lon- 
don, and  a  chain  of  other  newspapers  in  Great 
Britain,  Sir  Hugh  Denison,  Chairman  of  the  Board 
of  Associated  Newspapers,  of  Australia,  Alison 
Stone,  Publisher  of  the  Providence  Journal,  and 
F.  W.  Kellogg,  who  had  published  many  news- 
papers on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

According  to  statements  of  representatives  of 
the  American  Newspaper  Guild,  that  organization 
had  at  the  end  of  the  year  119  contracts  with  the 
publishers  of  140  publications,  newspapers,  maga- 
zines, wire  services,  and  radio  stations.  The  news- 
papers covered  by  contracts  had  a  total  circulation 
of  14,888,861.  The  policies  of  the  national  organi- 
zation and  of  certain  local  chapters  had  come  in 
for  news  attention  because  of  charges  that  radical 
elements  were  dominant.  The  announcement  of 
Mrs.  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt  that  she  would  vote 
against  the  administration  slate  in  New  York  on 
the  issue  of  radicalism  was  an  incident  in  the  de- 
bate. The  administration  tickets  in  both  the  nation- 
al and  New  York  chapter  elections  were  elected. 

At  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Associated  Press 
in  New  York  on  April  23  Robert  McLean  of  the 
Philadelphia  Bulletin  was  re-elected  president.  The 
American  Newspaper  Publishers  Association  re- 
elected  John  S.  McCarrens,  of  the  Cleveland  Plain 
Dealer  as  president. 

Magazines,  like  newspapers,  generally  reported 
increasing  circulations.  Editorially  more  and  more 
attention  was  paid  to  subjects  in  the  news  of  the 
day.  The  Readers  Digest  announced  a  total  of 
4,100,000  copies  for  the  last  issue  of  the  year,  said 
to  be  a  new  high  record  for  any  magazine  at  any 
time.  The  same  magazine  inaugurated  a  Spanish 
edition.  The  Saturday  Evening  Post  and  Ladies 
Home  Journal  also  reached  new  peaks  in  circula- 
tion. Many  magazines  felt  the  effect  of  restriction 
put  upon  imports  of  periodicals  by  nations  at  war. 
Canada  and  Australia  forbade  the  importation  of 
certain  lists  of  periodicals,  and  Canada  laid  a  tax 
of  10  per  cent  upon  others.  The  total  number  of 
periodicals  in  the  United  States,  other  than  news- 
papers, increased  from  6432  to  6468  in  the  year 
1940.  Weekly  publications  showed  a  loss,  from 
1399  to  1366,  but  monthly  magazines  increased 
from  3466  to  3501. 


Some  distinguished  names  disappeared  from  the 
magazine  world.  The  ComhUl  Magaxine,  founded 
in  1859  by  Thackeray,  and  famous  for  the  literary 
quality  of  its  contents,  suspended  in  January.  The 
Colophon,  a  quarterly  for  book  lovers  issued  by 
Elmer  Adler  and  the  Pynson  Printers,  discontinued 
publication  in  March.  The  Forum  and  Century 
was  merged  with  Current  History.  Friday,  a  new 
weekly,  was  launched,  and  other  newcomers  were 
Jeivish  Digest,  and  New  Horizons,  an  air  travel 
magazine.  St.  Nicholas,  long  published  as  a  chil- 
dren's magazine,  was  purchased  by  Mrs.  Juliet  lit 
Stern. 

Determined  efforts  were  made  in  some  cities  to 
eliminate  the  distribution  of  obscene  magazines. 
In  New  York,  Mayor  La  Guardia  led  the  effort 
to  clean  up  the  news  stands  and  caused  legal  action 
to  be  taken  against  important  news  companies. 

In  advertising  the  several  groups  of  magazines 
fared  unevenly.  The  total  of  space  in  all  magazines 
in  which  advertising  is  measured,  was  26,391,588 
lines,  a  gain  of  2.5  per  cent  over  1939.  The  weekly 
and  semi-monthly  magazines,  however,  gained  12 
per  cent,  while  the  standard  lost  13  2  per  cent,  gen- 
eral magazines  lost  3.7  per  cent  and  women's  mag- 
azines lost  3.6  per  cent. 

See  CALIFORNIA  under  Los  Angeles ;  COPYRIGHT  ; 
FASHION  EVENTS  ;  PULITZER  PRIZES. 

C.  McD.  PUCKETTE. 

NEW  YORK.  Area,  49,204  square  miles;  in- 
cludes water  (excepting  the  State's  part  of  the 
Great  Lakes),  1550  square  miles.  Population  (U.S. 
Census),  April,  1940,  13,479,142;  1930,  12,588,066. 
New  York  City  (1940),  7,454,995;  Buffalo,  575,- 
901 ;  Rochester  324,975 ;  Syracuse,  205,967;  Alba- 
ny (the  capital),  130,577.  The  State's  urban  popu- 
lation (dwellers  in  places  of  2500  or  more)  num- 
bered (1940)  11,165,893,  or  82.8  per  cent  of  the 
whole;  it  had  gained  (1930-40)  643,941,  of  which 
New  York  City  furnished  524,549.  The  State's 
rural  population  rose  (1930-40)  by  247,135,  to 
2,313,247. 

Agriculture.  New  York's  farms  harvested,  in 
1940,  6,691,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Tame 
hay,  covering  4,000,000  acres,  gave  5,554,000  tons, 
estimated  as  returning  the  cultivators  $46,654,000. 
Potatoes,  213,000  acres,  made  26,939,000  bu.  (about 
$16,371,000) ;  corn,  692,000  acres,  21,452,000  bu. 
($15,874,000)  ;  oats,  821,000  acres,  29,966,000  bu. 
($11,687,000) ;  apples,  12,936,000 bu.  ($10,996,000)  ; 
wheat,  309,000  acres,  7,996,000  bu.  ($6,157,000)  ; 
dry  beans,  129,000  acres,  903,000  100-lb.  bags 
($2,902,000) ;  barley,  131,000  acres,  3,799,000  bu. 
($1,937,000).  The  combined  value  of  the  year's 
truck  crops  approximated  $19,717,000. 

Mineral  Production.  New  York  State's  pro- 
duction of  its  native  minerals,  as  reported  in  1940 
by  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  totaled  $73,217,430 
for  1938.  Natural  gas  provided  over  one-fourth  of 
this,  petroleum  over  one-eighth,  and  cement,  salt, 
and  clay  products  substantial  parts.  The  extensive 
processing  of  minerals  from  elsewhere  did  not 
enter  the  total.  The  production  and  delivery,  to  con- 
sumers, of  natural  gas  attained  39,402  million  cu. 
ft.  for  1938 ;  value  at  points  of  consumption,  $19,- 
419,000;  but  drilling  for  natural  gas  in  1939  was 
not  so  successful  as  to  assure  the  means  of  keep- 
ing up  production  at  the  usual  rate  for  very  long, 
and  some  industrial  consumers  began  to  curtail  the 
use  of  gas.  New  York  continued  to  produce  nearly 
one-fifth  of  the  Union's  Pennsylvania-grade  petro- 
leum; its  yearly  total  of  this  special  product  ad- 


NEW  YORK 


554 


MEW  YORK 


weed  a  little,  to  some  5,098.000  bbL  (1939)  from 
5,045,000  bbL  (value,  $9,556,000)  for  1938;  and 
the  production  during  12  months  of  1940  approxi- 
mated 4,999,000  bbl.  The  makers'  shipments  of 
Portland  cement  increased  to  6,853,796  bbl.  (1939) 
from  5,720,922  (1938) ;  in  value,  to  $9,866,102  from 
$7,893,270.  The  output  of  salt  rose  to  2,041,492 
short  tons  (1939)  from  1,717,064  (1938) ;  in  value, 
to  $5,855,422  from  $5,467,077.  Clay  products  (exclu- 
sive of  pottery  and  refractories)  attained  $3,324,461 
for  1938.  Mines  yielded  36,014  tons  of  zinc  in  1939 
(value,  $3,745,456),  and  about  35,700  tons  (value, 
$4,641,000)  in  1940. 

Production  from  minerals  originating  outside  in- 
cluded 4,468,437  net  tons  of  coke,  value  $25,526,- 
646  (1939) ;  furnaces'  shipments  of  2,210,223  gross 
tons  of  pig  iron,  value  $45,275,716  (1939) ;  and 
72,174  long  tons  of  ferro-alloys,  value  $7,699,520 
(1938). 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1938-39 
(latest  covered  by  data  below)  New  York's  inhab- 
itants of  age  up  to  18  years  were  stated  at  3,852,- 
695.  Enrollments  of  pupils  in  public  schools,  2,244,- 
134;  of  these,  1,513,303  in  elementary  study  and 
730,831  in  high  school.  Outside  these  totals,  203,- 
958  in  evening  and  special  courses.  The  year's  ex- 
penditure for  public  schools  totaled  $347,775,704, 
plus  bond  moneys  amounting  to  $46,065,085.  The 
teachers  numbered  82,392;  their  pay  averaged 
$245529  for  all;  for,  solely,  those  outside  New 
York  Citv,  $1855.88. 

Manufacturing.  New  York's  manufactured 
products,  as  usual  much  the  highest  in  the  United 
States,  totaled  $7,134,400,147  (1939)  ;  $7,314,446,- 
524  (1937).  Other  totals  for  1939  follow  (with 
1937  in  parenthesis) :  34,514  (29,749)  establish- 
ments employed  957,853  (995,658)  people  for 
$1,163,806,520  ($1,236,048,186)  wages,  paid  $3,783,- 
904,755  ($3,998,266,070)  for  material  and  contract 
work,  and  added  to  material  by  manufacture  $3,350,- 
495,392  ($3,316,180,454). 

History.  New  York  State,  economically  the 
part  of  the  Union  closest  to  Europe,  felt  keenly 
but  not  uniformly,  in  its  manufactures  and  its  for- 
eign trade  the  effects  of  the  European  war;  its 
industries  gained,  in  many  instances,  from  the  for- 
eign orders  that  resulted ;  some  lines  of  production 
were  helped  by  the  suspension  of  foreign  competi- 
tion, as  in  the  case  of  luxurious  clothing  (see 
GARMENT  INDUSTRY).  The  launching  of  the  Fed- 
eral program  of  armament  further  augmented  em- 
ployment to  such  a  degree  that  the  cost  of  public 
support  for  the  indigent,  which  had  burdened  the 
State  with  taxation,  dropped  out  of  the  foreground 
of  public  worries. 

Legislation.  The  Legislature  met  twice :  it  held 
a  regular  annual  session  (January  3  to  March  31) ; 
a  brief  special  session  of  four  hours  (October 
22),  on  account  of  the  unprecedentedly  heavy  reg- 
istration for  the  election  of  November  5,  required 
the  polls  on  that  day  to  stay  open  until  9  p.m.,  in- 
stead of  6pm. 

The  regular  session  adopted  a  budget  authorizing 
the  expenditure,  in  the  ensuing  fiscal  year,  of  $391,- 
760,000,  reduced  by  about  $5,000,000  below  the  total 
that  the  Governor  had  asked.  In  accord  with  the 
purpose  of  the  Republican  majority  to  meet  de- 
mands for  economy,  no  new  taxes  were  imposed. 
About  $122,000,000,  in  yearly  yield,  of  taxes  until 
then  imposed  temporarily  under  plea  of  emergency 
were  prolonged.  Shifts  such  as  appropriating  more 
of  the  unclaimed  money  in  the  hands  of  banks  and 
public-utility  companies  helped  to  put  the  budget 


in  Apparent  balance  for  the  year;  numerous  small 
fees  charged  by  the  State  were  increased.  New 
York  City's  tax  on  sales  of  cigarettes  was  killed; 
it  had  seemingly  reduced  sales  of  cigarettes  and 
thus  hurt  revenue  from  the  State's  own  tax  on 
them.  The  city  was  allowed,  as  an  offset,  to  divert 
about  $7,000,000  from  its  funds  for  poor-relief, 
which  a  reduced  demand  made  excessive. 

A  system  for  regulating  race  tracks  and  pari- 
mutuel  betting,  as  allowed  by  recently  adopted 
amendment  to  the  State's  constitution,  was  created ; 
it  provided  various  payments  from  race  tracks  to 
the  State,  expected  to  bring,  in  the  next  year, 
$1,000,000.  A  set  of  acts  promoted  investment  in 
limited-dividend  companies,  through  which  the 
State  encouraged  the  private  construction  of  supe- 
rior housing  for  the  poor.  A  "little  Hatch  Act" 
(extending  into  the  State's  jurisdiction  some  of 
the  Federal  measures  against  abuses  of  political 
partisan  activity)  prohibited  intimidation  of  work- 
ers and  dependents  on  public  relief,  to  affect  their 
vote  in  State  elections,  and  forbade  the  solicitation 
of  their  contributions  to  partisan  funds;  a  more 
thoroughgoing  "little  Hatch"  bill,  to  exclude  most 
of  the  State's  employees  from  activity  in  partisan 
politics,  failed  of  passage.  Enactments  a  fleeting 
organized  labor  made  provisions  for  arbitration  of 
disputes,  in  contracts  between  employer  and  union, 
enforceable  by  the  courts;  authorized  the  State 
Labor  Relations  Board  to  seek  voluntary  settle- 
ment of  employer-and-union  disputes,  leaving,  how- 
ever, the  power  to  mediate  solely  with  the  Board 
of  Mediation ;  and  required  the  State  Labor  Rela- 
tions Board  to  give  consideration  to  employers'  (as 
well  as  unions')  petitions  for  elections  to  fix  em- 
ployees' choice  of  the  labor  organizations  to  rep- 
resent them.  As  to  public  education,  the  Legisla- 
ture effected  a  reduction  of  two  per  cent  in  State 
aid  to  the  public  schools,  sought  by  advocates  of 
economy  as  consonant  with  the  decline  in  the  num- 
ber of  pupils,  but  failed  to  pass  a  measure  to 
cut  teachers'  pay,  strongly  opposed  by  the  teach- 
ers ;  it  authorized  public  schools  to  permit  pupils' 
absence,  for  religious  observance  and  for  instruc- 
tion in  religion,  under  regulations  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Education ;  it  required  public  schools  to 
observe  a  yearly  Bill-of-Rights  Week,  to  be  de- 
voted to  teaching  the  rights  of  the  individual  under 
the  Nation's  political  system ;  and  it  commissioned 
a  joint  Legislative  committee  to  investigate  the 
workings  of  State  aid  in  the  public  schools,  the 
reported  promotion  of  subversive  ideas  in  schools 
and  colleges  run  by  New  York  City,  and  the 
alleged  "flight"  of  industries  from  the  State.  The 
matter  of  the  fares  to  be  charged  for  travel  on 
New  York  City's  municipal  transit  system  was 
put  entirely  in  the  control  of  the  city  (required  by 
previous  law  to  make  fares  carry  expenses),  and 
the  Transit  Commission,  a  State  agency  with  pow- 
ers only  over  transit  in  the  city,  was  put  under  the 
city's  budgetary  control. 

Three  proposals  for  amendments  to  the  State 
constitution  won  initial  adoption  but  awaited  a  sec- 
ond adoption  by  the  next  Legislature  and  ratifica- 
tion thereafter  by  the  popular  vote ;  one  (a  sequel 
to  the  budgetary  conflict  of  1939)  was  to  permit 
the  Legislature  to  make  appropriations  for  depart- 
ments in  lump  sums  instead  of  specified  items ;  an- 
other would  allow  bonds  for  $60,000,000,  out  of 
a  total  previously  authorized  for  the  State's  con- 
tribution to  the  elimination  of  grade  crossings  on 
railroads,  but  never  allocated  to  any  such  under- 
taking, to  be  used  to  pay  for  building  highways ;  a 


NEW  YORK 


555 


NEW  YORK 


third  was  to  give  power  to  the  Legislature  to  re* 
voke  the  authorization  for  any  unissued  remainder 
of  the  originally  authorized  bonds  to  eliminate 
grade  crossings. 

Existing  legal  requirements  that  had  hindered 
the  alteration  of  old-time  residences  in  New  York 
City,  to  accommodate  several  tenants  each,  were 
eased.  Sale,  distribution,  or  possession  of  fireworks 
was  forbidden,  except  for  public  displays ;  the  law 
went  into  force  only  after  the  next  Fourth  of  July. 
A  measure  to  allow  Westchester  County  to  levy 
tolls  on  parkways  built  at  its  own  expense  was 
vetoed.  A  way  of  punishing  criminals  by  intermit- 
tent imprisonment — locking  them  up  mainly  over 
Saturdays  and  Sundays — previously  tried  in  Roch- 
ester and  found  to  enable  the  culprit  to  go  on  sup- 
porting dependents — was  made  applicable  as  to 
sentences  up  to  60  days,  in  any  part  of  the  State 
except  New  York  City. 

State  Administration.  Governor  Lehman,  in 
view  of  the  rapid  rise  of  the  Federal  preparations 
for  National  defense  to  all-embracing  importance, 
appointed  (August  1)  a  State  Council  of  National 
Defense,  to  advise  him  in  matters  where  the  Fed- 
eral program  might  concern  the  State.  The  Coun- 
cil's ten  members  were  each  selected  from  some 
economic  or  social  group.  Lieutenant  Governor 
Poletti  was  named  by  the  Governor  to  be  a  co- 
ordinator of  defense  activities.  Pari-mutuel  betting 
at  horse  races  started,  under  the  act  of  1940,  on 
April  15,  at  the  Jamaica  track;  the  day's  wagers  on 
seven  races  totaled  $821,946,  a  figure  that  gave 
anticipation  of  substantial  yearly  returns  to  the 
State.  A  commissioner  appointed  under  the  More- 
land  Act  investigated  practices  among  those  han- 
dling the  State's  printing;  he  obtained  testimony 
indicating  that  some  printing  firms  had  been  in 
secret  understanding  as  to  bids  for  contracts  and 
that  the  State  had  been  obliged  to  pay  too  much ; 
proposals  for  a  State-owned  printing  establishment 
were  aired.  The  State  acquired  from  a  private 
company,  for  $2,275,000,  the  Bear  Mountain  Bridge, 
spanning  the  Hudson  River  just  above  Peekskill. 
It  reduced  the  toll  for  crossing  the  bridge  to  50 
cents  a  vehicle.  Among  the  State  roads  completed 
was  a  second,  more  elevated  route  along  the  side 
of  Storm  King  mountain,  between  West  Point  and 
Cornwall ;  5%  miles  long,  four  lanes  wide,  and  laid 
out  to  minimize  rock-falls,  the  new  road  cost 
$1,648,000. 

The  Court  of  Appeals  held  in  July  that  the 
charter  making  Peekskill  a  city,  granted  by  the 
Legislature  in  1938  but  contested  by  the  town  of 
Cortlandt,  was  valid  and  operative;  Westchester 
County  gave  certificates  of  election  (July  26)  to 
the  municipal  officers  elected  by  Peekskill  in  the 
previous  November,  and  a  municipal  government 
was  at  last  established. 

Other  Occurrences  Upstate.  The  new  bridge 
connecting  Niagara  Falls  with  Canada,  undertaken 
in  1939  to  replace  the  Falls  View  Bridge  carried 
away  by  ice  in  1938,  was  begun  (May  16)  by  the 
International  Niagara  Falls  Bridge  Commission. 
At  Hyde  Park  in  Dutchess  County  the  Roosevelt 
Library,  a  $250,000  building  erected  by  an  associa- 
tion of  admirers  of  President  Franklin  D.  Roose- 
velt, was  finished ;  at  a  ceremony  on  July  4  it  was 
presented  to  him,  and  by  him  in  turn,  to  the  Fed- 
eral Government;  its  function  was  to  preserve  as 
a  collection  the  papers  of  Mr.  Roosevelt  subsequent 
to  1910.  A  short  distance  away,  the  Vanderbilt 
estate,  formerly  the  residence  of  Frederick  W. 
Vanderbilt,  long  one  of  the  most  notable  of  the 


great  country  places  along  the  Hudson  River,  was 
presented  to  the  Federal  Government,  designated 
as  a  National  historic  site,  and  put  in  the  care  of 
the  National  Park  Service.  At  North  Tarrytown 
the  Philipse  mansion,  said  to  be  the  oldest  remain- 
ing manor  house  in  the  country,  underwent  a  res- 
toration at  the  cost  of  John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr. 
Middletoym  granted  what  was  reported  to  be  the 
first  public  aid  received,  in  the  State,  by  a  clinic  for 
birth-control. 

New  York  City.  The  population  of  New  York 
City  gained  (1930-40)  by  524,549,  or  7.6  per  cent, 
supplying  most  of  the  whole  State's  gain,  while 
neighboring  counties  supplied  most  of  the  rest. 

The  rate  of  the  city's  gam  in  population  over 
ten  years  exceeded  those  of  all  but  two  of  the 
Union's  other  cities  of  over  500,000  inhabitants ;  in 
spite  of  this,  the  valuation  of  real  estate  and  spe- 
cial franchises,  made  in  1940— $16,553,401,478— 
fell  short  of  that  of  1939  by  $87,431,461 ;  of  that 
of  1930  by  about  $2,000,000,000 ;  and  was  approxi- 
mately that  of  1927.  The  city  had  in  the  interven- 
ing years  indebted  itself  heavily  for  additional  sub- 
ways, some  of  which  it  operated  at  a  loss  while 
on  others  it  guaranteed  the  operators'  return;  in 
this  course  it  followed,  to  disappointment,  the  be- 
lief that  new  taxable  values  in  areas  populated  by 
rapid  transit  would  soon  swell  its  tax  collections 
sufficiently  to  support  the  lines'  cost  of  populating 
them.  Housing  and  parks  created  at  public  expense 
had  removed  many  slums  but  had  also  removed  a 
substantial  part  of  the  residential  realty  from  the 
taxpaying  list  Shifts  in  residence  and  in  business 
had  left  some  areas  partly  bereft  of  their  former 
values  for  taxation.  According  to  a  widely-held 
view  in  course  of  investigation,  an  "exodus  of  in- 
dustries" seeking  more  profitable  locations  had 
helped  to  depress  valuations. 

In  some  "other  respects  the  city's  condition  im- 
proved in  1940 :  its  dependents  on  poor-relief  and 
Federal  support  through  the  WPA  diminished  rap- 
idly as  the  openings  for  employment  improved ;  by 
August  their  number  was  reported  the  lowest  in 
six  years ;  the  benefit  to  the  city's  as  well  as  State 
and  Federal  finances  appears  from  an  official  esti- 
mate that  over  36  per  cent  of  the  city's  population 
had  got  public  assistance  for  more  or  less  of  the 
time  in  the  period  1934-39.  The  city  wa's  enabled 
to  apply  to  other  uses  about  $4,500,000  not  needed 
by  its  funds  for  poor-relief.  The  lessened  need  for 
this  service  also  took  some  of  the  sting  out  of  the 
State's  abolition  of  the  city's  tax  on  cigarettes. 

Economy,  especially  in  some  directions,  ruled 
the  city's  plans  of  1940  for  expenditure.  The  budg- 
et for  the  year  starting  with  July  1  was  set  at 
$581,114,245.  The  decline  in  the  number  of  pupils 
helped  persuade  the  city  to  cut  the  appropriation 
for  the  public  schools  by  about  $3,000,000,  on  top 
of  a  cut  in  the  rate  of  State  aid.  After  abolish- 
ing many  positions  and  services  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation had  to  order  the  termination  of  the  jobs  of 
612  elementary  teachers.  The  Mayor  cut  the  sep- 
arate budget  of  outlays  for  capital  expenditure 
prepared  by  the  Planning  Commission  to  one  dollar 
above  the  cost  for  work  already  provided  by  appro- 
priation, but  the  City  Council  allowed  a  small  new- 
work  outlay. 

The  City  Planning  Commission  designated  13 
areas  in  Manhattan,  covering  about  one-seventh  of 
its  area,  as  calling  for  clearance  and  replanning  ; 
it  presented  (December  5)  its  plan,  long  in  hand, 
to  rule  the  use  of  ground,  over  2  or  3  generations 
of  slow-growing  population.  See  PLANNING. 


NEW  YORK 


556 


NEW  YORK 


The  Russell  case,  a  contest  over  the  appointment 
of  a  distinguished  scholar,  a  person  of  questioned 


social  principles,  to  teach  at  the  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York,  roused  wide  interest  (see  EDUCA- 
TION). The  issue  was  settled  when  the  Mayor  abol- 
ished the  teaching  position  by  striking  its  pay  from 
the  budget,  and  the  Board  of  Estimate  passed  a  res- 
olution to  shut  Russell  off  from  any  payments  from 
educational  funds.  The  State's  Court  of  Appeals 
denied  (October  8)  Russell's  motion  to  appeal  a 
decision  against  a  suit  to  overthrow  the  City's  re- 
jection of  his  appointment. 

Police  and  firemen's  pension  systems  were  reor- 
ganized by  measures  of  the  City  Council  (adopted 
January  31)  :  to  give  the  funds  better  support,  the 
measures  required  the  men  to  make  contributions 
at  rates  designed  to  meet  45  per  cent  of  the  cost  of 
their  pensions  after  retirement.  The  Board  of 
Health  set  up  (March  5)  a  single  grade  of  stand- 
ard milk,  in  place  of  the  previous  grade  A  and 
grade  B ;  it  required  most  of  the  specifications  of 
the  former  grade  A. 

The  main  occurrence  in  transit  affairs  was  the 
city's  acquisition  of  the  properties  of  the  Brooklyn- 
Manhattan  and  the  Interborough  systems,  to  form, 
with  certain  municipally  operated  subways,  a  sin- 
gle system  of  transportation  under  public  opera- 
tion. On  June  1,  1940,  the  Brooklyn-Manhattan 
system's  properties  passed  to  the  city  for  about 
$175,000,000;  on  June  12,  those  of  the  Inter- 
borough  system  for  about  $151,248,000.  The  city 
used  its  3  per  cent  bonds,  of  a  class  exempt  from 
its  debt  limit,  in  payment.  The  city  had  previously 
acquired,  largely  for  unpaid  taxes,  the  Sixth  Ave- 
nue line  of  the  Manhattan  Elevated  system ;  it  ob- 
tained the  Manhattan's  other  lines  by  condemna- 
tion on  June  9,  this  company  having  been  separated 
from  the  Interborough  in  the  course wof  the  two 
companies'  receivership.  The  deals  with* the  B.M.T. 
and  the  I.R.T.,  on  the  other  hand  were  negotiated 
voluntary  sales.  The  whole  sum  paid,  about  $326,- 
000,000,  did  not  include  the  value  of  all  the  prop- 
erty operated,  since,  notably,  both  the  subway  sys- 
tems operated  lines  of  subway  that  the  city  had 
paid  to  construct.  The  City's  "investment,"  pre- 
sumably at  original  cost,  after  the  conclusion  of 
the  sales,  totaled  about  $1%  billion  in  790  miles  of 
subway  and  elevated  track,  430  of  street  railway, 
and  80  of  bus  lines ;  the  whole  included  the  city's 
own  Independent  Subway  system.  The  merged 
group  took  the  name  of  New  York  City  Transit 
System.  The  city  went  on  with  the  removal  of  ele- 
vated lines,  that  on  Sixth  Avenue  having  been 
carried  out.  Removal  on  Ninth  Avenue  (Man- 
hattan) began  on  Oct  6,  1940. 

Sixteen  members  of  a  group  calling  itself  the 
Christian  Front,  reputedly  in  accord  with  the  views 
of  Father  Charles  E.  Coughlin  of  Royal  Oak, 
Mich.,  the  "radio  priest"  who  had  at  times  con- 
demned acts  of  the  New  Deal,  were  tried  in  Brook- 
lyn on  a  Federal  charge  of  seditious  conspiracy. 
Most  of  the  evidence  against  them  came  from  an 
agent  of  the  FBI  who  had  gained  their  confidence. 
At  the  trial  the  defense  maintained  that  its  mem- 
bers had  banded  to  protect  the  United  States  in 
case  of  a  Communist  rising.  Some  of  the  defend- 
ants were  dismissed  during  the  trial ;  the  jury  ac- 
quitted nine;  as  to  the  alleged  leader  (Gerald 
Bishop)  and  several  others  it  failed  to  agree ;  in 
the  cases  of  disagreement  a  mistrial  was  declared 
(June  14),  and  the  Government  nolle-prossed  in 
December. 

Further  successful  prosecutions  by  the  office  of 


District  Attorney  Thomas  E.  Dewey  of  New  York 
County  convicted  Louis  (or  "Lepke")  Buchalter, 
already  a  Federal  convict,  of  extortion  by  means 
of  labor  unions  and  sent  him  to  serve  from  30 
years  to  life  in  State  prison ;  also  was  convicted 
George  Scalise,  former  president  of  a  building- 
service  employees'  union,  who  was  sentenced  to 
serve  from  ten  to  twenty  years  for  forgery  and 
larceny  from  that  union.  J.  H.  Amen,  a  special 
prosecutor  of  official  corruption  in  Brooklyn,  re- 
ported in  October  that  he  had  completed  76  pro- 
ceedings, criminal  or  disciplinary,  69  of  them  suc- 
cessful, into  such  matters  as  irregularities  in  bail 
bonds  and  public  contracts,  and  had  recovered  some 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  public  money.  The  lead- 
ers of  a  "murder  ring,"  Harry  Maione  and  Frank 
Abbandando  were  convicted  of  murder  in  the  first 
degree,  in  Brooklyn.  James  J.  Hines,  former  Tam- 
many district  leader,  failed  in  his  appeal  from  con- 
viction in  1939  for  connection  with  a  policy  racket ; 
he  went  to  States  prison  (October  15). 

Seeking  subversive  propaganda  among  teachers 
in  the  city's  pay  the  Legislature's  committee  in- 
vestigating such  matters  (see  Legislation,  above) 
met  with  many  refusals,  supported  by  the  Teach- 
ers' Union,  to  testify;  it  authorized  its  counsel 
(December  5)  to  bring  action  for  contempt  against 
25  teachers,  18  of  them  in  the  Brooklyn  College. 

Developments  in  public  construction  included  the 
start  (October  28)  of  work  on  the  Battery-Brook- 
lyn  Tunnel,  a  projected  under- water  passage  for 
vehicles,  to  cost  about  $80,000,000  mainly  financed 
by  a  loan  of  $57,000,000  to  the  city  from  the  RFC; 
the  opening  (June  29)  of  all  but  some  short  in- 
complete sections  of  the  Belt  Parkway,  a  $30,000,- 
000  vehicular  route  rimming  Brooklyn  and  Queens 
boroughs  on  south  and  east  from  the  Upper  Bay  to 
Whitestone;  the  opening  (June  18)  up  to  93rd 
Street,  Manhattan,  except  for  a  %-mile  section  in 
midtown,  of  the  East  River  Drive,  a  route  to  take 
vehicles  through  Manhattan  lengthwise  without  in- 
tersections ;  the  opening  of  the  $58,000,000  Queens- 
Midtown  Tunnel  (vehicular),  November  15;  the 
completion  and  operating  start  (December  15)  of 
the  $59,000,000,  2%-mile  municipal  Sixth  Avenue 
Subway,  in  Manhattan ;  the  opening  of  a  $7,500,- 
000  port  for  seaplanes  (March  31),  at  LaGuardia 
Field;  the  start  of  constructing  a  new  Criminal 
Court  Building  in  Manhattan,  to  replace  that  con- 
demned as  unsound  six  years  before.  See  AQUE- 
DUCTS; GARBAGE  AND  REFUSE  DISPOSAL;  PORTS 
AND  HARBORS;  RAPID  TRANSIT;  ROADS  AND 
STREETS  ;  TUNNELS  ;  WATER  WORKS  AND  WATER 
PURIFICATION. 

A  number  of  so-called  low-cost  housing  units,  such 
as  Vladeck  City  Houses  and  South  Jamaica  Houses, 
were  opened,  supplying  to  the  poor,  at  low  rent, 
quarters  averaging  around  $5000  of  outlay  per  flat. 
Further  such  building  to  quarter  thousands  more 
of  poor  families,  with  the  aid  of  $40,000,000  to  be 
advanced  to  the  City  Housing  Authority  by  the 
State,  was  in  progress  or  initiated.  The  Metropoli- 
tan Life  Insurance  Company  completed  part  of  a 
$50,000,000  group  of  apartments  to  hold  12,200 
families,  in  Bronx  Borough,  under  a  recent  State 
law  allowing  insurance  companies  to  put  a  tenth 
of  their  assets  in  such  enterprises.  MacMonnies' 
ill-liked  monument,  "Civic  Virtue,"  was  ordered 
removed  from  City  Hall  Park.  See  FIRE  PROTEC- 
TION; MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP. 

The  New  York  World's  Fair  reopened  (May 
11),  for  its  second  season ;  it  closed  finally  on  Oc- 
tober 27,  and  declared  a  final  distribution  that 


NEW  YORK  557 

brought  payments  toward  principal  and  interest  tip 
to  38.4  per  cent  of  the  face  of  $23,333,300  of  its 
bonds  held  by  the  public. 

Elections.  The  State's  popular  vote  for  Presi- 
dent (Novembers)  gave  Roosevelt  (Dem.)  3,251,- 
918;  Willkie  (Rep.),  3,027,478;  Norman  Thomas 
(Socialist),  18,950.  Roosevelt  had  a  plurality,  in 
round  numbers  of  718,000  in  New  York  City; 
Willkie  had  one  of  494,000  up-State ;  and  the  State 
as  a  whole  gave  Roosevelt  a  plurality  of  224,440. 
The  American  Labor  Party  furnished  417,418  of 
the  Roosevelt  vote.  U.S.  Senator  James  M.  Mead 
(Dem.)  was  re-elected  by  3,274.766  to  2,868,852, 
defeating  Bruce  Barton  (Rep.).  To  the  U.S.  House 
of  Representatives  were  elected  25  Democrats,  19 
Republicans,  and  one  of  the  American  Labor  Party. 

Officers.  New  York's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were :  Governor,  Herbert  H.  Lehman  (Dem.)  ; 
Lieutenant  Governor,  Charles  Poletti;  Secretary 
of  State,  Michael  F.  Walsh;  Comptroller,  Morris 
S.  Tremaine ;  Attorney  General,  John  J.  Bennett, 
Jr. ;  Commissioner  of  Education,  Frank  P.  Graves 
and  (successor,  July  1)  Ernest  C.  Cole. 

NEW  YORK,  College  of  the  City  of.  See 
EDUCATION. 

NEW  YORK  WORLD'S  FAIR.  See  FAIRS, 
EXPOSITIONS,  AND  CELEBRATIONS. 

NEW  ZEALAND.  A  British  Dominion  in  the 
South  Pacific  Ocean ;  principally  two  islands  about 
1200  miles  east  of  the  southeastern  coast  of  Aus- 
tralia. The  Dominion  has  jurisdiction  over  West- 
ern Samoa  (see  SAMOA),  the  Union  Islands  (in- 
cluding Tokelau),  and  some  other  islands  of  Oce- 
ania; also  over  the  Ross  Dependency,  a  part  of 
the  Antarctic  Zone.  Capital,  Wellington. 

Area  and  Population.  New  Zealand  proper  has 
an  area  of  103,722  square  miles;  of  this,  North 
Island  has  44,281  and  South  Island  58,092.  Union 
Islands:  area,  4  square  miles;  population,  1176. 
The  Ross  Dependency  has  no  reported  definite 
area  or  resident  population.  New  Zealand,  by  esti- 
mate for  1939,  had  1,626,486  inhabitants,  includ- 
ing 88,997  Maoris  (aborigines  of  Polynesian  race). 
By  census  of  1936  the  population  numbered  1,573,- 
810:  on  the  North  Island,  1,018,036;  South  Is- 
land, 554,455.  Totals  of  1936  included  1,484,528 
of  European  origin,  82,326  Maoris  and  half-castes, 
and  2899  Chinese  Chief  cities'  estimated  popula- 
tion of  1939:  Auckland,  221,500;  Wellington,  157,- 
900;  Christchurch,  135,400;  Dunedin,  82,800.  For 
1938,  births  numbered  27,249;  deaths,  14,756;  im- 
migrants (year  ending  March  31),  38,738 ;  and  emi- 
grants, 36,352 

National  Defense.  See  History  below,  and  ar- 
ticles EUROPEAN  WAR;  MILITARY  PROGRESS. 

Education  and  Religion.  Under  authority  of 
a  Department  of  Education  a  system  of  schools 
gives  free,  compulsory  education.  Secondary  or 
combined  schools  at  the  outset  of  1939  numbered 
46  and  had  17,140  pupils ;  in  addition,  88  district 
high  schools  had  4905  pupils,  and  20  technical  high 
and  technical  day  schools  had  8149.  Elementary 
schools  numbered  2290  and  had  206,002  pupils. 
Apart  from  the  preceding  were  57  registered  pri- 
vate or  endowed  schools  and  a  number  of  schools 
for  Maoris.  The  University  of  New  Zealand  com- 
prises Otago  University  at  Dunedin,  Canterbury 
University  College  at  Christchurch,  Auckland  Uni- 
versity College  at  Auckland,  and  Victoria  Univer- 
sity College  at  Wellington.  Two  agricultural  col- 
leges are  situated,  respectively,  at  Lincoln  and  at 
Palmerston  North.  The  census  of  1936  showed  the 
religious  affiliation  of  40.28  per  cent  of  the  popu- 


NEW  ZEALAND 


lation  to  be  Anglican,  24.66  Presbyterian,  and  13.09 
Roman  Catholic. 

Production.  Agriculture  and  animal  husbandry 
are  the  base  of  New  Zealand's  economic  produc- 
tion. They  normally  nourish  a  heavy  exportation, 
which  supplies  the  means  of  importing  a  great  va- 
riety of  goods  outside  the  range  of  domestic  pro- 
duction. The  estimated  production  of  wool,  for  the 
year  ended  with  June,  1940,  was  310,000,000  Ib. ; 
that  of  meat  (mainly  for  shipment  to  the  United 
Kingdom)  was  stated  as  about  13,000,000  freight 
carcasses.  The  year's  sales  of  wool  brought  about 
£12,633,389  (in  New  Zealand  currency)  for  greasy 
wool  and  £2,868,730  for  slipe  wool.  The  livestock 
on  farms  (1939)  included  1,853,713  dairy  cows; 
cows  yielded  (1937-38)  419,900,000  Ib.  of  butter- 
fat,  the  source  of  a  great  yearly  exportation  of 
butter.  Important  to  the  support  of  inhabitants  and 
livestock,  rather  than  for  export,  the  cultivation 
of  cereals  gave  (1939),  on  189,281  acres,  5,564,000 
bu.  of  wheat;  on  54,422  acres,  2,605,000  bu.  of 
oats;  and  on  26,898  acres,  1,077,000  bu.  of  barley. 
Sheep  in  1939  numbered  31,897,091 ;  cattle,  4,564,- 
948;  pigs,  683,463. 

Manufacture  occupied  102,344  persons  in  the 
year  1937-38;  its  products  for  that  year  totaled 
£113,691,556.  Over  half  of  them  were  closely  re- 
lated to  agriculture  and  dairy  farming;  they  in- 
cluded £27,767,228  of  butter,  cheese,  and  condensed 
milk  and  £21,227,641  of  frozen  or  otherwise  pre- 
served meat. 

Foreign  Trade.  For  the  calendar  year  1940,  im- 
ports into  New  Zealand  were  valued  (in  New  Zea- 
land currency)  at  £48,998,000 ;  exports,  at  the  pre- 
viously untouched  figure  of  £73,741,000.  The  Unit- 
ed Kingdom  sent  £23,108,000  of  the  imports  and 
took  £64,146,000  of  the  exports;  Australia  sent 
£8,227,000  and  took  £2,166,000;  the  United  States 
sent  £5,885,000  and  took  £2,826,000.  The  year's 
exports  of  wool  were  valued  at  £16,871,039;  for 
the  year  ended  with  June,  1939,  exports  of  butter 
were  £16,520,226 ;  frozen  meat,  £15,092,059 ;  cheese, 
£5,935,061.  That  year's  leading  imports  were  motor 
vehicles  and  parts,  £5,610,049 ;  electrical  machinery, 
£3,273,002 ;  and  petroleum  and  iron  and  steel,  each 
somewhat  over  £3,100,000 

Finance.  The  New  Zealand  pound  averaged 
$3.064  in  U.S.  money,  through  1940.  The  estimated 
budget  for  the  year  1940-41  called  for  revenues  of 
£63,000,000  and  included  in  expenditures  £33,000,- 
000  for  purposes  of  war.  The  estimated  revenue  of 
the  year  ended  with  Mar.  31,  1940,  was  £38,020,- 
043;  expenditure,  £38,003,043;  both  exclusive  of 
certain  items  connected  with  prosecution  of  war. 
Actual  receipts  of  the  year  ended  Mar.  31,  1939, 
totaled  £36,582,000;  expenditures,  £35,773,000 

Transportation.  The  railroads  are  virtually  all 
owned  by  the  government.  The  total  mileage  was 
3319  in  March,  1939.  The  aggregate  length  of 
highways  in  1939  was  86,988  miles.  (See  ROADS 
AND  STREETS.)  The  government  owns  the  telegraph 
and  telephone  systems.  In  August,  1939,  air  lines 
covered  1887  miles  of  routes  and  the  weekly  mile- 
age was  33,349.  Air  connections  with  Hawaii  and 
the  United  States  were  established  in  July,  1940 
(see  under  History).  There  was  a  service  to  Aus- 
tralia and  London.  Ships  in  foreign  trade,  enter- 
ing ports  of  New  Zealand,  numbered  660,  totaling 
3,084,705  net  tons,  in  1938. 

Government.  Executive  power  is  exercised  by 
a  Governor  General,  appointed  by  the  Crown  for 
five  years  on  recommendation  of  the  Dominion 
Government  Legislative  power  rests  with  the  Gov- 


NSW  ZEALAND 


558 


NSW  ZEALAND 


ernor  General  and  a  Parliament  of  two  chambers 
— the  Legislative  Council  of  36  members  appointed 
by  the  Governor  General  for  seven  years,  and  the 
House  of  Representatives  of  60  members,  elected 
by  general  male  and  female  suffrage  for  three 
years.  Sir  Cyril  L.  N.  Newall,  former  Chief  of 
Staff  of  the  Royal  Air  Force,  was  appointed  Gov- 
ernor General  of  New  Zealand  Oct.  4,  1940,  to 
succeed  Viscount  Galway.  See  History. 

HISTORY 

New  Zealand  was  drawn  more  deeply  into  the 
vortex  of  the  European  War  during  1940  with 
the  collapse  of  France  and  the  Netherlands,  the 
spread  of  the  conflict  to  the  Near  East,  and  Japan's 
adherence  to  the  Rome-Berlin  Axis.  As  though  to 
emphasize  the  growing  peril,  the  Canadian-Aus- 
tralian liner  Niagara  was  sunk  by  an  enemy  mine 
20  miles  off  the  New  Zealand  coast  on  June  18. 
The  Labor  Government,  with  the  almost  unani- 
mous support  of  the  nation,  threw  the  full  weight 
of  the  Dominion's  manpower  and  resources  into 
the  struggle.  At  the  same  time  it  sought  to  carry 
forward  the  socialization  program  for  which  it  re- 
ceived a  mandate  in  the  1938  election.  The  latter 
policy  encountered  opposition  from  conservative 
elements.  On  the  other  hand  there  was  mounting 
criticism  from  extremist  Laborites,  who  favored 
more  radical  steps  toward  socialism  at  the  expense 
of  the  country's  war  effort. 

Political  Developments.  Prime  Minister  Mi- 
chael J.  Savage,  leader  of  the  Labor  party  since 
1933  and  head  of  the  government  since  Dec.  5, 
1935,  died  in  Wellington  Mar.  26,  1940  (see  NE- 
CROLOGY). His  death  deprived  the  Dominion  of  its 
most  trusted  political  leader  and  added  fuel  to  the 
dissensions  within  the  Labor  ranks.  Mr.  Savage's 
"win  the  war"  and  "support  Britain"  policies  were 
carried  on  by  his  Deputy  Prime  Minister,  Peter  J. 
Fraser,  who  became  Acting  Prime  Minister  upon 
the  death  of  his  chief  and  Prime  Minister  upon 
election  as  leader  of  the  Labor  party  on  April  4. 

The  Labor  Cabinet  was  reshuffled  on  May  1 
without  changing  its  personnel.  The  new  line-up 
was:  Prime  Minister,  Minister  of  Broadcasting 
and  Police,  Peter  J.  Fraser;  Finance,  Walter 
Nash;  Social  Security,  W.  E.  Parry;  Attorney 
General  and  Minister  of  Education,  H.  G.  R.  Ma- 
son; Agriculture,  W.  Lee  Martin;  Health,  H.  T. 
Armstrong;  Marine,  Robert  Semple;  Labor  and 
Postmaster  General,  P.  C.  Webb;  Defense,  W.  F. 
Jones;  External  Affairs,  F.  Langstone;  Man- 
power, Immigration,  Government,  and  Insurance, 
David  Wilson.  At  the  same  time  the  Prime  Min- 
ister established  an  agency  to  lay  plans  for  the 
postwar  restoration  of  the  country  and  rehabilita- 
tion of  war  veterans.  D.  G.  Sullivan  later  entered 
the  cabinet  as  Minister  of  Supply. 

In  response  to  Opposition  proposals  for  a  coali- 
tion war  government,  Prime  Minister  Fraser  on 
May  27  announced  the  formation  of  a  National 
War  Council  composed  of  cabinet  members  and 
representatives  of  the  Nationalist  party,  industrial 
employers,  trade  unions,  and  farmers.  The  Nation- 
alists declined  this  offer.  But  under  pressure  of  the 
critical  situation  in  Europe  a  compromise  agree- 
ment was  reached  July  16.  A  War  Cabinet  com- 
posed of  three  Labor  Ministers  and  two  National- 
ist leaders  was  established  to  supervise  all  war 
activities  and  preparations.  It  consisted  of  Prime 
Minister  Fraser,  Finance  Minister  Nash,  Defense 
Minister  Jones,  Adam  Hamilton,  leader  of  the 
Nationalist  party,  and  former  Prime  Minister  Jo- 


seph Coates  (Nationalist).  All  other  matters  were 
left  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  regular  Labor 
Cabinet,  with  the  Prime  Minister  co-ordinating 
the  activities  of  both  bodies. 

This  arrangement  achieved  unity  between  the 
Labor  and  Nationalist  parties  on  prosecution  of 
the  war,  but  it  widened  the  breach  within  Labor's 
ranks.  Late  in  October  the  radical  faction  seceded 
from  the  Labor  party.  On  October  28  it  adopted  a 
platform  calling  for  nationalization  of  credit  and 
currency,  state  loans  to  farms  and  industry,  use  of 
"debt  free"  money  for  development  purposes,  re- 
organization of  the  economic  system  especially 
through  industrialization  to  reduce  the  country's 
dependence  upon  agriculture,  and  an  extension  of 
State  aid  to  individuals  in  the  form  of  family  al- 
lowances, professional  training,  and  a  basic  wage. 

The  Nationalist  party  on  November  26  elected 
Sidney  G.  Holland  to  succeed  Adam  Hamilton  as 
its  leader  and  co-representative  on  the  War  Cabi- 
net. On  December  16  Minister  of  Agriculture 
Martin  and  the  new  Minister  of  Marine,  Dr.  R. 
D.  McMillan,  resigned  from  the  government  on 
grounds  of  ill  health.  They  were  replaced  by  J.  G. 
Barclay  and  A.  H.  Nordmeyer,  respectively,  both 
nominees  of  a  Labor  party  caucus 

War  Measures.  On  February  24  the  National 
Committee  of  the  Labor  party  and  the  National 
Council  of  the  Federation  of  Labor  issued  a  state- 
ment condemning  any  form  of  military  conscrip- 
tion. But  the  successful  German  offensive  on  the 
Western  Front  caused  the  abandonment  of  this 
long-cherished  Labor  principle.  A  special  session 
of  Parliament  on  June  1  £ave  the  government 
complete  authority  to  mobilize  all  persons  and 
property  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war. 

To  conserve  manpower  for  national  service,  the 
government  on  June  17  forbade  all  married  men 
and  all  single  men  of  military  age  to  leave  the 
country.  Two  days  later  decrees  were  issued, 
under  the  powers  granted  June  1,  instituting  com- 
pulsory military  service  both  at  home  and  abroad 
for  all  men  over  16,  effective  July  23;  empower- 
ing the  Reserve  Bank  to  acquire  all  gold,  foreign 
securities,  and  foreign  exchange;  providing  for  a 
compulsory  war  loan ;  giving  the  government  wide 
powers  for  the  mobilization  of  industry;  and  es- 
tablishing an  advisory  council  to  draft  war  pro- 
duction plans. 

Strengthened  by  wide  popular  support,  the  gov- 
ernment made  increasing  use  of  its  emergency 
powers  throughout  the  year.  On  March  11  it  as- 
sumed control  of  all  port  activity  in  Auckland 
after  a  strike  of  dock  loaders  had  held  up  shipping 
for  four  days.  Gasoline  rationing  was  re-intro- 
duced February  1  with  the  objective  of  cutting 
consumption  30  per  cent,  conserving  dollar  ex- 
change, and  building  up  a  gasoline  reserve.  The 
foreign  exchange  and  import  control  systems  were 
tightened  up  for  the  second  half  of  1940.  Virtually 
all  forms  of  taxation  were  heavily  increased.  Com- 
munists and  other  anti-war  or  subversive  elements 
were  dismissed  from  the  public  services,  begin- 
ning in  June.  A  religious  sect  known  as  Jehovah's 
Witnesses  was  banned  as  subversive  on  October 
25.  Successive  drafts  of  men  were  called  to  the 
colors  for  both  overseas  and  home  service.  On  Oc- 
tober 5  the  Finance  Minister  announced  that  15,- 
000  individuals  and  3000  corporations  would  be 
obliged  to  subscribe  to  a  non-interest-bearing  war 
loan.  The  amounts  of  their  subscriptions  were 
fixed  on  the  basis  of  income  tax  payments  for  the 
year  ended  Mar.  31,  1939. 


NEW  ZEALAND 


559 


NICARAGUA 


The  government  made  new  contracts  with  the 
British  Government  for  the  sale  of  New  Zealand's 
surpluses  of  wool,  meat,  butter,  and  cheese.  In- 
creasing concentration  on  war  projects  and  indus- 
tries caused  a  reduction  in  employment  on  normal 
public  works  schemes  from  25,000  in  1939  to  9000 
in  November,  1940.  At  the  request  of  the  British 
Government,  some  14,000  acres  of  linen  flax  were 
planted  for  the  fabrication  of  war  equipment.  In 
connection  with  the  planned  expansion  of  industry, 
the  project  for  training  skilled  labor  and  techni- 
cians was  extended.  At  the  same  time  the  govern- 
ment continued  its  program  of  low-cost  housing; 
enacted  in  December  the  Small  Farms  Act  pro- 
viding for  settlement  of  war  veterans  on  the  land 
after  the  conflict;  and  prepared  to  establish  in 
1941  its  program  of  free  national  medical  care, 
despite  the  vigorous  opposition  of  the  medical  as- 
sociation. 

War  costs  were  estimated  at  £37,500,000  for 
1940-41 ,  or  73  per  cent  of  the  estimated  revenues. 
The  Prime  Minister  on  September  5  estimated 
that  as  a  result  of  the  war  New  Zealand's  con- 
sumption of  goods  would  decline  to  the  equivalent 
of  $570,000,000  in  1940  from  $655,000,000  in  1939. 
Some  outstanding  developments  in  the  economic 
field  were  the  substantial  improvement  in  foreign 
exchange  reserves,  continued  business  activity  par- 
ticularly in  retail  buying,  and  an  increase  in  prices 
that  led  the  Arbitration  Court  on  August  13  to 
raise  wages  5  per  cent.  This  wage  rise  led  the 
farmers  to  demand  higher  government-guaranteed 
prices  for  dairy  and  other  farm  products.  To  pre- 
vent the  development  of  a  disastrous  inflationary 
movement  of  wages  and  prices,  the  Prime  Minis- 
ter called  a  conference  of  business,  labor,  farm, 
and  government  leaders  to  consider  price  control, 
rationing,  and  family  allowance  schemes. 

A  new  system  of  industrial  control,  announced 
October  26,  was  designed  to  increase  production 
and  eliminate  unnecessary  competition.  Prices  of 
bread,  milk,  and  gasoline  were  regulated  and  the 
transportation  system  was  further  co-ordinated 

Military  Contribution,  Between  the  outbreak 
of  war  and  the  termination  of  the  voluntary  re- 
cruiting system  on  July  22,  1940,  enlistments  for 
overseas  service  in  the  army,  navy,  and  air  force 
totaled  80,340  (army,  63,740;  navy,  2600;  air 
force,  14,000).  The  enlistment  rate  was  twice  that 
of  1914-18.  The  first  contingent  of  troops  sent 
overseas  landed  in  Egypt  early  in  February  Other 
contingents  followed  at  intervals  during  the  year. 
Mobilization  of  the  Dominion's  Fourth  Army  for 
foreign  service  began  on  October  2.  By  the  end 
of  1940,  1465  pilots,  observers,  and  air  gunners 
had  been  sent  overseas,  part  of  them  to  Canada 
for  advanced  training.  Flying  personnel,  exclusive 
of  ground  forces,  increased  from  700  on  Sept  1, 
1939,  to  5120  a  year  later  and  a  further  increase  of 
1800  men  was  provided  for  when  the  peak  of  the 
training  program  was  reached.  In  addition,  the 
people  of  New  Zealand  subscribed  a  fund  of  $500,- 
000  for  the  purchase  of  fighting  planes  for  Brit- 
ain's Royal  Air  Force,  and  another  $5,000,000  fund 
was  raised  for  the  relief  of  British  civilians  and 
for  other  patriotic  purposes. 

Large  home  defense  forces  were  raised  in  addi- 
tion to  those  training  for  overseas  service.  The 
Territorial  force  was  brought  to  war  strength 
through  application  of  the  draft.  In  mid-Septem- 
ber men  not  serving  in  regular  military  units  were 
enrolled  in  the  newly  organized  Home  Guard,  de- 
signed to  serve  as  a  patrol  and  reserve  force.  Forty 


thousand  out  of  the  200,000  men  to  be  inducted  in 
the  Home  Guard  were  enrolled  before  the  end  of 
the  year. 

Empire  and  Foreign  Relations.  While  ex- 
tending unreserved  support  to  the  mother  country, 
the  Dominion  also  moved  during  1940  to  strength- 
en its  collaboration  with  both  Australia  and  the 
United  States.  A  mission  under  the  Minister  of 
Supply  was  sent  to  Australia  in  June  to  obtain 
munitions  and  other  war  material  and  to  arrange 
for  closer  co-operation  of  Australian  and  New 
Zealand  naval  forces.  The  opening  late  in  July  of 
the  Pan  American  Airways  clipper  service  be- 
tween San  Francisco  and  Auckland,  N.Z.,  via  Hon- 
olulu, Canton  Island,  and  Noumea  in  New  Cale- 
donia, served  no  less  than  Japan's  adherence  to  the 
Rome-Berlin  axis  to  stimulate  the  movement  for 
joint  action  with  the  United  States  in  Pacific  af- 
fairs. Supported  by  the  Prime  Minister  and  many 
leading  citizens,  the  British-American  Co-opera- 
tion Movement  for  World  Peace  was  launched  at 
Wellington  August  16.  Its  first  objective  was  a 
Pacific  peace  pact  between  the  United  States  and 
the  British  Empire,  with  provision  for  the  admis- 
sion of  other  nations.  A  United  States-New  Zea- 
land conciliation  treaty  was  signed  September  15. 

A  state  of  war  with  Italy  was  declared  in  effect 
immediately  after  the  latter's  attack  upon  France, 
and  many  Italians  in  New  Zealand  were  interned. 

Centenary  Celebrations.  A  series  of  cere- 
monies commemorating  the  100th  anniversary  of 
the  settlement  of  New  Zealand  was  held  during 
1940.  Lord  Willingdon,  special  representative  of 
the  British  Government,  on  January  22  dedicated 
the  Hall  of  Memories  on  the  foreshore  at  Well- 
ington where  the  first  settlers  landed  Jan.  22, 1840. 
On  February  6  was  celebrated  at  Waitangi  the 
100th  anniversary  of  the  signing  of  Treaty  of 
Waitangi  by  the  British  settlers  and  the  Maoris 
Up  to  July  22,  when  voluntary  recruiting  ceased, 
4103  Maoris,  or  more  than  40  per  cent  of  those  of 
eligible  age,  had  enlisted  in  the  Maori  battalion  of 
the  New  Zealand  Expeditionary  Force. 

See  AUSTRALIA  and  GREAT  BRITAIN  under  His- 
tory; BIRTH  CONTROL;  FAIRS,  EXPOSITIONS,  AND 
CELEBRATIONS  ;  LABOR  CONDITIONS 

NIAGARA  FALLS  BRIDGE.  See  BRIDGES. 

NICARAGUA.  The  largest  in  area  of  the  Cen- 
tral American  republics  Capital,  Managua. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  49,500  square 
miles ;  estimated  population  in  1940, 1,133,572  Chief 
cities  (1938  estimates):  Managua,  70,000;  Le6n, 
32,669;  Granada,  21,172;  Masaya,  15,000;  Mata- 
galpa,  5200.  The  people  are  mainly  of  Spanish,  In- 
dian, or  mixed  blood,  but  there  is  a  considerable 
infusion  of  West  Indian  Negroes  on  the  east  coast. 
U.S.  citizens  residing  in  Nicaragua  on  Jan.  1, 1940, 
numbered  576. 

Defense.  The  American-trained  National  Guard 
had  an  active  personnel  of  3538  and  a  trained  re- 
serve of  4000  on  Nov.  1,  1939.  The  air  force  con- 
sisted of  44  men  and  a  few  planes.  The  navy  com- 
prises a  small  number  of  coastal  patrol  boats.  A 
new  military  academy  was  established  in  1940  (see 
History). 

Education  and  Religion.  About  60  per  cent  of 
all  adults  are  illiterate.  In  1938  there  were  630 
State  primary  schools,  2  normal,  13  private  sec- 
ondary, 5  professional,  and  various  other  schools, 
with  an  enrollment  of  about  49,000,  besides  three 
universities  and  a  new  military  academy.  Roman 
Catholicism  is  the  dominant  religion  but  other 
faiths  have  religious  freedom. 


NICARAGUA 


560 


NICKEL 


Production.  Agriculture,  cattle  raising,  lumber- 
ing, manufacturing  for  local  consumption,  and  gold 
and  silver  mining  are  the  chief  occupations.  Gold 
production  in  1940  reached  about  $5,600,000,  the 
highest  value  in  Nicaraguan  history;  it  exceeded 
the  value  of  coffee  exports  by  about  $3,500,000. 
Gold  accounted  for  42.2  per  cent  of  the  1939  ex- 
ports; coffee,  31.8  per  cent.  Coffee  exports  (1939) 
were  17,416,000  kilos  (kilo  equals  2.2  Ib.) ;  banan- 
as, 1,713,000  stems;  lumber,  17,360,000  sq.  ft.;  cot- 
ton, 1,246,000  kilos;  livestock,  13,000  head;  hides 
and  skins,  239,000  kilos;  sugar,  3,248,000  kilos. 
Cacao,  beans,  plantains,  rice,  tobacco,  corn,  and 
yucca  are  grown  for  local  consumption.  There  are 
coffee  cleaning  and  sugar  grinding  mills. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1939  were  $6,364,- 
891  ($5,119,579  in  1938);  exports,  $8,300,972 
($5,884,154).  The  favorable  trade  balance  in  1939 
was  one  of  the  largest  on  record.  Value  of  chief 
1939  exports :  Gold,  $3,503,000 ;  coffee,  $2,640,000 ; 
bananas,  $654,000 ;  lumber,  $363,000 ;  cotton,  $253,- 
000.  The  United  States  supplied  68.4  per  cent  of 
the  1939  imports  (Germany,  122)  and  took  77.5 
per  cent  of  the  exports  (Germany,  10.9).  See 
TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  have  shown  a  marked 
increase  from  6,340,000  cordobas  in  the  1937-38 
fiscal  year  to  20,281,000  for  1939-40.  The  public 
debt  on  Jan.  31,  1940,  totaled  7,253,139  gold  cordo- 
bas (8,177,766  on  Jan.  31,  1939),  excluding  the 
$2,000,000  credit  obtained  from  the  Export-Import 
Bank  of  Washington  Nov.  15,  1939.  The  average 
exchange  rate  of  the  cordoba  in  1939  was :  Official, 
$0.20  ($0.2193  in  1938)  ;  curb,  $0.1869  ($0.1832  for 
June  10-Dec.  31,  1938). 

Transportation,  etc.  In  1939  Nicaragua  had 
386  miles  of  railway  line  and  25  miles  under  con- 
struction ;  about  1670  miles  of  roads,  many  im- 
passable in  wet  weather ;  5  local  and  1  international 
(Pan  American  Airways)  air  services;  and  ship- 
ping services  from  Connto  and  San  Juan  del  Sur 
on  the  west  coast  and  from  Bluefields,  Cabo  Graci- 
as,  Puerto  Cabezas,  and  San  Juan  del  Norte  on  the 
east  coast.  The  Pacific  Railway  (net  income,  1,292,- 
956  cordobas  in  193&-39)  is  the  chief  line.  It  was 
completely  nationalized  on  Nov.  7,  1939. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  Mar.  22, 
1939,  vested  executive  powers  in  a  President  elect- 
ed for  eight  years  and  legislative  powers  in  a  par- 
liament of  two  chambers — a  Senate  of  15  elected 
members  with  all  ex-Presidents  serving  ex  officio, 
and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies  of  42  elected  members. 
The  terms  of  Senators  and  Deputies  is  six  years. 
President  in  1940,  Gen.  Anastasio  Somoza.  He  as- 
sumed office  Jan.  1,  1937,  for  a  four-year  term, 
was  re-elected  by  a  Constituent  Assembly  Mar.  23, 
1939,  and  inaugurated  for  an  eight-year  term  Mar. 
30,  1939. 

History.  Having  in  1939  obtained  a  new  lease 
on  power  until  1947  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  573), 
President  Somoza  during  1940  carried  forward  his 
vigorous  internal  and  foreign  policies  with  little 
opposition.  Twelve  alleged  Communists  were  ar- 
rested February  29  on  charges  of  distributing  sub- 
versive handbills  and  in  mid-March  eight  of  them 
were  exiled  to  Little  Corn  Island  off  the  east  coast. 
A  shake-up  of  key  government  officials  occurred 
November  12.  Gen.  Rigoberto  Reyes,  former  Chief 
of  Staff  of  the  National  Guard,  resigned  as  Deputy 
Minister  of  War.  A  decree  of  November  18  called 
for  the  immediate  return  of  arms  and  other  gov- 
ernment property  held  by  private  individuals.  A 
protracted  drought  added  to  the  high  cost  of  basic 


foodstuffs  and,  together  with  the  exceptionally  low 
prices  received  for  coffee  exports,  further  de- 
pressed the  low  living  standard  of  the  working 
classes.  The  state  of  economic  emergency  was  ex- 
tended for  another  year  when  the  time  limit  ex- 
pired Sept.  28,  1940. 

Economic  rehabilitation  measures  carried  into 
effect  included  the  engagement  of  a  Chilean  eco- 
nomic expert  to  recommend  steps  for  improving 
the  country's  economic  organization ;  the  allotment 
of  10  per  cent  of  all  municipal  revenues  for  public 
health  measures;  the  financing  of  farmers  in  the 
purchase  of  agricultural  machinery ;  the  announce- 
ment that  an  agricultural  school  would  be  estab- 
lished near  Managua ;  a  30  per  cent  increase  in  the 
salaries  of  government  employees  (announced  April 
22)  for  the  purpose  of  offsetting  increases  in  living 
costs;  and  the  establishment  on  January  15  of  a 
Legal  Technical  Financial  Commission  to  prepare 
a  general  plan  for  reorganization  of  the  financial 
and  tax  system,  draft  bills  to  put  it  into  effect,  etc. 
Acceptance  of  the  Commission's  plan  was  an- 
nounced in  November.  Administrative  control  of 
the  affairs  of  the  National  District  of  Managua 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  newly  created  Minis- 
try of  the  National  District  early  in  1940. 

The  new  military  academy  planned  in  1939  was 
opened  Feb.  2,  1940,  with  Maj.  Charles  L.  Mullins, 
Jr.,  U.S.A.,  as  director.  He  was  commissioned  a 
colonel  in  the  Nicaraguan  army  A  workmen's 
clubhouse,  one  of  the  finest  in  Central  America, 
was  presented  by  President  Somoza  to  the  Nicara- 
guan Labor  Congress  at  its  organization  meeting 
in  Managua  on  January  1.  A  Presidential  decree 
of  November  30  required  all  employers  to  give 
their  employees  one  day's  rest  a  week. 

In  January  the  opposition  of  Costa  Rica  (q.v.) 
to  the  Nicaraguan-United  States  project  for  ca- 
nalizing the  San  Juan  River  was  overcome  and  a 
treaty  authorizing  its  construction  was  signed  on 
April  5.  Members  of  the  U  S.  Army  Engineers 
Corps,  at  the  request  of  the  Nicaraguan  Govern- 
ment, completed  a  survey  of  the  barge  canal  route 
(from  the  Atlantic  to  Lake  Nicaragua)  on  April 
13.  The  project  would  provide  cheap  transportation 
for  large  agricultural  areas  in  both  Nicaragua  and 
Costa  Rica.  It  could  be  expanded  into  a  unit  of  the 
trans-Nicaraguan  ship  canal  if  the  United  States 
decided  to  carry  out  that  project.  See  WATERWAYS, 
INLAND. 

Continuing  its  close  co-operation  with  Washing- 
ton on  inter-American  defense  policies,  the  Ma- 
nagua Government  joined  with  the  other  Central 
American  republics  in  rejecting  a  note  from  the 
German  Minister  warning  against  unneutral  ac- 
tions at  the  Havana  Conference  (see  PAN  AMERI- 
CANISM). Many  prominent  Germans  were  reported 
to  have  taken  out  Nicaraguan  citizenship  papers  in 
May.  On  September  19  President  Somoza  flatly 
denied  reports  that  Little  Corn  Island  was  a  hot- 
bed of  Nazi  intrigue.  The  publication  or  reproduc- 
tion of  anti-democratic  news  or  propaganda  was 
prohibited  on  October  29.  In  celebration  of  the  re- 
election of  President  Roosevelt,  a  two-day  holidav 
was  decreed  by  President  Somoza  on  November  6. 

For  the  status  of  the  Honduran -Nicaraguan 
boundary  dispute,  see  HONDURAS  under  History. 

NICKEL.  Increased  war  demand  in  1940  was 
responsible  for  the  sale  of  more  nickel  than  in  any 
previous  year.  The  largest  factor  in  the  industry, 
International  Nickel  Co.,  Canada,  operated  its 
mines  and  refineries  continuously.  Exports  from 
Canada  were  closely  controlled,  and  none  permitted 


NIGER 


561 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


to  any  destination  outside  the  British  Empire  with- 
out sanction  by  the  Canadian  and  British  Govern- 
ments. 

The  steel  industry  in  1940  accounted  for  over  50 
per  cent  nickel  consumption.  The  second  largest 
market  was  in  the  nickel-copper  alloys— nickel 
silver,  Monel,  Inconel,  and  malleable  nickel.  The 
customary  statistics  on  production  and  data  on  dis- 
tribution were  omitted  in  1940.  The  versatility  of 
nickel  as  a  material  of  construction  is  evidenced  by 
its  application  in  the  automotive  industry,  farm  im- 
plements, aviation,  petroleum,  chemicals,  pulp  and 
paper,  food  processing,  and  household  equipment. 

H.  C.  PARMELEE. 

NIGER.  See  FRENCH  WEST  AFRICA. 

NIGERIA.  A  British  West  African  colony 
(1381  sq  mi.)  and  protectorate  (includes  British 
Cameroons).  Total  area,  372,599  square  miles;  to- 
tal population  (Jan.  1,  1939),  20,582,947.  Chief 
towns  (1938  populations)  :  Ibadan  (234,691),  La- 
gos, the  capital  (158,500),  Kano  (80,944),  Abeo- 
kuta  (69,500),  Oyo  (64,501). 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  products  (1939 
export  values  in  parentheses)  :  tin  ore  (£2,310,- 
929),  palm  kernels  (£1,872,674),  cacao  (£1,771,- 
401),  groundnuts  (£1,066,948),  palm  oil  (£929,451), 
hides  and  skins  (£711,033).  Other  products:  gold, 
coal,  silver-lead  ore,  columbite,  wolfram,  bananas, 
ghee,  ginger,  tobacco,  maize,  rice,  mahogany,  man- 
ganese, and  monazite.  Livestock  (1938)  •  2,936,000 
cattle,  2,188,000  sheep,  5,630,000  goats,  476,000 
asses,  173,000  horses,  168,000  swine,  and  2000  cam- 
els. Trade  (1939):  imports,  £6,492,000;  exports, 
£10.236,000 

Communications.  Railways  (1938-39)  :  1903 
miles  of  main  line,  6,707,417  passengers  and  676,- 
855  tons  of  freight  carried.  Roads  (1939)  :  21,277 
miles,  including  7420  miles  of  dry-season  roads 
Shipping  aggregating  2,272,412  tons  entered  the 
ports  during  1938.  Work  was  continued  on  improv- 
ing the  principal  airports  and  construction  was 
under  way  on  various  new  airports. 

Government.  Finance  (1939-40)  •  The  deficit 
for  the  year  was  estimated  at  £550,000.  Nigeria, 
including  the  British  Cameroons  attached  to  the 
protectorate  for  administrative  purposes,  is  under 
the  control  of  a  governor  assisted  by  an  executive 
council.  There  is  a  legislative  council  for  the  col- 
ony and  the  southern  provinces  of  the  protectorate. 
The  governor  has  the  power  to  legislate  for  the 
protectorate's  northern  provinces.  Governor  and 
Commander-in -Chief,  Sir  Bernard  Bourdillon. 

History.  Following  the  collapse  of  France  in 
June,  1940.  military  training  of  all  British  Euro- 
peans in  Nigeria  up  to  40  years  of  age  was  made 
compulsory.  Air-raid  services  were  organized  and 
a  black-out  instituted.  A  well-trained  and  equipped 
force  of  Nigerian  troops  was  sent  to  Kenya  to 
serve  with  South  African  and  other  British  Afri- 
can units  against  the  Italians  in  Italian  East  Af- 
rica. See  ERUOPEAN  WAR  under  African  Cam- 
paigns. 

NIGHTINGALE  ISLAND.  See  BRITISH 
EMPIRE  under  St.  Helena. 

NITROGEN.  See  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL; 
FERTILIZERS 

NLRB.  See  NATIONAL  LABOR  RELATIONS 
BOARD. 

NOBEL  PRIZES.  The  Swedish  Aftonbladet 
stated  in  October  that  no  Nobel  prizes  would  be 
awarded  by  the  Committee  during  1940  and  that 
the  prize  money  would  be  reserved  for  the  follow- 


ing year.  The  possibility  of  awarding  the  Peace 
Prize  was  virtually  eliminated  also,  since  the 
award  is  made  by  the  Norwegian  Parliament  and 
Parliament  had  been  dissolved  as  a  result  of  the 
German  occupation.  The  Peace  Prize  has  been 
withheld  eight  times  since  the  awards  were  initi- 
ated in  1901. 

A  New  York  Times  dispatch  from  Stockholm 
(Oct.  13,  1940)  cited  Oslo  rumors  that  the  Nor- 
wegian Nobel  Prize  Committee's  bank  account, 
blocked  by  the  Germans  some  time  previously, 
would  be  seized  permanently  or  might  be  trans- 
ferred back  to  the  Swedish  Nobel  Prize  Founda- 
tion. The  same  dispatch  reported  rumors  that  the 
German  and  Norwegian  secret  police  were  exam- 
ining prominent  Norwegians  responsible  for  the 
award  of  the  1938  Peace  Prize  to  the  imprisoned 
German  pacifist,  Carl  von  Ossietzky. 

NON-AGGRESSION  PACTS.  See  INTER- 
NATIONAL LAW  under  treaties  for  a  list.  See  also 
articles  on  the  countries. 

NON-FEDERATED  MALAY  STATES. 
Same  as  Unfederated  Malay  States.  See  under 
BRITISH  MALAYA 

NORFOLK  ISLAND.  See  AUSTRALIA. 

NORTH  AMERICA.  Excluding  Mexico  and 
Central  America,  the  continent  has  an  area  of 
about  7,591,490  square  miles  and  a  population  esti- 
mated at  142,300,000  on  Dec.  31,  1938  See  separate 
articles  on  ALASKA,  CANADA,  and  its  provinces, 
NEWFOUNDLAND,  UNITED  STATES,  and  the  48 
States ;  also  ARCHAEOLOGY,  EXPLORATION,  ETC. 

NORTH  CAROLINA.  Area,  52,426  square 
miles ;  includes  water,  3686  square  miles  Popula- 
tion (U.S.  Census),  April,  1940,  3,571,623;  1930, 
3,170,276.  Charlotte  (1940),  100,899;  Raleigh  (the 
capital),  46,897.  The  State's  whole  population 
gained  (1930-40)  401,347;  the  rural  population 
rose  by  237,019,  to  2,597,448 ;  the  urban  (dwelling 
in  places  of  2500  or  more)  by  164,328,  to  974,175. 

Agriculture.  Farmers  harvested,  in  1940,  6,462,- 
000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Tobacco,  on  511,- 
800  acres,  gave  506,820,000  lb.;  in  value  on  the 
farm,  about  $86,524.000.  Corn,  2,418,000  acres, 
grew  44,733,000  bu.  ($32,208,000) ;  cotton,  833,000 
acres,  740,000  bales  ($35,150,000) ;  tame  hay,  1,148,- 
000  acres,  975,000  tons  ($13,942,000) ;  peanuts,  255,- 
000  acres,  325,125,000  lb.  ($11,379,000) ;  potatoes, 
80,000  acres,  8,720,000  bu.  ($5,319,000) ;  sweet  po- 
tatoes, 74,000  acres,  7,104,000  bu  ($5,328,000) ; 
wheat,  438,000  acres,  6,132,000  bu.  ($5,641,000)  ; 
oats,  248,000  acres,  5,952,000  bu.  ($3,036,000). 
Farms  numbered  278,276  in  1940  and  averaged 
67.7  acres. 

Manufactures.  North  Carolina  manufactured 
products  to  the  yearly  value  of  $1,420,638,883 
(1939)  ;  $1,384,737,686  (1937).  Related  totals  for 
1939  follow  (each  accompanied  by  that  for  1937 
in  parenthesis) :  3223  (2896)  establishments,  em- 
ploying 270,042  (258,771)  persons  for  wages  of 
$199,158,957  ($189,265,474),  paid  for  material,  etc. 
and  contract  work  $874,940,925  ($908,903,243),  and 
added  to  material  by  manufacture  $545,697,958 
($475,834,443). 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1938-39 
(latest  for  data  below),  inhabitants  of  school  age 
(from  6  years  to  21)  were  reckoned  at  1,121,912. 
Pupils'  enrollments  in  all  public  schools  numbered 
892,543:  in  elementary  study,  698,520;  in  high 
school,  194,023.  Year's  current  expenditure  for  pub- 
lic schools,  $30,459,626.  Teachers  and  principals 
numbered  25,776;  among  these,  the  teachers  re- 
ceived salaries  averaging  $860. 


NORTH  DAKOTA 


562 


NORTHWEST  TERRITORIES 


History.  North  Carolina's  economic  situation 
continued  fairly  satisfactory  despite  disturbance  to 
some  elements  of  the  industries  in  tobacco  and 
textiles  by  reason  of  interrupted  trade  with  Eu- 
rope. The  State  did  not  welcome  the  presence  of 
William  Dudley  Pelley,  leader  of  the  reputedly 
fascistic  Silver  Shirt  movement,  who  became  par- 
ticularly conspicuous  early  in  the  year  in  connec- 
tion with  maneuvers  at  Washington  having  to  do 
with  the  Dies  Committee  (q.v.).  His  extradition 
was  sought  in  Washington,  that  he  might  be 
brought  to  North  Carolina  and  punished  for  breach 
of  parole.  He  was  at  the  time  under  a  suspended 
sentence  of  imprisonment  imposed  some  years  be- 
fore on  conviction  for  stock  fraud ;  the  authorities 
were  said  to  regard  his  behavior  as  subversive  and 
therefore  not  in  accord  with  the  terms  of  his  parole 

The  U.S.  Supreme  Court  voided  (December  23) 
the  State's  tax  of  $250  on  outside  merchants'  dis- 
plays of  goods  for  retail  custom. 

A  committee  of  34  historians  and  antiquarians 
undertook  a  study  of  the  "Dare  stones/'  a  series 
of  inscribed  stones  and  rocks  purporting  to  tell  of 
the  wanderings  and  fate  of  members  of  the  lost 
colony  of  Roanoke,  sent  to  the  Carolina  coast  by 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  Some  of  the  stones  had  been 
collected  at  Brenau  College  in  Gainesville;  since 
the  first  report  of  such  a  stone  in  1937  the  number 
of  the  finds  had  mounted,  according  to  accounts 
in  the  press,  to  46.  Dr.  Thomas  English  of  Emory 
University  issued  a  statement  for  the  committee, 
that  the  preponderance  of  evidence  yet  noted  point- 
ed to  the  stones'  authenticity  but  that  further  study 
must  precede  a  conclusion.  Some  of  the  finds  were 
made  by  hunters  or  hikers  Others  reportedly 
turned  up  in  frequented  spots,  one  in  the  founda- 
tion of  a  barn,  having  previously  been  part  of  a 
grist  mill.  Some  appeared  along  the  Chattahoochee 
River;  thirteen,  near  the  Saluda  River  in  South 
Carolina.  The  series  gave  details  of  a  romance-like 
wandering  of  Virginia  Dare  and  other  colonists, 
in  the  hands  of  Indians,  of  Virginia's  becoming  the 
wife  of  an  Indian,  and  the  birth  of  her  Indian 
child.  One  purported  to  mark  her  grave.  Many 
took  the  form  of  messages  and  clues  for  hoped- 
for  searchers.  Skeptics  recalled  unconvincingly  fre- 
quent finds  of  seeming  relics  of  early  white  wan- 
derers in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

Elections.  The  popular  vote  for  President  (No- 
vember 5)  totaled  609,015  for  Roosevelt  (Dem.) 
and  213,633  for  Willkie  (Rep.).  J.  M.  Broughton 
(Dem.),  608,744  votes,  was  elected  Governor,  de- 
feating Robert  H.  McNeill  (Rep.),  195,402  votes. 
Eleven  Democrats,  all  incumbents  with  one  excep- 
tion, were  elected  U.S.  Representatives. 

Officers.  North  Carolina's  chief  officers,  serving 
in  1940,  were:  Governor.  Clyde  R.  Hoey  (Dem.)  ; 
Lieutenant  Governor,  Wilkins  P.  Horton;  Secre- 
tary of  State,  Thad  Eure ;  Treasurer,  Charles  M. 
Johnson;  Auditor,  George  Ross  Pou;  Attorney 
General,  Harry  McMullan:  Superintendent  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction,  Clyde  A,  Erwin. 

NORTH  DAKOTA.  Area,  70,837  square 
miles ;  includes  water,  654  square  miles.  Population 
(U.S.  Census),  April,  1940,  641,935,  1930,  680,- 
845.  Bismarck,  the  capital,  15,496  (1940).  While 
the  State's  whole  population  decreased  (1930-40) 
by  38,910,  the  urban  group  (dwellers  in  places  of 
2500  or  more)  increased  by  18,617,  to  131,923,  the 
rural  group  diminishing  by  57,527,  to  510,012. 

Agriculture.  Farmers  harvested  (1940)  16,917,- 
000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Wheat,  the  main 
crop,  on  8,293,000  acres,  bore  97,054,000  bu.,  esti- 


mated as  worth  $64,056,000  to  the  growers.  Corn, 
1,020,000  acres,  gave  24.480,000  bit  (about  $12,- 
240,000) ;  barley,  1,754,600  acres,  28,064,000  bit 
($8,139,000) ;  potatoes,  172.000  acres,  18,920,000 
bu.  ($7,190,000) ;  oats,  1,59^,000  acres,  33,432,000 
bu.  ($6,352,000) ;  flaxseed,  648.000  acres,  3,888,000 
bu.  ($4,782,000) ;  tame  hay,  975,000  acres,  1,109,- 
000  tons  ($4,048,000) ;  rye,  752,000  acres,  9,776,000 
bu.  ($2,933,000). 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40 
North  Dakota's  inhabitants  of  school  age  (from 
6  years  to  21)  were  reckoned  at  195,611.  The  year's 
enrollments  in  all  public  schools  numbered  139,- 
629 :  in  the  elementary  group,  105,734 ;  and  in  high 
school,  33,895.  The  year's  expenditure  for  public- 
school  education  totaled  $9,9/9,781.  The  teachers 
numbered  7361 ;  their  salaries  averaged  $722  yearly. 

History.  The  decline  in  the  number  of  North 
Dakota's  population  between  1930  and  1940,  as 
shown  in  the  Census,  revealed  that  one  in  ten  of 
the  rural  population  had  been  driven  out  by  hard 
times.  The  figures  did  not  of  themselves  neces- 
sarily point  to  an  adverse  future;  for  the  decline, 
as  commonly  interpreted,  had  resulted  from  a  com- 
bination of  dry  seasons  and  of  unremunerative 
prices  for  consequent  scanty  crops  in  the  early  and 
middle  thirties;  a  pair  of  afflictions  not  often  to 
be  faced  together.  North  Dakota's  rate  of  depopu- 
lation ran  a  little  higher  than  that  for  the  "dust- 
bowl"  States  as  a  whole;  but  the  end  of  ^the 
droughty  period  had  apparently  checked  emigration. 
There  were  even  reported  evidences  of  re-immi- 
gration of  farmers. 

A  joint  commission  recommended  (November  2) 
a  plan  of  accord  on  use  of  water  of  the  Souris  or 
Mouse  River,  in  Canada  and  North  Dakota. 

William  Langer,  after  years  of  ups  and  downs 
in  State  politics,  again  became  a  dominant  figure. 
He  had  been  convicted  of  unlawful  political  prac- 
tices in  1934  and  removed  from  office  as  Governor; 
had  won  a  reversal  of  his  conviction ;  had  been  re- 
elected  Governor  in  1936;  and  had  failed  to  win 
the  Republican  nomination  for  Senator  in  1938, 
largely  through  the  opposition  of  U.S.  Representa- 
tive William  Lemke.  In  1940  he  ran  again,  seeking 
the  seat  of  U.S.  Senator  Frazier,  won  the  Republi- 
can nomination,  and  was  elected  Senator,  Novem- 
ber 5,  by  100,647  votes,  defeating  William  Lemke, 
who  ran  as  an  independent  candidate,  polling  92,- 
593  votes,  and  Charles  J.  Vogel  (Dem  ),  69,847  votes. 

At  the  general  election  (November  5),  beside 
electing  Langer  to  the  U.S.  Senate,  the  voters  gave 
the  State  to  Willkie  (Rep.)  for  President,  by  154,- 
590  as  against  124,036  for  Roosevelt  (Dem.)  ; 
John  Moses  (Dem.)  was  re-elected  Governor,  de- 
feating Jack  A.  Patterson  (Rep.).  Two  Republi- 
cans were  elected  U.S.  Representatives. 

Officers.  North  Dakota's  chief  officers,  serving 
in  1940,  were:  Governor,  John  Moses  (Dem.); 
Lieutenant  Governor,  Jack  A.  Patterson;  Secre- 
tary of  State,  James  D.  Gronna;  Auditor,  Berta 
E.  Baker ;  Treasurer,  John  R.  Omland ;  Attorney 
General,  Alvin  C.  Strutz ;  Superintendent  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction,  Arthur  E.  Thompson. 

NORTH  EAST  NEW  GUINEA.  See  AUS- 
TRALIA under  Area  and  Population. 

NORTHERN  RHODESIA.  See  RHODESIA, 
NORTHERN. 

NORTHERN  TERRITORY.  See  AUSTRAL- 
IA under  Area  and  Population. 

NORTHWEST  TERRITORIES.  The  vast 
area  in  northern  Canada,  east  of  the  Yukon,  pro- 
visionally divided,  for  administrative  purposes,  into 


NORWAY 


563 


NORWAY 


the  districts  of  Franklin  (554.032  sq.  mi.),  Kee- 
watin  (228,160  sq.  mi.),  and  Mackenzie  (527,490 
sq.  mi.)*  Total  area,  1,309,682  square  miles;  popu- 
lation (1939  estimate),  10,000,  as  against  (1931 
census)  9723  (including  4670  Eskimos  and  4046 
Indians).  Fur  trapping  and  mining  are  the  chief 
occupations.  The  Eskimos  were  being  trained  to 
look  after  the  reindeer  herd  which  numbered  5000 
head  early  in  1940.  Mineral  production  (1939) 
was  valued  at  $3,248,777,  of  which  radium  and 
uranium  products  accounted  for  $1,121,553,  gold 
(51,914  fine  oz.)  $1,876,224,  and  silver  (483,874 
fine  oz.)  $195,911.  Small  amounts  of  copper,  natu- 
ral gas,  and  petroleum  were  produced.  Fur  produc- 
tion (1938-39)  was  valued  at  $1,205,600  ($1,311,- 
627  in  1937-38).  The  whole  area  is  governed  from 
Ottawa  by  a  territorial  council  consisting  of  a 
commissioner,  deputy  commissioner,  and  five  coun- 
cilors. Commissioner,  Charles  Camsell. 

History.  The  radium-bearing  pitchblende  de- 
posits are  at  Great  Bear  Lake  while  some  distance 
to  the  south  on  the  shores  of  Great  Slave  Lake  is 
the  gold-mining  district  of  Yellowknife  which  had 
a  population  of  1000  at  the  beginning  of  1940.  De- 
velopment was  continued  in  the  Yellowknife  field 
and  many  new  deposits  were  reported. 

NORWAY.  A  European  kingdom  occupying 
the  western  and  northern  part  of  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula ;  occupied  by  Germany  in  1940.  The  king- 
dom's sovereignty  included  Svalbard  (Spitsbergen 
and  adjacent  islands)  in  the  Arctic  Sea,  240  miles 
distant  from  the  Norwegian  coast;  also  Norway 
asserted  sovereignty  over  Jan  Mayen  Island  in  the 
Arctic  Sea,  uninhabited,  and  certain  uninhabited 
areas  in  the  Antarctic  region.  Capital,  Oslo. 

Area  and  Population.  Covering  an  area  of 
124,587  square  miles  (land  area,  119,148  square 
miles),  Norway  proper  had  2,937,000  inhabitants 
in  December,  1939,  by  official  estimate;  by  latest 
census,  2,814,194  in  1930.  Only  28  per  cent  of  the 
population  of  1930  were  classed  as  urban,  and  fe- 
males exceeded  males  by  about  71,000.  The  birth 
rate,  per  1000,  approximated  16  for  1939;  the  death 
rate,  10.1.  Populations  (1930)  of  chief  cities  •  Oslo, 
253,124;  Bergen,  98,303;  Trondheim  (Nidaros), 
54,458 ;  Stavanger,  46,780. 

Svalbard's  area,  24,294  square  miles ;  population, 
mainly  employees  of  coal  mines,  varies  seasonally, 
the  wintering  population  numbering  2316  in  1938- 
39.  This  area's  product,  coal,  totaled  626,516  tons 
for  1938. 

Education  and  Religion.  School  is  compulsory 
for  the  young  and  literacy  is  virtually  universal 
In  the  academic  year  1936-37,  public  elementary 
schools  numbered  5751 ;  their  pupils,  357,793 ;  sup- 
port for  these  schools  amounted  to  64,331,000  kro- 
ner, of  which  the  state  paid  27,572,000  and  local 
sources  the  remainder.  Secondary  schools  num- 
bered 149  (including  42  private  schools) ;  their  pu- 
pils, 25,357.  The  University  of  Oslo  provided  high- 
er education ;  it  had  4229  students  in  1939. 

The  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church,  under  the 
monarchy,  was  politically  established.  All  religions 
were  tolerated  (but  not  the  Jesuit  order).  Apart 
from  Evangelical  Lutherans,  persons  reporting  re- 
ligious affiliation  in  1930  numbered  91,459-  among 
them,  12,207  Methodists,  7788  Baptists,  3325  Ad- 
ventists,  and  2827  Roman  Catholics. 

Production.  In  normal  times  29  per  cent  of  the 
workers  followed  agriculture  or  forestry,  27  in- 
dustry, 10  commerce,  9  transportation,  7  fishing 
and  whaling,  5  professions  and  public  administra- 
tion. Production  of  the  chief  crops  in  1939  was 


thus  estimated,  in  bu.,  except  for  hay :  potatoes.  38,- 
143,895;  oats,  10,500,000;  barley.  5,316,800;  wheat, 
2.480,000 ;  hay.  2,537,395  tons.  The  value  of  all  ag- 
ricultural production  of  1938  was  estimated  to  ex- 
ceed 500,000,000  kroner.  The  catch  of  fish,  for 

1938,  attained  about  86,101,000  kroner;  of  whales, 
42,900,000  kroner.  Manufacturing  production  at- 
tained some  1,890,000,000  kroner  for  1938 ;  mines 
produced,  in  estimated  value,  180,741,000  kroner. 
An  important  part  of  the  country's  revenue  was 
normally  derived  from  the  operation  of  its  mer- 
chant fleet,  partly  in  the  country's  own  commerce 
and  partly  as  a  carrier  for  others'  trade.  Under  the 
Norwegian  flag  at  the  outset  of  1940  were  1590 
steamships,  making  1,758,000  gross  tons,  and  2737 
motorships,  3,083,000  gross  tons    The  merchant 
fleet's  earnings  of  1938  grossed  697,000,000  kroner 
and  1939's,  by  estimate,  800,000,000  or  more. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  of  1939  were  valued 
at  1,361,835,000  kroner;  exports,  at  808,172,000.  In 
1938  Germany  sent  219,781,000  kroner  of  the  Nor- 
wegian imports  and  took  121,509,000  of  the  ex- 
ports; Great  Britain,  193,295,000  and  193,910,000 
respectively. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  with  June 
30,  1940,  ordinary  revenue,  as  voted,  totaled  539,- 
074,000  kroner;  expenditure,  511,309,000.  Actual 
ordinary  receipts  and  expenditures  of  fiscal  year 

1939,  590,377,000  and  485,788,000.  Budget  proposals 
had  been  drawn  for  the  fiscal  year  1941,  shortly 
before  the  fall  of  the  kingdom  •  they  called  for 
660,694,000  kroner  of  current  revenue  and  674,088,- 
000  of  current  expenditure,  not  to  count  charges 
of  129,562,000  on  State  capital  and  capital  expendi- 
ture of  116,168,000.  Public  debt  totaled  1,528,400,- 
000  kroner  on  June  30,  1939;  of  the  amount,  for- 
eign debt  made  596,400,000.  The  unit  of  currency, 
the  krone,  made  stable  on  Aug.  29,  1939,  in  terms 
of  the  U  S.  dollar,  stood  thereafter  at  4.4  kroner 
to  the  dollar.  Previously  held  in  stable  relation  to 
the  pound  sterling,  its  value  in  U  S  money  aver- 
aged $0.2327  for  1939  and  $02457  for  1938. 

Transportation.  Norway  had  about  2500  miles 
of  railway  lines  in  operation  prior  to  German  oc- 
cupation of  the  country.  A  line  of  122  miles'  length, 
in  central  Norway,  from  Grong  to  Mosjoen,  under 
construction  previously,  was  reported  to  have  been 
opened  after  the  German  conquest  The  State  had 
owned  and  operated  most  of  the  railways.  They 
earned  gross  revenue  of  88,096,000  kroner  in  the 
fiscal  year  1939,  against  expenditures  of  99,686,000. 
Paved  highways  (1939)  totaled  25,699  miles.  Civil 
aviation  performed  (1938)  448,629  miles  of  flight; 
furnished  1,472,000  passenger-miles  of  travel;  and 
transported  260  metric  tons  of  material;  regular 
schedules  of  flight  applied  only  to  the  months  from 
May  to  September,  inclusive  The  Norwegian  mer- 
chant marine  was  the  fourth  largest  in  the  world ; 
see  under  Production,  above 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  May  17, 
1814,  as  amended,  vests  executive  power  in  the 
King  acting  through  a  cabinet  responsible  to  the 
Storting  (parliament)  Legislative  powers  rest  with 
the  Storting  of  150  members  elected  for  four  years 
by  universal  suffrage  The  Storting  divides  itself 
into  two  sections  of  38  and  114  members,  called  the 
Lagting  and  Odelsting  respectively.  Bills  affecting 
the  legal  position  of  Norwegian  subjects  are  con- 
sidered first  by  the  Odelsting,  then  by  the  Lagting, 
and  if  agreement  is  not  reached,  by  the  whole 
Storting.  Constitutional  amendments  require  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  the  whole  Storting.  All  other  bills 
are  dealt  with  by  the  whole  Storting  The  compo- 


NORWAY 


564 


NORWAY 


sition  of  the  Storting  elected  in  October,  1936, 
was:  Labor.  70;  Conservatives,  36;  Liberals,  23; 
Agrarians,  18 ;  others.  3.  Premier  in  1940,  Johan 
Nygaardsvold  (Labor),  heading  a  Labor  Govern- 
ment King  in  1940,  Haakon  VII,  who  was  elected 
by  the  Storting,  Nov.  18,  1905. 

HISTORY 

Despite  Norway's  strict  adherence  to  its  tradi- 
tional policy  of  neutrality  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939, 
p.  578),  the  kingdom  was  swept  into  the  vortex  of 
the  European  War  in  the  spring  of  1940,  after 
narrowly  escaping  involvement  in  the  Russo-Fmn- 
ish  conflict. 

Policy  Toward  Finland.  The  Norwegian  Gov- 
ernment followed  the  same  policy  as  Sweden  with 
respect  to  the  Russo-Finnish  conflict  (see  EUROPE- 
AN WAR  under  The  Finnish  Campaign ;  FINLAND 
and  SWEDEN  under  History).  It  permitted  con- 
tingents of  Norwegian  volunteers  to  fight  for  Fin- 
land. It  authorized  the  sale  of  Norwegian  war  sup- 
plies to  the  Finnish  Government  and  the  transit  of 
foreign  volunteers,  arms,  and  supplies  across  Nor- 
wegian territory  to  Finland.  Carloads  of  clothing 
and  food  and  additional  funds  were  donated  to  the 
Finns  by  Norwegian  relief  organizations.  These 
activities  provoked  a  Soviet  protest  to  the  Nor- 
wegian Government  on  January  5,  but  Oslo  denied 
that  they  violated  Norway's  obligations  as  a  neutral. 

The  Oslo  Government,  however,  on  February  16 
rejected  Finland's  appeal  for  aid  from  the  Nor- 
wegian army,  and  early  in  March  it  refused  re- 
peated Anglo-French  requests  for  permission  to 
send  troops  to  Finland  across  Norway.  This  stand 
was  based  on  the  German  threat  to  intervene  if 
Allied  troops  were  permitted  to  land  in  Norway. 
The  Norwegians  also  felt  that  the  Allies  were 
more  interested  in  securing  a  position  in  Scandina- 
via for  a  flank  attack  upon  Germany  than  in  aiding 
Finland.  Nevertheless  the  forced  capitulation  of 
Finland  on  March  12  as  a  result  of  the  Norwegian 
and  Swedish  policies  provoked  strong  criticism  of 
the  Oslo  Government  among  some  Norwegians. 
Terms  of  the  Russo-Finnish  peace  treaty  aroused 
fear  of  future  Soviet  military  and  economic  pene- 
tration into  Norway.  There  was  at  the  same  time 
strong  resentment  of  the  pro-Soviet  role  played  by 
the  small  Communist  movement  in  Norway  Dur- 
ing February  the  Oslo  press  launched  a  campaign 
for  suppression  of  the  Communist  party 

Strains  on  Neutrality.  In  his  address  to  the 
opening  session  of  the  Storting  on  January  12, 
King  Haakon  declared  the  government  would  make 
every  effort  to  defend  Norway's  neutrality  and 
that  military  and  naval  defenses  would  be  strength- 
ened with  that  end  in  view.  He  called  for  higher 
taxes  and  additional  loans  to  finance  the  defense 
program.  On  January  19  the  Storting  endorsed 
Premier  Nygaardsvold's  declaration  of  "absolute 
neutrality"  and  his  statement  that  any  attack  upon 
the  kingdom  would  be  met  by  armed  resistance. 

Nevertheless  infringements  of  Norway's  neu- 
trality by  Germany  and  the  Allies  became  more 
frequent.  Systematic  attacks  upon  neutral  ships  in 
the  North  Sea  by  Germany  accounted  for  the  loss 
of  55  Norwegian  ships  and  377  seamen  from  the 
start  of  the  war  to  Mar.  21,  1940.  During  the  first 
months  of  1940  repeated  protests  were  made  to 
Berlin  against  the  sinking  of  Norwegian  ships  and, 
in  some  cases,  the  machine-gunning  of  lifeboats 
from  these  ships  by  German  planes.  On  March  11 
the  German  Government  gave  assurances  that  ev- 
ery effort  would  be  made  to  respect  Norwegian 


ships  not  sailing  in  Allied  convoys,  but  additional 
sinkings  occurred. 

While  no  Norwegian  ships  or  sailors  were  lost 
through  Allied  action,  the  British  Government 
brought  increased  pressure  to  bear  upon  Norway  to 
reduce  the  supplies  reaching  Germany  through  that 
country  and  curtail  German  naval  and  merchant 
shipping  operations  in  Norwegian  territorial  wa- 
ters. By  entering  territorial  waters  in  the  far  north 
and  hugging  the  Norwegian  coast  on  their  voyages 
southward  to  Germany,  German  ships,  and  espe- 
cially freighters  carrying  iron  ore  from  the  Nor- 
wegian port  of  Narvik,  were  in  many  cases  able 
to  slip  through  the  British  blockade. 

The  Altmark  Incident.  On  the  night  of  Feb- 
ruary 16  the  British  destroyer  Cossack  entered 
Gjessingfjord  (Joesing  Fjord)  about  60  miles 
south  of  Stavanger  on  orders  of  the  British  Ad- 
miralty and  boarded  the  German  prison  ship  Alt- 
mark  that  was  returning  to  the  Reich  through 
Norwegian  territorial  waters.  Ten  members  of  the 
Altmark' s  crew  were  killed  or  wounded  in  hand- 
to-hand  fighting  and  299  British  sailors  imprisoned 
in  the  hold  were  released  and  taken  back  to  a  Brit- 
ish port.  The  rescued  sailors  had  been  captured 
from  seven  British  merchant  ships  sunk  by  the 
German  pocket  battleship  Graf  Spee  before  its  de- 
struction on  Dec.  17,  1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939, 
p  246). 

Germany  immediately  protested  to  Norway 
against  this  alleged  violation  of  Norwegian  neu- 
trality, threatened  reprisals,  and  demanded  com- 
pensation for  the  German  losses.  The  Oslo  Gov- 
ernment protested  vigorously  to  Great  Britain,  ask- 
ing the  return  of  the  Altmark  prisoners  and 
financial  amends.  The  London  Government  de- 
clined, stating  that  it  had  no  apologies  to  make  It 
charged  that  the  Altmark  was  a  war  vessel  operat- 
ing illegally  in  Norwegian  waters  and  asked  the 
Norwegian  Government  for  an  explanation  of  its 
failure  to  discover  the  captives  on  board  the  ship 
when  granting  the  Altmark  clearance.  The  British 
and  French  governments  threatened  to  police  Nor- 
wegian waters  to  prevent  their  use  by  German 
warships,  while  London  rejected  a  Norwegian  pro- 
posal for  arbitration  of  the  Altmark  case. 

Defense  Measures.  The  threatening  attitude  of 
both  Germany  and  Great  Britain  led  to  the  Copen- 
hagen Conference  of  the  Norwegian,  Danish,  and 
Swedish  Foreign  Ministers  on  February  25.  A  pro- 
gram for  the  joint  defense  of  their  neutrality  was 
decided  upon  (see  DENMARK  under  History).  The 
Norwegian  Labor  Government,  long  one  of  the 
most  pacifistic  in  Europe,  speeded  up  military  de- 
fense measures.  The  number  of  conscripts  called  to 
the  colors  was  increased  and  the  small  navy  ex- 
panded in  an  effort  to  patrol  the  coastal  waters. 

These  measures  were  undertaken  half-heartedly, 
however,  and  proved  to  be  too  late.  On  March  11 
Norway  concluded  a  war  trade  pact  with  Britain 
that  further  plugged  the  leaks  in  the  Allied  block- 
ade of  the  Reich.  Norway  was  allowed  to  import 
her  pre-war  tonnage  on  condition  that  the  tran- 
shipment of  oil,  copper,  and  food  to  Germany  was 
curtailed.  The  Allied  Supreme  Council  meeting  at 
the  end  of  March  apparently  determined  to  try  to 
prevent  iron-ore  shipments  from  Narvik  from 
reaching  Germany.  German  attacks  on  Norwegian 
shipping  were  intensified. 

On  April  6  Premier  Nygaardsvold  and  Foreign 
Minister  Halvdan  Koht  again  announced  their  de- 
termination to  carry  on  normal  trade  with  all  bel- 
ligerents and  to  defend  Norway's  neutrality.  Two 


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days  later  the  British  and  French  Governments 
stated  that  in  reprisal  for  Germany's  actions  "fla- 
grantly violating  neutral  rights  in  order  to  damage 
Allied  countries"  they  had  sown  mines  at  three 
points  within  Norway's  territorial  waters.  This 
barred  Norwegian  coastal  waters  to  German  ore 
ships  and  other  vessels. 

The  Oslo  Government  immediately  lodged  a  vig- 
orous protest  in  London  and  Paris.  Foreign  Min- 
ister Koht  in  a  statement  to  a  special  session  of  the 
Storting  declared  the  Allied  action  to  be  an  "open 
breach  of  international  law"  and  called  for  the 
immediate  removal  of  the  mines. 

The  German  Invasion.  Fear  of  retaliation 
from  the  Reich  was  widespread  throughout  Scan- 
dinavia. Yet  the  Norwegian  Government  and  peo- 
ple were  taken  completely  by  surprise  when  Hitler 
launched  his  sudden  blow  at  their  country  on  the 
night  of  April  8-9.  Aided  by  "fifth  column"  ele- 
ments in  Norway — principally  German  "tourists," 
Norwegian  Nazis,  and  some  traitorous  Norwegian 
army  officers— and  taking  advantage  of  the  unpre- 
paredness  and  confusion  of  the  Norwegian  Gov- 
ernment and  people,  the  Germans  conquered  all  of 
Norway  south  of  Namsos  by  the  beginning  of 
May.  On  June  10  the  last  of  the  Allied  expedition- 
ary forces  that  had  gone  to  Norway's  aid  was 
forced  to  evacuate  Narvik,  leaving  the  Germans  in 
complete  control  of  the  kingdom.  See  EUROPEAN 
WAR  under  The  Norwegian  Campaign  for  a  full 
account. 

Some  hours  after  the  German  invasion  began, 
the  German  Minister  in  Oslo,  Dr.  Curt  Brauer, 
called  on  Foreign  Minister  Koht  at  5  a.m.  He  pre- 
sented a  memorandum  from  the  German  Govern- 
ment and  a  note  setting  forth  various  demands. 
The  memorandum  was  identical  with  that  pre- 
sented to  the  Danish  Government  under  similar 
circumstances  at  about  the  same  time  (see  DEN- 
MARK under  History).  It  declared  that  the  Ger- 
man invasion  was  "intended  to  secure  Norway 
against  a  planned  occupation  of  Norwegian  bases 
with  Anglo-French  forces."  It  warned  that  all  re- 
sistance would  be  crushed  and  urged  that  the  Nor- 
wegian Government  avoid  resistance  and  afford  all 
possible  facilities  to  the  German  advance  in  order 
to  avoid  "completely  useless  bloodshed." 

The  accompanying  note  made  13  demands  upon 
the  Norwegian  Government.  It  was  requested  to  : 
(1)  issue  a  proclamation  asking  non-resistance  to 
the  German  occupation,  (2)  arrange  for  "loyal  co- 
operation" between  the  Norwegian  army  and  the 
German  commanders,  (3)  hand  over  coastal  forti- 
fications and  other  needed  military  establishments 
undamaged  to  the  Germans,  (4)  reveal  the  posi- 
tion of  Norwegian  sea  mines,  (5)  institute  "a 
complete  blackout  of  the  Norwegian  districts  .  .  . 
from  the  evening  after  the  first  day  of  occupa- 
tion," (6)  maintain  "all  means  of  occupation  and 
intercourse,  all  intelligence  services"  undamaged 
and  transfer  them  to  the  occupationary  forces  "to 
such  an  extent  as  might  be  necessary,"  (7)  prohib- 
it Norwegian  warships,  merchant  ships,  and  air- 
planes to  leave  their  ports  and  stations,  (8)  place 
Norwegian  sea  pilots  and  lighthouses  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  German  authorities,  (9)  maintain  the 
meteorological  service  for  the  benefit  of  occupa- 
tionary troops  and  ban  "all  intelligence  and  postal 
service  for  abroad,"  (10)  submit  all  intelligence 
and  mail  service  to  all  Baltic  States  to  German 
control  and  censorship,  (11)  arrange  for  German 
censorship  of  military  news  issued  by  the  Nor- 
wegian press  and  radio  stations  and  place  radio 


stations  at  the  disposal  of  the  German  command 
for  broadcasting  announcements,  (12)  forbid  the 
export  to  foreign  countries  of  all  goods  required  in 
wartime,  and  (13)  issue  all  proclamations  and  or- 
ders under  the  above  provisions  in  a  cipher  code 
unknown  to  Germany's  enemies  or  at  the  discre- 
tion of  the  German  commander-in-chief . 

Government  Flees  Oslo.  In  presenting  these 
demands,  the  German  Minister  emphasized  the  ne- 
cessity for  their  immediate  acceptance  if  German 
military  operations  were  to  be  stopped.  Foreign 
Minister  Koht  at  once  submitted  the  German  terms 
to  the  Norwegian  Cabinet,  which  had  already  as- 
sembled in  the  Foreign  Office.  In  a  short  time 
Koht  informed  the  German  Minister  his  govern- 
ment had  decided  no  independent  country  could  ac- 
cept such  demands.  Professor  Koht  reminded  the 
Minister  of  Hitler's  recent  statement  that  a  people 
who  submitted  to  an  aggressor  without  resistance 
did  not  deserve  to  exist.  He  added:  "We  will 
maintain  and  defend  our  independence." 

This  decision  was  followed  during  the  early 
hours  of  April  9  by  the  flight  of  King  Haakon, 
the  Crown  Prince,  Crown  Princess,  government, 
and  Storting  from  Oslo  by  special  train  to  avoid 
capture  by  the  Germans.  They  took  with  them  all 
gold  reserves  and  bank  notes  of  the  Norges  Bank 
At  the  same  time  a  general  mobilization  order  was 
issued.  At  1  p.m.  the  train  arrived  at  the  little  in- 
terior town  of  Hamar,  which  became  the  tempo- 
rary provisional  capital.  At  a  secret  session  of  the 
Storting  held  in  the  provincial  theater  at  6  p.m , 
the  Nygaardsvold  Government  offered  its  resigna- 
tion to  the  Storting  and  King  but  it  was  unani- 
mously rejected.  The  government  asked  for  and 
received  full  powers  to  negotiate  with  the  German 
invaders  and  three  additional  Ministers  were  add- 
ed to  the  cabinet  to  conduct  peace  negotiations. 

Failure  of  Negotiations.  While  King  Haakon 
was  presiding  over  a  meeting  of  the  Council  of 
State  in  Hamar  that  evening,  news  came  that  a 
German  detachment  was  approaching  The  King, 
Council  of  State,  government,  and  Storting  imme- 
diately moved  some  20  miles  eastward  to  the  town 
of  Elverum.  There  a  telegram  was  received  from 
the  German  Minister  at  Oslo  inquiring  whether 
the  King  would  receive  the  Minister  to  discuss 
peace  proposals.  The  Storting  agreed  to  these  dis- 
cussions and  appointed  Foreign  Minister  Koht  and 
three  of  its  members  to  conduct  them  Thereupon 
the  Storting  disbanded  and  most  of  its  members 
crossed  the  border  into  Sweden 

During  the  night  of  April  9-10,  word  came  that 
the  German  detachment  that  had  occupied  Hamar 
was  advancing  upon  Elverum.  The  King  and  the 
members  of  the  government  with  the  exception  of 
Professor  Koht  left,  but  the  German  force  of 
some  200  men  was  repulsed  west  of  the  town  by  a 
hastily  assembled  group  of  soldiers  and  peasants. 
This  skirmish  fought  in  the  early  hours  of  April 
10  forced  the  Germans  pursuing  the  King  and  his 
government  to  withdraw  to  Hamar,  along  with 
other  factors,  served  to  prevent  the  impending  ca- 
pitulation of  the  government. 

The  Quisling  'Government."  Another  reason 
for  the  failure  of  the  peace  discussions  was  the 
action  of  Major  Vidkun  Quisling,  head  of  the 
small  Norwegian  Nazi  party,  in  proclaiming  him- 
self head  of  the  Norwegian  Government  on  the 
night  of  April  9  Acting  in  collaboration  with  the 
German  forces  in  Oslo,  he  broadcast  a  warning 
to  all  Norwegians  to  cease  all  opposition  to  the  in- 
vaders and  co-operate  with  them. 


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Quisling  was  head  of  the  "fifth  column"  con- 
spiracy among  Norwegian  Nazis  and  some  mili- 
tary and  civilian  leaders  whose  treachery  had  aided 
the  Germans  in  securing  the  surrender  of  key  for- 
tifications. In  the  name  of  the  Norwegian  Govern- 
ment, he  issued  orders  for  non-resistance  to  many 
loyal  garrisons  and  commanders  that  added  to  the 
confusion  of  the  kingdom's  armed  forces.  Minister 
of  Defense  during  1931-33  and  for  many  years  a 
member  of  the  Norwegian  general  staff,  Quisling 
had  close  contacts  in  army  circles  but  his  political 
following  was  so  small  that  he  controlled  not  a 
single  seat  in  the  Storting. 

When  the  German  Minister  finally  made  contact 
with  King  Haakon  and  Foreign  Minister  Koht  in 
Elverum  at  3  p.m.  on  April  10,  he  added  to  the  13 
demands  made  on  April  9  the  requirement  that  the 
King  should  appoint  Major  Quisling  as  Premier 
and  approve  the  men  chosen  by  Quisling  as  cabinet 
ministers.  The  King,  supported  by  Foreign  Min- 
ister Koht,  declared  he  could  not  appoint  a  gov- 
ernment that  did  not  enjoy  the  confidence  of  his 
people.  The  Foreign  Minister,  stating  that  the 
Nygaardsvold  Government  had  expressed  its  will- 
ingness to  resign,  asked  the  German  Minister  if 
his  government  would  not  accept  a  friendly  Nor- 
wegian cabinet  composed  of  other  persons.  The 
Minister  replied  that  Chancellor  Hitler  insisted  on 
Quisling  as  Premier. 

Haakon  Defies  Invaders.  King  Haakon 
agreed  to  submit  the  new  German  demand  to  the 
Nygaardsvold  Government.  He  did  so  and  later 
that  evening  the  German  Minister  was  informed 
by  telephone  that  the  King  could  not  appoint  Quis- 
ling Premier  and  that  Norwegian  resistance 
against  the  invasion  would  continue  as  long  as  pos- 
sible. That  same  evening  the  government  drafted 
a  proclamation  calling  on  the  Norwegian  people 
to  fight  and  commenced  organization  of  military 
resistance.  It  also  ordered  the  arrest  of  Major 
Quisling  and  the  members  of  his  puppet  govern- 
ment; of  Col.  Konrad  Sundlp,  commander  of  the 
Norwegian  garrison  at  Narvik,  who  betrayed  that 
port  to  the  Germans;  and  various  other  Norwe- 
gian officials  and  officers  guilty  of  treason. 

Abandoning  efforts  to  win  the  co-operation  of 
the  King  and  his  government,  the  Germans  now 
undertook  to  destroy  them.  Their  fighting  planes 
harried  the  fugitive  Norwegian  leaders  from  place 
to  place,  forcing  them  to  conceal  their  where- 
abouts. At  Trysil  on  April  11  the  King  and  his 
government  were  subjected  to  a  severe  air  bom- 
bardment. From  Eastern  Norway  they  later 
crossed  the  Dovre  Mountains  to  join  the  Norwe- 
gian and  Allied  forces  fighting  to  encircle  Trond- 
heim.  There  again  they  narrowly  escaped  capture 
by  German  motorized  forces  advancing  on  Dom- 
baas.  British  troops  held  of!  the  Germans  long 
enough  to  enable  Haakon  and  his  entourage  to 
reach  the  Allied  base  at  Aandalsnes.  Upon  the 
withdrawal  of  the  Allied  forces  at  the  beginning 
of  May,  the  King  and  his  associates  were  trans- 
ferred in  a  British  destroyer  to  an  unnamed  port 
farther  north  within  territory  controlled  by  his 
government.  From  this  region  he  continued  to  or- 
ganize and  direct  Norwegian  military  operations. 

The  German  Administration.  Meanwhile  the 
invaders  had  been  consolidating  their  political  as 
well  as  military  control  of  the  occupied  sections  of 
the  kingdom.  Apparently  believing  that  Major 
Quisling  was,  more  of  a  liability  than  an  asset,  the 
German  military  commander  replaced  him  as 
"Premier"  on  April  15  by  Ingolf  Elser  Christen- 


sen,  the  governor  of  Oslo  Province.  It  was  an- 
nounced that  the  administration  of  occupied  dis- 
tricts would  be  carried  on  by  a  governmental  coun- 
cil that  had  affirmed  its  loyalty  to  the  German 
military  authorities.  Under  German  direction,  the 
puppet  regime  carried  into  effect  the  control  meas- 
ures listed  in  the  German  note  of  April  9. 

Berlin  announced  on  April  18  that  King  Haakon 
had  recognized  the  Christensen  regime  in  Oslo. 
But  on  April  19  the  Norwegian  Legation  in  Stock- 
holm, Sweden,  made  public  a  proclamation  issued 
by  the  Norwegian  Government  "somewhere  in 
Norway,"  stating  that  the  Christensen  council  was 
"not  representing  the  will  of  the  Norwegian  peo- 
ple and  has  no  legal  base  in  any  Norwegian  law." 
It  called  upon  all  Norwegians  to  "assist  in  this 
struggle  for  liberty'1  and  "make  the  Norwegian 
people  masters  of  their  own  country." 

This  proclamation  led  Berlin  on  April  19  to  sev- 
er relations  with  the  Norwegian  Government  by 
asking  the  Norwegian  Minister  in  Berlin  to  leave. 
On  April  24  the  Christensen  Council  in  Oslo  was 
ousted  and  "unrestricted  German  control"  over  the 
occupied  areas  of  Norway  was  proclaimed  in  Ber- 
lin. Josef  Terboven,  Nazi  district  leader  of  Essen, 
Germany,  and  publisher  of  Field  Marshal  Her- 
mann Goering's  newspaper,  was  named  Commis- 
sioner of  the  German-occupied  districts  in  Nor- 
way. He  was  responsible  solely  and  directly  to 
Hitler. 

This  establishment  of  a  "completely  German" 
regime,  similar  to  that  imposed  on  conquered  Po- 
land, was  said  by  Berlin  authorities  to  be  due  to 
the  action  of  King  Haakon  and  his  government 
in  "placing  themselves  on  the  side  of  the  Allies." 
This  move  followed  Haakon's  firm  rejection  of  a 
message  from  the  Christensen  Council  in  Oslo 
asking  him  to  urge  the  Norwegians  to  cease  resist- 
ing German  rule.  It  was  accompanied  by  increased 
severity  in  the  application  of  German  political  and 
economic  control  measures. 

War  Declaration.  Throughout  this  period  the 
German  Government  had  maintained  its  original 
contention  that  it  was  acting  solely  to  protect  Nor- 
way against  alleged  Allied  plans  for  invasion.  On 
April  27,  however,  it  abandoned  this  course,  for- 
mally declared  war  upon  Norway,  and  made  public 
in  Berlin  through  Foreign  Minister  von  Ribben- 
trop  documents  said  to  have  been  captured  in  Nor- 
way and  purporting  to  prove  that  Britain  and 
France  on  April  6  and  7  had  sent  troops  to  invade 
Norway.  The  Norwegian  Government,  it  was 
charged,  had  "aided  and  abetted"  these  plans  to 
strike  at  the  Reich  through  Scandinavia. 

C.  J.  Hambro,  president  of  the  Storting,  replied 
to  these  charges  from  Stockholm,  Sweden,  on 
April  28.  He  pointed  out  that  most  of  the  docu- 
ments produced  in  Berlin  were  dated  early  in  Jan- 
uary when  the  Allies  had  publicly  announced 
preparations  to  send  troops  and  material  to  the  aid 
of  Finland  through  Norway  and  Sweden.  Both 
countries  refused  to  permit  use  of  their  territories 
for  this  purpose.  As  proof  that  Britain  was  unpre- 
pared for  any  landing  of  troops  in  Norway  at  the 
time  of  the  German  attack,  he  pointed  to  the  ab- 
sence of  British  warships  when  the  Germans  oc- 
cupied Norwegian  ports  and  the  fact  that  "the 
first  British  landing  parties  came  only  nine  days 
after  German  troops  were  solidly  established  on 
Norwegian  soil." 

He  charged  that  the  German  Government  had 
planned  the  invasion  of  Norway  for  months  ahead 
of  the  attack  and  that  German  merchant  ships  that 


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had  been  lying  in  the  principal  Norwegian  ports 
for  four  or  five  days  previous  to  the  invasion  dis- 
gorged fully  armed  troops  and  military  equipment 
on  April  9.  The  Norwegian  Government,  he  said, 
had  gathered  evidence  proving  that  these  ships  had 
sailed  from  German  ports  more  than  a  week  be- 
fore the  Nazi  blow  fell  on  Norway. 

Similar  charges  were  made  in  a  declaration  is- 
sued by  the  Norwegian  Government  from  its  se- 
cret headquarters  in  Norway  on  April  29.  This 
document  also  accused  the  invaders  of  violating  all 
rules  of  international  law.  It  declared  German 
bombers  had  "devastated  defenseless  Norwegian 
villages  and  towns,"  that  members  of  the  Norwe- 
gian Government  had  personally  witnessed  Ger- 
man troops  firing  at  civilians  who  took  no  part  in 
the  fighting,  but  that  nevertheless  "the  war  .  .  . 
will  last  until  the  usurper  has  been  hurled  out  of 
the  country  and  Norway  again  is  free." 

Haakon  Continues  Resistance.  This  determi- 
nation survived  the  marked  disillusionment  and 
criticism  aroused  by  the  withdrawal  of  Allied 
troops  from  the  Namsos  and  Aandalsnes  and  the 
accompanying  surrender  of  some  Norwegian 
forces  in  that  region.  On  May  3  the  Norwegian 
Government  issued  a  communique'  declaring;  that 
the  war  must  go  on.  On  May  5  Foreign  Minister 
Koht  and  the  Norwegian  Defense  Minister  arrived 
in  London  to  consult  with  Allied  representatives 
and  announced  that  their  government  was  preparing 
for  a  long  war  with  the  aid  of  the  Allies  Addi- 
tional Allied  forces  were  sent  to  the  Narvik  front 
and  a  joint  high  command  was  appointed  for  op- 
erations in  Norway  with  the  Norwegian,  Gen.  Ot- 
to Ruge,  as  its  temporary  chief.  The  great  Nor- 
wegian merchant  fleet,  all  but  one-sixth  of  which 
was  said  to  have  escaped  German  control,  was 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Allies  for  war  pur- 
poses. Substantial  Norwegian  gold  reserves,  pre- 
viously removed  to  London  and  New  York,  like- 
wise were  added  to  the  Allied  war  chest. 

Although  some  guerrilla  bands  continued  to  har- 
ass German  occupationary  forces  from  mountain- 
ous regions  and  fighting  continued  at  various 
points  in  Northern  Norway,  Chancellor  Hitler  on 
May  9  signalized  the  virtual  termination  of  hostili- 
ties in  Central  and  Southern  Norway  by  granting 
amnesty  to  all  Norwegian  prisoners  of  war  except 
professional  soldiers. 

Following  the  evacuation  of  Narvik,  King  Haa- 
kon and  his  government  established  their  head- 
quarters in  London.  On  June  10  the  government 
issued  a  proclamation  announcing  its  withdrawal 
from  Norway  and  its  determination  to  carry  on 
the  struggle  for  Norwegian  liberty.  It  declared  the 
King,  the  President  of  the  Storting,  the  govern- 
ment, and  the  commanders  of  the  army  and  navy 
were  united  in  this  aim.  The  reorganization  of  the 
government  by  the  appointment  of  new  Ministers 
representing  all  of  the  established  parties  was  un- 
dertaken the  same  day. 

The  Norwegian  naval,  military,  and  air  forces 
were  reorganized  and  rebuilt  in  Britain  and  Can- 
ada. The  navy  and  particularly  the  great  Norwe- 
gian merchant  fleet,  manned  by  30,000  sailors, 
proved  of  vital  assistance  to  the  Allied  war  effort. 
Payments  on  American  loans  were  continued  by 
the  government  in  exile. 

German  Rule  in  Norway.  Shortly  after  Haa- 
kon's  arrival  in  London,  the  German  Commission- 
er for  Norway  demanded  that  those  members  of 
the  Storting  remaining  in  Norway  repudiate  the 
King  and  Premier  Nygaardsvold's  government.  If 


this  was  not  done,  he  threatened  to  put  the  Norwe- 
gians under  full  Nazi  control  and  administration. 
Under  this  threat,  four  members  of  the  Presiden- 
tial Board  of  the  Storting  appealed  to  Haakon  to 
abdicate.  The  King  formally  refused  in  a  state- 
ment issued  in  London  July  8,  declaring  that  to 
abdicate  would  be  to  "betray"  his  constitutional 
duties. 

Commissioner  Terboven  attempted  for  three 
months  to  form  a  Norwegian  Government  that 
would  be  acceptable  to  both  Berlin  and  the  Norwe- 
gian people.  Failing  to  enlist  the  co-operation  of 
any  responsible  Norwegian  leaders,  he  turned 
again  to  Major  Quisling,  who  on  September  25 
was  permitted  to  form  a  so-called  National  Coun- 
cil composed  of  13  Norwegian  Nazis  and  sympa- 
thizers. The  other  political  parties,  which  on  Sep- 
tember 7  had  merged  in  a  united  anti-Nazi  front, 
were  dissolved.  At  the  same  time,  Terboven  an- 
nounced the  abolition  of  the  monarchy  and  of  Par- 
liament. 

Quisling,  with  full  German  support,  then  set  out 
to  Nazify  Norway  by  the  methods  developed 'in 
Germany.  Secret  police,  concentration  camps,  cen- 
sorship, arrests  of  all  critics  of  the  regime,  at- 
tempted control  of  propaganda  and  of  education 
and  religion,  and  other  repressive  measures  failed 
to  break  the  mass  resistance  offered  by  the  great 
majority  of  the  people.  There  were  riots,  demon- 
strations, and  boycotts  against  Quisling  and  his 
adherents.  One  Quislingist  was  murdered.  The 
trade  unions,  teachers,  and  clergymen  defied 
threats  and  violence  designed  to  force  them  to  ac- 
cept the  new  regime.  In  December  the  members  of 
the  Supreme  Court  resigned  in  a  body  when  Com- 
missioner Terboven  issued  decrees  intended  to  Na- 
zify the  judicial  system. 

Large-scale  sabotage  and  espionage  on  behalf 
of  the  British  became  more  troublesome  to  the 
German  authorities,  despite  the  execution  of  sev- 
eral Norwegians  and  repeated  warnings  to  the  pop- 
ulace. Meanwhile  the  food  and  commodity  short- 
age became  acute,  primarily  because  reserve  stocks 
of  oil,  raw  materials,  and  foodstuffs  had  been 
shipped  to  the  Reich.  At  the  end  of  the  year,  the 
kingdom  seemed  on  the  verge  of  serious  outbreaks. 

See  GERMANY,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  and  SWEDEN, 
under  History;  INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY;  LABOR 
CONDITIONS  ;  LEAGUE  OP  NATIONS  ;  NOBEL  PRIZES. 

NORWEGIAN  CAMPAIGN.  See  EUROPE- 
AN WAR  under  The  Norwegian  Campaign. 

NORWEGIAN  LITERATURE.  See  SCAN- 
DINAVIAN  LITERATURE. 

NOVA  SCOTIA.  An  eastern  maritime  prov- 
ince of  Canada.  Area,  21,068  square  miles;  popu- 
lation (1939  estimate),  554,000  compared  with 
(1931  census)  408,219.  Vital  statistics  (1939): 
11,800  living  births,  6321  deaths,  and  4993  mar- 
riages. Chief  cities  (1931  populations)  :  Hali- 
fax, the  capital  (59,275),  Sydney  (23,089),  Glace 
Bay  (20,706),  Dartmouth  (9100),  New  Glasgow 
(8858),  Truro  (7901),  Sidney  Mines  (7769),  New 
Waterford  (7745),  Amherst  (7450),  Yarmouth 
(7055).  Education  (1938) :  138,746  students  en- 
rolled in  all  schools  and  colleges. 

Production.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural 
production  in  1939  was  $28,803,000.  In  1939  the 
value  of  all  field  crops  from  a  total  of  551,900 
acres  was  $12,659,000.  Chief  field  crops  (1939) : 
Oats  3,325,000  bu.,  potatoes  101,650  tons,  roots 
150,000  tons,  hay  and  clover  605,000  tons.  Live- 
stock (1939^ :  240,000  cattle  (including  118,000 
milch  cows),  144,000  sheep,  45,000  swine,  44,000 


NURSE-TRAINING  568 

horses,  and  1,256,000  poultry.  Apple  crop  (1940)  : 
1,500,000  barrels.  Fur  production  (1935-39)  was 
valued  at  $601,800.  The  1939  output  of  the  forests 
(equal  to  132,938  M  cu.  ft.)  was  worth  $7,475,200. 
Fisheries  catch  (1939) :  141,050  tons  with  a  mar- 
keted value  of  $8,754,000,  including  cod  $2,305,000. 
lobsters  $2,011,000,  haddock  $1,310,000.  mackerel 
$723,400,  halibut  $596,800,  herring  $405,000.  Dur- 
ing 1939  the  fisheries  employed  17,544  fishermen 
and  3272  persons  in  the  fish  curing  and  canning 
establishments. 

Mineral  production  (1939)  was  valued  at  $30,- 
746,200,  including  coal  (7,051,176  tons)  $25,611,- 
271,  gypsum  (1,298,618  tons)  $1,340,830,  gold 
(29,943  fine  oz.)  $1,082,170,  zinc  (9,152,856  Ib.) 
$280,901,  copper  (1,269,179  Ib.)  $128,086,  silver 
(175,877  fine  oz.)  $70,399,  salt  (47,885  tons)  $213,- 
029.  Manufacturing  (1938)  :  1102  factories,  16,810 
employees,  $31,375,251  net  value  of  products.  On 
Nov.  30,  1939,  there  were  14,983  miles  of  roads,  of 
which  900  miles  were  paved. 

Government.  Financial  estimates  (year  ending 
Nt>v.  30,  1939):  Revenue,  $12,126,105;  expendi- 
ture, $11,850,0/5.  The  King  is  represented  by  a 
lieutenant  governor  (appointed  by  the  governor 
general  in  council)  who  is  advised  by  a  ministry, 
which  is  responsible  to  the  house  of  assembly  and 
resigns  office  when  it  fails  to  enjoy  the  confidence 
of  that  body.  In  the  house  of  assembly  there  aie 
30  members  (including  those  in  the  ministry)  all 
elected  for  a  five-year  term  by  popular  vote.  Ten 
senators  and  12  commoners  represent  Nova  Scotia 
in  the  Canadian  parliament  at  Ottawa.  Lieutenant 
Governor,  Frederick  F.  Mathers  (appointed  May 
31,  1940)  ;  Premier,  A.  S.  MacMillan  (Liberal) 
who  succeeded  A.  L.  MacDonald  when  the  latter 
became  Dominion  Minister  of  National  Defense 
for  Naval  Affairs  on  July  8,  1940.  See  CANADA. 

NURSE-TRAINING.   See  SCHOOLS. 

NYA.  See  NATIONAL  YOUTH  ADMINISTRATION. 

NYASALAND.  A  British  East  African  pro- 
tectorate. Land  area,  37,374  square  miles ;  popula- 
tion (1938),  1,679,977,  including  1,676,382  natives. 
Chief  settlements :  Zomba,  the  seat  of  the  govern- 
ment; Blantyre,  the  commercial  capital;  Limbe; 
Cholo ;  Lilongwe ;  Mlanje ;  Salima ;  Fort  Johnston. 

Production.  Chief  products:  tobacco,  cotton, 
tea,  maize,  coffee,  rubber,  rice,  sisal,  and  rung  oil. 
Livestock  (1938)  :  247,089  goats,  234,708  cattle, 
59,544  swine,  51,924  sheep.  Trade  (1939)  :  total 
imports,  £715,391 ;  total  exports,  £823,823. 

Government.  Finance  (1939):  estimated  rev- 
enue, £832,970;  estimated  expenditure,  £850,940. 
Nyasaland  is  under  the  control  of  a  governor, 
aided  by  an  executive  council.  Laws  are  enacted  by 
the  Governor  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Legislative  Council.  Governor  and  Commander-in- 
Chief,  Sir  Donald  Mackenzie-Kennedy  (appointed 
Feb.  24,  1939). 

History.  Preparing  to  take  part  in  the  defense 
of  the  British  East  African  territories  against  a 
threatened  invasion  from  Italian  East  Africa,  the 
Legislative  Council  in  mid-year,  1940,  passed  an 
ordinance  making  male  British  subjects  and  Brit- 
ish-protected persons  of  European  or  Asiatic  ex- 
traction between  the  ages  of  18  and  55  liable  for 
compulsory  service.  Compulsion  did  not  apply  to 
military  service,  for  which  only  volunteers  were 
accepted.  Nyasaland  volunteers  participated  in  the 
campaign  on  the  Kenya-Italian  East  Africa  border 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  year.  See  EUROPEAN 
WAR  under  Campaigns  in  Africa. 

The  British  Government  during  1940  accepted 
recommendations  for  increasing  the  membership  of 


OHIO 


the  Legislative  Council  of  Nyasaland  and  includ- 
ing unofficial  members  in  the  Executive  Council. 
NYLON.  See  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL;  TEX- 
TILES under  Silk. 

OATS.  The  oats  crop  of  1940  in  the  United 
States  was  estimated  by  the  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  at  1,235,628,000  bu.,  about  a  third  more 
than  the  1939  crop  of  935,942,000  bu.  and  one-fifth 
larger  than  the  192W8  average  of  1,024,852,000 
bu.  The  relatively  high  production  total  was  due 
primarily  to  record  or  near  record  high  acre  yields 
over  most  of  the  Corn  Belt.  The  acreage  not  har- 
vested for  grain,  3.8  per  cent  of  the  acreage 
planted,  was  considerably  less  than  in  1939.  The 
harvested  acreage  of  34,847,000  was  about  6  per 
cent  larger  than  that  of  1939  and  6  per  cent  less 
than  the  1929-38  average  of  37,005,000  acres. 
Yield  per  acre  averaged  35.5  bu.  in  1940  and  28.4 
bu.  in  1939.  Leading  oats-producing  States  were: 
Iowa  with  206,640,000  bu.,  Minnesota  180,795,000, 
Illinois  152,496,000,  Wisconsin  96,793,000,  Michi- 
gan 60,489,000,  South  Dakota  53,240,000,  and  In- 
diana 49,950,000  bu.  The  seasonal  average  price 
per  bu.  (preliminary)  received  by  farmers  was 
29.1  cents  and  the  estimated  value  of  production 
was  $359,819,000  in  1940  compared  to  31.1  cents 
and  $290,922,000  in  1939.  See  Crop  Production 
Table  under  AGRICULTURE. 
OBITUARIES.  See  NECROLOGY. 
OBSERVATORIES.  See  the  article  on  AS- 
TRONOMY. 

OCCUPATIONAL  DEATHS  AND  IN- 
JURIES. See  ACCIDENTS;  LABOR  LEGISLATION. 
OCEANIA,  French.  The  French  possessions 
in  the  Pacific,  comprising  the  main  groups  of  is- 
lands, as  follows :  Society,  Marquesas,  Tuamotu, 
Leeward  (lies  sous  le  Vent),  and  the  Gambler, 
Austral,  and  Rapa.  Tahiti  (600  sq  mi. ;  pop.,  19,- 
029  in  1936),  of  the  Society  group,  is  the  principal 
island.  Total  area  1520  square  miles ;  total  popula- 
tion (Jan.  1,  1938),  45,000.  Capital,  Papeete  (on 
Tahiti),  8456  inhabitants.  Chief  products  (1939 
exports  in  parentheses)  :  copra  (23,000  tons),  va- 
nilla beans  (206  tons),  phosphate  rock  (160,680 
tons),  and  mother-of-pearl.  Trade  (1939)  •  im- 
ports, 80,482,000  francs ;  exports,  63,536,000  francs 
(franc  averaged  $0.0251  for  1939).  Budget  (1939) : 
balanced  at  27,560,000  francs.  Dr.  D  E.  Curtin  re- 
placed Chastenet  de  Gery  as  governor  Sept.  2, 1940, 
as  the  result  of  a  plebiscite  in  which  the  supporters 
of  Gen.  Charles  de  Gaulle  defeated  those  of  the 
Vichy  Government  by  5251  votes  to  18.  See 
FRANCE  under  History. 
OCEAN  ISLAND.  See  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 
OFFSET  LITHOGRAPHY.  See  NEWSPA- 
PERS AND  MAGAZINES;  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

OHIO.  Area,  41,040  square  miles,  exclusive  of 
the  State's  part  of  Lake  Erie,  but  includes  other 
water,  300  square  miles.  Population  (U.S.  Census), 
April,  1940,  6,907,612;  1930,  6,646,697.  Cleveland 
(1940),  878,336;  Cincinnati,  455,610;  Columbus 
(the  capital),  306,087;  Toledo,  282,349;  Akron, 
244,791 ;  Dayton,  210,718.  The  State's  entire  popu- 
lation gained  (1930-40)  260,915.  or  3.9  per  cent. 
While  the  urban  group  (those  in  places  of  2500 
or  more)  rose  by  105,615,  or  2.3  per  cent,  to  4,612,- 
986,  the  smaller  rural  population  increased  more 
rapidly,  by  155,300,  or  7.3  per  cent,  to  2,294,626. 
Thus  33  2  per  cent  of  the  population  of  1940  was 
rural.  Three  among  the  six  cities  of  more  than 
200,000  lost  somewhat  in  population,  but  hardly 
more  than  might  be  ascribed  to  movement  into  sub- 
urbs ;  Columbus  and  Dayton  made  moderate  gains, 
and  Cincinnati  gained  just  under  1  per  cent. 


OHIO 


569 


OHIO 


Agriculture.  Ohio's  harvest  of  1940,  close  to  11 
years'  average  in  extent,  covered  10,191,000  acres. 
Corn,  on  3,220,000  acres,  produced  120,750,000 
bu.,  $79,695,000  in  estimated  value  to  the  farmer. 
Wheat,  1,960,000  acres,  bore  43,137,000  bu.  ($31,- 
603,000,  estimated)  ;  tame  hay,  2,923,000  acres, 
gave  a  big  crop  of  4,241,000  tons  ($29,263,000)  ; 
oats,  1,020,000  acres,  44,880,000  bu.  ($14,810,000) ; 
potatoes,  118,000  acres,  11,800,000  bu.  ($9,558,000)  ; 
soy  beans,  560,000  acres,  8,400,000  bu.  ($6,720,- 
000)  ;  apples,  5,074,000  bu.  ($4,567,000) :  tobacco, 
30,000  acres,  26,430,000  Ib.  ($3,096,000).  Farms 
numbered  233,783  in  1940  and  averaged  93.7  acres. 

Mineral  Production.  Ohio's  production  of  its 
native  minerals  as  stated  in  1940  by  the  U.S.  Bu- 
reau of  Mines,  amounted  to  $104,812,531  for  1938. 
Of  the  total,  coal  provided  nearly  one-third ;  clay 
products  and  natural  gas,  about  one-sixth  each. 
The  coal  mines'  output  increased  to  some  19,632,- 
000  tons  for  1939,  from  18,590,618  tons  (value 
$33,073,000)  for  1938,  and  approximately  22,092,- 
000  tons  for  1940.  The  marketed  production  of 
natural  gas  totaled  35,257  millions  of  cu.  ft.  (1938)  ; 
this  total  had  a  value  of  $17,550,000  at  the  points  of 
consumption  It  came  to  only  one-third  of  the  nat- 
ural gas  consumed  in  the  State,  the  greater  part 
being  imported.  After  years  of  gradually  dwindling 
production,  natural  gas  indicated  a  rising  yield 
in  1939,  a  change  attributed  to  better-than-average 
new  wells,  mainly  in  the  Clinton  sand  formation. 
Ohio's  clay  products  (other  than  pottery  and  re- 
fractories) totaled  $17,679,691  (1938).  Producers' 
shipments  of  portland  cement  rose  to  6,140,125 
bhl  (1939),  from  5,258,603  (1938)  ;  by  value,  to 
$8,233,817,  from  $7,094,74^  Producers  disposed  of 
1,794,788  tons  of  salt  (1939)  as  against  1,489,270 

(1938)  ;  respective  values,  $2,647,355  and  $2,562,- 
620.  The  production  of  petroleum,  3,298,000  bbl., 
value  $3,860,000,  for  1938,  continued  with  slight 
diminution  through  1939  and  1940 ;  while  relatively 
small,  it  included  over  1,000,000  bbl  yearly  of  the 
Pennsylvania  grade,  higher  in  price.   Ohio,  the 
Union's  chief  producer  of  lime,  totaled  1,106,250 
short  tons  of  lime  (sold  or  used),  for  1939;  for 
1938,  836,589  tons:  value  $8,907,195  (1939)  and 
$6,658,853  (1938). 

Apart  from  the  exploitation  of  its  own  minerals, 
Ohio  conducted  long-established  industries  in  the 
processing  of  minerals  from  elsewhere*  particu- 
larly, the  production  of  coke,  pig  iron,  and  steel. 
The  yearly  output  of  coke  recovered  to  6,135,949 
net  tons  (1939)  from  3,699,995  (1938)  :  by  value, 
to  $28,502,924,  from  $18,413,808  In  like  manner 
furnaces'  shipments  of  pig  iron  rallied  to  a  yearly 
total  of  7,249,172  gross  tons  (1939)  from  4,186,217 
tons  (1938)  ;  by  value,  to  $147,154,864,  from  $85,- 
186,824.  Likewise  the  output  of  open-hearth  steel 
ingots  and  castings  rose  to  8,851,298  gross  tons 

(1939)  from  5,372,234  (1938). 
Manufactures.  Ohio's  manufactured  products 

totaled  $4,584,606,792  for  1939:  $5,099,816,893  for 
1937.  Other  related  totals  for  1939  follow  (each 
with  that  for  1937  in  parentheses)  :  10,070  (9138) 
establishments,  employing  598,392  (694,205)  peo- 
ple for  wages  of  $812,676,444  ($967,650,237),  paid 
$2,459,191,656  ($2,793,189,697)  for  material,  con- 
tract  work,  etc.,  and  added  by  manufacture  a  value 
of  $2,125,415,136  ($2,306,627,196).  Ohio  stood 
fourth  highest  in  the  Union,  for  value  of  manu- 
factured products  of  1939. 

Education.  Ohio's  public  schools  reported,  for 
the  academic  year  1939-40,  1,223,993  enrollments 
of  pupils;  this  comprised  22,444  in  kindergarten, 
691,235  in  elementary  study,  93,727  in  junior  high 


school,  392,308  in  high  school,  22,931  special  stu- 
dents, and  1348  post  graduate  students.  The  year's 
expenditure  for  public-school  education  was  esti- 
mated at  $106,000,000.  The  teachers  numbered  41,- 
378  in  1940;  teachers'  salaries  averaged  $1600.44 
for  1939. 

History.  The  State's  great  industries  producing 
or  fabricating  iron,  steel,  machinery,  tools,  and 
articles  of  rubber  attained  a  high  activity  under 
the  impulsion  of  demand  created  by  the  European 
war  and  by  the  Federal  program  of  increasing 
armament.  General  business  and  construction  im- 
proved conformably.  The  burden  of  supporting  in- 
digents  at  public  cost  diminished  well  below  the 
levels  that  had  become  familiar.  Most  of  the  eco- 
nomic improvement  came  after  the  midyear:  on 
October  21,  for  instance,  the  Wright  Aeronautical 
Corporation  started  building  at  Lockland,  near  Cin- 
cinnati, works  expected  to  pay  $20,000,000  in 
wages  yearlv. 

Legislation.  A  special  session  of  the  Legisla- 
ture met  on  June  17  and  adjourned  on  the  20th. 
Being  under  Republican  control,  it  dealt  promptly 
with  the  matters  put  before  it  by  Governor  Brick- 
er :  further  appropriation  for  poor-relief,  increase 
of  the  maximum  on  old-age  pensions  to  $40  a 
month,  separation  of  the  National  from  the  State 
ballots  in  the  general  election,  and  alteration  of  the 
State  law  on  dependent  children  in  conformity 
with  new  features  of  the  Federal  law.  Old  people 
entitled  to  the  full  pension  were  to  get  $40  a 
month  by  an  act  becoming  effective  Jan.  1,  1941. 
Additional  money  was  provided  for  the  purpose. 
The  change,  encouraged  by  recent  Federal  increase 
to  $40  as  the  maximum  toward  which  the  Govern- 
ment would  pay  half,  was  also  prompted  by  the 
desire  to  leave  as  little  room  as  possible  for  the 
renewal  of  the  Bigelow  higher-pension  agitation 
of  1939.  The  act  segregating  the  National  ticket 
from  the  State  part  of  the  ballot  was  advocated  as 
a  beneficent  plan  to  discourage  those  voters  who 
might  otherwise  vote  a  straight  ticket  to  the  neg- 
lect of  proper  attention  to  State  candidates  and 
issues;  the  Democratic  members,  who  might  be 
expected  to  think  that  the  prestige  of  their  party's 
National  ticket  would  waft  a  good  many  votes  to 
Democratic  State  candidates,  opposed  the  change 
without  avail.  Local  governments  got  the  authority 
to  fund  deficits  that  they  had  incurred  before  1940 
through  their  appropriations  for  poor-relief. 

Administration  and  Courts.  The  incoming 
Republican  government  of  the  State,  the  year  be- 
fore, had  done  some  close  figuring  to  bring  down 
appropriations.  There  arose  question,  before  the 
special  session,  whether  it  had  provided  enough 
to  see  the  State  through  the  biennium.  State's 
Auditor  Ferguson,  a  Democrat,  refused  late  in 
May  to  allow  certain  further  current  payments  of 
State  money ;  it  would  take  an  overdraft  of  $4,000,- 
000,  he  declared,  to  pay  all  obligations  and  vouch- 
ers outstanding ;  Governor  Bricker  notified  Fergu- 
son that  unless  the  required  payments  were  made 
a  mandamus  against  Ferguson  would  be  sought; 
payments  were  thereafter  put  through.  President 
Roosevelt's  unexpected  veto  of  an  act  of  Congress 
to  make  good  to  Ohio  the  payments  for  October, 
1938,  which  the  Social  Security  Board  had  with- 
held because  of  doubt  of  the  workings  of  the 
State's  old-age  pensions  as  then  administered,  left 
the  State  government  a  loser  by  the  amount  that  it 
had  met  in  place  of  the  Federal  government.  The 
veto  of  the  Federal  Rivers  and  Harbors  bill  put 
into  abeyance  some  of  the  plans  for  works  to  re- 
strain floods  in  Ohio. 


OIL 


570 


OKLAHOMA 


Among  decisions  of  the  State  Supreme  Court, 
one  denied  reinstatement  to  a  State  employee,  on 
the  ground  that  his  original  appointment  had  been 
irregular,  and  thus  cast  doubt  on  the  security  of 
several  thousand  jobs  bestowed  without  recourse 
to  civil  service ;  another  decision,  upholding  a  low- 
er court,  required  members  of  the  Legislature  of 
1936  to  restore  to  the  State  about  $27,000  that  they 
had  individually  collected  in  allowances,  by  mile- 
age, for  imaginary  travel  between  their  homes  and 
the  capital  on  the  occasions  of  "constructive"  meet- 
ings, between  adjournments,  that  never  actually 
assembled ;  a  third  decision,  rendered  in  September, 
refused  Communists'  demand  that,  though  their 
petition  to  the  Secretary  of  State  had  lacked  the 
number  of  signatures  required  by  statute,  the  Com- 
munist nominees  should  be  designated  on  the  No- 
vember ballot. 

Municipal  Affairs.  The  troubles  that  Cleveland 
had  had  in  1939  in  providing  for  its  numerous  de- 
pendents on  poor-aid  did  not  return  on  any  similar 
scale  in  1940;  Cuyahoga  County  having  created 
(December,  1939)  a  special  tax  on  property,  took 
up  its  share  of  the  city's  remaining  burden.  Cin- 
cinnati's City  Council  approved  a  new  street-rail- 
way and  bus  franchise  running  for  25  years,  level- 
ing all  fares  to  a  uniform  rate  for  travel  within  the 
city,  and  requiring  the  giving  of  transfers  univer- 
sally between  lines,  at  points  of  contact ;  a  decision 
of  the  State  Supreme  Court,  denying  a  plea  to  the 
contrary  on  behalf  of  City  Manager  Sherrill,  ap- 
proved an  order  to  compel  him  to  sign  and  execute 
contracts  for  two  housing  projects,  Winton  Ter- 
race and  English  Woods  Toledo's  supply  of  gas 
for  fuel  was  cut  short  early  in  February  by  a  strike 
of  a  C.I.O.  organization  among  the  men  operating 
the  gas  works.  See  AQUEDUCTS;  FIRE  PREVEN- 
TION; WATER  WORKS  AND  WATER  PURIFICATION. 

Election^.  At  the  general  election  (Novem- 
ber 5)  the  popular  vote  for  President  gave  Roose- 
velt (Dem.)  1,733,139  and  Willkie  (Rep  )  1,586,- 
773. 

Harold  H.  Burton  (Rep  ),  the  Mayor  of  Cleve- 
land, was  elected  U.S.  Senator,  to  succeed  Vic 
Donahey,  who  had  refused  to  seek  a  Democratic 
renomination ;  the  defeated  Democratic  nominee 
was  John  McSveeney.  John  W.  Bricker  (Rep.)  ; 
1,825,312  votes,  was  re-elected  Governor  by  a  great 
plurality  of  more  than  350,000  over  ex-Governor 
Martin  L.  Davey  (Dem.),  1,460,653.  In  spite  of 
Bricker's  strength  the  Democrats  re-elected  two 
minor  officers  of  the  State  (one  of  them  Auditor 
Joseph  T.  Ferguson,  who  had  controverted  Bricker 
on  State  finances)  ;  increased  the  Democratic  share 
of  the  U.S.  Representatives  by  4,  to  12  or  an  even 
half,  and  reduced  the  Republican  majorities  in 
both  houses  of  the  State  Legislature. 

Officers.  The  chief  officers  of  Ohio,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  John  W.  Bricker  (Rep.) ; 
Lieutenant  Governor,  Paul  M.  Herbert ;  Secretary 
of  State,  Earl  Griffith  (died)  and  George  M.  Neff- 
ner  (successor);  Auditor,  Joseph  T.  Ferguson; 
Treasurer,  Don  H.  Ebright;  Attorney  General, 
Thomas  J.  Herbert ;  Director  of  Education,  E.  N. 
Dietrich. 

OIL.  See  PETROLEUM.  For  cottonseed  oil,  see 
COTTON. 

OKLAHOMA.  Area,  70,012  square  miles;  in- 
cludes water,  643  square  miles.  Population  (U.S. 
Census),  April,  1940,  2,336,434;  1930,  2,396,040. 
Oklahoma  City,  the  capital  (1940),  204,424;  Tulsa, 
142,157.  The  decline  (1930-40)  of  59,606  in  the 
State's  population  occurred  in  the  rural  group, 
which  diminished  by  117,588,  to  1,456,771,  whereas 


the  urban  population  (those  in  places  of  2500  or 
more)  increased  by  57,982,  to  879,663. 

Agriculture.  Oklahoma's  harvest  of  1940  cov- 
ered 13,208,000  acres.  Cotton,  on  1,846,000  acres, 
grew  805,000  bales,  $35,822,000  in  estimated  value 
to  the  producers.  Wheat,  on  3,885,000  acres,  56,- 
332,000  bu.  ($34,926,000)  nearly  equaled  cotton  in 
estimated  value.  Corn,  1,877,000  acres,  made  40,- 
356,000  bu.  ($21,792,000)  ;  grain  sorghums,  1,560,- 
000  acres,  17,160,000  bu.  ($8,408,000)  ;  oats,  1,403,- 
000  acres,  32,269,000  bu.  ($8,390,000) ;  tame  hay, 
680,000  acres,  983,000  tons  ($6,488,000) ;  barley, 
340,000  acres,  5,780,000  bu.  ($2,196,000) ;  potatoes, 
34,000  acres,  2,550,000  bu.  ($1,556,000). 

Mineral  Production.  Oklahoma's  production 
of  its  native  minerals,  as  stated  in  1940  by  the  U.S. 
Bureau  of  Mines,  totaled  $272,860,078  for  1938; 
this  lacked  nearly  $95,000,000  of  the  previous  year's 
aggregate.  Petroleum  contributed  more  than  three- 
fourths  of  the  total ;  natural  gas  and  gasoline  de- 
rived therefrom,  most  of  the  remainder.  The  pro- 
duction of  petroleum,  continuing  a  decrease  al- 
ready evident  in  1938,  fell  to  160,072,000  bbl.  for 
1939,  and  to  155,952,000  for  12  months  of  1940, 
from  174,994,000  bbl.,  in  value  $209,500,000,  for 
1938  The  Seminole  district,  by  reason  of  increas- 
ing production,  surpassed  and  largely  offset  the 
declining  Oklahoma  City  field  (long  the  State's 
chief  producer  of  petroleum)  in  1940.  While  the 
booming  production  of  Illinois,  hurting  Oklahoma's 
market,  tended  to  discourage  Oklahoman  drilling 
operations,  numerous  wells,  driven  nevertheless  in 
1939,  fell  short  of  restoring  reserves  of  petroleum 
for  future  production. 

Natural  gas  produced  and  delivered  to  consumers 
totaled  263.164,  million  cu.  ft.  for  1938;  by  value 
at  points  01  consumption,  $27,391,000 ;  the  domestic 
and  commercial  use  of  natural  gas  was  reported  to 
have  made  a  moderate  increase  in  1939.  The  pro- 
duction of  gasoline  from  natural  gas  decreased  to 
434,800,000  gal.,  approximately  (1939),  from  468,- 
499,000  gal.,  value  $14,373,000  (1938).  Zinc  in  ore 
mined  yearly  in  the  State  rose  to  158,000  tons, 
valued  at  $20,450,000  (1940),  from  140,379  tons 
(1939),  $14,599,416,  and  112,924  tons,  $10,840,704 
(1938).  Lead,  likewise  in  ore,  increased  to  27,720 
tons  (1939),  from  21,004  tons,  value  $1,932,368 
(1938),  the  coal  output  was  1,613,000  tons  for 
1940, 1,178,000  for  1939,  and  1,178,000  tons  (valued 
at  $2,947,000  for  1938). 

History.  Governor  Phillips  waged  strenuous  op- 
position to  the  Federal  construction  of  the  Denison 
Dam,  m  the  Red  River,  and  the  Grand  River  Dam, 
near  Disney  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  State. 
The  Denison  Dam,  the  greater  enterprise  of  the 
two,  was  to  generate  hydroelectric  power  to  the 
potential  gain  of  Dallas  and  Fort  Worth,  Tex. ; 
and  it  was  to  flood  a  great  acreage  of  good  farming 
land  in  Oklahoma  without  apparent  equal  advan- 
tage to  that  State.  Oklahoma  applied  to  the  U.S. 
Supreme  Court  for  an  injunction  to  restrain  the 
Secretary  of  War  from  proceeding  with  construc- 
tion at  Denison ;  the  Court  refused  to  entertain  the 
suit  (February  12),  and  this  cleared  the  way  for 
the  Army  Engineers  to  let  a  contract  in  April  for 
the  main  earthen  embankment.  But  in  October  a 
Federal  3-judge  court  undertook  to  hear  Oklaho- 
ma's suit  to  stop  the  Denison  undertaking. 

Against  the  Grand  River  Dam  enterprise,  a  $20,- 
000,000  project  financed  by  the  PWA,  under  an 
agency  entitled  the  Grand  River  Dam  Authority 
and  wholly  within  Oklahoma,  the  Governor  pro- 
ceeded in  March  by  posting  a  force  of  the  National 
Guard  at  the  site  and  getting  a  State  court's  in- 


OLD-AOE  ASSISTANCE 


S71 


OREGON 


junction  against  completing  the  dam.  The  Author- 
ity in  turn  sued  out  a  Federal  injunction  against 
the  Governor's  keeping  the  troops  posted  and 
against  the  continuance  of  the  State  court's  in- 
junction. The  dam  was  then  quickly  completed  and 
began  to  flood  land  before  settlement  of  claims, 
which  the  Governor  championed,  for  indemnity  to 
the  State  on  account  of  its  loss  of  highways  to  be 
submerged. 

In  Oklahoma  City  the  activity  of  Communists 
moved  the  authorities  to  take  steps  against  them. 
The  City  Manager  and  City  Council  denied  them, 
in  March,  the  use  of  the  Municipal  Auditorium  for 
their  meetings ;  the  local  secretary  of  the  party  was 
found  guilty,  in  October,  of  criminal  syndicalism, 
a  verdict  carrying  10  years'  prison  and  a  fine.  See 
COMMUNISM. 

Elections.  The  popular  vote  for  President  (No- 
vember 5)  totaled  474,313  for  Roosevelt  (Dem.) 
and  348,872  for  Willkie  (Rep.).  Eight  Democrats 
and  one  Republican  were  elected  U.S.  Representa- 
tives. There  was  no  election  of  Governor  or  U.S. 
Senator. 

Officers.  Oklahoma's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were.  Governor,  Leon  C.  Phillips  (Dem.)  ; 
Lieutenant  Governor,  James  E.  Berry;  Secretary 
of  State,  C.  C.  Childers ;  Auditor,  Frank  C.  Car- 
ter ;  Treasurer,  Carl  B.  Sebring ;  Attorney  Gener- 
al, Mac  Q.  Williamson ;  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  A.  L  Crable 

OLD-AGE  ASSISTANCE,  INSURANCE, 
AND  PENSIONS.  See  LABOR  LEGISLATION; 
RAILWAYS  under  Railroad  Retirement  Board ;  RE- 
LIEF, SOCIAL  SECURITY  BOARD;  also,  COLORADO, 
INDIANA,  OHIO  under  History. 

OMAN.  See  ARABIA 

ONTARIO.  A  Canadian  province.  Area,  412,- 
582  square  miles,  including  49,300  square  miles  of 
fresh-water  area.  Population  (1939),  3,752,000,  as 
against  (1931  census)  3,431,683.  Vital  statistics 
(1939):  64,000  living  births,  37,502  deaths,  and 
34,657  marriages.  Chief  cities  (1931  populations) : 
Toronto,  the  capital  (631,207),  Hamilton  (155,- 
547),  Ottawa,  the  capital  of  Canada  (126,872), 
London  (71,148),  Windsor  (63,108).  Education 

(1938)  :  778,364  students  enrolled  in  schools  and 
colleges  of  all  kinds. 

Production.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural 
production  in  1939  was  $365,614,000  Field  crops 
covered  an  area  of  9,086,600  acres  in  1939  and 
were  valued  at  $149,672,000  Chief  field  crops 

(1939)  :  Wheat  23,821,000  bu.,  oats  86,639,000  bu, 
barley  16,600,000  bu.,  mixed  grains  35,662,000  bu , 
corn  for  husking  8,097,000  bu.,  potatoes  362,350 
tons,  roots  1,051,800  tons,  hay  and  clover  4,682,000 
tons,  alfalfa  1,568,000  tons,  fodder  corn  3,545,000 
tons,  sugar  beets  343,000  tons.  Livestock  (1939)  : 
2,488,000  cattle  (including  1,183,000  milch  cows), 
1,546,000  swine,  847,000  sheep.  559,500  horses,  22,- 
841,000  poultry.  Apple  crop  (1940)  :  707,300  bar- 
rels. Fur  production  (1938-39)  was  worth  $2,527,- 
700.  Forestry  output   (1938)    was  equivalent  to 
576,278  M  cu.  ft.  of  standing  timber  and  was  worth 
$34,797,120.  Fisheries  (1939)  :  16,871  tons  of  fish 
valued  at  $3,007,300. 

Gold  (3,168,623  02.)  and  silver  (577,864  oz.), 
valued  at  $122,232,970,  were  produced  during  1940 
from  11,687,412  tons  of  ore  milled. 

Mineral  production  (1939)  was  valued  at  $232,- 
519,948,  including  gold  (3.086,076  fine  02.)  $111,- 
533,873,  nickel  (226,105,865  lb.)  $50,920,305*  cop- 
per (328,429,665  oz.)  $32,637,305,  platinum  (148,877 
fine  or.)  $5,221,712,  palladium,  rhodium,  iridium 
(135,402  fine  oz.)  $4,199,622,  silver  (4,689,422  fine 


oz.)  $1398,653,  cobalt  (732,561  lb.)  $1,213,454, 
natural  gas  (11,966,581  M  at  ft)  $7,261,928.  salt 
(370343  tons)  $2,200,189.  Manufacturing  (1938): 
9883  factories,  311,274  employees,  $757,620,632  net 
value  of  products. 

Government.  Finance  (1939-40)  :  Revenue  and 
expenditure  were  expected  to  show  a  deficit  of 
$4,444,929.  Budget  (1940-41):  Ordinary  revenue 
$99,891,361,  orduiary  expenditure  $99,535,122.  The 
King  is  represented  by  a  lieutenant  governor  (ap- 
pointed by  the  governor  general  in  council)  who 
is  advised  by  a  ministry,  which  is  responsible  to 
the  legislature  and  resigns  office  when  it  fails  to 
have  the  confidence  of  that  body.  There  are  90 
members  (including  those  in  the  ministry)  in  the 
legislative  assembly,  all  elected  for  a  five-year 
term  by  popular  vote.  At  the  provincial  general 
election  of  Oct.  6,  1937,  there  were  elected  64 
Liberals,  23  Conservatives,  and  3  others.  Twenty- 
four  senators  (appointed  for  life)  and  82  com- 
moners represent  Ontario  in  the  Dominion  parlia- 
ment at  Ottawa.  Lieutenant  Governor,  Albert 
Matthews;  Premier,  Mitchell  F.  Hepburn  (Lib- 
eral). See  CANADA  under  History. 

OPERA.  See  Music. 

OPIUM  AND  OPIUM  ADVISORY 
COMMITTEE.  See  NARCOTIC  DRUGS  CONTROL. 

OPM.  Office  of  Production  Management.  See 
DEFENSIVE  PREPARATIONS 

ORAN,  Battle  of.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR  ;  AL- 
GERIA, FRANCE  under  History. 

ORANGE  FREE  STATE.  See  SOUTH  AF- 
RICA, UNION  OF  under  Area  and  Population. 

ORCHESTRAS.  See  Music;  RADIO. 

OREGON.  Area,  96,699  square  miles ;  includes 
water,  1092  square  miles.  Population  (U.S.  Cen- 
sus), April,  1940, 1,089,684;  1930,953,786.  Portland 
had  (1940)  305,394;  Salem,  the  capital,  30,908.  The 
State's  population  increased  (1930-40)  by  135,898. 
or  14.2  per  cent.  The  urban  (dwellers  in  places  of 
2500  or  more)  total  rose  by  41,929,  to  531,675;  the 
rural  total  rose  by  93,969  to  558,009. 

Agriculture.  Oregon  harvested,  in  1940,  2,625,- 
000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Wheat  and  tame 
hay  each  occupied  somewhat  under  one-third  of 
this  total.  Wheat,  on  850,000  acres,  made  17,184,- 
000  bu.  (estimated  value  to  the  growers,  $11,513,- 
000)  ;  tame  hay,  823,000  acres,  came*  to  1,532,000 
tons  ($11.337,000).  Among  other  leading  crops: 
hops,  19,600  acres,  produced  19,992,000  lb.  ($5,152,- 
000)  ;  potatoes,  46,000  acres.  8,5 10,000  bu.  ($4,936,- 
000)  ;  pears,  4,418,000  bu.  ($3,093,000)  ;  apples  for 
market,  3,160,000  bu.  ($2,370,000) ;  oats,  318,000 
acres,  7,950,000  bu.  ($2,782,000);  corn,  60,000 
acres,  1,860,000  bu.  ($1,414,000). 

Mineral  Production.  Oregon's  yearly  produc- 
tion of  its  own  minerals  ($7,536,091  for  1938)  con- 
sists— except  for  the  stone,  sand,  and  gravel  for 
such  uses  as  ballast  and  concrete — mainly  of  gold ; 
with  the  gold  come  subordinate  totals  of  silver  and 
other  metals.  Gold  in  the  material  mined  yearly 
rose  to  112,700  fine  oz.,  for  1940  (preliminary  esti- 
mate), from  93,372  oz.  for  1939;  by  value,  to 
$3,944,500,  from  $3,268,020.  Silver  and  a  little  cop- 
per and  lead,  virtually  all  from  the  gold  ore,  were 
valued  at  some  $149,000  for  1940.  Oregon's  pro- 
duction of  mercury,  4592  76-lb.  flasks  (value,  $477.- 
293)  for  1939,  came  to  one-fourth  of  the  Union's 
output;  in  1940  a  strong  demand  for  mercury  in 
the  war-serving  industries  and  the  fruition  of  ad- 
ditional development  at  the  Bonanza  mine  in  Doug- 
las county  worked  together  to  bring  about  sharp 
rises  in  monthly  output 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40,  Or- 


OUTER  MONGOLIA 


572 


PALESTINE 


egon's  inhabitants  of  school  age  (from  4  years  to 
19,  inclusive)  were  reckoned  at  264,743.  The  year's 
enrollments  of  pupils  in  all  public  schools  num- 
bered 205,928 ;  this  comprised  142,871  in  elementa- 
ry study  and  63,057  in  high  school.  Outside  of 
these  totals,  10,967  enrollments  of  other  sorts  were 
reported.  The  year's  expenditure  for  public-school 
education,  except  some  of  that  connected  with 
service  of  debt,  amounted  to  $18,581,108.  The 
teachers  numbered  8057 ;  their  salaries  for  the  year 
averaged  $1333.73. 

History.  The  State  Supreme  Court,  accepting 
the  precedent  set  by  the  Federal  Supreme  Court 
earlier  in  the  year  as  to  laws  restricting  picketing, 
rendered  a  decision  late  in  October  declaring  the 
State's  law  of  1938  for  the  regulation  of  the  con- 
duct of  labor  organizations  to  be  unconstitutional 
in  its  vital  provisions,  the  prohibition  of  unre- 
strained picketing  and  of  industrial  boycotts.  Ore- 
gon's law  had  been  reputed  the  most  thorough- 
going effort  on  American  statute  books  to  limit 
violence  and  similar  excesses  in  connection  with  the 
action  of  labor  organizations  against  employers. 
The  overthrown  act  had  been  adopted  in  a  refer- 
endum by  197,771  votes  to  148,460.  The  C.I.O., 
A.F.L.,  and  railroad-employees'  brotherhoods  had 
all  sought  to  bring  about  its  termination.  Its  opera- 
tion had  mitigated  violence  and  economic  harm 
but  had  by  no  means  done  away  with  strikes  them- 
selves. One  of  the  extensive  strikes  that  checkered 
the  career  of  the  shipping  business  of  the  Pacific 
Coast  was  in  progress  at  the  time,  interrupting  the 
movement  of  lumber  from  the  Pacific  Northwest, 
wanted  for  the  Army's  cantonments. 

The  White  House  announced  (August  24)  that 
a  single  agency,  at  Portland,  would  thereafter 
manage  the  sale  of  hydroelectric  power  from  both 
the  great  Federal  generating  works  on  the  Colum- 
bia River — at  Bonneville  and  at  Grand  Coulee 

Elections.  The  popular  vote  (November  5)  for 
President  totaled  258,415  for  Roosevelt  (Dem.) 
and  219,555  for  Willkie  (Rep.).  The  incumbent 
U.S.  Representatives  (2  Rep.,  1  Dem.)  were  re- 
elected.  No  election  for  Governor  or  for  U.S.  Sen- 
ator fell  due. 

The  popular  vote  rejected  9  submitted  proposals, 
of  which  5  would  have  amended  the  State's  con- 
stitution am?  4  would  have  made  statutes.  One  of 
the  defeated  proposals  would  have  permitted  cer- 
tain commercialized  games  of  chance.  Another 
would  have  legalized  some  sorts  of  private  sale  of 
liquor. 

Officers.  Oregon's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940 :  Governor,  Charles  A.  Sprague  (Rep.)  ;  Sec- 
retary of  State  and  Auditor,  Earl  Snell ;  Treasurer, 
W.  E.  Pearson;  Attorney  General,  I  H.  Van 
Winkle;  Commissioner  of  Labor,  C.  H  Gram; 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Rex  Put- 
nam 

OUTER  MONGOLIA.  See  CHINA;  MON- 
GOLIA. 

OVERTIME  PAY.  See  WAGE  AND  HOUR  DI- 
VISION. 

OYSTERS.  See  ZOOLOGY. 

PAHANG.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

PAINTING.  In  November  the  Art  Section  of 
the  Public  Buildings  Administration.  Federal 
Works  Agency,  made  it  known  that  $9000  was 
available  for  the  purchase  of  water  colors,  at  $30 
each,  for  the  decoration  of  Marine  Hospitals,  es- 
pecially that  for  lepers  at  Carville,  La.  Ten  thou- 
sand paintings  in  this  medium  were  submitted  by 
artists  throughout  the  country  at  their  own  ex- 
pense, many  by  well-known  painters. 


Several  competitions  were  held  by  the  Federal 
Government  for  mural  paintings  to  be  placed  in 
public  buildings,  and  works  previously  commis- 
sioned were  completed  and  placed.  Among  the  for- 
mer mention  should  be  made  of  the  competition  for 
murals  for  the  new  Social  Security  Building, 
Washington,  D.C. ;  375  painters  competed  for  this 
$19,980  contract  and  Ben  Shahn  of  New  Jersey 
was  declared  the  winner.  With  the  latter  should  be 
included  twenty  large  murals  by  Maurice  Sterne, 
depicting  "The  Struggle  for  Justice,"  purposed  for 
the  library  of  the  Department  of  Justice  Building, 
Washington,  and  shown  in  the  Fine  Arts  Building, 
New  York,  early  in  the  year.  Also  a  series  of 
twelve  murals,  "Life  in  Rhinebeck  County"  (New 
York)  by  Olin  Dpws,  for  the  Rhinebeck  Post 
Office,  which  likewise  had  a  first  showing  in  New 
York  City. 

As  a  WPA  Art  Project  Edward  Laning  pro- 
duced four  handsome  murals  representing  impor- 
tant stages  in  "The  Story  of  the  Recorded  World" 
for  the  main  hall  on  the  third  floor  of. the  Public 
Library,  New  York. 

Thornton  Oakley  completed  a  very  distinguished 
series  of  six  mural  paintings  representing  the  de- 
velopment of  science  from  the  days  of  alchemy 
to  those  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  for  the  auditori- 
um of  the  Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia.  For 
Penn  State  College,  Henry  Varnum  Poor  execut- 
ed a  large  mural  representing  the  historic  "Land 
Grant."  A  number  of  murals  depicting  Indian  life 
by  Indian  artists  in  traditional  Indian  style  were 
given  permanent  placement  in  the  cafeteria  and 
recreation  room  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior. 
Jose  Clemente  Orozco,  of  Mexico,  executed  during 
the  summer  of  1940  a  huge  mural  in  six  panels 
representing  a  "Dive-Bomber  and  Tank,"  dread  in- 
struments of  present  warfare,  in  the  Museum  of 
Modern  Art,  New  York. 

The  Edwin  A.  Abbey  Memorial  Scholarship  for 
Mural  Painting  was  awarded  for  the  first  time  on 
Nov.  15,  1940.  Founded  in  memory  of  the  great 
American  painter  and  illustrator,  this  award  is 
open  to  art  students  under  25  in  this  country  and 
Great  Britain.  Through  grants  from  the  Carnegie 
Corporation  of  New  York  an  exhibition  of  studies 
for  mural  paintings  entered  in  the  48  States  Com- 
petition conducted  by  the  Division  of  Fine  Arts, 
P.B.A.,  after  being  shown  in  the  Whitney  Muse- 
um, New  York,  was  sent  during  the  summer  on  a 
circuit  of  cities  in  Canada,  and  later  on  a  two-year 
circuit  of  museums  in  this  country. 

Death  took  heavy  toll  among  American  painters 
in  1940.  Among  those  whose  notable  careers  were 
thus  ended  were  Ernest  Lawson,  Charles  H. 
Woodbury,  Jerome  Myers,  Harry  W.  Watrous, 
F.  Luis  Mora,  Jonas  Lie,  Frederick  J.  Waugh, 
Henry  Rankin  Poore,  Ellen  Day  Hale,  Ernest 
Peixotto,  Giovanni  Battista  Trocolli,  and  Fred 
Wagner.  (See  also  ART.) 

LEILA  MECHLIN. 

PAINTS.  See  CHEMISTRY;  CHEMISTRY,  IN- 
DUSTRIAL. For  sales,  see  BUSINESS  REVIEW. 

PALAU.  See  JAPANESE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS. 

PALESTINE.  A  territory  on  the  east  coast  of 
the  Mediterranean,  administered  by  Great  Britain 
under  the  mandate  of  the  League  of  Nations  since 
Sent.  29,  1923.  Capital,  Jerusalem. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  10,429  square 
miles;  population  (Dec.  31,  1939),  1,435,145  per- 
manent residents,  of  whom  60  per  cent  were  Mos- 
lems, 31  per  cent  Jews,  and  8.2  per  cent  Christians. 
The  net  increase  by  births  and  immigration  since 


PALESTINE 


573 


PALESTINE 


the  1931  census  was  468,384,  divided  as  follows: 
Jews,  270,851  or  155.1  per  cent;  Moslems,  167,433 
or  24.2  per  cent;  Christians,  28,051  or  31.6  per 
cent.  United  States  citizens  in  Palestine  on  Jan.  1, 
1940,  numbered  8500.  About  24,000  Jewish  refu- 
gees were  estimated  to  have  entered  Palestine  dur- 
ing 1940.  Estimated  populations  of  the  chief  cities 
in  1939  were:  Tel-Aviv,  130,300  (all  Jews) :  Jeru- 
salem, 129,800;  Haifa,  104,800;  Jaffa,  77,400;  Na- 
blus,  19,900;  Gaza,  19,900;  Hebron,  19,000. 

Education.  In  1937-38  there  were  402  public 
schools  for  Arabs,  with  49,300  pupils  (mostly 
Moslems) ;  J84  private  Moslem  schools,  with  14,- 
052  pupils ;  622  Jewish  schools,  with  71,376  pupils ; 
193  Christian  schools,  with  24,046  pupils.  The  He- 
brew University  at  Jerusalem  had  733  students; 
Hebrew  Technical  Institute,  Haifa,  499. 

Production.  Agriculture  is  the  main  occupa- 
tion, although  manufacturing  is  rapidly  growing 
in  importance.  The  chief  crop  is  citrus  fruit  ( 1938- 
39  exports,  15,310,436  cases  valued  at  £P4,370,078). 
Because  of  the  war,  exports  declined  to  less  than 
7,000,000  cases  in  193SMO.  Yields  of  other  leading 
crops  were  (1939,  in  metric  tons)  :  Wheat,  89,200; 
barley,  78,000;  corn,  6200;  potatoes,  10,400;  sesa- 
mum,  3800 ;  olive  oil,  3000.  The  output  of  potash 
in  1939  was  63,527  tons ;  refined  bromine,  589  tons ; 
cement,  112,350  tons;  salt,  9000  metric  tons  (1938). 

There  were  5606  Jewish  industrial  enterprises  in 
1939  with  an  annual  output  valued  at  just  over 
£9,000,000  (sterling),  a  capital  investment  of  £11,- 
637,000,  and  106,500  horse  power.  Chief  manufac- 
tures: Clothing,  textiles,  leather,  timber  products, 
metals  and  machinery,  printing  and  paper,  food, 
chemicals,  cement.  Olive  oil,  soap,  and  wine  are 
other  products.  A  large  oil  refinery  at  Haifa  be- 
gan production  early  in  1940. 

Foreign  Trade.  Excluding  military  stores,  im- 
ports in  1939- totaled  £P14,632,822  (£P1 1,356,963 
in  1938)  and  exports  £P5,117,769  (£P5,020,368). 
Re-exports  were  valued  at  £P419,347  (£P762,649 
in  1938)  and  transit  trade  at  £P549,872  (£P671,- 
915).  Of  the  1939  imports,  the  United  Kingdom 
supplied  £P2,391,250;  United  States,  £P1,953,457; 
Germany,  £P1,621,929;  Syria,  £P1,355,203;  Ruma- 
nia, £P1,200,217.  Exports  went  mainly  to  the  Unit- 
ed Kingdom,  £P2,440,098;  Netherlands,  £P452,- 
098;  Syria,  £P389,223. 

Finance.  Budget  results  for  the  fiscal  years 
1938-39  and  1939-40.  respectively  (in  Palestine 
pounds):  Revenue,  5,940,000  and  6,768,000;  ex- 
penditure, 5,690,000  and  6,005,000 ;  surplus,  250,- 
000  and  763,000.  The  figures  for  revenue  include 
grants-in-aid  from  the  British  Government  total- 
ing £P1700,000  in  193W9  and  £P2,132,000  in 
193^-40.  The  budget  expenditure  authorized  for 
194(M1  was  £P8,858,000,  including  £P2,000,000 
for  the  construction  of  police  posts  throughout  the 
country.  Palestine  pound  (£P)  =£1  sterling. 

Transportation,  etc.  With  about  328  miles  of 
line,  the  railways  in  1939  carried  912,458  tons  of 
freight  and  746,162  passengers  with  gross  revenues 
of  £P533,952.  The  deficit  for  the  fiscal  year  1938- 
39  was  £P282,000.  Highways  (1939),  2201  miles, 
including  the  Palestine  section  of  the  newly  com- 
pleted road  from  Haifa  to  Baghdad.  Palestine's 
position  as  an  important  stopping  point  for  British, 
Dutch,  Egyptian,  Polish,  and  Italian  air  lines  was 
affected  during  1939  and  1940  by  the  extension  of 
the  European  War.  Construction  of  permanent 
buildings  at  the  new  Lydda  airport  was  completed 
late  in  1939.  A  total  of  1971  steamers  of  5,201,473 
tons  entered  Palestine  ports  during  1938. 

Government.  The  government  is  administered 


by  a  High  Commissioner  (Sir  Harold  Alfred 
MacMichael  assumed  office  Mar.  1,  1938),  who  is 
appointed  by  the  British  Crown  and  assisted  by 
executive  and  advisory  councils.  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  British  forces  in  Palestine  and 
Trans-Jordan,  Lieut.  Gen.  Philip  Neame,  who  as- 
sumed command  Aug.  6,  1940.  The  Jewish,  Mos- 
lem, and  Christian  communities  have  autonomous 
control  of  their  religious,  cultural,  and  communal 
affairs.  Official  languages,  English,  Arabic,  He- 
brew. 

HISTORY 

The  first  weeks  of  1940  were  marked  by  the 
continuance  of  the  peaceful  Arab- Jewish  relations 
established  late  in  1939  as  a  result  of  the  crushing 
of  the  Arab  revolt  and  the  rallying  of  both  Arabs 
and  Jews  to  the  British  cause  in  the  European 
War.  The  severe  economic  depression  brought 
about  by  the  war  led  Arab  and  Jewish  citrus  fruit 
growers  to  unite  in  seeking  assistance  from  the 
British  authorities.  There  was  similar  co-operation 
between  the  two  races  in  the  organization  of  air 
raid  precautions  in  Haifa  and  in  many  other  di- 
rections. However  neither  Arabs  nor  Jews  with- 
drew from  their  opposing  positions  on  the  funda- 
mental issues  of  Jewish  immigration,  land  settle- 
ment, etc.,  which  led  the  British  Government  to 
adopt  the  program  set  forth  in  the  White  Paper 
issued  May  17,  1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p 
591). 

Land  Sales  Restricted.  This  period  of  calm 
was  broken  when  the  British  Government  on  Feb 
28,  1940,  promulgated  regulations  severely  re- 
stricting Jewish  land  purchases  from  Arabs  in 
most  of  Palestine.  Applying  one  of  the  cardinal 
principles  of  the  1939  White  Paper,  the  regula- 
tions divided  the  mandated  territory  into  three 
zones.  In  the  first,  comprising  municipal  areas  and 
a  strip  of  coastal  plain  some  50  miles  long,  the 
Jews  retained  complete  freedom  to  buy  land  In 
the  second  zone,  including  the  fertile  valleys  of 
Esdraelon  and  Jezreel  and  other  territory,  Jews 
and  other  non-Arabs  were  forbidden  to  acquire 
land  except  to  improve  irrigation  facilities ;  to  en- 
able the  division  into  lots  of  land  held  jointly  by 
Jews  and  Arabs ;  and  to  encourage  plans  for  spe- 
cial joint  Arab- Jewish  land  development  schemes 
approved  by  the  British  High  Commissioner.  All 
land  sales  to  Jews  were  barred  throughout  the 
third  zone,  comprising  the  hill  country  and  certain 
parts  of  the  Gaza  and  Beersheba  subdistricts, 
where  according  to  the  British  "the  land  available 
already  is  insufficient  for  the  support  of  the  exist- 
ing population." 

Jews  Protest  Regulations.  The  British  regu- 
lations were  greeted  with  approval  by  the  Pales- 
tine Arabs  and  their  supporters  in  other  Arab  and 
Moslem  countries.  They  provoked  violent  protests 
from  the  Jews  in  Palestine  and  elsewhere  and 
from  their  supporters  in  the  British  Parliament 
The  Jewish  Agency  declared  the  regulations  made 
"a  mockery  of  the  obligation  placed  upon  His 
Majesty's  Government  by  the  mandate  to  encour- 
age close  settlement  by  Jews  on  the  land  and 
would  discriminate  against  Jews  on  the  grounds 
of  race  and  religion."  Labor  spokesmen  in  the 
British  Parliament  demanded  a  vote  of  censure 
against  the  government  on  the  ground  that  its 
Palestine  policy  favored  the  Arabs  over  the  Jews 
and  flouted  the  authority  of  the  League  of  Na- 
tions. They  held  the  regulations  should  not  have 
been  promulgated  except  with  the  prior  consent  of 
the  League  Council.  There  was  also  criticism  be- 


PALESTINE 


574 


PANAMA 


cause  the  government  had  acted  when  political 
conditions  in  Palestine  appeared  relatively  quiet 
and  when  thousands  of  persecuted  Jews  were  seek- 
in?  a  refuge  in  the  Holy  Land. 

Malcolm  MacDonald,  Secretary  of  State  for 
Colonies,  replied  before  the  House  of  Commons 
on  March  6.  He  pointed  out  that  all  the  commis- 
sions that  had  studied  the  Palestine  land  problem 
had  recommended  restricting  Arab  land  sales  to 
prevent  the  development  of  a  large  group  of  land- 
less Arabs.  He  said  that  immediate  action  was 
necessary  to  check  "a  growing  unrest  in  the  Arab 
villages,  and  a  growing  suspicion  that  His  Maj- 
esty's Government  were  not  sincere  in  their  pro- 
fessions that  they  would  protect  the  interests  of 
the  Arab  cultivators,  peasants,  and  laborers  .  .  ." 
The  land  regulations  were  not  only  morally  right, 
he  continued,  but  were  necessary  to  prevent  a  re- 
vival of  Arab  outbreaks  which  would  have  adverse 
repercussions  throughout  the  Arab  and  Moslem 
world  at  a  time  when  Britain  was  engaged  in  a 
life  and  death  struggle  with  Germany.  The  Labor 
motion  of  censure  was  defeated  in  the  House  of 
Commons  on  March  6,  292  to  129. 

Meanwhile  in  Palestine  the  announcement  of  the 
land  sale  regulations  had  provoked  a  one-day  Zion- 
ist general  strike  and  wide-spread  Jewish  demon- 
strations marked  in  Jerusalem,  Tel-Aviv  and  oth- 
er cities  by  serious  disorders.  After  2  persons  were 
killed  and  some  300  injured  in  clashes  between 
police  and  demonstrators,  the  British  authorities 
imposed  a  drastic  curfew  law  that  brought  the 
riots  to  an  end.  Several  leaders  of  the  Jewish  La- 
bor party  were  imprisoned  for  organizing  the 
demonstrations  and  the  permits  of  some  Zionist 
newspapers  were  revoked. 

Immigration  Issue.  Friction  between  Arabs 
and  Jews  and  between  the  Jews  and  the  British 
Government  also  continued  over  the  question  of 
Jewish  immigration  into  Palestine.  Mr.  MacDon- 
ald stated  in  his  Commons  speech  of  March  6  that 
the  immigration  quota  had  been  raised  to  20,000 
for  the  year  as  a  contribution  toward  the  solution 
of  the  Jewish  refugee  problem  Hundreds  of  Jews 
continued  to  enter  Palestine  illegally.  Those  caught 
by  the  British  authorities  were  held  for  proper 
certification  and  counted  as  part  of  the  quota.  On 
November  21  the  British  authorities  decided  to 
send  nearly  1800  Jewish  immigrants,  who  had  ar- 
rived without  legal  status,  to  another  British  col- 
ony for  detention  until  the  end  of  the  war.  While 
17/1  of  these  refugees  were  waiting  on  the  steam- 
er P atria  in  Haifa  harbor  on  November  25,  an  ex- 
plosion sank  the  ship.  There  were  55  known 
deaths  and  190  persons  missing. 

Economic  Measures.  The  unemployment  cri- 
sis resulting  from  the  cutting  off  of  European 
markets  for  citrus  fruits  and  other  exports,  the 
suspension  of  Jewish  capital  investments,  and  con- 
tinued immigration  was  particularly  severe  among 
the  Jews.  Remedial  measures  were  taken  by  both 
the  Jewish  community  and  the  government.  The 
Jews  levied  a  voluntary  emergency  tax  upon  in- 
comes for  unemployment  relief.  The  government 
on  January  3  appropriated  £P750,000  for  relief 
grants  and  loans  for  public  works  and  other  pur- 
poses in  both  Arab  and  Jewish  communities.  On 
April  15  additional  governmental  aid  was  extended 
to  the  citrus  growers. 

Military  Preparations.  Palestine  during  1940 
became  one  of  the  main  bastions  protecting  Brit- 
ish communications  and  interests  in  the  Near  East. 
During  the  first  months  of  the  year  there  were 
further  concentrations  of  Anglo-French  forces  in 


Palestine  and  Syria  (q.v.).  In  April  the  Second 
Australian  Imperial  Force  arrived  in  Palestine 
and  occupied  barracks  prepared  in  advance  by  Ar- 
ab and  Jewish  laborers.  A  large  number  of  air- 
planes and  part  of  the  British  Mediterranean  fleet 
were  stationed  at  Palestine  airports  and  the  Haifa 
naval  base.  Air  raid  shelters  were  erected  and 
other  precautions  taken  in  the  cities  and  addition- 
al Arab  and  Jewish  forces  were  mobilized  for  de- 
fense and  related  activities.  One  of  the  Arab- 
Jewish  volunteer  units — a  transport  section  700 
strong — arrived  in  France  on  February  28  to  join 
the  British  Expeditionary  Force.  It  returned  to 
Jerusalem  on  September  28. 

With  the  entrance  of  Italy  into  the  war  on 
June  10,  Palestine  was  placed  on  a  war  basis.  The 
blackout  was  made  permanent  for  all  cities.  On 
June  21  the  British  High  Commissioner  assumed 
power  to  draft  the  services  and  property  of  Pal- 
estinians for  defense  purposes,  including  the  main- 
tenance of  public  order  and  of  essential  supplies. 
Commencing  July  16,  the  Italians  began  air  raids 
on  Haifa  and  other  Palestine  centers  from  their 
base  in  the  Dodecanese  islands.  Some  of  the  raids 
caused  heavy  casualties.  A  raid  on  Tel -Aviv  on  the 
night  of  September  9  cost  150  lives.  The  new  oil 
refinery  at  Haifa  also  was  reported  bombed 

With  the  collapse  of  France,  many  Polish, 
Czech,  and  French  troops  crossed  from  Syria  into 
Palestine  to  join  the  British  forces.  Considerable 
numbers  of  Arabs  and  Jews  also  were  recruited 
into  the  British  forces  and  on  December  21  the 
formation  of  a  volunteer  mixed  force  was  an- 
nounced. Its  function  was  to  assist  the  regular 
forces  in  maintaining  internal  security  and  prose- 
cuting the  war. 

See  IRAQ  and  SYRIA  AND  LEBANON  under  His- 
tory ;  JEWS. 

PALMYRA.  A  coral  atoll  consisting  of  a 
group  of  small  islets  surrounded  by  a  reef  5  miles 
long  and  1%  miles  wide,  in  the  central  Pacific  (6° 
N.  and  162°  30*  W.).  Area,  1%  square  miles  The 
U.S.  Naval  Appropriations  Bill  of  1939  called  for 
the  establishment  of  a  naval  base  on  one  of  the 
islets  at  a  cost  of  $13,000,000.  A  suit  to  acquire 
title  to  Palmyra  was  filed  by  the  U.S.  Government 
in  Federal  Court,  Honolulu  (Dec  12,  1939)  after 
a  group  of  Hawaiians  had  asserted  private  owner- 
ship of  the  atoll.  On  Dec  23,  1940,  Federal  Judge 
Delbert  Metzger  denied  the  petition  of  the  govern- 
ment to  quiet  the  title  to  Palmyra.  The  govern- 
ment contended  that  title  to  the  land  had  remained 
with  the  United  States  since  the  annexation  of 
Hawaii.  Attorneys  for  the  government  said  that 
they  would  appeal  the  decision. 

PANAMA.  A  republic  of  Central  America,  bi- 
sected by  the  Panama  Canal  Zone  (q.v.).  Capital, 
Panama. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  34,169  square 
miles;  population  (estimated  September,  1940), 
650,000  excluding  the  Canal  Zone.  Racial  division 
of  population  (1930  census)  :  78,813  whites,  69,- 
583  Negroes,  42,897  Indians,  4138  Orientals,  249,- 
583  mestizos.  Census  populations  of  the  chief  cities 
were  Panama,  123,270  (1940);  Col6n,  46,000 
(1940);  David,  8000  (1930).  United  States  citi- 
zens residing  in  the  republic  on  Jan.  1,  1940  num- 
bered 6356.  Passengers  debarking  at  Canal  Zone 
ports  in  1939  exceeded  those  embarking  by  7344. 

Education  and  Religion.  About  half  the  adult 
population  is  illiterate.  There  were  61,706  pupils  in 
629  public  elementary  schools  (1938-39),  3830  in 
secondary  schools  (1937),  1012  students  in  the  In- 
stituto  Nacional  or  college  for  higher  instruction, 


PANAMA 


575 


PANAMA 


and  about  500  students  in  the  University  of  Pana- 
ma, besides  various  special,  normal,  and  vocational 
schools.  Roman  Catholicism  is  the  dominant  reli- 
gion but  other  faiths  have  a  considerable  follow- 


duction.  The  chief  occupations  are  agricul- 
ture, cattle  raising,  lumbering,  pearl  fishing,  com- 
merce, and  the  tourist  business.  Bananas  are  the 
chief  domestic  export;  shipments  were  about 
5,413,154  stems  valued  at  $2,429,921  in  1939.  Sugar 
production  in  1939  was  7727  metric  tons.  Some 
gold  and  salt  is  mined  and  there  is  manufacturing 
on  a  small  scale  for  local  consumption.  A  total  of 
118,833  passengers  transited  the  Panama  Canal 
during  1939,  an  increase  of  1392  over  1938,  and 
the  tourist  trade  benefited. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1939  were  valued 
at  $20,464,000  ($17,651,000  in  1938)  ;  exports  and 
re-exports,  $6,826,000  ($7,669,000).  The  United 
States  furnished  58.2  per  cent  of  the  1939  imports 
(Japan,  9.8;  Germany;  7.9)  and  purchased  85.8 
per  cent  of  the  domestic  exports  (Germany,  4.0). 
See  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  Budget  receipts  and  expenditures  for 
the  biennial  period  1939-40  were  estimated  to  bal- 
ance at  $22,795,000.  For  the  period  Jan.  1,  1937  to 
June  30,  1938,  actual  budgetary  revenue  was  $14,- 
441,000;  expenditure,  $15,171,000.  The  public  debt 
on  Dec.  31,  1939,  totaled  $21,567,961  (internal, 
$2,833,390;  held  in  United  States,  $18,684,571). 
The  unit  of  currency  is  the  balboa,  equivalent  to 
one  U.S.  dollar. 

Transportation.  Including  the  Canal  Zone, 
Panama  has  230  miles  of  railways;  726  miles  of 
roads  (248  miles  of  modern  surfaced  highways)  ; 
a  local  air  service  linking  Panama  with  David 
(233  miles)  and  San  Jose,  Costa  Rica;  and  the 
Panama-Crist6bal  air  service  (35  miles),  connect- 
ing at  Panama  with  Pan  American  Airways'  inter- 
national network.  Practically  all  overseas  trade 
passes  through  the  Canal  Zone  ports  of  Cristobal 
(serving  Colon)  and  Balboa  (serving  Panama). 
Congestion  at  these  ports  in  1940  led  the  govern- 
ment to  authorize  a  survey  for  a  modern  port  at 
Panama.  For  shipping,  see  PANAMA  CANAL. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  1904,  amend- 
ed in  1918  and  1928,  vested  executive  power  in  a 
President  elected  by  direct  popular  vote  for  four 
years  and  ineligible  for  re-election.  Legislative 
power  was  placed  in  a  National  Assembly  of  32 
members  elected  for  four  years,  meeting  biennially 
on  September  1.  For  the  new  Constitution  adopted 
in  1940,  see  below  under  History.  President  at  the 
beginning  of  1940,  Dr.  Augusto  S.  Boyd,  who  as- 
sumed office  on  the  death  of  President  Juan  De- 
mostenes  Arosemena  Dec.  16,  1939. 

HISTORY 

Presidential  Election.  The  presidential  cam- 
paign started  in  1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p. 
593)  reached  the  expected  conclusion  on  June  2, 
1940,  when  Dr.  Arnulfo  Arias,  candidate  of  the 
government  coalition,  and  the  government's  candi- 
dates for  the  National  Assembly  were  elected 
without  opposition.  Dr.  Ricardo  J.  Alfaro,  former 
Provisional  President  and  former  Minister  to 
Washington,  entered  the  presidential  race  with  the 
support  of  the  Socialists  and  three  other  small 
parties.  However  the  electoral  battle  engendered 
extreme  bitterness  and  on  May  31  Dr.  Alfaro  is- 
sued a  manifesto  asking  his  supporters  to  boycott 
the  polls  on  the  ground  that  the  government  ma- 
chine had  made  a  fair  election  impossible. 

During  the  campaign  Dr.  Alfaro  repeatedly 


charged  the  government  parties  with  using  vio- 
lence, coercion,  and  pettv  persecution  to  elect  their 
candidates.  Acting  President  Ernesto  Boyd  in  turn 
accused  the  Alfaro  supporters  of  subversive  and 
provocative  actions.  On  April  28  police  seized  an 
arms  cache,  arrested  a  number  of  opposition  poli- 
ticians and  charged  them  with  plotting  a  revolu- 
tion. On  May  26,  10  more  leading  members  of  the 
parties  supporting  Alfaro  were  jailed  on  conspir- 
acy charges.  Dr.  Alfaro  and  many  other  opposi- 
tionists took  refuge  in  the  Canal  Zone,  where  they 
remained  until  requested  to  leave  by  Maj.  Gen. 
Daniel  Van  Voorhis,  United  States  military  com- 
mander of  the  Zone,  on  June  4.  Dr.  Alfaro  then 
returned  to  Washington,  where  he  had  resided  pre- 
vious to  the  presidential  campaign.  He  declared 
the  conspiracy  charges  against  his  followers  were 
frameups  to  justify  the  suppression  by  the  gov- 
ernment of  "every  right,  every  liberty,  and  every 
constitutional  guarantee. 

New  Constitution.  Upon  his  inauguration  on 
October  1,  President  Arias  outlined  his  policy  as 
one  of  "peace  and  friendship  toward  all  nations." 
Urging  improved  educational  facilities  and  control 
of  public  information,  he  called  for  a  revision  of 
the  Constitution  along  "democratic  and  Unitarian" 
lines.  The  draft  of  the  new  Constitution  was  sub- 
mitted to  the  National  Assembly  on  October  17. 
It  was  unanimously  approved  on  November  22, 
ratified  by  a  plebiscite  on  December  15  (the  vote 
was  officially  reported  at  144,312  to  1865),  and 
went  into  effect  on  Jan.  2,  1941,  under  a  decree 
promulgated  by  President  Arias  on  December  24. 

The  new  Constitution  extended  the  terms  of  of- 
fice of  the  President  and  members  of  the  National 
Assembly  from  four  to  six  years  and  increased 
the  powers  of  the  President.  It  guaranteed  the 
right  of  private  property  but  stipulated  that  "pri- 
vate interest  must  give  way  before  public  social 
interest,"  and  that  "for  reasons  of  public  utility 
or  of  social  interest"  expropriation  might  take 
place  by  judicial  decree  and  with  "just  previous 
indemnity."  Labor  was  declared  a  social  obligation 
and  placed  under  the  special  protection  of  the 
State,  which  was  authonzed  to  regulate  the  rela- 
tions of  capital  and  labor.  The  right  to  strike  was 
guaranteed  except  as  to  public  services.  Entry  into 
Panama  of  members  of  the  Negro  race  whose 
original  language  was  not  Spanish,  the  yellow 
race,  and  the  original  races  of  India,  Asia  Minor, 
and  Northern  Africa  was  prohibited.  The  govern- 
ment was  authorized  to  operate  public  utilities, 
regulate  prices,  and  establish  monopolies  for  rais- 
ing revenue,  but  private  monopolies  were  pro- 
hibited. The  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  recog- 
nized as  the  church  of  the  majority  of  the  people, 
but  freedom  of  religion,  speech,  and  assembly  was 
guaranteed.  Provision  was  made  for  reconstitution 
of  the  Supreme  Court  through  appointment  by  the 
President,  with  the  consent  of  the  National  As- 
sembly, of  five  principal  magistrates  and  five  al- 
ternates, one  of  each  being  appointed  every  two 
years  for  a  period  of  10  years. 

Criticisms  of  Government.  The  nationalistic 
economic  and  political  provisions  of  the  new  Con- 
stitution aroused  much  criticism  among  Pana- 
manian leaders  not  affiliated  with  the  government. 
Former  President  Harmodio  Arias,  brother  of  the 
new  President,  led  the  attack  upon  the  new  ad- 
ministration in  his  newspaper  the  Panama  Ameri- 
can. The  President  was  accused  of  totalitarian 
tendencies  and  of  disregarding  the  provisions  of 
the  1904  Constitution  in  securing  the  enactment  of 
the  new  fundamental  law.  The  1904  document  pro- 


PANAMA  CANAL 


576 


PANAMA  CANAL 


vided  that  constitutional  amendments  must  be  ap- 
proved by  two  separate  sessions  of  the  National 
Assembly,  and  made  no  provision  for  a  national 
referendum  such  as  that  of  December  15.  Never- 
theless the  Supreme  Court  accepted  the  legality 
of  the  new  Constitution  in  a  decision  of  Decem- 
ber 28. 

Seventy  revolutionist  attacked  the  police  station 
at  Chorrera,  20  miles  from  Panama,  on  October 
20  but  were  beaten  off.  A  number  of  arrests  were 
made  of  persons  charged  with  plotting  a  general 
revolt  throughout  the  interior. 

Relations  with  United  States.  Steps  were 
taken  by  the  governments  of  Panama  and  the 
United  States  to  carry  out  the  highway  projects 
agreed  upon  in  1939  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK).  Early 
in  1940  the  Export-Import  Bank  at  Washington 
advanced  a  $2,500,000  loan  to  Panama  for  the 
construction  of  the  strategical  and  commercial 
concrete  highway  between  La  Chorrera  and  Rio 
Hato,  the  new  United  States  auxiliary  air  base. 
The  United  States  Congress  contributed  $1,500,000 
toward  this  project.  The  joint  highway  board 
called  for  under  the  Trans-Isthmian  Highway 
Convention  was  established  early  in  1940  to  super- 
vise the  Panama-Colon  highway  project.  Mean- 
while Panama  proceeded  with  construction  of  part 
of  the  roadbed  During  his  visit  to  the  Canal  Zone 
in  February,  1940,  President  Roosevelt  conferred 
with  President  Boyd  and  other  Panamanian  offi- 
cials. He  later  announced  that  the  Panamanian 
Government  had  authorized  use  of  airfields  any- 
where in  the  republic  by  American  military  planes 
if  necessary  for  the  wartime  defense  of  the  Canal. 

Following  the  German  conquest  of  Norway  and 
the  Low  Countries,  Panama  curbed  the  activities 
of  Germans  and  pro-German  elements.  A  number 
of  German-born  teachers  in  the  Institute  Nacional, 
some  naturalized  in  Panama,  were  dismissed.  In 
August  the  government  barred  entry  to  25  Costa 
Ricans  who  had  signed  a  pro-German  manifesto. 
At  the  same  time  the  police  made  a  checkup  of 
aliens  in  the  republic.  They  were  reported  to  have 
found  more  than  1200  German  Nazis,  Italian  Fas- 
cists, and  others  having  passports  issued  by  coun- 
tries conquered  by  Germany.  The  newspaper  Pan- 
ama American  on  September  8  declared  it  signifi- 
cant that  "the  defeated,  Nazi-dominated  France  of 
Petain"  had  assigned  military  and  naval  attaches 
to  the  French  Legation  in  Panama  although  the 
French  Republic  had  never  considered  such  a  step 
necessary.  The  National  Assembly  on  September 
25  unanimously  adopted  a  resolution  urging  the 
Spanish  Government  not  to  join  Germany  and  It- 
aly in  the  European  War. 

On  April  13  fire  swept  through  the  tenement 
section  of  Colon,  destroyed  hundreds  of  frame 
dwellings,  and  left  10,000  persons  homeless.  A 
third  of  the  city  was  destroyed,  with  damage  esti- 
mated at  $4,000,000.  On  April  5  the  Panamanian 
Government  announced  that,  subject  to  the  approv- 
al of  80  per  cent  of  the  bondholders,  the  two  out- 
standing dollar  bond  issues  would  be  refunded  at 
lower  interest  rates  and  provision  made  for  repay- 
ment of  interest  arrears. 

See  COLOMBIA  under  History ;  PAN  AMERICAN- 
ISM. 

PANAMA  CANAL.  The  Panama  Canal 
crosses  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  between  Limon 
Bay  on  the  Caribbean  coast  and  Panama  Bay  on 
the  Pacific  Coast.  Its  length  from  shoreline  to 
shoreline  is  4027  miles.  The  U.S.  Government 
owns  and  operates  the  canal.  A  strip  of  territory 
bordering  cither  side,  held  and  governed  by  the 


United  States,  constitutes  the  PANAMA  CANAL 
ZONK  (q.v.). 

Yearly  Traffic.  For  the  calendar  year  1940, 
ships  crossing  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  numbered 
6026  (for  1939,  6845)  ;  the  tolls  paid  to  the  Pana- 
ma Canal  for  such  crossings  amounted  to  $19,981,- 
248  for  1940  ($23,744,476  for  1939).  German  ships 
ceased  crossing  when  Germany  went  to  war ;  Ital- 
ian ships  in  1940. 

More  detailed  data  covered  the  fiscal  year  1940, 
which  ended  with  June  30.  The  following  figures 
deal  with  fiscal  years.  Crossings  made  by  commer- 
cial vessels  of  at  least  300  net  tons  (Panama  Canal 
measurement)  numbered  5370  for  1940  (5903  for 
1939)  ;  in  this  group  the  individual  vessels  that 
made  the  crossings  numbered  1613  and  averaged 
about  3%  crossings  for  1940  (1609  vessels  averag- 
ing about  3%  crossings  for  1939).  Other  crossings 
that  paid  tolls  were  made  by  non-cargo  vessels  of 
foreign  governments — 23  by  naval  ships,  of  which 
17  British,  one  by  a  dredge  of  the  Soviet  Govern- 
ment ;  and  973  by  vessels  of  under  300  tons,  com- 
mercial and  other.  Crossings  free  of  toll  in  1940 
included  255  by  vessels  of  the  U.S.  Navy,  294  by 
those  of  the  U.S.  Army,  24  by  others  of  the  U.S. 
Government,  6  by  those  of  the  Colombian  govern- 
ment, and  22  by  vessels  proceeding  only  to  under- 
go repairs. 

Tons  of  cargo  crossing  in  the  commercial  ships 
of  300  or  more  tons  totaled  27,299,016  for  the  fis- 
cal year  1940  (27,866,627  for  1939)  ;  but  in  net 
tonnage,  as  measured  under  the  rules  of  the  Canal, 
the  totals  were  much  lower,  being  only  24,144,366 
for  1940  (as  against  27,170,007  for  1939).  The  col- 
lections of  tolls,  exclusive  of  some  thousands  on 
vessels  under  300  tons,  amounted  to  $21,144,675 
for  1940,  a  sharp  drop  from  1939's  total  of  $23,- 
661,021.  Net  revenue  from  operation  was  $11253,- 
773  for  1940,  $13,841,071  for  1939. 

Data  on  the  movement  of  freight  through  the 
canal  in  the  fiscal  year  1940  showed  divers  effects 
that  the  European  war  had  on  trade.  The  west- 
ward-bound (Atlantic-to-Pacific)  part  of  the 
freight  crossing  the  Isthmus  rose  to  9,819,600  long 
tons  for  the  fiscal  year  1940,  from  9,011,267  for 
1939.  The  eastward-bound  (Pacific-to- Atlantic) 
part  diminished  to  17,479,416  for  1940,  from  18,- 
855,360  for  1939.  In  general,  trade  via  the  canal  to 
or  from  Europe  fell  off  and  that  to  or  from  the 
United  States,  via  the  canal,  except  with  Europe, 
increased.  By  conspicuous  instances,  U.S.  inter- 
coastal  trade  increased  to  2,795,708  tons  (1940) 
westward  bound,  from  2,391,523  (1939),  and  to 
4,918,629  tons  (1940)  eastward  bound,  from  4,493,- 
203  (1939).  U.S.  Atlantic  coast's  trade  with  the 
Far  East,  exclusive  of  the  Philippines,  rose  to 
2,888,160  tons  (1940)  westward  bound,  from 
2,593,808  (1939),  and  to  585,304  (1940)  eastward 
bound,  from  280,593  (1930).  Between  the  U.S. 
Atlantic  coast  and  the  South  American  Pacific 
coast,  trade  augmented  to  501,511  tons  (1940) 
westward,  from  192,732  (1939),  and  to  2,757,412 
tons  eastward  (1940)  from  2,447,257  (1939).  On 
the  other  hand,  between  Europe  and  Pacific  South 
America,  shipments  fell  to  259,700  tons  westward 
(1940),  from  415,697  (1939)  and  to  1,474,874  east- 
ward (1940)  from  2,481,541  (1939).  Between  Eu- 
rope and  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States, 
movement  dropped  to  192,374  tons  westward 
(1940)  from  337,401  (1939),  and  to  1,099,296  tons 
eastward  (1940)  from  2,349,888  (1939). 

By  tons  of  cargo,  U.S.  shipping  through  the  ca- 
nal increased  to  12,384,617  for  1940,  from  9,909,- 
380  for  1939,  and  attained  45.4  per  cent  of  all  ton- 


Wuh  World 


PAN  AMERICAN  CONFERENCE  IN  HAVANA,  CUBA 

President  Laredo  Bru  of  Cuba  addressing  the  assembly 


Wide  World 

A  GROUP  OF  LATIN-AMERICAN  ARMY  OFFICERS  ARRIVE  IN  NEW  YORK 
A  welcoming  committee  of  United  States  Army  officers  (center)  greet  the  visitors  preparatory  to  a  tour  of  military  establishments 


Wide  World 


INAUGURATION  OF  PRESIDENT  MANUEL  AVILA  CAMACHO  OF  MEXICO 
His  predecessor,  Gen  L£zaro  Cardenas,  (facing  the  camera)  offers  his  congratulations,  Dec  1,  1940 


Wide  World 


PRESIDENT  AVILA  CAMACHO  (LEFT)  RECEIVES  THE  GOOD  WISHES  OF  U  S    VICE-PRESIDENT-ELECT 

HENRY  A   WALLACE  IN  MEXICO  CITY 


PANAMA  CANAL  ZONE 


577 


PAN  AMERICANISM 


nage  of  cargo  passing  through  in  1940.  The  ton- 
nage of  British  cargo  dropped  to  5,162,351  (1940) 
from  6,801,556  (1939)  ;  that  of  Norway  to  2,905,- 
772  (1940)  from  3,408,078  (1939).  That  of  Japan 
rose  to  1,863,619  (1940)  from  1,710,303  (1939). 
With  regard  to  all  the  preceding  figures  on  ton- 
nage, however,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  totals 
of  the  bulk  of  freight  should  not  be  confused  with 
totals  of  commerce,  having  to  do  with  value. 

Work  on  Additional  Locks.  The  U.S.  Con- 
gress voted  in  1940  authorization  of  $99,000,000  in 
contracts  for  the  construction  of  a  third  set  of 
locks  in  the  canal ;  it  also  appropriated  $15,000,000 
for  the  initial  costs  of  the  undertaking.  Contrac- 
tors1 bids  were  obtained  in  December  for  work  to 
be  done  on  the  first  stages  of  the  project.  The  time 
set  by  engineers  for  the  accomplishment  of  the 
necessary  work  was  six  years,  according  to  origi- 
nal estimates.  It  was  furthermore  reported  that  the 
Government  intended  to  reserve  the  third  set  of 
locks,  when  completed,  for  the  sole  use  of  its  own 
vessels :  this  course  might  be  expected  to  preserve 
the  third  set  from  obstruction  through  treachery. 

Administration.  The  administration  of  the 
Panama  Canal  is  that  also  of  the  Panama  Canal 
Zone. 

PANAMA  CANAL  ZONE.  A  strip  of  terri- 
tory extending,  in  general,  five  miles  to  either  side 
of  the  Panama  Canal,  across  the  Isthmus  of  Pan- 
ama. The  area  also  includes  extensions  into  parts 
of  the  watershed  feeding  the  canal  and  extends  as 
far  as  the  farthest  borders  of  Gatum  Lake,  the 
chief  reservoir.  The  United  States  has  perpetual 
use,  control,  and  occupation  of  the  Zone,  as  grant- 
ed by  the  Republic  of  Panama  in  a  treaty  of  1903. 
Area,  55295  square  miles;  includes  water,  190.94 
square  miles 

The  population,  exclusive  of  officers  and  enlisted 
members  of  the  U.S.  Army  and  Navy,  was  28,978 
in  June,  1939.  On  Apr.  1,  1940,  the  total  popula- 
tion (without  the  foregoing  specified  exclusion), 
was  51,827  (U.S.  Census).  Employees  of  the  Pan- 
ama Canal  and  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company 
numbered  24,149  but  did  not  all  live  within  the 
Zone.  The  death  rate  among  the  Zone's  inhabitants 
(many  of  whom  eventually  departed  by  reason  of 
retirement  and  not  of  death)  was  6.32  per  1000  for 
1939;  birth  rate,  10.76.  Sufferers  from  malaria 
among  the  civil  employees  came  to  14  per  1000,  but 
none  had  died  of  the  disease  in  seven  years.  None 
of  the  sicknesses  requiring  to  be  excluded  by  quar- 
antine entered  the  zone  in  the  fiscal  year  1940,  nor 
did  the  inspection  of  arrivals  and  the  quarantine 
of  a  few  suspected  cases  reveal  any  actual  arrival 
of  contagious  persons  The  separate  white  and  col- 
ored public  schools  had  respectively,  in  1940,  an 
average  attendance  of  2798  and  2686  pupils. 

Government.  The  Panama  Canal  Zone  has  a 
civil  government,  prescribed  by  the  U.S.  Congress 
in  the  Panama  Canal  Act  of  1912,  subsequently 
modified.  It  is  also  the  seat  of  a  Department  of  the 
U.S.  Regular  Army.  The  civil  government  is 
headed  by  the  Governor  of  the  Panama  Canal,  an 
appointee  of  the  President;  and  it  is  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Secretary  of  War.  The  Gover- 
nor operates  and  maintains  the  canal  itself,  with 
its  auxiliary  services ;  is  president  ex  officio  of  the 
Panama  Railroad  Company;  and  holds  authority 
to  maintain  law  and  order,  health,  and  education 
and  to  deal  with  related  matters,  among  the  in- 
habitants. The  Military  Commander  of  the  Pana- 
ma Department  (U.S.A.)  has  normally  to  do  only 
with  the  military  forces :  but  on  Sept.  25,  1939, 
an  executive  order  of  the  President  put  the  Gov- 


ernor, canal,  and  Canal  Zone  temporarily  under 
the  direction  of  the  Military  Commander.  In  1940 
the  Governor  was  Brig.  Gen.  C.  S.  Ridley,  (until 
the  end  of  June),  succeeded  by  Col.  (later  Brig. 
Gen.)  Glen  E.  Edgerton.  Military  Commander, 
Maj.  Gen.  Daniel  Van  Voorhis. 

History.  The  start  of  the  great  task  of  giving 
the  Panama  Canal  a  third  system  of  locks  is  dis- 
cussed under  PANAMA  CANAL. 

The  Army's  forces  defending  the  zone  were  re- 
organized in  February  on  the  lately  approved  basis 
of  functional  distinctions  among  the  troops.  Un- 
easiness over  suspected  activities  of  agents  of  an- 
ti-democratic belligerent  governments  continued. 
According  to  a  report  current  in  June,  several 
hundred  Germans  and  Austrians  were  supposedly 
among  the  persons  employed  in  the  zone.  A  man 
giving  the  name  of  Emil  Wolff,  on  his  way  from 
Germany  via  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Panama 
Canal,  ostensibly  to  work  for  a  drug  firm  in  Bue- 
nos Aires,  was  taken  from  a  Japanese  vessel,  with 
a  trunk  containing  German  official  matter  not  dis- 
closed. He  pleaded  guilty  of  failure  to  comply 
with  the  U.S.  requirements  as  to  agents  of  foreign 
governments.  The  U.S.  District  Court  in  the  zone 
fined  him  $2000  and  imposed,  but  suspended,  a 
sentence  to  prison. 

The  problem  of  dealing  with  possible  disturbers 
was  to  have  been  lightened  by  a  measure  in  Con- 
gress, to  restrict  skilled  and  other  superior  em- 
ployment in  the  zone  to  citizens  of  the  United 
States.  But  in  view  of  the  provisions  of  the  U.S. 
treaty  of  1936  with  the  Republic  of  Panama,  the 
President,  in  March,  found  it  proper  to  intimate 
objection  to  the  bill  Late  in  May,  several  political 
fugitives  from  the  Republic  of  Panama,  having 
entered  the  zone,  were  arrested.  General  Van 
Voorhis  issued  (May  27)  a  ruling  that  such  refu- 
gees, in  order  to  avoid  arrest,  must  register  with 
the  police  of  the  zone.  A  few  days  later,  June  4, 
he  urged  the  Panamanian  refugees  to  depart  By 
executive  order  the  President,  June  20,  gave  the 
Governor  of  the  zone  authority  to  exclude,  as  un- 
desirable, persons  engaging  in  or  inciting  a  strike 
against  the  U.S.  Government.  An  Army  transport 
conveyed  134  aliens  from  the  zone  to  New  York 
in  September.  In  spite  of  efforts  against  disturbers, 
a  brief  strike  of  possibly  1000  unorganized  un- 
skilled workers  started  on  September  5.  Most  of 
the  strikers  went  back  to  work  on  the  9th,  upon 
warning  that  otherwise  they  would  be  discharged. 

PAN  AMERICAN  AIRWAYS.  See  AERO- 
NAUTICS. 

PAN  AMERICAN  HIGHWAY.  See  AUTO- 
MOBILES. 

PAN  AMERICANISM.  The  Pan  American 
movement,  after  many  years  of  pioneering,  offered 
in  1940  many  well-explored  methods  for  the  com- 
mon action  of  American  nations,  as  they  came  to 
face  a  mass  of  economic  and  political  difficulties 
brought  upon  them  by  the  war  in  Europe.  Some 
of  these  troubles  had  begun  in  1939.  when  the  op- 
erations of  the  German  warship  Graf  Spee  and 
her  pursuers  brought  warfare  almost  to  the  harbor 
of  Montevideo.  As  the  war  went  on,  the  trade  of 
the  American  countries  almost  universally  suffered 
from  the  impossibility  of  dealing  with  the  Euro- 
pean continent  and  the  great  restriction  of  com- 
merce with  Great  Britain.  Agents  of  Germany, 
bent  on  disturbing  governments  aligned  with  Great 
Britain  by  business  interest,  created  alarm  and,  in 
the  case  of  Uruguay  (q.v.),  came  somewhat  near 
to  maturing  a  plot  for  overthrowing  the  govern- 
ment. Interruption  of  economic  activity  introduced 


PAN  AMERICANISM 


57S 


PAN  AMERICANISM 


new  risk  of  social  upheaval  in  a  number  of  the 
greater  Latin  American  republics.  The  situation 
heightened  the  influence  of  the  United  States ;  and 
the  U.S.  Government  took  the  opportunity  to  offer 
economic  aid  and  to  further  a  united  public  policy 
among  its  neighbors,  as  to  defense  of  territory,  the 
safeguarding  of  European  nations'  American  col- 
onies from  conquest,  and  the  protection  of  the 
American  countries'  economic  and  social  systems. 
The  year's  foremost  event  in  the  Pan  American 
field  was  the  Havana  Conference,  which  dealt  with 


many  of  the  common  problems  and,  in  particular, 
drew  up  measures  for  action  to  prevent  European 
colonies  in  the  Americas  from  falling  into  con- 
querors' hands.  The  Inter-American  Financial  and 
Economic  Advisory  Committee,  established  late  in 
1939,  in  accordance  with  a  resolution  of  the  Pan- 
ama Conference,  carried  out  or  advanced  the  chief 
matters  put  in  its  hands  by  that  conference  and  its 
successor  the  Havana  Conference  of  1940.  Its 
earliest  effort,  the  preparation  of  a  plan  for  an 
Inter-American  Bank,  was  followed  by  the  crea- 


XUCH   LANtxi  ARE  SHOWN  IN  BLACU. 
OR    ARC   UNDERLINED 


PAN  AMERICANISM 


579 


PAN  AMERICANISM 


tion  of  the  Inter-American  Development  Commis- 
sion, a  permanent  agency  for  promoting  trade  and 
industry,  and  by  the  settlement  of  difficulties  over 
the  quotas  of  coffee-producing  American  coun- 
tries' future  sales  of  coffee  to  the  United  States. 
Later,  the  Commission  brought  about  a  maritime 
conference  of  the  American  nations  (November 
25  to  December  2). 

Havana  Conference.  The  U.S.  Department  of 
State  convoked  in  June  a  conference  of  the  For- 
eign Ministers  of  the  governments  of  the  Ameri- 
can countries.  Its  immediate  predecessor,  the  Pan- 
ama Conference,  had  met  in  September,  1939,  just 
after  the  start  of  the  European  war  (see  YEAR 
BOOK,  1939,  p.  595).  The  new  conference  met  at 
Havana  on  July  21  and  continued  until  July  30.  It 
followed  closely  upon  the  German  victory  over 
western  Europe ;  yet  more  closely,  upon  President 
Roosevelt's  announcement,  June  21,  of  an  intended 
"system  of  joint  marketing  of  the  important  staple 
products  of  the  American  republics,"  to  constitute 
part  of  a  "program  of  economic  defense."  The 
proposed  agenda  included  not  only  possible  meas- 
ures of  economic  co-operation  but  steps  to  be  taken 
if  European  possessions  in  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere should  be  lost  or  impaired  and  such  other 
defensive  preparations  as  might  seem  prudent. 

The  Havana  Conference  provided  against  the 
transfer  of  any  possession  m  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere from  one  non-American  sovereignty  to  an- 
other. This  was  accomplished  by  the  adoption  of 
two  measures :  the  one,  submitting  to  the  American 
republics,  for  ratification,  a  convention  providing 
for  action  against  such  occurrence ;  the  other,  the 
Act  of  Havana,  which  made  provisional  safe- 
guards to  the  same  purpose,  for  such  time  as  might 
precede  the  necessary  ratifications  of  the  con- 
vention. 

The  Havana  Convention  required  that  any  such 
possession,  in  case  another  non-American  power 
should  attempt  to  acquire  or  control  it,  should  pass 
under  the  administration  of  one  or  more  of  the 
American  governments.  It  created  an  Inter-Ameri- 
can Commission  for  Territorial  Administration 
having  power  to  authorize  such  an  administration. 
It  required  ratification  by  two-thirds  of  the  Amer- 
ican Republics  to  render  it  effective.  The  sub- 
stantive part  of  the  text  was  as  follows  • 

If  a  non-American  state  shall  directly  or  indirectly  at- 
tempt to  replace  another  non- American  state  m  the  sov- 
ereignty or  control  which  it  exercised  over  any  territory 
located  in  the  Americas,  thus  threatening  the  peace  of 
the  continent,  such  territory  shall  automatically  come  un- 
der the  provisions  of  this  convention  and  shall  be  submit- 
ted to  a  provisional  administrative  regime. 

The  administration  shall  be  exercised,  as  may  be  con- 
sidered advisable  in  each  case,  by  one  or  more  American 
states,  with  their  previous  approval. 

The  Act  of  Havana  declared  that  regions  in  the 
Americas,  when  in  danger  of  passing  from  one 
non-American  sovereignty  to  another,  might  be 
placed  by  the  American  nations  under  a  provision- 
al administration.  It  created  an  emergency  com- 
mittee (of  one  member  from  each  American  re- 
public) ,  authorized  to  administer  any  such  region 
until  the  Havana  Convention  should  come  into 
effect.  But  in  case  of  pressing  need,  it  allowed  any 
of  the  American  republics  to  act  in  such  manner 
as  individual  defense  and  that  of  the  continent 
might  require,  reporting  thereon  to  the  committee. 
This  act  was  to  serve  only  until  the  convention's 
coming  into  effect 

In  dealing  with  the  Americas'  economic  troubles 
the  Havana  Conference  did  not  generate  any  full, 
detailed  system  of  common  policy  to  mend  them. 
Nor  did  the  United  States  press  the  economic  pro- 


gram outlined  in  President  Roosevelt's  announce- 
ment of  June  21.  On  die  contrary,  Secretary  of 
State  Hull,  in  his  speech  at  the  outset  of  the  con- 
ference declared  that  his  government  would  try  to 
effect  the  completion  of  steps  already  in  progress 
before  starting  to  deal  with  monetary  and  ex- 
change matters  and  that  "a  broader  system  of 
inter-American  co-operative  organization  in  trade" 
would  meanwhile  remain  under  consideration.  The 
idea  of  a  Pan  American  marketing  organization 
or  cartel  did  not  crystallize  at  Havana.  The  con- 
ference did  adopt  a  resolution  on  economic  and 
financial  co-operation.  This  resolution  laid  down 
liberal  principles  for  trade,  envisaging  its  eventual 
resumption  with  the  entire  world  (an  implied  de- 
nial of  intent  to  blacklist  Germany).  It  strength- 
ened the  authority  and  broadened  the  field  of  the 
Inter-American  Financial  and  Economic  Advisory 
Committee;  and  instructed  this  committee  to  per- 
form several  tasks,  notably,  to  provide  storing, 
financing,  handling,  and  equitable  terms  of  trade 
for  the  countries'  surplus  of  commodities. 

As  to  good  relations  among  the  American  gov- 
ernments, the  conference  resolved  to  recommend 
to  the  governing  board  of  the  Pan-American 
Union  the  creation  of  a  committee  of  representa- 
tives of  five  countries,  for  noting  and  helping  to 
solve  disputes.  Hostile  acts  in  territorial  waters 
and  in  the  marine  zone  of  security  proclaimed  by 
the  Panama  Conference  were  condemned,  but  no 
particular  sanctions  against  them  were  adopted. 
Governments  were  urged  to  "use  the  necessary 
means"  to  prevent  plots  of  civil  war,  disturbance, 
or  dissemination  of  subversive  ideas  in  neighboring 
countries. 

As  to  an  existing  dispute  between  Chile  (q.v.) 
and  Spain,  the  conference  declared  "sympathy  and 
fraternal  solidarity"  with  Chile's  attitude.  As  to 
current  signs  of  German  plots  against  some  of  the 
republics,  a  resolution  declared  that  each  of  the 
American  republics  "shall  adopt  within  its  terri- 
tory all  necessary  measures  in  accordance  with  its 
constitutional  powers"  against  foreign  efforts  to 
subvert  the  domestic  institutions. 

Emergency  Committee.  The  Emergency  Com- 
mittee provided  by  the  Act  of  Havana  as  the  agent 
in  case  of  the  impairment  of  a  foreign  sovereignty 
in  an  American  possession  became  effective  on  Oc- 
tober 24,  two-thirds  of  the  republics  haying  named 
members  to  it.  The  recent  entry  of  British  forces 
in  the  Netherland  West  Indies  might  have  been 
interpreted  as  a  case  within  its  province,  under  the 
very  general  terms  of  its  mandate.  But  the  com- 
mittee obviously  followed  its  judgment  that  the 
British  occupation  tended  to  preserve  rather  than 
impair  the  sovereignty  of  the  Netherland  govern- 
ment in  exile,  and  took  no  action. 

Neutrality.  Great  Britain  replied,  January  16, 
to  the  American  republics'  protest  of  1939  against 
violation  of  marine  zone  of  security  that  the  Pan- 
ama Conference  had  declared.  The  reply  was 
deemed  a  refusal  to  keep  the  restrictions  set  up 
for  the  zone,  for  Britain  agreed  to  conform  only 
if  German  activity  in  the  zone  were  restricted  to 
an  impracticable  extent.  There  followed,  on  March 
16,  a  further  protest  to  Great  Britain,  dispatched 
by  the  President  of  Panama  on  behalf  of  all  the 
American  republics.  It  declared  that  a  British  war- 
ship's sinking  of  the  German  freighter  Wakama 
off  the  Brazilian  coast  on  February  12  had  violated 
the  zone.  Again,  on  May  24,  a  similar  protest  fol- 
lowed a  British  warship's  interception  of  the  Ger- 
man ship  Hannover  off  the  coast  of  the  Dominican 
Republic. 


PAN  AMERICAN  UNION 


580 


PAPER  AND  PULP 


Other  belligerents  replied  to  the  1939  Pan  Amer- 
ican protest  France  (January  23)  asserted  the 
right  to  take  counter-measures  in  the  zone,  as  the 
German  navy  had  not  respected  it.  Germany  (Feb- 
ruary 14)  held  that  the  zone  made  a  sanctuary  of 
the  British  and  French  territories  in  the  New 
World  and  that  Britain  and  France  had  already 
rejected  the  idea  of  the  zone.  The  Inter-American 
Neutrality  Committee  showed  some  disposition  to 
seek  fuller  authorization  for  dealing  with  the 
maintenance  of  the  Declaration  of  Panama.  It  pro- 
posed a  plan  for  shutting  out  of  American  ports 
any  ships  transgressing  the  restrictions  of  the  se- 
curity zone  and  in  some  cases  also  excluding  all 
ships  of  the  transgressing  nation.  The  proposal 
was  not  adopted. 

Inter-American  Bank.  Progress  toward  the 
establishment  of  an  Inter-American  Bank  was  one 
of  the  most  notable  steps  on  the  way  to  full  eco- 
nomic linking  of  the  republics.  The  Inter-Ameri- 
can Financial  Economic  Advisory  Committee, 
which  started  to  operate  on  Nov.  2,  1939,  made  the 
creation  of  this  bank  its  first  task.  Shares,  at  $100,- 
000  each,  were  allotted  to  each  republic,  in  number 
proportional  to  its  part  of  the  combined  republics' 
foreign  commerce.  By  May  10  five  governments, 
the  United  States  included,  had  signed  a  conven- 
tion for  the  establishment  of  the  bank,  rendering 
the  convention  effective.  It  remained  to  have  the 
signatures  ratified  and  to  incorporate  the  bank  by 
act  of  the  U.S.  Congress.  In  the  meantime,  the 
United  States  gave  extensive  credit  to  some  of  the 
other  republics  through  the  Export-Import  Bank. 

See  ARGENTINA,  BRAZIL,  BRITISH  WEST  INDIES, 
CHILE,  COLOMBIA,  CUBA,  CURACAO,  ECUADOR, 
PERU,  MARTINIQUE,  MEXICO,  URUGUAY,  and  the 
other  American  republics  and  colonies  under  His- 
tory; also  NATIONAL  DEFENSE  ADVISORY  COM- 
MISSION; EDUCATION;  INTER- AMERICAN  UNION 
OF  THE  CARIBBEAN  ;  PAN  AMERICAN  UNION. 

PAN  AMERICAN  UNION.  The  Pan  Amer- 
ican Union  is  an  official  international  organization 
founded  in  1890  as  the  International  Bureau  of 
American  Republics  and  maintained  by  the  21  re- 
publics of  the  Western  Hemisphere  for  the  de- 
velopment among  them  of  good  understanding, 
friendly  intercourse,  commerce,  and  peace.  It  is 
controlled  by  a  Governing  Board,  composed  of  the 
Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States  and  the 
diplomatic  representatives  in  Washington  of  the 
other  republics,  and  is  administered  by  a  Director 
General  and  an  Assistant  Director  chosen  by  the 
Board. 

The  Union  publishes  a  monthly  Bulletin  which 
is  issued  in  three  editions,  English,  Spanish,  and 
Portuguese,  as  well  as  numerous  special  reports 
on  the  countries  which  are  members  of  the  Union. 
These  are  widely  distributed  in  all  the  republics 
of  the  American  continent  and  are  intended  to 
make  available  information  on  the  various  aspects 
of  inter-American  activity. 

The  Pan  American  Union  acts  as  the  perma- 
nent organ  of  the  International  Conferences  of 
American  States  which  meet  at  intervals  of  five 
years.  The  last  or  Eighth  of  these  Conferences  was 
held  at  Lima,  Peru,  Dec.  9-27,  1938.  The  pro- 
gram and  regulations  of  each  Conference  are  pre- 
pared by  the  Governing  Board  of  the  Union,  and 
in  the  interval  between  the  Conferences  the  or- 
ganization is  engaged  in  giving  effect  to  the  reso- 
lutions adopted  and  also  co-operates  in  securing 
the  ratification  of  the  treaties  and  conventions 
signed  at  each  Conference. 

The  Lima  Conference  resulted  in  a  considerable 


enlargement  of  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of 
the  Pan  American  Union  which  during  1940  was 
engaged  in  giving  effect  to  the  conclusions 
adopted  at  the  Conference.  A  new  Division  of  La- 
bor and  Social  Information  was  organized  which 
began  to  function  on  Jan.  1,  1940,  and  the  scope  of 
other  administrative  divisions  was  broadened. 

Apr.  14,  1940,  marked  the  50th  anniversary  of 
the  founding  of  the  Pan  American  Union,  an  oc- 
casion which  was  observed  throughout  the  Amer- 
ican Continent  with  appropriate  ceremonies.  At 
Washington  a  special  session  of  the  Governing 
Board  of  the  Pan  American  Union  was  held  at 
which  President  Roosevelt  delivered  the  principal 
address.  At  the  meeting  of  the  Governing  Board 
held  on  Nov.  6,  1940,  the  Secretary  of  State  of 
the  United  States  was  re-elected  Chairman  of  the 
Board  for  the  ensuing  year.  Francisco  Castillo 
Najera,  Ambassador  of  Mexico,  was  at  the  same 
time  elected  Vice  Chairman  to  succeed  Hector 
David  Castro,  Minister  of  El  Salvador.  Head- 
quarters of  the  Union  are  at  the  Pan  American 
Building,  Washington,  DC.;  L.  S.  Rowe,  Direc- 
tor General;  Pedro  de  Alba,  Assistant  Director. 
See  PAN  AMERICANISM  ;  STAMP  COLLECTING. 

PANTELLARIA.  An  Italian  island  (32  sq. 
mi.;  pop.,  9082)  in  the  Mediterranean  45  miles 
from  the  coast  of  Tunisia  and  62  miles  from  the 
Sicilian  coast  Strategically  situated  to  dominate 
the  shipping  route  between  the  eastern  and  west- 
ern Mediterranean,  it  was  fortified  by  Italy  dur- 
ing the  crisis  of  1935-37  in  Anglo-Italian  rela- 
tions. The  island  has  two  small  ports  and  is  said 
to  be  equipped  for  use  as  an  auxiliary  air  and  sub- 
marine base  (see  map,  1938  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  360). 

PAPER  AND  PULP.  Paper  production  for 
1940  reached  an  all-time  record  of  14,372,000  tons, 
an  increase  of  6.5  per  cent  over  1939.  The  produc- 
tion ratio  of  leading  mills  averaged  87  6  per  cent, 
compared  with  84.9  per  cent  for  1939.  The  average 
operating  ratio  of  paper  board  mills  was  71.0  per 
cent,  compared  with  70  0  per  cent  for  1939. 

The  European  war  increased  the  demand  for  pa- 
per and  paper  products  to  a  substantial  extent  and 
the  inability  of  European  paper  and  pulp  manufac- 
turers to  supply  non-producing  countries  resulted 
in  an  acute  shortage  of  paper,  particularly  news- 
print, in  international  trade  The  United  States 
and  Canada  were  called  upon  to  supply  the  defi- 
ciency. As  a  result  production  of  paper  and  pulp 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada  steadily  increased. 

Newsprint  production  in  the  United  States  to- 
taled 1,013,437  tons,  an  increase  of  7.9  per  cent 
over  1939.  Canada  produced  3,418,803  tons,  an  in- 
crease of  19.2  per  cent,  and  Newfoundland  352,585 
tons,  an  increase  of  14  5  per  cent  over  1939  Prices 
remained  stable  at  $50  per  ton.  Paper  imports  were 
more  than  2,345,000  tons  and  exports  over  505,000 
tons. 

Wood  pulp  production  of  all  grades  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  totaled  9,007,000  tons,  which  is  the  high- 
est annual  production  on  record.  Wood  pulp  im- 
ports for  1940  totaled  1,218,070  tons,  of  which 
828,046  tons  came  from  Canada ;  Sweden  supplied 
279,022  tons;  Finland  87,134  tons;  Norway  17,190 
tons ;  Estonia  3579  tons ;  Rumania  3089  tons,  and 
France  10  tons.  United  States  exports  approxi- 
mated 480,000  tons.  Pulpwood  imports  aggregated 
1,065,695  cords 

Prices  during  1940  fluctuated  to  a  substantial  de- 
gree. The  price  level  on  Dec.  30,  1940,  compared 
with  Dec.  30,  1939,  showed  the  following  changes 
in  the  most  important  raw,  semi-finished,  and  fin- 
ished materials :  Average  price  of  the  major  grades 


PAPUA 


581 


PARAQUAT 


of  wood  pulp,  excepting  groundwood  pulp,  ad- 
vanced 40.3  per  cent ;  raw  paper,  excepting  news- 
print and  paper  board,  advanced  9.1  per  cent;  chip 
and  news  board  declined  7.1  per  cent.  Ten  impor- 
tant paper-making  chemicals  showed  an  average 
advance  of  5.0  per  cent.  No  important  advances 
and  some  small  declines  occurred  in  paper-making 
rags,  but  gunny  advanced  8.1  per  cent,  Manila  rope 
80  per  cent,  and  No.  1  mixed  paper  declined  9.0 
per  cent.  See  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL;  ELECTRI- 
CAL INDUSTRIES  under  Electric  Drive;  TEXAS. 
STILLMAN  TAYLOR. 

PAPUA.  See  AUSTRALIA  under  Overseas  Ter- 
ritory 
PARACHUTE    TROOPS.    See    MILITARY 

PROf.RESS. 

PARAGUAY.  An  inland  republic  of  South 
America.  Capital,  Asuncion. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  about  169,266 
square  miles  (61,647  square  miles  east  of  the  Para- 
guay River,  and  about  107,619  square  miles  west 
of  the  river  confirmed  to  Paraguay  by  the  arbitral 
award  of  Oct.  10,  1938  which  ended  the  Bolivian- 
Paraguayan  dispute  over  the  Chaco  Boreal).  The 
estimated  population  on  Dec.  31,  1939,  was  1,000,- 
000  including  about  32,000  Paraguayans,  4000  Men- 
nonitc  farmers,  and  8000  aborigines  in  the  Chaco. 
With  the  exception  of  the  small  white  ruling  class, 
the  people  are  of  mixed  Spanish  and  Guarani  In- 
dian blood.  Spanish  and  Guarani  are  the  spoken 
languages;  Spanish  the  language  of  government, 
commerce,  and  education  The  estimated  popula- 
tion of  Asuncion  on  Dec.  31,  1939,  was  104,819; 
of  other  cities  in  1934.  Villarrica,  35,760;  Ita, 
30,252;  Capiata,  19,923. 

Education  and  Religion.  There  is  widespread 
illiteracy  In  1937  there  were  139,466  pupils  in  1742 
primary  schools,  2034  in  secondary  schools,  and 
350  students  in  the  National  University  Roman 
Catholicism  is  the  State  religion.  Freedom  of  wor- 
ship is  guaranteed  other  faiths. 

Defense.  Paraguay  on  Nov.  1,  1940,  had  an 
active  army  of  about  6000,  an  air  force  of  170,  and 
a  trained  reserve  of  80,000  (mostly  veterans  of 
the  Chaco  War).  The  navy  consisted  of  two  ar- 
mored gunboats  and  two  other  armed  river  boats. 

Production.  Yields  of  the  chief  crops  in  1937- 
38  were  (in  metric  tons)  :  Cotton,  41,180;  yerba 
mate,  14,415;  tobacco,  3620;  corn,  69,247;  manioc, 
502,530;  beans,  22,193;  sugar  cane,  289,900;  pea- 
nuts, 16,908;  sweet  potatoes,  103,248;  rice,  9386; 
bananas,  6,703,004  stems.  On  Dec.  31,  1939,  there 
were  3,506,727  cattle,  205,501  horses,  and  195,264 
sheep.  Production  of  industrialized  agricultural 
and  forest  products  in  1938  was  (in  metric  tons)  : 
Quebracho  extract,  35,242 ;  sugar,  7620 ;  petit-grain 
oil,  110;  cotton  fiber,  12,478;  wheat  flour,  514;  and 
of  other  products  (in  liters,  equal  to  0.264  U.S. 
gal.)  :  Alcohol,  pure,  376,464;  alcohol,  denatured, 
91,103;  castor  oil,  18,949;  wines,  360,000;  peanut 
oil,  11,270;  coconut  oil,  561,630;  cottonseed  oil, 
3,147,444.  Cheap  textiles,  shoes,  leather  goods, 
soap,  furniture,  matches,  cigarettes,  foodstuffs,  etc., 
are  manufactured  for  domestic  consumption. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1939  were  12,603,- 
834  gold  pesos  (13,082,101  in  1938)  ;  exports,  13,- 
163,516  (12,017,228  in  1938).  Value  of  leading 
1939  exports  (in  gold  pesos)  :  Quebracho  extract, 
3,321,468;  canned  meat,  1,799,990;  cattle  hides, 
1,637,724;  yerba  mate,  1,311,583;  meat  extract, 
1,167,680.  For  distribution  of  trade  by  countries  in 
1938,  see  1939  YEAR  BOOK. 

Finance.  The  Minister  of  Finance  on  Feb.  26, 


1940,  announced  an  accumulated  budget  deficit  of 
300,000,000  gold  pesos  from  the  fiscal  year  1935-36 
to  Dec.  31,  1939,  inclusive.  The  budget  for  the  last 
seven  months  of  the  1938-39  fiscal  year  estimated 
revenues  at  1,764,890  gold  pesos  and  1,054,688,000 
paper  pesos  and  expenditures  at  1,454,000  gold  and 
1,231,154,000  paper  pesos.  On  Dec.  31,  1938,  the 
external  debt  was  8,715,906  gold  pesos;  internal 
debt,  20,019,087  gold  pesos  and  758,474,347  paper 
pesos  (see  History).  Average  exchange  rate  of  the 
Paraguayan  gold  peso,  $0.6134  in  1939  ($0  6866  in 
1938)  ;  of  paper  pesos,  $0.00373  in  1939  ($0.00426 
in  1938).  Par  value  of  the  gold  peso,  $1.63. 

Transportation.  Railways  in  1940  extended  713 
miles,  all  privately  owned.  Air  lines  connect  Asun- 
cion with  Buenos  Aires,  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Santos. 
Asuncion,  950  miles  from  the  sea,  is  accessible  to 
river  vessels  of  12  foot  draft  at  all  times  of  the 
year;  in  1937  4503  steamers  of  251,331  tons  en- 
tered the  port.  A  100-mile  highway  from  Asuncion 
to  Villarrica  was  under  construction  by  American 
engineers  in  1940.  Roads  of  all  types  extended 
3759  miles,  of  which  only  about  30  miles  were  im- 
proved with  gravel  surface. 

Government.  A  state  of  siege,  or  modified 
martial  law,  was  in  effect  in  Paraguay  almost  con- 
tinuously from  the  outbreak  of  the  Chaco  War  in 
1932  through  1940.  The  Constitution  of  1870  was 
suspended  following  the  successful  military  revolt 
of  Feb.  17,  1936.  A  Congress  of  20  Senators  and 
40  Deputies,  elected  Sept.  25,  1938,  was  composed 
exclusively  of  Liberals  as  the  opposition  National 
Republican  (Colorado)  party  boycotted  the  polls. 
On  Apr.  30,  1939,  Gen  Jose  Felix  Estigarnbia 
(Liberal)  was  elected  President,  with  the  Colo- 
rado party  again  refusing  to  vote.  He  assumed 
office  Aug.  15,  1939.  For  developments  in  1940,  see 
History. 

HISTORY 

Dictatorship  Established.  The  efforts  made 
by  President  Estigarribia  to  restore  orderly,  con- 
stitutional government  encountered  unexpected 
difficulties  early  in  1940  and  on  February  18  he  as- 
sumed dictatorial  powers.  The  two  primary  factors 
influencing  his  decision  were  the  outbreak  of  stu- 
dent disorders  and  his  failure  to  obtain  the  co- 
operation of  the  Colorado  party,  which  had  re- 
fused to  participate  in  elections  since  1931. 

The  President's  negotiations  with  the  Colorados 
appeared  to  be  nearing  success  in  the  first  weeks 
of  the  year.  A  tentative  agreement  was  reached 
under  which  the  Liberal  Congress  would  resign, 
the  state  of  siege  would  be  ended,  and  new  Con- 
gressional elections  held  with  both  parties  com- 
peting. Ratification  of  this  accord  was  delayed  by 
dissension  within  the  Liberal  party  between  a 
youthful  faction  of  Estigarribia  supporters  and  old- 
line  Liberals  led  by  ex-President  Jos6  P.  Gug- 
giari  and  Geronimo  Zubizarreta  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 
1938,  p.  132). 

Meanwhile  the  government  became  involved  in 
controversy  with  students  at  the  National  Uni- 
versity. The  Minister  of  Justice  and  Education, 
Efraim  Cardpzo,  banned  a  meeting  of  students 
who  sympathized  with  bitter  attacks  made  upon 
the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Justo  Prieto,  by 
the  pro-Fascist  newspaper  El  Tiempo.  When  the 
governing  council  of  the  autonomous  university 
censured  Dr.  Cardozo  for  this  action,  President 
Estigarribia  intervened  and  with  Congressional 
assent  placed  the  university  under  the  Minister  of 
Education's  direct  supervision.  A  number  of  promi- 
nent members  of  the  faculty  were  dismissed  and 


PARAQUAT  582 

Congress  voted  funds  to  hire  foreign  professors  to 
replace  them.  The  students  then  started  a  strike 
that  spread  to  the  secondary  schools  and  com- 
menced distribution  of  handbills  calling  for  the 
overthrow  of  the  government.  The  government 
retaliated  by  arresting  student  leaders  and  segre- 
gating them  in  small  towns  near  the  Brazilian 
border. 

The  time  limit  set  for  state  of  siege  expired  on 
February  15,  with  the  student  strike  still  under 
way.  In  view  of  this  situation,  President  Estigar- 
ribia  obtained  from  Congress  a  law  restricting  the 
rights  of  assembly  and  free  speech.  The  Colorado 
party  then  announced  that  because  of  this  law  and 
the  government's  intervention  in  the  National  Uni- 
versity it  had  decided  not  to  participate  in  the  elec- 
tions. On  February  16  the  cabinet  resigned  to  give 
the  President  a  free  hand  in  meeting  the  political 
crisis.  He  appointed  a  new  ministry  of  nine  instead 
of  seven  members.  Congress  then  met  in  extraordi- 
nary session  on  February  17  and  resigned  collec- 
tively after  authorizing  the  convening  of  a  Con- 
stituent Assembly  one  year  later  to  draft  a  new 
Constitution.  The  law  barred  any  change  in  Ar- 
ticle I  of  the  1870  Constitution  which  provided 
that  the  government  must  be  democratic  and  repre- 
sentative in  form. 

On  the  following  day  President  Estigarribia  in 
a  radio  address  to  the  nation  announced  that  he 
had  assumed  dictatorial  powers  to  check  "anarchy 
and  social  decomposition."  He  called  for  a  new 
form  of  democracy,  based  on  collective  co-opera- 
tion, that  would  be  social  and  economic  as  well  as 
political  in  its  application  Once  anarchy  had  been 
ended  and  the  people  had  demonstrated  their  fit- 
ness to  rule  themselves,  he  promised  to  call  ejec- 
tions for  a  Constituent  Assembly.  In  the  meantime, 
all  political  activities  were  banned.  These  measures 
and  the  elimination  of  Dr.  Cardozo  from  the  cabi- 
net soon  calmed  the  political  atmosphere. 

The  New  Constitution.  On  February  18  a 
committee  of  university  professors  headed  by  Dr. 
Cecilio  Bdez,  rector  of  the  National  University, 
was  appointed  to  draft  a  new  Constitution.  Its 
work  was  completed  July  9  and  on  July  10  the  new 
organic  law  was  signed  by  President  Estigarribia. 
Instead  of  submitting  the  Constitution  to  a  freely 
elected  Constituent  Assembly,  as  originally  planned, 
the  President  called  a  national  plebiscite,  held  Au- 
gust 4,  at  which  the  document  was  approved  by  a 
vote  of  163,628  to  13,521.  It  was  promulgated  on 
August  15,  when  the  President,  the  cabinet,  and 
other  high  government  officials  swore  to  observe  it. 

The  Constitution  vested  executive  power  in  a 
President,  a  State  Council  representing  economic 
groups  on  a  corporative  basis,  and  a  cabinet.  A 
unicameral  Congress  was  given  legislative  author- 
ity. President  and  Congress  were  to  be  elected  for 
four-year  terms  by  compulsory,  secret  suffrage. 
Women  received  the  right  to  vote  along  with  other 
civil  rights  President  Estigarribia's  term  was  to 
expire  Aug.  15,  1943.  The  Constitution  guaranteed 
the  right  to  work  and  freedom  of  assembly,  peti- 
tion, press,  and  association.  Congress  was  forbid- 
den to  grant  special  powers  to  the  President  but 
the  government  was  authorized  to  limit  constitu- 
tional liberties  if  necessary  to  the  preservation  of 
order.  It  was  also  empowered  to  regulate  economic 
life  and  control  all  labor  contracts  to  prevent  the 
"exploitation  of  man  by  man."  Class  war,  price- 
fixing  and  monopoly  were  outlawed  and  the  prior- 
ity of  individual  rights  over  public  interest  was 
ended.  The  right  of  private  property  was  guaran- 
teed in  limited  form,  but  it  was  stipulated  that 


PARAGUAY 


every  home  should  stand  on  land  owned  by  the 
occupant  In  other  respects  the  Constitution  em- 
bodied the  fundamental  principles  of  the  Constitu- 
tion of  1870. 

Death  of  President.  Three  weeks  after  the 
Constitution  was  promulgated,  President  Estigar- 
ribia and  his  wife  were  killed  in  an  airplane  crash. 
They  were  buried  in  the  National  Pantheon.  The 
government  raised  General  Estigarribia  posthu- 
mously to  the  rank  of  marshal  and  named  the  new 
Asunci6n-Villarrica  highway  in  honor  of  the  com- 
mander who  led  Paraguay  to  victory  in  the  Chaco 
War.  On  September  /  the  cabinet  designated  the 
Minister  of  War,  Gen.  Higinio  Morinigo,  as  Pro- 
visional President  pending  election  of  a  successor 
to  Estigarribia. 

Morinigo  Becomes  Dictator.  Although  the 
Provisional  President  promised  early  elections  to 
select  a  new  President,  he  proceeded  step  by  step 
to  transform  his  regime  into  a  personal  dictator- 
ship. Commencing  with  the  cabinet  reorganization 
of  September  30,  supporters  of  Estigarribia's  lib- 
eral policies  were  forced  out  and  replaced  by  army 
officers  and  civilians  described  as  reactionary.  Col. 
Ramon  Paredes,  appointed  Minister  of  Interior 
and  Labor  on  September  30,  warned  the  "profes- 
sional politicians"  that  the  army  would  direct  po- 
litical affairs. 

He  in  turn  was  forced  out  of  the  cabinet  on  No- 
vember 25  when  President  Morinigo  shook  up  both 
the  ministry  and  the  high  command  of  the  army. 
As  the  new  Minister  of  Interior,  Lt  Col.  Damaso 
Sosa  Vald6s  became  a  key  figure  in  the  govern- 
ment, which  relied  upon  the  support  of  the  younger 
army  officers.  The  Provisional  President  on  No- 
vember 30  promulgated  a  decree  establishing  an 
absolute  dictatorship.  He  was  reported  to  have  ar- 
rested many  leaders  of  the  long-dominant  Liberal 
party.  Travelers  reaching  Buenos  Aires  from 
Paraguay  reported  the  country  at  the  year's  end  in 
a  state  of  virtual  anarchy,  but  in  Asuncion,  where 
strict  censorship  was  in  force,  these  reports  were 
denied. 

Economic  Developments.  Previous  to  his 
death  President  Estigarribia  had  pressed  forward 
with  the  program  of  public  works  and  economic 
and  financial  rehabilitation  made  possible  by  credits 
obtained  from  the  Export-Import  Bank  of  Wash- 
ington and  by  economic  accords  with  Argentina 
and  Brazil  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  599-600). 
The  depreciation  of  the  paper  peso  was  checked 
during  the  latter  part  of  1939.  On  Apr.  9,  1940,  a 
commission  was  established  to  liquidate  the  float- 
ing debt  and  a  200,000,000-peso  bond  issue  was 
authorized  for  this  purpose.  On  February  29  the 
import  control  system  established  the  previous  June 
was  abolished.  On  May  24  the  government  under- 
took to  purchase  the  remainder  of  the  cotton  crop 
from  the  growers  and  hold  it  until  prices  increased. 
On  June  8  the  mining  laws  were  amended  to  make 
the  natural  resources  of  the  country  a  public  utility 
and  to  encourage  their  exploitation. 

At  President  Estigarribia's  initiative,  two  ex- 
perts of  the  U.S.  Tariff  Commission  and  Federal 
Reserve  Bank  were  loaned  to  Paraguay  to  reor- 
ganize the  tariff  system  and  serve  as  economic  ad- 
viser to  the  Paraguayan  Government,  respectively. 
A  third  expert  from  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines 
visited  Paraguay  to  study  the  feasibility  of  devel- 
oping its  mineral  resources.  However  the  benefits 
derived  from  these  measures  were  more  than  off- 
set by  the  spread  of  the  European  war,  depriving 
Paraguay  of  additional  markets  for  her  slender 
exports.  In  the  hope  of  finding  new  trade  outlets, 


PARDONS 


583 


PENNSYLVANIA 


a  commercial  delegation  was  sent  to  Japan  and 
Paraguay  joined  with  her  former  enemy,  Bolivia, 
in  promoting  an  economic  conference  of  the  coun- 
tries of  the  Plata  River  basin.  The  political  dis- 
turbances of  the  last  quarter  had  a  further  adverse 
effect  upon  the  economic  situation. 

See  BOLIVIA  under  History. 

PARDONS.  See  LAW. 

PARI-MUTUEL  BETTING.  See  COLORADO  ; 
FLORIDA;  NEW  JERSEY;  NEW  YORK. 

PARKS,  National.  See  NATIONAL  PARK  SERV- 
ICE; TRAVEL  BUREAU,  U.S. 

PAROLE.  See  PRISONS,  PAROLE,  AND  CRIME. 

PASSPORTS.  The  Passport  Division  of  the 
U.S.  Department  of  State  reported  that  the  num- 
ber of  passports  issued  and  renewals  granted  dur- 
ing 1940  totaled  only  26,253,  as  compared  with  89,- 
850  in  1939  and  134,737  in  1938.  This  very  gharp 
decline  indicated  the  extent  to  which  foreign  travel 
on  the  part  of  United  States  citizens  has  been  ham- 
pered by  war  conditions. 

Restrictions  governing  the  use  of  passports,  is- 
sued by  the  Secretary  of  State  immediately  aft- 
er the  outbreak  of  the  war,  continued  in  effect 
throughout  the  year.  It  was  required  that  passports 
previously  issued  be  submitted  to  the  Department 
of  State  for  validation  for  travel  to  any  country  in 
Europe,  that  documentary  evidence  be  submitted 
showing  the  imperative  necessity  for  such  travel, 
and  that  all  passports  be  returned  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  State  for  safe  keeping  upon  the  return  of 
Americans  from  abroad.  Travel  on  a  vessel  of  a 
belligerent  country  was  prohibited  on  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  north  of  35  degrees  north  latitude  and  east 
of  66  degrees  west  longitude  except  when  specifi- 
cally authorized. 

These  restrictions  were  further  strengthened  by 
an  executive  order  of  Oct.  11,  1940,  requiring  val- 
idation of  passports  for  travel  to  all  countries  out- 
side of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  although  it  was 
stated  that  a  more  lenient  policy  would  be  followed 
in  cases  where  travel  was  reasonably  safe.  Persons 
submitting  passports  for  validation  were  required 
to  state  the  names  of  the  countries  they  intended  to 
visit  and  the  object  of  the  visit  in  each  country. 

The  new  regulations  were  described  as  due  to 
the  increasing  hazards  of  foreign  travel  and  to  the 
fact  that,  after  Oct.  16, 1940,  male  citizens  between 
the  ages  of  21  and  35  would  be  required  to  obtain 
a  permit  to  leave  the  country.  In  connection  with 
the  order,  the  Department  of  State  called  atten- 
tion to  the  President's  proclamation  of  1940  as 
"Travel  America  Year"  with  the  object  of  increas- 
ing understanding  between  countries  of  the  West- 
ern Hemisphere. 

PATENT  OFFICE,  U.S.  Widespread  ob- 
servance of  the  sesquicentennial  of  the  patent  sys- 
tem marked  the  year  1940.  Apr.  10,  1940,  was  des- 
ignated by  President  Roosevelt  as  "Inventors  and 
Patent  Day"  to  commemorate  the  anniversary  of 
George  Washington's  approval  of  the  first  patent 
law  on  Apr.  10,  1790.  In  his  proclamation  calling 
for  celebration  of  the  occasion  President  Roose- 
velt described  the  enactment  and  approval  of  that 
statute  as  an  event  which  "had  proved  important 
and  salutary  to  this  nation."  By  joint  resolution 
the  U.S.  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives 
named  a  Commission  to  plan  for  the  appropriate 
observance  of  the  sesquicentenary.  Private  organi- 
zations throughout  the  country  also  sponsored 
commemorative  exercises. 

Important  changes  in  the  patent  laws,  enacted 
by  Congress  in  1939,  became  effective  in  1940. 
Most  significant  of  these  is  the  statute  curtailing 


from  two  years  to  one  year  the  period  of  publica- 
tion and  public  use  precluding  the  issuance  of  a 
patent.  On  June  30,  1940,  there  became  effective 
the  law  transferring  from  the  Patent  Office  to  the 
Library  of  Congress  the  function  of  registering 
copyrights  covering  prints  and  labels  used  for  arti- 
cles of  merchandise.  In  1874  Congress  assigned  to 
the  Patent  Office  the  duty  of  registering  such 
copyrights.  All  other  copyrights  continued  to  be 
registered  in  the  Library  of  Congress. 

On  July  2,  1940,  the  President  approved  an  Act 
of  Congress  amending  the  tariff  laws  so  as  to  pro- 
hibit, tinder  certain  circumstances,  the  importation 
of  products  made  by  processes  covered  by  United 
States  patents. 

As  a  part  of  the  program  of  national  defense,  it 
was  provided  by  Congress  on  July  1, 1940,  that  the 
Commissioner  of  Patents  could  order  held  in  se- 
crecy such  inventions  as  relate  to  the  public  safety 
and  defense,  and  withhold  the  grant  of  a  patent 
when  the  publication  or  disclosure  of  the  invention 
might  be  prejudicial. 

Nine  months  of  war  in  Europe,  overthrowing 
Governments,  creating  economic  dislocations,  and 
hampering  communication  and  exchange,  had  its 
reflex  in  the  Patent  Office  during  the  fiscal  year 
1940.  The  number  of  applications  from  European 
countries  declined  below  the  total  of  recent  years 
and  there  was  a  corresponding  decrease  in  the  fees 
from  those  sources. 

In  the  fiscal  year  1940  an  aggregate  of  61,425 
applications  for  patent  were  filed,  as  against  66,- 
166  in  the  preceding  12  months.  The  number  of 
patents  granted,  including  those  covering  reissues, 
designs,  and  plants,  was  47,924,  and  exceeded  by 
451  those  issued  in  1939. 

CONWAY  P.  COE. 

PEACE  AIMS.  See  GERMANY,  GREAT  BRIT- 
AIN, ITALY,  JAPAN,  and  NEW  ZEALAND  under  His- 
tory 

PEACE  MOVEMENT.  See  CARNEGIE  EN- 
DOWMENTS ;  NOBEL  PRIZES  ;  the  organizations  list- 
ed under  SOCIETIES. 

PEACHES.  See  ENTOMOLOGY,  ECONOMIC. 

PEARS.  See  ENTOMOLOGY,  ECONOMIC. 

PEMBA.  See  ZANZIBAR  PROTECTORATE. 

PENANQ.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

PENNSYLVANIA.  Area,  45,126  square 
miles;  includes  water,  294  square  miles  (but  not 
the  State's  part  of  the  waters  of  Lake  Erie).  Pop- 
ulation (U.S.  census),  April,  1940,  9,900,180;  1930, 
9,631,350.  Philadelphia  (1940),  1,931,334;  Pitts- 
burgh, 671,659;  Scranton,  140,404;  Reading,  110,- 
568;  Harrisburg,  the  capital,  83,893.  Of  the  State's 
whole  gain  in  population  (1930-40)  of  268,830,  the 
urban  population  (dwellers  in  places  of  2500  or 
more)  accounted  for  53,366,  while  the  rural  popu- 
lation increased  by  215,464  The  urban  total  (1940) 
was  6,586,877;  the  rural,  3,313,303. 

Agriculture.  Pennsylvania  harvested,  in  1940, 
6,211,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Corn,  on 
1,341,000  acres,  grew  53,640,000  bu.  ($41,839,000 
in  estimated  value  to  the  farmers).  Tame  hay, 
2,400,000  acres,  3,228,000  tons  ($32,056,000) ;  po- 
tatoes, 189,000  acres,  24,570,000  bu.  ($16,953,000) 
wheat,  917,000  acres,  18,789,000  bu.  ($15,219,000' 
oats,  888,000  acres,  31,080,000  bu.  ($12,743,000 
tobacco,  33,300  acres,  48,324,000  Ib.  ($6,040,000 
apples,  9.100,000  bu.  ($7,280,000)  ;  peaches,  2,356,- 
000  bu.  ($2,238,000) ;  barley,  155,000  acres,  4,030,- 
000  bu.  ($2,216,000). 

Mineral  Production.  Pennsylvania's  yearly 
production  of  minerals  native  to  its  territory,  as 


PENNSYLVANIA 

stated  in  1940  by  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  to- 
taled $472,773,327  for  1938 ;  this  amount  was  only 
about  four-fifths  of  1937's  total.  Texas  and  Cali- 
fornia exceeded  it,  among  the  members  of  the 
Union.  About  seven-tenths  of  the  total  came  from 
anthracite  and  bituminous  coal ;  petroleum,  natural 
gas,  and  clay  products  supplied  most  of  the  re- 
mainder. 

Mines'  production  of  anthracite  rallied  to  51,- 
487,000  net  tons  (value,  $187,175,000)  for  1939  and 
thereafter  sagged  somewhat  again  to  some  49,- 
700,000  tons  for  1940,  as  against  46,099,027  tons 
(value,  $180,600,167)  for  1938.  The  yearly-mined 
tonnage  in  all  three  cases  lacked  much  of  corre- 
sponding figures  for  former  years ;  as  an  example, 
73,828,000  tons  had  been  mined  in  1929.  Competi- 
tion from  other  domestic  fuels,  rather  than  any 
deficiency  in  the  mines  themselves^  was  the  cause. 
The  figures  presented  on  anthracite  failed,  how- 
ever, to  show  the  subject  entire:  anthracite  was 
"bootlegged"  (mined  by  non-owners  without  own- 
ers' permission)  on  a  huge  scale.  The  State's  De- 
partment of  Mines,  after  a  survey  late  in  1939, 
estimated  that  about  2500  bootleg  operations  em- 
ployed 9000  men,  producing  340,000  tons  in  a 
month,  or  around  4,000,000  tons  a  year;  whereas 
figures  in  general  covered  only  lawful  operations, 
this  survey  implied  that  the  generally  quoted  to- 
tals fell  short  by  a  possible  one-twelfth  of  cover- 
ing all  production.  As  the  bootlegger  depleted  oth- 
er capital  investment  than  his  own,  he  could  afford 
to  sell  at  prices  below  the  lawful  operator's  range, 
and  thus  further  to  increase  his  share  of  the  in- 
dustry. 

The  mining  of  bituminous  coal  made  a  substan- 
tial rally,  to  a  yearly  total  of  some  92,190,000  net 
tons  (1939),  from  77,704,537  tons  (value,  $100,- 
965,000)  for  1938 ;  it  was  further  stimulated  by  the 
Federal  armament  program's  activation  of  many 
heavy  industries  late  in  1940,  in  which  year  the 
output  was  estimated  at  112,907,000  tons. 

The  production  of  petroleum,  17,337,000  bbl. 
(1939),  as  against  17,426,000,  value  $32,760,000 
(1938),  attained  about  the  same  level  of  volume 
for  1940.  In  each  year  all  but  a  few  thousand  bbl. 
ranked  as  Pennsylvania  grade,  source  of  lubricants 
and  priced  accordingly.  Natural  gas  produced  and 
delivered  to  consumers  totaled  76,574  million  cu. 
ft.  (1938) ;  in  value  at  points  of  consumption, 
$29,544,000.  In  1939  new  wells  in  known  fields 
added  to  the  available  reserve,  but  no  new  fields  of 
apparent  promise  were  found.  Clay  products  (ex- 
clusive of  pottery  and  refractories)  totaled  $8,844,- 
284  for  1938. 

Apart  from  the  data  above,  the  great  industries 
treating  minerals  wholly  or  largely  from  outside 
regained  much  ground  lost  after  the  economic 
slump  of  1937.  The  production  of  coke  mounted 
to  12.120,225  net  tons  (1939),  from  7,601,433 
(1938)  ;  by  value,  to  $49,015,558,  from  $32,016,- 
406 ;  and  in  1940  the  output  of  largely  supplanted 
beehive  coke  ovens,  still  available  in  times  of  extra 
demand,  more  than  doubled  their  total  of  1939. 
Furnaces'  shipments  of  pig  iron  rose  to  8,979,649 
gross  tons  (1939),  from  4,684,017  (1938)  ;  by  val- 
ue, to  $186,302,533,  from  $101,266,844.  Open-hearth 
steel  ingots  and  castings  likewise  augmented  to 
12,162,743  gross  tons  for  1939,  from  7,072,157  tons 
for  1938.  Ferro-alloys  made  in  1938  amounted  to 
$19,624,173;  in  1939,  apparently  to  more,  as  the 
Union's  output  of  ferro-alloys  for  1939  exceeded 
those  of  1938  by  80  per  cent  in  value. 

Manufactures.  Pennsylvania  produced  the  sec- 
ond-highest value  of  manufactured  goods  in  the 


584 


PENNSYLVANIA 


Union  for  1939;  its  yearly  manufactures  attained 
$5,473,317,408  (1939) ;  $5,032,083,005  (1937).  Other 
related  totals  for  1939  (each  with  that  for  1937  in 
parentheses)  :  13.802  (13,084)  establishments,  em- 
ploying 858,307  (954.340)  wage-earners  at  a  year's 
wages  of  $1,003,347>30  ($1,176,957,270),  paid  for 
materials,  contract  work,  etc.,  $2,980,948,116 
($3,367,672,686),  and  added  to  material  by  manu- 
facture the  value  of  $2,492,369,292  ($2,664,410,- 
319). 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1938-39  (lat- 
est covered  as  to  data  that  follow),  Pennsylvania's 
inhabitants  of  school  age  (from  5%  years  to  18) 
were  reckoned  at  2,131,800.  Enrollments  of  pupils 
in  all  public  schools  numbered  1,877,235;  this  com- 
prised 1,166,274  in  elementary  study,  675,637  in 
high  school,  and  35,324  in  kindergarten.  Expendi- 
ture of  the  year  for  public-school  education  totaled 
$212,590,949.  The  teachers  in  public  schools  num- 
bered 63,988. 

History.  A  broad  gain  in  industrial  activity, 
particularly  through  the  latter  half  of  1940,  car- 
ried away  many  of  Pennsylvania's  economic  trou- 
bles. In  its  earlier  stages  this  gain  responded  to 
foreign  demand  created  by  the  war  in  Europe; 
later  the  gigantic  task  of  building  up  armament, 
hastily  undertaken  by  the  Federal  Government  un- 
der the  pressure  of  the  German  conquests  in  West- 
ern Europe  piled  orders  on  the  numerous  Pennsyl- 
vanian  manufactories  capable  of  handling  them. 
As  in  other  States  having  important  industries  for 
working  steel  and  for  heavy  fabrications,  payrolls 
grew  phenomenally,  dependence  on  public  support 
diminished,  and  public  revenues  rose  The  case  of 
the  Cramp  shipyards  at  Philadelphia  furnished  an 
extreme  example:  they  had  lain  idle  since  1927  and 
owed  huge  sums  in  unpaid  taxes  and  in  defaulted 
interest ;  for  the  greater  part  of  1939-40,  efforts  to 
arrange  a  composition  that  would  permit  of  their 
reopening  and  getting  some  of  the  increasing  or- 
ders for  new  naval  vessels  had  gone  on  without 
avail ;  but  on  Nov  29,  1940,  the  Navy  announced 
contracts  to  these  yards  for  building  six  cruisers, 
expected  to  cost  nearly  $114,000,000,  and  for  res- 
toration and  expansion  of  the  yards'  facilities  with 
$9,000,000  or  more  of  the  Government's  money 
See  FLOOD  CONTROL 

Legislation.  Improvement  reached  no  such  bril- 
liant stage  early  in  the  year.  The  reduction  in  the 
number  of  recipients  of  the  State's  poor  relief,  in 
anticipation  of  which  Governor  James  and  the 
Legislature  had  put  through  a  frugal  budget  in 
1939,  still  lagged.  As  the  money  for  poor-relief 
began  to  run  low,  the  Governor  had  to  summon 
(April  29)  a  special  session  of  the  Legislature  to 
provide  more ;  the  summons  also  submitted  several 
other  subjects  The  session  convened  May  6,  ad- 
journed May  16  It  granted  $71,850,000  for  addi- 
tional expenditure  on  poor-relief ;  by  transferring 
sums  from  previous  appropriations  for  other  pur- 
poses it  found  a  temporary  escape  from  need  to 
impose  additional  taxation,  and  thus  made  good 
the  Governor's  promise  to  manage  without  adding 
to  the  load  of  taxes  that  the  Earle  administration 
had  left.  Another  enactment  permitted  the  exten- 
sion of  the  great  east-west  "superhighway,"  the 
Pennsylvania  Turnpike — then  about  completed  in 
its  original  extent — all  the  way  into  Philadelphia ; 
the  Legislature  did  not  deal  with  the  means  for 
getting  the  $75,000,000  that  this  extension  was  ex- 
pected to  cost.  (See  ROADS  AND  STREETS  ) 

Administration  and  Courts.  In  order  to  hasten 
the  return  of  the  destitute  to  regular  employment 
and  get  them  off  the  relief  rolls,  the  Secretary  of 


PENNSYLVANIA 


585 


PERU 


Assistance  undertook,  in  June,  the  task  of  purging 
the  rolls;  this  involved  finding  among  some  500,- 
000  dependents  on  the  State's  support  the  men  able 
to  work  and  notifying  them  to  cease  relying  on 
public  support.  Earlier,  the  State  had  prevailed  on 
the  WPA  to  relieve  it  of  5000  clients  (February  1) 
thus  raising  the  number  paid  by  the  WPA  in  the 
State  to  about  165,000.  In  the  effort  to  put  the  self- 
supporting  but  law-breaking  "coal  bootleggers"  in 
the  anthracite  fields  on  a  lawful  basis  the  Gover- 
nor urged  upon  the  mining  companies  a  plan  for 
giving  the  illicit  miners  a  status  as  lessees.  Deal- 
ing with  the  possible  risk  of  seditious  plots,  the 
State  detailed  an  officer  of  the  National  Guard  to 
compile  communicated  information  on  the  subject ; 
the  registration  of  aliens  was  required,  and  there 
followed  litigation  in  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court,  in 
which  the  U.S.  Solicitor  General  intervened  to  ask 
a  decision  against  a  State's  right  to  register  its  al- 
ien population  (December  6). 

Former  Democratic  State  Chairman  David  L. 
Lawrence  and  Ralph  M.  Bashpre,  both  formerly 
high  in  the  Earle  administration,  were  tried  at 
Harnsburg,  with  several  others,  on  charges  of 
conspiracy  to  compel  political  contributions  from 
State  employees;  all  were  acquitted  (April  12). 
The  U  S.  Supreme  Court  held  (June  3)  that  a 
Pennsylvania  school  board  could  compel  a  pupil 
to  salute  the  American  flag,  despite  pupil's  con- 
scientious objection.  The  State  Supreme  Court 
granted  a  new  trial  to  Herman  Petrillo,  former 
head  of  a  Philadelphian  "arsenic  ring,"  on  the 
ground  of  faulty  procedure  in  the  original  trial; 
he  was  again  convicted  and  (October  2)  con- 
demned to  death. 

Philadelphia.  Mayor  Robert  E.  Lamberton 
took  office  on  January  1.  He  declared  his  intention 
to  carry  out  a  program  for  augmenting  the  mu- 
nicipal water  system  and  completing  the  system 
for  the  disposal  of  sewage,  in  about  2%  years,  at 
an  outlay  of  $60,000,000.  The  City  Council  au- 
thorized (March  7)  an  initial  loan,  for  repairs  to 
the  water  system,  of  $18,000,000.  The  municipal 
tax  of  V&  per  cent  on  incomes,  on  which  the  local 
government  relied  for  keeping  clear  of  further 
deficits  in  current  operations,  was  declared  valid 
by  the  State  Supreme  Court  at  the  beginning  of 
February 

Having  come  through  a  protracted  reorganiza- 
tion, Philadelphia's  system  of  street  railways  and 
buses,  under  the  name,  Philadelphia  Transporta- 
tion Company,  arranged  early  in  the  year  to  add 
to  its  equipment  by  substantial  purchases  of  buses, 
trolley  cars,  and  trackless  trolleys. 

Elections.  At  the  general  election  (Novem- 
ber 5)  the  popular  vote  for  President  totaled 
2,171,035  for  Roosevelt  (Dem.)  and  1,889,848  for 
Willkie  (Rep.).  U.S.  Senator  Joseph  F.  Guffey 
(Dem.)  was  re-elected,  defeating  Jay  Cooke 
(Rep  ).  In  the  vote  for  State  officers  the  Demo- 
crats took  minor  State  offices  and  regained  a  ma- 
jority in  the  State  House  of  Representatives,  lost 
in  1938;  the  State  Senate  remained  heavily  Re- 
publican. Nineteen  Democratic  U.S.  Representa- 
tives were  elected  •  a  gain  of  4,  reducing  Repub- 
lican seats  to  15.  There  was  no  election  of  Gov- 
ernor. 

Officers.  Pennsylvania's  chief  officers,  serving 
in  1940,  were:  Governor,  Arthur  H.  James 
(Rep.) ;  Lieutenant  Governor,  Samuel  S.  Lewis; 
Secretary  of  Internal  Affairs,  William  S  Liven- 
good,  Jr.;  Secretary  of  the  Commonwealth,  So- 
phia M.  R.  O'Hara ;  Auditor  General,  Warren  R 
Roberts;  Treasurer,  F.  Clair  Ross;  Attorney 


General,  Claude  T.  Reno ;  Superintendent  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction,  Francis  B.  Haas. 

PENOLOGY.  See  PEISONS,  PAROLE,  AND 
CRIME. 

PENSIONS.  For  old-age  pensions,  see  LABOR 
LEGISLATION  ;  SOCIAL  SECURITY  BOARD.  For  veter- 
ans' pensions,  see  VETERANS  ADMINISTRATION. 

PERAK.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

PERIM.  See  ARABIA  under  Aden. 

PERLIS.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

PERMANENT  CHARITY  FUND.  See 
BENEFACTIONS. 

PERMANENT  COURT  OF  INTERNA- 
TIONAL JUSTICE.  See  WORLD  COURT. 

PERSIA.  See  IRAN. 

PERSONNEL  ADMINISTRATION, 
COUNCIL  OF.  See  CIVIL  SERVICE  COMMISSION, 
U.S. 

PERU.  A  republic  on  the  west  coast  of  South 
America.  Capital,  Lima. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  variously  esti- 
mated at  from  430,000  to  482,100  square  miles,  ex- 
cluding more  than  100,000  square  miles  in  dispute 
between  Peru  and  Ecuador  Estimated  population 
in  1939,  7,500,000  With  the  exception  of  about 
600,000  whites,  30,000  Japanese,  and  a  few  other 
Asiatics,  the  inhabitants  are  of  Indian  and  mixed 
Indian  and  white  blood.  Foreigners  in  1940  includ- 
ed about  7000  Italians,  3000  Germans,  and  1489 
U  S.  citizens.  Populations  of  the  chief  cities  (est., 
1936):  Lima,  370,000;  Callao,  75,000;  Arequipa, 
46,000,  Cusco,  40,000;  Iquitos,  40,000 

Defense.  Military  service  is  compulsory,  but 
the  number  of  conscripts  is  limited.  As  of  Nov.  1, 
1940,  the  active  army  numbered  14,550,  the  active 
air  force  1935,  and  trained  army  reserves  about 
32,000,  besides  8000  men  in  the  police  and  gendar- 
merie. The  navy  comprised  2  obsolete  cruisers,  2 
destroyers,  1  torpedo  boat,  4  submarines,  7  river 
gunboats,  and  3  auxiliary  craft.  The  army  is 
French-trained.  On  July  31,  1940,  Peru  renewed 
the  contract  of  the  U.S.  naval  mission  and  ar- 
ranged for  a  U.S.  aviation  mission  to  replace  Ital- 
ian instructors. 

Education  and  Religion.  About  half  the  pop- 
ulation is  illiterate.  Education  statistics  for  1937 
showed  4697  primary  schools  with  471,304  pupils, 
147  secondary  schools  with  about  22,474  students, 
7  normal  schools  with  649  students,  26  vocational 
schools,  and  5  universities,  with  some  4500  stu- 
dents The  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  protected 
by  the  State  and  only  Roman  Catholic  religious 
instruction  is  permitted  in  State  and  private  schools. 
Production.  Agriculture  supports  85  per  cent 
of  the  population.  Stock  raising  and  mining  are 
other  leading  occupations.  Mineral  products  ac- 
counted for  59.6  per  cent  of  all  1939  exports ;  agri- 
cultural, 33  per  cent ;  animal,  5  7  per  cent.  Yields 
of  the  chief  crops  were  (in  metric  tons)  •  Cotton, 
89,658  in  1939;  cane  sugar,  394,000  in  1939-40; 
wheat,  103,100  in  1938;  rice,  90,700  in  1937;  coffee 
exports,  3400  in  1939,  cotton  seed,  141,400  in  1938. 
The  1938  wool  clip  was  9400  metric  tons  The 
chief  mineral  products  in  1939  were  (in  metric 
tons)  •  Petroleum,  1,796,000;  coal,  148,000;  copper 
ore  (metal  content),  35,500;  lead  ore  (metal  con- 
tent), 45,000;  zinc  ore  exports  (metal  content), 

17,000;  tungsten,  159;  antimony  ore  (metal  con- 
tent), 1688;  molybdenum  ore  (metal  content),  180; 
silver,  584.8.  Gold  production  in  1939  was  8471 
kilograms;  guano  collections,  152,788  tons.  The 

chief  manufacturing  lines  are  oil  refining,  and  the 

making  of  cotton  textiles,  knit  goods,  hats,  food 

products,  beverages,  leather,  shoes,  etc. 


PERU 


586 


PERU 


Foreign  Trade.  Including  specie,  imports  in 
1939  totaled  255,787,376  soles  (260,15C735  in 
1938);  exports,  381,421,389  soles  (342,128,640). 
The  value  of  leading  exports  (in  soles)  was :  Cot- 
ton, 75,191,000;  copper  bars,  67,462,000;  crude  pe- 
troleum, 56,530.000 ;  petroleum  derivatives,  54,327,- 
000 ;  sugar,  41,020,000 ;  wool,  14,430,000 ;  gold  bars, 
13,706,000 ;  mineral  concentrates,  13,550,000.  Chief 
imports:  Machinery  and  vehicles,  textiles,  metals 
and  products,  foodstuffs,  chemicals,  etc.  Of  the 

1939  imports  the  United  States  supplied  41.1  per 
cent  (34.3  in  1938) ;  Germany,  14.7  (20.3)  ;  Great 
Britain,  8.4  (10.1).  Of  the  1939  exports,  30.4  went 
to  the  United  States  (26.8  in  1938)  ;  Great  Britain, 
19.6  (200) ;  Germany,  60  (10.6). 

Finance.  Budget  revenues  and  expenditures  for 

1940  were  estimated  to  balance  at  216,000,000  soles, 
including  28,000,000  soles  of  revenues  and  expendi- 
tures under  special  laws  introduced  for  the  first 
time;  for  1941,  278,375,000  soles.  Actual  returns 
for  1939  were :  Total  receipts,  179,935,000  soles ; 
expenditures,  184,878,000  soles. 

The  public  debt  on  Dec.  31,  1939,  was  833,110,- 
266  soles  (external  funded,  506,123,276;  internal 
funded,  85,301,761 ;  floating  and  short-term,  241,- 
685,229),  or  an  increase  of  54,810,095  soles  from 
Dec.  31,  1938  (see  History).  Average  exchange 
rate  of  the  sol,  $0.1875  in  1939  and  $0  1588  in  1940. 

Transportation.  As  of  Jan.  1,  1940,  Peru  had 
about  2760  miles  of  railway  line  (over  600  miles 
state-owned) ;  16,361  miles  of  highways,  of  which 
1696  miles  were  completed  since  1937;  and  five 
commercial  air  systems,  which  in  1939  flew  a  total 
of  1,910,430  miles,  carrying  29,360  passengers,  559 
tons  of  express,  and  26,833  Ib  of  mail.  A  total  of 
10,453  ships  of  16,469,922  tons  entered  Peruvian 
ports  during  1938. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  Apr.  9,  1933, 
as  amended  by  the  plebiscite  of  June  18,  1939,  vest- 
ed executive  power  in  a  President  elected  for  six 
years  and  ineligible  for  re-election  Legislative  au- 
thority was  vested  in  a  Senate  of  40  and  a  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  of  140  members,  all  elected  for 
six  years.  The  suffrage  in  national  elections  is  re- 
stricted to  literate  males  of  21  years  and  over. 
President  in  1940,  Dr.  Manuel  Prado  y  Ugarteche, 
candidate  of  President  Benavides'  dictatorial  re- 
gime, who  was  elected  Oct.  22,  1939,  and  inaugu- 
rated December  8.  Most  of  the  government  candi- 
dates for  the  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies 
were  successful  in  the  1939  elections  as  the  strong- 
est opposition  group,  the  so-called  Apra  party,  was 
forbidden  to  present  candidates  (see  1939  YEAR 
BOOK,  p.  609). 

HISTORY 

Political  Trends.  President  Prado's  govern- 
ment made  notable  progress  during  1940  in  its 
efforts  to  liquidate  the  Benavides  dictatorship  of 
1933-39.  The  President's  simple  and  democratic 
conduct  during  the  first  year  of  his  administration 
reconciled  many  anti-Benavides  groups  to  his  re- 
gime and  contributed  to  the  stabilization  of  internal 
order.  Coincidcntly,  the  political  importance  of  the 
outlawed  Apra  party  was  reported  to  have  de- 
clined. In  March  Parliament  approved  a  motion 
making  all  decree-laws  of  the  Benavides  Govern- 
ment valid  unless  specifically  amended  or  repealed. 
This  action  was  strongly  criticized  as  undemocratic 
by  the  anti-Benavides  press  and  political  leaders. 
In  September  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  approved 
changes  in  the  1939  constitutional  amendments  to 
make  certain  that  all  Deputies  elected  in  October, 
1939,  would  remain  in  office  for  the  full  six-year 


term  and  that  elections  to  the  Chamber  would  tike 
place  at  the  same  time  as  the  Presidential  election. 

Economic  Developments*  The  two  main  prob- 
lems confronting  the  Prado  Government  during 
the  year  were  the  adverse  economic  repercussions 
of  the  European  War  and  the  political  and  propa- 
gandist activities  of  the  totalitarian  powers,  de- 
signed to  wean  Peru  away  from  the  Pan  American 
front  The  extension  of  the  European  War  de- 
prived Peru  of  additional  important  export  mar- 
kets. The  resulting  shortage  of  foreign  exchange 
caused  a  further  depreciation  of  the  sol,  curtailing 
domestic  purchasing  power  and  imports.  The  se- 
vere earthquake  that  shook  the  Lima-Callao  dis- 
trict on  May  24  was  another  economic  setback 
More  than  322  persons  were  killed  and  nearly  5000 
injured  by  the  collapse  of  buildings  in  Lima,  Cal- 
lao,  and  surrounding  towns  and  villages.  Over  1000 
buildings  and  dwellings  were  wrecked  and  sever- 
al thousand  persons  made  homeless.  Another  ad- 
verse factor  was  the  curtailment  of  the  heavy  pub- 
lic works  expenditures  made  during  the  Benavides 
regime. 

Although  eliminating  European  markets,  the  war 
brought  improved  prices  for  Peru's  export  crops 
and  minerals  New  markets  were  found  in  the 
United  States  and  Japan.  At  the  same  time,  the 
curtailment  of  imports  and  the  depreciation  of  the 
sol  aided  all  branches  of  domestic  manufacture 
The  government  also  took  measures  to  support  eco- 
nomic activity.  In  April  Congress  authorized  a 
20,000,000-sol  increase  in  the  6  per  cent  public 
works  loan.  On  May  27  the  government  appropi  i- 
ated  20,000,000  soles,  exclusive  of  municipal  con- 
tributions, for  the  rebuilding  of  cities  damaged  by 
the  earthquake  In  August  an  agreement  was 
reached  with  American  bankers  for  repayment  of 
a  $1,131,000  credit  advanced  in  1931,  on  which  in- 
terest and  principal  were  in  arrears. 

The  social  welfare  program  was  expanded 
through  additional  social  security  and  unemploy- 
ment taxes  authorized  on  Nov  16,  1939.  Price  con- 
trol measures  introduced  in  1939  were  strengthened 
and  extended.  On  May  29  the  tariff  was  raised  to 
curtail  imports  and  encourage  domestic  manufac- 
turing. The  government  also  extended  loans  under 
liberal  terms  to  small  manufacturing  enterprises, 
reserved  unclaimed  coal  deposits  for  the  State, 
commenced  construction  of  roads  into  inaccessible 
regions  to  facilitate  production  of  gold  and  other 
products,  and  encouraged  the  culture  of  flax.  The 
Mining  Bank  of  Peru  was  established  under  a  law 
of  July  24,  1940,  to  stimulate  exploitation  of  min- 
erals by  Peruvian  firms.  Steps  were  also  taken  to 
consolidate  the  short-term  floating  debt  at  lower 
amortization  and  interest  rates. 

Foreign  Relations.  Sentiment  in  Peru  became 
increasingly  pro- Ally  as  a  result  of  European  War 
developments  during  1940  and  there  was  a  marked 
trend  toward  closer  co-operation  with  the  United 
States  in  hemispheric  defense  policies.  Disorders 
in  Lima  theaters  attending  the  showing  of  British 
and  American  propaganda  films  early  in  the  year 
caused  the  authorities  to  ban  the  showing  of  tnese 
movies.  This  action  was  severely  criticized  in  the 
Senate  on  March  19  by  Senator  Pedro  Ruiz  Bravo, 
who  charged  that  the  disorders  were  the  work  of 
the  Gestapo  and  the  German  legation.  His  resolu- 
tion calling  on  the  government  to  investigate  "the 
intrusion  of  German  elements"  into  Peruvian  af- 
fairs was  unanimously  adopted  by  the  Senate.  A 
week  later  the  Ministry  of  Education  rejected  the 
long-standing  application  of  the  German  College 
to  adapt  its  courses  to  the  German  secondary 


PBTRILLO  CASE 


587 


PHILIPPINES 


school  plan.  However  German  and  Italian  propa- 
ganda agents  redoubled  their  activities  following 
the  entry  of  Italy  into  the  war  and  the  collapse  of 
France. 

The  Peruvians  were  even  more  alarmed  by  the 
activities  of  the  large  Japanese  colony.  Rumors 
that  the  Japanese  had  smuggled  large  quantities  of 
arms  and  munitions  into  the  country  led  in  May  to 
widespread  attacks  upon  the  Japanese  in  Lima. 
Many  were  injured  and  much  property  damaged. 
The  Peruvian  Government  on  May  17  expressed 
its  regret  over  these  disorders  and  promised  Japan 
to  pay  for  the  damage  to  Japanese-owned  proper- 
ties and  punish  those  responsible.  However  the 
Lima  authorities  suspended  further  Japanese  im- 
migration and  President  Prado  in  his  message  to 
Congress  on  July  28  stressed  the  danger  to  Peru 
posed  by  the  German  and  Japanese  doctrines  of 
double  nationality.  At  the  same  time  he  emphasized 
Peru's  support  of  inter-American  defense  policies. 

This  policy  was  in  line  with  a  manifesto  issued 
June  25  by  leading  Peruvian  intellectuals,  journal- 
ists, business  men,  and  political  figures  calling  upon 
the  American  republics  to  unite  in  defense  of  lib- 
erty. Other  related  developments  followed.  Col. 
Armando  Revoredo,  noted  Peruvian  aviator,  was 
sent  to  Washington  as  head  of  an  air  mission  to 
discuss  hemisphere  defense  problems.  The  govern- 
ment in  August  decided  to  purchase  the  airplane 
factory  and  equipment  in  Peru  of  the  Italian 
Caproni  company.  The  leader  of  the  Apra  party, 
Dr.  Raul  Haya  de  la  Torre,  in  his  new  book  Nor- 
mas  Apnstas,  repudiated  the  violent  attacks  upon 
"Yankee  imperialism"  characteristic  of  Apra's  pre- 
vious policy  and  came  out  in  favor  of  co-operation 
with  the  United  States  as  long  as  President  Roose- 
velt's Good  Neighbor  policy  was  maintained.  In 
October  the  Chief  of  the  Peruvian  General  Staff 
visited  the  United  States  to  inspect  its  military 
preparations  and  discuss  mutual  defense  policies. 
A  survey  of  Peru's  sea-fishery  resources  by  three 
U.S.  Government  experts  was  arranged  for  late  in 
the  year.  The  U.S.  Export-Import  Bank  on  De- 
cember 18  approved  a  $10,000,000  credit  to  the  Cen- 
tral Reserve  Bank  of  Peru  to  cover  purchases  in 
the  United  States.  Also  see  under  National  De- 
fense above. 

See  ECUADOR  under  History  for  the  revival  of 
tension  over  the  boundary  dispute ;  INTERNATION- 
AL LABOR  ORGANIZATION,  for  the  Inter-American 
Conference  on  Social  Security  in  Lima;  PAN 
AMERICANISM 

PETRILLO  CASE.  See  PENNSYLVANIA  un- 
der History. 

PETROLEUM.  During  1940  the  industry  be- 
gan to  feel  the  full  effect  of  the  war.  Every  pro- 
duction, manufacturing,  and  consumption  record 
of  the  industry  was  broken.  Exports  declined  ma- 
terially from  1939.  Motor  fuel  particularly  was 
affected,  and  exports  dropped  more  than  40  per 
cent  from  the  preceding  year,  due  not  only  to  de- 
creased foreign  buying  but  also  to  embargoes  and 
export  licensing  by  the  United  States.  According 
to  the  Petroleum  Institute  crude  petroleum  pro- 
duction in  the  United  States  increased  nearly  7 
per  cent  in  1940  to  1,354,423,000  bbl.,  compared 
with  1,264,962,000  bbl.  in  1939.  A  decline  of  2  per 
cent  occurred  outside  the  United  States,  with  an 
estimated  world  total  production  of  2,149,741,000 
bbl.  The  United  States'  share  of  this  production 
increased  slightly  to  63  per  cent.  Domestic  re- 
fineries processed  1,291,516,000  bbl.  of  crude  in 
1940,  an  increase  of  4  per  cent  over  1939.  Produc- 
tion of  motor  fuel  in  1940  totaled  614,459,000  bbl., 


against  611,043,000  bbl  in  1939.  Domestic  demand 
for  motor  fuel  increased  6  per  cent  over  1939  to 
590,737,000  bbl.  in  1940. 

The  industry  drilled  30,264  wells  in  1940,  of 
which  21,277  were  completed  as  oil  wells  and  2.224 
as  gas  wells.  Crude  oil  prices  remained  at  $1.02  a 
bbl.  throughout  1939  and  were  expected  to  ap- 
proximate that  average  in  1940.  The  average  re- 
tail price  of  motor  fuel  in  50  representative  cities 
dropped  in  1940  to  12.75^,  the  lowest  since  1919 
except  for  1241tf  in  1933.  The  all-time  high  was 
29.74tf  in  1920.  Average  gasoline  taxes  amounted 
to  5.660  a  gal.,  aggregating  $1,146,000,000  in  1940. 
The  average  motor  vehicle  consumed  740  gal.  of 
motor  fuel  in  1940  at  an  average  cost  of  $94.35. 

See  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL;  CO-OPERATIVE 
MOVEMENT  ;  ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES  ;  MINES,  BU- 
REAU OF  ;  NATIONAL  DEFENSE  ADVISORY  COMMIS- 
SION ;  and  the  oil  producing  States  under  Produc- 
tion and  History.  For  oil  tankers,  see  SHIPBUILD- 


ING. 


H.  C.  PARMELEE. 


PHENOL.  See  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL. 

PHILADELPHIA  MUSEUM.  See  ART 
under  Museums. 

PHILANTHROPY.  See  BENEFACTIONS  and 
the  articles  there  referred  to. 

PHILATELY.  See  STAMP  COLLECTING. 

PHILIPPINES.  A  group  of  islands  lying  in 
the  northern  tropics,  between  the  Pacific  Ocean 
and  the  China  Sea ;  former  possession  of  the  Unit- 
ed States;  since  1935,  a  commonwealth,  designed 
to  become  independent  in  1946.  Capital,  Manila. 

Area  and  Population.  The  combined  area  is 
114,400  square  miles.  This  comprises  7083  islands, 
of  which,  however,  only  466  cover  as  much  as  one 
square  mile  apiece.  Two  islands,  Luzon  (40,814 
square  miles)  and  Mindanao  (36,906  square  miles) 
account  for  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  whole 
area.  Others  of  important  size,  with  their  respec- 
tive areas  in  square  miles,  are  Samar,  5124;  Ne- 
gros,  4903;  Palawan,  4500;  Panay,  4448;  Min- 
doro,  3794;  Leyte,  2799;  Cebu,  1695;  Bohol,  1534; 
Masbate,  1255. 

The  inhabitants,  by  census  of  1939,  numbered 
16,000,300;  census  of  1918,  10,304,310.  The  city  of 
Manila  had  (1939)  623,362  inhabitants.  Persons 
from  the  United  States,  other  than  members  of  its 
armed  forces  and  their  families,  numbered  4144  in 
1939.  There  were  117,461  Chinese;  the  Japanese 
numbered  29,262,  of  whom  17,888  were  in  and 
about  Davao,  on  Mindanao  Island.  The  Common- 
wealth made  a  law  in  1937  declaring  Tagalog  (the 
most  prevalent  native  tongue)  the  official  language, 
but  its  ^f  ull  introduction  awaited  a  dictionary  and 
other  aids.  About  one  in  eight  of  the  population  are 
estimated  to  have  some  knowledge  of  the  English 
language ;  about  one  in  16,  of  Spanish.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Church  holds  the  greater  number  of  the 
people  of  religious  affiliation.  An  independent  Fili- 
pino Church  (Christian)  has  many  worshipers. 
Mohammedans  number  not  far  from  half  a  mil- 
lion. Worshipers  of  the  Protestant  denominations 
are  estimated  at  250,000. 

Education.  Public  schools  numbered  10,924  in 
1938;  9489  were  primary,  1316  intermediate,  114 
secondary,  and  5  junior  colleges.  These  schools 
had  1,738,868  enrolled  pupils.  An  Office  of  Adult 
Education,  created  in  1936,  had  2057  special  schools 
by  the  end  of  1938,  instructing  125,783  adults. 
Higher  education  is  imparted  in  several  technical 
institutions  and  two  important  universities:  The 
University  of  the  Philippine*,  state-supported,  with 


PHILIPPINES  588 

7711  students  (1938)  ;  and  the  University  of  Santo 
Tomas,  conducted  by  the  Dominican  Order. 

Production.  The  islands  produce  for  export  a 
considerable  variety  of  tropical  products  of  the 
soil,  such  as  sugar,  abaca  (Manila  hemp),  and  the 
coconut ;  and  several  minerals,  especially  gold  and 
the  ores  of  iron  and  of  chromium.  They  raise  food 
sufficient  for  the  inhabitants,  save  for  a  few  items, 
such  as  wheaten  flour.  They  require  from  other 
sources  mineral  fuels,  textiles,  machinery,  and  a 
variety  of  other  fabricated  goods. 

The  mines'  production  of  gold  was  estimated, 
for  1939,  at  1,024,000  troy  oz. ;  by  value,  $35,840,- 
000  in  U.S.  money.  The  year's  output  of  gold  con- 
tinued a  rise  that  had  already  multiplied  the  yearly 
total  by  five  in  the  course  of  nine  years.  Iron  ore 
was  steadily  mined,  mainly  for  the  Japanese  mar- 
ket; ore  of  chromium  likewise.  Agricultural  pro- 
duction of  1938,  in  quintals  of  2.2  Ib ,  av ,  included 
corn,  5,138,000;  rice,  1,520,000;  sugar,  9,283,000; 
copra,  6,049,000  (and  for  1939,  6,646,000)  ;  abaca, 
1,649,000.  For  the  next  csop  year,  1939-40,  first 
official  estimates  by  value  were  available,  in  pesos : 
All  crops,  381,067,000  (includes  rice,  159,741,000; 
sugar,  97,524,000;  coconuts,  52,439,000;  abaca,  15,- 
053,000;  corn,  18,986,000). 

Manufacture,  which  the  government  of  the  com- 
monwealth particularly  sought  to  develop,  re- 
mained largely  in  the  stage  of  trials  and  begin- 
nings. The  widely  known  Philippine  embroidery, 
however,  produced  by  hand  in  some  30  establish- 
ments, had  a  definite  foreign  market.  Under  the 
National  Development  Company,  an  agency  of  the 
government,  cotton  was  spun  and  cement  was 
made,  while  another  governmental  instrument,  the 
National  Rice  and  Corn  Corporation,  sought  to 
develop  the  canning  of  fish  and  of  vegetable  foods. 

External  Trade.  Total  imports  of  1940  were 
provisionally  valued  at  269,720,000  pesos  (peso 
equals  50  cents,  U.S.  money),  as  against  245,535,- 
000  for  1939;  exports,  at  231,830,000  pesos,  as 
against  242,450,000.  The  totals  for  exports  omitted 
gold  and  silver ;  there  were  exported,  however,  77,- 
750,000  pesos  of  these  metals  (almost  all  gold)  in 
1940  and  73,670,000  in  1939 ;  and  thus  exports,  the 
two  metals  included,  amounted  to  some  309,580,000 
pesos  for  1940  and  316,125,000  for  1939.  The  lower 
value  of  exports  in  1940  coincided  with  the  loss  of 
access  to  markets  shut  off  by  war  and  with  a 
dearth  of  ships  to  carry  exportable  goods. 

The  Philippines  regularly  do  the  bulk  of  their 
external  trade  with  the  United  States  The  yearly 
report  of  U.S.  foreign  commerce  indicated  Philip- 
pine imports  of  U.S.  merchandise  to  the  value  of 
$93,335,474  for  1940  and  of  $99,938,557  for  1939 
(equivalent  to  twice  as  many  pesos),  and  Philippine 
exports  to  the  United  States  totaling  $89,670,500 
for  1940  and  $91,927,137  for  1939,  exclusive  of 
gold  and  silver.  Gold — mainly  output  of  Philippine 
mines— exported  to  the  United  States  amounted  to 
$38,630,151  for  1940  and  $35,637,107  for  1939;  sil- 
ver, similarly,  to  $1,026,103  for  1940  and  $836,576 
for  1939. 

See  CUSTOMS,  BUREAU  OF,  for  quotas  on  Philip- 
pine imports  into  the  United  States 

Finance.  The  outline  of  the  budgets  subsequent 
to  1937  included  not  only  an  approximate  balance 
of  ordinary  expenditures  and  receipts  but  also 
heavy  capital  expenditures  otherwise  met — princi- 
pally out  of  a  lump  sum  of  over  111,000,000  pesos 
received  in  1937  from  the  U.S.  Government  as  an 
offset  for  the  latter's  collection  of  a  tax  on  im- 
ported vegetable  oils.  The  Philippine  budget  pre- 
pared for  submission  in  1941  called  for  expenditure 


PHILIPPINES 


of  111,676,000  pesos,  this  including  12,397,000  of 
capital  expenditure ;  it  put  ordinary  income  at  82,- 
310,000  pesos  and  proposed  to  put  receipts  up  to 
112,982,000  by  taking  20,672,000  from  surplus  and 
issuing  bonds  for  10,000,000  pesos.  The  budget  for 
1940  had  called  for  expenditure  of  89,149,000  pe- 
sos and  had  estimated  receipts  at  91,178,000;  but 
there  had  occurred  a  deficit,  from  the  operations  of 
1940,  of  some  10,000,000  pesos,  and  this  was  ex- 
tinguished by  drawing  on  divers  surpluses  and 
funds.  Net  bonded  debt  of  central,  municipal,  and 
provincial  governments :  $74,468,500  on  Dec.  31, 1938. 

Transportation.  The  island  of  Luzon  has  about 
700  miles  of  railway,  the  greater  part  of  all  the 
rails  in  the  Philippines.  The  Manila  Railroad  Com- 
pany operates  the  lines  in  Luzon ;  the  government 
of  the  Commonwealth  owns  this  company's  com- 
mon stock.  The  Philippine  Railway  Company  oper- 
ates lines  on  the  islands  of  Panay  and  Cebu,  ag- 
gregating 133  miles.  The  Manila  Electric  Company 
runs  a  system  of  tramway  lines  and  busses.  Pro- 
ducers of  sugar  and  of  lumber  have  an  aggregate 
of  thousands  of  miles  of  rails,  which  they  use  in 
hauling  their  own  goods.  Two  companies,  in  1939, 
operated  airplanes  serving  seven  routes,  1097  miles 
in  combined  length,  among  the  islands  Pan  Ameri- 
can Airways  maintain  regular  service  with  the 
United  States  and  Hong  Kong  By  sea,  liners  sail 
weekly  to  and  from  the  United  States  In  1940  the 
European  War  had  the  effect  of  depriving  the 
Philippines  of  the  usual  supply  of  freighters  for 
the  bulky  exports;  the  government  of  the  Com- 
monwealth created  and  financed  the  National  Trad- 
ing Corporation  for  the  purchase  and  leasing  of 
needed  shipping. 

Government.  The  system  of  government  in  op- 
eration in  1940  rested  on  the  Philippine  Independ- 
ence Act,  passed  by  the  U  S.  Congress  in  1934. 
Under  this  act  a  constitution,  written  by  a  Philip- 
pine constitutional  convention  and  approved  by 
popular  vote,  went  into  effect  Nov  15,  1935  A 
President,  elected  by  popular  vote  for  a  term  of 
six  years,  exerts  great  executive  authority.  The 
power  of  legislation  resides  in  a  National  Assem- 
bly of  a  single  chamber  of  96  members  elected 
for  three  years.  Under  constitutional  amendments 
adopted  in  1940,  the  term  of  a  President,  after  the 
end  of  the  current  six-year  term,  was  cut  to  four 
years;  his  re-election,  previously  forbidden,  was 
allowed,  and  in  the  special  case  of  the  immediate 
incumbent  only,  he  could  be  re-elected  for  a  term 
of  two  years  to  follow  the  six-year  term  The  Na- 
tional Assembly,  after  the  close  of  the  members' 
current  terms,  was  to  consist  of  two  houses, 
through  the  addition  of  a  Senate  with  its  members 
elected  at  large.  An  electoral  commission  also  was 
created. 

The  U  S.  Government,  pending  the  completion 
of  independence  in  1946,  retains  a  measure  of  au- 
thority. The  Commonwealth  is  limited  as  to  public 
debt  and  some  features  of  taxation.  The  United 
States  keeps  charge  of  foreign  relations.  Constitu- 
tional changes  and  such  acts  as  affect  currency, 
coinage,  imports,  exports,  and  immigration  require 
the  approval  of  the  President  of  the  United  States. 
Appeal  may  be  taken  from  Philippine  courts  to  the 
U.S.  Supreme  Court.  The  Commonwealth's  Presi- 
dent must  report  periodically  to  the  U  S.  Congress 
and  President  on  divers  governmental  operations. 
The  U.S.  Government  maintains  as  its  representa- 
tive injthe  Commonwealth  a  High  Commissioner. 

President  of  the  Commonwealth,  Manuel  Luis 
Quezon.  U.S.  High  Commissioner,  Francis  Bowes 
Sayre. 


PHILIPPINES  589 

HISTORY 

Disturbing  Factors  of  1940.  The  European 
War  cut  off  the  access  of  Philippine  products  to 
some  markets  in  1940  and  restricted  commerce 
with  other  customers.  The  prices  obtainable  for 
goods  to  be  exported  sank  to  figures  in  a  number 
of  cases  below  any  previously  touched  in  decades. 
The  course  of  the  Japanese  Government  in  the 
lands  across  the  China  Sea  made  the  informed 
fraction  of  the  population  uneasy,  particularly 
about  the  somewhat  concentrated  colonization  of 
Japanese  in  the  Davao  area  of  Mindanao.  Belief 
in  the  wisdom  of  the  intended  dissolving  of  the 
political  tie  with  the  United  States  was  shaken  by 
continued  evidence  of  Japanese  determination  to 
expand.  Economic  distress  invited  further  exercise 
of  the  Commonwealth's  policy  of  directing  indus- 
try by  governmental  authority. 

Legislation.  The  Assembly  voted  amendments 
to  the  Commonwealth's  constitution,  later  adopted ; 
they  altered  the  duration  of  tenure  of  the  Presi- 
dency (for  provision  as  to  President  Quezon  see 
above,  under  Government),  added  a  Senate  to  the 
legislative  body,  and  provided  a  powerful  consti- 
tutionally intrenched  electoral  commission.  By  a 
vote  of  67  to  1  was  enacted  an  immigration  law 
limiting  the  allowable  ingress  of  immigrants  from 
each  other  country  to  500  a  year ;  impartial  in  its 
form,  this  measure  was  expected  to  restrict  only 
the  admittance  of  Japanese  A  tax  was  imposed  on 
the  milling  of  sugar  cane  by  the  centrals ;  its  pro- 
ceeds were  to  defray  efforts  of  the  government  to 
improve  the  conditions  in  the  sugar-making  indus- 
try. Lengthening  the  list  of  corporate  instruments 
for  projecting  state  direction  into  economic  activi- 
ty, the  Assembly  created  a  National  Trade  Cor- 
poration, to  promote  oversea  trade;  a  Coconut 
Corporation,  to  help  sustain  the  depressed  com- 
merce in  the  products  of  the  coconut ,  and  a  To- 
bacco Corporation,  to  perform  a  like  service  in  its 
designated  field.  A  labor  act  created  a  Court  of 
Industrial  Relations ,  the  five  judges  were  to  have 
authority  to  investigate,  settle,  or  decide  all  dis- 
putes between  employer  and  employee ;  they  went 
armed  with  power  to  impose  serious  punishment 
for  contempt,  either  of  explicit  orders  or  of  an 
implicit  agreement,  as  envisaged  by  the  act,  against 
strike  or  lockout  in  any  dispute,  during  the  court's 
proceedings ;  employer  and  laborers'  representative 
stood  equally  amenable  to  the  court's  orders.  The 
session's  appropriations  were  reported  to  total  208,- 
139,600  pesos,  not  all  for  the  ensuing  fiscal  year ; 
of  the  whole,  80,452,000  fell  within  the  general 
budget,  80,000,000  were  to  come  from  the  coconut- 
oil  excise  receipts;  30,000,000  were  for  financing 
the  coconut  and  tobacco  corporations. 

Relations  with  Japan.  The  U.S.  Government, 
conducting  diplomatic  relations  with  Japan  for  the 
Philippines,  agreed  to  the  extension,  for  one  year 
from  July  31,  1940,  of  an  existing  understanding 
by  which  Japan  might  export  cotton  piece-goods 
to  the  Philippines ;  the  admissible  quantity  of  such 
goods  for  the  stated  year  was  set  at  45,000,000 
square  meters.  The  arrangement  tended  to  facili- 
tate Japanese  importation  of  Philippine  ores  of 
iron  and  other  metals,  even  while  the  U.S.  policy 
tended  to  cut  down  the  exportation  from  the  Union 
of  such  goods  as  might  .help  Japanese  aggressive 
warfare ;  but  the  Philippines'  need  of  such  markets 
as  they  could  find  was  particularly  strong  at  the 
time.  A  captain  of  Philippine  Scouts,  Rufo  Ro- 
mero, was  convicted  by  court  martial,  November 
25,  of  conspiring  to  sell  to  an  unrevealed  party 


PHILOLOGY 


maps  taken  from  Fort  McKinley.  No  indication  of 
the  identity  of  those  seeking  military  information 
transpired,  but  the  incident  tended  further  to  stir 
doubt  of  the  Japanese  intentions  in  the  Islands.  See 
JAPAN  under  History. 

Relations  with  the  United  States.  U.S.  High 
Commissioner  Sayre  declared,  in  an  interview  pub- 
lished at  Manila,  February  25,  his  belief  that  the 
taxpayers  of  the  United  States  would  be  unwilling 
to  support  a  force  for  the  defense  of  the  Philip- 
pines after  their  scheduled  attainment  of  independ- 
ence in  1946.  He  further  expressed  doubt  whether 
the  Philippine  Government,  having  moved  so  far 
toward  an  independent  status,  could  avoid  going 
the  rest  of  the  way,  even  if  it  would.  President 
Quezon  in  an  address  on  March  27  declared  his 
doubt  of  the  Islands'  sufficiency  for  their  own  de- 
fense against  conquest  and  suggested  the  possi- 
bility of  a  continued  bond,  sufficiently  loosened  to 
let  the  islands  make  treaties,  particularly  for  the 
improvement  of  their  commerce.  In  September, 
Minister  of  Finance  Roxas,  endorsed  by  Quezon, 
broached  the  idea  of  a  continued  commercial  bond 
with  the  United  States  and  of  the  latter' s  continu- 
ing military  aid  to  the  Philippines  It  thus  ap- 
peared, as  the  intermediate  period  prior  to  inde- 
pendence reached  the  middle  of  its  duiation,  that 
definite  efforts  to  shield  the  Commonwealth  from 
the  rigors  of  an  isolated  freedom  would  not  be 
lacking.  The  United  States  sent  considerable  forces 
of  naval  craft  and  airplanes  to  the  Islands  late  in 
the  year. 

Measures  to  Check  Depression,  The  Nation- 
al Trade,  Coconut,  and  Tobacco  corporations  were 
all  established  and  put  to  work  during  the  year. 
The  prices  of  securities  in  the  market  at  Manila 
were  pegged  on  June  11  to  check  their  collapse. 
Depression  started  to  ease  toward  the  end  of  1940. 

PHILOLOGY,  Classical.  Certain  tendencies 
adumbrated  in  this  place  in  previous  years  are  be- 
coming more  definite.  The  humanities  are  being 
given  an  increasingly  important  place  in  American 
education  (see  e.g.  Patricia  Beesly,  The  Revival 
of  the  Humanities  in  American  Education),  per- 
haps because  of  the  crisis  in  human  affairs  and  the 
growing  feeling  that  the  social  and  natural  sci- 
ences alone  are  inadequate  for  complete  education. 
New  courses  have  been  introduced  in  several  col- 
leges in  which  the  Greek  and  to  a  less  degree  the 
Latin  authors  occupy  the  center  of  attention.  The 
work  is  naturally  done  in  translation,  but  even  so 
it  appears  to  be  gradually  affecting  philological 
study.  With  edification  rather  than  erudition  as 
the  avowed  purpose  of  the  new  humanism,  atten- 
tion is  centered  on  content  rather  than  on  form,  on 
doctrine  rather  than  on  language.  More  narrowly 
philological  studies  thus  tend  to  give  way  to  studies 
upon  the  place  of  a  given  author  or  movement  in 
the  spiritual  history  of  mankind.  Attention  is 
therefore  f ocussed  upon  authors  that  merit  a  place 
in  such  a  history,  and  not  only  the  lesser  writers 
but  the  lesser  questions  involved  in  the  greater 
writers  tend  to  be  neglected.  Lesser  writers  and 
lesser  questions  tend  to  be  examined  only  for  the 
help  they  provide  in  understanding  a  major  figure 
or  period.  General  works  tend  to  deal  with  philos- 
ophy and  religion  and  with  the  interpretation  of 
political  and  economic  phenomena  with  the  classi- 
cist ends  of  acmulatio  and  even  imitatio  m  mind. 

The  tendency  to  extract  useful  doctrine  from 
the  study  of  antiquity  is  even  more  marked,  though 
less  objectively  pursued,  in  the  totalitarian  coun- 
tries. Political  theorists  of  antiquity  are  shown  to 
prescribe  the  "Leader  principle,"  the  discipline  of 


PHILOSOPHY 


590 


PHILOSOPHY 


Sparta  is  extolled  at  the  expense  of  more  demo- 
cratic forms,  and  all  that  can  make  for  national 
pride  is  underscored.  The  subservience  of  scholar- 
ship to  the  dominant  political  beliefs  in  Germany 
and  Italy  may  be  illustrated  by  a  single  example. 
An  imposing  history  of  Latin  literature  comes 
from  the  hand  of  Augusto  Rostagni  (La  letter- 
atura  di  Roma  repubblicana  ed  augustea)  from 
whom  much  was  to  be  expected.  But  instead  of 
objective  scholarship  as  ordinarily  understood  the 
book  is  an  extended  argument,  with  rhetoric  serv- 
ing for  demonstration,  for  the  independence  of 
Latin  literature  from  foreign  influence,  especially 
Greek,  though  such  influence  is  beyond  question 
and  was  freely  acknowledged  by  the  Romans 
themselves.  Gnomon,  the  German  periodical  with 
the  greatest  reputation  for  sound  reviews  of  books 
in  classical  philology,  proceeds  to  praise  Rostagni's 
book  in  high  terms. 

Except  from  the  conquered  countries  the  stream 
of  publications  continues  almost  unabated.  Biblio- 
graphical works,  text  collections,  lexicographical 
works  in  progress,  periodicals,  and  serial  publica- 
tions are  listed  in  articles  for  previous  years  and 
will  not  be  repeated  here.  Most  continue  to  ap- 
pear, though  somewhat  irregularly  and  in  reduced 
volume.  The  major  philological  work  of  the  year 
comes  from  England ;  it  is  the  completed  revision 
of  the  Liddell-Scott  Greek  lexicon  by  H.  S.  Jones 
and  R.  Mackenzie,  both  now  deceased.  Another 
great  work  completed  in  England  this  year  is  A. 

B.  Cook's  Zeus ;  "both  parts  of  the  third  and  final 
volume  are  now  published.  A  number  of  the  year's 
other  books  must  be  mentioned:  W.  F.  Albright, 
From  the  Stone  Age  to  Christianity,  Monotheism 
and  the  Historical  Process ;  W.  N.  Bates,  Sopho- 
cles; J.  Carcopino,  Daily  Life  in  Ancient  Rome; 

C.  N.  Cochrane,  Christianity  and  Classical  Cul- 
ture; L.  V.  Cummings,  Alexander  the  Great;  R. 
J.  Deferrari  and  others,  A  Concordance  of  Lucan ; 
G.  E.  Duckworth,  Plautus,  Epidicus ;  E.  R.  Good- 
enough,  An  Introduction  to  Philo  Judaeus;  A.  H. 
M.  Jones,   The  Greek   City  from  Alexander  to 
Justinian'  H.  D.  F.  Kitto,  Greek  Tragedy;  H. 
Michell,  The  Economics  of  Ancient  Greece;  Gil- 
bert Murray,  Aeschylus;  M.  P.  Nilsson.  Greek 
Popular  Religion ;  Inez  S.  Ryberg,  An  Archaeo- 
logical Record  of  Rome  from  the  Seventh  to  the 
Second  Century  B.C.;  V.   H.   Scramuzza,   The 
Emperor  Claudius;  D'Arcy  W.  Thompson,  Sci- 
ence and  the  Classics. 

The  character  and  volume  of  American  work  in 
classical  philology  may  be  gauged  from  the  Bib- 
liographical Record  of  the  thousand-odd  members 
of  the  American  Philological  Association,  pub- 
lished in  the  Association's  Transactions  and  Pro- 
ceedings. Volume  Ixx  (for  1939,  published  1940) 
reports  the  seventy-first  annual  meeting  of  the 
Association,  held  at  Ann  Arbor  December  27-29. 
Its  nearly  700  pages  contain  thirty-seven  complete 
articles,  abstracts  of  thirty  others,  matter  dealing 
with  the  organization  of  the  Association  and  its 
work,  and  a  list  of  the  members  and  their  biblio- 
graphical record. 

MOSES  HADAS. 

PHILOSOPHY.  The  fortieth  annual  meeting 
of  the  Eastern  Division  of  the  American  Philosoph- 
ical Association  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
(December,  1940)  brought  together  philosophers 
representing  most  of  the  schools  and  directions  of 
thought  in  this  country.  Sessions  were  devoted  to 
the  philosophy  of  science,  the  nature  of  the  mind, 
ethics  and  art,  symbolic  logic,  religious  philosophy, 


and  phenomenology,  while  a  final  symposium,  spon- 
sored by  the  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science  as  well  as  the  A.P.A.,  took 
up  the  problem  of  science  and  value. 

Ray  H.  Dotterer,  in  one  session,  argued  that  the 
paradoxes  which  seem  to  follow  from  the  "prin- 
ciple of  insufficiency"  or  "indifference"  disappear 
if  it  is  remembered  that  probability  judgments  are 
meaningless  "except  in  relation  to  the  data  with 
respect  to  which  they  are  asserted  to  be  true." 
Victor  Lowe  attempted  to  define  a  naturalistic 
"temporalism"  in  the  context  of  Whitehead's  phi- 
losophy, while  Erwin  Biser  argued  that  Heisen- 
berg's  uncertainty  relations  "are  fundamental  in 
nature  and  not  merely  due  to  the  perturbation  inci- 
dent to  the  act  of  measurement  and  observation ; 
nor  to  the  fallibility  of  our  concepts." 

In  another  session,  Ronald  B.  Levison  concluded 
that,  since  Plato  in  the  Laws  asserts  that  an  act 
may  be  just  although  its  consequences  are  bad,  the 
gaps  between  Platonic  and  Kantian  ethics  is  not  so 
broad  as  has  been  supposed.  Two  papers  on  esthet- 
ics took  Croce  as  a  starting  point.  Helmut  Kuhn, 
vindicating  a  problem  rejected  by  Croce,  asserts 
that  "the  festival  is  the  focus  of  art  in  life."  The 
interpenetration  of  the  arts  inter  se,  and  with  moral 
and  social  life,  is  also  stressed  by  D.  W.  Gotschalk. 
He  attempts,  following  in  the  path  of  Croce,  to 
effect  a  synthesis  of  romantic  and  classic  doctrine 
of  art  without  isolating  art,  and  the  arts,  from 
other  phases  of  life 

W.  H.  Sheldon,  speaking  in  the  symposium  on 
"mind,"  endeavored  to  combine  conflicting  theories 
in  a  sweeping  perspective.  "Philosophers,"  he  said, 
"have  usually  taken  mind  as  primarily  cognitive, 
due  to  class  bias,  because  they  are  themselves  think- 
ers rather  than  doers;  this  abstract  view  is  the 
main  source  of  the  oppositions."  C.  I.  Lewis  made 
the  interesting  point  that  although  "my  mind"  can 
be  defined  as  something  with  which  I  am  directly 
acquainted,  but  you  are  not,  solipsism  does  not  fol- 
low from  the  alleged  fact  that  other  minds  are  not 
verifiable.  Brand  Blanchard,  on  the  other  hand, 
approached  "mind"  through  the  concept  of  tele- 
ology. The  idealistic  emphasis  was  also  evident  in 
a  symposium  on  religious  knowledge.  Horace  L. 
Friess,  using  the  experience  of  the  sacred  to  de- 
limit the  religious,  argued  that  a  liberalistic,  his- 
torical approach  to  religious  experience  would  serve 
to  give  us  "our  exact  bearings  spiritually,"  while 
J.  S.  Bixler  upheld  a  religious  knowledge,  different 
from  the  scientific,  but  capable  of  some  kind  of 
confirmation.  R.  L.  Calhoun,  however,  contrasted 
knowledge  with  the  assurance,  or  faith,  that  the 
world  makes  sense.  The  latter  is  "a  dynamic  orien- 
tation of  thought,  feeling,  and  will,  that  underlies 
and  sustains  the  more  concrete  efforts  of  reason." 

Of  the  symbolic  logic  papers,  the  most  interest- 


semantical  description   of   any   system   of    logic 
whatsoever." 

The  symposium  on  science  and  value  brought  to- 
gether some  of  the  leading  figures  in  American 
philosophy  and  science.  Wilbur  M.  Urban,  Frank 
H.  Knight,  Ralph  B.  Perry,  and  Professor  Singer 
read  papers,  while  Gregory  Bateson,  M.  R.  Cohen, 
Harlow  Shapley,  and  O.  H.  Taylor  led  the  dis- 
cussion. The  clearest,  most  decisive  thesis  was  put 
forward  by  Perry.  It  was  developed  in  his  Gen- 
eral Theory  of  Value  (1926).  Value  is  determined 
essentially  by  interest  which  develops  and^  changes 
with  evolution  and  environmental  alterations. 


PHILOSOPHY 


591 


PHILOSOPHY 


One  section  of  the  program  of  the  A.P.A.  was 
devoted  to  a  phenomenology  which,  exiled  from 
Germany,  has  recently  developed  a  new  momentum 
in  this  country.  Marvin  Farber,  Alfred  Schuetz, 
Dorion  Cairns,  and  Herberg  Spiegelberg  discussed 
different  aspects  of  Husserl's  phenomenological 
philosophy:  Farber  giving  a  general  description 
of  the  phenomenological  method,  Schuetz  relating 
it  to  William  James'  "stream  of  thought,"  Cairns 
maintaining  that  expressions  "are  ideal  individ- 
uals," while  Spiegelberg  sought  to  determine  the 
meaning  of  "self -evidence."  All  of  these  speakers, 
and  a  number  of  other  students  of  Husserl,  are 
represented  in  the  Philosophical  Essays  in  Memory 
of  Edmund  Husserl  (1940).  Some  of  the  essays, 
such  as  those  of  Farber  and  Cairns,  are  purely 
expository  of  the  descriptive,  subjective,  transcen- 
dental, a  priori  philosophy  of  Husserl.  Others, 
such  as  those  of  Charles  Hartshorne  and  V.  J. 
McGill,  are  highly  critical,  the  former  in  loyalty  to 
certain  religious  and  ethical  conceptions,  the  latter 
from  the  point  of  view  of  materialism.  Evidently 
the  program  of  the  new  phenomenological  move- 
ment is  not  to  be  thought  of  as  narrow  and  sectar- 
ian. Jacob  Klein  in  the  same  volume  discusses  the 
development  of  science  in  relation  to  recent  writ- 
ings of  Husserl :  Eine  Einlcitung  in  die  phanome- 
nologische  Philosophic,  and  Die  Frage  nach  dew 
Ursprung  der  Geometric  als  intentwnal-histor- 
isches  Problem.  "The  'intentional  history/  as  sug- 
gested by  Husserl,  may  accomplish  this  task:  it 
may  'reactivate*  the  'sedimented'  'evidences/  may 
bring  to  light  the  forgotten  origins  of  our  science. 
A  history  of  science  which  fails  to  tackle  this  task 
does  not  live  up  to  its  own  purpose,  .  .  ."  Accord- 
ing to  Klein,  the  "sedimented"  understanding  of 
numbers  "is  superposed  upon  the  first  stratum  of 
'sedimented1  geometrical  'evidences '  The  compli- 
cated network  of  sedimented  significances  under- 
lies the  arithmetical  understanding  of  geometry 
The  second  task  involved  in  the  reactivation  of  the 
origin  of  mathematical  physics  is,  therefore,  the 
reactivation  of  the  process  of  symbolic  abstraction 
and,  by  implication,  the  rediscovery  of  the  original 
arithmetical  evidences."  Klein  stresses  the  two 
most  important  Husserlian  concepts,  intention  and 
evidence.  Hermann  Weyl  also  writes  on  the  scien- 
tific implications  of  Husserl's  thought  His  sub- 
ject is  modalities  in  logical  systems.  Felix  Kauf- 
mann,  on  the  other  hand,  explores  the  relation  be- 
tween phenomenology  and  a  rival  school  of  phi- 
losophy, logical  empiricism,  while  Gerhart  Hus- 
serl presents  a  phenomenological  analysis  of  "Men 
and  the  Law  "  The  journal  Philosophy  and  Phe- 
nomenological Research,  two  issues  of  which  ap- 
peared in  1940,  carries  on  the  kind  of  investigations 
initiated  by  the  Husserl  memorial  volume. 

Another  school  of  philosophy  which  has  become 
increasingly  prominent  in  this  country  in  the  past 
few  years  is  Neo-Thomism  The  recent  visits  of 
such  famous  Thomists  as  Gilson,  Maritain,  and 
D* Arcy  have  doubtless  stimulated  interest  Another 
contributing  factor  has  been  the  new  educational 
policies  sponsored  by  President  Hutchins,  Dean 
McKeon,  and  Professor  Adler  of  the  University  of 
Chicago  and  Dean  Buchanan  of  St.  Johns  College. 
This  educational  program  emphasizes  principles  as 
against  mere  collocations  of  facts,  deduction,  and 
intuition  as  against  crude  empiricism.  It  prefers 
classics  to  modern  opportunistic  text  books  and 
orientation  courses,  and  it  insists  that  metaphysics 
reserve  its  medieval  dignity  as  queen  of  the  sci- 
ences and  hub  of  the  university.  At  times  it  appears 
that  it  is  not  metaphysics,  but  theology,  which  is  to 


be  the  final  arbiter  of  truth,  and  sovereignly  is 
not  usually  assigned  to  theology  in  general,  but  to 
Catholic  theology  and  specifically  to  Thomism. 
Thus  Professor  Adler  in  his  Aquinas  Lecture,  St. 
Thomas  and  the  Gentiles,  argued  that  if  Shake- 
speare is  the  universal  poet,  St.  Thomas  is,  by  the 
same  reasons,  the  universal  philosopher.  The  same 
writer,  in  an  address  before  the  Conference  of 
Science,  Philosophy,  and  Religion  in  New  York 
(1940),  entitled  "God  and  the  Professors,"  ex- 
coriated positivism  in  all  its  forms,  maintaining 
that  at  bottom  it  is  "the  affirmation  of  science  and 
the  denial  of  philosophy  and  religion."  In  Adler's 
opinion,  "the  most  serious  threat  to  Democracy  is 
the  positivism  of  the  professors,  which  dominates 
every  aspect  of  modern  education  and  is  the  cen- 
tral corruption  of  modern  culture.  Democracy  has 
much  more  to  fear  from  the  mentality  of  its  teach- 
ers than  from  Hitler."  Because  of  its  challenging 
and  programmatic  character,  this  speech  received 
much  publicity  and  criticism.  Adler  went  so  far  as 
to  state  seven  propositions  which  must  be  affirmed. 
"He  who  denies  any  one  of  them  denies  philoso- 
phy." The  third  of  these  principles  asserts  that 
philosophical  and  scientific  truths  are  logically  in- 
dependent of  one  another.  The  fourth  asserts  phi- 
losophy is  "superior  to  science  both  theoretically 
and  practically,"  while  the  fifth  denies  that  there 
can  be  a  conflict  between  the  two  orders  of  truth. 
Other  principles  affirm  that  the  foundation  of  all 
philosophies  must  be  metaphysical  and  that  meta- 
physics is  able  to  demonstrate  the  existence  of  God 
"without  any  reliance  upon  articles  of  religious 
faith."  Naturally  critics  were  quick  to  point  out 
that  these  requirements  disqualify  almost  all  Amer- 
ican philosophers,  and  even  many  Medieval  phi- 
losophers to  whom  Adler  defers  as  authorities  But 
the  address  was  printed  under  the  imprimatur  of 
the  Church.  In  the  same  conference  views  conflict- 
ing with  Adler's  were  heard.  Professor  Albert 
Einstein,  for  example,  argued  that  the  belief  in  a 
personal  God  is  unscientific  and  pernicious 

The  Thomist  view  of  politics  is  set  forth  au- 
thoritatively by  Jacques  Maritain  in  his  Scholasti- 
cism and  Politics  (translation  edited  by  M.  J. 
Adler).  The  central  emphasis  in  Maritain's  integral 
humanism  or  organic  democracy  is  upon  the  value 
of  the  person,  which,  he  believes,  could  be  pre- 
served and  enhanced  in  a  hierarchical  system  of 
persons,  if  the  higher  governed  the  lower  as  per- 
sons, not  as  things.  The  advocacy  of  organic  de- 
mocracy and  corporatism  is  expressed  more  clearly 
by  the  various  contributors  to  The  Philosophy  of 
the  State,  Vol.  XV  of  the  Proceedings  of  the 
American^Catholic  Philosophical  Association.  The 
Church  criticizes  totalitarianism,  according  to  Wal- 
demar  Gurian,  not  because  it  is  opposed  to  modern 
democracies,  but  because  it  makes  religion  sub- 
servient to  the  state  which  then  usurps  the  place  of 
God.  Charles  A.  Hart  claims  that  what  the  Church 
deplores  is  the  modern  laicized  state,  whether  fas- 
cist, liberal  democratic,  or  communist.  The  ideal 
upheld  in  this  book  is  the  corporate  state,  outlined 
by  Leo  XIII  and  Pius  XI,  and  partially  realized 
in  Italy,  i.e.  an  authoritarian  hierarchical  state, 
ruled  from  the  top  down,  but  consistent  nonethe- 
less with  democracy 

The  positivists,  specifically  the  logical  positivists, 
were  under  fire  this  year  from  another  quarter  to 
which  Thomism  is  altogether  hostile.  Bertrand 
Russell's  criticism  of  the  school  in  his  An  Inquiry 
into  Meaning  and  Truth  is  especially  noteworthy 
inasmuch  as  he  and  his  pupil,  Ludwig  Wittgen- 
stein, were  the  greatest  formative  influences  on  the 


PHILOSOPHY 


592 


PHILOSOPHY 


original  Vienna  Circle,  While  in  sympathy  with 
many  phases  of  logical  positivism,  Russell  objects 
to  panlogism,  the  transformation  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject-matter of  philosophy  into  words,  and  he  insists 
that  the  evidence  for  a  factual  premise  "is  the 
event  to  which  it  refers  ...  a  unique  occurrence, 
not  a  sentence  or  proposition  or  belief ;  .  .  ."  He 
argues  that  while  Rudolf  Carnap's  language  seems 
to  suggest  that  something  can  be  learned  from  a 
single  observation  (because  Carnap  states  that  in 
testing  a  factual  statement  we  make  a  set  of  simple 
observations),  he  never  tells  us  what  we  learn  from 
any  one  of  these  observations.  Russell's  espousal 
of  the  correspondence  theory  of  truth  also  brings 
him  into  opposition  with  John  Dewey.  Rejecting 
Dewey's  proposal  to  substitute  "warranted  asserti- 
bility"  for  truth,  he  holds  fast  to  the  concept  of 
truth.  Dewey,  he  contends,  makes  the  goal  of  in- 
quiry, "not  the  attainment  of  truth,  but  presumably 
some  kind  of  harmony  between  the  inquirer  and 
the  environment.  .  .  .  Dr.  Dewey  rejects  the  tradi- 
tional answer,  that  I  come  to  know  something,  and 
that,  as  a  consequence  of  my  knowledge,  my  ac- 
tions are  more  successful.  He  eliminates  the  inter- 
mediate stage  of  'knowing/  and  says  that  the  only 
essential  result  of  successful  inquiry  is  successful 
action."  But  Russell's  book  is  not  mainly  polemical. 
Many  of  the  logical  and  epistemological  problems 
with  which  he  has  been  occupied  for  the  last 
forty  years  are  resolved  anew  in  the  light  of  cur- 
rent philosophical  developments. 

Bertrand  Russell  also  contributed  an  essay  this 
year  to  The  Philosophy  of  George  Santayana,  Vol. 
II  of  the  Library  of  Living  Philosophers.  One  of 
his  criticisms  of  Santayana  is  of  particular  inter- 
est. He  complains  that  realism  cannot  be  justified 
by  "animal  faith."  "All  unproved  beliefs  are  ... 
expressions  of  animal  faith,  but  the  problem  of  the 
theory  of  knowledge  is  to  find  some  way  of  select- 
ing some  of  these  as  more  worthy  of  credence  than 
others.  This  cannot  be  done  by  ultimate  skepticism, 
which  rejects  them  all,  nor  by  animal  faith,  which 
accepts  them  all "  All  phases  of  Santayana's  many- 
sided  philosophy  are  considered  by  the  various  con- 
tributors to  this  volume :  Esthetics,  theory  of  value, 
literary  criticism,  poetry,  religion,  politics,  etc.  But 
the  most  rewarding  portions  of  the  book  are  per- 
haps Santayana's  own  confession  at  the  beginning 
and  his  answer  to  critics  at  the  end. 

The  most  important  book  in  the  field  of  esthetics 
was  probably  T  M.  Greene's  The  Arts  and  the  Art 
of  Criticism.  This  handsome  volume  with  300  il- 
lustrations exemplifying  critical  judgments  in  the 
text  is  much  more  concerned  with  an  analysis  of 
the  arts,  than  with  esthetic  theory  as  such.  The 
thesis  put  forward  here,  as  in  an  article  "Beauty 
and  the  Cognitive  Significance  of  Art,"  (/.  of 
Phil  XXXV  pp.  365-381),  is  that  all  art  is  "cog- 
nitively  significant"  and  is  to  be  evaluated,  without 
metaphor,  as  true  or  false.  The  directly  opposite 
view  that  art  is  not  always  cognitively  significant 
and  that  its  essence  is  subjective  feeling  evoked  in 
the  observer,  has  been  put  forward  in  recent  years 
by  Prof.  C.  J.  Ducasse,  who  has  been  strongly 
influenced  by  Santayana's  The  Sense  of  Beauty. 
This  basic  conflict  in  esthetics  has  occasioned  con- 
siderable dispute  and  partisanship. 

Among  the  books  on  Greek  philosophy  one 
stands  out  by  reason  of  the  originality  and  chal- 
lenge of  its  method.  A.  D.  Winspear,  in  The  Gene- 
sis  of  Plato's  Thought,  breaks  new  ground  in  the 
history  of  philosophy  by  attempting  a  systematic 
explanation  of  Plato's  philosophy,  not  only  in  terms 
of  preceding  philosophers,  but  fclsp  in  the  light  of 


the  political,  social,  and  economic  conditions  and 
issues  of  his  time,  and  of  foregoing  periods  back 
as  far  as  the  society  of  the  Homeric  epics.  The 
Pythogoreans  who  greatly  influenced  Plato,  and 
who  are  usually  represented  as  politically  disinter- 
ested, are  shown  to  be  sponsors  of  the  oligarchs 
and,  in  general,  the  ideas  of  Plato  (and  other 
philosophers)  are  shown  to  have  political  motiva- 
tion and  consequences  and  to  change  with  social 
strife.  "The  rift  in  thought  (between  the  one  and 
the  many,  the  permanent  and  the  changing)  reflects 
the  rift  in  society.  Until  that  conflict  is  resolved  in 
actuality,  or  at  least  in  hope,  the  troubling  doubt 
that  haunted  Plato  must  continue  to  perplex  his 
philosophical  successors." 

Logical  positivists,  pragmatists,  operationalists, 
symbolic  logicians  seem  to  be  increasingly  con- 
cerned with  the  nature  of  language.  As  B.  Russell 
comments  ironically,  "Some  modern  philosophers 
hold  that  we  know  much  about  language,  but  noth- 
ing about  anything  else."  As  an  antidote  to  this 
tendency  Anton  Marty's  posthumous  work,  Psyche 
und  Sprachstruktur  (just  published  by  Otto 
Funke),  should  prove  valuable.  Although  his  ap- 
proach to  language  is  psychological  and  unmathe- 
matical,  many  of  his  key  distinctions  parallel  those 
of  B.  Russell.  For  example-  Marty's  distinction 
between  categonmatica  and  syncategorimatica  is 
similar  to  Russell's  complete  and  incomplete  sym- 
bols Although  exceedingly  subtle  in  its  way,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  philosophers  concerned  with  lan- 
guage, apart  from  the  phenomenologists,  will  profit 
by  a  tradition  so  remote  from  them. 

Of  the  many  works  on  the  Philosophy  of  Sci- 
ence to  appear,  Oliver  L.  Reiser's  The  Promise  of 
Scientific  Humanism  is  distinctive  in  a  number  of 
respects  Reiser  discusses  controversial  philosophi- 
cal questions  arising  in  a  surprisingly  large  number 
of  sciences  and  illuminates  most  issues  by  snatches 
of  history  and  apt  citations  of  current  polemics. 
The  author's  thesis  is  that  modern  science  has  out- 
grown Aristotelian  logic,  that  its  needs  are  now 
best  served  by  non-Aristotelian  logic,  which  he  at- 
tempts to  develop  in  scientific  contexts,  with  many 
citations  to  prove  that  modern  science  is  now  ap- 
proaching his  position. 

Another  book  which  upholds  a  kind  of  "new 
realism,"  and  discourses  on  perception,  time,  his- 
tory, happiness,  and  other  philosophical  topics  with 
eloquence  and  robust  earnestness  is  An  Essay  on 
Nature,  by  F  J.  E.  Woodbridge. 

Bibliography.  Besides  the  titles  mentioned  above  in  the 
text,  the  following  books  are  significant  The  Problem  of 
Species,  Mortimer  J.  Adler,  Experience,  Reason  and 
Faith:  A  Survey  in  Philosophy  of  Religion,  E.  G  Bewkes, 
H  B.  Jefferson,  E.  T.  Adams,  and  H.  A  Brautigam; 
The  Nature  of  Thought,  Brand  Blanchard;  La  philosophic 
et  son  passe",  Emil  Br6hier;  A  Philosophy  of  Religion, 
Edgar  Sheffield  Brightman;  An  Essay  on  Metaphysics,  R. 
G.  Colhngwood;  A  History  of  Indian  Philosophy,  Suren- 
dranath  Dasgupta;  Education  Today,  John  Dewey  (edited 
by  Joseph  Ratner) ;  The  Living  Thoughts  of  Thomas  Jef- 
ferson, John  Dewey;  Positive  Democracy,  James  Fieble- 
man:  Methoden  und  Hilfsmittel  des  Aristotelesstudiums 
im  Mitttlalter,  Martin  Grabraann:  Reason  Social  Myths 
and  Democracy,  Sidney  Hook;  A  History  of  Esthetics,  K. 
E.  Gilbert  and  H  Kuhn;  The  Problem  of  Religious  Knowl- 
edge, Doublas  Clyde  Macintosh;  Science  and  Wisdom, 
Jacques  Maritam;  The  Ways  of  Things,  William  Pep- 
nerell  Montague;  The  Human  Enterprise,  An  attempt  to 
Relate  Philosophy  to  Dailv  Life,  M.  C.  Otto;  Shall  not 


A.  Kyan  ana  Francis  J.  tfoiand;  Catholic  social  i  neory, 
Wilhelm  Schwer:  The  Nature  of  the  World.  An  Essay  in 
Phenomenalist  Metaphysics,  W.  T.  Stace;  Adversity's  No- 
bleman, The  Italian  Humanists  on  Happiness,  Charles  Ed- 
ward  Tnnkaus. 

JERAULD  V.  McGrtL. 


PHOSPHATES 


593 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


PHOSPHATES.  See  FERTILIZERS;  FLORIDA 
under  Mineral  Production. 

PHOTOENGRAVING.  See  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

PHOTOGRAPHY.  War  abroad  dominated 
the  photography  of  the  year.  The  daily  papers, 
news  weeklies,  and  motion-picture  news  reels  fea- 
tured war  on  land,  at  sea,  and  in  the  air.  Many  of 
the  photographs  had  been  taken  under  extremely 
difficult  conditions,  action  at  sub-zero  in  Finland's 
snow-covered  forests,  action  in  desert  heat  and 
sand-storm  in  Libya,  on  warships  in  Norwegian 
fiords,  the  stormy  North  Sea,  and  the  English 
Channel  Army  cameramen  covered  their  assign- 
ments during  the  invasion  of  Norway,  Holland, 
and  Belgium.  The  amazing  retreat  and  evacuation 
of  the  British  army  at  Dunkirk  was  carried  out 
not  only  under  blazing  gunfire  and  bombings  but 
also  under  the  searching  eye  of  the  camera.  From 
the  air,  photographs  were  made  from  reconnaisance 
planes  before,  during,  and  after  every  major  action 
(Figure  1). 

Men  were  trained  with  the  aid  of  still  photog- 
raphy and  motion  pictures  to  care  for  themselves 
and  others  and  in  all  forms  of  actual  combat.  Port- 
able photographic  laboratories  were  used  in  the 
field  equipped  with  the  latest  types  of  processing 
apparatus  to  permit  the  most  rapid  delivery  of 
good  quality  pictures  Major  General  Arnold  re- 
ported that  color  photographs  could  be  made  suc- 
cessfully from  airplanes  flying  more  than  200 
m  p.h.  and  at  heights  ranging  up  to  about  2  miles 
The  United  States  Army  Air  Corps  at  Wright 
Field,  Dayton,  Ohio,  and  the  United  States  Naval 
School  of  Photography  at  Pensacola,  Florida,  have 
been  experimenting  with  color  photographs  from 
the  air  since  1936  Major  Goddard  of  the  Army 
Air  Corps  was  stated  to  have  made  several  hun- 
dred color  photographs  on  Kodachrome  sheet  film 
during  the  last  two  years.  With  the  use  of  such 
films,  it  was  predicted  that  the  military  expert 
might  be  able  to  detect  camouflage  more  easily  as 
well  as  to  distinguish  more  clearly  natural  land- 
marks (Nat.  Gcog.  Mag.  77:  757,  June,  1940). 

Improved  infrared-sensitive  films  were  being 
used  for  the  penetration  of  atmospheric  haze,  and 
aerial  photographs  were  made  at  night  with  the 
aid  of  large  flash  bombs  timed  to  explode  syn- 
chronously with  the  maximum  opening  of  the 
camera  shutter.  This  problem  was  studied  during 
October  at  Rochester,  N.Y.,  under  the  direction  of 
Major  Goddard  and  with  the  co-operation  of  the 
Kodak  Research  Laboratories. 

Mechanics  of  the  new  mechanized  army  of  the 
United  States  were  being  instructed  with  the  aid 
of  slide-film  and  motion  pictures  at  the  Quarter- 
master Depot  in  Maryland  (Business  Screen,  3: 
No.  1,  p.  13,  1940).  In  Great  Britain,  it  was  re- 
ported that  the  cameras  for  aerial  use  over  enemy 
territory  usually  were  loaded  by  the  ground  staff, 
who  fitted  them  with  the  correct  filter  and  set  the 
shutter  and  aperture  before  turning  them  over  to 
the  observer-navigator  who  was  also  the  photog- 
rapher. A  typical  camera  used  by  the  Royal  Air 
Force  was  loaded  with  sufficient  film  to  make  125 
exposures  (5  by  5-inches)  (Popular  Phot.  6:  16, 
May,  1940).  Fighter  planes  were  equipped  with 
16-mm.  cameras  which  operated  automatically  to 
make  records  of  machine  gun  fire. 

In  the  design  and  production  of  aircraft,  photog- 
raphy became  recently  a  most  valuable  method  of 
saving  time  and  costs,  as  well  as  eliminating  errors. 
This  application  had  especial  significance  in  view 
of  the  rapidly  growing  American  defense  program 
which  developed  during  the  latter  part  of  the  year. 


Engineering  drawings  in  full  scale  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  plane  were  made  on  a  raised  floor 
called  a  "loft"  Next,  a  very  large  camera  was 
used  to  make  an  accurate  photograph  of  the  draw- 
ing, and  the  negative  so  obtained  was  enlarged 
onto  large  sheets  of  an  aluminum  alloy  of  a  maxi- 
mum size  of  5  by  10  feet  which  had  been  coated 
with  a  photographic  emulsion.  The  drawing  ap- 
peared in  full  scale  (or  in  fractional  or  multiple 
scale)  and  the  tool  makers  could  work  directly 
from  it  when  checking  semi-finished  parts,  or  pat- 
terns and  templates  could  be  cut  directly  from  it 
(Figure  2).  A  saving  of  more  than  $80,000  was 
said  to  have  been  made  by  the  Glenn  L.  Martin 
Company  of  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  1939  by  the  use 
of  these  methods  and  it  was  understood  that  they 
were  being  used  effectively  in  other  plants.  (Atner. 
Phot.  34:  886,  Dec.,  1940  ) 

The  U.S.  Army  Air  Corps  had  started  to  use 
airplanes  especially  designed  for  photographic  use. 
Equipment  included  camera  mounts  built  into  the 
body  of  the  plane  and  openings  were  made  at  vari- 
ous locations  in  the  plane  advantageous  for  cam- 
era use.  The  planes  were  said  to  be  capable  of  a 
service  ceiling  of  30,000  feet  and  a  cruising  speed 
of  about  200  m.p.h.  (Nat.  Photonews  Weekly  1: 
4,  Aug.,  1940). 

Photography  in  Color.  Perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant advance  of  the  year  was  the  announcement 
by  Dr.  C.  E.  K.  Mees  at  the  Christmas  Lectures  at 
the  Franklin  Institute  (Philadelphia)  that  Koda- 
chrome film  was  being  processed  by  an  improved 
method.  The  new  procedure  is  more  rapid  than  that 
in  use  since  the  introduction  of  this  color  film  in 
1935,  and  it  results  in  better  quality  pictures  The 
former  method  required  three  separate  color  devel- 
opments on  three  continuous  machines  and  a  dry- 
ing operation  between  each  machine  treatment.  By 
the  new  method,  the  film  is  processed  continuously 
on  a  single  machine.  After  the  development  of  the 
film  to  a  negative,  it  moves  forward  through  the 
machine  to  a  point  where  ft  is  exposed  to  red  light 
through  the  back  of  the  film,  which  affects  only  the 
back  or  red-sensitive  layer  of  the  triple  emulsion. 
Next,  the  film  passes  to  the  cyan  developer  and  a 
blue-green  dye  image  is  produced  in  the  back  layer 
without  affecting  the  two  upper  layers.  After  this 
stage,  the  film  is  exposed  to  blue  light  from  the 
top,  which  acts  only  on  the  top  layer  and  permits 
the  subsequent  development  of  a  yellow  dye  image 
therein.  Finally,  the  middle  layer  is  developed  to 
form  a  magenta  dye  image.  The  silver  that  is 
formed  during  dye  image  development  is  removed 
subsequently  from  all  three  layers  leaving  a  final 
film  having  only  three  superposed  dye  images. 

An  increasing  number  of  amateurs  and  profes- 
sionals were  known  to  be  using  color  films  espe- 
cially since  the  introduction  of  cameras  and  pro- 
jectors at  moderate  prices.  It  was  reported  by  the 
Photographic  Dealer  (Hollywood)  that  the  sale 
of  color  film  in  16-mm.  and  8-mm.  sizes  for  motion 
pictures  had  exceeded  the  sale  of  black  and  white 
films  for  the  first  time  since  color  films  were  in- 
troduced. 

Photoengravers  were  understood  to  have  mas- 
tered quite  well  the  problem  of  satisfactory  color 
reproductions  from  Kodachrome  transparencies. 
Smyth  and  Seymour  gave  working  details  for 
making  separation  negatives  from  such  films. 
(Photo  Technique  2:  23,  Feb.,  1940.)  A  New  York 
firm,  Triak  Color  Processes,  were  reported  to  have 
made  more  than  50,000  wash-off  relief  prints  from 
color  films  in  one  year.  Automatic  control  methods 
permitted  15  color  separation  negatives  to  be  made 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


594 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


simultaneously  from  35-mm.  color  transparencies 
(Photo  Technique  2:  24,  Dec.,  1940).  The  world's 
largest  job  of  reproduction  of  Kodachrome  pho- 
tography was  said  to  have  been  a  "Paint  and  Color 
Style  Guide"  containing  236  plates,  many  almost 
full  page  size  or  16  by  18%  inches.  Each  book 
weighed  4  Ibs.  and  25,000  copies  were  printed 
(Printers'  Ink  Monthly  40:  38,  Apr.,  1940). 

The  masking  method  of  color  correction,  where- 
by one  or  more  of  the  separation  negatives  for 
color  photogravure  are  combined  with  positives  of 
lower  contrast  made  from  the  other  separation 
negatives,  was  reported  by  Cartwright  to  give  only 
partial  correction  (Phot.  /.  SO:  289,  July,  1940). 
Progress  in  color  photography  as  shown  by  new 
patents  was  covered  in  a  series  of  articles  running 
through  the  British  Journal  of  Photography  (87: 
112,  Mar.  8,  1940,  et  seq.).  The  Keith  Lectures  of 
the  Royal  Scottish  Society  of  Arts  (Edinburgh) 
were  given  by  Dr.  D.  A.  Spencer  and  dealt  with 
theory  and  processes  of  color  photography  (Edin- 
burgh J.  Vol.  14,  Pt  III,  96,  Apr.,  1940).  A  stimu- 
lating review  of  the  applications  of  physics  in  color 
photography  was  published  by  MacAdam  (/.  Ap- 
plied physics  11:  46  Jan.,  1940). 

During  the  summer,  Washburn,  Director  of  the 
New  England  Museum  of  Natural  History  made 
his  ninth  exploration  of  Alaska's  coastal  ranges. 
Besides  making  many  black  and  white  photographs, 
he  brought  back  about  100  Kodachromes  on  sheet 
film  (8  x  10-inch),  which  represented  the  first  large- 
scale  use  of  such  film  for  field  investigation  of 
glacial  terrain.  A  Fairchild  K3B  aerial  camera  on 
a  tripod  was  used. 

Micro  photography.  Within  recent  years  the 
micro-filming  of  documentary  material  had  grown 
into  one  of  the  most  important  applications  of 
photography.  Vastly  improved  equipment  had  been 
made  available  and  the  operation  of  such  apparatus 
was  simplified.  One  firm  claimed  for  their  equip- 
ment that  120  full  letter  pages  could  be  copied  per 
minute,  or  20  newspaper  pages,  or  10  engineering 
drawings, — tasks  which  require  several  hours  to 
weeks  by  manual  methods  All  numbers  drawn  in 
the  United  States  national  draft  lottery  in  October 
were  photographed  at  once  after  being  drawn 
(Figure  3).  Each  number  was  dry-mounted  on  a 
form  and  photographed  with  a  Micro-File  Re- 
cordak  in  groups  of  250.  Enlarged  prints  were 
made  from  the  film  negative  and  used  to  prepare 
photo-offset  plates  from  which  complete  copies  of 
the  master  list  were  printed  for  distribution  to  the 
6175  local  draft  boards  throughout  the  nation. 

The  public  library  in  Gary,  Ind,  was  using  a 
micro-film  camera  and  16-mm.  film  for  charging 
all  books  in  daily  circulation.  About  7000  charges 
could  be  made  on  one  hundred  feet  of  film,  costing 
$2.75  including  processing.  An  estimated  annual 
saving  was  expected  in  all  branches  of  the  Gary 
library  system  of  about  $5000.  (Library  J.  65:  341, 
Apr.  15,  1940.)  The  New  York  Public  Library 
was  reported  to  be  building  up  an  archive  of  out- 
standing music  manuscripts  on  micro-film.  More 
than  130,000  pages  of  newspapers  had  also  been 
photographed 

Department  stores  were  beginning  to  use  micro- 
photography  quite  extensively  for  recording  their 
sales  slips,  and  reductions  in  billing  costs  as  much 
as  50  per  cent  over  previous  methods  were  said  to 
have  been  effected.  It  was  understood  that  records 
of  machine  design  on  micro-film  were  shipped 
from  England  to  Canada  as  a  rapid  and  accurate 
method  for  acquainting  factories  in  North  Amer- 
ica with  details  of  needed  parts  required  in  the 


defense  program.  Publicity  pictures  released  by  the 
British  Broadcasting  Corporation  for  overseas  use 
were  printed  in  reduced  size  and  then  enlarged 
again  after  receipt  on  this  side,  thus  avoiding  the 
expense  and  heavy  wrapping  of  large  prints. 

Photomechanical  Processes.  New  orthochro- 
matic  and  panchromatic  films  and  plates  for  use  in 
the  graphic  arts  field  were  introduced  and  the 
quality  of  four-color  photoengravings  were  im- 
proved. Murray  demonstrated  the  use  of  fluores- 
cent pigments  for  three-color  separation  work  at 
the  Photo  Lithographers  convention  in  Chicago. 
Yule  continued  his  study  of  the  theory  of  subtrac- 
tive  color  photography  and  published  results  on 
four-color  processes  and  the  black  printer  (/.  Opt. 
Soc.  Amer.  30:  322,  Aug.,  1940). 

The  Hartford  (Conn.)  Newsdaily  was  said  to 
be  the  first  metropolitan  daily  newspaper  to  be  pro- 
duced entirely  by  offset  lithography.  About  50  per 
cent  of  the  editorial  space  was  devoted  to  illustra- 
tions. The  typematter  was  being  set  by  Linotype 
but  it  was  planned,  if  possible,  to  adopt  type-com- 
posing devices  using  the  offset  process.  (Modern 
Lithography  8:  55,  May,  1940.) 

The  Seattle  Times  for  May  4,  1940,  contained 
the  first  natural  color  news  photograph  (the  Lake 
Washington  Bridge)  to  appear  in  the  news  section 
of  any  Pacific  Northwest  newspaper.  A  printing 
rate  of  38,000  copies  per  hour  was  maintained  and 
no  black  printer  was  used. 

Motion-Picture  Photography.  During  the 
first  part  of  the  year,  the  longest  feature  color 
motion-picture,  Gone  With  The  Wind,  was  shown 
throughout  the  United  States.  The  projection  ap- 
paratus in  all  theaters  showing  the  picture  was 
fitted  with  special  lenses  which  had  been  specially 
coated  to  increase  their  light  transmission  about 
30  per  cent.  By  eliminating  internal  reflections,  it 
was  claimed  that  these  lenses  gave  the  projected 
picture  greater  detail,  better  contrast,  and  freedom 
from  color  degradation. 

A  special  stereophonic  sound  demonstration  was 
given  at  Carnegie  Hall  (New  York)  on  Apr.  9, 
1940.  It  consisted  of  orchestral  selections  by  the 
Philadelphia  Symphony  Orchestra,  organ  music, 
a  scene  from  an  opera,  and  choral  singing, — all 
reproduced  from  a  photographic  record  on  film. 
Four  sound  tracks  were  recorded  on  the  film,  three 
of  the  actual  music  and  the  fourth  for  volume  con- 
trol. Undistorted  amplification  of  ten  times  that  of 
the  original  sound  volume  was  claimed  for  the 
system  which  had  been  developed  by  the  Bell  Tele- 
phone Laboratories  (Bell  Labs.  Record  18:  260, 
May,  1940). 

The  initial  public  showing  of  Walt  Disney's 
musical  production  Fantasia  was  held  at  the  Broad- 
way Theater  in  New  York  in  November.  (See 
MOTION  PICTURES.)  For  this  unique  combination 
of  animated  color  cartoon  and  musical  recording, 
about  420,000  feet  of  film  was  used  to  record  sev- 
eral orchestral  selections  as  played  by  a  large  or- 
chestra in  Philadelphia  under  Stokowski.  The  re- 
cordings were  made  by  an  improved  type  of  R.C.A. 
equipment  called  "Fantasound."  From  these  re- 
cordings, 18,000  feet  were  chosen  for  the  picture. 
The  cartoons  and  drawings  were  intended  to  help 
the  audience  "visualize"  the  music.  The  picture 
was  planned  to  be  shown  only  in  75  cities  in  the 
United  States  because  of  the  complex  sound  repro- 
duction system  required  for  each  exhibition  (rig- 
ure  4) .  The  sound  was  recorded  as  four  tracks  and 
played  from  a  separate  projector  from  that  used 
lor  the  picture.  Three  sets  of  loud  speakers  were 
located  behind  the  screen  and  other  units  at  select- 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


595 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


ed  points  in  the  auditorium  (Mot.  Pict.  Herald 
141:  21,  Nov.  16,  1940).  It  was  understood  that 
Disney  plans  other  productions  of  this  type. 

An  interesting  development  of  the  year  was  the 
release  of  equipment  and  sound  picture  films  for 
nickel-in-the-slot  motion  pictures.  This  plan  repre- 
sented a  revival  on  a  modern  scale  of  the  first  type 
of  equipment  for  motion  pictures,  the  Kineto- 
phonograph  of  Thomas  Edison. 

According  to  a  survey  made  by  the  Motion  Pic- 
ture Division  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Com- 
merce at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  about  65,000 
of  the  67,000  motion-picture  theaters  known  to 
exist  in  98  countries  of  the  world  were  equipped 
to  show  sound  pictures.  In  this  country,  approxi- 
mately 17,000  of  the  19,000  theaters  were  said  to 
be  in  operation  and  the  seating  capacity  of  these 
was  about  ten  million  persons.  Approximately  78,- 
000,000  feet  of  motion-picture  film  (negative  and 
positive)  were  exported  during  the  first  half  of 
the  year,  compared  with  79,000,000  feet  for  the 
same  period  a  year  ago. 

A  steady  growth  of  public  interest  in  amateur 
motion  pictures  was  apparent  from  the  reports  of 
the  dealers  as  well  as  the  introduction  of  new  films 
and  equipment.  Excellent  pictorial  and  sound  qual- 
ity was  reported  by  Maurer  to  be  obtainable  by 
direct  photography  and  recording  on  16-mm.  film 
(/.  Soc.  Mot.  Pict.  Eng.  35:  437,  Nov.,  1940). 
This  method  was  said  to  be  of  special  value  in  the 
production  of  training  films  and  other  types  of 
industrial  and  educational  motion  pictures. 

The  first  educational  film  in  Kodachrome  for 
commercial  distribution  was  announced  during  the 
year  by  Eastman.  The  picture,  entitled  How  Birds 
Feed  Their  Young,  was  made  by  Dr.  A.  A.  Al- 
len, ornithology  professor  at  Cornell  University. 
Courses  in  the  use  of  motion  pictures  in  the  class- 
room were  being  given  in  114  universities  and 
colleges  in  27  States  according  to  a  report  from 
the  United  States  Office  of  Education  in  Washing- 
ton, D.C  (Mot.  Pict  Herald  140:  9,  July  27, 
1940). 

New  types  of  industrial  motion  pictures  ap- 
peared during  the  year  and  new  uses  for  such 
pictures  were  introduced.  At  the  Chrysler  Pavilion 
at  the  New  York  World's  Fair,  a  stereoscopic 
color  motion-picture,  called  New  Dimensions^  was 
shown  daily  to  thousands  of  visitors.  This  picture 
was  made  in  Technicolor  and  used  Polaroid  to 
secure  the  third  dimensional  effect  It  also  included 
numerous  stop-motion  effects  which  were  secured 
by  special  process  photography.  Improved  projec- 
tion facilities  were  used  in  the  1940  showing  of  the 
"Cavalcade  of  Color,"  a  changing  mural  from 
projected  Kodachromes,  in  the  Kodak  Building  at 
the  Fair.  A  sound  picture  called  The  Year's  Work 
was  made  for  General  Mills  and  was  shown  at 
eight  stockholder's  meetings,  held  in  different  parts 
of  the  country.  It  was  said  to  be  the  first  time  that 
a  motion  picture  had  been  made  specifically  to 
show  the  activities  of  a  company  to  its  owners 
(Business Screen 3:  No.  1,  11,  1940). 

Stereoscopic  Photography.  A  method  of  ster- 
eoscopic photography  called  "vectographs"  was 
described  by  Land,  the  inventor  of  Polaroid,  a 
sheet  polarizing  material  which  has  been  used  in 
several  ways  in  photography.  In  a  vectograph,  two 
different  images  in  black  and  white  can  be  super- 
posed on  a  single  surface  for  viewing  through 
polarizing  spectacles  (/.  Opt.  Soc.  Amer.  30:  230, 
June,  1940).  Method  of  manufacture  of  various 
kinds  of  synthetic  polarizing  devices  and  a  review 
of  the  patent  literature  in  this  field  were  published 


by  Nahring  (Phot.  Ind.  33:  599  and  629,  Oct  9 
and  23,  1940). 
Applied  and  Scientific  Photography.  One  of 

the  most  significant  announcements  of  the  year 
was  the  report  from  the  Kodak  Research  Labora- 
tories that  photographs  made  with  the  electron 
microscope  had  revealed  the  actual  structure  of  the 
silver  grains  in  a  photographic  image.  It  was 
shown  to  be  of  a  filamentary  nature  rather  than 
a  coke-like  mass,  as  had  been  described  thereto- 
fore, and  the  thickness  as  well  as  the  shape  of  the 
filaments  appeared  to  depend  upon  the  developer. 
Details  of  hairlike  threads  about  5  to  10  atoms 
thick  were  shown  quite  clearly  with  the  electron 
microscope  which  has  the  advantage  over  the  opti- 
cal microscope  of  great  depth  of  focus  as  well  as 
high  resolving  power  (N.Y.  Times  90:  19,  Nov. 
26,  1940).  This  technique  had  also  been  developed 
independently  by  von  Ardenne  (Z.  Angewante 
Phot.  2:  14,  1940.)  See  also  CHEMISTRY,  under 
Electron  Microscope. 

High-speed  stop-motion  photographs  were  made 
of  the  spray  from  the  nose  and  mouth  of  persons 
while  sneezing.  These  studies  represented  a  part 
of  an  investigation  conducted  by  Prof.  M.  W.  Jen- 
nison  of  the  Department  of  Biology  and  Public 
Health  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy. The  photographic  technique  used  required  the 
employment  of  an  Edgerton  camera  and  lamp.  It 
was  found  that  in  some  cases  droplets  were  sprayed 
from  the  mouth  into  the  air  at  speeds  as  high  as 
ISO  feet  a  second  (N.Y.  Times  89:  32,  Apr.  20, 
1940).  A  special  camera  was  used  to  photograph 
steam  jets  traveling  1500  m.p.h.  as  they  hit  a  tur- 
bine blade  making  3600  r.p.m.  The  behavior  of 
turbine  blades  under  1250  Ib.  of  steam  pressure  at 
900°  Fahrenheit  was  studied  by  this  means  for  the 
first  time  (Pop.  Mechanics  73:  849,  June,  1940). 
As  a  result  of  a  study  of  high-speed  photography 
applied  to  machine  performance,  Watson  concluded 
that  a  speed  of  1000  frames  per  second  of  a  mo- 
tion-picture camera  is  ample  for  the  photography 
of  most  machines.  A  stroboscope  was  found  to  be 
satisfactory  for  investigating  the  action  of  ma- 
chines provided  the  speed  of  the  moving  parts  is 
more  than  12  cycles  per  second  (Product  Eng.  11: 
340,  Aug.,  1940). 

Many  head  of  cattle  were  recovered  and  returned 
to  their  owners  by  the  Wyoming  Stock  Growers' 
Association  after  their  brand  inspectors  were 
equipped  with  cameras  As  the  cattle  passed  through 
the  large  markets,  they  were  examined  by  the  in- 
spectors who  photographed  any  cattle  with  doubt- 
ful brands.  The  camera  had  also  proved  a  useful 
means  of  catching  cigarette  smugglers  who  bought 
the  tobacco  in  Maine  without  tax  and  transported 
it  into  Massachusetts  where  it  was  taxed.  Photo- 
graphs were  made  of  drivers  of  cars  with  Massa- 
chusetts license  plates  as  they  purchased  cigarettes 
at  roadside  stands  in  Maine  and  their  car  licenses 
were  photographed.  Tax  investigators  mailed  a 
notice  of  the  tax  to  each  such  individual  and,  if 
necessary,  sent  him  a  picture  of  himself  purchasing 
the  cigarettes.  More  than  $10,000  was  recovered  by 
the  State  at  a  cost  of  less  than  $400. 

Enlarged  photographs  of  the  retina  and  inner 
tissue  of  the  eye  were  suggested  by  Dr.  J.  R.  Dean 
of  the  American  Optometric  Association  as  an  ac- 
curate means  of  identification  of  individuals.  Since 
criminals  sometimes  alter  or  disguise  their  finger- 
prints, this  proposal  offers  promise  as  a  valuable 
method  of  supplementary  identification  (Camera, 
60:  121,  Feb,  1940).  The  partially  decomposed 
body  of  a  man,  found  in  a  railroad  cold-storage 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


596 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


car  near  Rochester,  N.Y.{  was  identified  as  John 
Dunphy  who  had  served  in  the  U.S.  Army  from 
1908  to  1917.  Identification  was  possible  chiefly  by 
soft  x-ray  radiographs  of  the  skin  dissected  from 
the  fingers,  supplementing  the  normal  finger  print 
impressions. 

The  use  of  x-ray  radiographs  of  pearls  was 
being  accepted  quite  widely  by  leading  jewelers 
as  an  accurate  means  of  identifying  natural,  cul- 
tured, and  synthetic  pearls.  Sherwood,  of  the  Ko- 
dak Research  Laboratories,  developed  a  special 
masking  technique  for  the  elimination  of  scattered 
radiation  when  making  radiographs  of  this  type. 

The  Westinghouse  Laboratories  developed  a 
high-speed  x-ray  technique  which  consisted  of  pass- 
ing the  discharge  from  a  bank  of  condensers 
through  a  cold  cathode  x-ray  tube.  With  the  re- 
sulting surge  of  about  one-millionth  of  a  second 
duration,  it  was  possible  to  make  radiographs  of 
various  objects  moving  at  a  high  rate  of  speed, 
such  as  bullets,  golf  balls  being  hit  by  a  golf  club, 
a  football  being  kicked  (Figure  5),  and  a  vacuum- 
cleaner  in  operation.  The  motile  organs  of  flagellae 
of  typhoid  bacilli  were  photographed  for  the  first 
time  by  micro-cinematography  (J.  Biol.  Phot.  Asso. 
8:  158,  June,  1940). 

Physical  Measurements.  Considerable  prog- 
ress was  made  on  the  problem  of  standardization 
of  photographic  practice  by  nine  subcommittees  of 
Sectional  Committee  Z-38  of  the  American  Stand- 
ards Association.  The  work  of  these  subcommit- 
tees covered  the  formulation  of  definitions,  dimen- 
sional standards,  recommended  practices,  and  the 
establishment  of  methods  for  testing,  rating,  and 
classifying  the  performance  characteristics  of  ma- 
terials and  devices  used  in  photography,  including 
the  industrial  applications  but  excluding  cinema- 
tography. In  November,  Subcommittee  2  on  Sensi- 
tivity to  Radiant  Energy  published  details  of  a 
proposed  standard  method  for  determining  photo- 
graphic speed  of  roll  film,  film  packs,  and  minia- 
ture camera  films.  After  a  year  of  trial  and  criti- 
cism, the  method  will  be  considered  for  adoption  as 
an  American  Standard  and  may  then  be  used  as  a 
basis  for  recommended  exposures  for  picture  tak- 
ing and  the  assignment  of  speed  numbers  to  films 
(Ind.  Standardisation  2:  277,  Nov.,  1940). 

An  apparatus  and  a  method  of  development 
evolved  by  a  technical  committee  of  the  British 
Standards  Institution  consisted  of  a  Dewar  flask 
and  a  fitting  for  two  film  strips  Quite  reproducible 
results  were  claimed  for  this  method  of  develop- 
ment (Phot.  J.  80:  341,  Aug.,  1940).  A  contrast 
meter  for  photographic  papers  was  described  by 
Morrison  with  which  a  value  for  contrast  could  be 
obtained  by  a  simple  scanning  of  the  sensitometric 
curve  with  the  viewing  head  of  the  instrument  (/. 
Opt.  Soc.  Amer.  30:  299,  July,  1940) 

Photoelectric  exposure  meters  which  measure 
incident  illumination  directly  were  stated  by  Nor- 
wood to  be  of  value  since  they  tend  to  eliminate 
some  of  the  errors  which  occur  when  a  reflectance- 
type  meter  is  used.  A  more  accurate  reading  would 
result  if  an  integrating  translucent  hemisphere 
were  located  in  front  of  a  suitable  photoelectric 
cell  (Amer.  Cinematographs  20:  499,  Nov.,  1939, 
et  seq.). 

A  stroboscopic  method  of  measurement  of  shut- 
ter speeds  was  described  by  Tawney,  with  which 
adequate  accuracy  could  be  obtained  for  several 
types  of  shutters  (Photo  Technique  2:  34,  Mar., 
1940).  Gillon  defined  the  optical  considerations  in 
precision  enlarger  design  and  concluded  that  en- 
largers  of  the  condenser  type  were  more  satisfac- 


tory than  diffuse  enlargers  for  miniature  work 
provided  uniform  illumination  was  secured  at  the 
easel  and  a  satisfactory  scheme  was  used  to  mini- 
mize specularity  of  light  passing  through  the  nega- 
tive (Photo  Technique  2:  24,  Feb.,  1940). 

Tupper  evaluated  the  physical  and  photographic 
aspects  influencing  variations  in  the  measurement 
of  filter  factors  and  described  a  method  which 
eliminates  the  effect  of  the  failure  of  the  reciproc- 
ity law  (Photo  Technique  2:  29,  May,  1940). 

A  sensitometric  study  of  a  gaseous,  condenser- 
discharge  lamp  of  the  Edgerton  type  was  made  by 
Tuttle,  Brown,  and  Whitmore.  It  was  shown  that 
the  constants  of  the  electrical  circuit  of  the  lamp 
play  a  large  part  in  the  determination  of  its  photo- 
graphic effectiveness  (Photo  Technique  2:  53, 
Sept,  1940).  Various  phases  of  the  laws  of  re- 
sponse of  photographic  emulsions  to  high  energy 
atomic  particles  such  as  alpha  rays,  protons,  and 
deuterons  were  discussed  by  Wilkins  (/.  Appl. 
Pfry*VjlZ:35,Jan.,  1940). 

Fine  displays  of  the  aurora  during  March  and 
April  were  photographed  by  Gartlein,  who  con- 
tinued his  investigations  of  this  little  understood 
natural  phenomenon  under  the  auspices  of  the  Na- 
tional Geographic  Society  and  Cornell  University. 
On  the  night  of  March  24-25,  he  made  the  best 
single  spectrogram  of  the  aurora  that  had  ever 
been  taken.  A  large  two-prism  spectrograph  having 
a  cylindrical  lens  was  used  and  the  resulting  photo- 
graph showed  lines  of  ionized  nitrogen  never  be- 
fore observed  (Figure  6). 

Manufacture  of  Sensitized  Materials.  A 
limited  number  of  new  sensitized  materials  were 
introduced  during  the  year  as  compared  with  pre- 
vious years.  The  principal  new  films  were  high- 
speed fine-grain  motion-picture  films,  high-contrast 
ortho  and  panchromatic  films  for  graphic  arts 
work,  and  a  very  high-speed  film  for  use  with  a 
new  commercial  gaseous-discharge  lamp.  One  of 
the  most  interesting  films  for  use  in  miniature  cam- 
eras was  a  fast  panchromatic  emulsion  which  could 
be  developed  directly  to  a  positive  transparency  of 
extremely  fine  grain. 

^  Another  sensitized  product  that  attracted  atten- 
tion was  a  multiple-contrast  bromide  paper.  Three 
types  were  announced,  one  in  England  in  May 
(Brit.  J.  Phot.  87:  270,  May  31,  1940),  and  two 
others  in  this  country  in  August.  With  each  of 
these  papers,  blue  or  yellow  filters,  or  combinations 
of  them,  in  the  printing  light  were  used  to  control 
the  degree  of  contrast  of  the  print.  Thus  a  single 
grade  of  paper  was  provided  with  which  prints 
could  be  made  from  negatives  of  different  degrees 
of  contrast  (Defender  Trade  Bull.  24:  3,  1940). 

The  effect  of  halides  on  the  stability  of  emul- 
sions was  reported  by  the  Russian  investigator, 
Borin,  who  confirmed  results  of  others  and  pre- 
sented some  new  data  (Kino  Photo  Chem.  Ind.  No. 
3,  36, 1940).  The  necessary  and  sufficient  conditions 
for  a  dye  to  act  as  an  optical  sensitizer  of  silver 
halides  were  defined  by  Sheppard,  Lambert,  and 
Walker  (Nature  145:  969,  June  22,  1940).  Several 
papers  relating  to  photographic  emulsions  were 
published  by  Trivelli  and  Smith,  under  the  follow- 
ing subjects:  Development  of  photographic  emul- 
sions in  relation  to  the  coating  thickness ;  effect 
of  the  silver  iodide  upon  the  structure  of  silver 
bromo-iodide  precipitation  series;  further  investi- 
gations in  the  empirical  relations  between  speed 
and  average  grain  size  of  a  precipitation  series 
(Phot.  J.  80:  12,  285,  381,  Jan.,  July,  and  Sept., 
1940). 

New  Apparatus.  Continued  interest  in  photog- 


FIG    1     RECONNA1SANCE  PHOTOGRAPH  OF  GUTERSLOH  AERODROME,  MUNSTER,  GERMANY 

A    Refueling  points   B    Shelter  trenches  C    Compass  sw  mgmg  base,  with  an  airplane  upon  it   D    Airplanes  dispersed  round 
aerodrome  !•     Some  form  of  stacked  crop  G    Hangars  H    Airplanes  facing  the  aprons  in  front  of  the  hangars  (a  favored  German 
parking  method)  I    Repair  hangar  J    Railway  for  servicing  aerodrome  K    Railway  station  L    Shelter  trenches  near  barracks 
M    Motor  transport  N    Tree-lined  road  O    Quarters  Brtttsh  Official  photograph,  Crown  copyright  reserved 


Courtesy,  Glenn  L.  Martin  Co  ,  Baltimore,  Md. 


Fio.  2.  WORKMEN  FITTING  AIRPLANE  PARTS  DIRECTLY  UPON  PHOTOGRAPHIC  DRAWING  ON 

ALUMINUM  ALLOY  PLATES 


Courtesy,  A  erne  Ncwspicturcs,  Inc  ,  and  Recordak  Corp 

PIG    3     CAMERA  RECORDS  THE  US    DRA*  I  LOTTERY 

As  the  numbers  were  drawn  they  were  mounted  on  a  form  and  photographed  with  a  special  recording  camera  on  a  16  millimeter 
film,  about  half  the  size  of  the  print  shown  in  the  insert  in  the  lower  right  corner 


39144*21 


Courtesy,  Weslmghouse  Lite  6*  Mfg  Co 
FIG   5    ULTRA-HIGH-SPEED  X-RAY  PHOTOGRAPH 
Made  in  a  millionth  of  a  second  by  the  discharge  of  about 
90.000  volts,  charged  in  a  condenser  and  applied  to  the  X-ray 
tube  when  the  timing  circuit  is  broken  As  the  discharge  occurs, 
electrons  flash  from  the  cold  cathode  to  the  anode,  and  a  surge  of 
x-rays  is  produced 


4236  N  2 
42776N2 


4652  N  2 
4108  1N2 


Courtesy,  Walt  Disney  Productions 


FIG   4    SECTION  OJb  MOTION- 
PICTURE  SOUND  RECORD  OF 
"FANTASIA" 

Three  left-hand  sound  tracks  sup* 
ply  three  separate  banks  of  speakers; 
right-hand  track  controls  volume 


55T7  $  01 
561GNH 


63003 
€36$  01 


©  National  Geographic  Society J 


FIG   6.   SPECTROGRAM  OF 
THE  AURORA  BOREALIS 
Made  on  a  two-prism  lens, 
March  24-25, 1940,  exposed  two 
hours.  Shows  lines  of  ionized 
nitrogen  never  previously  re- 
corded 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


597 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


raphy  at  night  was  shown  by  the  amateur,  the  pro- 
fessional, and  the  news  cameraman  as  a  direct  re- 
sult of  the  introduction  in  recent  years  of  roll  and 
sheet  Alms  of  improved  quality  and  speed,  and  of 
several  varieties  of  flash-lamps  and  synchronizers. 
Color  photography  with  daylight  Kodachrome  was 
said  to  have  been  made  more  flexible  by  the  intro- 
duction of  blue-coated  flash-lamps,  which  could  be 
used  to  supplement  daylight  or  for  night  pictures. 
Several  new  flash  synchronizers  were  announced 
with  which  very  accurate  synchronization  of  full 
shutter  opening  and  lamp  flash  was  claimed  to  be 
obtainable. 

A  small  camera  described  by  Gilbert  was  distin- 
guished by  the  use  of  a  disk-shaped  negative  on 
which  20  exposures  could  be  made,  each  measuring 
^  to  %  inch.  The  camera  could  also  be  used  for 
motion  pictures  (Pop.  Phot.  6:  36,  Apr.,  1940). 

Reflections  from  air-glass  surfaces  of  the  com- 
ponents of  lenses  have  presented  a  serious  problem 
for  many  years  in  the  optics  of  lens  design.  Within 
the  last  four  years,  methods  were  discovered  of 
treating  a  lens  surface  to  eliminate  flare  and  ghosts 
and  increase  greatly  the  light  transmission  of  the 
lens.  A  brisk  demand  grew  up  during  the  year 
from  professional  photographers  and  motion-pic- 
ture cameramen  for  such  lenses.  The  most  suc- 
cessful treatment  consisted  in  the  application  of  an 
extremely  thin  film  of  a  metallic  fluoride.  Cart- 
wright  described  the  treatment  of  an  f/2  lens  hav- 
ing ten  glass-air  surfaces,  and  claimed  that  photo- 
graphs made  under  controlled  conditions  before 
and  after  treatment  showed  that  the  effective  speed 
had  been  doubled  (Amer.  Cinemat.  21:  215,  May, 
1940).  This  was  confirmed  by  Miller  with  lenses 
in  use  at  the  Paramount  studios  in  Hollywood, 
California  (/.  Soc.  Mot.  Pict.  Eng.  35:  3,  July, 
1940).  Two  of  the  largest  lenses  known  to  have 
been  coated  were  the  47^-inch  focus  apochromat 
Artar  lenses  used  by  the  eclipse  expedition  to 
Patos,  Brazil,  of  the  National  Geographic  Society 
(Phot.  Dealer,  Hollywood,  5:  557,  Sept.,  1940). 

An  aspherical  condenser  lens  made  of  the  lami- 
nated plastic,  "Lucite"  was  demonstrated  at  the 
Kodak  Research  Laboratories  in  October.  It  is  16 
inches  in  diameter  and  was  used  to  illuminate  large 
Kodachrome  transparencies  when  making  color 
separation  negatives  for  photomechanical  repro- 
duction. 

Lenses  for  amateur  motion  picture  equipment 
(16-mm.  and  8-mm.)  both  for  cameras  and  projec- 
tors were  discussed  by  Kingslake  (/.  Soc.  Mot. 
Pict.  Eng.  34:  76,  Jan.,  1940).  The  design  of  wide 
aperture  objectives  was  also  considered  by  the  same 
investigator  (/.  Applied  Physics  11:  56,  Jan.,  1940). 

An  integrating  exposure-meter  was  described  by 
Michael  son  for  compensating  light-intensity  fluctu- 
ations by  varying  the  time  of  exposure  automati- 
cally (Photo  Technique  2:  43,  Feb.,  1940).  An- 
other unusual  type  of  exposure-meter  incorporated 
a  photometer  principle  that  enabled  the  user  to 
measure  the  light  on  an  entire  scene  or  a  portion 
of  the  scene  from  the  camera  position.  An  optical 
viewer  permitted  a  view  of  the  object  being  photo- 
graphed (Camera  Craft  47:  259,  May,  1940). 

Several  new  amateur  film  developing  tanks  were 
offered  to  the  market  having  as  features :  Adjust- 
able cores  for  various  sizes  of  film ;  stirring  agita- 
tors; daylight  loading;  and  a  cutting  blade  for 
severing  the  film  to  permit  development  of  a  por- 
tion of  a  roll.  One  new  type  of  enlarging  equip- 
ment featured  a  variographic  device  for  altering 
linear  perspective  (Business  Week,  p.  52,  Sept  7, 
1940).  A  comprehensive  review  of  the  design  prin- 


ciples of  miniature  enlargers  was  given  by  Simmon 
(US.  Camera  1:  No.  8,  p.  7&  Feb.-Mar.,  1940). 

A  completely  modernized  Edgerton  lamp  for 
ultra-speed  photography  was  introduced  which  in- 
corporated an  improved  electrical  circuit  and  new 
safety  features.  The  new  lamp  utilized  a  long-life 
gas-nlled  flash-tube  which  gave  extremely  bright 
flashes  of  an  effective  duration  of  %o,ooo  second. 
The  unit  was  intended  for  commercial,  portrait, 
illustrative,  news,  medical,  and  technical  photogra- 
phy (Photo  Art  Monthly  8:  552,  Oct.,  1940). 

A  special  printer  for  aerial  film  used  a  large 
number  of  Argon  glow  lamps  (2^  watts)  to  pro- 
vide low  heat,  small  electricity  consumption,  and 
long  service  life.  Prints  were  made  from  single 
negatives  or  rolls  (Aero  Digest  36:  144,  June, 
1940) .  An  improved  type  of  stereomap  plotter  was 
constructed  by  Colonel  Bagley  of  the  Harvard 
School  of  Geographical  Exploration  for  the  train- 
ing of  student  explorers.  With  the  device,  it  was 
stated  that  an  accurate  scale  map  could  be  plotted 
from  a  photograph  in  an  hour  (Photo  Technique 
2:  75,  July,  1940). 

A  radio  facsimile  equipment  for  the  British  air 
force  was  demonstrated  at  the  Bendix,  N.J.,  air- 
port in  October.  Three  stations  were  set  up,  one 
in  a  plane,  one  in  a  ground  trailer,  and  one  in  the 
airport  hangar.  With  the  equipment,  photographs, 
and  printed  and  handwritten  messages  could  be 
sent  as  well  as  received.  A  receiving  rate  of  100 
words  per  minute  was  said  to  have  been  obtained 
(Business  Week,  p.  22,  Oct.  12,  1940). 

Several  improved  types  of  amateur  motion-pic- 
ture equipment  were  introduced  during  the  year, 
including  cameras  and  projectors  for  16-mm.  and 
8-mm.  film.  A  growing  trend  was  noted  in  the  use 
of  8-mm.  film  and  a  magazine-loading  8-mm.  cam- 
era was  introduced,  which  represented  the  ultimate 
to  date  in  compactness  of  motion-picture  design. 
A  new  16-mm.  sound  projector  was  marketed,  and 
a  three-dimensional  projector  for  16-mm.  sound 
films  was  introduced.  Details  of  the  design  of  a 
reliable  shutter  for  an  x-ray  beam  which  would 
accommodate  a  beam  directed  anywhere  between 
the  vertical  and  the  horizontal  were  given  by  See- 
mann  and  Vaeth  (Brit.  J.  Radiol  13:  149,  May, 
1940). 

The  Photographic  Process.  One  of  the  most 
significant  contributions  to  photographic  knowl- 
edge that  had  been  published  in  many  years  was  the 
announcement  by  Crabtree,  Eaton,  and  Muehler 
that  a  method  had  been  worked  out  for  the  removal 
of  the  last  traces  of  hypo  from  photographic  im- 
ages. This  had  long  been  recognized  as  a  difficult 
problem,  especially  with  photographic  papers,  as  it 
was  known  that  subsequent  decomposition  of  re- 
tained hypo  caused  fading  or  yellowing  of  the  sil- 
ver image  due  to  the  formation  of  silver  sulphide. 
With  prints  that  are  to  be  stored  for  record  pur- 
poses, fading  may  cause  obliteration  of  useful  de- 
tails. The  treatment  consisted  in  bathing  the 
washed  print  or  film  in  a  dilute  peroxide-ammonia 
solution  which  changes  the  hypo  to  soluble  sodium 
sulphate  which  can  be  washed  out  easily.  Fading 
of  prints  by  external  agents,  such  as  sulphur  va- 
pors and  coal  gases  can  be  minimized  by  another 
treatment  whereby  an  extremely  thin  layer  of  gold 
is  deposited  on  the  silver  grains  when  the  print  is 
bathed  in  a  gold-sulphocyanide  solution.  For  great- 
est permanency,  photographic  prints  should  be  giv- 
en the  following  treatments:  (1)  fixed  in  two  fix- 
ing baths ;  (2)  washed  carefully  with  a  deflected 
stream  of  water ;  (3)  bathed  in  the  hypo  eliminator 
solution;  (4)  treated  in  the  gold  protective  aolu- 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


598 


PHYSICS 


tion ;  15)  dry-mounted  on  good  quality  cardboard ; 
and  (6)  lacquered  over  the  image  (/.  Phot.  Soc. 
Amer.  6:  6,  Oct.,  1940). 

Very  rapid  processing  of  photographic  papers 
for  mass  production  was  claimed  to  be  possible  ac- 
cording to  Schaum  and  Weyde  with  a  new  paper 
called  Copex-Autorapid.  The  paper  contained  the 
developing  agent  and  stabilizing  materials  and  after 
exposure  could  be  developed  in  3  to  5  seconds  in  a 
solution  of  1%  per  cent  sodium  hydroxide  with  4 
per  cent  sodium  sulphite  (Veroffentl.  wiss.  Zen- 
tral-Lab.  phot.  Abt.,  Agfa  6:  198, 1939). 

In  recent  years,  James  contributed  several  papers 
on  the  theory  of  development,  a  subject  on  which 
information  had  been  quite  meager.  These  papers 
and  several  others  were  summarized  in  a  general 
discussion  by  him  under  the  title  "Some  Experi- 
mental Bases  for  the  Development  Process"  (Pho- 
to Technique  2:  54,  Dec,,  1940).  The  surface  con- 
ditions of  silver  halides  and  the  rate  of  reaction  also 
were  discussed  by  James  in  a  series  of  articles 
(/.  Amer.  Chem.  Soc.  62:  536,  Mar.,  1940),  Burki 
and  Ostwalt  published  an  extensive  paper  on  the 
determination  of  the  hydrogen-ion  concentration  in 
photographic  developers  and  its  relation  to  the  rate 
of  development  (Helv.  Chim.  Acta,  22:  30,  1939). 

As  a  result  of  a  study  of  the  effect  of  aeration 
on  the  photographic  properties  of  developers,  Crab- 
tree  and  Schwingel  concluded  that  very  constant 
developing  conditions  could  be  maintained  when  air 
agitation  is  used  in  a  processing  machine  provided 
the  developer  was  replenished  suitably  (/.  Soc. 
Mot.  Pict.  Eng.  34:  375,  Apr.,  1940).  Details  of  an 
air  agitation  device  installed  in  a  vertical  rack-type 
developing  machine  were  described  by  Ives  and 
Kunz  (/.  Soc.  Mot.  Pict.  Eng.  34:  364,  Apr.,  1940). 
An  analysis  of  the  problem  of  reversal  processing 
of  film  was  made  by  Coenen  and  practical  instruc- 
tions were  published  for  16-mm.  and  8-tnm.  ama- 
teur cine  films  (Photo  Technique  2:  28,  Dec ,  1940). 

Volumetric  procedures  for  the  qualitative  and 
quantitative  determination  of  the  usual  constituents 
of  photographic  developers  and  fixing  baths  were 
discussed  by  Atkinson  and  Shaner  (/.  Soc.  Mot. 
Pict.  Eng.  34:  485,  May,  1940).  The  analysis  of 
fixing  solutions  was  also  discussed  by  a  Russian  in- 
vestigator, Kirillof,  who  claimed  that  his  method 
was  simple  and  rapid  enough  for  commercial  use 
(Kino  Photo  Chem.  Ind.  U.S.S.R.  No.  11-12,  p. 
97,  1939).  It  was  reported  that  the  recovery  of  sil- 
ver residues  on  a  national  scale  for  all  users  of 
photographic  fixing  solutions  had  been  established 
in  Germany  (Brit.  J.  Phot.  87:  27,  Jan.  19,  1940). 

Sustained  interest  in  the  use  of  toning  processes 
for  prints  was  evident  by  the  number  of  such  prints 
that  were  exhibited  in  salons  and  the  announce- 
ment of  proprietary  solutions  for  toning.  One  firm 
introduced  complete  equipment  for  color  toning 
with  coupler  developer  dyes  which  gave  six  distinct 
hues  (Commercial  Phot.  15;  484,  Aug.,  1940).  Di- 
rect development  of  sepia  tones  by  the  use  of  a 
benzoquinone  solution  without  intermediate  bleach- 
ing was  suggested  by  Seyewetz  (Brit.  J.  Phot.  87: 
116,  Mar.  8,  1940). 

A  useful  reference  article  was  published  on 
twenty-one  special  photographic  effects  which  are 
observed  occasionally  on  films  and  papers  (Photo 
Technique  2:  48,  Feb.,  1940).  Several  useful  prac- 
tical accounts  were  published  on  the  design  of  dark- 
rooms (Parker— /.  Phot.  Soc.  Amer.  6:  9,  Jan., 
1940;  Photo  Technique  2;  12,  Feb.,  1940;  ibid.  2: 
14,Apr.,  1940;  2:  49,  June,  1940). 

Domestic  production  of  hydroquinone  for  photo- 
graphic purposes  was  reported  to  have  more  than 


doubled  since  1933  when  600,000  ib.  were  manu- 
factured compared  with  1,400,000  Ib.  in  1939.  See 
ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES  under  X-KAY;  CHEMIS- 
TRY. 

Bibliography.  Shipment  of  magazines  and 
books  from  Europe  was  slowed  up  appreciably  and 
in  the  case  of  some  countries  almost  cut  on,  al- 
though German  scientific  literature  was  shipped  by 
way  of  Siberia  and  Japan  during  the  latter  half  of 
the  year.  Most  photographic  journals  continued 
publication  but  some  reduced  their  schedule  con- 
siderably. Photo  Art  Monthly  (San  Francisco) 
suspended  publication  with  the  December  issue.  A 
biweekly  called  Photonews  was  launched  at  Wash- 
ington in  February.  It  contained  descriptions  of 
new  apparatus,  news  notes,  and  an  occasional  arti- 
cle. Information  on  the  location  and  an  approxi- 
mate inventory  of  the  contents  of  the  principle 
photographic  libraries  of  the  world  was  published 
by  Garvin  (Amer  Phot.  34:  428,  June,  1940). 

The  more  notable  books  of  the  year  were : 

P.  £.  Boucher.  Fundamentals  of  Photography  (Van 
Nostrand  Co.,  N.Y.);  B.  W.  Leyson.  Photographic  Oc- 
cupations (Button  &  Co.,  N.Y.):  J.  H  Gable,  Complete 
Introduction  to  Photography  (Harper  &  Bros.,  N  Y.K 
G.  G.  Quarlea,  Elementary  Photography  (McGraw-Hill, 
N.Y.);  J.  A.  Lucas  and  B.  Dudley.  Making  Your  Photo- 
graphs Effective  (McGraw-Hill,  N.Y.);  P.  K.  Turner, 
Photographic  Exposure  (Pitman  &  Sons,  Ltd..  London), 
P.  Outerbridge,  Photographing  in  Color  (Random  House, 
N.Y.);  I.  Dmitri,  Kodachrome  and  How  to  Use  It 
(Simon  &  Schuster,  N.Y.);  J.  C.  Abel,  Portrait  Photog- 
raphy as  a  Career  (Amer.  Photo.  Pub.  Co ,  Boston) ;  C 
I.  Jacobson,  Developing  (Focal  Press,  London):  L 
Vitray,  J.  Mills.  Jr..  and  R.  Ellard,  Pictorial  Journalism 
(McGraw-Hill,  ft.Y.i;  W.  D.  Morgan  and  H.  M.  Lester, 
Graphic  Graflex  Photography  (Morgan  &  Lester,  N.Y.); 
W.  Mortenson,  Mortenson  on  the  Negative  (Camera  Craft 
Pub.  Co.,  San  Francisco) ;  £.  J.  Wall,  Photographic  Facts 
and  Formulas  (revised  and  rewritten  by  F.  I.  Jordan, 
Amer.  Photo.  Pub.  Co.,  Boston);  D.  A.  Spencer  and  H. 
D.  Waley,  The  Cinema  Today  (Oxford  Univ.  Press, 
London) :  C.  A.  Hart,  Air  Photography  Applied  to  Sur- 
veying (Longmans,  London);  N.  Harkness  and  £.  £. 
Draper,  Table  Top  Photography  (Harcourt.  Brace  and 
Co,  N.Y.):  H.  W.  Greenwood,  Infrared  for  Everyone 
(Fountain  Press,  London) ;  H.  Lange,  Fortschritte  der 
Photographic,  Band  II  (Edited  by  E.  Stenger  and  H. 
Staude,  Akad.  Verlag  Leipzig). 

GLENN  E.  MATTHEWS. 

PHYSICS.  Though  it  is  unsafe  to  predict,  it 
is  likely  that  the  year  1940  will  be  remembered  in 
physics  principally  as  the  one  which  brought  an 
important  step  toward  the  ultimate  achievement  of 
power  from  atoms. 

Atomic  Energy.  As  explained  in  more  detail 
in  the  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  pp  123  and  621,  it  was 
found  that  neutrons  (atomic  particles  without 
electrical  charge)  have  the  power  of  causing  fis- 
sion, or  splitting,  of  uranium  atomic  nuclei.  There 
is  an  explosion  into  two  different  atoms,  such  as 
krypton  and  barium,  which  have  kinetic  energies 
of  about  175,000,000  electron  volts,  resulting  from 
the  conversion  of  part  of  the  mass  of  the  original 
atom.  This  energy  is  far  greater  than  that  of  the 
neutron  which  produces  the  effect. 

It  was  also  established  that  in  the  process  addi- 
tional neutrons  are  given  off,  and  hence  the  possi- 
bility was  seen  of  a  "chain"  process.  That  is,  one 
neutron,  from  a  cyclotron  or  other  source,  would 
start  the  fission  of  one  uranium  nucleus.  This 
would  divide,  yielding  energy,  and  another  neutron 
which  could  set  up  fission  in  another  nucleus,  and 
so  on.  However,  when  it  was  tried  with  uranium, 
no  such  effect  took  place. 

In  explanation  it  was  suggested  that  the  fission 
was  due  to  only  one  form,  or  isotope,  of  uranium. 
Like  all  the  elements,  uranium  consists  of  several 
of  these  chemical  "twins/1  which  have  the  same 
chemical  properties,  but  different  atomic  weights. 


PHYSICS 


599 


PHYSICS 


The  atomic  weight  of  ordinary  uranium  is  given 
as  238.07  times  that  of  hydrogen.  Most  of  it  is  an 
isotope  of  weight  238,  but  for  every  139  grams  of 
this  there  is  one  gram  of  an  isotope  of  weight  235. 
Stitl  rarer  is  isotope  234,  one  gram  of  which  is 
present  in  17,000  grams  of  common  uranium.  Fis- 
sion was  attributed  to  U-235,  the  U-238  apparent- 
ly inhibiting  the  process,  while  the  amount  of  U- 
234  is  so  minute  that  its  effect  is  presumably  neg- 
ligible. 

Though  this  had  been  predicted  theoretically, 
no  U-235  had  been  isolated  to  test  the  process,  but 
this  was  done  early  in  1940.  First  to  obtain  it  was 
Dr.  A.  O.  Nier,  of  the  University  of  Minnesota, 
but  a  somewhat  larger  sample  was  obtained  short- 
ly afterwards  by  Drs.  K.  H.  Kingdon  and  H.  C. 
Pollock,  in  the  research  laboratory  of  the  General 
Electric  Co. 

In  both  laboratories,  the  material  was  secured 
with  a  mass  spectrometer.  The  compound  uranium 
tetrachloride  is  vaporized  by  heating  to  several 
hundred  degrees.  After  the  vapor  passes  through 
a  tiny  slit,  it  is  bombarded  by  a  beam  of  electrons 
to  break  its  atoms  into  ions.  The  whole  apparatus 
is  enclosed  in  a  magnetic  field  This  bends  the 
stream  of  ions  in  a  semicircle,  which  is  smaller 
the  less  their  mass.  Thus,  the  different  isotopes 
are  sorted  out  and  collected  on  platinum  plates  at 
the  end  of  a  copper  tube. 

Such  isolation  of  uranium  235  is  extremely 
slow,  tedious,  and  costly  both  in  time  and  effort. 
Figures  discussed  by  Dr.  Kingdon  suggest  that 
more  than  a  million  years  would  be  needed  to  se- 
cure a  pound  with  the  mass  spectrometer,  and  at 
least  a  pound  would  be  needed  for  a  real  test  of 
the  energy-releasing  chain  reaction.  He  estimated, 
however,  that  several  million  times  as  much  power 
could  be  obtained  from  a  pound  of  U-235  as  from 
a  pound  of  coal. 

Prof.  Niels  Bohr,  Danish  physicist  temporarily 
in  the  United  States,  and  Dr.  John  A.  Wheeler, 
of  Princeton  University,  had  predicted  that  while 
high  energy  neutrons  would  be  capable  of  split- 
ting U-238  atoms,  very  weakly  energetic,  slow 
neutrons  would  produce  the  effect  in  U-235  atoms. 

Though  the  amounts  of  U-235  isolated  were  of 
the  order  of  a  hundred  millionth  of  a  gram,  they 
were  enough  to  permit  a  test  of  this  prediction  It 
was  made  at  Columbia  University  by  Drs.  J.  R. 
Dunning,  E.  T.  Booth,  and  A.  V.  Grosse  Using 
the  cyclotron  as  a  source  of  neutron  bombardment, 
the  Bohr- Wheeler  prediction  was  verified.  The 
U-235  atom,  it  was  determined,  was  responsible 
for  the  fission,  and  it  was  split  more  easily  by  the 
slow  neutrons.  A  fast  neutron  may  go  straight 
through  the  atom  without  producing  an  effect,  but 
the  slower  one  seems  more  easily  to  be  drawn  in 
to  the  nucleus.  A  U-235  nucleus  is  about  500  times 
as  easy  to  hit  as  one  of  the  238  isotope 

It  has  been  suggested  that  in  production  of  pow- 
er from  U-235  a  chunk  of  the  material  could  be 
immersed  in  water.  A  source  of  slow  neutrons, 
such  as  radium  in  paraffin,  could  start  the  process. 
The  neutrons  given  off  in  the  atomic  fission  would 
then  be  slowed  by  the  surrounding  water,  which 
would  be  heated  and  converted  to  useful  steam 
Removing  the  U-235  from  the  water,  further  neu- 
trons emitted  would,  presumably,  be  too  fast  to 
cause  fission,  and  the  process  would  stop. 

After  the  first  announcements  early  in  1940,  a 
veil  of  secrecy  was  wrapped  around  most  of  the 
further  work  on  uranium  fission.  Reports  reached 
the  United  States  of  intensive  researches  in  Ger- 
many and  Allied  nations.  Professor  Bohr  had  re- 


turned to  his  laboratory  in  Copenhagen  before  the 
Nazi  occupation  of  Denmark.  Also,  physicists  in 
Norway  and  France  had  been  conducting  such 
studies  before  the  conquest  of  these  countries. 

Despite  the  self-imposed  secrecy  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  censorship  in  Europe,  certain  ad- 
vances were  revealed.  In  a  communication  to  Na- 
ture (London)  Prof.  Wilhelm  Krasny-Ergen,  of 
the  Wenner-Grens  Institute  of  the  University  of 
Stockholm,  told  of  a  means  of  concentrating 
U-235  at  a  rate  more  than  11,000  times  as  rapidly 
as  with  the  mass  spectrometer.  This  made  use  of 
the  method  of  thermal  diffusion,  which  was  de- 
veloped in  1938  by  Clusius  and  Dickel  in  Germany 
and  by  Brewer  and  Bramley  in  the  United  States. 
In  this  method  of  separating  isotopes  the  fluid 
(for  it  works  for  either  a  gas  or  a  liquid)  passes 
along  concentric  cylinders.  The  outer  cylinder  is 
cooled  with  water  or  air  while  the  inner  cylinder 
is  heated  from  the  inside  by  a  hot  wire.  With 
tubes  about  30  feet  high,  and  using  the  gaseous 
compound,  uranium  hexafluoride,  Professor  Kras- 
ny-Ergen was  on  the  verge  of  concentrating  the 
rare  material.  Work  had  to  be  suspended  when 
Germany  marched  into  Norway,  Sweden's  neigh- 
bor. The  24-hour  yield  of  rare  uranium  235,  he 
estimated,  would  be  1  3  milligrams  per  day.  This 
means  that  with  a  single  tube  in  his  thermal  dif- 
fusion apparatus,  Professor  Krasny-Ergen  would 
require  about  three  years  to  get  a  gram  of  urani- 
um 235.  It  is  about  12,000  times  as  fast  as  with 
the  mass-spectrometer. 

Another  possible  means  of  separating  the  iso- 
tope appears  to  be  with  the  ultra-centrifuge,  with 
which  Prof.  J.  W.  Beams,  of  the  University  of 
Virginia,  has  been  one  of  the  chief  experimenters. 
This  works  on  a  principle  similar  to  that  of  a 
cream  separator.  When  fluid  uranium  compounds 
are  placed  in  a  cylinder  rotating  at  high  speed — 
some  66,000  revolutions  per  minute-^-heavy  238  at- 
oms are  thrown  to  the  outside,  while  the  lighter 
235  atoms  gather  near  the  center.  Since  the  cylin- 
der must  be  several  inches  in  diameter,  great  tech- 
nical problems  are  encountered  in  its  construction 
and  operation. 

It  also  seems  possible  that  zeolites — silicates  of 
aluminum,  calcium,  and  sodium  used  in  water 
softening — might  be  used  to  accomplish  the  isola- 
tion of  U-235.  A  patent  covering  the  separation 
of  isotopes  with  zeolites  (United  States  2,204,072) 
was  granted  in  June  to  Dr.  John  G  Dean,  re- 
search director  of  the  Permutit  Company. 

Another  way  to  split  the  uranium  atom  with  re- 
lease of  energy  was  reported  from  the  Westing- 
house  Research  Laboratories.  Gamma  rays,  gen- 
erated by  proton  bombardment  of  fluorite  with  the 
95-ton  electrostatic  atom  smasher,  are  found  to 
split  the  uranium  nucleus,  releasing  30  to  100 
times  the  energy  expended  in  causing  the  fission 
Since  gamma  rays  are  radiation — like  electricity, 
light,  and  X-rays — consisting  of  photons,  Dr.  E 
U.  Condon,  Westmghouse's  associate  research  di- 
rector, suggested  in  announcing  the  discovery  that 
the  new  uranium  fission  phenomenon  be  called 
"phission." 

Whether  the  new  photo-fission  or  "phission"  of 
uranium  will  bring  closer  to  realization  the  actual 
release  of  atomic  energy  is  problematical  The  big 
task  is  still  the  concentration  of  enough  uranium 
235  to  provide  a  real  test  as  to  whether  there  is  a 
chain  reaction. 

The  new  research  has  provided  an  alternate 
method  of  starting  the  disintegration.  The  form 
of  radiant  energy  used  is  6,000,000  etectron-volt 


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600 


PHYSICS 


gamma  rays,  similar  to  but  more  penetrating  than 
X-rays.  Details  of  the  research  were  given  in  a 
letter  to  the  Physical  Review  communicated  by 
Drs.  R.  O.  Haxby,  W.  E.  Shoupp,  W.  E.  Ste- 
phens, and  W.  H.  Wells. 

Atomic  power  is  released  from  uranium  spon- 
taneously without  atom-smashing  bombardment 
with  neutrons,  two  Leningrad  physicists  reported 
in  the  Physical  Review.  But  the  observations  of 
the  two  Soviet  scientists,  Flerov  and  Petrjak,  hold 
out  no  hope  that  there  will  be  any  practical  utiliza- 
tion of  this  energy  from  the  splitting  of  the  ura- 
nium atom.  Only  six  fissions  an  hour  were  dis- 
covered. 

Possibility  that  the  energy  yield  from  U-23S, 
may  be  greater  than  hitherto  supposed,  was  sug- 
gested by  Dr.  R.  D.  Present,  of  Purdue  Univer- 
sity. Speaking  before  the  American  Physical  So- 
ciety, he  stated  that  it  is  theoretically  possible  for 
the  nucleus  of  the  uranium  atom  to  divide  into 
three  parts  as  well  as  two.  Such  a  reaction  would 
yield  about  10  per  cent  more  energy,  according  to 
his  calculations,  than  binary  fission.  Though  the 
energy  to  activate  the  process  is  the  same  as  for 
binary  fission,  he  believes  that,  with  low  energy 
neutrons,  it  is  less  likely  to  occur  than  division  in- 
to two  parts.  So  far  no  experimental  verification 
of  the  triple  division  has  been  found. 

High  Speed  Rotation.  Dr.  L.  £.  MacHattie, 
of  the  University  of  Virginia,  stated  at  the  same 
meeting  that  by  magnetically  suspending  a  steel 
ball  %2  inch  in  diameter  in  a  vacuum,  so  that  fric- 
tion was  nearly  eliminated,  he  was  able  to  spin  it 
110,000  times  per  second,  about  2600  times  as  rap- 
idly as  the  propeller  of  a  pursuit  airplane,  which 
revolves  at  about  2500  revolutions  per  minute.  In 
some  researches,  a  rapidly  rotating  mirror  is  need- 
ed. To  test  the  feasibility  of  such  a  use  of  the  de- 
vice, two  flat  faces  were  ground  on  the  ball.  Then 
it  was  spun  to  more  than  100,000  revolutions  per 
second  without  bursting.  In  another  test  a  drill 
rod  %B  inch  diameter  and  %  inch  long,  was  spun 
at  36,000  revolutions  per  second,  before  it  was 
bent  double. 

Dr.  J.  W.  Beams,  head  of  the  University  of 
Virginia's  Rpuss  Physical  Laboratory,  reported 
researches  with  Arthur  L.  Stauffacher  and  L.  B. 
Snoddy,  showing  how  the  ultra-centrifuge  could 
be  used  to  determine  molecular  weights  of  various 
compounds. 

High  Pressures.  New  world's  record  high 
pressures,  as  much  as  3,500,000  Ib  per  square  inch, 
were  achieved  by  Dr.  P.  W.  Bridgman  in  Har- 
vard's Physics  Laboratories  through  use  of  nests 
of  high  pressure  vessels  in  which  inside  apparatus 
receives  outside  support  at  critical  parts.  A  piece 
of  tool  alloy,  Carboloy,  composed  of  tungsten 
carbide  and  cobalt,  was  subjected  to  a  compressive 
stress  of  between  200,000  kilograms  per  square 
centimeter  (2,800,000  Ib.  per  square  inch)  and  250,- 
000  kg.  per  sq.  cm.  (3,500,000  Ib.  per  sq.  in.)  with- 
out fracture.  Carboloy's  crushing  strength  under 
normal  conditions  is  not  more  than  70,000  kg.  per 
sq.  cm.  (1,000,000  Ib.  per  sq.  in.).  The  confining 
pressure  that  made  possible  these  new  high  pres- 
sures was  about  25,000  kg.  per  sq.  cm.  (350,000 
Ib.  per  sq.  in.).  See  CHEMISTRY. 

Dr.  Bridgman,  in  reporting  his  results  to  the 
Physical  Review,  also  made  known  that  tinder 
such  extreme  pressures,  carbon  in  the  form  of  a 
thin  plate  of  crystal  graphite  is  not  converted  to 
diamond  at  room  temperature.  Both  graphite  and 
diamond  are  carbon.  There  had  been  hope  that 
pressure  alone  might  cause  the  formation  of  dia- 


mond out  of  the  other  form  of  carbon.  It  is  prob- 
able that  no  pressure,  however  high,  will  accomp- 
lish the  conversion  at  room  temperature.  Doubling 
of  the  pressure  apparatus,  as  practised  by  Bridg- 
man, made  it  possible  to  reach  pressure  consider- 
ably more  than  double  because  of  the  increase  in 
intrinsic  strength  under  hydrostatic  pressure.  A 
striking  effect  of  the  extreme  high  pressures  on 
Carboloy  was  that,  although  under  normal  condi- 
tions it  is  highly  brittle  and  breaks  with  practical- 
ly no  plastic  deformation,  under  the  confining 
pressures  used  by  Dr.  Bridgman  the  piston  of  this 
tough  material  was  plastically  and  permanently 
shortened  by  5.5  per  cent  with  no  perceptible 
cracks. 

Similar  experiments  were  carried  out  by  Dr. 
Roy  W.  Goranson  and  Ellis  Johnson,  of  the  De- 
partment of  Terrestrial  Magnetism  of  the  Carne- 
gie Institution  of  Washington,  in  an  effort  to  re- 
produce pressures  that  exist  hundreds  of  miles  be- 
low the  earth's  surface.  They  announced  that  pres- 
sures of  3,000,000  Ib.  per  square  inch  had  been  at- 
tained. They  stopped  at  this  figure  because  the 
pressure  gauge  was  not  calibrated  beyond  that 
point.  The  pressure  equipment  itself  potentially 
may  be  capable  of  doubling  this  pressure.  If  this 
can  be  done,  it  will  produce  a  pressure  equal  to 
that  inside  the  earth  at  depths  of  745  miles  and 
permit  important  studies  of  the  properties  of  mat- 
ter at  these  pressures.  Dr.  Goranson  and  Mr.  John- 
son, in  their  tests,  used  ordinary  table  salt,  sodium 
chloride.  They  found  that  at  the  extreme  pressure 
it  was  squeezed  so  tightly  its  volume  was  decreased 
by  20  per  cent,  or  one-fifth.  This  means,  it  is  ex- 
plained, "that  the  space  inside  the  sodium  chloride 
molecule  was  mostly  eliminated  by  the  pressure,  so 
that  the  atoms  making  up  the  molecules  of  salt 
actually,  or  nearly,  touched  one  another."  Unlike 
some  other  chemical  substances  which  have  been 
studied  under  high  pressures  previously,  the  salt 
used  in  the  Carnegie  tests  appeared  to  have  suf- 
fered no  color  or  structural  change. 

Cyclotrons.  By  a  grant  of  $1,150,000  from  the 
Rockefeller  Foundation,  supplemented  with  $250,- 
000  raised  by  the  University  of  California,  work 
was  begun  at  the  University,  in  Berkeley,  on  a 
cyclotron,  or  atom  smasher,  with  a  magnet  184 
inches  in  diameter,  weighing  4900  tons  and  in- 
cluding more  than  400  tons  of  copper  windings. 
This  will  far  surpass  the  60-inch  cyclotron,  also 
at  Berkeley,  which  is  now  the  world's  largest.  At 
the  end  of  1940,  Dr.  Ernest  O.  Lawrence,  inventor 
of  the  cyclotron  (which  obtains  high  energy  deu- 
terons,  or  hearts  of  hydrogen  atoms,  by  whirling 
them  around  and  around  in  a  strong  magnetic 
field),  reported  that  construction  was  well  under 
way  and  that  it  would  probably  be  in  operation  by 
1943.  He  suggested  that  it  might  possibly  give 
energies  as  high  as  200,000,000  volts,  and  enable 
scientists  to  find  things  not  even  found  in  the  cos- 
mic rays.  The  new  cyclotron  will  be  able,  he  said, 
to  make  in  one  minute  enough  radioactive  sodium 
to  equal  in  effect  350  grams  of  radium,  more  than 
there  is  in  the  world,  and  costing  $10,000,000  if  it 
could  be  produced.  Construction  of  new  cyclotrons 
was  also  started  at  the  University  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, the  University  of  Illinois,  and  elsewhere.  Pro- 
fessor Lawrence  estimates  that  there  are  more 
than  30  in  the  world  either  in  operation  or  being 
built 

Mainly  with  the  use  of  cyclotron,  radioactive 
isotopes  of  all  the  elements  have  been  obtained, 
though  some  are  very  short-lived.  Dr.  Charles 
Pecher,  working  in  the  Crocker  Radiation  Labo- 


PHYSICS 


601 


PHYSICS 


ratory  at  the  University  of  California,  reported 
preparation  of  radioactive  yttrium,  which  lasts 
about  100  days,  yielding  gamma  radiation  capable 
of  penetrating  two  inches  of  iron.  He  suggested 
that  this  might  become  a  substitute  for  radium  in 
taking  gamma-ray  photographs  of  machine  parts 
to  search  for  internal  flaws. 

Such  artificial  production  of  substances  like  ra- 
dium, was  covered  in  U  S  Patent  2,206,634,  grant- 
ed to  a  quintet  of  Italian  physicists,  who  were  at 
the  University  of  Rome  when  application  was 
made  for  the  patent,  Oct.  3,  1935.  They  are  Dr. 
Enrico  Fermi,  now  at  Columbia  University,  New 
York  City ;  Edoardo  Amaldi,  still  in  Rome ;  Emil- 
io  Segre,  University  of  California ;  Franco  Raset- 
ti,  Quebec,  and  Bruno  Pontecorvo,  now  in  South 
America.  The  patent  was  assigned  to  G.  M.  Gian- 
nini  and  Co.,  Inc.,  New  York  City. 

Neutrons  from  the  cyclotron  have  too  high  en- 
ergy, so  Dr.  Fermi's  problem  was  to  slow  them. 
"We  have  found  it  possible  to  achieve  the  desired 
results  by  passing  the  neutron  radiation  against  or 
through  a  screen  of  a  suitable  material,"  states  the 
patent.  "The  materials  which  have  been  found  best 
suited  to  this  purpose  are  those  containing  hydro- 
gen (including  all  its  isotopes,  but  the  light  isotope 
which  predominates  in  natural  occurrence  being 
most  efficient)  and  especially  water  and  the  hydro- 
carbons, such  as  paraffin  for  example  "  In  use,  the 
screen  may  be  either  solid  or  liquid.  In  the  latter 
event,  the  material  to  be  treated  can  be  dissolved 
or  suspended  in  the  liquid  itself.  The  new  patent 
covers  the  use  of  neutrons,  with  such  an  energy 
reducing  screen  and  the  production  of  radioactive 
isotopes  thereby  Since  this  is  so  far  the  most  sat- 
isfactory method  of  producing  artificial  radioactive 
substances,  and  these  have  begun  to  find  medical 
use,  the  patent  seems  to  be  quite  basic. 

However,  high  voltage  X-rays  can  also  be  used 
to  produce  artificial  radioactivity,  Dr.  Robert  J. 
Van  De  Graaff,  Dr  Lester  C.  Van  Atta,  Dr.  Ches- 
ter M.  Van  Atta,  and  Doyle  L.  Northrup,  of  Mas- 
sachusetts Institute  of  Technology,  reported,  con- 
firming earlier  findings  of  Notre  Dame  University 
physicists.  They  found  that  X-rays,  produced  with 
the  electrostatic  generator  operating  at  a  little  un- 
der 1,000,000  volts,  formed  three  radioactive  iso- 
topes of  indium,  with  half  life  periods  ranging 
from  12  seconds  to  four  hours. 

Cosmic  Rays.  The  minute  particles  known  as 
mesotrons,  which  are  formed  high  in  the  air  when 
the  atmospheric  atoms  are  struck  by  cosmic  rays 
from  outer  space,  die  for  the  most  part  before  they 
reach  the  ground.  New  evidence  of  this  rapid  decay 
was  obtained  by  Dr.  R.  A.  Millikan  of  the  Cali- 
fornia Institute  of  Technology,  in  collaboration 
with  Dr.  H.  V.  Neher  and  Dr.  H.  G  Stever.  Meso- 
trons are  similar  to  electrons,  but  about  150  times 
heavier.  They  start  with  a  speed  of  some  180,000 
miles  per  second,  nearly  as  great  as  that  of  light. 
Yet,  so  short-lived  are  they,  that  in  traveling  12,- 
000  feet,  about  15  per  cent  disintegrate  spontane- 
ously. From  this  it  is  calculated  that  they  live,  on 
the  average,  about  66  milhonths  of  a  second.  In 
accordance  with  one  of  the  consequences  of  the 
theory  of  relativity,  an  object  moving  at  such  a 
high  speed  shows  a  longer  life  than  if  it  were  at 
rest  The  life  of  the  mesotron  at  rest  is  calculated 
to  be  only  2.5  millionths  of  a  second. 

The  scientists  measured  the  intensity  of  the  cos- 
mic ray  effects  in  two  mountain  lakes,  one  about 
12,000  feet  higher  than  the  other,  yet  geographi- 
cally close.  In  the  upper  lake,  the  apparatus  was 
immersed  about  12  feet  deeper,  so  as  to  compensate 


for  the  fact  that  there  was  less  air  above  this  one. 
Thus,  the  total  combined  air  and  water  absorption 
for  each  was  the  same.  Despite  this,  the  readings 
in  the  lower  lake  were  15  per  cent  lower  than  in 
the  upper  one.  Dr.  Millikan  has  concluded,  there- 
fore, that  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that,  in  the  extra 
time  required  for  the  mesotrons  to  reach  the  lower 
level,  more  have  died.  A  life,  at  rest,  of  2.5  mil- 
lionths of  a  second,  the  same  as  that  obtained  the- 
oretically, would  give  this  difference. 

Neutrons  were  also  found  to  be  associated  with 
the  cosmic  radiation,  though  the  exact  relationship 
has  not  been  fully  explained.  Dr.  Serge  A.  Korff, 
of  the  Bartol  Research  Foundation  of  the  Frank- 
lin Institute,  designed  a  new  form  of  counter  to 
measure  them,  as  distinct  from  the  measurements 
of  the  other  types  of  cosmic  radiation.  This  con- 
sists of  a  tube  containing  a  gas,  boron  trifluoride. 
The  neutrons  break  up  the  nuclei  of  the  boron 
atoms,  and  alpha  particles,  atomic  bullets  of  an- 
other kind,  are  formed.  These  are  detected  in  the 
counter.  Such  a  counter  was  taken  by  Dana  Bailey, 
of  the  Harvard  College  Observatory,  to  Little 
America,  to  make  observations  that  may  tell  wheth- 
er there  is  a  latitude  effect  with  the  neutrons.  Two 
sensitive  cosmic  ray  meters  of  the  Millikan  type 
have  been  in  use  at  Little  America  since  January, 
1940,  and  are  expected,  when  brought  back  about 
April,  1941,  to  yield  important  data  concerning  the 
cosmic  radiation. 

During  the  summer,  a  high  altitude  laboratory 
for  cosmic  ray  research,  under  the  direction  of  Dr. 
Bruno  Rossi,  was  established  by  the  University  of 
Chicago  on  Mt.  Evans,  Colorado,  at  14,259  feet 
altitude  Robot  balloon  flights  which  carried  an 
ionization  chamber  to  heights  of  15  5  miles  have 
disclosed  that  after  correction  for  the  effects  of 
variations  in  the  earth's  magnetic  field,  the  maxi- 
mum of  cosmic  ray  intensity  in  the  upper  air  comes 
in  the  springtime,  Dr.  William  P.  Jesse  of  the 
University  of  Chicago  found.  He  said  that  more 
work  will  be  needed  before  it  can  be  proved  that 
the  spring  maximum  in  cosmic  ray  intensity  is  a 
true  seasonal  effect.  The  unmanned  balloon  flights 
were  primarily  directed  to  determine  whether  cos- 
mic ray  intensities  at  the  top  of  the  atmosphere 
varied  with  time.  Changes  of  more  than  15  per  cent 
were  observed  which  appear  to  follow  the  "world- 
wide" variations  previously  reported  by  other  in- 
vestigators from  ground  stations  It  appears  that 
the  15  per  cent  changes  at  the  top  of  the  atmos- 
phere are  due  to  a  large  extent  to  intensity  change 
in  the  magnetic  field  surrounding  the  earth. 

Drs.  Marcel  Schein  and  E  O  Wollan  studied 
the  production  of  mesotrons  at  high  altitudes,  and 
found  that  mesotrons  bepan  to  be  generated  in  a 
lead  block  carried  aloft  when  an  altitude  of  about 
4  miles  was  reached.  Dr.  G.  Herzog,  also  of  the 
University  of  Chicago,  has  investigated  slow  meso- 
trons with  a  Wilson  cloud  chamber  apparatus  to 
take  pictures  of  their  tracks  up  to  altitudes  of  29,- 
000  feet  in  airplane  flights. 

Instruments.  In  the  instrumental  field,  an  im- 
portant event  was  the  commercial  production  of 
an  electron  microscope  by  the  Radio  Corporation 
of  America,  which,  as  noted  in  the  1939  YEAR 
BOOK,  p.  122,  permits  direct  magnifications  of  as 
much  as  25,000  diameters.  With  such  an  instru- 
ment, it  was  found  possible  to  photograph  certain 
large  organic  molecules.  Similar  success  in  photo- 
graphing actual  molecules  with  the  electron  micro- 
scope was  reported  from  Germany 

A  device  for  producing  intense  bombardments 
with  fragments  of  atoms,  called  the  induction  elec- 


PICKETING  AND  ANTI-PICKETINQ  602 


PLANNING 


tron  accelerator,  was  described  by  Dr.  D.  W. 
Kerst  of  the  General  Electric  Research  Labora- 
tory- The  electron  accelerator  consists  of  a  dough* 
nut-shaped  glass  vessel  with  the  air  pumped  out 
of  it  It  contains  an  iron  core,  and  is  surrounded 
by  a  magnet  consisting  of  thousands  of  segments 
of  iron.  A  stream  of  electrons  introduced  into  the 
glass  vacuum  chamber  is  whirled  in  the  magnetic 
field  at  ever-increasing  velocities  until  the  particles 
are  finally  moving  at  almost  the  speed  of  light — 
186,000  miles  a  second.  In  reaching  this  speed,  the 
electrons  make  200,000  revolutions,  traveling  a 
distance  of  approximately  60  miles  and  building  up 
an  energy  of  2,300,000  volts.  The  present  small  ap- 
paratus, less  than  a  foot  in  diameter,  produces 
radiation  energy  equivalent  in  intensity  to  that 
given  off  by  ten  milligrams  of  radium.  Larger 
models  can  be  expected  to  give  more  energy. 

Bibliography.  Among  the  new  books  on  physics  issued 
in  1940  were:  H.  I.  J.  B radicle.  Cosmic  Rays  and  Meso- 
trons Cambridge  (Macmillan);  W.  B.  Mann,  The  Cyclo- 
tron (Chem.  Pub.);  T.  A.  Stratton,  Electromagnetic  The- 
ory (McGraw);  F.  B.  Llewellyn,  Electron  Inertia  Effects 
Cambridge  (Macmillan) ;  A.  W.  Duff  and  S.  J  Plimpton, 
Elements  of  Electromagnetic  Theory  (Blakiston) ,  T.  B. 
Brown,  Foundations  of  Modern  Physics  (Wiley) ;  S.  Chap- 


Sir  James  Jeans,  Kinetic  Theory  of  Cases  Cambridge 
(Macmillan);  H.  G.  B  Casimir,  Magnetism  and  Very 
Low  Temperatures  Cambridge  (Macmillan);  S.  Chapman 
and  T.  G  Cowling,  The  Mathematical  Theory  of  Non- 
Uniform  Gases  Cambridge  (Macmillan);  D.  L.  Thornton, 
Mechanics  Applied  to  Vibrations  and  Balancing  (Wiley) ; 
H.  M.  Munchereryan,  Modern  Physics  of  Roentgenology 
(Wetzel):  F.  Seitz,  The  Modern  Theory  of  Solids  (Mc- 
Graw); A.  S  Ramsey,  Newtonian  Attraction  Cambridge 
(Macmillan),  Henry  Crew,  The  Photismi  de  Litmine  of 
Maurolyeus  (A  Chapter  in  Late  Medieval  Optics)  trans. 
(Macmillan) ,  Kurt  Riezler,  Physics  and  Reality  (Yale) ; 
G.  R.  Harrison,  Proceedings  of  the  Seventh  Summer  Con- 
ference on  Spectroscopy  (Wiley);  N  Ernest  Dorsey, 
Properties  of  Ordinary  Water-Substance  in  all  its  Phases  • 
Water -Vat  or,  Water  and  all  the  Ices  (Reinhold) ;  J.  K. 
Roberts,  Some  Problems  in  Adsorption  Cambridge  (Mac- 
millan) ,  R.  H  Fowler  and  E.  A.  Guggenheim,  Statistical 
Thermodynamics  Cambridge  (Macmillan);  R  S.  Burdon, 
Surface  Tension  and  the  Spreading  of  Liquids  Cambridge 
(Macmillan) ;  T.  Svedberg  and  K.  O.  Pedersen,  The  Ultra- 
Centnfuge  (Oxford). 

WATSON  DAVIS  (with  JAMES  STOKLEY). 


PICKETING  AND  ANTI-PICKETING 
LAWS.  See  AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR; 
SUPREME  COURT;  ALABAMA,  CALIFORNIA,  and 
OREGON  under  History. 

PITCAIRN  ISLAND.  See  STAMP  COLLECT- 

INC. 

PIUS  XII.  See  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

PLANNING.  In  the  United  States  at  the  close 
of  1940,  The  National  Resources  Planning  Board 
was  completing  a  report  on  a  Program  for  the  De- 
velopment of  Resources  and  Stabilization  of  Em- 
ployment. This  includes  a  six-year  Public  Works 
Program  for  Federal  Agencies,  National  water, 
land,  and  transportation  policies,  and  plans  for  re- 
gional development  Another  report  will  deal  with 
long-range  work  and  relief  policies.  Plans  for  na- 
tional defense  were  being  studied.  A  national  ros- 
ter of  scientific  and  specialized  personnel  was  be- 
ing prepared.  Locations  for  critical  industries  were 
under  consideration.  The  board  has  regional  offices 
at  Boston,  Baltimore,  Atlanta,  Indianapolis,  Dal- 
las, Omaha,  Denver,  Berkeley,  Portland,  Ore.,  and 
Juneau,  Alaska,  These  co-operate  with  regional, 
state,  and  local  planning  bodies. 

A  tentative  fourfold  master  plan  for  New  York 
City  was  announced  late  in  the  year  by  the  City 
Planning  Commission.  An  immense  wall  map  was 
put  on  exhibit  and  a  series  of  descriptive  pam- 


phlets made  available.  A  "highway  pattern"  shows 
96  proposed  express  highways  and  26  express 
parkways,  besides  major  streets.  Many  of  these 
are  in  existence;  others  were  added  or  amended 
routes.  Three  other  elements  of  the  master  plan 
are  land  use,  parks,  and  public  schools.  At  Balti- 
more, a  board  of  three  advisory  engineers  will  re- 
port to  the  City  Plan  Commission  a  program  for 
water  supply,  sewers  and  sewage  disposal,  garbage 
and  refuse  disposal,  park  and  recreational  areas, 
and  schools,  each  and  all  to  fit  into  a  master  city 
plan  and  serve  as  a  basis  for  long-range  capital 
budgeting.  The  Chicago  City  Plan  Commission, 
an  official  body  of  25  members,  was  organized  in 
June  to  succeed  the  voluntary  body  of  300  mem- 
bers which,  with  expert  aid,  formulated  the  well- 
known  Chicago  Plan.  This  plan  and  successive 
elaborations  have  been  approved  by  referendum 
vote  from  time  to  time  and  executed  by  the  city 
government.  One  of  the  first  tasks  of  the  new 
commission  will  be  to  rezone  Chicago,  using  as  a 
basis  a  $2,000,000  WPA  land-use  map  made  under 
the  direction  of  its  predecessor. 

At  Seaford,  Del.,  Baltimore  consulting  engineers 
are  studying  the  effect  of  the  large  Nylon  plant 
on  a  small  town.  Under  consideration  are  new 
streets,  extension  of  utilities,  and  a  new  city  char- 
ter. The  du  Pont  and  the  city  officials  are  co- 
operating. Four  small  communities  in  as  many 
states  have  been  or  are  being  moved  to  new  and 
carefully  planned  sites  :  Hill,  N  H  ,  and  Green- 
ville, Mo.,  are  to  move  to  higher  ground  to  get 
out  of  areas  to  be  submerged  by  flood-control  res- 
ervoirs. Leavenworth,  Ind.,  and  Shawneetown,  111., 
have  moved  from  locations  that  were  covered  by 
Ohio  River  flood  waters  of  1937.  The  Indiana  vil- 
lage had  been  flooded  11  times.  (See  Engineering 
News-Record,  Mar.  14,  1940  ) 

The  first  of  three  articles  on  Planning  Progress 
in  Baltic  Countries,  dealing  in  some  detail  with 
Stockholm,  Helsingfors,  Gdynia,  and  other  cities, 
appeared  in  the  July-  September  issue  of  The  Plan- 
ner's Journal  (Cambridge,  Mass.).  Since  the  ces- 
sation of  hostilities  between  Russia  and  Finland 
the  Finnish  government  has  made  plans  for  build- 
ing four  new  towns. 

A  vital  factor  in  planning  activities  that  must 
be  reckoned  with  was  revealed  by  the  United  States 
Census  of  1940.  It  showed  that  the  number  of  cities 
having  a  population  of  100,000  or  more  was  90 
compared  with  92  in  1930,  and  that  a  third  of  the 
90  cities  had  declined  in  total  population  while 
many  others  had  barely  held  their  own,  and  only  a 
fifth  of  the  total  showed  increases  of  more  than  10 
per  cent.  Nearly  a  fourth  of  the  cities  haying  25,000 
or  more  population  in  1940  had  fewer  inhabitants 
than  in  1930.  These  and  other  declines  in  popula- 
tion and  in  percentage  rates  of  growth  must  be 
considered  in  planning  extensions  of  streets,  water 
supplies,  and  other  public  works,  as  well  as  edu- 
cational facilities  and  industrial  activities.  Such 
declines,  besides  their  effects  on  public  needs,  up- 
set vital  and  other  statistics  based  on  population 
estimates  for  intercensal  years.  They  emphasize 
the  need  for  population  counts  oftener  than  once 
in  ten  years,  whether  the  population  is  increasing 
or  decreasing  rapidly.  See  COLOMBIA  under  His- 
tory; NATIONAL  RESOURCES  PLANNING  BOARD; 
NEW  YORK. 

Bibliography. 
Planner's  Journal, 


Town 


r.  American  Institute  of  Plai .    

f  .-,.,„.  -  *v~,*al,  Quarterly  Official  Organ  (Cambridge); 
American  Planning  and  Civic  Association.  American  Plan- 
ning and  Civic  Annual  (Washington) ;  American  Society 
of  Planning  Officials,  National  Conference  on  City  Plan- 


PLANT  INDUSTRY 


603 


POLAND 


*i*g,  1940  Proceeding!  (Chicago);  Bassett,  Zoning:  Tk* 
Laws,  Administration  and  Court  Decision*  during  the 
first  twenty  yemrs  (New  York) ;  Garden  Citiei  and  Town 
Planning  Association,  Town  and  Country  Planning,  Quar- 
terly (Welwyn  Garden  City,  England);  James,  editor, 
Planning  and  Ciwc  Comment  (Washington) ;  Town  Plan- 
ning Institute,  Journal  (London). 

M.  N.  BAKER. 

PLANT  INDUSTRY,  Bureau  of.  A  bureau 
of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  which  con- 
ducts investigations  of  soils,  fertilizers,  and  plants, 
principally  those  of  economic  importance.  See  FER- 
TILIZERS. 

PLANTS  AND  PLANT  DISEASES.  See 
BOTANY;  ENTOMOLOGY.  ECONOMIC;  FERTILIZERS. 

PLASTICS.  See  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 
AND  ENGINEERING,  BUREAU  OF;  CHEMISTRY,  IN- 
DUSTRIAL. 

PLATINUM.  Except  for  iridium,  prices  for 
the  platinum  metals  were  relatively  stable  in  1940. 
The  price  of  platinum  ranged  from  $36  to  $38  per 
oz.  Indium  was  quoted  at  $175  per  oz.  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year,  and  in  excess  of  $275  at  the 
year  end.  Palladium  was  unchanged  at  $24  an  oz., 
rhodium  at  $125,  and  ruthenium  at  $35  to  $40. 
World  production  data  are  not  available,  but  it  is 
known  that  International  Nickel  Company,  Cana- 
da, continued  to  be  the  largest  producer.  According 
to  the  U.S.  Geological  Survey,  1940,  the  Alaska 
production  was  28,860  fine  oz.,  having  a  value  of 
approximately  $1,092,000.  The  bulk  of  this  produc- 
tion comes  from  the  Goodnews  District  in  South 
Western  Alaska,  where  the  deposits  are  mined  by 
dredge  and  dragline.  Platinum  and  its  related  met- 
als find  extensive  use  in  the  chemical  industry ;  also 
in  the  production  of  rayon,  and  in  contacts  for  the 
electrical  and  aviation  industries.  Platinum  con- 
tinued to  find  continued  use  in  jewelry,  and  pal- 
ladium in  dentistry  as  an  alloy  with  gold. 

H.  C.  PARMELEE. 

PLIOFILM.  See  RUBBER. 

PM.  See  NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAGAZINES. 

PNEUMONIA.  See  PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE. 

POETRY.  See  LITERATURE,  ENGLISH  AND 
AMERICAN  ;  French,  German,  Russian,  Scandina- 
vian, Spanish,  and  Spanish- American  Literatures. 

POLAND.  A  central  European  republic,  estab- 
lished Nov.  9,  1918,  and  partitioned  between  Ger- 
many and  the  Union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Republics 
by  the  treaty  of  Sept.  28,  1939.  Warsaw,  capital  of 
the  republic,  surrendered  to  the  Germans  Sept  27, 
1939.  See  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  625  f .,  for  data  on 
Poland  prior  to  its  partition. 

The  Partition.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
with  Germany  on  Sept  1, 1939,  Poland  had  an  area 
of  151,100  square  miles  and  a  population  of  35,- 
500,000,  according  to  official  Polish  statistics.  By 
the  German-Russian  treaty  of  Sept.  28,  1939,  Ger- 
many occupied  the  western  sector  of  72,432  square 
miles  with  about  22,000,000  inhabitants,  predomi- 
nantly Polish,  and  Russia  the  eastern  sector  of 
78,400  square  miles  with  approximately  13,500,000 
inhabitants,  mostly  Ukrainians  and  White  Rus- 
sians. See  map  in  YEAR  BOOK,  1939.  p.  626. 

A  German  decree  of  Oct.  8,  1939.  incorporated 
in  the  Reich  about  35,512  square  miles  of  Polish 
territory  with  a  population  of  about  9,627,000.  This 
area  comprised  the  Polish  provinces  of  Pomorze, 
Poznania,  and  Upper  Silesia,  which  were  ceded  by 
Germany  to  Poland  under  the  Treaty  of  Versailles, 
and  the  additional  Polish  districts  of  Suwalki, 
Ciechanow,  Plock,  Wloclawek,  Kutno,  Lodz,  Konin, 
Kalisz,  Bedzin,  Sosnowiec,  Biala,  and  Zywiec.  Of 


the  remaining  German-occupied  territory,  an  area 
of  225  square  miles  with  some  45,000  inhabitants 
was  transferred  to  Slovakia  on  OcL  21,  1939.  The 
rest— an  estimated  36,921  square  miles  with  a  pop- 
ulation variously  estimated  at  10,500,000  to  14,500,- 
000— was  created  a  separate  German-controlled  ter- 
ritory known  as  the  Government-General  of  Po- 
land, with  its  capital  at  Cracow. 

On  Oct  10,  1939,  the  Soviet  Government  ceded 
to  Lithuania  part  of  the  Vilna  district  taken  from 
Poland—an  area  of  2570  square  miles  with  457,500 
inhabitants.  The  remainder  of  Soviet-occupied  Po- 
land— about  77,703  square  miles  with  11,924,000 
inhabitants — was  incorporated  in  the  Soviet  Union 
by  vote  of  the  Soviet  Supreme  Council  (Nov.  1-2, 
1939).  According  to  Soviet  figures,  41,650  square 
miles  with  a  population  of  some  8,000,000  was  an- 
nexed to  the  Ukrainian  Soviet  Socialist  Republic 
and  34,000  square  miles  with  about  4,800,000  in- 
habitants to  the  White  (Byelo)  Russian  Soviet  So- 
cialist Republic.  See  LITHUANIA,  GERMANY,  and 
UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS. 

Goyernment-in-Exile.  The  Polish  Govern- 
ment-in-Exile  established  a  temporary  capital  in 
Paris  on  Sept.  30,  1939;  it  was  transferred  to  a 
site  near  Angers,  France,  on  Nov.  22,  1939.  Presi- 
dent of  the  republic,  Wladyslaw  Raczkiewicz,  who 
was  appointed  by  President  Ignace  Moscicki  upon 
the  latter's  resignation,  Sept.  30,  1939.  (The  Pol- 
ish Constitution  empowered  the  retiring  President 
to  name  his  successor.^)  Premier  and  War  Minis- 
ter, Gen.  Wladyslaw  Sikorski,  heading  a  non-party 
cabinet  formed  Sept.  30,  1939,  as  follows :  Foreign 
Affairs,  August  Zaleski;  Finance,  Henryk  Stras- 
burger ;  Public  Welfare,  Jan  Stanszyk ;  Ministers 
without  Portfolio,  Gen.  Kazimierz  Sosnkowski, 
Prof.  Stanislaw  Kot,  A.  Lados,  Stanislaw  Stron- 
ski,  Marian  Seyda,  and  Gen.  J.  Haller. 

The  Polish  Parliament  was  dissolved  by  Presi- 
dential decree  in  November,  1939,  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  National  Council  to  function  as  a  war- 
time parliament  was  authorized  Dec.  19,  1939.  The 
16  members  of  the  National  Council  appointed  in 
January,  1940,  were  as  follows,  with  the  groups 
they  represented  in  parentheses :  Ignace  Jan  Pade- 
rewski,  President  of  the  National  Council ;  Stanis- 
law Mikolajczyk  and  M.  Jozwiak  (Peasant  party), 
Dr.  Herman  Lieberman  (Socialist  party),  Dr. 
Tadeusz  Bielecki  (National  Democratic  party), 
Father  Jan  Brandys  and  Arkadjusz  Bozek  (Upper 
Silesia),  Bishop  Jozef  Gawlma  (Roman  Catholic 
Church),  Gen.  Lucjan  Zeligowski  and  Stanislaw 
Mackiewicz  (Vilna),  Dr.  Jan  Jaworski  ( Conserv- 
ative party),  Tytus  Filipowicz  (Polish  Demo- 
crats), Mme.  Zofia  Zaleska  (Polish  women),  M. 
Schwarzbart  (Polish  Jews),  Dr.  Zygmunt  Nowa- 
kowski  (Polish  intellectuals),  M.  Kwiatkowski 
(Polish  emigres  in  France). 

Provisional  Parliament  Meets.  The  National 
Council  held  its  first  meeting  in  the  Polish  Em- 
bassy in  Paris  on  Jan.  23,  1940.  President  Racz- 
kiewicz, opening  the  session,  pointed  out  that  the 
Council,  like  the  cabinet  and  himself,  were  only 
wartime  representatives  of  the  nation  and  that  a 
new  government  would  be  organized  when  peace 
was  restored.  He  outlined  the  National  Council's 
tasks  as  voting  the  budget,  advising  the  govern- 
ment, and  drawing  up  Poland's  objectives  for  a 
prospective  peace  conference.  Paderewski  in  a 
moving  speech  affirmed  that  Poland  would  live. 
Both  he  and  Premier  Sikorski  declared  that  re- 
spect for  democratic  principles  would  be  the  guid- 
ing principle  of  future  Polish  regimes.  The  Coun- 
cil took  a  formal  vow  of  solidarity  and  warned 


POLAND 


604 


POLAND 


Germany  and  Russia  that  wrongs  inflicted  upon 
conquered  Poland  would  be  revenged. 

Polish  war  aims  were  stated  by  Premier  Sikor- 
ski  on  February  18  to  include  "complete  repara- 
tion" and  "reconstruction  at  the  expense  of  the 
raiders."  He  called  for  more  secure  western  fron- 
tiers than  Poland  had  before  the  outbreak  of  war 
and  said  that  "access  to  the  Baltic  must  be  larger 
than  before." 

The  first  business  session  of  the  National  Coun- 
cil was  held  in  Angers  commencing  March  5.  On 
May  28,  at  the  close  of  the  disastrous  Battle  of 
Flanders,  the  cabinet  met  in  special  session  in  Paris 
and  voted  inflexible  loyalty  to  the  Allied  cause. 
Other  governmental  activities  included  the  publi- 
cation of  various  documents  in  support  of  the  Pol- 
ish struggle  for  independence.  A  White  Book  is- 
sued in  March,  1940,  reviewed  the  diplomatic  ante- 
cedents of  the  war  and  charged  that  the  Hitler 
regime  over  a  period  of  years  attempted  to  lead 
Poland  into  a  joint  war  upon  the  Soviet  Union. 

Government  Moves  to  London.  After  the 
defeat  and  capitulation  of  France,  the  government 
in  exile  moved  at  the  end  of  June,  1940,  to  London. 
An  Anglo-Polish  military  convention,  signed  Au- 
gust 5,  confirmed  the  alliance  concluded  in  1939 
and  the  decision  of  both  governments  to  continue 
the  struggle  until  victory  was  won.  Under  the  ac- 
cord, British  credits  and  arms  were  supplied  to 
enable  the  reorganization  of  the  Polish  armed 
forces  as  an  independent  force  under  its  own  offi- 
cers, who  in  turn  were  responsible  to  the  British 
high  command.  According  to  a  statement  by  the 
British  Under-Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs  in 
the  House  of  Commons  on  August  21,  the  Polish 
Government  considered  itself  at  war  with  both 
Germany  and  Russia  It  did  not  declare  war  on 
Italy  but  with  the  consent  of  their  government, 
Polish  troops  participated  in  hostilities  against  the 
Italians  in  Africa  and  Greece  later  in  the  year. 
Another  Polish  force  was  assigned  to  guard  a 
sector  of  the  Scottish  coast  against  the  threatened 
German  invasion. 

The  Polish  and  Czecho-Slovak  governments  in 
exile  on  November  11  concluded  an  agreement  for 
a  close  postwar  political  and  economic  association 
as  the  basis  of  a  democratic  "new  deal"  for  eastern 
Europe.  See  CZECHOSLOVAKIA  under  History. 

Government- General  of  Poland.  The  Gov- 
ernment-General was  constituted  Oct.  25, 1939,  un- 
der Hitler's  decree  of  October  11  appointing  Dr. 
Hans  Frank,  Reich  Commissioner  of  Justice,  as 
Governor-General.  While  administered  and  con- 
trolled by  the  Germans,  it  was  not  a  part  of  the 
German  Reich.  The  Government-General  was  di- 
vided into  four  administrative  districts  of  Cracow, 
Radom,  Warsaw,  and  Lublin,  and  these  in  turn 
were  subdivided  into  10  provincial  districts.  All  the 
districts  were  placed  in  charge  of  German  ap- 
pointees of  the  Governor-General.  In  the  munici- 
palities, Polish  mayors  acceptable  to  the  German 
district  leaders  were  permitted  to  retain  office. 

According  to  Governor-General  Frank,  the  pop- 
ulation of  the  Government-General  in  March,  1940, 
was  14,500,000,  including  12,000,000  Poles,  2,000  - 
000  Jews,  400,000  Ukrainians,  and  about  60,000 
Germans.  He  gave  populations  of  the  chief  cities 
as  follows:  Warsaw,  about  1,800,000;  Cracow, 
300,000;  Czestochowa,  140,000;.  Lublin,  140,000! 
The  Jews  were  concentrated  mainly  in  a  reserva- 
tion south  of  Lublin.  Their  numbers  were  added 
to  during  the  year  by  further  expulsions  of  Jews 
from  Vienna,  East  Prussia,  Germany  proper,  and 
the  German  provinces  annexed  from  Poland. 


The  Annexed  Province!.  In  the  Polish  prov- 
inces annexed  as  an  integral  part  of  Germany,  the 
National  Socialist  system  of  government  prevail- 
ing throughout  the  Reich  was  placed  in  effect.  On 
Feb.  1,  1940,  Chancellor  Hitler  announced  that  he 
would  appoint  one  new  Reichstag  member  for  ev- 
ery 6000  Germans  over  the  age  of  20  in  the  in- 
corporated provinces. 

German  methods.  The  policies  of  the  German 
conquerors  in  Poland,  described  in  the  1939  YEAR 
BOOK,  p.  627,  were  extended  during  1940.  The  ob- 
jective of  the  Reich  Government  in  the  annexed 
provinces  was  set  forth  by  Dr.  Robert  Ley,  Leader 
of  the  German  Labor  Front,  in  a  speech  to  a  Ger- 
man audience  at  Lodz  in  January,  1940. 

"You  must  remain  hard,"  he  was  quoted  as  say- 
ing. "Then  the  wish  of  the  Fuehrer  will  be  ful- 
filled, that  millions  of  young  Germans  will  grow 
up  here ;  that  in  50  years  this  will  be  a  flourishing 
German  farmland  in  which  there  will  not  be  a 
single  Pole  or  Jew." 

The  Polish  Government  charged  that  1,200,000 
Poles  were  forcibly  deported  from  the  annexed 
provinces  to  the  Government-General  of  Poland  up 
to  Dec.  31,  1939,  and  that  the  eviction  of  over  a 
million  more  followed  during  1940.  Still  other 
Poles  in  the  annexed  provinces  were  drafted  for 
labor  service  in  Germany  proper.  A  Berlin  decree 
of  Feb.  21,  1940,  authorized  the  government  to 
confiscate  all  farm  lands  and  all  goods  in  German 
Poland  not  in  the  possession  of  Germans  on  Sept. 
1,  1939.  The  lands,  businesses,  and  properties  taken 
from  evicted  Poles  were  reported  to  have  been 
sold  by  the  German  Government  on  a  40-year-pay- 
ment  plan  to  more  than  one  million  Germans  set- 
tled in  the  annexed  provinces  from  Soviet  Poland, 
the  Government-General  of  Poland,  the  Baltic 
States  (Latvia,  Estonia,  and  Lithuania),  and  Ger- 
many proper. 

The  methods  employed  by  the  Germans  in  their 
mass  expulsion  of  Poles  from  the  annexed  prov- 
inces and  in  administering  the  Government-General 
of  Poland  were  described  as  follows  in  a  joint  dec- 
laration of  the  British,  French,  and  Polish  Gov- 
ernments issued  in  London  Apr.  17,  1940: 

Wholesale  executions,  deportations  in  circumstances  of 
most  ruthless  barbarity  of  the  Polish  population  .  .  .  set- 
tlement of  German  population  in  Polish  territory  transfer 
of  property  belonging  to  the  Poles  to  these  Germans  .  . 
confiscation  of  State  and  private  property,  deportation  and 
forced  labor  in  Germany  of  young  Polish  men  and  women, 
destruction  and  pillage  of  historical  and  artistic  monu- 
ments, closing  of  churches  and  persecution  of  religion 
clearly  reveal  a  policy  deliberately  aiming  at  destruction 
of  the  Polish  nation  ... 

This  conduct  is  in  flagrant  violation  of  the  law*  of  war, 
and  His  Majesty's  Government  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
the  French  Government,  and  Polish  Government  desire  to 
make  formal  and  public  protest  to  the  conscience  of  the 
world  against  the  action  of  the  German  Government  and 
of  its  agents. 

They  reaffirm  the  responsibility  of  Germany  for  these 
crimes  and  their  determination  to  right  the  wrongs  thus 
inflicted  on  the  Polish  people. 

These  charges  were  elaborated  in  a  Polish  White 
Book,  entitled  The  German  Effort  to  Destroy  the 
Polish  Nation,  issued  by  the'  Polish  Government- 
in-Exile  in  March,  1940.  The  allegations  were  flat- 
ly denied  by  Governor-General  Frank  in  a  press 
interview  in  Berlin  in  April  (see  Facts  in  Review, 
Apr.  22,  1940,  p.  154  f .,  published  by  the  German 
Library  of  Information,  New  York).  But  the  Pol- 
ish charges  were  supported  by  a  memorandum  pre- 
sented to  the  Pope  by  Cardinal  Hlond,  Primate  of 
Poland,  and  made  public  by  the  Vatican  on  Jan.  28, 
1940  (see  New  York  Times,  Jan.  29-30,  1940,  for 
text).  Statements  from  other  neutral  sources,  espe- 


POLAND 


605 


POLAND 


daily  from  foreign  correspondents  in  Berlin,  tend- 
ed to  substantiate  the  Polish  accusations  in  many 
respects. 

Nazi  Objectives  in  Annexed  Provinces.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Polish  Government,  the  Hlond  re- 
port, and  other  sources,  Hitler's  program  called 
for  complete  and  rapid  Germanizing  of  the  an- 
nexed provinces  through  mass  deportation  or  ex- 
termination of  those  Polish  elements  most  likely 
to  preserve  and  propagate  Polish  nationalism  and 
culture.  These  Poles  were  being  replaced  with 
Germans  who  received  extensive  State  aid  in  es- 
tablishing themselves  on  Polish  soil  Poles  permit- 
ted to  remain  in  the  annexed  provinces  were  mainly 
of  the  peasant  class  and  they  were  subjected  to 
forced  Germanization.  They  were  not  permitted  to 
own  land,  industries,  immovable  property,  or  com- 
mercial undertakings.  Their  children  were  com- 
pelled to  attend  German  schools  and  join  Hitler 
Youth  organizations.  The  Polish  language  was  for- 
bidden in  public  and  actively  discouraged  in  private. 

Many  important  Polish  industries  in  the  Gov- 
ernment-General of  Poland  were  transferred  to 
Germans  and  moved  to  the  annexed  provinces,  it 
was  charged.  To  develop  trade  between  Germany 
proper  and  the  annexed  provinces,  the  Reich  Gov- 
ernment in  April  organized  a  large  company 
(Handelsaufbau  Ost  G.m  B.H  ),  which  established 
branches  in  the  chief  cities  of  the  new  provinces. 
It  was  announced  that  the  great  German  network 
of  super  highways  would  be  extended  to  the  prin- 
cipal centers  of  these  provinces  and  of  the  Polish 
Government-General. 

Policy  in  Government-General.  In  the  Gov- 
ernment-General, German  policy  appeared  to  aim 
at  the  repression  of  Polish  national  consciousness 
and  limited  Germanization  of  Poles  to  permit  the 
economic  exploitation  of  the  Polish  and  Jewish 
masses  by  Germans,  aided  by  a  new  pro-German 
Polish  administrative  class,  on  behalf  of  the  Nazi 
party  and  the  Reich.  According  to  Governor-Gen- 
eral Frank,  progress  was  made  during  1940  in  re- 
habilitating Polish  workers  and  peasants,  reviving 
industry,  increasing  agricultural  and  other  produc- 
tion, restoring  and  improving  the  transportation 
system,  extending  education,  eliminating  disease 
and  hunger,  etc.  The  two  former  presidents  of  the 
Polish  State  Bank  were  appointed  presidents  of  a 
new  Central  Bank,  established  in  Cracow,  that  was 
authorized  to  issue  bank  notes  to  serve  as  the  sole 
currency  in  the  Government-General. 

The  other  side  to  the  picture  was  indicated  by 
various  measures  reported  to  have  been  introduced 
in  the  Government-General  during  the  year.  They 
included  the  confiscation  of  all  radio  sets  owned  by 
Poles ;  extension  of  labor  service  conscription  for 
all  Polish  youths  between  14  and  18 ;  introduction 
of  "Jim  Crow"  trolley  cars,  with  Poles  and  Jews 
forbidden  to  ride  in  compartments  reserved  for 
Germans;  a  food  control  system  requiring  Polish 
peasants  to  turn  ^over  part  of  their  production  to 
German  authorities  and  requiring  licenses  for  all 
grain  sales;  large-scale  drafting  of  able-bodied 
adult  Poles  for  labor  service  in  the  Reich;  restric- 
tion of  Polish  consumption  of  commodities  needed 
for  the  German  war  effort,  especially  through  a 
petroleum  monopoly;  greatly  increased  exploita- 
tion of  Polish  forests,  mines,  and  other  natural 
resources  for  German  use;  the  expulsion  of  all 
foreigners  except  a  few  Italians  from  the  Govern- 
ment-General;  the  establishment  of  various  Ger- 
man-language schools  in  purely  Polish-speaking 
districts. 

In  the  Government-General,  as  in  the  annexed 


provinces,  continued  executions  and  persecutions  of 
educated  Poles  were  reported.  Polish  universities 
remained  closed  or  destroyed  and  their  equipment 
was  said  to  have  been  sent  to  Germany.  Dr.  Arthur 
Seyss-Inquart,  Deputy  Governor  of  the  Govern- 
ment-General, admitted  to  correspondents  in  Berlin 
on  Jan.  31,  1940,  that  some  Polish  cultural  institu- 
tions remained  closed  to  prevent  their  becoming 
"centers  of  subversion."  Germans  arriving  in  Ber- 
lin from  the  Government-General  during  the  win- 
ter of  1939-40  reported  that  conditions  were  ter- 
rible as  a  result  of  war  devastation,  the  continued 
German-Polish  racial  conflict,  and  the  near-famine 
existing  during  a  period  of  intense  cold. 

During  the  winter  American  Red  Cross  aid  for 
suffering  Poles  and  Jews  was  restricted  by  the  re- 
fusal of  the  German  authorities  to  permit  Ameri- 
can supervision  of  the  distribution  of  clothing, 
food,  and  medicines  except  in  the  district  around 
Warsaw.  In  March,  however,  an  agreement  was 
reached  between  the  American  Red  Cross  and  the 
German  Government  under  which  German  authori- 
ties extended  full  co-operation  in  arranging  for 
distribution  of  relief  supplies  through  Polish  and 
Jewish  channels  in  the  occupied  regions. 

Situation  in  Russian  Poland.  Comparatively 
little  reliable  news  of  developments  in  the  Soviet- 
annexed  territories  escaped  the  censorship  during 
1940.  In  general  it  appeared  that  the  sovietization 
of  these  territories  described  in  the  1939  YEAR 
BOOK,  p.  628,  proceeded  steadily,  but  that  the  So- 
viet Government  avoided  the  extreme  measures  re- 
sorted to  by  the  Germans  in  Western  Poland  The 
report  of  Cardinal  Hlond,  cited  above,  stated  that 
in  general  conditions  were  better  in  Soviet  Poland 
than  in  the  German  sector.  Another  report  issued 
by  Cardinal  Hlond  in  Rome  on  Mar.  16,  1940,  said 
that  while  the  Russians  avoided  massacres  and 
other  "barbaric  methods,"  they  banned  religion 
from  the  schools,  taught  communism  and  atheism 
to  Polish  youth,  reduced  the  Polish  clergy  to  ab- 
ject poverty,  and  starved  the  masses  into  accept- 
ance of  communism.  He  asserted  that  the  Polish 
people  sought  to  defend  the  clergy  and  the  Church 
by  demonstrating  against  the  Soviet  authorities 
and  refusing  to  send  their  children  to  Soviet 
schools. 

Reports  attributed  to  Polish  and  Ukrainian  emi- 
gre^ reaching  Rumania  from  Soviet  Poland  stated 
that  disorders  had  occurred  in  Lwpw  between  So- 
viet authorities  and  Ukrainian  nationalists  in  Jan- 
uary. The  Ukrainian  nationalist  movement  was 
said  to  be  receiving  undercover  German  support. 
Later  in  the  spring  reports  of  similar  origin  indi- 
cated that  there  was  a  serious  food  shortage  in 
Soviet  Poland  and  that  Soviet  authorities  were 
deporting  many  Poles  and  Ukrainians,  particularly 
those  living  along  the  German  and  Rumanian  fron- 
tier districts,  into  Russia  proper.  Polish  officials  in 
New  York  estimated  deportations  during  the  first 
year  of  the  Russian  occupation  at  500,000.  There 
was  also  carried  out  an  exchange  of  about  130,000 
German-speaking  residents  of  the  Soviet-annexed 
Polish  territories  for  an  equal  number  of  Ukrain- 
ians and  White  Russians  in  German  Poland.  The 
exchange  was  provided  for  by  a  Soviet-German 
agreement  signed  Nov.  4,  1939,  and  was  completed 
in  the  early  spring  of  1940. 

Russian  Poland  participated  in  the  election  of 
deputies  to  the  Supreme  Soviet  of  the  U  S.S.R. 
and  to  the  Supreme  Soviets  of  the  Ukrainian  and 
White  Russian  Republics  on  Mar.  24,  1940. 

See  EDUCATION;  JEWS;  LABOR  CONDITIONS; 
REPARATIONS  AND  WAR  DEBTS  ;  WAR  RELIEF. 


POLAR  RESEARCH 


606 


POLO 


POLAR  RESEARCH.  Antarctic.  Public  in- 
terest during  1940  was  principally  directed  to  the 
progress  of  the  Third  Byrd  Antarctic  Expedition. 
This  ambitious  undertaking,  financed  in  part  by 
the  U.S.  Government,  and  commanded  by  Rear 
Admiral  Richard  £.  Byrd,  was  organized  for  the 
purpose  of  expanding  man's  knowledge  of  the  vast 
southern  frigid  zone.  It  comprised  2  ships,  1 
naval  aircraft,  125  enlisted  men,  4  naval  officers 
subordinate  to  Byrd,  and  several  scientific  men. 
Admiral  Byrd  sailed  from  Panama  on  the  North 
Star,  a  motor-driven  vessel  of  the  Coast  Guard,  in 
November,  1939,  and  reached  Little  America  on 
the  following  January  11.  He  there  transferred  on 
January  19  to  the  expedition's  sister  ship,  the  brig- 
antine  Bear,  where  he  made  his  headquarters  there- 
after. 

Ploughing  through  a  limitless  field  of  ice  and 
snow,  and  in  the  face  of  gales  and  blizzards,  the 
Bear  nosed  its  way  over  a  1200-mile  zigzag  course 
to  Lat.  70  degrees  43  minutes  S.,  Long.  108  degrees 
25  minutes  W.  by  February  21. 

Here  open  water  suitable  for  a  take-off  of  the 
plane  was  found  and  Admiral  Byrd  made  three 
notable  exploratory  flights,  on  February  21,  22, 
and  26.  The  crew  of  the  twin-motored  seaplane 
consisted  of  the  admiral,  who  served  as  naviga- 
tor; Aviation  Machinist's  Mate  Ashley  C.  Snow, 
U.S.N.,  as  pilot ;  and  Radioman  First  Class  Earle 
B.  Perce,  U.S.N.,  as  co-pilot  They  made  extensive 
photographic  records  of  the  long-sought  south  Pa- 
cific coast  of  Antarctica  and  discovered  a  great 
ice-locked  sea  some  40  or  more  miles  wide,  a  series 


York  that  unfavorable  weather  had  prevented  his 
flying  over  the  South  Pole,  and  imparted  the  scien- 
tific information  that  the  South  Pole  magnetic 
point  had  shifted  westward  since  his  flights  over 
it  in  1933-35. 

Meanwhile  other  members  of  the  expedition  re- 
mained in  the  Antarctic,  33  at  West  Base  near  Lit- 
tle America,  and  26  at  East  Base,  1200  miles  away 
in  Palmer  Land,  the  pivot  from  which  the  admiral 
had  conducted  his  1940  aerial  explorations.  On 
June  13  the  House  of  Representatives  in  Washing- 
ton refused  to  appropriate  $250,000  for  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  expedition.  Five  days  later  it  voted 
a  sum  of  $171,000  to  defray  the  cost  of  the  return 
voyage  to  the  United  States. 

POLIOMYELITIS.  See  CHILDREN'S  BU- 
REAU; PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE. 

POLISH  NATIONAL  CATHOLIC 
CHURCH  OF  AMERICA.  See  RELIGIOUS  OR- 
GANIZATIONS. 

POLITICAL  ACTIVITIES  LEGISLA- 
TION. See  CIVIL  SERVICE  COMMISSION,  U.S.; 
INDIANA,  NEW  JERSEY,  NEW  YORK  under  History. 

POLITICAL  CAMPAIGNS,  PARTIES, 
AND  PLATFORMS.  See  ELECTIONS,  U.S.  NA- 
TIONAL. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY.  Subjects  in  the 
field  of  applied  economics  are  treated  in  this  vol- 
ume under  the  following  heads:  BANKS  AND 
BANKING;  BUSINESS  REVIEW;  CO-OPERATIVE 
MOVEMENT;  FINANCIAL  REVIEW;  HOUSING;  LA- 
BOR CONDITIONS;  LABOR  LEGISLATION.  See  also 
such  articles  as  AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR  ; 


INCREASE  IN  POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED    STATES,  1930  TO  1940 


of  mountain  peaks  that  rose  as  high  as  7500  ft., 
and  a  vast  wind-swept  elevated  plateau  2000  or  3000 
ft  hiph.  In  all,  the  expedition  succeeded  in  dis- 
covering and  charting  900  miles  of  previously  un- 
known coastline  and  150,000  square  miles  of  ter- 
ritory. 

In  compliance  with  Navy  Department  orders 
from  Washington,  Admiral  Byrd  returned  to  the 
United  States  on  May  14.  He  announced  in  New 


CONGRESS  OP  INDUSTRIAL  ORGANIZATIONS;  SO- 
CIALISM; SOCIAL  SECURITY  BOARD;  RELIEF.  See 
also  the  article  on  AGRICULTURE  and  the  various 
crops,  industries,  minerals,  public  utilities,  etc. 
Books  on  political  science  and  economics  for  the 
general  reader  are  to  be  found  listed  in  the  article 
LITERATURE,  ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN,  under  Eco- 
nomics and  Politics. 
POLO.  The  retirement  of  Thomas  Hitchcock 


PONAPB 


607 


POPULATION  OP  THE  U.  S. 


Jr.,  since  1921  considered,  in  most  years,  to  be  the 
top  player  of  the  game,  and  the  crowning  of  a  new 
self-made  king  were  two  important  headlines  in 
the  1940  history  of  polo.  Hitchcock's  withdrawal 
left  only  two  active  players  holding  the  top  rating 
of  ten  goals,  Stewart  Iglehart  and  Cecil  Smith. 
When  trie  season  ended,  it  was  the  general  con- 
sensus that  Smithy  Texas  cowboy— was  the 
greatest  polo  player  in  America  at  the  present  time. 

The  Aknusti  quartet  organized  by  Elbridge  T. 
Gerry  and  his  brother,  Robert  L.  Gerry  Jr.,  cap- 
tured the  major  team  honors  of  the  sport.  With 
the  veteran,  Gerard  S.  Smith,  as  No.  1  and  a  new- 
comer just  out  of  Yale,  Alan  Corey  Jr.,  as  back, 
the  aggregation  played  spectacularly  through  the 
field  of  six  teams  entered  in  the  national  open  and 
defeated  Iglehart's  Great  Neck  team,  S  to  4,  in  the 
final. 

However,  in  the  following  week,  Great  Neck 
reversed  the  tables  by  outplaying  Aknusti  in  the 
final  for  the  Monty  Waterbury  Memorial  Cup,  the 
most  sought-after  handicap  prize  of  the  year.  The 
Great  Neck  team  comprised  George  H.  Mead  Jr , 
J.  Peter  Grace  Jr.,  Iglehart,  and  Robert  E  Straw- 
bridge  Jr.,  riding  in  that  order. 

Since  the  two  outstanding  teams  had  divided  the 
major  titles  of  the  year,  a  third  game  was  arranged 
for  the  new  Polo  Writers  Cup,  and  on  this  oc- 
casion, Aknusti,  with  Charles  von  Stade  substitut- 
ing for  Corey,  outplayed  Great  Neck  by  a  single 
goal. 

The  intercircuit  tournament  was  staged  at  Cleve- 
land, O.,  with  representative  teams  ^  from  all  the 
circuits  except  California.  Blue  Hill  Farms  of 
Philadelphia  was  supreme  in  this  event  and  a 
Cleveland  team  from  Gates  Mills  captured  the  12- 
goal  championship. 

In  the  intercollegiate  competition,  held  at  Har- 
vard's new  field,  Yale  took  top  honors;  and  the 
national  20-goal  championship  went  to  another 
Great  Neck  team  on  which  Iglehart  starred. 

National  indoor  championships  were  contested  in 
New  York,  with  Robert  Eisner's  Winmont  Farms 
team  capturing  the  open,  Chicago's  124th  Field  Ar- 
tillery the  junior,  Blue  Hill  Farms  the  Sherman 
Memorial,  Princeton  the  college  title,  and  Lawrence 
School  the  inter-scholastic. 

PONAPE.  See  JAPANESE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS. 

PONDICHERY.  See  FRENCH  INDIA. 

POOR-AID.  See  RELIEF. 

POPULAR  FRONT.  See  CHILE. 

POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES.  The  returns  of  the  Sixteenth  Decennial 
Census  of  the  United  States  (Apr.  1,  1940)  are 
shown  in  the  accompanying  tables,  covering  the 
population  of  the  United  States,  the  States  and 
geographical  divisions,  cities  of  5000  or  more  popu- 
lation, and  cities  of  100,000  or  more.  Population 
trends  revealed  by  the  census  were  summarized  by 
Director  William  Lane  Austin  of  the  Bureau  of 
the  Census  in  part  as  follows. 

The  rate  of  increase  in  the  decade  1930-40  is 
less  than  one-half  that  shown  in  any  previous  dec- 
ade since  the  first  census  in  1790.  It  is  clear  that  if 
the  present  trends  continue,  the  United  States  is 
faced  with  a  stationary  or  even  a  declining  popula- 
tion in  about  30  or  40  years.  The  slowing  down  in 
population  growth  can  be  laid  to  the  falling  birth- 
rate and  the  virtual  stoppage  of  immigration  from 
abroad.  During  the  past  decade,  all  of  the  increase 
in  population  represents  the  natural  increase — the 
excess  of  births  over  deaths.  In  fact,  for  the  first 
time  in  the  history  of  this  nation,  the  number  of 
emigrants  during  an  intercensal  period  was  greater 


POPULATION  OF  CITIES  OF  100.000  OR  MORE, 

ARRANGED  ACCORDING  TO  RANK 

[A  minus  sign  (-)  dem>tts  dtcrxHc} 


PolHdoKo* 

Inertase 

7  Gain 

Ct/y 

1940 

1930 

1930-40  j 

l$30-40 

New  York.  N.  Y   ... 

7,454,995    6,930,446 
3,396,808    3.376.438 

524,549 
20,370 

76 
06 

Philadelphia.  Pa    .'   . 
Detroit,  Mich.     .  . 
Los  Angeles,  Calif 
Cleveland,  Ohio 
Baltimore,  Md     . 

1,931,334 
1,623,452 
1,504,277 
878,336 
859,100 

1,950,961 
1568662 
1,238,048 
900,429 
804874 

-19,627 
54,790 
266,229 
-22,093 
54226 

-10 
35 
215 
-2.5 
67 

St  Louis,  Mo. 
Boston,  Mass. 

.    816,048 
.    770,816 

821,960 
781,188 

-5,912 
-10,372 

-0.7 
-13 

Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Washington,  D  C 

.    671,659 
.    663,091 

669,817 
486,869 

1842 
176,222 

03 
362 

San  Francisco.  Calif. 

634,516 

634,194 

142 

Milwaukee,  Wis. 

.    587,472 

578,249 

9,223 

1.6 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

575,901 

573,076 

2,825 

0  5 

New  Orleans,  La 

494,537 

458,762 

35,775 

78 

Minneapolis,  M  inn 
Cincinnati,  Ohio 

492,370 
455,610 

464,156 
451,160 

28.014 
4,450 

60 
1.0 

Newark,  N.  J    . 
Kansas  City,  Mo 

429,760 
.    399,178 

442,337 
399,746 

-12,577 
-568 

-28 
-01 

Indianapolis,  Ind 

386,972 

364,161 

22,811 

63 

Houston.  Texas. 

384,514 

292,152 

92,162 

31.5 

Seattle,  Wash 

368,302 

365,583 

2,719 

07 

Rochester,  N  Y.   . 

324,975 

328,132 

-3157 

-10 

Denver.  Colo 

322,412 

287,861 

34,551 

120 

Louisville,  Kv 
Columbus,  Onio 

.    319,077 
306,087 

307,745 
290,564 

11,332 
15,523 

37 
53 

Portland,  Oreg 

305,394 

301,815 

3,579 

12 

Atlanta.  Ga 

302,288 

270,366 

31,922 

11  8 

Oakland,  Calif.      . 

302,163 

284,063 

18,100 

64 

Jersey  City,  N.  J      . 
Dallas.  Texas 

.    301,178 
294,734 

316,715 
260,475 

-15,542 
34,2^9 

-49 
132 

Memphis,  Tenn 

292,942 

253,143 

39,799 

157 

St  Paul,  Minn 

287,736 

271,606 

16,130 

59 

Toledo,  Ohio 

282,349 

290,718 

-8,369 

-29 

Birmingham,  Ala 

267,583 

259,678 

7,905 

30 

San  Antonio.  Texas 
Providence,  K  I 

253,854 
253,504 

231,542 
252,981 

22,312 
523 

96 
02 

Akron,  Ohio 

244,791 

255,040 

-10,249 

-40 

Omaha,  Nebr. 

.    223,844 

214,006 

9,838 

46 

Dayton,  Ohio 

210,718 

200,982 

9,736 

48 

Syracuse,  NY 

205,967 

209,326 

-3,359 

-16 

Oklahoma  City.  Okla 

204,424 

185,389 

19,035 

103 

San  Diego,  Calif 

203,341 

147,995 

55,346 

374 

Worcester,  Mass. 

193,694 

195,311 

-1,617 

-08 

Richmond.  Va 
Fort  Worth,  Texas 

.    193,042 
.    177,662 

182,929 
163,447 

10,113 
14,215 

55 
8.7 

Jacksonville,  Fla. 

173,065 

129,549 

43,516 

336 

Miami,  Fla     . 

172,172 

110,637 

61,535 

556 

Youngstown,  Ohio. 
Nashville,  Tenn.  . 

167,720 
.    167,402 

170,002 
153,866 

-2,282 
13,536 

-13 
88 

Hartford,  Conn. 

.    166,267 

164,072 

2,195 

13 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich 

.    164,292 

168,592 

-4,300 

-26 

Long  Beach,  Calif.. 

164,271 

142,032 

22,239 

157 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

.    160,605 

162,655 

-2,050 

-1.3 

Des  Moines,  Iowa  . 

159,819 

142,559 

17,260 

121 

Flint.  Mich     .   .    . 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 
Springfield,  Mass. 
Bridgeport,  Conn. 
NorfoCVa. 

151,543 
149,934 
.    149,554 
147,121 
144,332 

156,492 
140,267 
149,900 
146,716 
129,710 

-4,949 
9,667 
-346 
405 
14,622 

-32 
69 
-02 
03 
11.3 

Yonkers,N  Y. 
Tulsa.Okla 

.    142,598 
142,157 

134,646 
141,258 

7,952 
899 

59 
06 

Scran  ton,  Pa  

.    140,404 

143,433 

-3,029 

-21 

Paterson,  N  J.  ... 
Albany,  N.  Y.. 

139,656 
130,577 

138,513 
127,412 

1,143 
3,165 

0.8 
2.5 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 
Trenton,  N.  J  

.    128,163 
124,697 

119,798 
123,356 

8,365 
1,341 

70 
1.1 

Spokane,  Wash.     .   . 

.    122,001 

115,514 

6,487 

56 

Kansas  City,  Kans 

.    121,458 

121,857 

-399 

-03 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 

118,410 

114,946 

3,464 

30 

Camden,N.  J  

117,536 

118,700 

-1,164 

-10 

Erie,  Pa.....  

116,955 

115,967 

988 

09 

Fall  River,  Mass.    .. 

115,428 

115,274 

154 

01 

Wichita,  Kans 

114,966 

111,110 

3,856 

35 

Wilmington,  Del. 
Gary,  Ind  

.    112,504 
111,719 

106,597 
100,426 

5,907 
11,293 

55 
112 

Knorville,  Tenn.  .  .  . 

111,580 

105,802 

5,778 

55 

Cambridge,  Mass..   . 

.    110,879 

113,643 

-2,764 

-24 

Reading,  Pa 
New  Bedford,  Mass 
Elizabeth,  N.  J  

110,568 
110,341 
109,912 

111,171 
112,597 
114,589 

-603 
-2,256 
-4,677 

-05 
-20 
-41 

Tacoma,  Wash..     .   . 

109,408 

106,817 

2,591 

24 

Canton,  Ohio  

108,401 

104,906 

3,4^5 

33 

Tampa,  Fla.     .     .  . 

108,391 

101,161 

7,210 

71 

Sacramento,  Calif. 
Peoria,  111  

105,958 
105,087 

93,750 
104,969 

12,208 
118 

130 
0.1 

Somerville,  Mass   . 

102,177 

103,908 

-1,711 

-17 

LowelLMass. 
South  Bend,  Ind. 
Duluth,  Minn. 

101,189 
101,268 
101,065 

100,234 
104,193 
101,461 

1,155 

-2,925 

12 
-28 
-04 

Charlotte  N.  C. 

100,899 

82,675 

18,224 

220 

Utica,N.V.:..V.' 

100,518 

101,740 

-1,222 

-1.2 

»  Leas  than  one-tenth  of  1  per  cent. 


POPULATION  OF  THE  U.  S. 


608 


POPULATION  OP  THE  U.  S. 


than  the  number  of  immigrants.  During  the  decade 
from  Apr.  1,  1930,  to  Apr.  1,  1940,  the  number  of 
persons  who  left  this  country  for  foreign  lands  ex- 
ceeded by  46.518  the  number  who  entered  the  Unit- 
ed States.  This  is  in  sharp  contrast  with  immigra- 
tion trends  between  1920  and  1930,  when  19  per 
cent  of  the  population  increase  of  17,064,426  per- 
sons during  that  decade  was  attributable  to  immi- 
gration. 

The  District  of  Columbia,  with  an  increase  of 
36.2  per  cent,  grew  faster  between  1930  and  1940 
than  any  of  the  States.  The  fastest  growing  State 
was  Florida,  with  an  increase  of  29.2  per  cent,  fol- 
lowed by  New  Mexico,  with  25.6  per  cent,  and 
California,  with  21.7  per  cent.  Six  States,  namely, 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  North  Dakota,  Oklahoma, 
South  Dakota,  and  Vermont,  lost  population  be- 
tween 1930  and  1940  (see  map,  page  606).  The 
first  five  of  these  States  ^are  located  in  the  Great 
Plains  and  constitute  a  tier  of  States  in  the  Dust 
Bowl  extending  from  Canada  to  Texas  In  no  pre- 
vious decade  have  more  than  three  States  lost  pop- 
ulation. 

There  were  several  changes  in  the  rank  of  the 


States  according  to  population  between  1930  and 
1940.  The  displacement  of  Texas  from  fifth  place 
by  California  was  the  only  change,  however,  in  the 
first  ten.  Florida  and  the  District  of  Columbia  both 
advanced  four  places,  and  Kansas  dropped  back 
five  places. 

Taking  the  States  in  large  groups,  it  may  be 
noted  that  all  of  the  Northern  States,  that  is,  the 
first  four  of  the  geographic  divisions  shown  on 
page  608,  which  had  nearly  60  per  cent  of  the  1930 
population,  show  only  about  one-third  of  the  in- 
crease between  1930  and  1940.  The  Southern  States, 
however,  comprising  the  next  three  geographic  di- 
visions as  shown  in  the  table,  which  had  less  than 
31  per  cent  of  the  1930  population,  show  nearly  43 
per  cent  of  the  increase ;  and  the  Western  States, 
comprising  the  Mountain  and  Pacific  Divisions, 
which  had  less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  1930  popu- 
lation, show  more  than  22  per  cent  of  the  increase. 

9n  Apr.  1,  1940,  there  were  37,987,989  persons 
living  in  the  92  cities  which  had  a  population  of 
100,000  or  more  on  that  date.  These  92  cities  had  a 
population  of  36,195,171  persons  in  1930,  showing 
an  increase  of  1,792,818  during  the  decade.  This 


POPULATION  FIGURES  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES,  BY  DIVISIONS  AND  STATES 
[A  mint*?  stgn  (— )  denotes  decrease  ] 


Pototlahon 

Increase 

Per  Cent  of  Increase 

Division  and  State 

1940 

1930 

1930-1940 

1930-1940 

1920-1930 

United  States  total 

131,669,275 

122,775,046 

8,894,229 

72 

161 

New  England. 

Maine 

847,226 

797,423 

49,803 

62 

38 

New  Hampshire 

491,524 

465,293 

26,231 

56 

50 

Vermont 

359,231 

359,611 

-380 

-01 

20 

Massachusetts 

4,316,721 

4,249,614 

67,107 

16 

103 

Rhode  Island 

713,146 

687,497 

25,849 

38 

137 

Connecticut 

1,709,242 

1,606,903 

102,339 

64 

164 

Middle  Atlantic 

New  York 

13,479,142 

12,588,066 

891,076 

71 

212 

New  Jersey 

4,160,165 

4,041,334 

118,831 

29 

281 

Pennsylvania 

9,900,180 

9,631,350 

268,830 

28 

105 

East  North  Central 

Ohio 

6,907,612 

6,646,697 

260,915 

39 

154 

Indiana 

3,427,796 

3,238,503 

189,293 

58 

105 

Illinois     . 

7,897,241 

7,630,654 

266,587 

35 

177 

Michigan    . 

5,256,106 

4,842,325 

413,781 

85 

320 

Wisconsin 

3,137,587 

2,939,006 

198,581 

68 

117 

West  North  Central 

Minnesota 

2,792,300 

2,563,953 

228,347 

89 

74 

Iowa  . 

2,538,268 

2,470,939 

67,329 

27 

28 

Missouri 

3,784,664 

3,629,367 

155,297 

43 

66 

North  Dakota 

641,935 

680,845 

-38,910 

-57 

53 

South  Dakota  . 

642,961 

692,849 

-49,888 

-72 

88 

Nebraska 

1,315,834 

1,377,963 

-62,129 

-45 

63 

Kansas. 

1,801,028 

1,880,999 

-79,971 

-43 

63 

South  Atlantic 

Delaware 

266,505 

238,380 

28,125 

11  8 

69 

Maryland 

1,821,244 

1,631,526 

189,718 

116 

125 

District  of  Columbia 

663,091 

486,869 

176,222 

362 

113 

Virginia 

2,677,773 

2,421,851 

255,922 

106 

49 

Went  Virginia       . 

1,901,974 

1,729,205 

172,769 

100 

181 

North  Carolina 

3,571,623 

3,170,276 

401,347 

127 

239 

South  Carolina 

1,899,804 

1,738,765 

161,039 

93 

33 

Georgia     .   . 
Florida 

3,123,723 
1,897,414 

2,908,506 
1,468,211 

215,217 
429,203 

74 
292 

04 
516 

East  South  Central 

Kentucky 
Tennessee 

2,845,627 
2,915,841 

2,614,589 
2,616,556 

231,038 
299,285 

88 
114 

82 
119 

Alabama 

2,832,961 

2,646,248 

186,713 

71 

127 

Mississippi 
West  South  Central 

2,183,796 

2,009,821 

173,975 

87 

122 

Arkansas  .   . 

1,949,187 

1,854,482 

94,905 

51 

58 

Louisiana 

2,363,880 

2,101,593 

262,287 

125 

169 

Oklahoma.   . 
Texas    ... 

2,136,414 
6,414,824 

2,3%,040 
5,824,715 

-59,606 
590,109 

-25 
101 

181 
249 

Mountain- 

Montana 

5  59,456 

537,606 

21,850 

41 

-21 

Idaho     .... 

524,873 

445,032 

79,841 

17,9 

30 

Wyoming    . 
Colorado  . 

250,742 
1,123,296 

225,565 
1,035791 

25,177 
87,505 

112 
84 

160 
102 

New  Mexico 

511,818 

'423317 

108,501 

25.6 

175 

Arizona.  .  . 

499,261 

435.573 

63,688 

146 

303 

Utah  
Nevada...   . 

550,310 
.   .               110,247 

507,847 
91,058 

42,463 
19,189 

84 
211 

130 
176 

Pacific: 

Washington.                   .     . 
Oregon 
California  

1,736,191 
..    .            1,089,684 
6,907,387 

1,563,396 
953,786 
5,677,251 

172,795 
135,898 
1,230,136 

11.1 
142 
217 

152 
21  8 
657 

POPULATION  OF  THE  U.  8.          609         POPULATION  OF  THE  U.  8. 

POPULATION  OF  CITIES  AND  OTHER  URBAN  PLACES  OF  5000  OR  MORE,  BY  STATES:  1940  AND  1930 

[Sixteenth  Census  of  ike  United  States] 


Place 

1940 

1930 

Place 

1940 

1930 

Place 

1940 

1930 

ALABAMA 

CALIFORNIA—  Con. 

COLORADO—  Con. 

Alexander  City  

6640 

4519 

El  Centro                . 

10.017 

8434 

Andalusia  

6,886 

5!l54 

El  Cerrito  

6,137 

3,870 

Durango 

\  8R7 

cinn 

Anniston  

25,523 

22,345 

Eureka 

17,055 

15,752 

Englewood 

9  ftftT) 

7*98(1 

Bessemer 

22,826 

20,721 

Fresno 

60,685 

52,513 

Fort  Collins    

12!251 

11*489 

Birmingham      .  .  .  . 
Cullman  
Decatur.  .  . 

267,583 
5,074 
16,604 

259,678 
2,786 
15,593 

Fullerton 
Gardena  •  .    ... 
Glendale 

10,442 
5,909 
82582 

10,860 
6*2,736 

Grand  Junction. 
Greeley            .   .     . 
La  Junta  ,   . 

12,479 
15,995 

101247 
12203 
7  io« 

Dothan.  .. 
Eufaula  .. 

17,194 
6,269 

16,046 
5,208 

Grass  Valley 
Hanford              .   . 

5701 
8,234 

3,817 
7,028 

Longmont 
Loveland    . 

6*145 

r,17J 

f$S 

Fairfield    .. 

11,703 

11,059 

Hawthorne 

8,263 

6,596 

Pueblo 

52  162 

Florence 
Gadsden 
Greenville 
Homewood   . 

15,043 
36,975 
5,075 
7,397 

11,729 
24,042 
3,985 
6,103 

Hayward 
Hermosa  Beach 
Huntington  Park 
Inglewood 

6,736 
7,197 
28,648 
30,114 

5530 
4,796 
24,591 
19,480 

Sterling 
Trinidad 
Walsenburg 

fall 
13,223 
5,855 

11*732 
5,503 

Huntsville 
Jasper 
Lanett  . 
Mobile 
Montgomery 
Opelika 
Phenix  City 
Prichard 
Selma 
Sheffield 
Sylacauga 
Talladega 
Tarrant  City 
Troy 
Tuscaloosa 
Tuscumbia 

ARIZONA 
Bisbee 
Douglas 
Flagstaff 
Globe 
Mesa 
Nogalcs 
Phoenix 
Prescott 
Tucson 
Yuma 

13,050 

6,847 
6,141 
78,720 
78,084 
8,487 
15,351 
6,084 
19,834 
7,933 
6,269 
9,298 
6,831 
7,055 
27,493 
5,515 

5,853 
8,623 
5,080 
6,141 
7,224 
5,135 
65,414 
6,018 
36,818 

11,554 
5,313 
5,204 
68,202 
66,079 
6,156 
13,862 
4,580 
18,012 
6,221 
4,115 
7,596 
7,341 
6,814 
20,659 
4,533 

8,023 
9,828 
3,891 
7,157 
3,711 
6,006 
48,118 
5,517 
32,506 
4,892 

Lodi 
Long  Beach 
Los  Angeles 
Lynwood 
Madera 
Manhattan  Beach 
Martinez 
Marysville 
Maywood 
Merced 
Modesto 
Monrovia 
Montebello 
Monterey 
Monterey  Park 
Napa 
National  City 
Oakland 
Ontario 
Orange 
Oxnard 
Pacific  Grove 
Palo  Alto 
Pasadena 
Petaluma 
Piedmont 
Pittsburg 
Pomona 
Porterville 

11,079 
164,271 
1,504,277 
10,982 
6,457 
6,398 
7,381 
6,646 
10,731 
10,135 
16,379 
12,807 
8,016 
10,084 
8,531 
7,740 
10,344 
302,163 
14,197 
7,901 
8,519 
6,249 
16,774 
81,864 
8,034 
9,866 
9,520 
23539 
6,270 

6,788 
142,032 
1,238,048 
7,323 
4,665 
1,891 
6,569 
5,763 
6,794 
7,066 
13,842 
10,890 
5,498 
9,141 
6,406 
6,437 
7.301 
284,063 
13,583 
8,066 
6,285 
5,558 
13,652 
76,086 
8,245 
9,333 
9,610 
20,804 
5,303 

CONNECTICUT 
Ansoma 
Bridgeport 
Bristol 
Danbury  . 
Derby 
East  Hartford  town  b 
Hartford 
Menden 
Middletown 
Naugatuck 
New  Britain 
New  Haven 
New  London 
Norwalk 
Norwich 
Putnam 
Rockville 
Shelton 
Southington 
Stamford.            ..   . 
Stratford  town  * 
Torrmgton 
Wallmgford 
Waterbury 
West  Hartford  town  ». 
West  Haven  town  6  . 
Willimantic          .   .. 
Winsted            

19,210 
147,121 
30,167 
22,339 
10,287 
18,615 
166,267 
39,494 
26,495 
15,388 
68,685 
160,605 
30,456 
39,849 
23,652 
7,775 
7,572 
10,971 
5,088 
47,938 
22,580 
26,988 
11,425 
99,314 
33,776 
30,021 
12,101 
7674 

19,898 
146,716 
28,451 
22,261 
10,788 
17,125 
164,072 

m 

14,315 
68,128 
162,655 
29,640 
36,019 
23,021 
7,318 
7,445 
10,113 
5,125 
46,346 
19,212 
26,040 
11,170 
99,902 
24,941 
25,808 
12,102 
7883 

ARKANSAS 
Arkadelphia 

5,078 

3,380 

Redding 
Redlands 

8,109 
14,324 

4,188 
14,177 

•  ,vif  •* 

Batesville 

5,267 

4,484 

Redondo  Beach 

13,092 

9,347 

DELAWARE 

Blytheville 
Camden 

10,652 
8,975 

10,098 
7,273 

Redwood  City 
Richmond 

12,453 
23,642 

8,962 
20,093 

Dover 
Wilmington 

5,517 
112,504 

4,800 
106,597 

Conway 

5,782 

5,534 

Riverside 

34,696 

29,696 

El  Dorado 

15,858 

16,421 

Roseville 

6,653 

6,425 

DISTRICT  01  COLUMBL 

i 

Fayetteville 

8,212 

7,394 

Sacramento 

105,958 

93,750 

Washington  . 

663,091 

486,869 

Forrest  City 

5,699 

4,594 

Salinas 

11,586 

10,263 

Fort  Smith     .  . 

36,584 

31,429 

San  Anselmo 

5,790 

4,650 

FLORIDA 

Helena 

8,546 

8,316 

San  Bernardino 

43,646 

37,481 

Bartow.      .. 

6.158 

5,269 

Hope 

7,475 

6,008 

San  Bruno 

6,519 

3,610 

Bradenton 

7,444 

5,986 

Hot  Springs 
Jonesboro 
Little  Rock 

21,370 
11,729 
88,039 

20,238 
10,326 
81,679 

San  Buenaventura 
(Ventura) 
San  Diego 

13,264 
203,341 

11,603 
147,995 

Clearwater     .  . 
Coral  Gables 
Daytona  Beach 

10,136 
8,294 
22,584 

7,607 
5,697 
16,598 

Malvern 

5,290 

5,115 

San  Fernando 

9,094 

7,567 

De  Land 

7,041 

5,246 

North  Little  Rock 

21,137 

19,418 

San  Francisco 

634536 

634,394 

Fort  Lauderdale 

17,996 

8,666 

Paragpuld 

7,079 

5,966 

San  Gabriel 

11,867 

7,224 

Fort  Myers 

10,604 

Pine  Bluff 

21,290 

20,760 

San  Jose 

68,457 

57,651 

Fort  Pierce 

8,040 

4^803 

Russellville  .. 

5,927 

5,628 

San  Leandro 

14,601 

11,455 

Gainesville 

13,757 

10,465 

Stuttgart 
Texarkana  • 

5,628 
11,821 

4,927 
10,764 

San  Luis  Obispo 
San  Marino 

8,881 
8,175 

8,276 
3730 

Hollywood 
Jacksonville  • 

6,239 
173,065 

2,869 
129,549 

Van  Buren    . 

5,422 

5,182 

San  Mateo 

19,403 

13,444 

Key  West 

12,927 

12,831 

San  Rafael 

8,573 

8,022 

Lake  City 

5,836 

4,416 

CALIFORNIA 

Santa  Ana 

31,921 

30322 

Lakeland 

22,068 

18,554 

Alameda 

36,256 

35,033 

Santa  Barbara 

34,958 

33,613 

Lake  Wales 

5,024 

3,401 

Albany 
Alhambra 

11,493 
38,935 

8,569 
29,472 

Santa  Clara 
Santa  Cru/ 

6,650 
16,896 

6,302 
14,395 

Lake  Worth 
Mananna 

7,408 
5,079 

5,940 
3372 

Anaheim 

11,031 

10,995 

Santa  Maria 

8,522 

7057 

Miami 

172,172 

110,637 

Antioch  . 

5,106 

3,563 

Santa  Monica 

53,500 

37146 

Miami  Beach  .       .. 

28,012 

6,494 

Arcadia        .... 

9,122 

5,216 

Santa  Paula 

8,986 

7452 

Ocala 

8,986 

7,281 

Azusa             .... 
Bakersfield 

5,209 
29,252 

4,808 
26015 

Santa  Rosa 
South  Gate 

12,605 
26945 

10,636 
19,632 

Orlando 
Palatka 

36,736 
7,140 

27,330 
6,500 

Bell 
Belvedere  township6 
Berkeley 
Beverly  Hills 
Brawley      .   .. 
Burbank  . 
Burlingame    >  .       .  . 
Calexico  

11,264 
37,192 
85,547 
26,823 
11,718 
34,337 
15,940 
5,415 

7,884 
33023 
82,109 
17,429 
10,439 
16,662 
13,270 
6.299 

South  Pasadena 
South  San  Francisco 
Stockton 
Torrance 
Tulare 
Upland 
Vallem- 
Visalia 

14,356 
6,629 
54,714 
9,950 
8,259 
6,316 
20,072 
8,904 

13730 
6,193 
47963 
7271 
6,207 
4,713 
16,072 
7,263 

Panama  City 
Pensacola 
Plant  City 
River  Junction 
St  Augustine 
St  Petersburg 
Sanford 
Sarasota 

11,610 
37449 
7,491 
7,110 
12,090 
60812 
10,217 
11,141 

5,402 
31,579 
6,800 
5,624 
12,111 
40,425 
10,100 
8,398 

Chico  

9.287 

7,961 

8  937 

fi  1AA 

Tallahassee  

16  240 

10  700 

Chula  Vista  ..   . 
Coalings-  

5,138 
5,026 

2*851 

Watsonville 

Whitticr 
«»_^j|     j 

161ns 

8,344 
14,822 

C   C.A1 

Tampa             .     '.  '. 
West  Palm  Beach.  . 

108,'391 

10U61 

Colton  

9,686 

8,'014 

woodland 

1 

5,542 

Winter  Haven  

6^199 

7,'l30 

16,198 

12,516 

Corona  
Coronado  
Culver  City  
DalyCity  

8,764 
6,932 
8,976 
9,625 

7,018 
5,425 
5,669 
7838 

COLORADO 
Alamosa 
Boulder 
Canon  City 
Colorado  Springs    . 

5,613 
12,958 
6,690 
36,789 

5,107 
11,223 
5,938 
33237 

GEORGIA 
Albany     
Americus  
Athens  

19,055 

9,281 
20,650 

14,507 
8,760 
18.192 

POPULATION  O*  THE  U.  S. 


610 


POPULATION  OP  THE  U.  8. 


POPULATION  OF  CITIES  AND  OTHER  URBAN  PLACES  OF  5000  OR  MORE,  BY  STATESt  1940  AND 


Plvx 


1940 


1930 


Plwx 


1940 


1930 


Place 


1940 


1930 


GXOIOIA  —  Con. 
Atlanta  
Augusta  

302,288 
65,919 

270,366 
60,342 

f    -\A* 

ILLINOIS  —  Con. 
Forest  Park     .    .     . 
Freeport  
f^i^lw  >» 

14,840 
22366 

40  Q7£ 

14,555 
22,045 

•JO  01A 

INDIANA—  Con. 
Evansville  
Fort  Wayne  ... 

Frank  fnrt 

97,062 
118,410 

11  70A 

102,249 
114,946 
ITIQA 

BaTnbridge  
Brunswick  

6,352 
15,035 

f.  -)\A 

6,141 
14022 
5  052 

Glencoe  
Glen  Ellyn               • 

6,825 
8055 

6,295 
7,680 

Franklin  

6,264 
.    111719 

5,682 
100,426 

Carrollton    

6  141 

5*250 

Granite  City 

22,974 

25,130 

Goshen 

.      11,375 

10,397 

11  453 

11,625 

Greensburg  

6065 

5.702 

Ccdartown  .     . 

Q'OI  i 

£*£A4 

17  878 

16374 

Hammond          .... 

70184 

64560 

College  Park    .  . 

53,280 

43,131 

Herrin     '. 

9,352 

9,708 

Hartford  City     .    . 

.       6*946 

6*613 

Cordele       
Dalton         .     ... 
Decatur                 .    . 
District  1511 
Center  Hill*  .     . 
Douglas 
Dublin 
East  Point      .   . 
Elberton       ...     . 
Fitzgerald 
Gainesville 
Griffin 
Hapeville 
La  Grange 
Macon 
Marietta 
Milledgeville 
Moultnc           .   .. 
Newnan 
Rome 
Savannah 
Statesboro 
Thomaston 
Thomasville 
Tifton 
Toccoa 
Valdosta       .   . 
Waycross    .   . 

IDAHO 
Boise  City    . 
Burley 
Caldwell.      .. 
Coeur  d'Alene 
Idaho  Falls 
Lewiston 
Moscow 
Nam  pa 
Pocatello    . 
Twin  Falls    . 

ILLINOIS 

A  If  sin 

7,929 
10,448 
16,561 

12,155 
5,175 
7,814 
12,403 
6,188 
7,388 
10,243 
13,222 
5,059 
21,983 
57,865 
8,667 
6,778 
10,147 
7,182 
26,282 
95,996 
5,028 
6,396 
12,683 
5,228 
5,494 
15,595 
16,763 

26,130 
5,329 
7,272 
10,049 
15,024 
10,548 
6,014 
12,149 
18,133 
11,851 

31  255 

6,880 
8,160 
13,276 

8,460 
4,206 
6,681 
9,512 
4,650 
6,412 
8,624 
10,321 
4224 
20,131 
53,829 
7,638 
5,534 
8,027 
6,386 
21,843 
85,024 
3,996 
4,922 
11,733 
3,390 
4,602 
13,482 
15,510 

21,544 
3,826 
4,974 
8,297 
9,429 
9,403 
4,476 
8,206 
16,471 
8,787 

30  151 

Highland  Park 
Hinsdale       .  . 
Hoopeston    . 
Jacksonville     . 
Johnston  City 
Tohet 
Kankakee 
Kewanee 
La  Grange    . 
Lake  Forest 
LaSalle 
Lawrence\  ille 
Lincoln 
Litchneld 
Lombard 
Macomb 
Madison 
Marion 
Mattoon 
Maywood 
MelroBe  Park 
Metropolis 
Molme 
Monmouth 
Morris 
Mount  Carmel 
Mount  Vernon 
Murphy  sboro 
Naperville 
Niles  Center 
Normal 
North  Chicago 
Oak  Park 
Olney 
Ottawa 
Pana 
Paris 
Park  Ridge 
Pekin 
Peoria 
Peru 
Pontiac     . 

14,476 
7,336 
5,381 
19,844 
5,418 
42,365 
22,241 
16,901 
10,479 
6,885 
12,812 
6,213 
12,752 
7,048 
7,075 
8,764 
7,782 
9,251 
15,827 
26,648 
10,933 
6,287 
34,608 
9,096 
6,145 
6,987 
14,724 
8,976 
5,272 
7,172 
6,983 
8,465 
66,015 
7,831 
16,005 
5,966 
9,281 
12,063 
19,407 
105,087 
8,983 
9,585 
5,224 

12,203 
6,923 
5,613 
17,747 
5,955 
42,993 
20,620 
17,093 
10,103 
6,554 
13,149 
6,303 
12,855 
6,612 
6,197 
8,509 
7,661 
9,033 
14,631 
25,829 
10,741 
5573 
32,236 
8,666 
5,568 
7132 
12,375 
8,182 
5,118 
5,007 
6,768 
8,466 
63,982 
6,140 
15,094 
5,835 
8,781 
10,417 
16,129 
104,969 
9,121 
8,272 
4,762 

Hobart 
Huntington 
Indianapolis  ...   . 

JenersonviUe 
Kendallville  .    . 
Kokomo 
Lafayette  .  . 
La  Porte.  . 
Lebanon     .  .   . 
Lmton 
Logansport 
Madison 
Marion 
Martmsville 
Michigan  City 
Mishawaka 
Mount  Vernon  . 
Muncie 
New  Albany      . 
New  Castle 
Noblesville  .. 
Peru 
Plymouth  . 
Portland 
Princeton     . 
Richmond     . 
Rushville 
Seymour 
Shelbyville   . 
South  Bend   .  . 
Sullivan 
Tell  City 
Terre  Haute 
Tipton 
Valparaiso 
Vincennes 
Wabash 
Warsaw 
Washington 
West  Lafayette 
Whiting 
Winchester  . 

7,166 
.      13,903 
386,972 
5,041 
.      11,493 
5,431 
33,795 
28,798 
16,180 
6,529 
6,263 
20,177 
6,923 
26,767 
5,009 
26,476 
28,298 
5,638 
49,720 
25,414 
16,620 
5,575 
12,432 
5,713 
6,362 
7,786 
35,147 
5,960 
8,620 
10,791 
101,268 
5,077 
5,395 
62,693 
5,101 
8,736 
18,228 
9,653 
6,378 
9,312 
.       6,270 
10,307 
5,303 

5,787 
13,420 
364,161 
3,905 
11,946 
5,439 
32,843 
26,240 
15,755 
6,445 
5085 
18,508 
6,530 
24,496 
4,962 
26,735 
28,630 
5,035 
46,548 
25,819 
14,027 
4,811 
12,730 
5,290 
5,276 
7,505 
32,493 
5,709 
7,508 
10,618 
104,193 
5,306 
4,873 
62,810 
4,861 
8,079 
17,564 
8,840 
5,730 
9,070 
5,095 
10,880 
4,487 

Arlington  Heights 
Aurora 
Batavia        .     . 

5',668 
47,170 
5,101 
6,505 

4I997 
46,589 
5,045 
6,344 

Quincy         
River  Forest 
Riverside 
Rockford 

40,469 
9,487 
7,935 
84,637 

39,241 
8829 
6,770 
85,864 

IOWA 
Albia 
Ames 

5,157 
12,555 

4,425 
10,261 

Belleville     

28,405 

28,425 

Rock  Island 

42,775 

37,953 

Atlantic 

5,802 

5,585 

Bellwood       
Belvidere      
Benton   

5,220 
8,094 
7372 
48,451 

4,991 
8,123 
8,219 
47,027 

St  Charles 
Salem  , 
Springfield     . 
Spring  Valley  . 

5,870 
7,319 
75,503 
5,010 

5,377 
4,420 
71,864 
5,270 

Boone     .  . 
Burlington   . 
Carroll          ..   . 
Cedar  Falls 

.      12,373 
25,832 
5,389 
9,349 

11,886 
26,755 
4,691 
7,362 

Bloomington  ...     . 
Blue  Island  .... 
Brookfield    

32,868 
16,638 
10,817 
14,407 

30,930 
16,534 
10,035 
13,532 

Sterling 
Streator 
Summit        .         .    . 
Taylorville 

11,363 
14,930 
7,043 
8,313 

10,012 
14728 
6,548 
7,316 

Cedar  Rapids 
Centerville 
Chariton 
Charles  City  .  .  . 

62,120 
8,413 
5,754 
8,681 

56,097 
8,147 
5,365 
8,039 

Calumet  City  

13,241 
11,577 

12,298 
11,718 

Urbana  .    . 
Vandaha 

14,064 
5,288 

13,060 
4^342 

Cherokee 
Clinton 

7,469 
26,270 

6,443 
25,726 

Carbondale  
Centralia      
Champaign     
Charleston 
Chester         .... 
Chicago           .     .     : 
Chicago  Heights  .     . 
Cicero   .. 
Clinton 
Collinsvillc 
Danville 
Decatur 
DeKalb 
DCS  Plaines 
Dixon 
Downers  Grove 
Du  Quoin 
EastMoline 
EastPeoria 
EastSt  Louis 
EdwardsvUle 
Effingham  
Elgin     .  .  . 
Elmhurst  .  .  . 
Elm  wood  Park. 
Evanston/.  .  .  • 
Flora  

8,550 
16,343 
23,302 
8,197 
5,110 
1,396,808 

64*712 
6,331 
9,767 
36,919 
59,305 
9,146 
9,518 
10,671 
9,526 
7,515 
12,359 
6,806 
75,609 
8,008 
6,180 
38,333 
15,458 
13,689 
65389 
5474 

7,528 
12,583 
20,348 
8,012 
3,922 
3,376,438 
22  321 
66,602 
5,920 
9,235 
36,765 
57,510 
8,545 
8,798 
9,908 
8,977 
7,593 
10,107 
5,027 
74347 
6,235 
4,978 
35,929 
14055 
11270 
63120 
4393 

Venice 
Villa  Park. 
Waukegan 
West  Frankfort   . 
Wheaton 
Wilmette 
Winnetka 
Wood  River 
Woodstock 
Zion 

INDIANA 
Anderson 
Auburn 
Bedford 
Bicknell 
Bloomington 
Bluffton 
Brazil 
Clinton 
Columbus 
Connersvillc 
Crawfordsville 
Decatur 
East  Chicago  . 
Elkhart 
Elwood              

5,454 
7,236 
34241 
12383 
7,389 
17,226 
12,430 
8,197 
6123 
6,555 

41,572 
5,415 
12514 
5110 
20,870 
5417 
8126 
7092 
11738 
12,898 
11089 
5861 
54,637 
33434 
10,913 

5,362 
6,220 
33,499 
14,683 
7258 
15*233 

51471 
5,991 

39,804 
5,088 
13,208 
5,212 
18,227 
5,074 
8,744 
7,936 
9,935 
12,795 
10,355 
5,156 
54,784 
32,949 
10,685 

Council  Bluffs 
Creston 
Davenport   .    . 
Decoran 
DesMoines  . 
Dubuque 
Estherville 
Fairfield 
Fort  Dodge  . 
Fort  Madison 
Grinnell 
Iowa  City     . 
Keokuk 
Knoxville     .  .     .  . 
Le  Mars     .  . 
Marshalltown    .  .  . 
Mason  City 
Muscatine 
Newton          .   . 
Oelwein 
Oskaloosa  .   .  . 
Ottumwa 
Perry 
Red  Oak 
Shenandoah     .  . 
Sioux  City 
Spencer      

.     41,439 
8,033 
66,039 
5,303 
159,819 
43,892 
5,651 
.       6,773 
.      22,904 
14,063 
5,210 
17,182 
15,076 
6,936 
5353 
19,240 
27,080 
.      18,286 
10,462 
7,801 
11,024 
31,570 
5,977 
5,763 
6,846 
82,364 
.       6,599 

42,048 
8,615 
60,751 
4,581 
142,559 
41,679 
4,940 
6,619 
21,895 
13,779 
4,949 
15,340 
15,106 
4,697 
4,788 
17,373 
23,304 
16,778 
11560 
7,794 
10123 
28,075 
5,881 
5,778 
6,502 
79,183 
5,019 

POPULATION  OF  THE  U>  8. 


611 


POPULATION  OF  THE  U.  S. 


POPULATION  OF  CITIES  AND  OTHER  URBAN  PLACES  OF  5000  OR  MORE,  BY  STATES:  1940  AND  1930~-(C<mlto«*) 


Place 

1940 

1930 

Place 

1940 

1930 

Place 

1940 

1930 

IOWA—  Con. 

LOUISIANA  —  Con. 

MASSACHUSETTS—  Con. 

Storm  Lake 

5  274 

4  157 

5,049 

5,124 

Longmeadow  town*. 

5.790 

4,437 

Washington     •  . 

5*227 

4*814 

Ruston    

7,107 

4,400 

8.181 

8,876 

Waterloo 

.     51743 
6,738 

46,191 
7,024 

Shreveport  
Tallulah  ... 

98,167 
5712 

76,655 
3332 

98,123 
58,010 

102,320 
58,036 

Webster  City.  .  . 

Maiden     

Thibodaux  

5,851 

4,442 

Mansfield  town  *  .  .  .  . 

6,530 

6,364 

KANSAS 

West  Monroe 

8,560 

6,566 

Marbleheadtown*... 

10,856 

8668 

Abilene 

5  671 

5658 

Marlborougb  .  .      .  .  * 

15,154 

15.587 

Arkansas  City  . 

.   .      12*752 

13,946 

MAINE 

Maynard  town  *  ... 

6,812 

7156 

Atchison   .... 

12,648 

13,024 

Auburn 

19,817 

18,571 

Medford     

63,083 

59714 

Chanute     .... 

10,142 

10277 

Augusta  .... 

19,360 

17,198 

Melrose      

25,333 

23,170 

Coffeyville 

.      17,355 

16,198 

Bangor  .  .    . 

29,822 

28,749 

Methuen  town  *   ... 

21,880 

21,069 

Concordia  ... 

6,255 

5792 

Bath    . 

10,235 

9,110 

Middleborough 

Dodge  City 

8,487 

10,059 

Belfast 

5,540 

4,993 

town* 

9,032 

8,608 

El  Dorado..   . 

10,045 

10,311 

Biddeford... 

19,790 

17,633 

Milford  town  * 

15,388 

14,741 

Empona     ...   . 
Fort  Scott    .  .   . 

13,188 
10,557 

14067 
10,763 

Brewer 
Brunswick* 

6,510 
7,003 

6,329 
6,144 

Millburytown*.. 
Milton  town  * 

6,983 
18,708 

6,957 
16,434 

Garden  City 

6,285 

6,121 

Calais       .     . 

5,161 

5,470 

Montague  town  * 

7,582 

8081 

Great  Bend  .  . 

9,044 

5,548 

Gardiner  .   . 

6,044 

5,609 

Natick  town  * 

13,851 

13,589 

Hays 

6,385 

4,618 

Lewiston  . 

38,598 

34,948 

Needham  town  * 

12,445 

10,845 

Hutchinson 

30,013 

27,085 

Old  Town 

7,688 

7,266 

New  Bedford   . 

110,341 

112,597 

Indeoendence 
lola       . 

11,565 
7,244 

12,782 
7160 

Presquelsle*. 
Portland     . 

5,456 
73,643 

4,662 
70,810 

Newburyport 
Newton 

13,916 
69,873 

15,084 
65,276 

Junction  City 
Kansas  City. 
Lawrence  .    .  . 

8,507 
121,458 
14,390 

7,407 
121.857 
13726 

Rockland 
Rumford  Falls* 
Saco 

8,899 
8,447 
8,631 

9,075 
8,726 
7,233 

North  Adams  . 
Northampton 
North  Andover  town  * 

22,213 
24,794 
71.524 

21,621 
24381 
6,961 

Leaven  worth  . 
McPherson 

19,220 
7,194 

17,466 
6,147 

South  Portland 
Waterville 

15,781 
16,688 

13,840 
15,454 

North  Attleborough 
town  *  . 

10,359 

10,197 

Manhattan 

11,659 

10,136 

Westbrook  . 

11,087 

10,807 

Northbridge  town  *  . 

10,242 

9,713 

Newton 

11,048 

11,034 

Norwood  town  * 

15,383 

15,049 

Ottawa 

10,193 

9,563 

MARYLAND 

Orange  town*  .. 

5,611 

5365 

Parsons 

14,294 

14,903 

Annapolis  .  . 

13,069 

12,531 

Palmer  town  *.  . 

9,149 

9,577 

Pittsburg 

17,571 

18  145 

Baltimore 

859,100 

804,874 

Peabody  

21  711 

21  345 

Pratt     . 

6,322 

Cambridge 

10,102 

8,544 

Pittsfield 

49,684 

49f,677 

Salina 

21  ",073 

20,155 

Cumberland 

39,483 

37,747 

Plymouth  town  * 

13,100 

13,042 

Topeka 
Wellington 

67,833 
7,246 

64,120 
7405 

Frederick     .  . 
Frostburg   .  . 

15,802 
7,659 

14,434 

5,588 

Randolph  town  *  . 

75,810 
7,634 

71,983 
6,553 

Wichita  .. 

114,966 

111,110 

Hagerstown 

32,491 

30,861 

Reading  town  * 

10,866 

9,767 

Winfield     . 

9,506 

9,398 

Hyattsville 

6,575 

4,264 

Revere  ... 

34,405 

35,680 

Sahsburg 

13,313 

10,997 

Rockland  town*  .     . 

8,087 

7,524 

KENTUCKY 

Takoma  Park 

8,938 

6,415 

Salem      

41,213 

43,353 

Ashland 

29  537 

29074 

District  12 

14.825 

14700 

Bcllevue   .'.. 

.     .       8*,74l 

8,497 

(Baltimore  Co  )*  . 

15,436 

11,556 

Somerset  town* 

5,873 

5,398 

Bowling  Green  . 
Corbin 

.     .      14,585 
.       7,893 

12,348 
8,036 

District  13 
(Baltimore  Co  )  * 

13,366 

10,466 

Somerville    ... 
Southbridgetown*    . 

102,177 
16,825 

103,908 
14,264 

Covington 
Danville 

.     62,018 
6,734 

65,252 
6,729 

MASSACHUSETTS 

South  Hadley  town*. 
Spencer  town  *. 

6,856 
6,641 

6,773 
6,272 

Dayton 
Fort  Thomas 

8,379 
11,034 

9,071 
10,008 

Abmgton  town 
Adams  town  * 

5,708 
12,608 

5,872 
12,697 

Springfield 
Stonenam  town  * 

149,554 
10,765 

149,900 
10,060 

Frankfort 

11,492 

11,626 

Amesbury  town  *  . 

10,862 

11,899 

Stoughton  town  * 

8,632 

8,204 

Glasgow     . 
Harlan 

5,815 
5  122 

5,042 
4,327 

Amherst  town  * 
Andover  town  * 

6,410 
11,122 

5,888 
9,969 

Swampscott  town  * 
Taunton     . 

10,761 
37,395 

10,346 
37,355 

Hazard 

7,397 

7,021 

Arlington  town  * 

40,013 

36,094 

Uxbridgetown* 

6,417 

6,285 

Henderson 

13,160 

11,668 

Atholtown* 

11,180 

10,677 

Wakefieldtown*     . 

16,223 

16,318 

Hopkinsville 

11,724 

10,746 

Attleboro 

22,071 

21,769 

Walpole    ... 

7,443 

7273 

Jenkins 
Lexington 

9,428 
49,304 

8,465 
45,736 

Auburn  town  * 
Barnstable  town  * 

6,629 
8,333 

6,147 
7271 

Waltham  .. 
Ware 

40,020 
7,557 

39,247 
7,385 

Louisville 

319,077 

307,745 

Belmont  town  * 

26,867 

21,748 

Watertown  town  * 

35,427 

34,913 

Ludlow 

6,185 

6,485 

Beverly 

25,537 

25,086 

Webster  town  * 

13,186 

12,992 

Madisonville 

8,209 

6,908 

Boston 

770,816 

781,188 

Wellesley  town  * 

15,127 

11,439 

Mayfield 
Maysvillc 
Middlesborough 
Newport 
Owenstxiro 
Paducah 

8,619 
6,572 
11.777 
30,631 
30,245 
.      33,765 

8,177 
6,557 
10,350 
29,744 
22,765 
33,541 

Braintree  town  b 
Bndgewater  town  * 
Brockton 
Brooklme  town  * 
Cambridge 
Canton  town  * 

16,378 
8,902 
62,343 
49,786 
110,879 
6,381 

15,712 
9,055 
63,797 
47,490 
113,643 
5,816 

Westfield 
West  Springfield 
town* 
Weymouthtown6 
Whitman  town  * 
Winchendon  town  * 

18,793 

17,135 
23,868 
7,759 
6,575 

19,775 

16,684 
20,882 
7,638 
6,202 

Paris 

6.697 

6204 

Chelsea 

41,259 

45,816 

Winchester  town  b 

15.081 

12,719 

Princeton   .... 
Richmond 

5,389 
7335 

4764 
6,495 

Chicopee 
Gin  ton  town* 

41,664 
12,440 

43,930 
12,817 

Winthrop  town  * 
Woburn 

16,768 
19.751 

16,852 
19,434 

Somerset 

6,154 

5,506 

Concord  town* 

7,972 

7,477 

Worcester  . 

193,694 

195,311 

Winchester  .   . 

8,594 

8,233 

Danvers  town  *      .   . 

14,179 

12,957 

Dartmouth  town*. 

9,011 

8,778 

MICHIGAN 

LOUISIANA 

Dedham  town*.  .    .. 

15,508 

15,136 

Adrian  

14,230 

13,064 

Abbeville 

Dracut  town  *    . 

7,339 

6,912 

Albion  

8,345 

8324 

97*fWSA 

91*075 

Easthampton  town  *  . 

10,316 

11  323 

Alma             

7202 

6734 

Bastrop     .... 

•        &  I  ,UOO 

6,626 

5ll21 

Everett 

46,784 

481424 

Alpena    

12,808 

\2\\66 

Baton  Rouge  .  . 

34719 

30729 

Fairhaven  town*. 

10,938 

10.951 

29815 

26,944 

14',604 
5786 
.       9.523 

14',029 
4,003 
7,656 

Fall  River 
Fitchburg 
Frammgnam  town  *.  . 

115,428 
41,824 
23,214 

115,274 
40,692 
22,210 

Battle  Creek  

43,453 
47,956 
16,668 

43,573 
47,355 
15434 

Bonier  City  
Crowley  

Bay  City        

Benton  Harbor  

Eunice 

5  242 

3  597 

Franklin  town  .  .    .  . 

7,303 

7028 

Berkley  

6406 

5,571 

10.879 

9,'584 
6072 

Gardner 
Gloucester                • 

20,206 
24,046 

19,399 
24,204 

11,196 
9855 

9,539 
9,570 

...       6033 

Cadillac        

nanuH 

9,052 

6*531 

Great  Barrington 

Charlotte  

5544 

5,307 

nouma  
Jackson  
Jennings  
Lafayette  .  .  . 

.       5,384 
.       7  343 
19,210 

|| 

town*                •   • 
Greenfield  town  * 
Haverhill 

5,824 
15,672 
46,752 

5,934 
15500 
48,710 

Cheboygan     

5,673 
7343 
61,584 

4,923 
6,735 
50.358 

Coldwater  

Dearborn   

Lake  Charles     . 
Minden     .  . 
Monroe 

21,207 
.       6,677 
28,309 

5*623 
26,028 

Hingham  town  * 
Holyoke 
Hudson  town  * 

8,003 
53,750 
8,042 

6,657 
56537 
8,469 

Detroit   

1,623,452 
5,007 

8,584 

1,568,662 
5550 
5,955 

East  Detroit  . 

Morgan  City 
Natcnitoches 

...       6,969 
6*,812 

5,985 
41547 

Iptwich  town  * 

6,348 
84,323 

5,599 
85068 

East  Lansing  . 
Ecorse  .      ...... 

5,839 
13,209 

12*716 

New  Iberia     .  . 

.   .      13,747 

8003 

Leominster 

22,226 

21,810 

Escanaba   .... 

14,830 

14*524 

New  Orleans 

.    494,537 

458,762 

Lexington  town* 

13,187 

9,467 

Ferndale.  . 

22,523 

20,855 

Opelousas  .     . 

..   .       8,980 

6,299 

Lowefl  

101,389 

100,234 

Flint      

151,543 

156,492 

POPULATION  OF  THE  U.  8. 


612 


POPULATION  OF  THE  U.  8. 


POPULATION  OF  CITIES  AND  OTHER  URBAN  PLACES  OF  5000  OR  MORE,  BY  STATES:  1940  AND  1930-<C<KHfiii«0 


Place 

1940 

1930 

Place 

1940 

1930 

Place 

1940 

1930 

M  ICHIOAN  —  Con. 

MINNESOTA—  Con. 

NEBRASKA 

Grand  Haven 

8,799 

8,345 

Stillwater  . 

7,013 

7,173 

Alliance  .. 

6,253 

6,669 

Grand  Rapids  .       .. 
Greenville  
Grosse  Pointe 

164,292 
5,321 
6,179 

168,592 
4,730 
5,173 

Thief  River  Falls      . 
Virginia 
West  St.  Paul 

6,019 
12,264 
5,733 

4,268 
11,963 
4,463 

Beatrice 
Columbus  ... 
Fairbury  .. 

10,883 
7,632 
6,304 

10,297 
6,898 
6,192 

Grosse  Pointe  Farms 
Grosse  Pointe  Park 

7,217 
12,646 

3,533 
11,174 

Willmar.  ... 
Winona 

7,623 
22,490 

6,173 
20,850 

Falls  City       . 
Fremont 

6,146 
11862 

5,787 
11,407 

Hamtramck          . 

49,839 

56,268 

Worthington 

5,918 

3,878 

Grand  Island 

19.110 

18,041 

Hancock  ... 

5,554 

5,795 

Hastings 

15,145 

15,490 

Hastings 

5175 

5,227 

MISSISSIPPI 

Kearney 

9,643 

8,575 

Highland  Park  . 

50,810 

52,959 

Biloxi 

17,475 

14,850 

Lincoln         .     . 

81,984 

75,933 

Hdlsdale  ... 

6,381 

5,896 

Brookhaven 

6,232 

5,288 

McCook 

6,212 

6,688 

Holland  .       . 

14,616 

14,346 

Canton 

6,011 

4,725 

Nebraska  City       . 

7,339 

7,230 

Inkster  

7,044 

4,440 

Clarksdale 

12,168 

10,043 

Norfolk 

10,490 

10,717 

Ionia     .  .   . 

6,392 

6,562 

Columbia  . 

6,064 

4,833 

North  Platte 

12,429 

12,061 

Iron  Mountain 

11,080 

11,652 

Columbus 

13,645 

10,743 

Omaha 

223,844 

214,006 

Ironwood  .... 

13,369 

14,299 

Corinth 

7,818 

6,220 

Scottsbluff      . 

12,057 

8,465 

Ishpeming.  . 

9,491 
49,656 

9,238 
55,187 

Greenville 
Greenwood 

20,892 
14,767 

14,807 
1M23 

York 

5,383 

5,712 

Kalamazoo  .... 

54,097 

54,786 

Grenada 

5,831 

4,349 

NEVADA 

Kingsford  

5771 

5,526 

Gulfport 

15,195 

12,547 

Las  Vegas 

8,422 

5,165 

78,753 

78,397 

Hatticsburg 

21,026 

18,601 

Reno 

21,317 

18,529 

Lapeer*  !".*.' 

5,365 

5,008 

Jackson 

62,107 

48,282 

Sparks 

5,318 

4,508 

Lincoln  Park 

15,236 

12,336 

Laurel   

20,598 

18.017 

Ludington 

8,701 

8,898 

McComb    . 

9,898 

10,057 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE 

Manistee  ... 

8,694 

8,078 

Meridian  .  . 

35,481 

31,954 

Berlin 

19,084 

20,018 

ManistiQue  . 

5399 

5,198 

Natchez 

15,296 

13,422 

Claremont  town 

12,144 

12,377 

Marquette  ... 

15,928 

14,789 

Pascagoula 

5,900 

4,339 

Concord 

27,171 

25,228 

Marshall     .  .  . 

5,253 

5,019 

Picayune 

5,129 

4,698 

Derry  town 

5,400 

5,131 

Menommee 
Midland 

10,230 
10,329 

10,320 
8,038 

Tupelo 
Vicksburg 

8,212 
24,460 

6,361 
22,943 

Dover 
Exeter  town 

14,990 
5,398 

13,573 
4,872 

Monroe 

18,478 

18,110 

West  Point 

5,627 

4,677 

Franklin 

6,749 

6,576 

Mount  Clemens 

14,389 

13,497 

Yazoo  City 

7,258 

5,579 

Keene 

13,832 

13,794 

Mount  Pleasant 

8,413 

5,211 

Lacoma 

13,484 

12,471 

Muskegon 

47,697 

41,390 

MISSOURI 

Lebanon  town 

7,590 

7,073 

Muskegon  Heights 
Negaunee  .  .  . 
Niles     .... 

16,047 
6,813 
11,328 

15,584 
6,552 
11,326 

Boonville 
Brookfield 
Cape  Girardeau 

6,089 
6,174 
19,426 

6,435 
6,428 
16,227 

Manchester 
Nashua 
Newport  town 

77,685 
32,927 
5,304 

76,834 
31,463 
4,659 

Owosso  

14,424 

14,496 

Carthage 

10,585 

9,736 

Portsmouth 

14,821 

14,495 

Petoskey    .  .  . 

6,019 

5,740 

Caruthersville 

6,612 

4,781 

Rochester 

12,012 

10,209 

Plymouth  .  .  . 

5,360 

4,484 

Charleston 

5,182 

3,357 

Somersworth 

6,136 

5,680 

Pontiac  .   .  . 

66,626 

64,928 

Chilhcothe 

8,012 

8,177 

Port  Huron  .  . 

32,759 

31,361 

Clayton 

13,069 

9,613 

NEW  JERSEY 

River  Rouge 
Roseville 

17,008 
9,023 

17,314 
6,836 

Clinton 
Columbia  . 

6,041 
18,399 

5,744 
14,967 

Asbury  Park 
Atlantic  City 

14,617 
64,094 

14,981 
66,198 

Royal  Oak.  . 

25,087 

22,904 

DeSoto 

5,121 

5,069 

Audubon 

8,906 

8,904 

Saginaw 

82,794 

80,715 

Ferguson 

5,724 

3,798 

Bayonne 

79,198 

88,979 

St.  Clair  Shores 

10,405 

6,745 

Flat  River 

5,401 

Belleville 

28,167 

26,974 

St.  Joseph 
Sault  Ste  Marie 

8,963 
15,847 

8,349 
13,755 

Fulton 
Hannibal 

8,297 
20,865 

6,105 
22,761 

Bergenfield.  . 
Bloom  field   .  . 

10,275 
41,623 

8,816 
38,077 

Sturgis 

7,214 

6,950 

Independence 

16,066 

15,296 

Bogota 

7,346 

7,341 

Three  Rivers 

6,710 

6,863 

Jefferson  City    . 

24,268 

21,596 

Boonton 

6,739 

6,866 

Traverse  City. 
Trenton    ...   . 

14,455 
5,284 

12,539 
4,022 

Joplin  . 
Kansas  City 

37,144 
399,178 

33,454 
399,746 

Bound  Brook 
Bndgeton 

7,616 
15.992 

7.372 
15,699 

Wyandotte..   . 
Ypsilanti  

30,618 
12,121 

28,368 
10,143 

Kennett 
Kirksville     .  . 

6,335 
10,080 

4,128 
8,293 

Burlington 
Camden 

10,905 
117,536 

10,844 
118,700 

Kirkwood 

12,132 

9,169 

Carlstadt 

5,644 

5,425 

MINNESOTA 

Lebanon 

5.025 

3,562 

Carteret 

11,976 

13,339 

Albert  Lea  .   .  . 
Alexandria  .  .  . 

12,200 
5,051 

10,169 
3,876 

Lexington 
Maplewood 

5,341 
12,875 

4,595 
12,657 

Chffude  Park 
Clifton 

16,892 
48|827 

15267 
46,875 

Anoka  

6,426 

4,851 

Marshall               .   . 

8,533 

8,103 

Colhngswood 

12,685 

12,723 

Austin   . 

18,307 

12,276 

Maryville    . 

5,700 

5,217 

Crantord  township  .. 

12,860 

11,126 

Bemidji 

9,427 

7,202 

Mexico 

9,053 

8.290 

Dover 

10,491 

10,031 

Brainerd     .... 

12,071 

10,221 

Moberly 

12,920 

13,772 

Dumont 

7,556 

5,861 

Chisholm 

7,487 

8,308 

Neobho 

5,318 

4,485 

Dunellen 

5,360 

5,148 

Cloquet 

7,304 

6,782 

Nevada 

8,181 

7,448 

East  Orange 

68,945 

68,020 

Columbia  Heights 
Crookston     . 
Detroit  Lakes 

6,035 
7,161 
5.015 

5,613 
6,321 
3,675 

Poplar  Bluff 
Richmond  Heights 
Rolla 

11,163 
12,802 
5141 

7,551 
9,150 
3,670 

East  Rutherford 
Elizabeth 
Englewood 

7,268 
109,912 
18,966 

7,080 
114,589 
17,805 

Duluth 

101,065 

101,463 

St.  Charles       . 

10,803 

10,491 

Fair  Lawn 

9,017 

5,990 

Edina 
Ely 

5,855 
5,970 

3,138 
6,156 

St  Joseph   . 
St  Louis   . 

75,711 
816,048 

80,935 
821,960 

Fairview 
Fort  Lee 

8,770 
9,468 

9,067 
8,759 

Eveleth     .... 

6,887 

7,484 

Sedaha 

20,428 

20,806 

Freehold 

6,952 

6,894 

Fairibault.  ... 

14,527 

12,767 

Sikeston    . 

7,944 

5,676 

Garfield 

28,044 

29,739 

Fairmont  . 
Fergus  Falls  . 
Hastings.  . 
Hibbing 
International  Falls    . 
Little  Falls 
Mankato  . 

6,988 
10,848 
5,662 
16,385 
5,626 
6,047 
151654 

5,521 
9,389 
5,086 
15,666 
5,036 
5,014 
14,038 

Springfield  . 
Trenton    .  . 
University  City 
Warrensburg 
Washington 
Webb  City. 
Webster  Groves 

61,238 
7046 
33,023 
5868 
6,756 
7,033 
18,394 

57,527 
6,992 
25,809 
5146 
5,918 
6,876 
16,487 

Glen  Ridge 
Glen  Rock 
Gloucester  City  .    .. 
GutUnberg 
Hackensack 
Haddonfield 
Haddon  Heights 

5I177 
13,692 
6,200 
26,279 
9742 
5,555 

7,365 
4,369 
13,796 
6,535 
24568 
8,857 
5,394 

Minneapolis  . 

492,370 

464,356 

Haledon      

5,303 

4,812 

Montevideo 

5220 

4,319 

MONTANA 

Hammonton 

7,668 

7,656 

Moorhead 
NewUlm.     . 
Owmtonna  . 

9,491 
8,743 
8,694 

7,651 
7,308 
/,654 

Anaconda    .          ... 
Billings.  .      . 
Bozeman            .       • 

11,004 
23261 
8665 

12,494 
16,380 
6,855 

Harrison 
Hasbrouck  Heights.. 
Hawthorne 

14,171 
6,716 
12,610 

15,601 
5,658 
11,868 

RedWing  . 
Richfield     .  .  . 

9,962 
6,750 

9,629 
3,344 

Butte     .             ..   . 
Great  Falls     

37081 
29928 

39,532 
28,822 

Highland  Park  .   .  . 
Hillside  township  .. 

9,002 
181556 

8,691 
17,601 

Robbinsdale... 

6018 

4,427 

Havre              .   ..   . 

6,427 

6,372 

Hoboken 

50,115 

59,261 

Rochester  .... 
St.  Cloud    .  . 
St  Louis  Park 

26,312 
24,173 
7  737 

20,621 
21,000 
4710 

Helena                 ..   . 
Kalispell 
Lewistown 

•as 

5874 

11,803 
6,094 
5358 

Irvington     .    .  . 
Jersey  City  

55,328 
301,173 
39467 

56,733 
316715 
40.716 

St!  Paul 

287736 

27ll606 

Livingston                . 

6J642 

6,391 

Kcyport  

5,147 

4,940 

St  Peter 

5  870 

Miles  City                 . 

7175 

5763 

5350 

South  St.'  Paul... 

11344 

10!009 

Missoula  

18',449 

14,657 

Lk^  

24115 

21306 

POPULATION  OF  THE  U.  S. 


613 


POPULATION  OP  THE  U.  3. 


POPULATION  OF  CITIES  AND  OTHER  URBAN  PLACES  OF  5000  OR  MORE,  BY  STATES:  1940  AND  1930-(C0*#mi4*) 


Place 

1940 

1930 

Plan 

1940 

1930 

Place 

1940 

1930 

NEW  JERSEY  —  Con. 

NEW  YORK—  Con. 

NEW  YORK—  Con. 

Lodi             

11,552 

11.549 

Beacon  

12,572 

11,933 

Rockville  Centre 

18,613 

13,718 

Long  Branch.    . 

17,408 

18,399 

78,309 

76,662 

Rome. 

34,214 

32,338 

Lyndhurst  township 

17,454 

17,362 

6,888 

6,387 

Rye 

9,865 

8,712 

Madison  . 

7,944 

7,481 

Buffalo  

575,901 

573,076 

Salamanca    . 

9,011 

9,577 

ManvUle 

6,065 

5,441 

Canandaigua   .  .    . 

8321 

7541 

Saranac  Lake       .   .  . 

7,138 

8,020 

Maplewood  township 
Metuchen 

23,139 
6,557 

21,321 
5,748 

Catskill  .       ... 
Cedarhurst     .   .     . 

5,429 
5463 

5,082 
5,065 

Saratoga  Springs 
Scarsdale  *...       . 

13,705 
12,966 

13,169 
9,690 

Millburn  township  . 
Millville      ..... 

11,652 
14,806 

8,602 
14,705 

Cohoes    
Corning     .   . 

21,955 
16212 

23,226 
15,777 

Schenectady     . 
Scotia 

87,549 
7,960 

95,692 
7,437 

Montclair       

39,807 

42,017 

Cortland   . 

15,881 

15,043 

Seneca  Falls 

6,452 

6,443 

Morristown 

15,270 

15,197 

Depew 

6,084 

6,536 

Solvay.   . 

8,201 

7,986 

Neptune  township     . 
Newark 

10,207 
429,760 

10,625 
442,337 

Dobbs  Ferry 
Dunkirk 

5,883 
17,713 

5,741 
17,802 

Syracuse 
Tarrytown 

205,967 
6,874 

209,326 
6,841 

New  Brunswick 

33,180 

34,555 

East  Aurora 

5,253 

4,815 

Tonawanda 

13,008 

12,681 

Newton 
North  Arlington 
North  Bergen 

5^33 
9,904 

5,401 
8,263 

East  Rochester 
East  Rockaway 
Elmira 

.       6,691 
5,610 
.     45,106 

6,627 
4,340 
47,397 

Troy 
Tuckahoe 
Tupper  Lake 

70,304 
6,563 
5,451 

72,763 
6,138 
5,271 

township 
North  Plamfield 

39,714 
10,586 

40,714 
9,760 

Endicott 
Floral  Park 

17,702 
.      12,950 

16,231 
10,016 

Utica 
Valley  Stream 

100,518 
16,679 

101,740 
11,790 

Nutley 

21,954 

20,572 

Fredonia 

5,738 

5,814 

Watertown 

33,385 

32,205 

Orange 

35,717 

35,399 

Freeport 

20,410 

15,467 

Watervhet 

16,114 

16,083 

Palisades  Park 

8,141 

7,065 

Fulton 

13,362 

12,462 

Waverly    . 

5,450 

5,662 

Palmyra 

5,178 

4968 

Garden  City.    . 

11,223 

7,180 

Wcllsvitle 

5,942 

5,674 

Passaic 

61,394 

62,959 

Geneva 

15,555 

16,053 

White  Plains 

40,327 

35,830 

Paterson 

139,656 

138,513 

Glen  Cove 

12,415 

11,430 

Williston  Park 

5,750 

4,427 

Pauls  boro 

7,011 

7121 

Glens  Falls 

18,836 

18,531 

Yonkers  .. 

142,598 

134,646 

Pennsaukcn  township 

17,745 

16,915 

Gloversville 

23,329 

23,099 

Penns  Grove 

6,488 

5,895 

Great  Neck 

6,167 

4,010 

NORTH  CAROLINA 

Perth  Am  boy 

41,242 

43,516 

Hamburg 

5,467 

4,731 

Asheboro 

6,981 

5,027 

Philhpsburg 

18,314 

19,255 

Hastmgb-on-Hudson 

7,057 

7,097 

Asheville 

51,310 

50,191 

Pitman 

5,507 

5,411 

Haverstraw 

5,909 

5,621 

Burlington 

12.198 

9,733 

Plamfield 

37,469 

34,422 

Hempstead  ... 

20,856 

12,650 

Canton 

5,017 

5,117 

Pleasantville 

11,050 

11,580 

Herkimcr 

9,617 

10,446 

Charlotte 

100,899 

82,675 

Princeton 

7,719 

6,992 

Hornell 

.      15,649 

16,250 

Concord 

15,572 

11,820 

Prospect  Park 

5,714 

5,909 

Hudson 

11,517 

12,337 

Dunn 

5,256 

4,558 

Rah  way 

17,498 

16,011 

Hudson  Falls 

6,654 

6,449 

Durham 

60,195 

52,037 

Red  Bank 

10,974 

11,622 

Ihon 

8,927 

9,890 

Elizabeth  City 

11,564 

10,037 

Ridgefield 

5,271 

4,671 

Irondequoit  town  6 

23,376 

18,024 

Fayetteville 

17,428 

13,049 

Ridgefield  Park 

11,277 

10,764 

Ithaca 

19,730 

20,708 

Forest  City 

5,035 

4,069 

Ridgewood 

14,948 

12,188 

Jamestown   .  . 

42,638 

45,155 

Gastonia  . 

21,313 

17,093 

Roselle 

13,597 

13,021 

Johnson  City 

18,039 

13,567 

Goldsboro 

17,274 

14,985 

Roselle  Park 

9,661 

8,969 

Johnstown 

10,666 

10,801 

Greensboro 

59,319 

53,569 

Rutherford 

15,466 

14,915 

Kenmore 

18,612 

16.482 

Greenville     . 

12,674 

9,194 

Salem 

8,618 

8,047 

Kingston 

28,589 

28,088 

Hamlet       .     . 

5,111 

4,801 

Sayrcvillc    .    .  . 

8,186 

8,658 

Lacka  wanna 

24,058 

23,948 

Henderson 

7,647 

6,345 

Secaucus 

9,754 

8,950 

Lancaster 

7,236 

7,040 

Hendersonville 

5,381 

5,070 

Somervillc 

8,720 

8,255 

Larchmont 

5,970 

5,282 

Hickory      . 

13,487 

7,363 

South  Amboy 

7,802 

8,476 

Little  Falls 

10,163 

11,105 

High  Point 

38,495 

36,745 

South  Orange 

13,742 

13,630 

Lockport 

24,379 

23,160 

Kings  Mountain 

6,547 

5,632 

South  Plamfield 

5,379 

5,047 

Long  Beach 

9,036 

5,817 

Kinston 

15,388 

11,362 

South  River 

10,714 

10.7S9 

Lynbrook 

.      14,557 

11,993 

Laurinburg 

5,685 

3,312 

Summit 

16,165 

14,556 

Malone 

8,743 

8,657 

Lenoir 

7,598 

6,532 

Teaneck  township 
Tenafly 

25,275 
7,413 

16,513 
5,669 

Malverne 
Mamaroneck 

5,153 
13,034 

2,256 
11,766 

Lexington 
Lumberton 

10,550 
5,803 

9,652 
4,140 

Totowa 

5,130 

4,600 

Massena 

11,328 

10,637 

Monroe 

6,475 

6,100 

Trenton 

124,697 

123,356 

Mechanicville 

.       7,449 

7,924 

Mooresville 

6,682 

5,619 

Union  City 

56,173 

58,659 

Medina 

5,871 

6,071 

Morganton 

7,670 

6,001 

Union  township 
Ventnor  City 

24,730 
7,905 

16,472 
6,674 

Middletown 
Mmeola 

21,908 
.      10,064 

21,276 
6,155 

Mount  Airy     . 
New  Bern  . 

6,286 
11,815 

6,045 
11,981 

Verona 

8,957 

7,161 

Mount  Kisco 

5,941 

5,127 

Newton  .   .  . 

5,407 

4,394 

Vmeland 

7,914 

7,556 

Mount  Vernon 

67,362 

61,499 

Raleigh 

46,897 

37,379 

Wallmgton 

8,981 

9,063 

Newark     . 

9,646 

7,649 

Reidsville 

10,387 

6,851 

Weehawken  township 
Westfield 

14,363 

18,458 

14,807 
15,801 

Newburgh 
New  Rochclle 

31,883 
58,408 

31,275 
54,000 

Roanoke  Rapids 
Rocky  Mount 

8,545 
25,568 

3,404 
21,412 

West  New  York 

39,439 

37,107 

New  York  City  . 

7,454,995 

6,930,446 

Salisbury 

19,037 

16,951 

West  Orange 
Westwood 

25,662 
5,388 

24,327 
4,861 

Bronx  Borough 
Brooklyn  Borough 

1,194,711 
2,698,285 

1,265,258 
2,560,401 

Shelby 
StatesviUe 

14,037 
11,440 

10,789 
10,490 

Wildwood 

5,150 

5,330 

Manhattan  Bor- 

Tarboro 

7,148 

6,379 

Woodbndge  township 
Woodbury 

27,191 
8,306 

25,266 
8,172 

ough 

1,889,924 
1,297,634 

1,867,312 
1,079,129 

Thomasville 
Washington 

11,041 
8,569 

10,090 
7,035 

Wood-Ridge 

5,739 

5;i59 

Richmond  Borough    174,441 

158,346 

Wilmington 

33,407 

32,270 

Niagara  Falls  .     . 

.      78,029 

75,460 

Wilson 

19,234 

12,613 

NEW  MEXICO 

North  Pelhaxn 

.       5,052 

4,890 

Winston-Salem 

79,815 

75,274 

Albuquerque        .   .. 
Carlsbad 

35,449 
7,116 

26,570 
3,708 

North  Tarrytown 
North  Tonawanda 

.       8,804 
20,254 

7,417 
19,019 

NORTH  DAKOTA 

Clovis  

10,065 

8,027 

Norwich 

8,694 

8,378 

Bismarck 

15,496 

11,090 

Gallup  

7,041 

5,992 

Nyack 

.       5,206 

5,392 

Devils  Lake* 

6,204 

5,519 

Hobbs  

10,619 
8,385 
5,941 

598 
5,811 
4,719 

Ogdensburgh       .   . 
Oneida  '  '. 

16,346 
.     21,506 
.      10,291 

16,915 
21,790 
10,558 

Dickinson            .   .. 
Fargo              .   .     . 
Grand  Forks.  . 

5,839 
32580 
20,228 

5,025 
28,619 
17,112 

LasCruces     ..   . 
Las  Vegas  city     .     . 

Las  Vegas  town  .. 

6,421 

4,378 

Oneonta    ..  . 

11,731 

12,536 

Jamestown     .  .  . 

8,790 

8,187 

Portales...            .   . 

5,104 
7,607 

2519 
6090 

Ossimng              •  • 

15,996 
.     22062 

15,241 
22.652 

6,685 
16,577 

5,037 
16,099 

Mmot 

RosweU 

13,482 

11173 

Owego. 

.       5,068 

4742 

Valley  City      .   .   .. 

5,917 

5,268 

Santa  Fe 

20,325 

11  176 

PatchoKue            • 

7,181 

6860 

Wilhston      

5,790 

5,106 

Silver  City     . 

5,044 

3,519 

Peekskffl 

17,311 

17,125 

Tucumcan 

6,194 

4,143 

Pelhara  Manor  .  .  . 

5,302 

4,908 

OHIO 

NEW  YOEK 
Albany       .  . 
Amityville 

130,577 
5,058 
33,329 
35753 

127,412 
4,437 
34,817 
36,652 

Penn  Yan 
Pittsburgh  
Port  Chester    .... 
Port  Tervis      
Poughkeepsie  .... 
Renaielier 

5,308 
.     16,351 
23,073 
.       9,749 
.     40,478 
10768 

5329 
13349 
22,662 
10,243 
40,288 
11*223 

244,791 
22,405 
12,453 
21405 
7,696 
24,028 

255,040 
23,047 
11,141 
23,301 
7,252 
23,934 

Alliance     

Ashland  

Ashtabula  

Amsterdam        .     . 

Barberton  

Batavia  

17,267 

17,375 

Rochester  

324,975 

328$* 

Baraesville  

5002 

4,602 

POPULATION  OF  THE  U.  3. 


614 


POPULATION  OF  THE  U.  8. 


POPULATION  OF  CITIES  AND  OTHER  URBAN  PLACES  OF  5000  OR  MORE.  BY  STATES:  1940  AND  \930-(CtmHiHUi) 


Ploc* 

1940 

7950 

Plan 

1940 

1930 

Plact 

1940 

1930 

OHIO—  Con 

OHIO—  Con 

PENNSYLVANIA—  Con. 

Bedford  

7,390 

6,814 

University  Heights  . 

5,981 

2,237 

Bellefonte     

5,304 

S,804 

Bellaire  

13.799 

13,327 

Upper  Arlington 

5,370 

3,059 

Bellevue  

10.488 

252 

Bellefontaine     .   .. 

9,808 

9,543 

Urbana    . 

8,335 

7742 

Berwick        .... 

13181 

12,660 

Bellevue  
Bereft  

6,127 
6,025 

6256 
5697 

VanWert 

Wadsworth 

9227 
6.495 

8,472 
5930 

Bethlehem 
Blairsville     .... 

58,490 
5,002 

57,892 
5296 

Bexlev  

8,705 

7396 

Wapakoneta 

5225 

5,378 

Blakery 

8,106 

8,260 

Bowling  Green  . 

7,190 

6,688 

Warren 

42,837 

41,062 

Bloomsburg 

9,799 

9,093 

Bryan  
Bucyrus  

5,404 
9,727 

4,689 
10,027 

Washington  Court 
House 

9,402 

8,426 

Brackenridge     . 
Braddock     .     . 

6,400 
18,326 

6,250 
19329 

Cambridge  .    . 

15,044 

16,129 

Wellston 

5,537 

5,319 

Bradford 

17,691 

19,306 

Campbell     .  . 

13,785 

14,673 

Wellsville 

7,672 

7,956 

Brentwood 

7552 

5,381 

Canton  .... 
Cheviot      .  . 

108,401 
9,043 

104,906 
8,046 

Wilmington 
Wooster 

5,971 
11,543 

5,332 
10,742 

Bridgeport 
Bristol 

5,904 
11,895 

5,595 
11,799 

Chilhcothe.    ... 

20,129 

18,340 

Xema 

10,633 

10,507 

Brownsville 

8,015 

2,869 

Cincinnati 

455,610 

451,160 

Youngstown 

167,720 

170,002 

Butler 

24,477 

23,568 

Circleville 

7,982 

7,369 

Zanesville 

37,500 

36,440 

^anonsburg 

12,599 

12,558 

Cleveland 

878,336 

900,429 

Carbondale 

19,371 

20,061 

Cleveland  Heights 

54,992 

50,945 

OKLAHOMA 

Carlisle 

13,984 

12,596 

Columbus 

306,087 

290564 

Ada 

15,143 

11,261 

Darnegie 

12,663 

12,497 

Conneaut 

9,355 

9,691 

Altus 

8,593 

8,439 

:entervil)c 

6,317 

6,467 

Coshocton 

11,509 

10,908 

Alva 

5,055 

5,121 

Zhambersburg 

14,852 

13,788 

Cuyahoga  Falls 

20,546 

19,797 

Anadarko 

5,579 

5,036 

Charleroi 

10,784 

11,260 

Dayton 

210,718 

200,982 

Ardmore 

16,886 

15,741 

Cheltenham 

Defiance 

9,744 

8,818 

Bartlesville 

16,267 

14,763 

township  fc 

19,082 

15,731 

Delaware             .     . 

8,944 

8,675 

Blackwell 

8,537 

9,521 

Chester 

59,285 

59,164 

Delphos         .   .       . 

5,746 

5,672 

Bristow 

6,050 

6,619 

Clairton 

16,381 

15,291 

Dover 

9,691 

9,716 

Chickasha 

14,111 

14,099 

Clearfield 

9,372 

9,221 

East  Cleveland 

39,495 

39,667 

Clinton 

6,736 

7,512 

Coaldale 

6,163 

6,921 

East  Liverpool 
East  Palestine  . 

23,555 
5123 

23,329 
5,215 

Gushing 
Duncan 

7,703 
9,207 

9,301 
8,363 

Coatesville 
Colhngdale  (Darby 

14,006 

14,582 

Elyria     .     .     . 

25,120 

25,633 

Durant 

10,027 

7,463 

P  0) 

8,162 

7,857 

Euclid  

17,866 

12,751 

Elk  City 

5,021 

5666 

Columbia 

11,547 

11,349 

Findlay  

20,228 

19,363 

EUeno 

10,078 

9,384 

Zonnellsville 

13,608 

13,290 

Fostoria    

13,453 

12,790 

Enid 

28,081 

26,399 

I^onshohocken 

10,776 

10,815 

Fremont  

14,710 

13,422 

Frederick 

5,109 

4,568 

^oraopolis 

11,086 

10,724 

Galion  

8,685 

7,674 

Guthrie 

10,018 

9,582 

Corry 

6,9)5 

7,152 

Gallipolis      

7,832 

7,106 

Henryetta 

6,905 

7,694 

Crafton 

7,163 

7,004 

Garfield  Heights 

16,989 

15,589 

Hobart 

5177 

4,982 

Danville 

7122 

7,185 

Girard. 

9,805 

9,859 

Holdenville 

6,632 

7,268 

Barby. 

10,334 

9,899 

Grandview  Heights 
Greenville 

6,960 
7745 

6.358 
7,036 

Hugo 
Lawton 

5,909 
18,055 

5272 
12121 

Dickson  City 
Donora     . 

11,548 
13,180 

12,395 
13,905 

Hamilton 

50,592 

52,176 

McAlester     . 

12,401 

11,804 

Dormont 

12,974 

13,190 

Ironton  .  . 

15,851 

16,621 

Miami 

8,345 

8064 

Du  Bois 

12,080 

11,595 

Jackson. 

6,295 

5,922 

Muskogee 

32,332 

32,026 

Dunmore 

23,086 

22,627 

Kent 

8,581 

8,375 

Norman 

11,429 

9,603 

Dupont   . 

5,278 

5,161 

Kenton 

7,593 

7,069 

Oklahoma  City 

204,424 

185,389 

Duqucsne 

20,693 

21,396 

Lakewood 

69,160 

70,509 

Okmuleee 

16,051 

17,097 

Duryea 

8,275 

8,503 

Lancaster 

21,940 

18,716 

Pauls  Valley... 

5104 

4,235 

Easton 

33,589 

34,468 

Lima 

44,711 

42,287 

Pawhuska 

5,443 

5,931 

East  Pittsburgh 

6,079 

6,214 

Lockland 

5,601 

5,703 

Perry 

5,045 

4,206 

East  Stroudsburg 

6,404 

6,099 

Logan 

6,177 

6,080 

Picber 

5,848 

7,773 

Bdwardsville 

7,998 

8,847 

Lorain 
Mansfield 

44,125 
37,154 

44,512 
33,525 

Ponca  City.  . 
Sapulpa 

16,794 
12,249 

16,136 
10533 

Ellwood  City 
Emmaus 

12,329 
6,731 

12,323 
6,419 

Maple  Heights    . 

6,728 

5,950 

Sand  Springs  .. 

6,137 

6,674 

Ephrata 

6,199 

4,988 

Marietta 

14,543 

14,285 

Seminole 

11,547 

11,459 

Erie 

116,955 

115,967 

Manon 

30,817 

31,084 

Shawnee       .   . 

22,053 

23,283 

Etna 

7223 

7,493 

Martins  Ferry 

14,729 

14,524 

Sttllwater 

10,097 

7,016 

Exeter 

5,802 

5,724 

Massillon 

26,644 

26,400 

Tulsa  .        .     . 

142,157 

141,258 

Parrell 

13,899 

14,359 

Miamisburg     . 

5|544 

5,518 

Vmita         .   . 

5,685 

4,263 

Ford  City 

5,795 

6,127 

Middletown      .      .  . 

31,220 

29,992 

Wewoka 

10,315 

10,401 

Forest  Hills 

5248 

4,549 

Mingo  Junction  . 
Mount  Vernon  . 

5,192 
10,122 

5,030 
9,370 

Woodward     . 

5,406 

5,056 

Forty  Fort 
Frackville 

6,293 
8,035 

6,224 
8,034 

Nelsonville  

5,368 

5,322 

OREGON 

Franklin 

9,948 

10,254 

Newark  .           ... 

31,487 

30,5% 

Albany 

5,654 

5,325 

Freeland 

6,593 

7,098 

New  Boston 

6,024 

5,931 

Astoria    .     ... 

10,389 

10,349 

jettysburg 

5,916 

5,584 

New  Philadelphia      . 

12J28 

12,365 

Baker    

9,342 

7,858 

jlassport 

8,748 

8390 

16,273 

16,314 

Bend     

10,021 

8,848 

[Jreensburg 

16,743 

16,508 

Norlth  College  Hill" 
Norwalk            . 

5,231 
8,211 

4,139 
7,776 

Corvalhs 
Eugene 

8392 
20,838 

7,585 
18,901 

jreenville 
Srove  City 

8,149 
6,296 

8,628 
6,156 

Norwood 

34,010 

33,411 

Grants  Pass 

6,028 

4,666 

Hanover 

13,076 

11,805 

Oakwood 

7,652 

6,494 

Klamath  Falls 

16,497 

16,093 

Hanover  township  * 

16,439 

17,770 

Pamesville 

12,235 

10944 

La  Grande     . 

7747 

8,050 

Sarrisburg 

83,893 

80,339 

Parma 

16,365 

13,899 

Marshfield 

5,259 

5287 

Elarrison  township  * 

13,161 

12,387 

Piqua 
Portsmouth 
Ravenna 

16,049 
40,466 
8,538 

16,009 
42,560 
8,019 

Medford 
Oregon  City  . 
Pendleton     . 

11,281 
6,124 
8,847 

11,007 
5761 
6,621 

Kaverford  township  b 
iazleton 
Solhdaysburg 

27,594 
38,009 
5,910 

21,362 
36,765 
5,969 

Reading 
Rocky  River 
St  Bernard 

6,079 
8,291 
7387 

5723 
5,632 

Portland  .     . 
Salem       . 
The  Dalles  . 

305,394 
30,908 
6,266 

301,815 
26266 
5,883 

homestead 
ionesdale 
hunting  ton 

19,041 
5,687 
7,170 

20,141 
5,490 
7,558 

St.  Marys  .        .     . 

5,532 

5*433 

Indiana 

10,050 

9,569 

Salem    ... 

12301 

10  622 

PENNSYLVANIA 

eannette 

16,220 

15,126 

Sanduaky.      . 

24,874 

24,'622 

Abington  township  b 

20,857 

18,648       , 

enkintown 

5,024 

4,797 

Shaker  Heights 

23,393 

17783 

Aliquippa 

27,023 

27,116 

ersey  Shore 

5,432 

5,781 

Shelby  

6,643 

6,198 

Allentown 

96,904 

92,563 

bhnstown    . 

66,668 

66,993 

Sidney.... 

9,790 

9301 

Altoona 

80214 

82,054       ! 

Cane 

6,133 

6,232 

South  Euclid 

6,146 

4399 

Am  bridge     . 

18,968 

20,227       ] 

Kingston             .   .  . 

20,679 

21,600 

Steubenvilie.    . 

70,662 
37,651 

68743 
35422 

Archbald 
Arnold           .   .       . 

8,296 
10,898 

9,587       ] 
10,575       : 

Cittanning  .   .   . 
Culpmont 

7,550 
6,159 

7,808 
6,120 

Struthers...  . 

11,739 

11249 

Ashland 

7,045 

7,164       : 

^ancaster 

61,345 

59,949 

Tiffin     

16102 

16.428 

Ashley 

6,371 

7,093 

Ansdale        

9,316 

8,379 

Toledo    
Toronto  

282,349 
7426 

290718 
?!<H4 

Avalon 
Banffor 

6155 
£687 

132  ; 

*nsdowne*.   . 
Lansford  

10,837 
8,710 

9697 

6675 

Beaver 

5641 

5,665 

Lftrksville 

8467 

9*322 

Uhrichsville  

6*435 

61437 

Beaver  Falls 

17098 

17,147       i 

Latrobe  

11,111 

10,644 

POPULATION  OF  THE  U.  S. 


615 


POPULATION  OF  THE  U.  & 


POPULATION  OF  CITIES  AND  OTHER  URBAN  PLACES  OF  5000  OR  MORE,  BY  STATES:  1940  AND 


Plat* 

1940 

1930 

Flax 

1940 

1930 

Place 

1940 

1930 

PENNSYLVANIA  —  Con. 

PENNSYLVANIA-—  Con. 

TENNESSEE—  Con. 

Lebanon 

27,206 

25.561 

Upper   Darby  town- 

Jackson  .       .   . 

24,332 

22,172 

Lehighton  

6.615 

6490 

ahip  *           

56,883 

47,145 

Johnson  City.  . 

25,332 

25,080 

Lewistown      

13,017 

13  357 

Vandergrift 

10,725 

11,479 

Kingsport         .    . 

14,404 

11,914 

10,810 

9J668 

Warren  . 

14,891 

14,863 

Knoxville  . 

111,580 

105,802 

Lower  Merion  town- 

Washington 

26,166 

24,545 

Lebanon     . 

5,950 

4,656 

thin  & 

39,566 

35  166 

Waynesboro 

10,231 

10,167 

Maryville     .       .     . 

5,609 

4,958 

Luzerne 
McAdoo         

7,082 
5,127 

6,950 
5,239 

West  Chester     . 
West  Hazleton 

13,289 
7,523 

12.325 
7,310 

Memphis         .  . 
Mornstown 

"88 

253,143 
7,305 

McReesport 
McKees  Rocks 

55,355 
17,021 

54,632 
18,116 

West  Pittston  . 
West  View,  . 

7,943 
7215 

7,940 
6,028 

Murfreesboro 
Nashville 

9,495 
167,402 

7,993 
153,866 

Mahanoy  City..   . 
Meadvilfe  . 

13,442 
18,919 

14,784 
16,698 

West  York  
Wilkes-Barre..  . 

5,590 
86,236 

5,381 
86,626 

Paris            .     .       . 
Pulaski     .. 

6,395 
5314 

8,164 
3,367 

Mechanicsburg 

5709 

5647 

Wilkinsburg  

29,853 

29,639 

Shelbyville 

6,537 

5,010 

Media      .      ..... 
Middletown  

5,351 
7,046 

5,372 
6,085 

Williamsport  
Wilmerding  

44,355 
5,662 

45,729 
6,291 

Springfield 
Union  City 

6668 
7,256 

5577 
51865 

Midland    ...     . 

6,373 

6,007 

Wilson    .. 

8,217 

8,265 

Millvale      

7,811 

8,166 

Windber 

9,057 

9,205 

TEXAS 

Milton           

8,313 

8552 

Winton 

7989 

8,508 

Abilene 

26,612 

23,175 

Minersville 

8,686 

9,392 

Yeadon  . 

8,524 

5,430 

Alamo  Heights 

5,700 

3,874 

Monaca 

7061 

4641 

York  

56,712 

55,254 

Alice 

7792 

4,239 

Monessen     . 

20,257 

20,268 

Amarillo 

51,686 

43,132 

Monongahela  City 

8,825 

8,675 

RHODE  ISLAND 

Austin 

87,930 

53,120 

Morrisville 

5,493 

5,368 

Barrington  town  b     . 

6,231 

5,162 

Bay  City 

6,594 

4,070 

Mount  Carmcl 

17,780 

17,967 

Bristol  town  b 

11,159 

11,953 

Beaumont 

59,061 

57,732 

Mount  Lebanon 

Burrillville  town  b 

8,185 

7,677 

Beeville 

6,789 

4,806 

township  6 

19,571 

13,403 

Central  Falls 

25,248 

25,898 

Big  Spring 

12,604 

13,735 

Mount  Oliver 

6,981 

7,071 

Cranston 

47,085 

42,911 

Bonham 

6,349 

5,655 

Mount  Pleasant 
Munhall    .. 

5,824 
13,900 

5.869 
12,995 

Cumberland  town  6 
East  Providence 

10,625 

10,304 

Borger 
Brady 

10,018 
5,002 

6,532 
3983 

Nanticoke 

24,387 

26,043 

town  * 

32,165 

29.995 

Breckenridge 

5,826 

7,569 

Nanty-Glo    .  . 

6,217 

5,598 

Johnston  town  * 

10,672 

9,357 

Brenham 

6,435 

5,974 

Narberth 

5,217 

4,669 

Lincoln  town  b  . 

10,577 

10,421 

Brownsville 

22,083 

22,021 

Nazareth 
New  Brighton 

5,721 
9,630 

5,505 
9,950 

Newport 
North  Providence 

30,532 

27,612 

Brown  wood 
Bryan 

13,398 
11,842 

12,789 
7,814 

New  Castle 

47,638 

48,674 

town  * 

12,156 

11,104 

Cameron 

5,040 

4,565 

New  Kensington 

24,055 

16,762 

Pawtucket    . 

75,797 

77,149 

Childress 

6,464 

7,163 

Northampton        .   . 

9,622 

9,839 

Providence     .   . 

253,504 

252,981 

Cleburne 

10,558 

11,539 

Norristown 

38,181 

35,853 

Warren  town  * 

8,158 

7,974 

Coleman 

6,054 

6,078 

North  Braddock      . 

15,679 

16,782 

Warwick. 

28,757 

23,196 

Colorado 

5,213 

4,671 

Oakrnont 
Oil  City 

6,260 
20,379 

6,027 
22,075 

Westerly  town  * 
West  Warwick  town  * 

11,199 
18,188 

10,997 
17,696 

Corpus  Christi 
Corsicana     .    . 

57,301 
15,232 

27,741 
15,202 

Old  Forge 

11,892 

12,661 

Woonsocket 

49,303 

49,376 

Crystal  City     .     .   . 

6,529 

6,609 

Olyphant 

9,252 

10,743 

Cuero 

5,474 

4,672 

Palmerton 

7,475 

7,678 

SOUTH  CAROLINA 

Dallas   ... 

294,734 

260,475 

Palmyra             .    . 

5,239 

4377 

Aiken 

6,168 

6,033 

Del  Rio 

13,343 

11,693 

Philadelphia               1 

,931,334 

1,950,961 

Anderson  . 

19,424 

14,383 

Denison 

15,581 

13,850 

Phoenixville 

12,282 

12,029 

Camden 

5,747 

5,183 

Den  ton 

11,192 

9.587 

Pitcairn 

6,310 

6,317 

Charleston 

71,275 

62,265 

Eagle  Pass    . 

6,459 

5,059 

Pittsburgh 

671,6«59 

669,817 

Chester 

6,392 

5,528 

Edmburg 

8,718 

4,821 

Pittston 

17,828 

18,246 

Clinton 

5,704 

5,643 

Electra 

5,588 

6,712 

Plains  township  * 

15,621 

16,044 

Columbia 

62,396 

51,581 

El  Paso..     . 

96,810 

102.421 

Plymouth 

15,507 

16,543 

Conway    . 

5,066 

3,011 

Ennis 

7,087 

7,069 

Pottstown 

20,194 

19,430 

Darlington 

6,236 

5,556 

Fort  Worth 

177,662 

163,447 

Pottsville    .     . 

24,530 

24,300 

Easley 

5,183 

4,886 

Gainesville.    . 

9,651 

8,915 

Prospect  Park 

5,100 

4,623 

Florence 

16,054 

14,774 

Galveston  .   .   . 

60,862 

52,938 

Punxsutawney 

9,482 

9,266 

Gaffney 

7,636 

6,827 

Goose  Creek     .  . 

6,929 

5,208 

Quakertown 

5,150 

4,883 

Georgetown  . 

5,559 

5,082 

Graham      .     . 

5,175 

4,981 

Rankin 

7,470 

7,956 

Greenville 

34,734 

29,154 

Greenville     .  . 

13,995 

12,407 

Reading 

110.568 

111,171 

Greenwood 

13,020 

11,020 

Harhngen  

13,306 

12,124 

Ridgway            .       . 
Rochester 

6,253 
7,441 

6,313 
7,726 

Hartsville 
Laurens    . 

5,399 
6,894 

5,067 
5,443 

Henderson 
Highland  Park 

6,437 
10,288 

2,932 
8,422 

St  Clair 

6,809 

7,296 

Marion 

5,746 

4,921 

Hillsboro  . 

7,799 

7,823 

St  Marys 

7,653 

7,433 

Newberry 

7,510 

7,298 

Houston  . 

384,514 

292,352 

Sayre 
Schuylkill  Haven 

7,569 
6,518 

7,902 
6,514 

Orangeburg 
Rock  Hill 

10,521 
15,009 

8,776 
11,322 

Huntsville 
Jacksonville 

5,108 
7,213 

5,028 
6,748 

Scottdale  

6,493 

6,714 

Spartanburg 

32,249 

28,723 

Kcrrvillc 

5,572 

4,546 

Scranton 

140,404 

143,433 

Sumter    .   . 

15,874 

11,780 

Kilgore  ' 

6,708 

Sewickley     . 

5,614 

5,599 

Union      .   . 

8,478 

7,419 

Kingsville     . 

7,782 

6,815 

Shaler  township  * 

11,185 

9,573 

Lamesa     . 

6,038 

3,528 

Shamokin 

18,810 

20,274 

SOUTH  DAKOTA 

Laredo 

39,274 

32,618 

Sharon                 .   .. 

25,622 

25,908 

Aberdeen           .   . 

17,015 

16,465 

Lockhart 

5,018 

4,367 

Sharpsburg 

8,202 

8642 

Brookings              .   . 

5,346 

4,376 

Longview             

13,758 

5,036 

Sharpsville  

5,194 

Huron 

10,843 

10,946 

Lubbock        

31,853 

20,520 

Shenandoah       .... 

19>90 

21,782 

Lead    ..  . 

7,520 

5>33 

Lufkin 

9,567 

7,311 

Shippensburg       .... 

5,244 

4,345 

Madison  . 

5,018 

4,289 

McAlIen 

11,877 

9,074 

Somerset 

5,430 

4,395 

Mitchell 

10,633 

10,942 

McKmney  .         .     . 

8,555 

7,307 

South  Williamsport  . 
State  College       .  .   . 

6,033 
6,226 

6,058 
4,450 

Rapid  Citv 
Sioux  Falls 

13,844 
40,832 

10,404 
33,362 

Marlin           .   .. 
Marshall  . 

6,542 
18,410 

5,338 
16,203 

Steelton  

13,115 

13,291 

Watertown 

10,617 

10,214 

Mercedes             .  .    . 

7,624 

6,608 

Stowe  township  *.     . 

12,577 

13.368 

Yankton 

6,798 

6,072 

Mexia 

6,410 

6,597 

Stroudsburg   

6,186 

5961 

Midland      

9  352 

5,484 

Summit  Hill  ... 

5,406 

5|567 

TENNESSEE 

Mineral  Wells    ...    . 

6,303 

5,986 

Sunbury  
Swissvalc  .  .  >     .       • 

15,462 
15,919 

15,626 
16,029 

Alcoa 
Athens 

5,131 
6,930 

5,255 
5  385 

Mission              .  . 
Nacogdoches  

5,982 
7538 

5,120 
5,687 

9,234 

9,133 

Bnstol  * 

14,004 

12,005 

Navasota    . 

6,138 

5^28 

Tamaqua  

12,486 
9,846 

12,936 

Chattanooga 
ClarksvilJe 

128,163 
11,831 

119,798 
9,242 

New  Braunfels  .  .     . 
Odessa  

6,976 
9,573 

6,242 
2,407 

Taylor       

?',382 

10',428 
8027 

Cleveland  .   . 
Columbia     .  .  • 

11351 
10,579 

9136 

M8 

Orange      
Palestine  

7472 
12,144 

7,913 
11,445 

Titusville.        .   .   . 

8,126 

8,055 

Dyersburg 

10,034 
8.516 

8,733 
a  001 

Pampa  

12,895 
18,678 

15J649 

Turtle  Creek    

9,805 

10,690 

caizaoeimun 

6,784 

5'544 

Plamview  

8263 

8,834 

8,845 

9,042 

H&rH  ^^ 

5,620 

4*588 

Port  Arthur  .  . 

46,140 

50,902 

Uniontown  

21,819 

19,544 

Humboldt  

5,160 

4|613 

Robstown  

6,780 

4183 

POPULATION  OP  THE  U.  S. 


616 


POPULATION  OP  THE  U.  S. 


POPULATION  OF  CITIES  AND  OTHER  URBAN  PLACES  OF  5000  OR  MORE,  BY  STATES-  1940  AND 


Place 

1940 

1930 

Plact 

1940 

1930 

Place 

1940 

1930 

TEXAS—  Con. 

VIRGINIA  —  Con  . 

WEST  VIRGINIA  —  Con. 

Rusk 

.  . 

5,699 

3,859 

37,067 

34,417 

Wheeling  .. 

61,099 

61,659 

San  Angelo  . 

.  .     .  . 

25,802 

25,308 

Norfolk 

144,332 

129,710 

Williamson   ... 

8,366 

9,410 

San  Antonio 
San  Benito  . 

...     . 

253,854 
9,501 

231,542 
10,753 

Petersburg 
Portsmouth 

30,631 
50,745 

28,564 
45704 

m  WISCONSIN 

San  Marcos  . 

6,006 

5,134 

Pulaski 

8,792 

7,168 

9,495 

8,610 

Seguin  . 
Sherman  .  . 

7,006 
17,156 

5,225 
15,713 

Radford 
Richmond 

6,990 
193,042 

6,227 
182,929 

Appleton        ,   .  . 

28,436 
11,101 

25,267 
10,622 

Sulphur  Springs 

6,742 

5,417 

Roanoke 

69,287 

69,206 

Baraboo 

6,415 

5,545 

Sweetwater  . 

10,367 

10,848 

Salem 

5,737 

4,833 

Beaver  Dam 

10,356 

9,867 

Taylor.     ... 

.   . 

7,875 

7,463 

South  Boston 

5,252 

4,841 

Beloit 

25,365 

23,611 

Temple  .    . 

m 

15344 

15,345 

South  Norfolk   ...    . 

8,038 

7,857 

Chippewa  Falls  .  . 

10,368 

9,539 

Terrell     
Texarkana,  Tex'     . 

10,481 
17,019 

8,795 
16,602 

Staunton               .   . 
Suffolk.              .  .     . 

13,337 
11,343 

11,990 
10,271 

Cudahy 
De  Pere           .     .  . 

10,561 
6373 

10,631 
5521 

Texas  City  . 
Tyler 

5748 
28,279 

3534 
17,113 

Waynesboro        ..   . 
Winchester          .     . 

7373 
12,095 

6,226 
10,855 

Eau  Claire 
Fond  du  Lac  . 

30,745 
27209 

26,287 
26,449 

University  Pa 

rk 

14,458 

4,200 

Fort  Atkinson    . 

6,153 

5,793 

Uvalde    .. 

•  • 

6,679 

5,286 

Green  Bay 

46,235 

37415 

Vernon  .  . 

9.277 

9  137 

STATE  OF  WASHINGTO 

if 

Janesville 

22,992 

21,628 

Victoria 

11566 

7,421 

Anacortes 

5,875 

6,564 

Kaukauna 

7,382 

6*581 

Waco.     .. 
Waxahachie 

55,982 
8,655 

52,848 
8,042 

Aberdeen             .   .  . 
Belhngham         

18,846 
29,314 

21,723 
30,823 

Kenosha         .  .     . 
La  Crosse  . 

48,765 
42,707 

50,262 
39,614 

Weatherford 

5,924 

4,912 

Bremerton 

15,134 

10,170 

Madison 

67,447 

57,899 

Weslaco    . 

6,883 

4,879 

Centralia 

7,414 

8,058 

Manitowoc 

24,404 

22,963 

West  Univers 

ty 

Ellensburg 

5,944 

4,621 

Marinette 

14,183 

13,734 

Place. 

9,221 

1,322 

Everett                .     . 

30,224 

30,567 

Marshfield 

10,359 

8,778 

Wichita  Falls 

. 

45,112 

43,960 

Hoquiam 

10,835 

12,766 

Menasha 

10,481 

9,062 

f» 

Kelso 

6,749 

6,260 

Menomome 

6,582 

5,595 

UTAH 
Brigham.  ... 
Logan    .  ... 
Murray  

5,641 
11,868 
5,740 
43,688 

5,093 
9,979 
5,172 
40,272 

Longview         .  . 
Olympia 
Port  Angeles 
Puyallup 
Seattle 

12,385 
13,254 
9,409 
7,889 
368,302 

10,652 
11,733 
10,188 
7,094 
365,583 

Merrill 
Milwaukee 
Monroe 
Neenah 
Oconto 

8.711 
587,472 
6,182 
10,645 
S,362 

8.458 
578,249 
5,015 
9,151 
5,030 

Provo    .         .   . 
Salt  Lake  City 
South  Salt  Lake  «      . 
Tooele  .       . 

5,214 
18,071 
149,934 
5,701 
5,001 

4,084 
14,766 
140,267 

5,135 

Spokane 
Tacoma 
Vancouver 
Walla  Walla 
Wenatchee 

122,001 
109.408 
18,788 
18,109 
11,620 

115,514 
106,817 
15,766 
15,976 
11,627 

Oshkosh 
Portage 
Racine 
Rhmelander 
Rice  Lake 

39,089 
7,016 
67,195 
8,501 
5,719 

40,108 
6,308 
67,542 
8,019 
5,177 

VERMONT 

Yakima 

27,221 

22,101 

Shawano 

5^65 

4,188 

Barre 

10,909 

11,107 

Sheboygan 

40,638 

39,251 

Benn  ington 

7628 

7  390 

Shorewood 

15,184 

13,479 

Brattleboro 
Burlington 
Montpeher 
Rutland 
St.  Albans 

9,622 
27,686 
8,006 
17,082 
8,037 

8>09 
24,789 
7,837 
17,315 
8020 

WEST  VIRGINIA 
Beckley     . 
Bluefield  i 
Charleston 
Clarksburg 

12,852 
20,641 
67,914 
30,579 

9,357 
19,339 
60,408 
28,866 

South  Milwaukee 
Sparta 
Stevens  Point 
Sturgeon  Bay 
Superior 

5|820 
15,777 
5,439 
35,136 

10,706 
4,949 
13,621 
4,983 
36,113 

St.Jjohnsbury 

7437 
5  182 

7,920 
4  943 

Dunbar 
Elkins 

5,266 
8,133 

4,189 
7,345 

Two  Rivers 

Watcrtown 

10,302 
11,301 

10,083 
10,613 

Wmooski 

6^036 

5|308 

Fairmont 
Grafton 

23,105 
7,431 

23,159 
7,737 

Waukesha 
Waupun 

19,242 
6,798 

17,176 
5,768 

VIRGINI 

A 

Hmton 

5,815 

6,654 

Wausau 

27,268 

23,758 

Alexandria 
Arlington  County  *  . 

33,523 
57,040 

24,149 
26,615 

Hollidays  Cove      . 
Hunting  ton 

6,137 
78,836 

4,480 
75,572 

Wauwatosa 
West  Albs 

27,769 
36,364 

21,194 
34,671 

Bristol  *     .  . 

9,768 

8,840 

Keyset    . 

6,177 

6,248 

West  Bend 

5,452 

4,760 

Charlottes  vilh 

:. 

19,400 

15,245 

Logan.     . 

5,166 

4,396 

West  Milwaukee      .  . 

5,010 

4,168 

Clifton  Forge 
Covington 
Danville 

6,461 
6,300 
32,749 

6,839 
6,538 
22,247 

Martinsburg 
Morgantown 
Moundsville 

15,063 
16,655 
14,168 

14,857 
16,186 
14,411 

Whitefish  Bay 
Wisconsin  Rapids 

9,651 
11,416 

5,362 
8,726 

Fredericksburj 

\    ... 

10,066 

6,819 

Parkersburg  .    ... 

30,103 

29,623 

WYOMING 

Hampton 

5,898 

6,382 

Princeton         .   . 

7,426 

6,955 

Casper 

17,964 

16,619 

Hamsonburg 

8,768 

7,232 

Richwood 

5,051 

5,720 

Cheyenne  .  . 

22,474 

17,361 

Hopewell 

8,679 

11,327 

South  Charleston    . 

10,377 

5,904 

Laramie  .   . 

10,627 

8,609 

Lynchburg 
Martinsville*. 

44,541 
5177 
10,080 

40,661 
4,156 
7,705 

Welch 
Wellsburg.    .. 
Weston 

6,264 
6,255 
8,268 

5,376 
6,398 
8,646 

Rawlms    ..   . 
Rock  Springs     . 
Sheridan     

5531 
9,827 
10,529 

4,868 
8,440 
8,536 

•  Population  of  Texarkana  city,  Texas,  17,019  in  1940,  16,602  in  1930  »  Classified  as  urban  under  special  rule  •  Incorporated  since 
1930  '  The  1930  published  figures  for  Vallejo  city,  California,  corrected  by  inclusion  of  Mare  Island  Naval  Reservation  (1 ,596) .  •  South 
Jacksonville  city.  Florida,  with  a  1930  population  of  5,597  was  incorporated  in  Jacksonville  city  in  1932  /  The  1930  published  figures  for 
Evanston  city,  Illinois,  corrected  by  exclusion  of  New  Trier  and  Niles  townships  (218),  erroneously  returned  as  in  Evanston  city  in  1930 
s  The  1930  published  figures  for  Devils  Lake  city  corrected  by  inclusion  of  North  Dakota  School  for  Deaf  and  Dumb  (68)  »  The  1930 
published  figures  for  Lansdowne  borough  and  for  Upper  Darby  township,  Pennsylvania,  corrected  by  transfer  of  the  population  (519)  of 
St  Vincent's  Home  from  Lansdowne  to  Upper  Darby.  Upper  Darby  township  classified  as  urban  under  special  rule.  •  Population  of 
Bristol  city,  Virginia,  9,768  in  1940;  8,840  in  1930  i  Population  of  Texarkana  city,  Arkansas,  11,821  in  1940,  10,764  in  1930  »  Popula- 
tion of  Bristol  city,  Tennessee,  14,004  in  1940,  12,005  in  1930  <  Population  of  Bluefield  town,  Virginia,  3,921  in  1940;  3,906  m  1930. 


change  represents  an  increase  in  population  of  5.0 
per  cent  between  1930  and  1940,  as  compared  with 
23.7  per  cent  for  the  same  cities  between  1920  and 
1930.  It  is  evident  from  these  figures  that  the  larger 
cities  have  been  growing  much  less  rapidly  since 
1930  than  during  the  preceding  decade. 

The  number  of  cities  with  a  population  of  100,- 
000  or  more  (page  607)  was  one  less  in  1940  than 
in  1930—92  as  compared  with  93.  Sacramento, 
Calif.,  and  Charlotte,  N.C.,  were  newcomers  to  the 
list,  while  El  Paso,  Tex.,  Lynn.  Mass ,  and  Evans- 
ville,  Ind.,  dropped  below  100,000  between  1930 
and  1940. 

New  York  remained  the  largest  city  in  the  Unit- 


ed States  by  a  wide  margin  over  Chicago.  Within 
the  first  ten  cities,  the  only  change  in  rank  resulted 
from  the  passing  of  St.  Louis  by  Baltimore.  Miami 
jumped  all  the  way  from  seventy-eighth  to  forty- 
eighth,  whereas  Elizabeth,  N.J.,  dropped  from 
seventy-third  to  eighty-first.  It  should  be  noted  that 
changes  in  rank  among  the  smaller  cities  in  this 
group— say  those  under  200,000— ^are  of  little  rela- 
tive significance,  since  they  may  result  from  very 
small  differences  in  actual  population  gain. 

Twenty-eight  of  the  cities  lost  population  be- 
tween 1930  and  1940,  as  compared  with  only  four 
of  the  same  cities  between  1920  and  1930.  Three 
cities,  Fall  River  and  Lowell,  Mass.,  and  Wilming- 


PORTO  SANTO  ISLAND 


617 


PORTUGAL 


ton,  Del.,  reversed  declines  observed  between  1920 
and  1930  and  showed  slight  increases  in  the  last 
decade.  Only  one  city,  Washington,  D.C.,  grew 
more  rapidly  between  1930  and  1940  than  between 
1920  and  1930. 

The  most  rapid  growth  between  1930  and  1940 
occurred  in  Miami,  Fla.t  which  increased  by  55.6 
per  cent.  San  Diego,  Calif.  (37.4  per  cent),  and 
Washington,  D.C  (362  per  cent),  were  second 
and  third,  respectively.  It  may  be  noted  that  no 
city  in  the  New  England  or  Middle  Atlantic  Divi- 
sion shows  an  increase  of  more  than  10  per  cent 

See  PLANNING;  articles  on  States  of  the  United 
States;  UNITED  STATES.  For  population  move- 
ments, see  AGRICULTURE;  IMMIGRATION;  JEWS; 
REFUGEES. 

PORTO  SANTO  ISLAND.  See  MADEIRA 
ISLAND. 

PORTS  AND  HARBORS.  Few  important 
developments  in  this  country  are  on  record,  apart 
from  the  usual  and  continuing  enlargement  and 
deepening  of  channels,  and  the  extension  of  dock 
sheds  and  other  facilities.  Instead  of  the  usual 
comprehensive  River  and  Harbor  Bill,  authorizing 
innumerable  projects,  large  and  small,  Congress  in 
1940  passed  a  bill  authorizing  $37,000,000  for  proj- 
ects considered  important  in  the  scheme  for  nation- 
al defense. 

Most  ports  date  from  early  times  and  have 
grown  up  with  the  cities  of  which  they  are  a  part. 
But  occasionally  a  new  port  is  established  under 
special  conditions.  An  example  of  this  is  the  port 
of  Hueneme,  in  California,  75  miles  north  of  Los 
Angeles,  which  was  opened  with  ceremony  on 
July  6.  Two  rock  jetties  protect  an  entrance  chan- 
nel 400  ft  wide  and  leading  to  a  basin  1200  x  1400 
ft ,  from  which  open  slips  for  vessels.  One  slip, 
300  ft.  wide,  has  1000  ft.  of  wharf  or  quay  with 
freight  sheds.  The  purpose  of  this  new  port  is  to 
accommodate  shipping  which  serves  a  large  local 
district,  and  the  project  was  financed  entirely  by  a 
bond  issue  of  the  Oxnard  County  Port  District. 

In  the  harbor  of  New  York,  the  new  municipal 
Bayonne  Terminal,  completed  by  the  city  of  Ba- 
yonne,  N.J.,  consists  of  a  quay  with  9300  ft.  of 
berthing,  sufficient  for  15  to  18  modern  freight 
steamers.  It  is  approached  from  the  land  by  a  long 
earth  embankment  or  causeway  across  shallow  wa- 
ter. A  new  dry-dock  is  planned  for  New  York, 
1200  ft.  long,  as  in  the  new  locks  for  the  Panama 
Canal,  and  sufficient  to  accommodate  the  45,000- 
ton  battleships  now  being  built.  It  is  estimated  to 
cost  $57,000,000,  and  may  be  located  adjacent  to 
the  new  Bayonne  Terminal,  which  the  Federal 
government  has  proposed  to  purchase  for  $3,500,- 
000  to  serve  as  a  naval  supply  depot. 

A  rail-and-water  terminal  on  the  James  River  at 
Richmond,  Va.,  opened  in  1940,  is  90  miles  from 
the  Atlantic,  but  with  a  channel  depth  of  25  ft.  for 
navigation.  It  has  a  concrete  wharf  1250  ft  long, 
two  concrete  warehouses,  and  a  turning  basin  1600 
x  700  ft.  Its  cost  was  about  $3,526,000.  Anticipat- 
ing increased  traffic  with  the  possible  extension  of 
canalization  of  the  Mississippi  River  above  the 
Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  the  city  of  Minneapolis  has 
planned  harbor  works  to  cost  some  $10,000,000,  and 
in  1940  it  authorized  bonds  for  $100,000  for  a  study 
of  the  project.  But  as  Federal  resources  are  now 
being  concentrated  on  defense  measures,  it  is  like- 
ly that  extending  navigation  farther  up  the  river 
will  be  postponed  indefinitely.  The  city  now  has  a 
small  terminal  which  handles  package  freight, 
grain,  and  coal.  At  Mobile,  Ala.,  the  growth  of 
the  shipping  business  has  necessitated  the  con- 


struction of  an  additional  pier  and  large  transit 
shed  for  the  Alabama  State  Docks. 

Harbors  and  ports  in  war-torn  foreign  countries 
have  been  subjected  to  savage  destructive  attacks 
by  guns  and  bombs,  and  many  large  works  have 
been  damaged  or  virtually  destroyed.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  closing  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Suez  route  to  the  Far  East  for  commercial  ship- 
ping has  diverted  traffic  to  the  old  and  longer  route 
around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  As  a  result  there 
has  been  such  a  shipping  boom  and  congestion  of 
accommodations  for  vessels  at  Cape  Town  that  it 
has  been  necessary  to  expedite  large  improvements 
to  the  harbor.  An  extensive  program  of  improve- 
ment of  enlargement  had  been  adopted,  and  planned 
to  cover  a  term  of  years,  but  the  work  has  been 
rushed  and  is  to  be  practically  completed  in  1941. 
It  includes  a  large  area  of  land  reclaimed  from 
the  sea. 

The  existence  of  the  port  of  Shanghai,  on  the 
Yangtse  River,  in  China,  was  reported  last  spring 
as  threatened  by  a  tendency  of  the  river  to  change 
its  course,  and  by  a  possible  breaking  through  of 
the  Yellow  River  into  the  valley  of  the  Yangtse. 
Levees  were  planned  to  hold  the  rivers  in  check, 
but  war  conditions  prevented  their  construction. 
In  Costa  Rica,  a  new  port  at  Golfito  has  been  cre- 
ated by  the  United  Fruit  Co.,  of  Boston,  for  its 
growing  traffic  with  Central  America;  this  com- 
pany carries  out  its  harbor  developments  with  its 
own  organization,  under  concessions. 

See  ENGINEERS,  U.S. 

E.  E.  RUSSELL  TRATMAN. 

PORTUGAL.  A  republic  of  southwestern  Eu- 
rope. Capital,  Lisbon  (Lisboa). 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  is  35,582 
sq.  mi.  (continental,  34,386;  Azores  and  Madeira, 
1196),  and  the  population  was  estimated  at  7,460,- 
000  on  Jan.  1,  1939  (6,825,883  at  the  1930  census). 
Living  births  in  1939,  26.5  per  1000;  deaths,  155 
per  1000.  Marriages,  1938,  49,016  (6.6  per  1000) ; 
divorces,  822.  The  1930  populations  of  the  chief 
cities  were:  Lisbon  (Lisboa),  594,390  (1936  esti- 
mate, 650,000)  ;  Oporto  (Porto),  232,280;  Setubal, 
46,398;  Funchal  (in  Madeira),  31,352;  Coimbra, 
27,333;  Braga,  26,692;  fivora,  22,061. 

Colonial  Empire.  The  overseas  possessions  of 
Portugal  occupy  an  area  of  approximately  808,363 
square  miles.  In  1938  the  population  was  estimated 
to  total  9,405,000.  Colonies  not  listed  in  the  ac- 
companying table  will  be  found  in  separate  articles 
under  their  respective  titles:  Namely,  ANGOLA, 
CAFE  VERDE  ISLANDS,  MACAO,  MOZAMBIQUE. 


Colony  (Capital) 

Portuguese  Guinea  (Bolama) 
Portuguese  India  *  (Nova-Goa) 
Sio  Thorn*  and  Principe  (St  Thome1) 
Timor,  Portuguese  (Dili) 


Sq  mi  Population 

13,830  415.220* 

1,538  601,000* 

386  59,000* 

7,308  463,796* 


•1938  estimate  •Includes  Daman,  Diu,  and  Goa.  «1936 
census. 

National  Defense.  Military  service  is  com- 
pulsory. The  troops  in  active  service  included  an 
air  force  and  a  motorized  regiment  and  numbered 
28,975  officers  and  men  in  July,  1939 ;  this,  about 
the  normal  effective  force  in  time  of  peace,  could 
be  increased  by  drawing  on  a  body  of  trained  re- 
serves ;  late  in  1939  the  army  on  active  duty  was 
reported  at  a  considerably  higher  figure.  The  navy 
is  composed  of  7  escort  vessels,  5  destroyers,  1 
torpedo  boat,  7  gunboats,  3  submarines,  and  several 
auxiliary  and  noncombatant  vessels.  The  naval  per- 


PORTUGAL 


618 


PORTUGAL 


aonnel  at  the  outset  of  1939  numbered  about  6300. 

Education  and  Religion.  Education  is  com- 
pulsory. The  census  of  1930  indicated  that  67.8  per 
cent  of  the  population  were  illiterate.  Efforts  to 
spread  elementary  instruction  were  thereafter  in- 
tensified. In  1938  the  public  elementary  schools 
numbered  7937;  teachers,  10,149;  pupils,  458,463. 
In  addition,  individuals  hired  by  the  government 
gave  elementary  instruction  in  small  villages  to 
some  50,044  pupils.  Secondary  schools  numbered 
43  and  had  958  teachers  and  18,532  pupils.  The 
three  universities  and  their  totals  of  students  were 
those  of  Lisbon,  3035;  Coimbra.  1631;  Oporto, 
1213.  The  Roman  Catholic  faith  prevails.  The 
government  maintains  religious  liberty  for  the  in- 
dividual but  signed  in  1940  a  concordat  with  the 
Holy  See  assuring  the  preservation,  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  of  several  specific  rights. 

Production.  Portugal's  chief  fields  of  econom- 
ic production  are  agriculture,  mining,  and  fishing. 
Totals,  yearly  (1939  except  where  otherwise  in- 
dicated), of  leading  products:  Meat,  67,700  met- 
ric tons;  fish,  180,400  metric  tons  (not  to  count 
some  kinds  otherwise  measured) ,  value  $7,160,000 ; 
wheat,  5,161,000  quintals;  maize,  3,647,000  quin- 
tals; rye,  988,000  quintals;  oats,  911,000  quintals; 
barley,  392,000  quintals ;  potatoes,  6,060,000  quin- 
tals; rice  (1938),  684,000  quintals;  wine,  7,831,000 
hectoliters;  olive  oil  (1938),  334,000  quintals; 
wool,  9000  metric  tons.  Mineral  products,  in  metric 
tons,  for  1939:  Coal,  313,000;  pyrites,  673,000; 
copper  (1938),  4900;  lead,  800,  tin,  1400;  tungsten 
trioxidc,  2400.  Gold  (1938),  192  kilograms,  val- 
ue $216,020.  Manufactured  products  included,  for 
1939,  297,000  metric  tons  of  cement  and  175  metric 
tons  of  rayon;  for  1938,  374,288  pair  of  shoes  and 
17,044  metric  tons  of  paper.  A  leading  industry, 
the  making  of  cotton  goods,  employed  some  25,000 
persons.  The  canning  of  sardines,  largely  for  ex- 
port, ranked  second  among  manufactures. 

Foreign  Trade.  For  1939,  imports  of  merchan- 
dise totaled  2,067,000,000  escudos ;  exports  of  mer- 
chandise, 1,339,000,000  escudos.  In  trade  with  the 
United  States,  Portugal's  imports  rose  to  $18,146,- 
290  for  1940,  from  $10,002,786  for  1939;  exports, 
to  $11,084,579  (1940),  from  $6,453,640  (1939). 
The  rise  in  the  U.S.  part  of  the  Portuguese  for- 
eign trade  coincided  with  obstacles  that  war  put 
hi  the  way  of  usual  commerce  with  many  other 
countries. 

Finance.  Totals,  in  escudos  (worth  about  4 
cents  in  U.S.  money),  of  the  budget  for  1940  fol- 
low, with  1939  figures  in  parenthesis :  All  receipts, 
2,800,800,000  (2,815,200,000);  extraordinary  re- 
ceipts, 759,000,000  (786,000,000),  of  which  735,- 
000,000  (776,500,000)  from  loans;  expenditures, 
2,799,400,000  (2,813,200,000),  of  which  extraor- 
dinary expenditure  constituted  769,500,000  (793,- 
400,000).  Public  debt  at  the  end  of  1938  amounted 
to  7,192,100,000  escudos,  of  which  3,182,700,000  ex- 
ternal. Public  debt,  Jan.  1,  1940,  about  7,511,000,- 
000  escudos  (bonded,  6,360,789,000). 

Transportation.  Portugal  had  about  2232  miles 
of  railway  line,  including  463  miles  of  narrow 
gauge,  in  1938.  The  merchant  marine's  steamships 
totaled  225,000  gross  metric  tons  in  1939 ;  motor- 
ships,  33,000.  Ships  entering  the  port  of  Lisbon  in 

1938  numbered  9457  and  aggregated  30,309,910 
tons.  After  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War  in 

1939  the  entries  fell  off  greatly  and  held  below 
normal  until  May,  1940.  Thereafter  they  were  re- 
ported to  have  made  a  sharp  rally.  The  rise  of 
Lisbon  daring  the  European  War,  to  a  place  of 
great  importance  in  civil  aviation,  led  to  the  con- 


struction in  1940  of  an  adequate,  separate  airport 
for  overland  airplanes,  at  Portela  de  Sacavem,  in 
the  outskirts  of  the  city.  A  port  at  Cabo  Ruivo 
serves  oversea  airplanes.  By  this  port  Pan  Ameri- 
can Airways  operates  a  frequent  service  to  the 
United  States,  opened  in  1939.  The  British  Over- 
seas Airways  Corporation  started  trips  twice  a 
week  between  London  and  Lisbon  in  1940.  Service 
by  air  is  maintained  with  Italy ;  with  Berlin,  it  was 
opened  in  October,  1940. 

Government.  Under  a  constitution  adopted 
Mar.  19,  1933,  Portugal  is  governed  as  a  corpora- 
tive State.  It  has  as  its  executive  head  a  President, 
elected  by  the  vote  of  the  people  to  a  term  of  seven 
years.  The  people  also  elect  a  National  Assembly, 
serving  for  four  years.  The  popular  vote  extends 
to  both  sexes  but  is  restricted,  unequally  as  to  the 
two,  by  requirements  of  literacy  or  of  the  payment 
of  direct  taxes.  A  corporative  Chamber  of  79  ap- 
pointed members  represents  the  interests  of  local 
"autarchies"  and  of  certain  social  groups,  admin- 
istrative, economic,  cultural,  and  moral.  But  one 
single  political  party  is  allowed  to  function.  En- 
titled the  National  Union,  it  supports  the  govern- 
ment of  the  President.  The  President  is  assisted 
by  a  cabinet,  not  amenable  to  the  will  of  the  legis- 
lators. President,  Gen.  Antonio  Oscar  de  Fragoso 
Carmona  (elected,  without  opposition,  Feb.  17, 
1935).  Premier,  Minister  of  Finance,  War,  and 
Foreign  Affairs,  Dr.  Antonio  de  Oliveira  Salazar. 

HISTORY 

The  Portuguese  government  had  to  accomplish  a 
difficult  task  in  1940.  Last  of  the  European  con- 
tinental States  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  untied  to 
German  hegemony,  it  strove  to  maintain  its  ancient 
commercial  and  territorial  accord  with  Great  Brit- 
ain and  to  retain  Germany's  good  will.  Holding 
colonies  certain  to  be  coveted  by  the  Axis  powers, 
it  could  not  hope  to  escape  a  shearing  of  its  golden 
fleece  if  it  put  itself  in  those  powers'  hands.  The 
country's  trade  suffered  from  the  scarcity  of  ship- 
ping to  bring  and  take  what  it  must  buy  and  sell. 
Refugees,  often  distressed  fugitives,  from  France 
and  more  distant  points  of  origin,  pressed  in  upon 
Portugal,  straining  its  means  to  maintain  them. 
The  country  had  no  such  armed  forces  as  could  re- 
pel a  serious  attack  by  land  or  hold  its  colonies; 
it  could  ill  afford  even  moderate  increase  of  arma- 
ment. 

Foreign  Policy.  The  salient  event  in  Premier 
Salazar' s  treatment  of  foreign  affairs  was  the  con- 
clusion, at  the  outset  of  August,  of  an  agreement 
with  Spain,  binding  the  two  governments  to  take 
counsel  together  in  case  a  threat  to  the  security  or 
independence  of  either  should  arise.  The  agree- 
ment, signed  at  Lisbon,  July  30,  formed  an  annex 
to  the  existing  treaty  of  non-aggression,  concluded 
in  1939.  It  was  not  represented  as  binding  either 
party  to  defend  the  other  if  attacked.  Since  the 
existing  Spanish  government  held  definitely  friend- 
ly relations  with  Germany,  Portugal's  forming 
a  closer  bond  with  Spain  carried  her  closer  to 
Germany  and  in  appearance  at  least,  loosened  the 
old  bond  with  Britain.  So  far  as  the  year's  further 
developments  revealed,  it  left  Anglo-Portuguese 
relations  as  good  as  ever.  No  more  than  Portugal 
did  Spain  evidence  much  ardor  for  positive  action 
on  the  side  of  Germany  and  Italy,  nor  did  either 
betray  enthusiasm  for  the  extension  of  the  war  in- 
to the  Peninsula.  A  dispatch  in  the  New  York 
Times  of  December  25  indicated  that  p  Portugal 
German  propaganda,  agents  in  the  guise  of  com- 
mercial travelers,  and  tools  among  the  police  were 


PORTUGUESE  BAST  AFRICA 


619 


POTASH 


rife,  as  though  laying  the  way  for  possible  military 
penetration.  The  fact  that  Portugal,  while  free 
and  neutral,  afforded  to  both  the  warring  sides  a 
passage  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  between  the  outer 
world  and  the  European  continent,  gave  both  the 
adversaries  some  incentive  to  respect  the  country's 
status. 

Late  in  July  reports  from  London  told  of  Ger- 
man moves  suggestive  of  a  design  to  make  use  of 
Portuguese  islands  in  the  Atlantic — the  Azores 
and  Madeira— for  harrying  British  tankers  con- 
veying oil  from  Caribbean  ports.  On  July  25,  a 
few  days  before  the  conclusion  of  the  Portuguese- 
Spanish  agreement  mentioned  above,  the  British 
Government  announced  that  it  had  agreed  with 
Spain  and  Portugal  to  let  Spain  obtain  wheat  in 
limited  quantity  from  British  Imperial  sources  and 
other  goods  from  Portuguese  colonies. 

Economic  Situation.  A  slump  in  commerce 
overseas,  unemployment,  and  scarcity  of  many 
sorts  of  goods  resulted  from  the  economic  disloca- 
tions inflicted  by  the  war.  The  supply  both  of  coal 
and  of  gasoline  ran  low.  Locomotives  were  report- 
ed late  in  the  year  to  be  burning  wood,  except  in 
the  cases  of  important  passenger  trains.  Fewer 
entries  of  ships  not  only  limited  the  exports  and 
imports  by  sea  but  deprived  many  maritime  work- 
ers of  their  living.  Exports  failing,  imports  of 
many  unessential  goods  were  suspended.  The  ab- 
sence of  the  usual  stream  of  tourists  hurt  conti- 
nental Portugal  and,  still  more,  Maderia  and  the 
Azores.  To  offset  somewhat  the  difficulties  of  the 
year,  there  sprang  up,  after  the  fall  of  France,  an 
exportation  of  tungsten,  tin,  sardines,  and  bacon 
overland  to  Germany  The  influx  of  fugitives 
from  France  and  other  lands  overcome  by  Ger- 
many increased  the  drain  on  necessities.  Portugal 
admitted,  from  June  through  August,  many  thou- 
sands of  persons,  mainly  at  the  French  border, 
who  presented  the  proper  visas.  Some,  but  by  no 
means  all,  brought  adequate  supplies  of  cash ;  most 
of  them  hoped  to  pass  on  to  other  countries.  At  the 
end  of  August  8,000  such  persons,  by  estimate, 
were  in  the  country.  Lack  of  ships  kept  them 
there,  though  a  considerable  number  of  others  had 
by  then  left.  More  continued  to  come.  Early  in 
September  the  government  suspended  the  entry  of 
any  more  persons  on  their  way  to  American  coun- 
tries, pending  the  departure  of  those  already  in 
Portugal  and  awaiting  passage  to  such  destina- 
tions. 

Concordat.  The  Portuguese  Government  and 
the  Vatican  ratified,  June  1,  a  concordat  determin- 
ing the  relations  of  the  government  and  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church.  The  Church,  while  not  es- 
tablished in  the  common  sense  of  the  word,  re- 
ceived specific  recognition  of  its  freedom  to  give 
religious  instruction  in  the  schools,  to  found  and 
maintain  educational  institutions  of  its  own,  to  re- 
tain possession  of  its  property,  and  (under  an  ad- 
ditional, separate  agreement)  to  conduct  missions 
in  the  colonies  subject  to  specified  regulations.  The 
Church  consented  to  submit  to  the  government  the 
names  of  intended  bishops  before  their  appoint- 
ment. The  government  undertook  to  recognize  the 
special  status  of  Catholic  marriages,  excluding 
from  the  resort  to  divorce  the  parties  thus  united. 

See  FAIRS,  EXPOSITIONS,  AND  CELEBRATIONS. 

PORTUdUESE  EAST  AFRICA.  See  MO- 
ZAMBIQUE. 

PORTUGUESE  GUINEA.  See  PORTUGAL 
under  Colonial  Empire. 

PORTUGUESE  INDIA.  See  PORTUGAL  un- 
der Colonial  Empire. 


PORTUGUESE  WEST  AFRICA.  See  AN- 
GOLA. 

POST  OFFICE  DEPARTMENT.  Oldest 
and  largest  of  Federal  functions,  a  going  concern 
when  it  was  securely  fixed  in  the  Constitution,  the 
U.S.  Post  Office  Department  is  the  executive  agen- 
cy for  the  administration  of  the  laws  of  Congress 
in  the  form  of  postal  service.  Over  400,000  persons 
earn  their  living  in  the  mail  establishment,  three- 
fourths  in  civil  service  and  the  remainder  tinder 
contract.  More  than  half  of  all  regular  government 
employees  are  engaged  in  the  inter-communication 
of  45,000  post  offices  and  the  postal  contact  with 
the  rest  of  the  world,  as  well. 

For  the  past  six  years  postal  earnings  have  been 
increasing  because  of  the  greater  hire  of  postal 
facilities  by  the  public.  From  a  low  point  in  1934 
the  total  gain  has  been  $180,215,463,  or  30  per  cent 
to  the  end  of  the  last  fiscal  year— June  30.  1940. 
In  the  same  period  postal  expense  has  risen  m  con- 
sequence of  increased  volume  of  mail  and  statu- 
tory enactments  for  the  benefit  of  postal  employ- 
ees. Again  from  a  low  point  in  1934  the  total 
increased  cost  has  been  $176,999,931,  or  27  per  cent. 
This  is  a  true  measure  of  postal  progress,  for  while 
earnings  in  fiscal  1940  are  again  an  all-time  high 
in  postal  history,  1940  expense  is  but  four  millions 
greater  than  the  all-time  high  of  1930.  In  sustain- 
ing an  increase  in  the  volume  of  business,  costs 
have  been  controlled, 

For  the  twelve  months  ended  June  30,  1940,  the 
statutory  fiscal  jyear  in  government,  the  huge  trans- 
actions from  innumerable  sources  that  produce 
postal  service,  are  seen  from  the  total  cash  turn- 
over for  the  year  at  $7,860,802,407,  as  issued  by 
the  Comptroller  General  of  the  United  States.  It 
is  more  than  all  money  in  circulation  at  any  one 
time  and  it  equals  almost  sixty  dollars  from  each 
man,  woman,  and  child  in  the  population,  passing 
through  post  offices  each  year  in  cash.  The  audited 
financial  result  for  fiscal  1940  is  a  net  postal  sur- 
plus of  $18,609,036.01,  the  sixth  surplus  in  the  past 
seven  years.  The  main  statistics  are : 


Audited  expenditure    . 
Audited  revenue    .     ... 

Gross  postal  deficit 
Deduct:  Nonpostal  items . 

Net  postal  surplus  . . 


$807,732,865 
766,948,627 

40,784,238 
59,393,274 

$  18,609,036 


During  1940  there  has  been  serious  disruption 
of  postal  service  with  European  countries  on  ac- 
count of  the  lack  of  normal  transportation  facili- 
ties due  to  war  conditions  The  volume  of  both  in- 
coming and  outgoing  mail  has  decreased  about  35 
per  cent  and  transportation  costs  have  been  in- 
creased considerably  on  account  of  circuitous  dis- 
patch necessary  to  reach  both  belligerent  and  neu- 
tral countries. 

See  AUTOMOBILES  under  Motor  Transportation. 
For  buildings,  see  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  ADMINIS- 
TRATION. 

FRANK  C.  WALKER. 

POTASH.  Domestic  production,  with  the  aid 
of  small  importations  from  France  and  Spain,  was 
able  to  meet  domestic  demand  in  1940  The  Carls- 
bad, New  Mexico,  area  wa,s  the  leading  source.  A 
third  mine  was  opened  during  1940  and  shipments 
began  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year  A  new  opera- 
tion was  notable  for  complete  mechanization  un- 
derground and  for  some  novel  chemical  features 


POTATOES 


620 


POWER  PLANTS 


in  its  treatment  plant  The  present  capacity  of 
American  producers  is  about  600,000  tons  in  terms 
of  K.O.  The  price  of  run-of -mine  salts  increased 
from  58%4  to  601  a  unit  (a  unit  equals  1  per  cent 
K,O)  due  principally  to  the  increased  cost  of  han- 
dling. The  effect  of  the  war  was  to  increase  the 
demand  and  production  of  refined  salts. 

The  Bureau  of  the  Census  published  in  1940  data 
from  the  census  of  mineral  industries,  1939,  from 
which  the  following  is  taken.  Domestic  production 
in  1939  was  532,000  short  tons  of  prepared  potas- 
sium salts,  valued  at  $10,039,000.  They  contained 
an  estimated  K,O  equivalent  of  311,000  short  tons. 
Employment  averaged  1516  wage  earners,  who  re- 
ceived $2,666,000,  or  an  average  of  about  801  per 
man-hour.  Production  was  reported  by  five  com- 
panies operating  five  mines,  including  two  natural 
brine  operations. 

See  FERTILIZERS;  GENERAL  LAND  OFFICE;  GE- 
OLOGY; NEW  MEXICO. 

H.  C.  PARMELEE. 

POTATOES.  The  1940  potato  crop  was  esti- 
mated by  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  at 
397,722,000  bu.  harvested  from  3,052,800  acres  av- 
130.3  bu.  compared  with  363,159,000  bu. 


in  1939,  3,017,700  acres,  and  120.3  bu  ;  and  the 
1929-38  average  of  366,949,000  bu.,  3,295,700  acres, 
and  111.5  bu.  The  eighteen  surplus  late  potato 
states  produced  271,439,000  bu.  and  were  led  by 
Maine  with  44,055,000  bu.,  Idaho  32,860,000,  New 
York  26,838,000,  and  Pennsylvania  24,570,000  bu. 
The  twelve  other  late  potato  states  made  41,381,- 
000  bu.,  with  Ohio  11,800,000  bu.  leading  the 
group.  These  thirty  late  potato  states  made  a  total 
of  312,820,000  bu.  The  seven  intermediate  potato 
states  led  by  Virginia  with  10,412,000  bu.  totaled 
36,207,000  bu.  and  the  twelve  early  potato  states 
led  by  California  with  10,260,000  bu.  and  North 
Carolina  with  8,720,000  bu.  totaled  48,695,000  bu. 
The  seasonal  average  price  per  bu.  (preliminary) 
received  by  farmers  in  late  potato  states  was  54.0 
cents;  in  intermediate  states  593  cents;  and  in 
early  potato  states  74.3  cents  or  a  national  average 
of  56.4  cents  and  an  estimated  value  of  production 
of  $224,431,000  in  1940  compared  to  69.3  cents  and 
$251,733,000  in  1939. 

Potato  crops  (1940)  reported  from  other  lead- 
ing producing  countries  included  Germany  2,411,- 
088,000  bu.,  Hungary  126,488,000,  Italy  109,253,- 
000,  Lithuania  97,666,000,  Sweden  82,294,000,  Yu- 
goslavia 70,179,000,  Finland  55,850,000,  Rumania 
51,405,000,  Norway  41,482,000,  and  Canada  70,- 
500,000  bu. 

POTTERY.  See  SCULPTURE. 

POULTRY.  The  close  of  1940  presented  a  gen- 
erally favorable  situation  for  the  poultry  producer. 
Domestic  demand  steadily  improved  during  the  late 
months,  which  was  reflected  in  stronger  prices  for 
all  poultry  products.  Farm  prices  for  eggs,  chick- 
ens, and  turkeys  were  31,  11,  and  2  per  cent  higher 
respectively  during  December,  1940,  than  for  the 
corresponding  period  of  1939.  Feedstuffs  were  plen- 
tiful and  the  feed-egg  price  ratio  was  more  favor- 
able to  the  poultryman  in  December  than  at  any 
time  during  the  preceding  two  years. 

Total  egg  production  in  1940  reached  38,892  mil- 
lion, 2  per  cent  above  that  of  1939  and  7  per  cent 
above  flic  preceding  10  year  average.  However, 
the  321,682,000  laying  hens  on  farms  at  the  close 
of  the  year  was  1.3  per  cent  lower  than  a  year  ear- 
lier. It  was  estimated  that  about  108  million  sala- 
ble chicks  were  produced  by  commercial  hatch- 


eries during  1940  or  10  per  cent  fewer  than  in 
1939.  However,  improved  broiler  prices  late  in  the 
year  resulted  in  a  strong  demand  for  chicks,  so 
that  hatchings  during  December,  1940,  were  20  per 
cent  higher  than  a  year  earlier.  Tentative  esti- 
mates (subject  to  change)  show  that  2,220,000,000 
Ib.  of  chickens  and  403,000,000  Ib.  of  turkeys,  on 
a  dressed  weight  basis,  were  produced  in  1940, 
10  and  2  per  cent  respectively  below  1939  levels. 
Chickens  made  up  about  11  per  cent  and  turkeys 
1.7  per  cent  of  the  total  meat  consumed  in  the 
United  States. 

A  record  crop  of  about  33,138,000  turkeys  was 
raised  in  1940,  but  heavy  losses  on  farms  during 
November  storms  reduced  the  total  marketed  to 
slightly  below  that  of  1939.  The  trend  toward  the 
production  of  earlier  maturing,  lighter  weight  tur- 
keys has  continued,  with  much  experimental  breed- 
ing work  being  directed  to  improving  this  type  of 
bird. 

A  heavier-than-normal  movement  of  poultry  in- 
to frozen  storage  during  December  brought  the 
total  stocks  at  the  end  of  the  year  to  208,234,000 
Ib.  as  compared  with  167,634,000  Ib.  a  year  earlier. 
The  stocks  of  shell  eggs  in  cold  storage  on  Jan.  1, 
1941,  totaled  618,000  cases,  16  per  cent  above  that 
at  the  beginning  of  1940.  Nearly  half  of  this  total 
was  owned  by  the  Surplus  Marketing  Administra- 
tion (q  v.)  for  relief  distribution.  Stocks  of  frozen 
eggs  at  the  end  of  the  year  totaled  72,756,000  Ib., 
which  closely  corresponds  with  the  preceding 
5-year  average  at  this  season.  Heavy  purchases  of 
eggs  were  made  under  the  Food  Stamp  Plan  (see 
Federal  Surplus  Commodities  Corporation),  reach- 
ing nearly  3  million  dozen  during  December,  1940. 
Total  distribution  of  eggs  under  this  plan  during 
the  year  was  24,840,000  dozen. 

Foreign  trade  in  poultry  products  was  of  small 
importance  during  1940.  Exports,  consisting  main- 
ly of  shell  eggs,  totaled  about  one  million  dollars, 
while  imports,  mainly  of  dried  yolks,  were  less 
than  half  as  great.  World  trade  in  eggs  was  gen- 
erally disrupted  during  the  year.  Egg  exports  from 
China,  which  have  been  at  a  low  level  since  the 
beginning  of  the  Japanese  invasion,  continued  to 
be  far  below  normal  during  1940.  Great  Britain, 
which  normally  imports  about  40  per  cent  of  its 
egg  supply,  faced  a  serious  shortage  in  this  com- 
modity as  early  as  July,  1940  Poultry  populations 
have  been  drastically  reduced  in  many  European 
countries,  as  a  result  of  declining  feed  supplies, 
since  all  major  producing  countries  are  heavily  de- 
pendent on  feed  imports. 

E.  C.  ELTING. 

POWER  PLANTS.  Following  the  1939  up- 
ward swing  in  power  plant  construction,  which 
continued  into  1940,  came  the  National  Defense 
Program,  the  effects  of  which  became  apparent  in 
the  late  summer  and  fall.  This  involved,  not  only 
further  expansion  of  capacity  by  the  electric  utili- 
ties, but  also  much  power-generating  equipment  to 
serve  newly  created  munitions  plants,  the  enlarge- 
ment of  government  arsenals  and  navy  yards,  and 
many  industrial  establishments  handling  defense 
orders  either  directly  or  indirectly.  The  power  de- 
mands created  by  the  Defense  Program  were  su- 
perimposed on  those  incident  to  a  large  commercial 
production  and  thus  established  a  new  high  mark 
in  power  plant  construction.  Added  to  this  was  the 
vast  naval  and  merchant  marine  ship-building  pro- 
gram which  involves  large  orders  for  marine  boil- 
ers and  turbines  as  well  as  auxiliary  equipment. 


POWER  PLANTS 


621 


POWER  PLANTS 


During  the  year  the  Federal  Power  Commission 
issued  a  report  containing  statistics  as  of  Dec,  31, 

1939,  covering  the  installed  capacity  in  stationary 
plants  generating  power  for  public  use,  arranged 
as  to  type  of  prime  mover  and  the  character  of 
ownership.  These  showed  40,317,924  total  installed 
kilowatts  of  which  28,046,948,  or  69.5  per  cent,  was 
in  steam  plants,  11,415,165  in  water  power,  and 
855,811  in  internal  combustion  engines.  The  total 
fuel  consumed  was  42,441,000  tons  of  bituminous 
coal,  2,244,000  tons  of  anthracite,  1,538,000  tons  of 
lignite,  17,423,000  bbl.  of  oil,  and  191,131  million 
cu.  ft  of  gas.  An  average  of  1.35  Ib.  of  coal  was 
consumed  per  kilowatt-hour  output  although  many 
of  the  more  modern  stations  produced  a  kw-hr  on 
much  less  than  one  Ib.  of  coal.  Privately  owned 
central  stations,  with  87.7  per  cent  of  the  total  ca- 
pacity, produced  90.4  per  cent  of  the  total  output 
of  electricity  exclusive  of  that  produced  by  private 
industrial  and  other  isolated  power  plants. 

Figures   covering   steam   power  added   during 

1940,  as  compiled  by  the  Edison  Electric  Institute, 
indicate  that  the  utilities  added  1,380,000  kw  of 
capacity  during  the  year,  making  allowances  for 
equipment  retired  from  service.  Their  present  con- 
struction program  calls  for  3,412,000  kw  additional 
capacity  to  be  added  in  1941.  The  topping  of  older 
stations   with  high-pressure  boilers  and  turbines 
continued,  but  the  capacity  thus  added  is  becoming 
a  smaller  percentage  of  the  total  new  construction 
because  of  the  very  considerable  number  of  new 
stations  being  built 

There  has  been  a  steady  increase  in  the  average 
capacity  of  steam  generating  units  and  turbines 
although  previous  maximum  sizes  have  not  been 
exceeded.  The  largest  boiler  ordered  during  the 
year  was  for  a  rated  steam  output  of  a  million  Ib. 
per  hour  at  1775  Ib.  pressure,  955  deg.  F  total  steam 
temperature,  and  the  largest  turbine-generator  was 
for  100,000  kw.  Nine  other  boilers  of  like  capacity, 
but  lower  pressure,  have  been  in  service  for  some 
time  as  have  also  larger  turbine-generators.  Simi- 
larly, average  steam  pressures  and  steam  tempera- 
tures are  increasing  and,  in  the  light  of  experience 
gained  during  the  last  few  years,  together  with 
advances  in  metallurgy,  the  upper  limit  of  steam 
temperature  for  regular  commercial  operation  has 
already  reached  960  deg.  F.  Where  such  high 
steam  temperatures  are  employed  the  permissible 
operating  temperatures  for  valves  and  turbine  ma- 
terials has  made  necessary  close  control  of  the 
superheat.  The  net  result  has  been  a  general  rise  in 
the  level  of  station  efficiencies,  with  a  large  num- 
ber of  plants  now  generating  a  kw-hr  on  well  under 
12,000  B.tu.  and  several  are  not  far  from  the  rec- 
ord of  10,746  B.t.u.  per  kw-hr  for  steam  plants 
operating  on  the  condensing  regenerative  cycle, 
established  by  the  Port  Washington  Station  of  the 
Wisconsin  Electric  Power  Company.  Reliability 
of  equipment  has  also  been  increased  and  thus  less- 
ened the  amount  of  reserve  capacity  needed. 

In  the  utility  field  at  least  half  the  new  steam 
generating  capacity  has  been  in  units  of  400,000 
Ib.  per  hour  and  over,  with  the  steam  pressures 
divided  between  medium  and  high  pressure.  In  gen- 
eral, the  turbine  sizes  ranged  from  50,000  to  80,000 
kw  with  a  few  units  above  or  below  these  figures. 

A  notable  advance  in  steam-generating  practice 
is  a  forced-circulation  boiler  being  built  for  the 
Somerset,  Mass.,  Station  of  the  Montaup  Electric 
Company,  which  is  scheduled  for  operation  late 
in  1941.  This  will  have  a  rated  output  of  650,000 
Ib.  of  steam  per  hour  at  2000  Ib.  pressure  and  960 
deg.  F  total  steam  temperature.  The  heat-absorbing 


surface  is  made  tip  of  circuits  of  small-diameter 
tubes  containing  inlet  orifices  to  proportion  the 
water  supplied  to  each  tube,  and  positive  circula- 
tion is  assured  by  circulating  pumps  which  function 
independent  of  the  regular  boiler-feed  pumps.  Al- 
though units  of  this  type,  but  of  much  smaller  ca- 
pacity and  lower  pressure,  are  in  operation  abroad, 
this  is  the  first  to  be  employed  on  a  commercial 
scale  in  the  United  States.  The  boiler  will  be  fired 
by  pulverized  coal  in  the  conventional  manner  and 
have  a  continuous  slag-drip  furnace  bottom.  Be- 
cause of  the  extremely  high  pressure  all  joints 
throughout  the  unit  will  be  welded. 

A  mercury  boiler  embodying  a  new  design  re- 
placed the  original  mercury  boiler  at  the  Kearny 
Station  of  the  Public  Service  Electric  &  Gas  Com- 
pany in  New  Jersey.  This  new  boiler  has  a  single 
drum,  instead  of  seven  as  in  the  first  boiler,  and 
the  furnace  is  completely  enclosed  with  tubes  con- 
taining mercury.  It  supplies  a  20,000-kw  mercury 
turbine.  The  exhaust  from  the  mercury  turbine 
generates  steam  at  355  Ib.  pressure  in  a  condenser- 
boiler  and  the  net  heat  rate  of  this  mercury-steam 
installation,  operating  on  the  binary  cycle,  on  test 
ranged  from  9168  to  10,076  B.tu.  per  kw-hr. 

Trends  in  present  steam-generator  design  in- 
clude (1)  wider  spacing  of  superheater  elements 
and  lower  gas  velocity  past  them  in  order  to  mini- 
mize slag  accumulations  on  these  surfaces ;  (2)  a 
reversion  to  conservative  furnace  heat-release  rates 
for  stationary  plant  practice;  and  (3)  the  elimina- 
tion of  intermediate  furnace  water-wall  headers  by 
welding  the  tube  ends  so  as  to  form  continuous 
tubes  the  full  height  of  the  furnace.  Research  has 
included  studies  of  heat  absorption  and  circulation ; 
investigations  of  factors  influencing  the  fluid  tem- 
perature of  ash;  further  developments  in  steam 
washing  to  minimize  the  carry-over  of  entrained 
solids  from  the  boiler  water ;  new  methods  of  com- 
batting the  presence  of  soluble  silica  compounds  in 
f  eed- water ;  and  improvements  in  pulverized -coal 
burner  design. 

There  has  been  little  change  in  industrial  power 
plant  practice,  although  larger  units  and  higher 
steam  pressures  are  being  more  widely  used  and 
the  need  for  speedy  delivery  of  equipment  and  as- 
sured reliability  has  resulted  in  innovations  giving 
place  to  well-tried  designs  of  proven  performance. 

Reviewing  the  methods  of  firing  boilers  ordered 
and  installed  during  the  year,  it  would  appear  that 
for  capacities  below  30,000  Ib.  of  steam  per  hour 
stoker  firing  is  general;  from  30,000  to  150,000  Ib. 
capacity  both  stokers  and  pulverized  coal  are  com- 
petitive, with  the  number  burning  pulverized  coal 
increasing  as  the  capacity  increases;  and  above 
150,000  Ib.  per  hour  pulverized  coal  is  predominant. 
An  exception  is  noted  in  the  case  of  two  high- 
pressure  boilers,  each  of  185,000  Ib.  output,  nearing 
completion  at  the  Cedar  Street  Station  in  Harris- 
burg,  Pa.,  each  of  which  will  be  fired  by  a  travel- 
ing-grate stoker  burning  small  reclaimed  river  an- 
thracite. These  stokers  are  the  largest  single  stok- 
ers of  their  kind  yet  built,  each  having  a  grate  area 
of  586  sq.  ft.  Use  of  the  spreader  type  stoker  has 
increased,  particularly  for  smaller  units  in  indus- 
trial plants,  although  one  installation  of  such  stok- 
ers now  under  construction  will  serve  boilers  of 
150,000  Ib.  per  hour  steam  output.  This  type  of 
stoker  has  also  been  installed  in  the  marine  field 
under  boilers  on  a  Great  Lakes  steamer. 

Oil  or  gas  in  certain  localities  is  being  used  for 
firing  boilers  of  all  sizes,  but  the  rise  in  price  of 
oil  toward  the  end  of  1939  and  the  uncertainty  of 
supply  because  of  possible  naval  demands  was  re- 


POWER  PLANTS 


622 


POWER  PLANTS 


sponsible  for  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  new  sta- 
tionary boilers  so  fired. 

The  improved  economy  of  steam  plants  has  con- 
tinually lowered  the  amount  of  coal  burned  per 
kw-hr ;  hence,  despite  the  greater  load  imposed  by 
increased  production  and  defense  demands,  it  is 
anticipated  that  coal-mining  facilities  will  be  ade- 
quate to  keep  pace  with  demands.  During  October 
the  new  minimum  bituminous  coal  prices,  as  pre- 
scribed under  the  present  Bituminous  Coal  Act, 
went  into  effect,  providing  lesser  differentials  be- 
tween the  poorer  and  the  better  grades  of  coal. 
This  has  resulted  in  an  increased  price  of  certain 
coals. 

Equipment  for  arresting  the  dust,  cinders,  and 
fly  ash  contained  in  flue  gases  is  now  being  ex- 
tensively employed  in  power  plants  where  stack 
discharge  presents  a  potential  source  of  nuisance 
to  the  community.  For  very  large  plants  the  elec- 
trostatic type  of  arrestor  predominates  but  the 
mechanical  type  is  being  used  extensively  in  the 
smaller  and  medium  size  plants,  and  recent  im- 
provements in  the  efficiency  of  the  mechanical  ar- 
restor has  resulted  in  its  application  to  several 
large  installations. 

The  steam  turbine  continues  to  be  pre-eminent 
in  the  field  of  power  generation,  for  both  central 
stations  and  industrial  power  plants  of  large  and 
medium  size,  and  use  of  hydrogen  cooling  for 
large  generators  continues  to  increase. 

The  first  3600-r.p.m.  quadruple-flow  steam  tur- 
bine-generator, a  100,000-kw  machine  operating  at 
1200  Ib.  pressure  and  950  deg.  F  steam  tempera- 
ture, went  into  service  at  Burlington,  N.J.,  last 
fall ;  and  the  largest  single-casing,  single-flow  tur- 
bine built  in  this  country,  a  unit  of  80,000  kw  ca- 
pacity at  1250  Ib.  pressure  and  900  dcg.  F  steam 
temperature  and  1800  r.p.m.,  was  placed  in  service 
in  a  new  power  station  at  Oswego,  N.Y.  The  larg- 
est 3600  r.p.m.  turbine-generator  yet  ordered  is  a 
75,000-kw  maximum  capacity  machine  for  the  new 
Wilmington  Station  of  the  City  of  Los  Angeles  to 
supplement  hydro  power  from  Boulder  Dam. 

The  first  turbine  unit  having  a  spring-mounted 
stator  core,  to  eliminate  frequency  vibration,  went 
into  operation  in  August  at  the  Westport  Station 
in  Baltimore. 

Research  in  the  field  of  turbine  materials  was 
continued,  and  at  the  Schuylkill  Station  in  Phila- 
delphia extensive  investigations  into  blade  vibra- 
tion were  carried  out  on  a  full  size  impulse  wheel 
of  10,000  kw  capacity  operating  under  actual  plant 
conditions  at  1250  Ib.  pressure  and  900  deg.  F  total 
steam  temperature.  By  means  of  mirrors  placed  in 
the  impulse  blades  and  in  the  hollow  shaft,  and  a 
light  beam,  blade  vibrations  were  recorded  on  a 
photographic  film.  From  these  studies  it  developed 
that  blade  failure  is  due  to  fatigue  and  amplified 
stress  resulting  from  resonance  set  up  by  the  shock 
of  the  dense  steam  impingement,  superimposed  on 
the  natural  period  of  vibration  of  the  blade.  This 
condition  exists  only  at  partial  loads  when  inter- 
mittent steam  admission  is  involved.  The  remedy 
appears  to  lie  in  proper  damping. 

During  1940  approximately  3%  million  h.p.  ca- 
pacity in  heavy  oil  engines  was  put  out.  This  rep- 
resented an  increase  of  about  600,000  h.p.  over 
1939.  Of  this  total,  nearly  1%  million  h  p.  went  in- 
to tractors,  tanks,  the  construction  field,  irrigation 
pumping,  and  for  mining  operations ;  about  600,000 
h.p.  was  employed  in  the  marine  field;  slightly 
more  than  this  in  general  industrial  plants :  213.000 
h.p.  in  railroads;  165,000  h.p.  in  trucks;  118.000 
h.p.  in  buses;  and  87,500  h.p.  In  municipal  light 


and  water  plants.  Only  about  10,000  h.p.  was  in- 
stalled in  the  private  utility  field.  It  is  anticipated 
that  the  defense  program  will  call  for  a  large  num- 
ber of  Diesel  engines  for  tanks  during  the  present 
year. 

The  largest  engines  for  stationary  plant  service 
were  of  3600  h.p.  and  from  this  size  down  to  1000 
h.p.  the  two-cycle  type  predominated,  with  rotative 
speeds  of  225  to  720  r.p.m.  Among  the  smaller  en- 
gines the  four-cycle  type  predominated  and  higher 
speeds  were  general. 

Some  Diesel  locomotives  of  4000  h.p.  were  put 
into  service  and  improvements  in  design  and  con- 
struction were  responsible  for  considerable  reduc- 
tion in  maintenance.  One  of  the  railroads  reports 
the  fuel  consumption  of  a  light-weight  ten-car 
Diesel-electric  train  as  1.8  gal.  per  mile. 

In  the  marine  field  a  number  of  ships  commis- 
sioned during  the  year  or  under  construction  for 
the  Maritime  Commission  are  propelled  by  Diesel 
engines  as  were  also  a  large  number  of  smaller 
craft,  including  tugboats,  ferryboats,  and  auxiliary 
naval  vessels.  In  many  of  these  smaller  installa- 
tions Diesel-electric  propulsion  was  employed. 

The  utilization  of  the  exhaust  in  waste-heat 
boilers  is  showing  a  marked  increase. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  gas  engines  built  last 
year  were  employed  to  drive  compressors  and 
pumps  in  pipe-line  service  and  a  few  were  installed 
in  industrial  power  plants.  In  general,  the  sizes 
ranged  from  25  to  800  h.p. 

Extensive  employment  of  the  Houdry  process  of 
catalytic  oil  cracking  in  the  United  States,  requir- 
ing large  volumes  of  air  at  about  50  Ib.  pressure 
and  making  available  combustion  gases  at  900  to 
950  F.,  has  been  responsible  for  the  use  of  the  gas 
turbine  which  utilizes  these  combustion  gases  in 
driving  the  air  compressor.  Some  excess  power  is 
available.  While  development  of  the  gas  turbine 
for  power  generation  has  been  continued  abroad, 
notably  in  Switzerland,  and  some  units  have  been 
built  for  standby  plants  and  for  locomotive  serv- 
ice, its  thermal  efficiency  has  not  yet  made  it  at- 
tractive for  commercial  application  in  stationary 
plants. 

The  present  total  installed  water  power  in  the 
United  States,  for  both  public  and  private  use, 
amounts  to  over  20  million  h.p.  which  is  approxi- 
mately 25  per  cent  of  the  potential  hydro  power 
available.  During  the  present  year  Federal  and  mu- 
nicipal projects  will  add  450,000  h.p.  and  private 
companies  125,000  h.p.,  although  1%  million  addi- 
tional h.p.  is  due  for  completion  during  the  next 
two  years.  While  most  of  the  new  hydro  construc- 
tion represents  Federal  projects  a  few  large  units 
are  being  put  into  extensions  of  existing  private 
plants  and  a  few  such  new  plants,  mostly  of  small 
capacity,  are  under  construction.  An  exception  is 
two  new  plants  on  the  Little  Tennessee  River  in 
North  Carolina  upon  which  construction  has  re- 
cently been  started  by  the  Nantahala  Power  & 
Light  Co.  One  of  these  will  have  a  60,000  h.p.  tur- 
bine operating  under  a  999-foot  head  and  the  other 
will  have  a  30,000  h.p,  turbine  operating  under 
1215  feet  head.  These  will  be  the  highest  heads 
thus  far  employed  in  the  East. 

The  table  on  page  623  taken  from  Power  of 
September,  1940,  lists  the  governmental  hydro 
projects,  either  built  or  under  construction. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  present  capacity  of 
Boulder  Dam,  1,212,000  h.p.,  makes  it  at  present 
the  World's  largest  power  plant,  although  its  ca- 
pacity will  be  exceeded  by  that  of  Grand  Coulee. 
A  significant  fact  is  that  75  per  cent  of  the  capaci- 


PRESBYTERIANS 


623 


PRESBYTERIANS 


Project 
Grand  Coulee 
Booneville 
Shasta 
Drop  No.  3 
Drop  No.  4 
Parker  Dam 
Boulder  Dam 
Elephant  Butte 
Seminoe 
Green  Mountain 

Slot* 
Wash. 

Wash. 
Cahf 
Calif 
Cahf. 
Ariz  &  Calif. 
Ariz  &Ncv. 
N.M. 
Wyo. 
Colo 

Kb* 

Columbia 
Columbia 
Sacramento 
All  Am  Canal 
All  Am.  Canal 
Colorado 
Colorado 
Rio  Grande 
N.  Platte 
Blue 

Cap.,H.p. 
2,742,000 
729,000 
522000 
15,000 
26,600 
160,000 
1,835,000 
34  500 
45,000 
30,000 

Initial 
Ctp.B.p. 

478,000 
137,000 
419000 
7500 
13,300 
120,000 
522,000 
34500 
45,000 
30,000 

Installed 
B.p. 

'  285,000 

""7,500 
13,300 

i,212',666 
34  500 
45,000 

On  Order 
H.p. 

478,000 
148,000 
419,000 

120,666 
115,000 

30,000 

Colo  -Big  Thompson 

Colo. 

Colo  -Big  Thompson 

135,000 

Mmidoka 
Fort  Peck 

Idaho 
Mont. 

Snake 
Missouri 

26,000 
150,000 

9,000 
70,000 

17.800 

70,000 

Sutherland 

Neb. 

N.  Platte 

35,000 

35000 

35000 

Monroe 
Columbus 
Teffery  Canyon 

Neb. 
Neb. 
Neb. 

Loup 
Loup 
Platte 

9,600 
54000 
26,000 

9,600 
54000 
26,000 

9600 
54,000 

26,000 

Johnson  No.  1 

Neb. 

Platte 

26000 

26,000 

Johnson  No  2 

Neb. 

Platte 

50,000 

25,000 

25*000 

Pensacola  Dam 

OkJa. 

Grand 

100000 

80,000 

SO.'OOO 

{Buchanan  Dam 

Texas 

Colorado 

51,900 

34,600 

34,600 

Tom  Miller 
Inks  Dam 
Marshall  Ford 
Possum  Kingdom 
Kentucky 
Pickwick 
Wilson- 
Wheeler 
Guntersville 
Hales  Bar 

ChlckamaugA 

Texas 
Texas 
Texas 
Texas 
Tenn. 
Tenn. 
Ala. 
Ala. 
Ala. 
Tenn. 
Tenn. 

Colorado 
Colorado 
Colorado 
Brazos 
Tennessee 
Tennessee 
Tennessee 
Tennessee 
Tennessee 
Tennessee 
Tennessee 

20,000 
16,000 
90,000 
51000 
220,000 
330,000 
610,000 
360,000 
136,000 
44,000 
144,000 

20,000 
16,000 
90,000 
34,000 

110,000 
260,000 
90,000 
102,000 
44,000 
108.000 

20,000 
16,000 

34,000 

'  110,000 
260,000 
90,000 
102,000 
44,000 
108,000 

90,000 

55,000 
70,000 
90,000 

Watts  Bar 

Tenn. 

Tennessee 

210,000 

126,000 

126,000 

Fort  Loudoun 
Hiwassee 
Norris 
Santee  Cooper 
Buzzards 

Tenn 
Tenn. 
Tenn 
SC 
SC 

Tennessee 
Hiwassee 
Clinch 
Santee 
Saluda 

140,000 
160,000 
132,000 
213,000 
30,000 

105,000 
80,000 
132.000 
173,300 
22200 

"80,000 
132,000 

22,200 

173,300 

ty  represented  by  Federal  projects  is  west  of  the 
Mississippi  in  an  area  that  contains  only  30  per 
cent  of  the  population  of  the  country.  It  is  also 
noteworthy  that  the  Tennessee  Valley  Authority 
has  now  under  construction  a  large  steam  plant 
to  supplement  Muscle  Shoals  power  for  the  manu- 
facture of  munitions. 

The  long-disputed  proposal  to  develop  about  2 
million  h  p.  on  the  St  Lawrence  River  has  again 
come  to  the  front  and  is  being  urged  by  the  Presi- 
dent as  a  defense  measure,  although  it  is  generally 
agreed  that  this  power  would  not  be  available  till 
1944.  Half  of  the  power  would  go  to  Canada  and 
half  to  the  United  States,  and  the  total  cost  to  the 
United  States,  including  transmission  lines,  has 
been  estimated  at  287  million  dollars  Present  plans 
call  for  developing  part  of  this  power  at  Niagara 
Falls,  through  additional  diversion  of  water 
around  the  Falls,  and  part  at  the  International 
Rapids,  at  Massena  Point.  See  ELECTRIC  LIGHT 
AND  POWER. 

ALFRED  D.  BLAKE. 

PRESBYTERIANS.  A  religious  connection 
adhering  to  a  system  of  church  government  by 
presbyters  or  elders  and  having  some  60,000,000 
members  throughout  the  world.  In  the  United 
States  there  are  ten  Presbyterian  bodies,  the  largest 
of  which  follow.  See  also  RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZA- 
TIONS 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 
of  America.  This  is  the  largest  body  of  the  Pres- 
byterian communion,  being  represented  by  churches 
in  every  State  of  the  Union  and  having  official 
mission  stations  in  Alaska,  Cuba,  Puerto  Rico,  and 
16  foreign  lands.  In  1940  its  churches  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  and  abroad  were  organized  into  42  synods 
and  276  presbyteries.  Statistics  for  the  year  ended 
Mar.  31,  1940,  showed  a  total  communicant  mem- 
bership in  full  standing  of  2,021,901,  with  adher- 
ents numbering  approximately  5,000/XX),  The  Sun- 


day school  enrollment  totaled  1,472,666.  The  num- 
ber of  churches  was  8775  and  of  ministers  9573. 
Contributions  during  the  year  amounted  to  $41,- 
862,860,  of  which  $35,211,708  was  for  current  ex- 
penses and  $6,651,152  for  benevolences.  The  Board 
of  National  Missions  received  $2,235,228;  the 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  $2,113,981 ;  the  Board 
of  Christian  Education,  $509,935 ;  and  the  Board 
of  Pensions,  $155,151,  all  from  living  givers.  The 
Church  maintains  53  colleges,  11  theological  semi- 
naries, and  2  training  schools  for  lay  workers.  It 
published  three  national  official  periodicals,  Mon- 
day Morning,  Everyone,  and  Women  and  Missions. 

The  152d  annual  General  Assembly  was  held  in 
Rochester  New  York,  May  23-29  1940.  The  Rev. 
William  Lindsay  Young,  D  D ,  LL  D.,  president 
of  Park  College,  Parkville,  Missouri,  was  elected 
Moderator,  and  the  Rev.  Ray  Freeman  Jenney, 
D.D.,  of  Syracuse,  New  York,  was  appointed 
Vice-Moderator.  The  Assembly  condemned  the  sale 
of  materials  of  war  to  aggressor  nations  as  "im- 
moral and  unchristian" ;  protested  against  "any  ef- 
fort on  the  part  of  any  government  to  abridge  the 
fundamental  rights  of  men" ;  described  as  "barba- 
rous" the  assumption  that  the  blood  of  one  people 
is  superior  to  the  blood  of  another ;  urged  the  U.S. 
government  to  co-operate  with  other  nations  in  re- 
establishing refugees ;  announced  that  "it  holds  in 
full  communion  and  fellowship  all  members  who 
on  conscientious  grounds  feel  that  they  cannot  par- 
ticipate in  military  service,  as  well  as  all  members 
who  on  the  same  grounds  feel  they  must  do  so"; 
called  upon  its  ministers  and  ^members  "to  keep 
and  t  strengthen  the  bonds  with  the  worldwide 
Christian  family  in  all  lands" ;  and  approved  for- 
ward steps  taken  during  the  previous  year  toward 
closer  relations  with  several  other  Communions. 
including  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States,  the  United  Presbyterian  Church,  and  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 

The  Church  has  its  headquarters,  including  the 


PRESIDENTIAL  CAMPAIGN 


624 


PRINTS 


offices  of  the  General  Assembly  and  the  General 
Council,  in  the  Withcrspoon  Building,  Philadel- 
phia. Pa.,  in  charge  of  the  Rev.  William  Barrow 
Pugh,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Stated  Clerk.  The  Board  of 
Christian  Education  and  the  Board  of  Pensions 
also  are  housed  there,  while  the  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions  and  the  Board  of  National  Missions  are 
located  in  the  Presbyterian  Building,  156  Fifth 
Avenue,  New  York  City. 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 
(South).  This  division  of  the  Presbyterian  de- 
nomination covers  the  territory  commonly  known 
as  the  Southern  States.  It  was  composed  in  1940 
of  17  Synods  and  88  Presbyteries,  with  3487  or- 
ganized churches,  2471  ministers,  and  532,135  mem- 
bers. During  the  year  25,520  were  received  on  con- 
fession of  faith,  and  26,729  by  certificate.  There 
were  14,622  adult  baptisms  and  7418  infant  bap- 
tisms. The  ruling  elders  numbered  17,422,  and  dea- 
cons, 20,120.  The  total  Sunday  School  enrollment 
was  437,053.  Contributions  for  current  expenses 
during  the  year  amounted  to  $3,261,636,  pastors' 
salaries,  $3,104,932,  building  expense,  $2,008,157, 
and  for  benevolences,  $3,387,488.  The  total  per  cap- 
ita gift  was  $22.10,  of  which  $6  36  was  for  benevo- 
lences and  $15.74  for  current  expenses. 

Foreign  mission  work  is  carried  on  in  six 
countries:  Africa,  Brazil,  China,  Japan,  Korea 
(Chosen),  and  Mexico,  among  36,000,000  people. 
Three  hundred  and  seventy-six  American  mission- 
aries constitute  the  working  foreign  force. 

The  Eightieth  General  Assembly  of  the  Church 
convened  in  the  First  Presbyterian  Church,  Chat- 
tanooga, Tenn.,  May  16,  1940,  with  345  Commis- 
sioners present.  Rev.  Frank  C.  Brown,  D.D.,  pas- 
tor of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church,  Dallas, 
Texas,  was  elected  Moderator.  The  Ministers'  An- 
nuity (Pension)  Fund  was  put  into  operation  on 
Apr.  1,  1940,  and  within  six  months  about  eighty 
ministers  had  retired  from  active  service  under 
the  benefits  which  this  Fund  provides.  The  meet- 
ing of  the  1941  General  Assembly  will  convene  in 
Montreat,  N.C.,  on  May  22nd.  Rev.  E.  C.  Scott, 
D.D.,  is  Stated  Clerk  and  Treasurer,  with  office 
at  1218  Liberty  Bank  Bldg.,  Dallas,  Texas. 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church.  One  of 
the  Presbyterian  bodies  whose  chief  strength  is 
in  the  Southern  States.  It  was  formed  in  1810 
when  the  so-called  anti-revival  party  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  the  United  States  of  America 
objected  to  the  admission  into  the  ministry  of  men 
who  were  not  up  to  the  usual  literary  and  theo- 
logical standards,  and  to  the  doctrine  of  fatality  as 
taught  in  the  third  and  tenth  chapters  of  the  West- 
minster Confession  of  Faith.  The  1940  statistical 
report  shows :  churches,  1082  reporting ;  ministers, 
784;  total  membership.  73,357,  a  net  gain  of  2133 
members  over  the  previous  year,  with  147  churches 
making  no  report. 

A  general  assembly  which  meets  annually  is  the 
supreme  judiciary,  the  1941  meeting  to  be  held  in 
Demon,  Tex.,  June  1£-21,  1941.  Rev.  Keith  T. 
Postlethwaite,  Birmingham,  Ala.,  was  moderator 
of  the  general  assembly  in  1940  and  the  Rev.  D. 
W.  Fooks,  of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  was  stated  clerk, 
treasurer,  and  general  secretary. 

PRESIDENTIAL  CAMPAIGN.  See  ELEC- 
TIONS, U.S.  NATIONAL. 

PRESSURES,  High.  See  CHEMISTRY;  PHYS- 
ICS. 

PRICES.  See  AGRICULTURE;  BUSINESS  RE- 
VIEW under  Commodity  Prices}  LIVING  COSTS  AND 
STANDARDS  ;  articles  on  products.  For  price  regu- 
lation, see  COMMODITY  EXCHANGE  ADMINISTRA- 


TION ;  UNITED  STATES  under  Regulation  in  Other 
Fields.  For  price  stabilization  activities,  see  NA- 
TIONAL DEFENSE  ADVISORY  COMMISSION. 

PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND.  A  Canadian 
province.  Area,  2184  square  miles;  population 
(1939),  95,000,  as  compared  with  (1931  census) 
88,038.  Vital  statistics  (1939)  :  2114  living  births, 
1122  deaths,  and  641  marriages.  Chief  towns  (with 
1931  populations)  :  Charlottetown,  the  capital 
(12361),  Summerside  (3759).  Education  (1938) : 
19,588  students  enrolled  in  schools  and  colleges  of 
all  kinds. 

Production.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural 
production  for  1939  was  $15,590,000.  Field  crops, 
which  covered  479,300  acres  in  1939,  were  valued 
at  $10,634,000.  Chief  field  crops  (1939):  Oats 
4,868,000  bu.,  mixed  grains  1,270,000  bu.,  potatoes 
222,000  tons,  roots  121,500  tons,  hay  and  clover 
294,000  tons.  Livestock  (1939)  :  99,000  cattle  (in- 
cluding 46,000  milch  cows),  48,000  swine,  46,000 
sheep,  29,000  horses,  871,000  poultry.  Fur  produc- 
tion (193&-39  season)  was  valued  at  $1,299,300. 
The  1939  fish  catch  (15,285  tons)  had  a  marketed 
value  of  $950,400,  including  lobsters  $589,700.  For- 
estry output  in  1939,  equivalent  to  12,526  M  cu.  ft. 
of  standing  timber,  was  valued  at  $524,511.  Manu- 
facturing (1938)  :  229  factories,  1041  employees, 
$1,131,902  net  value  of  products. 

Government.  Budget  (1940)  :  revenue,  $2,090,- 
032;  expenditure,  $2,297,054.  The  King  is  repre- 
sented by  a  lieutenant  governor  (appointed  by  the 
governor  general  in  council)  who  governs  with 
the  advice  of  a  ministry,  which  is  responsible  to 
the  legislature  and  resigns  office  when  it  fails  to 
have  the  confidence  of  that  body.  There  are  30 
members  in  the  legislative  assembly  all  elected  for 
a  five-year  term.  At  the  provincial  elections  held 
on  May  18,  1939,  there  were  elected  27  Liberals 
and  3  Conservatives.  Four  senators  (appointed  for 
life)  and  4  commoners  represent  the  province  in 
the  Dominion  parliament  at  Ottawa.  Lieutenant 
Governor,  Bradford  W.  LePage  (appointed  Oct. 
2  1939)  ;  Premier,  Thane  A.  Campbell  (Liberal). 
See  CANADA. 

PRINCIPE.  See  PORTUGAL  under  Colonial 
Empire. 

PRINTING.  See  MACHINE  DEVELOPMENT. 

PRINTS.  The  American  National  Committee 
of  Engraving,  organized  in  1939,  was  especially 
active  in  1940.  The  first  exhibition  sponsored  by 
this  Committee  went  on  view  with  the  opening  of 
the  New  York  World's  Fair  in  May.  This  con- 
sisted of  fifty  prints  from  Hawaii,  and  was  dis- 
played in  the  Gallery  of  Contemporary  Art.  In 
exchange,  an  exhibition  of  "Fifty  Prints  from  the 
Mainland"  was  assembled  and  sent  to  Honolulu 
in  the  early  autumn  A  second  sponsored  exhibi- 
tion consisted  of  117  prints  in  all  media  by  Mexi- 
can artists,  which,  after  being  shown  at  the 
World's  Fair,  was  sent  on  a  nation-wide  circuit. 
Still  later  in  the  year,  the  Committee  assembled  a 
notable  collection  of  "One  Hundred  Prints"  by  as 
many  artists,  representing  three  centuries  of  print- 
making  in  the  United  States,  which  was  shown  in 
the  Corcoran  Gallery  of  Art,  Washington,  D.C., 
in  November,  and  subsequently  purchased  in  its 
entirety  by  the  J.M.B.  Corporation. 

Under  the  auspices  of  the  National  Academy, 
the  Grand  Central  Galleries,  and  the  Society  of 
American  Etchers,  a  collection  of  330  prints  and 
drawings  by  American  artists  was  assembled  and 
sent  to  Italy  to  be  shown  in  the  American  Pavil- 
lion  at  the  International  Exposition  held  bien- 


PRINTS 


625      PRISONS,  PAROLE,  AND  CRIME 


nially  in  the  Public  Gardens,  Venice.  Shipment 
was  made  on  April  20;  the  prints  reached  their 
destination  in  due  course  and  were  installed;  but 
when,  the  last  of  May,  it  became  evident  that  Italy 
would  enter  the  war  on  the  side  of  Germany, 
75  per  cent  of  the  artists  represented  asked  for  the 
withdrawal  and  return  of  their  works.  The  re- 
quest was  made  and  granted,  the  collection  being 
placed  in  storage  until  safe  reconveyance  to  this 
country  could  be  assured. 

The  American  Color  Print  Society  held  its  first 
annual  exhibition  in  1940  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Print  Club  of  Philadelphia.  Lithographs,  wood 
blocks,  aquatints,  and  etchings  were  all  included 
The  representation  was  from  all  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada. 

A  new  graphic  process  involving  the  use  of  a 
silk  screen — hence  called  the  silk-screen  process — 
and  a  stencil  with  oilf  tempera,  or  fluid  dye,  was 
further  developed  during  the  twelve  months  under 
review.  Excellent  work  through  this  medium  was 
exhibited  and  much  credit  was  given  to  the  group 
of  WPA  workers  by  whom  its  potentialities  were 
discovered  and  first  demonstrated. 

From  the  income  derived  through  the  Pennell 
bequest  the  Library  of  Congress  was  enabled  to 
make  still  further  additions  to  its  print  collection. 

A  vogue  for  miniature  prints  developed.  Early 
in  the  year  the  Chicago  Society  of  Etchers  spon- 
sored an  exclusive  miniature  print  exhibition  from 
which  140  sales  were  made.  The  Society  of  Amer- 
ican Etchers  made  a  miniature  print  section  a 
feature  of  its  1940  exhibition  and  included  it  in 
the  Society's  traveling  show.  Some  of  these  prints 
were  no  larger  than  a  postage  stamp. 

Sixty  prints  were  sold  from  the  Seventh  An- 
nual Exhibition  of  Lithography  and  Wood  En- 
graving held  in  the  Art  Institute  of  Chicago. 

The  City  Art  Museum  of  St.  Louis,  through  the 
gift  of  Miss  Bernice  C.  Ballard,  added  a  notable 
group  of  prints  by  Durer  to  its  permanent  collec- 
tion, and,  by  bequest  of  Horace  M.  Swope,  over 
700  printSj  plates,  and  books  on  the  graphic  arts 
were  acquired.  Among  the  Durers  was  a  complete 
set  of  the  wood  cuts  illustrating  the  Book  of  Reve- 
lations The  Cincinnati  Art  Museum  acquired  the 
Allyn  C.  Poole  collection  of  prints,  including  ex- 
amples of  all  periods  of  printmaking  in  every 
graphic  media.  The  donor  in  this  instance  was  the 
Museum's  curator  of  Prints,  Herbert  Greer 
French.  The  Toledo  Art  Museum  added  to  its 
collection,  by  purchase,  a  rare  print  by  Martin 
Schongauer — "St.  James  the  Greater  Overcoming 
the  Saracens."  The  Art  Institute  of  Chicago  ac- 
quired through  purchase  "The  Dance  of  the  Mag- 
dalen" by  Lucas  yan  Leyden. 

Etchings  and  lithographs  by  the  late  Childe 
Hassam  were  generously  allocated  to  several  of 
the  Art  Institutions  of  this  country  by  the  artist's 
widow.  Among  the  recipients  were  the  Corcoran 
Gallery  of  Art  and  the  National  Museum  in 
Washington,  the  Telfair  Academy,  Savannah,  Ga., 
the  New  York  Public  Library,  and  the  Carnegie 
Institute.  Pittsburgh.  A  notable  collection  of  early 
views  of  Mt.  Vernon  and  pictures  of  the  Wash- 
ington family,  chiefly  engravings,  collected  by  the 
late  Annie  Burr  Jennings  of  New  York,  was  giv- 
en to  the  Mt.  Vernon  Association  and  exhibited  in 
the  little  gallery  there  in  January,  1940.  A  retro- 
spective exhibition  of  the  etched  work  of  Frank 
W.  Benson,  N.A.  was  held  at  the  King  Hooper 
Mansion,  Marblehead,  Mass.,  in  June,  1940,  in 
honor  of  the  25th  anniversary  of  the  making  of 
his  first  etching.  John  Taylor  Anns,  president  of 


the  Society  of  American  Etchers,  gave  a  demon- 
stration of  etching  by  television  in  connection  with 
a  radio  transmission,  which  was  epoch  marking. 

The  American  College  Society  of  Print  Collec- 
tors issued  to  its  constituent  membership  "Water- 
loo Bridge"  by  John  W.  Winkler  and  "Birch  Pat- 
terns" by  Luigi  Lucioni,  both  etchings.  The  Socie- 
ty of  American  Etchers,  The  California  Print 
Makers,  The  Chicago  Society  of  Etchers,  The 
Prairie  Print  Makers,  The  Southern  Print  Mak- 
ers, The  Wood  Block  Society,  and  the  Friends  of 
Contemporary  Prints  all  issued  excellent  prints  by 
contemporary  printmakers  to  their  Associate  mem- 
bers. 

Among  the  outstanding  printmakers  who  died 
in  1940  were  Charles  Woodbury,  Jac  Young,  and 
Earl  Horter.  See  ART. 

LEILA  MECHLIN. 

PRIORITIES  BOARD.  See  NATIONAL  DE- 
FENSE ADVISORY  COMMISSION. 
PRISONS.  PAROLE,  AND  CRIME.  For 

many  years  the  prison  population  of  the  United 
States  has  mounted  continuously  to  higher  levels. 
Now,  however,  it  appears  from  preliminary  census 
figures  that  the  population  of  State  and  Federal 
prisons  may  show  little  or  no  increase  during  the 
past  year,  and  that  it  may  even  have  decreased 
slightly.  As  of  Jan.  1,  1941,  it  is  estimated  that  the 
total  population  of  all  prisons  and  reformatories 
in  the  United  States  (excluding  local  jails  and 
houses  of  correction)  is  approximately  180,000,  the 
same  as  for  the  previous  year.  For  the  first  time 
the  Bureau  of  the  Census  made  an  exact  count  of 
all  prisoners,  as  of  Apr.  1,  1939.  These  figures  will 
soon  be  tabulated  and  available.  The  Federal  prison 
population  has  declined  from  24,642  on  Jan.  10, 
1940,  to  23,182  on  the  same  date  in  1941.  The  sta- 
bilization or  decrease  of  the  State  and  Federal 
prison  population  is  due  partially  to  an  increase  m 
the  use  of  probation  and  parole,  but  a  more  in- 
fluential factor  has  been  the  improvement  in  em- 
ployment conditions,  better  organized  law-enforce- 
ment, and  a  new  approach  to  the  problem  of 
readjusting  the  offender. 

The  importance  of  finding  some  better  method 
of  readjusting  the  prisoner  has  been  brought  to  the 
attention  of  the  public  most  strikingly  by  the  Amer- 
ican Law  Institute.  This  influential  organization 
of  lawyers  and  judges  focused  attention  upon  the 
youthful  offender  by  showing  statistically  and 
through  case  studies  that  a  tremendous  proportion 
of  adult  criminality  had  its  inception  in  conviction 
of  crime  before  the  age  of  twenty-one  years.  Rea- 
soning from  the  fact  that  while  young  people  un- 
der twenty-one  form  only  13  per  cent  of  the  pop- 
ulation but  constitute  some  40  per  cent  of  our 
apprehended  burglars  and  50  per  cent  of  our  auto- 
mobile thieves,  and  the  further  fact  that  nearly  60 
per  cent  of  those  who  have  a  prison  record  again 
commit  a  crime,  they  urged  that  a  Youth  Justice 
Authority  be  established  in  each  State  to  assume 
responsibility  for  all  youthful  offenders.  A  model 
act  was  adopted  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Law  Institute  in  June,  1940.  This  mod- 
el act,  in  substance,  is  now  being  seriously  con- 
sidered by  the  legislatures  of  several  States.  If 
adopted,  it  will  write  into  State  laws  for  the  first 
time  the  notion  that  reliance  upon  punishment  as 
the  only  means  of  crime  control  is  logically  un- 
sound, and  instead  will  establish  in  each  State  an 
authority  with  sole  responsibility  for  a  preventive 
and  corrective  program  for  young  persons  under 
twenty-one  years.  The  fact  that  lawyers  have  at 


PRISONS,  PAROLE,  AND  CRIME      626      PRISONS,  PAROLE,  AND  CRIME 


last  come  to  recognize  that  behavior  problems  are 
too  complex  to  be  handled  by  traditional  legal 
methods  and  conventional  prisons,  and  that  respon- 
sibility for  an  indefinite  period  over  young  offend- 
ers must  be  centralized  in  a  qualified  commission 
having  full  power  to  utilize  all  of  our  scientific 
and  modern  methods,  is  one  of  the  most  hope- 
ful trends  of  modern  jurisprudence.  (See  Official 
Draft,  Youth  Correction  Authority  Act,  American 
Law  Institute,  Phila.)  In  similar  vein,  the  con- 
ference of  Senior  Circuit  Judges  of  United  States 
Courts,  with  Mr.  Chief  Justice  Hughes  presiding, 
recommended  the  adoption  of  an  indeterminate  sen- 
tence law  for  Federal  Courts. 

Prison  Labor.  The  final  blow  to  a  system  of 
prison-labor  depending  for  its  markets  on  the  sale 
of  convict-made  goods  to  the  public  was  the  enact- 
ment of  a  Federal  law  prohibiting  the  interstate 
shipment  of  products  made  in  prison  except  for 
Government  use.  This  act  was  passed  by  Congress 
in  1940  to  become  effective  in  1941.  Together  with 
the  Hawes-Cooper  Act  of  1929,  which  became  ef- 
fective in  1934,  and  the  Ashurst-Sumners  Act  of 
1935,  all  of  which  put  restrictions  on  the  interstate 
shipment  of  prison  products,  the  Act  of  1940  put 
the  final  touches  on  a  campaign  against  the  sale  of 
prison  products  on  the  open  market  which  has  been 
carried  on  since  1804.  Most  States  and  the  Federal 
Government  now  have  enacted  laws  confining  the 
sale  of  prison  products  to  government  agencies. 
But  the  net  result  of  such  laws  has  so  far  been 
that  most  of  the  State  prisons  are  now  vast  idle 
houses  with  the  men  milling  aimlessly  about  crowd- 
ed prison  yards.  The  emphasis  on  hard  labor  as  a 
punitive  and  profitable  method  of  deterring  crime 
is  shifting  to  other  forms  of  activity,  but  no  sat- 
isfactory solution  to  the  problem  of  prison  idle- 
ness has  yet  been  found. 

The  Federal  Prison  System.  During  the  past 
year  the  Federal  Government  opened  six  new  pris- 
ons, all  of  which  were  a  considerable  departure  in 
design  from  the  traditional  prison.  Instead  of  mas- 
sive interior  cell  blocks,  high  walls,  and  tool-proof 
steel,  they  are  characterized  by  a  variety  of  small 
housing  units,  carefully  designed  admission  build- 
ings, and  adequate  school,  auditorium,  and  shop 
facilities.  The  largest  of  these  institutions  has  a 
maximum  capacity  of  but  1200,  and  most  of  them 
are  limited  to  600  inmates.  This  is  in  sharp  con- 
trast to  the  mammoth  bastilles  at  San  Quentin, 
Calif.,  and  Jackson,  Mich ,  each  housing  nearly 
6000  inmates,  and  the  older  Federal  prisons  at  At- 
lanta, Ga.,  and  Leavenworth,  Kan.,  with  an  aver- 
age population  of  about  3000  each. 

Federal  Prison  Industries,  Inc.  With  the  fis- 
cal year  1940  Federal  Prison  Industries,  Inc.,  which 
handles  the  industrial  program  in  Federal  prisons, 
completed  five  and  one-half  years  of  operation. 
During  this  period  the  corporation  has  made  defi- 
nite progress  in  carrying  out  the  primary  functions 
of  the  corporation  as  provided  by  statute.  In  order 
to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  indirect  burden  of 
competition  upon  private  industry,  the  corporation 
has  not  only  endeavored  to  keep  each  industry  as 
small  as  efficient  operation  would  permit  but  has 
also  sought  to  diversify  the  manufacture  of  articles 
within  each  industry  and,  so  far  as  practicable,  to 
give  preference  to  the  manufacture  of  those  ar- 
ticles which  the  Government  has  difficulty  in  ob- 
taining from  private  industry  or  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  which  private  industry  is  not  particularly 
interested.  During  these  five  and  a  half  years  grat- 
ifying progress  has  also  been  made  by  the  corpora- 
tion in  establishing  a  comprehensive  vocational  and 


job-training  program.  To  this  the  corporation  de- 
votes its  most  earnest  thought,  for  it  conceives  its 
function  to  be  not  so  much  the  making  of  goods 
as  the  remaking  of  men. 

Since  the  organization  of  the  corporation  the 
number  of  prisoners  engaged  in  the  industries  op- 
erated by  it  has  increased  from  slightly  over  2000 
to  approximately  3500,  an  increase  of  75  per  cent 
It  has  always  been  the  policy  of  the  corporation, 
under  the  authority  of  the  statute,  to  pay  modest 
wages  to  inmates  engaged  in  the  industries,  usually 
upon  a  piece-work  basis,  the  rate  being  fixed  after 
taking  into  consideration  the  expense  to  the  Gov- 
ernment of  subsistence,  clothing,  and  housing  of 
the  prisoners.  In  the  five  years  ending  with  the 
fiscal  year  1940  the  corporation  paid  out  in  inmate 
wages  approximately  a  million  and  a  quarter  dol- 
lars. The  hours  of  labor  are  those  observed  by 
similar  industries  on  the  outside.  The  equipment 
used  in  most  cases  is  the  same  found  in  similar 
private  industries,  except  that  no  purely  labor- 
saving  equipment  is  used.  It  has  been  the  policy  of 
the  Board  to  reproduce  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
conditions  of  work,  hours  of  labor,  and  other  fac- 
tors which  the  inmate  may  expect  to  meet  on  the 
outside  after  his  discharge. 

War  and  Prisons.  The  war  has  brought  several 
problems  affecting  Federal  prisons  to  the  fore  It 
has  raised  anew  the  question  of  permitting  certain 
classes  of  ex-prisoners  to  serve  in  the  military 
forces  after  careful  investigation  of  each  individ- 
ual case.  And  it  has  begun  to  provide  a  new  class 
of  inmates  peculiar  to  war  times — the  militant  ob- 
jector to  the  registration  law,  the  unreconstructed 
alien,  and  the  draft  evader. 

Parole.  The  campaign  against  all  systems  of 
parole  seems  to  have  abated  somewhat  during  the 
past  year,  save  in  the  State  of  Illinois.  This  has 
been  due  in  part  to  the  more  cautious  attitude  of 
parole  boards  and  a  realization  that  no  satisfactory 
substitute  to  the  fundamental  concept  of  the  parole 
system  can  be  evolved.  Several  States  have  made 
real  progress  in  taking  the  parole  system  entirely 
out  of  politics  as  a  result  of  the  National  Parole 
Conference  held  in  Washington,  D.C.  in  1939. 

All  but  two  States  (Mississippi  and  Virginia) 
have  provisions  for  parole,  but  in  less  than  ten 
States  is  there  any  really  adequate  provision  for 
supervision  on  parole.  This  explains  the  criticism 
frequently  leveled  at  parole  and  parolees  who  con- 
tinue their  anti-social  actions.  Except  in  those 
States  having  an  adequate  system  of  supervision, 
it  would  be  more  accurate  to  describe  the  release 
procedure  employed  as  that  of  conditional  release 
instead  of  parole. 

Crime  Trends.  The  latest  official  crime  statis- 
tics of  the  Department  of  Justice  showing  the  num- 
ber of  offenses  known  to  the  police  in  336  cities 
with  populations  over  25,000  for  the  first  nine 
months  of  1939  and  1940  indicate  a  slight  decrease 
for  murder,  robbery,  and  rape,  and  increases  for 
manslaughter  by  negligence,  aggravated  assault,  bur- 
glary, larceny,  and  auto-theft  (see  table,  p.  627). 

Long-time  trends  for  these  same  offenses  cover- 
ing sixty-nine  cities  having  populations  of  over 
100,000  for  the  period  1931-^0  inclusive,  but  for 
only  the  first  three  months  of  each  year,  are  sharp- 
ly downward  for  murder,  manslaughter  by  negli- 
gence, aggravated  assault,  robbery,  and  auto  theft. 
During  these  ten  years  burglary  decreased  only 
slightly,  and  there  were  marked  increases  for  rape 
and  larceny. 

Significant  Studies  in  Penology.  A  number 
of  significant  studies  in  penology  were  completed 


PRODUCTION  MANAGEMENT       627    PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 


OFFENSES  KNOWN  TO  THE  POLICE  IN  336  CITIES  WITH 

POPULATION  OVER  25,000 
January  to  September,  inclusive,  1939  and  1940  • 


Number 
Ojfentt                      J939          1940 

Increase  C+) 
Decrease  (-) 

Murder    and    non-negligent 

manslaughter  ....                    1  949 

1,869 

-41% 

Rape  2  829 

2773 
20,753 

-20% 
-45% 

Robbery  21,735 

Manslaughter  by  negligence  .      1,003 
Aggravated  Assault      .             15,937 
Burglary—  breaking  or  enter- 
ing    .  111,540 

1,091 
16,483 

113,316 

+88% 
+34$ 

+1.6% 

Larceny—  theft  280,481 

298,170 
61,433 

+63% 
+10% 

Auto  theft     60,853 

*  Uniform  Crime  Reports,  Vol  XI,  Third  Quarterly  Bulletin 
1940.  Federal  Bureau  of  Investigation,  Dept  of  Justice,  Washing- 
ton, D  C. 

DAILY  AVERAGE  NUMBER  OF  OFFENSES  KNOWN  TO 
THE  POLICE  IN  69  CITIES  OVER  100,000  IN 

POPULATION 
January  to  March,  inclusive,  1931  and  1940* 

Daily  Average  Number 

Offense                              1931  1940 
Criminal  homicide* 

Murder,  non-negligent  manslaughter   .40  2.7 

Manslaughter  by  negligence          .                39  23 

Aggravated  Assault 250  203 

Rofcbery      646  364 

Auto  theft            ...       .            ..       .2434  1148 

Burglary — breaking  or  entering. .       .          197  6  192.3 

Rape                       . .                                     31  44 

Larceny— theft 4048  4998 

*  Uniform  Crtme  Reports,  Vol   XI,  First  Quarterly   Bulletin, 
1940.  Federal  Bureau  of  Invebtigation,  Dcpt  of  Justice,  Washing- 
ton, D  C 

and  published  during  1940.  Prison  Administration 
— An  Educational  Process,  is  the  third  of  a  series 
of  studies  in  prison  education  published  by  mem- 
bers of  the  Division  of  Education  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Correction  of  New  York  State.  The  oth- 
ers in  this  series  include  Social  and  Economic 
Studies  in  Correctional  Institutions  and  The  Train- 
ing of  Prison  Guards  in  New  York  State,  pub- 
lished in  1939,  and  1938  respectively  (Columbia 
Univ.  Press,  New  York).  The  Prison  Community, 
by  Donald  Clemmons  (Christopher  Publishing 
House,  Boston),  presents  a  sociological  study  of 
a  typical  prison  in  a  midwest  State.  A  Report  on 
the  Development  of  Penological  Treatment  at  Nor- 
folk Prison  Colony  in  Massachusetts,  by  Commons, 
Yahkub,  and  Powers  (Stanford  Univ  Press),  de- 
scribes some  of  the  experiments  in  new  methods 
of  prison  administration  carried  on  at  that  insti- 
tution from  1927  to  1934.  Two  outstanding  investi- 
gations of  interest  include  that  of  prison  adminis- 
tration in  California  and  of  paroles  and  pardons 
in  Massachusetts. 

The  most  complete  study  of  the  prison  system 
made  in  recent  years  was  published  by  the  U.S. 
Department  of  Justice  as  Volume  V  of  the  "At- 
torney General's  Survey  of  Release  Procedures." 
It  presents  the  outstanding  facts  about  the  major 
prisons  and  reformatories  for  men  in  America. 
Supplementing  this  study  is  the  survey  by  The 
Osborne  Association  of  New  York  City  of  State 
juvenile  institutions,  which  covers  twelve  States. 

See  CALIFORNIA  under  History;  JUVENILE  DE- 
LINQUENCY. 

JAMES  V.  BENNETT. 

PRODUCTION  MANAGEMENT,  Office 
of  (OPM).  See  DEFENSIVE  PREPARATIONS,  U.  S. 

PROHIBITION.  See  SOUTH  CAROLINA  ;  also, 
the  temperance  organizations  listed  under  SOCIE- 
TIES ;  LAW  under  Police  Power. 


PROHIBITION  PARTY.  See  ELECTIONS, 

U.S.  NATIONAL. 

PROPORTIONAL  REPRESENTA- 
TION. See  LAW:  MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT. 

PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 

In  response  to  a  summons  to  face  urgent  present- 
day  problems  from  the  Presiding  Bishop,  the  Rt 
Rev.  H.  St.  George  Tucker,  the  General  Conven- 
tion of  the  Episcopal  Church  meeting  in  October, 
1940,  at  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  endorsed  a  ten-year 
advance  program,  called  Forward  in  Service.  This 
new  movement  is  described  in  The  Plan  of  Action 
as  "a  ten -year  program  to  set  every  unit  in  the 
Church  at  work  upon  the  tasks  God  has  assigned 
to  it."  The  first  year  of  the  movement  is  devoted 
to  preparation,  re-dedication,  and  re-enlistment, 
reaching  its  first  objective  early  in  May,  1941, 
when  a  Church-wide  roll  call  will  enable  all  bap- 
tized members  of  the  Church  to  register  their 
loyalty  and  willingness  to  go  forward  in  service 
in  the  days  ahead.  Forward  in  Service  is  directed 
by  a  commission  of  prominent  Churchmen  and 
women,  under  the  leadership  of  Bishop  Tucker. 
This  commission  replaces  the  former  Forward 
Movement  Commission  first  appointed  by  the  Gen- 
eral Convention  of  1934. 

The  plight  of  the  Church  in  the  world  today  was 
brought  again  to  the  attention  of  General  Conven- 
tion by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Noel  Baring  Hudson,  secre- 
tary of  the  English  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel.  By  invitation  of  the  Presiding  Bish- 
op and  as  official  representative  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  Bishop  Hudson  described  the  ex- 
traordinary wartime  needs  of  the  overseas  work 
of  the  English  Church.  The  Convention  authorized 
an  appeal  to  the  American  Church  for  $300,000  to 
aid  British  missions.  Of  this  amount  $50,000  was 
immediately  voted  by  the  Woman's  Auxiliary  from 
the  United  Thank  Offering  of  1940.  This  offering, 
presented  triennially  by  the  women  of  the  Church, 
is  used  for  the  training  and  support  of  women  mis- 
sionaries, advance  work  in  the  mission  field,  and 
other  purposes.  In  1940  the  offering  totalled  nearly 
$975,000. 

The  Convention  advanced  the  cause  of  Christian 
co-operation  and  unity  by  continuing  the  Commis- 
sion on  Approaches  to  Unity  which  for  several 
years  past  has  been  discussing  a  concordat  with  the 
Presbyterian  Church;  by  approving  membership 
in  the  Federal  Council  of  Churches  of  Christ  in 
America  and  in  the  World  Council  of  Churches. 
Two  months  later  (December,  1940)  representa- 
tives of  the  Episcopal  Church  were  welcomed  to 
the  biennial  meeting  of  the  Federal  Council. 

Other  actions  of  the  General  Convention  includ- 
ed :  The  adoption,  after  more  than  20  years  of  con- 
sideration, of  an  official  Church  flag ;  the  designa- 
tion of  Washington,  D  C ,  as  the  seat  for  the 
Presiding  Bishop ;  adoption  of  a  new  Hymnal,  the 
first  revision  in  twenty-four  years;  plans  for  the 
retirement  of  bishops  at  72  years ;  and  the  election 
of  the  Rev.  Lloyd  R.  CraighilL  for  a  quarter  cen- 
tury a  missionary  in  China,  as  Bishop  of  Anking  to 
succeed  the  Rt.  Rev.  D.  T.  Huntington,  resigned. 
Other  resignations  accepted  by  Convention  were: 
the  Rt  Rev.  Benjamin  Brewster  as  Bishop  of 
Maine ;  the  Rt.  Rev.  Edward  L.  Parsons,  as  Bish- 
op of  California;  the  Rt.  Rev.  G.  F.  Mosher  as 
Missionary  Bishop  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 

The  Convention  took  appropriate  recognition  of 
three  leaders  in  the  national  life  of  the  Church 
who  retired  at  the  close  of  1940:  John  Wilson 
Wood,  as  executive  secretary  of  the  National 
Council's  Department  of  Foreign  Missions  after 


PRUSSIA 


PSYCHIATRY 


41  years  service  with  the  Council  and  its  predeces- 
sor the  Board  of  Missions:  Grace  Lindley,  as 
executive  secretary  of  the  Woman's  Auxiliary  to 
the.  national  Council  after  more  than  thirty  years 
at  headquarters ;  and  the  Rev.  Robert  W.  Patton, 
"father  of  the  Nation-wide  Campaign,"  as  director 
of  the  American  Church  Institute  for  Negroes. 

Despite  ruthless  wars  in  Europe  and  Asia,  the 
Church's  missionary  work  went  on.  The  unde- 
clared war  in  the  Orient  between  China  and  Japan 
entered  its  third  year.  More  and  more  the  Gospel 
was  being  heard  in  hitherto  untouched  areas:  in 
Western  China  where  many  were  finding  haven 
from  the  havoc  of  war  and  among  refugee  groups 
everywhere.  The  vitality  of  the  Chinese  Church 
was  unmistakable  and  all  signs  pointed  to  a  "bright 
sky  tomorrow." 

In  Japan  the  new  religious  law  brought  pro- 
found changes,  the  full  import  of  which  is  still  un- 
certain. In  accord  with  Government  regulation, 
however,  all  American  and  English  bishops  of  the 
Nippon  Sei  Ko  Kwai— the  Japanese  branch  of  the 
Episcopal  Church — resigned  and  the  whole  gov- 
ernment of  that  Church  passed  to  Japanese  bishops 
of  which  there  are  five.  This  change  in  leadership 
may  necessitate  some  re-alignment  of  the  13  dio- 
ceses in  Japan  and  perhaps  the  naming  of  addition- 
al Japanese  bishops.  The  Japanese  law  also  pro- 
vides that  all  foreign  support  of  evangelistic  work 
cease  on  Dec.  31,  1940,  and  of  educational  work  by 
Apr.  1,  1941.  No  time  limit  was  placed  on  foreign 
aid  to  medical  and  social  work.  Hence  American 
co-operation  in  St.  Luke's  International  Medical 
Center,  Tokyo,  will  continue  for  the  present  at 
least 

In  1940  the  total  number  of  communicants  of  the 
Episcopal  Church  in  7995  parishes  and  missions 
was  1,489,384,  an  increase  of  22,786  over  the  pre- 
ceding year.  The  clergy  numbered  6335 ;  149  priests 
were  ordained.  In  the  5000  Church  (Sunday) 
schools,  492,554  pupils  were  enrolled.  Their  special 
missionary  offerings  for  the  three  years  1938- 
40  as  reported  to  General  Convention  amounted  to 
$919,801.82.  Baptisms  during  the  year  numbered 
69,473  and  confirmations  74,318.  The  government 
of  the  Church  centers  in  a  General  Convention 
which  meets  triennially.  The  next  session,  the 
fifty-fourth,  will  be  held  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  in 
October,  1943.  Between  sessions  of  the  General 
Convention  the  affairs  of  the  Church  are  conduct- 
ed by  the  National  Council. 

The  headquarters  of  the  National  Council,  which 
is  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  Domestic  and 
Foreign  Missionary  Society,  is  in  the  Church  Mis- 
sions House,  281  Fourth  Avenue,  New  York. 

PRUSSIA.  See  GERMANY  under  Area  and 
Population. 

PSYCHIATRY.  While  strictly  a  medical  sci- 
ence, by  definition  the  treatment  of  mental  illness, 
the  field  of  psychiatry  has  greatly  expanded  with- 
in recent  years.  This  expansion  has  paralleled  a 
changing  conception  of  health  and  ill-health  gen- 
erally and  their  factors,  health  being  determined 
not  solely  by  soundness  of  the  body  but  also  by 
social,  domestic,  economic,  and  occupational  status 
and  tie  emotional  features  of  the  individual's  ad- 
aptation to  his  environment.  Thus  mutually  useful 
and  closer  contacts  have  been  made  with  the  dis- 
ciplines of  anthropology  and  sociology  (cultural 
backgrounds,  community  and  family  studies,  liv- 
ing conditions)  and  education  (mental  hygiene  in 
the  schools ;  re-education,  an  integral  part  of  treat- 
ment programs).  At  the  same  time  psychiatry  be- 
comes more  characteristically  a  biological  science 


(genetics)  and  looks  hopefully  to  biochemistry  for 
light  upon  abnormal  psychic  processes.  (For  sur- 
vey of  the  literature  of  biochemistry  in  relation  to 
mental  disease,  see  McFarland  and  Goldstein :  "Bi- 
ochemistry of  Manic-depressive  Psychosis,"  Amer. 
Jl.  of  Psychiatry,  July,  1939;  "Biochemistry  of 
the  Psychoneuroses,"  ibid.  March,  1937;  ^Bio- 
chemistry of  Dementia  Praecox,"  ibid.  November, 
1938;  "Biochemistry  of  Epilepsy/1  ibid.  January, 
1940) 

With  the  swing  away  from  the  compartment 
idea  in  medicine  long  favored  by  ultra-specializa- 
tion, intimate  liaisons  with  other  clinical  branches 
have  developed  (psychosomatic  medicine;  child 
psychiatry).  "In  modern  therapy,  we  dare  not 
think  of  either  'soma'  (body)  alone  nor  of  'psy- 
che' (mind)  alone;  ...  we  have  to  deal  with  a 
highly  complicated,  integrated  body-mind  unit, 
.  .  .  disturbances  on  any  level  of  the  integration 
— anatomical,  physiological,  neurological,  or  psy- 
chobiological — will  exert  effects  upon  the  whole 
unit."  (Barker,  Psychotherapy,  1940.) 

The  significance  of  psychiatry  and  neurology  in 
the  broad  domain  of  medicine,  and  the  urgency  of 
research  in  this  field,  are  reflected  in  the  fact  that 
more  than  one-third  of  the  total  appropriations  of 
the  Rockefeller  Foundation  (qv.)  to  the  medical 
sciences  in  1939  was  devoted  to  these  subjects 
"The  main  interest  of  this  division  (the  medical 
sciences)  since  1931  has  lain  in  the  development 
of  research  and  teaching  in  psychiatry  and  neurol- 
ogy and  subjects  contributory  to  their  advance- 
ment." (Gregg,  Annual  Report  of  the  Rockefeller 
Foundation,  1939.) 

Attention  continues  to  be  focused  upon  the  vari- 
ous shock  methods  of  treatment  of  the  psychoses. 
Ross  reported  to  the  American  Psychiatric  As- 
sociation a  two-year  follow  up  of  1039  insulin- 
treated  cases  of  schizophrenia  from  the  New  York 
State  hospital  service.  These  were  compared  with 
a  control  group  treated  by  the  usual  methods  but 
without  insulin.  On  the  conclusion  of  treatment, 
cases  classified  as  recovered  or  improved  were 
three  times  as  numerous  in  the  insulin  group  as 
among  the  controls.  At  the  end  of  two  years  how- 
ever the  recovery -improved  ratio  had  fallen  from 
65.3  per  cent  of  the  treated  cases  to  45.4  per  cent. 

Bond  (Institute  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital) 
observed  in  a  control  group,  followed  two  years, 
that  although  only  4  per  cent  were  listed  as  recov- 
ered or  much  improved  on  termination  of  treat- 
ment, 16  per  cent  were  so  classified  at  the  two-year 
follow-up.  It  is  thus  apparent  that  a  goodly  num- 
ber of  patients  diagnosed  as  schizophrenics,  who 
are  not  well  on  leaving  hospital,  recover  or  great- 
ly improve  at  varying  intervals  thereafter,  while 
many  in  the  recovered-improved  group  on  dis- 
charge do  not  maintain  their  mental  health. 

The  advantage  of  insulin  is  that  recoveries  are 
prompt,  whereas  spontaneous  recoveries  may  take 
one  to  three  years.  Ross  also  found  that  the  recov- 
ery rate  for  patients  whose  illness  did  not  exceed 
six  months  was  ten  times  that  of  cases  of  five  or 
more  years1  duration.  Treatment  with  insulin  com- 
bined with  metrazol  sometimes  succeeds  where  in- 
sulin alone  fails;  and  metrazol  used  alone  has 
proved  useful  in  other  psychoses,  particularly  cer- 
tain types  of  depression. 

Pharmacologic  shock  therapy  continues  to  be 
widely  used  in  most  parts  of  the  world;  and  while 
the  high  hopes  originally  entertained  have  been 
considerably  dampened,  its  results  to  date  are  no- 
tably better  than  those  of  previous  treatment 
methods,  and  indeed  in  some  cases  appear  spectac- 


PSYCHIATRY 


629 


PSYCHOLOGY 


ular.  With  present-day  technique,  risks  have  been 
reduced  to  an  almost  negligible  minimum.  The  pro- 
cedure has  given  rise  to  a  tremendous  amount  of 
valuable  research,  and  has  moreover  considerably 
facilitated  the  understanding  of  psychotic  proc- 
esses. 

Latterly  electric  shock  therapy,  introduced  by 
Professor  Cerletti  of  the  University  of  Rome,  has 
been  used  to  replace  pharmacological  methods. 
Kalinowsky,  formerly  associated  with  Cerletti  and 
now  at  the  New  York  State  Psychiatric  Institute 
and  Hospital,  reports  jointly  with  Barrera  (Psy- 
chiatric Quarterly,  October,  1940)  on  the  use  of 
the  electric  shock  technique  at  that  center.  A  pre- 
cisely measured  current  is  passed  for  one-tenth  of 
a  second  between  the  frontotemporal  regions.  Un- 
consciousness is  instantaneous  and  followed  by  a 
seizure  of  grand  mal  or  petit  mal  type.  The  pa- 
tient promptly  regains  consciousness  without  mem- 
ory of  the  procedure.  Advantages  claimed  over 
other  methods  of  shock  therapy  are  that  the  tech- 
nique is  more  exact  and  easily  controlled,  that  it 
can  be  given  to  larger  numbers  of  patients  at  less 
cost  in  time  and  money,  and  that  patients  experi- 
ence no  unpleasant  fore-  or  after-effects.  Thera- 
peutic results  are  said  to  compare  favorably  with 
those  of  other  shock  procedures.  A  comprehensive 
discussion  of  "Prognosis  in  Schizophrenia,"  with 
survey  of  the  literature,  is  presented  by  Blair  (//. 
of  Mental  Science,  May,  1940). 

Electroencephalography,  recording  electric  oscil- 
lations from  various  brain  areas,  has  gained  in 
importance  as  a  diagnostic  measure,  particularly  in 
localizing  gross  pathology  (trauma,  tumor).  Len- 
nox, Gibbs,  and  Gibbs,  on  the  basis  of  electrpen- 
cephalographic  tracings  from  relatives  of  epilep- 
tics, conclude  that  "the  dysrhythmia  of  epilepsy  is 
inheritable" ;  and  since  cases  of  latency  or  predis- 
position revealed  by  the  tracings  far  outnumber 
cases  with  overt  disease,  they  estimate  that  "per- 
sons with  a  predisposition  to  epilepsy  form  about 
12  per  cent  of  the  population"  (Archives  of  Neu- 
rology and  Psychiatry,  December,  1940).  This  pro- 
cedure has  been  of  value  in  identifying  applicants 
for  training  as  airplane  pilots  who  may  be  pre- 
disposed to  epilepsy. 

There  have  been  numerous  reports  of  success- 
ful, sometimes  startling  results  of  treatment  of 
psychotic  states  associated  with  vitamin  deficiency. 
By  the  intravenous  administration  of  vitamin  B, 
deficient  mainly  because  of  inadequate  food  intake, 
the  course  of  an  acute  alcoholic  psychosis  (deliri- 
um tremens)  may  be  greatly  shortened.  Likewise 
in  subclinical  pellagra  with  mental  changes  in  the 
foreground  (hebetude,  stupor),  diagnosis  may  be 
established  and  remarkable  cure  effected  by  the 
administration  of  nicotinic  acid. 

A  great  social  problem  in  which  psychiatry  is 
vitally  interested  is  that  of  alcoholism,  a  promi- 
nent factor  in  mental  disease.  In  comparison  with 
other  countries,  notably  Sweden,  Switzerland,  and 
Holland,  this  issue  has  been  conspicuously  neglect- 
ed in  the  United  States.  To  make  now  a  concerted 
attack  upon  it  there  has  been  organized  the  Re- 
search Council  on  Problems  of  Alcohol,  an  associ- 
ated society  of  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science ;  and  there  has  been  es- 
tablished as  official  organ  of  the  Council  the  Quar- 
terly Journal  of  Studies  on  Alcohol,  now  the  only 
scientific  periodical  in  English  dealing  solely  with 
this  subject  (The  British  Journal  of  Inebriety 
has  been  discontinued.) 

The  Council's  first  Symposium  on  Alcoholism 
took  place  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  A.A.A.S. 


in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  27-29, 1940.  (To  be  reported 
in  the  Amer.  Jl.  of  Psychiatry.)  Overholser  esti- 
mated "that  there  are  in  the  United  States  proba- 
bly more  than  100,000  persons  suffering  from  alco- 
holism at  the  present  time."  Kolb  (U.S.  Public 
Health  Service)  defined  the  situation :  "Alcohol- 
ism is  a  serious  health  problem  that  has  been  han- 
dled largely  by  police  authorities,  with  the  result 
that  the  alcoholic  has  been  treated  as  a  criminal 
rather  than  as  a  sick  individual.  Present-day  meth- 
ods of  handling  chronic  alcoholics  are  ineffective 
or  harmful.  An  intensive  study  of  the  prevalence, 
causes  and  effects  of  alcoholism  is  necessary  to 
establish  a  sound  basis  for  better  methods  of  pre- 
vention and  cure." 

Another  comparatively  neglected  field,  both  in 
general  medicine  and  psychiatry,  is  that  of  the 
process  of  aging  and  the  disabilities  connected 
therewith.  This  unmindfulness  is  in  marked  con- 
trast to  the  research  activities  in  diseases  of  chil- 
dren and  the  intensive  studies  in  schizophrenia,  the 
psychosis  of  adolescence,  now  going  forward.  To 
rectify  the  situation  the  National  Institute  of 
Health  of  the  U.S.  Public  Health  Service  (q.v.) 
has  organized  a  Unit  on  Gerontology,  with  a  Na- 
tional Advisory  Committee  of  scientists  in  con- 
tributory disciplines,  to  conduct  co-ordinated  re- 
search both  in  the  problems  of  aging  (gerontol- 
ogy), and  the  diseases  of  the  involutional  period 
and  their  treatment  (geriatrics).  "With  the  con- 
spicuous shift  to  greater  age  in  the  population,  se- 
nescent individuals  are  becoming  increasingly  sig- 
nificant in  the  national  economy  and  defense" 
(Stieglitz,  in  Charge  Investigations  in  Gerontol- 
ogy). In  the  new  program  psychiatry  will  have 
large  interest  in  view  of  the  frequency  and  serious- 
ness of  the  psychoses  of  the  later  decades  of  life. 

Extramural  care  of  the  mentally  ill  is  receiving 
increasing  attention,  not  only  because  it  is  sound 
policy  but  also  because  of  ever  increasing  demand 
for  new  hospital  construction  to  relieve  over- 
crowding which  is  never  relieved.  From  Califor- 
nia, Rosanoff,  Director  of  Institutions,  reports 
that  as  of  Dec.  31,  1940,  17.26  per  cent  of  the  ag- 
gregate patient  population  of  the  seven  State  hos- 
pitals was  maintained  in  extramural  care.  This  is 
a  record  figure  and  has  made  possible  a  reduction 
in  overcrowding  (population  in  excess  of  capacity) 
from  2473  per  cent  two  years  ago  to  17.16  per 
cent  as  of  Jan.  1,  1941. 

Especially  noteworthy  is  the  expansion  of  ac- 
tivity in  the  field  of  psychiatry  and  neurology  in 
the  several  States  of  South  America,  notably  Bra- 
zil, Peru,  Argentina,  Uruguay,  as  represented  by 
the  increasing  number  of  scientific  journals  pub- 
lished on  that  continent.  During  the  past  five  years 
some  10  new  publications  have  appeared,  and  there 
are  currently  approximately  as  many  South  Amer- 
ican periodicals  devoted  to  neurology,  psychiatry 
and  allied  subjects  as  in  North  America. 

During  1940  a  number  of  psychiatrists  of  inter- 
national fame  passed  from  the  scene.  Among  these 
must  be  mentioned  especially  Edward  Mapother, 
head  of  Maudsley  Hospital,  teaching  center  for  the 
British  Empire;  H.  Douglas  Singer,  president  of 
the  American  Neurological  Association  and  presi- 
dent-elect of  the  American  Psychiatric  Associa- 
tion; Julius  Wagner- Jauregg,  originator  of  the 
malaria  treatment  of  dementia  paralytica.  See 
PSYCHOLOGY  under  Mental  Hygiene 

CLARENCE  B.  FARRAR. 

PSYCHOLOGY.  The  focus  of  experimental 
interest  has  shifted  away  from  simple  condition- 


PSYCHOLOGY  630 

\ 

ing  (habit  training)  to  the  problem  of  how  patho- 
logical phenomena  are  caused.  Persistence  of  un- 
successful behavior,  analogous  to  that  of  neurotic 
and  psychotic  patients  and  of  incorrigible  psycho- 
paths, has  been  produced  in  rats  under  certain 
conditions  of  frustration  by  N.  R.  F.  Maier,  N. 
M.  Glaser,  and  J.  B.  Klee.  J.  McV.  Hunt  of 
Brown  has  produced  abnormal  hoarding  in  adult 
white  rats  by  feeding  frustration  in  early  infancy. 
Conditioning  and  Learning,  by  E.  R.  Hilgard  and 
D.  G.  Marquis,  a  critical  survey  of  the  literature 
of  conditioning  with  bibliography  of  more  than 
900  titles,  discusses  the  implications  of  the  facts  of 
conditioning  for  other  problems  of  learning,  vol- 
untary action,  emotion,  and  personality.  Recogni- 
tion of  the  practical  value  of  psychophysiology  has 
led  to  the  creation  of  posts  for  psychophysiologists 
in  the  Federal  Civil  Service. 

Experimental  investigation  of  all  the  tradition- 
al problems  continues  in  increasing  volume.  The 
hearing  tests  at  the  New  York  and  San  Francisco 
World's  Fairs  present  the  widest  survey  of  hear- 
ing ever  made.  Results  show  no  significant  sec- 
tional differences,  but  do  show  a  decrease  in  hear- 
ing acuity  with  age,  according  to  H.  C.  Montgom- 
ery. Among  the  many  significant  experimental 
monographs  are  Studies  in  the  Psychology  of  the 
Deaf  (from  the  Clarke  School  at  Northampton, 
Mass.)  ;  Studies  in  Quantitative  Psychology  from 
the  University  of  Illinois ;  edited  by  H.  Woodrow ; 
and  Reminiscence  and  Gestalt  Theory  by  J.  R. 
Martin.  Several  psychological  investigations  have 
grown  directly  out  of  the  war,  among  the  most  in- 
teresting being  those  on  British  children  evacuated 
from  large  cities.  Evacuation  has  increased  mild 
nervous  disorders,  but  not  serious  ones,  according 
to  C.  Burt.  A.  Straker  and  R.  H.  Thouless  find 
that  young  children  adjust  themselves  to  evacua- 
tion better  than  older,  and  that  the  presence  of  the 
child's  own  brothers  and  sisters  in  the  foster  home 
helps. 

Of  theoretical  interest  are  Mathematico-deduc- 
\W€  Theory  of  Rote  Learning:  A  Study  in  Scien- 
tific Methodology  by  C.  L.  Hull,  C.  I.  Hovland, 
R.  T.  Ross,  M.  Hall,  D.  T.  Perkins,  and  F.  B. 
Fitch,  Comparative  Psychology  of  Mental  Devel- 
ment  by  H.  Werner,  translated  by  E.  B.  Garside, 
and  The  Innumerable  Instincts  of  Man  by  C.  A. 
Claremont  (London). -Dynamic in Psychology, by 
W.  Kohler,  proposes  a  theory  of  field  action  with- 
in the  nervous  system  and  attempts  to  corroborate 
it  with  new  facts  in  perception  and  memory.  Prog- 
ress has  been  made  on  the  Cumulative  Psychologi- 
cal Index  being  prepared  by  New  York  City  WPA 
workers  under  the  direction  of  A.  T.  Poffenberger. 
Psychological  Index  Abstract  References,  edited 
by  H.  L.  Ansbacher,  covers  the  years  1919-28.  Re- 
flecting the  internationalism  of  scientific  technol- 
ogy is  the  Dictionary  of  Terms  and  Expressions 
of  Industrial  Psychology,  m  German,  English, 
French,  and  Hungarian,  by  M.  Erdelyi  and  F. 
Grossman  (New  York).  Hunger  for  W  holiness, 
by  T.  H.  Howells,  approaches  the  psychology  of 
personality  from  the  viewpoint  that  present  social 
chaos  results  from  the  frustration  of  man's  univer- 
sal quest  for  unity  within  the  self  and  between  the 
self  and  society.  How  Character  Develops,  by  F. 
Kunkel  and  R.  E.  Dickerson,  is  the  first  organized 
summary  in  English  of  the  basic  conceptions  of 
Kunkel's  "We-Psychology."  Current  Psychologies, 
A  Critical  Synthesis,  by  A.  J.  Levine,  does  much 
to  unify  the  conflicting  theories  of  contemporary 
psychology  and  to  relate  them  to  everyday  life. 
Fields  of  Psychology,  edited  by  J.  P  Guilford,  is 


PSYCHOLOGY 


a  symposium.  General  Psychology t  by  R.  W.  Hus- 
band, treats  the  everyday  problems  of  real  people 
from  a  genetic  point  of  view ;  the  emphasis  is  so- 
cial rather  than  biological.  Among  other  introduc- 
tory texts  are  Psychology  by  L.  F.  Shaffer,  B.  V. 
H.  Gilmer,  and  M.  Schocn,  and  The  Psychology 
of  Normal  People  by  J.  Tiffin,  F.  B.  Knight,  and 
C.  C.  Josey.  Among  the  many  books  dealing  with 
special  fields  are  1  he  Psychology  of  Music,  by  M. 
Schoen,  and  The  Mechanism  of  the  Human  Voice, 
by  R.  Curry,  with  a  bibliography  of  400  titles. 
How  to  Overcome  Stammering,  by  M.  F.  Gifford, 
develops  the  thesis  that  people  stammer  because 
they  have  not  learned  to  solve  their  emotional 
problems  and  conflicts. 

In  the  field  of  counseling  are  Occupational 
Counseling  Techniques:  Their  Development  and 
Application  by  W.  H.  Stead  and  others ;  Introduc- 
tion to  High  School  Counseling  by  E.  G.  William- 
son and  M.  E.  Hahn,  and  Avocational  Interest 
Patterns:  A  Study  in  the  Psychology  of  Avoca- 
tions, by  D.  E.  Super.  There  are  also  numerous 
popular  books  on  marriage,  love,  hate,  worry,  per- 
sonality improvement,  and  other  pressing  problems 
of  everyday  life,  among  them  Your  Marriage:  A 
Guide  to  Happiness  by  N.  E.  Himes,  and  The  Art 
of  Understanding  by  H.  J.  Baker.  Twelve  Against 
Alcohol,  by  H.  L.  Nossen,  gives  case  histories  of 
twelve  dipsomania  patients  who  in  their  own  words 
tell  of  their  growing  addiction  to  alcohol  and  their 
struggles  in  its  grip. 

Tests  and  Measurements.  Evidence  of  the 
variability  of  the  I.  Q.  under  special  conditions 
continues  to  pile  up.  S.  Stinchfield-Hawk  reports 
increases  as  great  as  60  points,  following  correc- 
tive speech  training.  The  interpretation  of  I.  Q. 
changes  is  at  present  a  subject  of  lively  contro- 
versy. Some  psychologists,  notably  the  Iowa  group, 
believe  that  increases  and  decreases  of  I.  Q.  re- 
flect real  variations  in  intelligence,  resulting  from 
environmental  factors  As  might  be  expected,  when 
experimental  results  strike  so  deeply  at  the  heart 
of  a  theory  that  has  become  almost  an  article  of 
faith,  the  Iowa  studies  have  been  subjected  to  se- 
vere criticism  from  the  standpoint  of  methodology, 
and  numerous  other  experimenters  have  partially 
repeated  some  of  the  Iowa  experiments  without 
substantiating  the  conclusions.  Though  ten  nui  sery 
schools  report  increases  in  I.  Q.  during  nursery- 
school  attendance,  corresponding  increases  have 
been  found  in  control  groups  not  at  school.  Con- 
firmed hereditarians  regard  I.  Q.  shifts  as  artifacts 
resulting  from  flaws  in  test  technique.  Some  sug- 
gest that  the  first  or  the  second  I.  Q.  (whichever 
happens  to  be  lower)  may  be  unrepresentative  be- 
cause of  emotional  disturbance,  ill  health,  or  re- 
stricted powers  of  expression  (as  in  the  case  of 
a  child  with  a  speech  impediment).  Others  point 
out  that  verbal  tests  are  unfair  to  the  hard-of- 
hearing  and  to  persons  with  language  handicaps. 
Among  the  new  scales  proposed  to  meet  this  dif- 
ficulty' are  The  Chicago  Non-verbal  Examination 
and  The  Leiter  International  Performance  Scale. 
Some  point  out  that  tests  at  different  age  levels 
measure  different  human  abilities  to  different  de- 
grees, and  that  a  varying  I.  Q.  might  have  been 
anticipated  from  this  fact  alone.  A  growing  body 
of  psychologists  are  abandoning  the  concept  of  "in- 
telligence" as  a  unitary  trait,  and  are  seeking,  chief- 
ly by  means  of  factorial  analysis,  to  identify  the 
various  human  abilities  operating  to  different  de- 
grees in  different  tests.  Thurstone  finds  a  limited 
number  of  "primary  mental  abilities."  Thompson, 
on  the  other  hand,  regards  mental  abilities  as  prac* 


PSYCHOLOGY 


631 


PSYCHOLOGY 


tically  infinite  in  number,  a  hypothesis  which,  if 
true,  would  preclude  the  possibility  of  measure- 
ment M.  W.  Richardson  contends  that  the  present 
age-scales  for  testing  intelligence  violate  the  gen- 
erally accepted  logic  of  measurement.  He  considers 
both  mental  age  and  I.  Q.  to  be  unfortunate  con- 
cepts that  inevitably  create  false  psychological  is- 
sues. K.  Lewin  suggests  that  the  "momentary" 
mental  age  of  a  pre-school  child  may  depend  on  the 
motivational  situation.  Temporary  increases  in  in- 
telligence-test scores  of  adults  have  been  obtained 
following  dosages  with  certain  drugs,  and  variously 
interpreted  as  due  to  release  from  anxiety  or  to 
mere  increase  in  talkativeness  or  in  motor  activity. 
In  recent  years,  it  has  been  customary  in  many 
places  to  base  a  diagnosis  of  feeblemindedness 
largely  on  the  results  of  intelligence  tests.  With 
increasing  evidence  of  the  variability  of  I.  Q.'s, 
there  is  now  a  tendency  to  return  to  the  earlier 
practice  of  basing  such  a  diagnosis  more  on  social 
criteria,  despite  the  fact  that  social  criteria  are  at 
present  vague  and  subjective.  E  A.  Doll  of  Vine- 
land  proposes  to  give  objectivity  to  social  criteria 
through  the  Vineland  Social  Maturity  Scale.  An 
Annotated  Bibliography  of  Tests  and  Scales,  by 
C.  K.  A.  Wang  (Peipmg,  China),  includes  1776 
items. 

Educational  Psychology  and  Child  Psychol- 
ogy. That  memorizing  is  not  the  prototype  of 
learning,  but  that  the  understanding  of  organized 
wholes  is,  constitutes  the  most  significant  contribu- 
tion of  G.  Katona's  Organising  and  Memorising: 
Studies  in  the  Psychology  of  Learning  and  Teach- 
ing. Psychology  in  Education,  by  H.  Sorenson, 
stresses  the  importance  of  understanding  the  pu- 
pil's emotional  reaction  during  the  learning  process. 
O.  H.  Mowrer  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  ex- 
pectancy (whether  of  reward  or  of  punishment)  is 
always  a  state  of  tension  and  as  such  unpleasant. 
Anxiety  is  commonly  employed  to  motivate  class- 
room learning.  Mowrer  suggests  that  "in  order  for 
class-room  learning  to  proceed  efficiently,  the  arous- 
al of  anxiety  must  be  followed  as  promptly  as  pos- 
sible by  its  dissipation,  after  a  'correct'  reaction 
is  made."  Effects  of  frustration  upon  both  human 
and  animal  subjects  have  been  widely  studied  G. 
L.  Freeman  found  that  even  college  men,  after 
failing  in  difficult  visual  discriminations,  tended  to 
respond  wrongly  earlier  in  the  new  series. 

A.  Gesell  points  out  that  both  parents  and  teach- 
ers ought  to  recognize  the  individuality  of  chil- 
dren, defer  to  and  understand  the  limitations  of 
immaturity  and  laws  of  growth,  and  by  consistent 
and  sympathetic  care  give  the  child  that  feeling 
of  security  in  which  his  personality  may  develop 
wholesomely.  M.  I.  Preston  calls  attention  to  the 
deplorable  effect  on  a  child's  security  in  school  and 
home  produced  by  failure  in  reading.  F.  O.  Schwarz 
has  found  that  71  per  cent  of  poor  readers  studied 
by  him  were  definitely  eye  cases  which  improved 
following  correction  of  the  defects.  How  to  In- 
crease Reading  Ability,  by  A.  J.  Harris,  is  a  basic 
text  for  teachers.  Among  other  new  books  are 
Helping  Children  to  Read,  by  G.  Hildreth  and  J. 
L.  Wright,  and  Teaching  Reading  to  Slow-Learn- 
inq  Children,  by  S.  A.  Kirk. 

War  hysteria  has  reawakened  the  demand  for 
military  training  in  the  schools.  E.  C.  Johnson  con- 
tends that  there  is  no  valid  argument  for  .school 
military  training.  Military  drill  is  not  only  worth- 
less but  harmful  to  growing  boys,  and  investiga- 
tion indicates  that  it  does  not  aid  in  the  develop- 
ment of  obedience,  character,  or  even  patriotism 
School  military  training  includes  nothing  that  is 


relevant  to  preparation  for  modern  warfare.  R. 
Ltppitt  reports  an  experimental  study  of  the  effects 
of  democratic  and  authoritarian  atmospheres  in 
children's  clubs.  He.  found  conflict  and  hostility  in 
the  authoritarian  group;  none  in  the  democratic 
group.  The  latter  produced  more  creative  work. 

Among  new  books  are  The  First  Five  Year*  of 
Life,  The  Pre-school  Years,  by  A.  Gesell,  H.  lL 
Halverson,  H.  Thompson,  F.  L.  Ilg,  B.  M.  Castner, 
L.  B.  Ames,  and  C.  S.  Amatruda;  Studies  in  the 
Development  of  Young  Children,  by  N.  Bayley; 
Child  Psychology  for  Professional  Workers,  by 
F.  M.  Teagarden;  From  Infancy  to  Adolescence, 
by  F.  K.  Merry  and  R.  V.  Merry;  Your  Child's 
Development  and  Guidance  Told  in  Pictures,  by 
L.  H.  Meek;  Consider  the  Children— How  They 
Grow,  by  E.  M.  Manwell  and  S.  L.  Faks;  The 
Emotionalised  Attitudes:  The  Contribution  of  Re- 
search to  Teachers  Concerned  with  Learning,  Con- 
duct, and  Character,  by  T.  H.  Briggs  and  others, 
and  How  We  Learn,  by  B.  H  Bode.  The  Psychol- 
ogy of  Exceptional  Children,  by  K.  C.  Garrison, 
discusses  gifted  children,  the  retarded,  and  the 
physically  handicapped.  The  Education  of  Excep- 
tional Children,  by  A.  O.  Heck,  deals  with  the 
organization,  administration,  and  supervision  of  ed- 
ucation for  children  who  are  blind,  crippled,  deaf, 
socially  maladjusted,  mentally  defective,  etc.,  and 
also  for  the  gifted.  From  a  study  of  167  gifted 
boys,  L.  M.  Terman  and  M.  Oden  found  that  above 
the  I.  Q.  level  of  140,  adult  success  is  largely  de- 
termined by  such  factors  as  social  adjustment,  emo- 
tional stability,  and  drive  to  accomplish  P.  Witty 
finds  that  the  present  school  organization  fails  to 
provide  adequately  for  gifted  children  Noncon- 
formity with  discipline  requirements  increased  stead- 
ily from  examination  to  examination  in  the  gifted 
children  he  studied.  He  thinks  we  should  seek  to 
identify  gifted  children  by  consistently  remarkable 
performance  in  any  valuable  area,  but  that  we 
should  not  segregate  them  in  homogeneous  groups. 
This  practice  he  considers  a  serious  menace  to 
democratic  faith.  As  the  late  L.  S.  Hollmgworth 
has  shown,  children  of  superior  intelligence  are 
apt  to  exhibit  negativism,  and  the  play  of  those 
with  I.  Q.'s  above  170  is  typically  solitary.  G.  K. 
Stump  points  out  that  bright  children  often  ex- 
hibit unrest  and  distraction  in  school  and  indulge 
in  flights  of  fantasy  to  such  an  extent  that  their 
work  falls  below  that  of  the  class  in  general.  This 
should  not  be  mistaken  for  evidence  of  a  psycho- 
pathic constitution.  He  thinks  these  children  should 
be  given  a  more  challenging  and  at  the  same  time 
a  more  liberal  form  of  instruction.  H.  W.  Zor- 
baugh  maintains  that  the  community  should  iden- 
tify its  gifted  children,  preferably  at  their  entrance 
to  school,  and  the  children  should  be  encouraged 
by  feeling  that  their  unique  abilities  are  appre- 
ciated. 

Mental  Hygiene  and  Psychopathology.  I.  S. 
Wile  contends  that  the  term  abnormal  should  be 
relegated  to  lay  usage,  and  that  orthopsychiatry 
should  prefer  in  formative  terms,  such  as  usual  and 
unusual,  desirable  and  undesirable,  legal  and  il- 
legal This  would  do  away  with  many  foolish  at- 
tempts to  reduce  to  mediocrity  individuals  who 
deviate  in  socially  desirable  directions.  E.  D.  Hutch- 
inson  has  clarified  the  relationship  between  genius 
and  insanity  by  pointing  out  that  creative  endeavor 
involves  such  difficulties  that  frustration  is  almost 
inevitable  for  a  time,  eren  though  success  may 
come  at  last  Insanity  is  often  the  result  of  the 
frustration  of  creative  effort.  Psychiatric  Clinics 
for  Children,  by  H.  L.  Witmer,  surveys  psychiatric 


PSYCHOLOGY 


632 


PUBLIC  ASSISTANCE 


services  for  children  over  the  past  quarter  century. 
T.  R.  Sarbin  calls  attention  to  the  ineffectiveness 
resulting  from  confusion  of  three  current  uses  of 
the  term  adjustment:  (1)  conformity,  (2)  mas- 
tery, and  (3)  compromise.  The  first  seeks  to  mini- 
mize individual  differences,  the  second  to  capitalize 
on  them,  and  the  third  to  transcend  the  conflict 
H.  A.  Cotton,  Jr.,  in  discussing  the  scope  and  pur- 
poses of  the  State  mental-hygiene  clinic,  points 
out  that  it  is  as  important  to  educate  teachers, 
physicians,  nurses,  courts,  etc.,  as  it  is  to  make  ex- 
aminations of  patients. 

Men  Against  Madness,  by  L.  S.  Selling,  surveys 
the  history  of  the  fight  against  insanity  from  an- 
cient times.  New  Facts  on  Mental  Disorders,  Study 
of  89J.OO  Cases,  by  N.  A.  Dayton,  is  a  statistical 
study  of  patients  admitted  to  Massachusetts  hos- 
pitals for  mental  disease,  during  the  period  from 
1917-33.  Social  and  Biological  Aspects  of  Mental 
Disease,  by  B.  Malzberg,  presents  a  statistical  anal- 
ysis, based  on  the  records  of  admissions  to  New 
York  State  hospitals.  H.  M.  Pollock  and  B.  Malz- 
berg point  out  that  neither  schizophrenia  nor  manic- 
depressive  psychoses  appear  in  frequencies  that  are 
in  accord  with  the  requirements  of  simple  Men- 
delian  inheritance.  These  authors  contend  that  he- 
reditary and  environmental  factors  should  not  be 
regarded  as  antithetic,  but  as  joint  causes.  L.  M. 
Weinberger  and  F.  C.  Grant  find  evidence  that 
hallucinations  can  arise  from  peripheral  lesions. 

Of  major  importance,  both  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical, is  I.  Kendig's  and  W.  V.  Richmond's  research 
publication  Psychological  Studies  in  Dementia 
Praecox.  The  authors  conclude  that  "we  must  aban- 
don or  greatly  modify  our  concept  of  deterioration" 
in  schizophrenia.  Of  the  2000  cases  which  they 
studied,  few  had  actually  deteriorated  in  intellect. 
There  was  functional  impairment,  not  permanent 
loss.  Kraepelin  originally  grouped  together  hebe- 
phrenic,  catatonic,  and  paranoid  forms  under  the 
term  "dementia  praecox,"  because  he  believed  all 
showed  intellectual  deterioration.  E.  F.  Lowry  be- 
lieves that  the  pathology  of  schizophrenia  is  or- 
ganic. H.  S.  Sullivan  believes  that  "there  are  two 
unrelated  syndromes  confused  under  the  rubric  of 
dementia  praecox," — one  an  "organic,  degenerative 
disease,"  and  the  other  "a  disorder  of  living,  not 
of  the  organic  substrate." 

R.  Ralston  has  found  educational  therapy  valu- 
able in  increasing  the  personal  happiness  of  the 
patient  and  "filling  out  actual  deficiencies  in  aca- 
demic education  which  may  have  been  a  hindrance 
to  him."  There  is  an  increasing  effort  to  reach  and 
help  maladjusted  individuals  before  a  definite  psy- 
chosis develops.  S.  Coffman  and  D.  W.  Orr  report 
an  experimental  mental  hygiene  class  for  malad- 
justed children  between  the  ages  of  7  and  15.  Coff- 
man and  Orr  feel  that  free  expression  of  opinion 
and  group  discussion  of  the  mechanisms  of  be- 
havior and  feeling  give  the  child  a  sense  of  oneness 
with  others.  According  to  A.  Krider,  occupational 
therapy  for  maladjusted  children  is  restricted  by 
the  fact  that  the  child's  range  of  manual  skills  is 
small  and  his  ability  to  envision  a  project  as  a 
whole  and  to  sustain  interest  for  a  long  period  are 
small  in  comparison  to  adult  standards.  The  thera- 
pist must  discipline  himself  to  let  each  child  work 
out  his  individual  problems,  even  to  the  detriment 
of  the  task  in  hand. 

Psychological  and  Neurological  Definitions  and 
the  Unconscious,  by  S.  Kahn,  is  written  from  a 
psychoanalytic  viewpoint.  The  Journal  of  Abnor- 
mal and  Social  Psychology  carried  an  interesting 
symposium  on  psychoanalysis  by  psychologists  of 


other  schools  who  had  been  psychoanalyzed.  J.  F. 
Brown  points  out  that  the  term  psychoanalysis  is 
used  interchangeably  in  three  senses  (1)  a  method 
of  psychological  observation,  (2)  a  systematized 
set  of  theoretical  constructs,  and  (3)  a  method  of 
psychotherapy.  An  independent  psychologist  may 
utilize  the  method  of  observation  without  neces- 
sarily accepting  the  theoretical  constructs. 

Psychiatry  once  meant  a  rather  narrow  medical 
specialty,  limited  to  the  treatment  of  nervous  and 
mental  diseases.  Some  contemporary  psychiatrists, 
however,  have  so  effectively  broadened  their  out- 
look that  their  field  is  almost  co-extensive  with 
social  psychology.  There  is  growing  recognition 
of  the  fact  that  the  individual  can  not  be  under- 
stood apart  from  his  social  matrix  and  it  is  evident 
that  no  social  order  is  safe  while  paranoid  individ- 
uals can  rise  to  posts  of  power.  Psychopatholo- 
gists  are  responding  to  this  challenge. 

Social  Psychology.  In  Beyond  the  Clinical 
Frontiers,  E.  A.  Strecker  points  out  that  crowds, 
prejudiced  pressure  groups,  mobs,  and  nations  at 
war  exhibit  irrational  beliefs  and  behavior  that 
duplicate  the  symptoms  of  most  mental  diseases. 
He  stresses  the  perils  of  propaganda.  Social  Psy- 
chology, by  C.  Bird,  includes  enlightening  discus- 
sions of  propaganda  and  the  psychological  aspects 
of  war  and  an  extensive  treatment  of  attitude 
measurement  Of  interest  in  this  connection  is  The 
Pulse  of  Democracy:  The  Public-Opinion  Poll 
and  How  it  Works,  by  G.  Gallup  and  S.  F.  Rae. 
Social  Psychology,  by  O.  Klineberg,  emphasizes 
the  cultural  and  environmental  aspects  of  the  sub- 
ject. The  Plans  of  Men,  by  L.  W.  Doob,  attempts 
to  integrate  some  aspects  of  the  social  sciences 
with  some  of  the  practical  problems  of  everyday 
life.  L.  D.  Zeleny  has  attempted  to  develop  mathe- 
matical formulas  for  measuring  social  status,  which 
he  defines  as  the  degree  of  acceptance  of  a  person 
by  his  associates  in  a  particular  group. 

Criminal^  Behavior,  by  W.  C.  Reckless,  is  a  text- 
book of  criminology  written  from  the  comparative 
point  of  view.  It  stresses  the  fact  that  what  con- 
stitutes crime  varies  according  to  the  values  of  the 
society  observed.  Reckless  contends  that  heredity 
plays  no  discernible  role  in  crime  causation,  but 
the  failure  to  obtain  adequate  satisfaction  of  wishes, 
accompanied  by  severe  emotional  stress,  is  an  im- 
portant force  in  motivating  crime.  Girls  on  City 
Streets,  by  J.  A.  Goldberg  and  R.  W.  Goldberg, 
reports  studies  of  1400  case  histories.  Juvenile  De- 
linquents Grown  Up,  by  S.  Glueck  and  E.  Glueck, 
follows  through  an  additional  ten-year  period  the 
same  offenders  previously  studied  by  the  authors. 
The  various  peno-correctional  methods  to  which 
the  young  delinquents  were  subjected  are  discussed 
in  relation  to  subsequent  success  or  failure,  re- 
cidivism, serious  crimes,  etc.,  and  eight  prediction 
tables  are  included.  Trends  in  Crime  Treatment, 
edited  by  M.  Bell,  is  published  by  the  National 
Probation  Assn.  Marriage  and  the  Child,  by  J.  H. 
S.  Bossard,  deals  with  the  child  welfare  movement 
in  the  United  States,  the  changing  status  of  the 
child,  and  the  factors  influencing  marriage  rates 
and  stability.  Industrial  Conflict:  A  Psychological 
Interpretation,  edited  by  G.  W.  Hartmann,  is  the 
1939  Yearbook  of  the  Society  for  the  Psychologi- 
cal Study  of  Social  Issues.  Its  1940  yearbook  deals 
with  the  psychology  of  war.  See  ANTHROPOLOGY  ; 
PSYCHIATRY. 

MABEL  F.  MARTIN. 

PUBLIC  ASSISTANCE.  See  SOCIAL  SE- 
CURITY BOARD;  also,  RELIEF. 


PUBLIC  BUILDINGS 


633 


PUBLIC  FINANCE 


PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  ADMINISTRA- 
TION. The  Public  Buildings  Administration  is 
the  unit  of  the  Federal  Works  Agency  responsible 
for  the  design,  construction,  and  maintenance  of 
most  of  the  buildings  in  use  by  the  administrative 
and  service  departments  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment 

These  activities  were  originally  assigned  to  the 
Office  of  the  Supervising  Architect,  now  more  than 
a  century  old,  and  formerly  within  the  Treasury 
Department.  The  Reorganization  Act  of  1939, 
which  created  the  Public  Buildings  Administra- 
tion, brought  together  the  Public  Buildings  Branch 
of  the  Treasury's  Procurement  Division  (contain- 
ing the  Office  of  the  Supervising  Architect)  and 
the  Branch  of  Buildings  Management,  including 
the  office  of  space  control,  National  Parks  Service, 
Department  of  Interior.  Thus  within  the  frame- 
work of  a  single  agency,  designers,  construction 
engineers,  and  building  superintendents  work  in 
close  co-operation  so  that  the  experience  of  each 
may  contribute  to  the  plans  for  Federal  buildings. 

In  Washington,  the  PBA  continues  the  con- 
struction and  management  of  buildings  to  house 
the  various  administrative  departments  and  agen- 
cies of  the  Government,  co-operating  with  the  Na- 
tional Capital  Park  and  Planning  Commission  and 
the  Commission  of  Fine  Arts  so  that  the  develop- 
ment of  the  capital  city  may  follow  an  orderly  and 
efficient  plan. 

Throughout  the  rest  of  the  country  the  services 
which  the  Federal  Government  extends  to  its  citi- 
zens cover  a  wide  range  of  building  types.  The 
Treasury  Department  must  have  custom  houses; 
the  Coast  Guard  needs  air  stations,  the  Department 
of  Justice,  court  houses  and  penitentiaries;  the 
Labor  Department  must  have  immigration  depots, 
the  Public  Health  Service,  hospitals  and  quaran- 
tine stations;  and  the  Department  of  State,  am- 
bassadors' residences  and  embassies  in  foreign 
countries  The  Post  Office  Department  needs  the 
greatest  number  of  Federal  buildings.  With  re- 
spect to  post  offices,  a  federally  owned  building  be- 
comes legally  eligible  when  the  postal  receipts  ex- 
ceed $10,000  per  annum. 

In  addition  to  the  design  and  construction  of 
new  buildings,  the  PBA  also  remodels  and  extends 
existing  buildings,  carries  out  necessary  repairs, 
and  acquires  new  building  sites  as  well  as  dispos- 
ing of  those  no  longer  needed.  For  each  of  the 
new  buildings  constructed,  its  Section  of  Fine  Arts 
plans  appropriate  mural  or  sculptural  decorations, 
the  commissions  for  which  are  awarded  to  artists 
selected  through  anonymous  competitions.  See 
ART;  PAINTING. 

Within  the  District  of  Columbia,  its  Office  of 
the  Buildings  Manager  repairs,  cleans,  and  pro- 
tects government  owned  and  leased  buildings,  and 
the  Office  of  Planning  and  Space  Control  co-oper- 
ates with  other  government  agencies  in  planning 
space  needs  and  assigns  space  in  Federal  buildings 
and  leases  space  in  private  buildings. 

The  work  of  the  Public  Buildings  Administra- 
tion falls  into  two  major  categories,  work  within 
the  District  of  Columbia  and  work  throughout  the 
rest  of  the  country. 

Expansion  of  government  as  the  result  of  the 
National  Defense  Program  intensified  the  work 
of  the  Office  of  Planning  and  Space  Control  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  during  the  last  year.  Govern- 
ment-owned buildings  in  Washington  represent  a 
net  area  of  almost  16,000,000  square  feet,  but  dur- 
ing the  last  six  months  it  has  been  necessary  to 
lease  over  four  million  more  square  feet  to  accom- 


modate the  large  influx  of  workers  on  the  Nation- 
al Defense  Program. 

During  the  1940  fiscal  year,  PBA  spent  approxi- 
mately $10,000,000  on  Federal  buildings  in  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  for  new  construction,  extensions, 
remodeling,  and  major  alterations.  The  largest 
project  undertaken  was  the  construction  of  the  So- 
cial Security  and  Railroad  Retirement  Board  build- 
ings, costing  $14,750,000.  These  buildings  add 
1,580,000  square  feet  to  administrative  office  space 
for  the  Capital  City.  Because  of  pressing  defense 
needs,  these  buildings  have  been  temporarily  loaned 
to  the  National  Defense  Advisory  Commission  and 
co-operating  divisions  of  the  War  Department. 

Another  large  project  begun  during  the  year  was 
the  first  unit  of  a  War  Department  Building.  Con- 
gress appropriated  $10,800,000  for  the  site  and  the 
construction  of  the  smaller  of  two  units. 

Three  general  Federal  office  buildings— to  be  as- 
signed temporarily  to  agencies  with  emergency 
space  problems-^-were  worked  on  during  the  year. 
The  first,  now  in  use  by  the  Census  Bureau,  was 
completed,  and  the  other  two  are  in  plan  stage. 

Outside  the  District  of  Columbia,  a  total  of  335 
buildings  were  completed  during  the  year  by  the 
PBA  and  contracts  were  awarded  for  303  addi- 
tional projects.  Exclusive  of  land  costs,  this  work 
represents  an  expenditure  of  $42,775,000. 

Well  over  two  hundred  of  these  projects  were 
small  post  office  buildings,  with  allotments  gener- 
ally ranging  from  $70,000  to  $100,000  for  site  pur- 
chase, construction  costs,  and  the  PBA  adminis- 
trative expenses. 

Being  one  of  the  major  construction  agencies  of 
the  Government,  the  PBA  is  taking  an  active  part 
in  the  national  defense  program.  Beginning  in  No- 
vember, the  Federal  Works  Administrator  has  as- 
signed to  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Buildings 
more  than  70  projects  for  family  housing  units  to 
be  erected  near  army  posts  or  factories  turning  out 
defense  orders.  By  December  31,  twenty-six  con- 
struction contracts  had  been  awarded  and  work 
was  well  underway  on  a  dozen  projects.  The  PBA 
housing  projects  range  in  size  from  20  family  units 
needed  for  Fort  Dupont,  Del.,  to  a  3000  unit  de- 
velopment at  San  Diego,  Calif.,  called  the  largest 
low-cost  housing  project  ever  to  be  undertaken  in 
this  country.  See  ARCHITECTURE. 

W.  E.  REYNOLDS. 

PUBLIC  DEBT,  Bureau  of.  See  FISCAL 
SERVICE. 

PUBLIC  FINANCE.  The  national  defense 
program  brought  sweeping  changes  in  the  finances 
of  the  Federal  Government.  During  the  year,  plans 
for  expanding  the  Army  and  Navy  were  com- 
pleted calling  for  appropriations,  authorizations, 
and  recommendations  aggregating  $28,480,000,000. 
This  program,  embracing  the  fiscal  years  1940, 
1941,  and  1942,  was  divided  as  follows : 

ARMY  AND  NAVY  APPROPRIATIONS,  AUTHORIZA- 
TIONS, AND  RECOMMENDATIONS 
(Ptseal  Years  1940, 1941,  and  1942) 

[In  Millions  of  dollars] 

$13,704 

11,587 

1,902 

1,287 


Anny    ... 

Navy  .... 

Expansion  of  industrial  plant. 

Other  defense  activities     


Total 


28,480 


Confronted  with  such  huge  armament  expendi- 
tures, public  interest  in  a  balancing  of  the  Federal 


PUBLIC  FINANCE 


634 


PUBLIC  FINANCE 


budget  dwindled.  Even  in  the  presidential  cam- 
paign in  the  fall  of  the  year,  this  issue  did  not  play 
the  important  role  that  had  been  expected.  With 
both  parties  committed  to  a  defense  program  ade- 
quate to  arm  the  United  States  for  war  with  ma- 
jor European  and  Asiatic  powers,  economies  could 
be  effected  only  in  other  portions  of  the  budget. 
For  the  fiscal  year  1942,  however,  almost  two 
thirds  of  all  expenditures  in  the  budget  were  to  be 
for  national  defense,  so  that  the  possibilities  of 
major  reductions  in  total  expenditures  were 
greatly  limited. 

The  Roosevelt  Administration  adopted  a  policy 
of  increasing  taxes  so  as  to  secure  in  this  way  all 
the  funds  needed  for  the  regular  budget,  apart 
from  national  defense,  and  sufficient  funds  to 
cover  the  maintenance  of  the  Army  and  Navy,  as 
distinct  from  their  expansion.  To  achieve  this  ob- 
ject, two  revenue  acts  were  passed  in  1940,  in- 
creasing income  taxes  and  imposing  an  excess 
profits  tax.  A  further  rise  in  taxation  was  planned 
for  1941,  and  the  Treasury  launched  studies  with 
this  end  in  view.  The  sharp  upturn  in  business  ac- 
tivity and  national  income,  at  the  same  time, 
swelled  tax  collections  further. 

The  Treasury  was  concerned  not  only  with  rais- 
ing money  to  finance  the  defense  program,  but 
also  with  the  problem  of  preventing  an  inflation  of 
commodity  prices  because  of  the  huge  purchases 
by  the  Government  and  the  consequent  bottlenecks 
created  in  a  number  of  markets  and  industries. 
The  sale  of  Government  bonds  as  far  as  possible 
to  individual  investors,  rather  than  banks,  was 
planned  to  avoid  a  further  increase  in  bank  de- 
posits and  to  absorb  income  that  would  otherwise 
go  for  consumption,  expanding  the  demand  for 
goods  produced  by  industries  whose  capacity  was 
needed  for  defense  production.  Also,  some  curtail- 
ment of  ordinary  public  works  was  effected  to 
free  productive  capacity  for  armaments  and  to 
build  up  a  backlog  of  such  projects  that  could  be 
launched  during  the  postwar  readjustment  period, 
when  a  severe  depression  was  feared.  The  Treas- 
ury, however,  opposed  the  adoption  of  the  drastic 
program  for  checking  further  increases  in  bank 
deposits  and  raising  interest  rates  which  the  Fed- 
eral Reserve  System  proposed  to  help  prevent 
commodity  price  inflation. 

Federal  Revenues.  The  receipts  of  the  Fed- 
eral Government  from  taxation  for  the  fiscal  year 
ended  June  30,  1940,  were  $5,387,000,000,  an  in- 
crease of  $223,000,000  as  compared  with  the  pre- 
ceding fiscal  year.  The  small  size  of  this  increase 
in  receipts  reflected  the  fact  that  higher  tax  rates 
were  not  yet  in  effect  and  the  upturn  in  business 


activity  following  the  outbreak  of  the  war  was 
not  fully  reflected  in  the  income  tax  receipts  for 
the  fiscal  year.  Income  taxes  produced  $2,125,000,- 
000  in  1940,  or  $57,000,000  less  than  in  the  year 
before.  The  lower  corporate  and  individual  earn- 
ings of  1938  made  for  lower  income  tax  collec- 
tions in  the  first  half  of  the  1940  fiscal  year.  Other 
sources  of  revenue  were  mostly  moderately  higher. 
The  extent  to  which  the  new  tax  laws  and  in- 
creased national  income  would  expand  Federal  re- 
ceipts was  reflected  in  the  budget  estimate  that 
$7,012,000,000  would  be  collected  by  the  Federal 
Government  in  the  1941  fiscal  year. 

The  chief  sources  of  Treasury  revenues  in  the 
year  ended  June  30,  1940,  with  estimates  for  1941 
and  1942,  are  shown  below. 

Federal  Expenditures.  Federal  expenditures 
during  the  1940  fiscal  year  totalled  $8,998,000,000, 
of  which  national  defense  amounted  to  $1,579,000,- 
000.  In  the  preceding  fiscal  year,  expenditures 
totalled  $8,707,000,000,  of  which  $1,163,000,000 
went  to  national  defense. 

The  President's  budget  message  for  1942,  is- 
sued immediately  after  the  turn  of  the  year,  em- 
phasized the  extent  to  which  national  defense 
would  produce  revolutionary  changes  on  the  ex- 
penditures side  of  the  Federal  accounts.  The  esti- 
mated expenditures  for  the  fiscal  year  1941  were 
$13,202,000,000,  of  which  fully  $6,463,000,000  would 
go  for  national  defense.  In  the  1942  fiscal  year, 
total  expenditures  were  scheduled  to  rise  to  $17,- 
485,000,000,  and  national  defense  outlays  to  $10,- 
811,000,000.  These  budget  estimates,  furthermore, 
did  not  include  the  cost  of  the  aid-to-Bntam  pro- 
gram, which,  it  was  indicated  semiofficially,  might 
about  equal  for  a  time  that  of  the  domestic  arma- 
ment program.  Despite  the  rapid  increase  in  na- 
tional debt,  interest  payments  of  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment were  expected  to  increase  but  slowly  be- 
cause of  the  low  interest  rates  prevailing  The 
interest  on  the  public  debt,  which  amounted  to 
$1,040,000,000  in  the  1940  fiscal  year,  was  expected 
to  rise  to  $1,100,000,000  in  1941,  and  to  $1,225,000,- 
000  in  1942. 

Estimated  expenditures  for  the  fiscal  year  be- 
ginning July  1, 1940,  with  estimates  for  the  two  fol- 
lowing fiscal  years,  are  shown  on  pages  635-636. 

Treasury  Financing  Policy.  The  Treasury 
financed  the  deficit  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  1940, 
amounting  to  $3,740,000,000,  in  part  through  new 
loans  and,  to  the  extent  of  $1,083,000,000,  through 
reducing  its  working  balances,  which  had  been 
very  large  at  the  beginning  of  the  fiscal  year.  The 
increase  in  the  public  debt  for  the  fiscal  year  1940 
amounted  to  $2,527,000,000  Only  a  small  part  of 


RECEIPTS  FOR  THE  FISCAL  YEAR  1940  AND  ESTIMATED  RECEIPTS  FOR  THE  FISCAL  YEARS  1941  AND  1942 


1. 

Revenue 
Internal  revenue: 
Income  tax  (Including  tax  on  unjust  enrichment)  
Miscellaneous  Internal  Revenue 
Federal  Insurance  Contributions  Act  Taxes                  .   . 
Federal  Unemployment  Tax  Act  Taxes              . 

Estimate,  1942 

$4,509,000,000 

'725l300',000 
91,100,000 

Estimated,  1941 

$3,055,000,000 
2,871,010,000 
667,500,000 
88,400,000 

Actual,  1940 

$2,125,324,634  92 
2,344,625,13084 
604,694,23648 
107,523,266  69 

Taxes  on  Camera  and  employes. 
Railroad  Unemployment  Insurance  Act  Taxes 

7,*200!000 
29S!000,000 

135,300,000 
6,800,000 
302  000  000 

120.966,719  36 
4,918,040  78 
348.590,635  21 

Miscellaneous  revenues  

161,438,830 

158,030,305 

162,454,931  73 

8  963,773,830 

7  284  040  305 

5,819,097,596  01 

2. 

Realisation  upon  assets: 
Return  of  surplus  funds  from  Government  corporations 

360500000 

Other.  ,,r  ,  -  -  r 

7,961,170 

8,669,695 

105,738*806  75 

Total  receipts            

8,971,735,000 

7,653,210  000 

5,924,836,402  76 

Deduct  net  appropriation  for  Federal  old-age  and  survivors 
insurance  trust  fund  

696,300,000 

640,280,000 

537,711,733.00 

Net  receipts           .   .             

8.175,435,000 

7.012.930,000 

5.387.124,669  76 

PUBLIC  FINANCE 


635 


PUBLIC  FINANCE 


EXPENDITURES  FOR  THE  FISCAL!  TEAR  1Mb  AND 

[Esttmattd  and  actual  acpftndihtrts  ft 

ESTIMATED  EXPENDITURES  FOR  THE  FISCAL 

om  general  and  special  accounts] 

I.  LEGISLATIVE,  JUDICIAL.  AMD  EXECUTIVE. 

RstimaUd.  fiscal 
year  1942 

f  25,950,400 
12,393,500 
2,984,300 

^S^*^ 

f  23,874,580 
llisojoo 
3l090;788 

*%?•£? 

$  23,070,529.31 
10,973,057.88 
2,661,099.98 

3    Executive  Office  of  the  President  

Total  legislative  judicial  and  executive  

41,328,200 

114,030,300 
31,241,600 
25,235,900 
70,075,500 
55,471,000 
11,812,500 
19,171,500 
173,967,900 
45,415,000 
10,775,000 
51,087,587 
6,000,000 
8,480000 
59112100 
39,230,000 
150,178,500 
66,243,900 
18,500,000 

152,386,000 
47,757,400 
24,510,200 
83,580,100 
52,875.500 
12,398,000 
19,771,500 
167,765,200 
47,576,000 
11,050,000 
29,760,102 
6,000,000 
9,340,000 
57.703,900 
34,882,050 
135,180,500 
58,617,750 
14,000,000 

184,466,492.75 
42,291,518.23 
21504,643.93 
89,262,944.41 
52,641,402.71 
9,541,759.52 
21,848,092.44 
158589,603.12 
50,584,891.31 
11,981,490.78 
41,991,378  92 
6,000,00000 
14,209,361.86 
53,158,969.62 
36,627,996  76 
98,809,569  23 
57,220,031.22 

75,04*233 
1,443,738.03 

II     ClVIL  DEPARTMENTS  AND  AGENCIES. 

3    Department  of  the  Interior      
4    Department  of  Justice 
5     Department  of  Labor                 .   . 
6    Department  of  State  

7.  Treasury  Department  .              
8    War  Department  (nonmffitary)   
Panama  Canal                                   .  .          ... 
9.   Post  Office  Department,  deficiency   
10.  District  of  Columbia,  United  States  share 
11.  Federal  Loan  Agency            .                          ... 
12.  Federal  Security  Agency  
13.  Federal  Works  Agency. 
14    US  Maritime  Commission 
15    Other  independent  offices  and  establishments 
16    Refugee  relief                 ..                       .... 
Unclassified  items      .     .                   .... 
Adjustment  for  disbursing  officers'  checks  outstanding 

Total,  civil  departments  and  agencies    .       ... 

Ill    GENERAL  PUBLIC  WORKS  PROGRAM. 
1.   Federal  Security  Agency  .      .          .       . 
2    Federal  Works  Agency 
3    National  Advisory  Committee  for  Aeronautics 
4    Tennessee  Valley  Authority 
5    Veterans'  Administration    .           .           . 
6    Department  of  Agriculture 
7    Department  of  Commerce 
8.   Department  of  the  Interior 
9    Department  of  Justice     . 
10    Department  of  State 
1  1    War  Department  (nonmilitary)   . 

Total,  General  Public  Works  Program  . 
IV    NATIONAL  DEFENSE: 



956.028,287 

900,000 
183,200,000 
9,900,000 
40,000,000 
4,000,000 
9,800,000 
1500,000 
100,658,000 
420,000 
2,206,000 
150,300,000 

965,154,202 

275,000 
223,165,000 
10,150,000 
40,000,000 
5,000,000 
9,500,000 
2,059,000 
110,817,000 
255,000 
2,781,000 
166,000,000 

952.248.927  17 

403,712  68 
204,865,949  56 
987,865  09 
39,135,75444 
5,980,993  30 
11,477,059  19 
354,313  95 
109,101,11508 
1,578,335  97 
2,444,822  21 
164,455,404.98 

502.884,000 

3,447,394,000 
5,956,600,600 
407,320,000 
1,000,000,000 

570,002.000 

2,136,303,300 
3,845,665,700 
381,954,900 

540.785.32645 

891,484,523  08 
667,138.363  59 
21,282,53906 

2    War  Department 
3.  Other  agencies          .                     .          .. 

4.   Supplemental  items      .... 
Total,  national  defense 

V    VETERANS'  PENSIONS  AND  BENEFITS  .  .  . 
VI    AIDS  TO  AGRICULTURE: 
1    Agricultural  Adjustment  Program 
2    Commodity  Credit  Corporation 
3    Farm  Tenant  Act 
4    Federal  Farm  Mortgage  Corporation 
5    Federal  land  banks 
6    Farm  Security  Administration 
7    Farm  Credit  Administration    . 

Total,  aids  to  agriculture 
VII    AIDS  TO  YOUTH 
1    Civilian  Conservation  Corps 
2.  National  Youth  Administration 

Total,  aids  to  youth  ..     . 
VIII    SOCIAL  SECURITY 
1    Administrative  expenses  

10,811,314,600 
564.570,000 

947,775,000 

5,339,000 
9,400,000 
27,000,000 
65,000,000 
7,047,700 

6,463,923,900 
560,110.000 

968,544,600 

25,312,200 
90,500,000  • 
72,500,000- 
67,000,000 
106,465,000  « 

1,579,905,425.73 

550.692,391  13 

1,020,147,73969 
119,599,91805 
41,779,009  15 
7,125,158  14 
29,315,76769 
158,536,339.40 
1,441,02644* 

|  1.061,561.700 

265,000,000 
97,590,000 

791.191,800 

274,000,000 
95,325,000 

1,375,062,905  68[ 

283,244,74853 
94,648,335.41 

26,120,000 
436,400,000 

369,325.000 

26,907,800 
403,372,100 

377.893,084  34 

23,747,789  27 
359,867,323  75 

2    Grants  to  States  

Total,  social  security 
IX.  WORK  RELIEF: 
1    Work  Projects  Administration  .       . 
2.  Public  Works  Administration     .... 
3    Other      .                     .... 
4.  Supplemental  items  .                  

462.520.000 

38,600,000 
990|000',000 

4W.279.900 

975,000,000 
122,500,000 
29,915,000 
350.000,000 

383,615,11302 

1,477,537,908  00 
347,742,75040 
36,141,32695 

Total,  work  relief  

1.034.139.700 

esss5sss=±=a 

18,500,000 
63006300 
7,500,000 

1.477.4  IS.  OOP 

16,000,000 
44,008,000 
10,000,000 

1.861  .421.985  35  1 

17,486,902  12 
61.812,222  70 
11,771,638.90 

X    RFFUNDS: 

2.  Internal  revenue  ... 

3.  Processing  tax  on  farm  products 
Total,  refunds  .  .   * 

141,700,000 

123,500,000 

120,650,000.00 

XI   INTEREST  ON  THE  PUBLIC  DEBT  

XII.  TRANSFERS  TO  TRUST  ACCOUNTS. 
1.  Railroad  retirement  account  

PUBLIC  FINANCE 


636 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE 


EXPENDITURES  FOR  THE  FISCAL  YEAR  1940,  AND  ESTIMATED  EXPENDITURES  FOR  THE  FISCAL 


2.  Government  employees'  retirement  funds  (United  States 

snare)  .  

3.  Ad  justed  service  certificate  fund 

4.  National  service  life  insurance  fund 

Total,  transfers  to  trust  accounts  

Xin.  SUPPLEMENTAL  ITEMS— EEOULAE 

Total,  expenditures  (excluding  debt  retirement) 

XIV  DEBT  KETIKEMZNT  

Total,  expenditures      .  


Estimated,  fiscal 
yearlW 

$102,885,262 
10,000,000 
20,000,000 


$92,715,000 


$87,203,40000 


207.851.40000 


•  Excess  of  credits,  deduct. 

the  money  obtained  through  the  sale  of  securities 
came  from  new  public  issues  of  Treasury  obliga- 
tions, however.  Sales  of  Treasury  obligations  to 
the  social  security  funds  produced  $606,000,000, 
while  United  States  savings  bonds  sales  yielded 
$1,102,000,000.  As  the  debt  limit  of  $45,000,000,000 
was  closely  approached,  Congress  authorized  an 
increase  in  the  limit  of  $4,000,000,000,  consisting 
of  special  national  defense  obligations  with  matu- 
rities up  to  five  years.  In  December,  the  Treasury 
issued  $531,000,000  of  5-year  %  per  cent  obliga- 
tions under  this  series.  The  only  public  issue  for 
cash  during  the  fiscal  year  was  $521,000,000  of  2 
per  cent  bonds  maturing  in  1953,  which  was  of- 
fered on  Dec.  8,  1939.  For  the  calendar  year  1940 
the  only  public  issue  for  cash,  made  from  the  de- 
fense notes,  was  $631,000,000  of  2#  per  cent  bonds 
maturing  in  1956,  which  was  sold  on  July  22. 

The  status  of  the  public  debt  for  the  fiscal  year 
ended  June  30,  1939,  with  estimates  for  the  two 
following  years,  contained  in  the  President's  bud- 
get message  of  Jan.  3,  1941,  was  as  follows: 

GROWTH  IN  THE  PUBLIC  DEBT  IN  FISCAL  YEARS 
ENDING  JUNE  30,  (000  OMITTED) 


Public  debt  at  beginning  of 
year      

Increase  in  public  debt  dur- 

To  meet  deficiency  in 
revenues  and  re- 


Esttmated, 

fiscal  year 

1942 


Estimated,       Actual, 


$49,156,972  $42,967,531  $40,439,532 


special  accounts 
Less  debt  retirements 
included  in  deficit  . 

Decrease  in  working  balance 
on  general  and  special  ac- 
count. . 

9,310,093 
100,000 

6,289,441      3,740,249 
100,000        129,184 

9,210,093 

6,189,441      3,611,065 
1,083,066 

Net  increase  in  public 
debt  during  year 

Public  debt  at  end  of  year   . 

9,210,093 
58,367,065  " 

6,189,441      2,527,999 
49,156,972    42,967,531 

The  Public  Debt.  The  gross  public  debt  at  the 
end  of  the  calendar  year  1940  amounted  to  $45,- 


024,631,488,  the  highest  total  ever  attained.  In  ad- 
dition, there  were  outstanding  $5,901,000,000  of 
obligations  of  governmental  agencies  guaranteed 
by  the  United  States. 

The  vast  increase  in  the  scale  of  borrowings 
that  would  be  required  by  the  Treasury  to  finance 
the  defense  program  made  necessary  important 
changes  in  financing  methods.  The  Treasury  made 
an  intensive  study  of  this  problem  during  the 
latter  months  of  the  year.  The  policy  of  selling 
new  bonds  to  a  much  greater  extent  to  individual 
and  corporate  investors,  rather  than  to  the  banks 
which  had  been  the  chief  outlet  in  recent  years, 
would  necessitate  a  sharp  increase  in  the  average 
interest  cost  of  new  money,  and  also  drastic 
changes  in  the  form  of  the  obligation  sold.  Sav- 
ings bonds  were  not  regarded  as  suitable  for  this 
purpose,  not  only  because  of  the  2  9  per  cent  in- 
terest cost  involved,  but  because  holders  were  en- 
titled to  cash  them  at  any  time.  It  was  felt  that 
a  coupon  obligation,  even  if  not  purchasable  by 
banks,  would  meet  a  better  reception  than  savings 
bonds  that  were  offered  on  a  discount  basis.  The 
intention  of  the  Treasury  to  make  future  issues  of 
Federal  bonds  fully  taxable  made  its  task  all  the 
greater.  This  proposal,  announced  shortly  after  the 
election  in  November,  brought  sharp  increases  in 
quotations  of  already  outstanding  Treasury  obliga- 
tions, for  this  plan  would  give  a  scarcity  value  to 
outstanding  issues  having  the  tax-exempt  privilege. 

The  public  debt  at  the  end  of  the  calendar  year 
1940  is  shown  below. 

See  BUDGET,  BUREAU  OF  THE;  CUSTOMS,  BU- 
REAU OF  ;  FINANCIAL  REVIEW  under  New  Financ- 
ing; FISCAL  SERVICE;  INTERNATIONAL  BANKING 
AND  FINANCE;  MONEY,  U.S.  STOCK  OF;  REPARA- 
TIONS AND  WAR  DEBTS,  TAXATION.  See  foreign 
countries  under  Finance.  For  appropriations  see 
UNITED  STATES  under  Legislation. 

JULES  I.  BOGEN. 

PUBLIC  HEALTH.  See  topics  listed  under 
HEALTH  WORK. 

PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE.  The  most 
significant  developments  and  advances  in  public 
health  services  in  recent  years  are  represented  by 
the  accelerated  trend  in  Governments  to  accept 


COMPARATIVE  PUBLIC  DEBT  STATEMENT 


Gross  public  debt  

liar.  31,  1917, 
pre-war  debt 
$1,282,044,346  28 

Aug.  31,  1919, 
when  war  debt 
was  at  its  peak 
$26,596,701,648.01 

Dec  31,  1930, 
lowest  post-war 
debt 

$16,026,087,08707 

Dec.  31,  1939 
$41,942,456,00842 

Dec.  31,  1940 
$45,024,631,48841 

Gross  public  debt  per  capiu  
Computed  rate  of  interest  per  an- 
num on  interest-bearing  public 
debt  (per  cent)  

12  36 
2395 

250.18 
4.196 

129.66 
3.750 

318.59 
2.598 

340.84 
2566 

Obligation*  of  governmental  agen- 
cies guaranteed  by  the  United 

5,621,069,023.67 

5.901,357,155.28 

General  fund  balance  

74,216,46005 

1,118,109,534.76 

306,803,319.55 

2;476,160;943.36 

11928,454,975.75 

PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE 


637 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE 


wider  responsibilities  in  matters  of  health  and  so- 
cial welfare.  This  stimulation  is  largely  the  result 
of  the  adverse  economic  conditions,  which  have 
brought  into  public  consciousness  the  lack  of  ade- 
quate health  facilities  for  large  groups  of  popula- 
tion. Not  only  have  economic  conditions  focussed 
attention  on  these  needs,  but  they  have  also  in- 
creased them. 

During  1940,  the  Federal  Government,  through 
the  U.S.  Public  Health  Service,  continued  its  as- 
sistance to  States,  by  means  of  grants-in-aid,  in 
expanding  and  improving  State  and  local  health 
services. 

For  the  fiscal  year  1940,  the  funds  appropriated 
for  this  purpose  were  increased  from  $8,000,000  to 
$11,000,000,  and  the  latter  amount  was  appropri- 
ated for  the  fiscal  year  1941.  Under  the  program 
for  improving  the  qualifications  of  public  health 
personnel,  1142  persons  received  training  during 
the  year.  The  additional  funds  made  available  to 
the  States  during  1940  were  utilized  principally  in 
strengthening  or  establishing  special  programs, 
such  as  those  for  pneumonia,  tuberculosis,  cancer, 
and  malaria  control,  and  for  dental  hygiene  and 
industrial  hygiene  activities. 

The  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1940  marked  the  sec- 
ond year  of  intensified  activities  in  combating  the 
venereal  diseases  under  the  Venereal  Disease  Con- 
trol Act  of  1938.  Federal  funds  totaling  $8,080,000, 
made  available  to  the  States  in  the  fiscal  years 
1939  and  1940  under  this  act,  supplemented  by 
approximately  $10,300,000  from  State  and  local 
sources,  have  enabled  State  and  local  health  au- 
thorities to  put  into  effective  operation  adminis- 
trative procedures  for  the  control  of  the  venereal 
diseases.  Among  these  important  measures  are 
improved  practices  in  case-finding  and  case-hold- 
ing, expanded  and  improved  diagnostic  and  treat- 
ment facilities,  and  the  provision  of  free  drugs  for 
the  treatment  of  indigent  or  part-pay  patients. 
There  are  indications  that  the  number  of  new  cases 
of  syphilis  reported  annually  has  about  reached 
the  peak.  For  the  fiscal  year  1941,  Congress  ap- 
propriated $6,200,000  for  venereal  disease  control 
activities,  most  of  which  will  be  allotted  to  the 
States. 

Among  the  advances  made  in  research  were: 
The  preparation  of  rickettsial  vaccines  by  a  meth- 
od employing  the  yolk  sac  of  the  chick  embryo, 
and  especially  the  development  of  a  vaccine  for 
epidemic  typhus  fever;  the  successful  transmis- 
sion of  the  virus  of  poliomyelitis  to  the  Eastern 
cotton  rat  and  to  the  white  mouse,  thus  making 
these  animals  available  for  experimental  purposes ; 
and  the  demonstration  of  the  encouraging  possi- 
bility of  developing  effective  immunization  against 
pneumonia. 

Cancer  control  and  research  were  concerned 
particularly  with  fundamental  biological  problems, 
the  carcinogenic  properties  of  chemicals,  clinical 
and  therapeutic  studies  conducted  at  the  tumor 
clinic  of  the  Marine  Hospital  in  Baltimore,  Mary- 
land, where  226  patients  were  treated  by  various 
methods  during  the  first  eight  months  of  opera- 
tion, grants-in-aid  for  research  projects,  and  the 
loan  of  radium  to  hospitals  for  use  in  the  study 
and  treatment  of  cancer.  During  the  year,  seven 
additional  States  instituted  special  cancer  control 
programs,  making  a  total  of  17  States  now  con- 
ducting such  programs. 

In  the  hospital  care  and  medical  treatment  of 
American  seamen  and  other  legal  beneficiaries— 
the  oldest  function  of  the  Public  Health  Service, 
dating  from  its  origin  in  1798— provided  in  26 


marine  hospitals.  126  relief  stations  and  over  130 
contract  hospitals,  approximately  70,000  patients 
were  furnished  more  than  2,000,000  days  of  hospi- 
tal relief,  while  353,724  patients  were  given  ap- 
proximately a  million  and  a  half  office  treatments. 

In  addition  to  these  hospitals,  the  Public  Health 
Service  conducts  two  special  institutions  for  the 
confinement  and  treatment  of  drug  addicts,  princi- 
pally Federal  prisoners.  One  of  these  institutions, 
located  at  Lexington,  Kentucky,  operated  during 
the  fiscal  year  1940  with  an  average  daily  popula- 
tion of  1014;  the  other,  at  Fort  Worth,  Texas, 
had  an  average  daily  population  of  410,  but  will 
eventually  have  a  bed  capacity  of  1000.  The  pur- 
pose of  these  hospitals  is  to  treat  and  rehabilitate 
drug  addicts  where  possible,  and  to  utilize  the  op- 
portunity afforded  to  study  the  various  problems 
of  drug  addiction. 

The  Public  Health  Service  continued  to  provide 
diagnostic  psychiatric  services  to  10  Federal  courts 
during  the  year.  Freedmen's  and  St.  Elizabeths 
Hospitals,  in  Washington,  D  C,  were  transferred 
to  the  administrative  supervision  of  the  Public 
Health  Service  during  1940. 

The  Public  Health  Service  administers  the  Fed- 
eral quarantine  laws  and  regulations  in  preventing 
the  introduction  of  dangerous  communicable  dis- 
eases into  the  country  from  abroad  and  the  inter- 
state spread  of  disease.  Although  quarantmable 
diseases  were  prevalent  in  many  parts  of  the  world 
during  1940,  the  only  instances  in  which  such  dis- 
eases reached  United  States  territory  during  the 
year  were  two  cases  of  smallpox,  which  were 
stopped  at  quarantine — one  at  Honolulu  and  the 
other  at  New  Orleans.  Successful  measures  were 
also  taken  to  prevent  the  introduction,  by  aircraft, 
of  yellow  fever  from  South  America,  where  it  is 
present  practically  throughout  the  entire  continent 
north  of  30°  south  latitude. 

During  the  year,  quarantine  officers  of  the  Pub- 
lic Health  Service  inspected  15,607  vessels,  carry- 
ing 1,422,517  passengers  and  seamen,  and  fumi- 
gated 900  vessels.  Medical  officers  of  the  Service 
examined  637,398  alien  passengers  and  551,489  alien 
seamen  at  various  ports  of  entry.  Of  these,  8793 
passengers  and  1271  seamen  were  certified  to  im- 
migration officials  as  having  mental  or  physical 
defects  or  disease.  Inspections  were  also  made  at 
United  States  airports  of  entry  of  2184  airplanes, 
carrying  35,667  passengers,  of  whom  11,171  were 
aliens. 

A  total  of  64,442  applicants  for  immigration  vi- 
sas was  examined  by  medical  officers  of  the  Public 
Health  Service  stationed  at  American  consulates 
in  foreign  countries,  and  of  these,  576  were  found 
to  have  a  disease  or  condition  which  made  their 
exclusion  mandatory,  while  15,046  were  found  to 
have  conditions  likely  to  affect  their  ability  to  earn 
a  living.  In  view  of  conditions  incident  to  the  war 
which  increase  the  danger  of  the  importation  of 
disease  into  the  United  States,  Federal  quarantine 
procedures  will  be  intensified  while  such  conditions 
obtain. 

According  to  morbidity  and  preliminary  mortal- 
ity reports  received  and  compiled  by  the  Public 
Health  Service,  health  conditions  in  the  United 
States  were  generally  favorable  during  1939  and 
the  first  six  months  of  1940.  In  1939  most  of  the 
important  communicable  diseases  were  below  the 
5-year  (1934-38)  median  as  well  as  below  the  fig- 
ures for  1938.  An  outbreak  of  poliomyelitis  oc- 
curred in  the  South  Atlantic  States  early  in  the 
summer  of  1939,  and  the  incidence  of  the  disease 
became  slightly  above  normal  in  other  localities 


PUBLIC  UTILITIES 


638 


PUERTO  RICO 


later.  The  pneumonia  death  rate  again  declined 
sharply  in  1939.  The  marked  decrease  in  deaths 
from  this  disease  during  the  past  two  years  reflects 
the  more  intensive  use  of  improved  diagnostic  and 
treatment  methods  and,  perhaps,  also  the  tendency 
to  earlier  diagnosis  and  treatment  An  epidemic  of 
influenza  of  mild  type,  appeared  on  the  West  Coast 
in  the  latter  part  of  November,  1940,  and  was 
spreading  eastward  at  the  close  of  the  year.  Few 
deaths  were  reported  from  the  disease. 

The  crude  death  rate  for  1939  was  the  lowest  on 
record,  namely,  10.6  per  100,000  population  as  com- 
pared with  10.7  in  1938.  On  the  basis  of  prelimi- 
nary figures,  a  slight  increase  in  the  death  rate  is 
indicated  for  1940  as  compared  with  the  preceding 
year,  probably  resulting  principally  from  increased 
mortality  in  the  chronic  diseases  of  late  adult  life. 
These  are  the  diseases,  especially  cancer  and  heart 
diseases,  to  which  the  Public  Health  Service  is 
now  devoting  greater  attention. 

Detailed  accounts  of  the  activities  of  the  Public 
Health  Service  may  be  found  in  the  Annual  Re- 
ports of  the  Surgeon  General. 

The  National  Institute  of  Health.  The  Na- 
tional Institute  of  Health,  the  principal  research 
institution  of  the  U.S.  Public  Health  Service,  is 
the  successor  to  the  Hygienic  Laboratory,  estab- 
lished in  1887.  In  1930,  Congress  expanded  the 
scope  of  research  activities  and  changed  the  name 
of  the  Hygienic  Laboratory  to  the  National  In- 
stitute of  Health.  Since  1938  the  Institute  has 
gradually  been  moved  from  Washington,  D.C.,  to 
new  buildings  at  Bethesda,  Maryland,  which  were 
dedicated  by  the  President  on  Oct.  3,  1940. 

Under  broad  Congressional  authorization,  the 
National  Institute  of  Health  conducts  investiga- 
tions into  all  fields  of  health,  in  both  pure  and  ap- 
plied science,  and  in  public  health  administration. 
The  divisions,  indicating  the  broad  scope  of  in- 
vestigations, include  chemistry,  industrial  hygiene, 
infectious  diseases,  nutrition,  pathology,  pharma- 
cology, zoology,  epidemiology,  cancer  (the  Na- 
tional Cancer  Institute,  established  by  act  of  Con- 
gress in  1937,  is  part  of  the  National  Institute  of 
Health),  and  public  health  methods.  In  1940,  a 
unit  of  gerontology  was  organized  to  study  the 
problems  of  aging,  especially  the  biology  of  senes- 
cence and  mental  and  physical  diseases  of  old  age. 
Through  the  Institute,  the  Public  Health  Service 
administers  the  act  regulating  the  sale,  in  inter- 
state commerce,  of  viruses,  serums,  toxins,  and 
analogous  products  used  in  prophylaxis  and  thera- 
peutics. 

THOMAS  PARIAN. 

PUBLIC  UTILITIES.  See  BUSINESS  RE- 
VIEW; ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER,  etc 

PUBLIC  WORKS  ADMINISTRATION 
(PWA).  The  Public  Works  Administration,  for- 
merly the  Federal  Emergency  Administration  of 
Public  Works,  was  consolidated  into  the  Federal 
Works  Agency  July  1,  1939.  It  was  created  under 
authority  granted  the  President  under  Title  II  of 
the  National  Industrial  Recovery  Act,  approved 
June  16,  1933,  to  bring  about  an  expansion  of 
Federal  and  non-Federal  public  construction  that 
would  increase  employment,  stimulate  private  in- 
dustry, and  promote  economic  recovery.  The  agen- 
cy was  originally  established  for  two  years  and 
funds  for  its  operation  were  made  available  from 
the  $3,300100,000  appropriated  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  purposes  of  the  Recovery  Act  as  a 
whole.  From  early  1937  to  the  summer  of  1938, 
PWA  was  in  a  state  of  liquidation.  Congress  on 


June  16,  1938,  enacted  the  Public  Works  Admin- 
istration Appropriation  Act  of  1938,  which  au- 
thorized a  new  program  of  public  works  and  pro- 
vided an  appropriation  of  $965,000,000  for  projects 
which,  in  the  determination  of  the  Administrator, 
could  be  commenced  prior  to  Jan.  1,  1939,  and 
could  be  substantially  completed  by  June  30,  1940. 
The  life  of  the  organization  was  extended  to  June 
30,  1941. 

There  have  been  five  Public  Works  programs 
and,  as  of  Nov.  1,  1940,  the  total  of  the  allotments 
under  all  PWA  programs  was  $4,108,225,779  for 
34,465  projects  with  a  total  estimated  cost  of 
$6,000,728,349.  PWA  programs  embrace  three  ma- 
jor classes  of  projects;  (1)  projects  for  Agencies 
of  the  Federal  Government,  classed  as  Federal 
projects;  (2)  projects  undertaken  by  State  and 
local  governments  or  other  public  bodies,  classed 
as  non-Federal  projects;  and  (3)  railroad  proj- 
ects. (Loans,  but  no  grants,  were  approved  for  pri- 
vately-owned railroads.)  Under  the  non-Federal 
program  allotments  were  made  for  16,641  projects 
(including  32  railroad  projects)  estimated  to  cost 
$4,222,250,278  and  under  the  Federal  program  al- 
lotments were  made  for  17,824  projects  costing 
$1,778,478,071.  The  share  of  the  applicant  in  the 
non-Federal  program  is  approximately  $1,900,000,- 
000. 

Both  the  PWA  Federal  and  non-Federal  pro- 
grams were  substantially  complete  as  of  July  1, 
1940,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  large  projects 
which  are  rapidly  nearing  completion. 

M.  E.  GILMORE. 

PUBLISHING.  See  COPYRIGHT;  LITERATURE, 
ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN  ;  NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAG- 
AZINES. 

PUERTO  RICO.  A  West  Indian  Island, 
forming  a  territory  of  the  United  States.  Acquired 
from  Spain  through  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1898 
Small  adjacent  islands,  Vieques  and  Culebra,  are 
included  in  its  jurisdiction  and  statistics.  Capital, 
San  Juan. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  3435  square  miles. 
Populati9n,  1940  (U.S.  Census),  1,869,255;  1935 
(by  special  census  of  the  Puerto  Rico  Reconstruc- 
tion Administration),  1,723,534;  1930  (U.S.  Cen- 
sus), 1,543,913.  In  1940  the  dwellers  in  places  of 
2500  or  more  numbered  566,357 ;  the  rural  popula- 
tion, 1,302,898.  The  territory  had,  in  1940,  544.2 
inhabitants  to  the  square  mile — an  exceptional  den- 
sity for  an  area  dependent  mainly  on  agriculture 
Births  totaled  73,044  in  1939  and  came  to  slightly 
less  than  4  per  cent  of  the  population  Deaths  in 
1939  totaled  32,631  and  constituted  178  per  1000, 
the  lowest  yearly  rate  recorded.  The  births  ex- 
ceeded deaths  (1940)  by  more  than  40,000,  and 
comparable  though  not  quite  so  great  excesses  had 
been  the  rule.  Despite  an  apparent  excess  of  emi- 
gration over  arrivals  from  elsewhere,  the  popula- 
tion gained  by  21  per  cent  in  the  ten-year  period 
1930-40.  Colored  inhabitants  (1938)  were  stated 
as  417,401 ;  whites,  1,388,079.  Populations  of  cities 
(1940) :  San  Juan,  169,247;  Ponce,  65,182;  Maya- 
guez,  50,376. 

Education.  Not  far  from  4  persons  in  9  of  the 
population  being  in  their  fifteenth  year  of  age  or 
younger,  the  need  for  schooling  was  more  prevalent 
than  in  the  general  run  of  the  States  and  Terri- 
tories. Enrollments  of  pupils  in  the  public  day 
schools  in  the  year  ending  June  30,  1940,  numbered 
286,098,  or  about  15  per  cent  of  the  population ;  of 
the  pupils,  68  per  cent  were  in  the  lowest  four 
grades ;  less  than  6  per  cent  were  in  grades  9-12. 


PUERTO  RICO 


639 


PUERTO  RICO 


Public  schools  were  numerous,  1773  in  fell;  four 
out  of  five  were  rural  elementary  schools ;  teachers 
numbered  6294.  The  year's  expenditures  for  these 
schools  averaged  $25.57  to  the  pupil  in  regular  at- 
tendance ;  they  totaled  $5,470,517  as  budgeted. 

The  University  of  Puerto  Rico,  at  Rio  Piedras 
and  Mayaguez,  giving  instruction  in  various  branch- 
es of  higher  education,  had  4987  on  its  roll  in  1940. 
Its  faculty  and  administrative  staff  numbered  277. 
A  School  of  Tropical  Medicine,  attended  largely 
by  students  from  elsewhere,  not  only  gave  instruc- 
tion and  conducted  research  in  its  field  but  operated 
a  hospital  newly  reconstructed  to  meet  contempo- 
rary standards. 

Production.  The  territory,  as  an  economic  pro- 
ducer, is  predominantly  agricultural ;  its  main  man- 
ufactures are  those  processing  its  agricultural  prod- 
ucts. Of  some  2,000,000  acres  of  land  area,  about 
825,000  acres  were  reported  in  1940  as  under  culti- 
vation. Of  the  remainder,  780,000  acres  were  pas- 
ture, mainly  clear,  but  some  of  it  wooded ;  120,000 
acres  in  farm  woodland;  and  only  some  280,000 
acres  were  not  in  farms.  Sugar  cane,  the  most 
extensive  cultivated  crop,  occupied  approximately 
300,000  acres,  divers  minor  crops,  grouped,  250,- 
000;  coffee,  225,000;  tobacco,  33,000.  In  the  year 
ended  with  June  30,  1940,  8,795,932  tons  of  sugar 
cane  were  gathered  and  ground,  they  produced 
1,018,803  tons  of  sugar  (value,  about  $66,000,000). 
Tobacco,  on  33,262  acres,  produced  18,369,848  Ib  ; 
in  value,  $2,572,000.  The  crop  of  coffee  totaled  23,- 
498,000  Ib ,  worth  $4,247,500  at  the  price  fixed  for 
the  domestic  market  Crops  grown  mainly  for  the 
farmers'  subsistence  included  sweet  potatoes,  corn, 
rice,  cowpeas,  beans,  and  bananas.  Cotton  of  the 
sea-island  type  was  grown  on  a  rising  scale:  in 
1940,  on  4000  acres.  Manufactories,  apart  from  the 
sugar  mills,  produced  rum,  alcohol,  embroideries, 
men's  clothing,  canned  fruits  and  juice,  cigars, 
cigarettes,  and  straw  hats 

External  Trade.  In  the  year  ended  with  June 
30,  1940,  Puerto  Rico  imported  merchandise  to  the 
value  of  $107,030,482  and  exported  to  the  total  of 
$92,347,242  Of  imports,  $100,517,184  came  from 
the  United  States;  and  to  that  destination  went 
$90,002,156  of  the  exports.  Thus  other  countries 
sent  Puerto  Rico  only  $6,513,298  of  its  imports 
and  took  only  $1,445,086  of  its  exports  for  that 
year  The  year's  exports  of  sugar  were  868,568 
tons ,  value  $57,328,790 

For  the  calendar  year  1940  Puerto  Rico's  im- 
ports of  merchandise  from  the  United  States 
amounted  to  $103,972,709,  as  against  $86,447,423 
for  1939 ,  and  exports  to  the  United  States  declined 
to  $83,773,274  for  1940,  from  $88,977,210  for  1939. 
Sugar  accounted  for  five-eighths  of  the  exports  to 
the  United  States;  namely,  to  $51,800,616  for  1940 
and  $58,325,509  for  1939.  Other  articles  exported 
to  the  United  States  •  tobacco  and  its  manufactures, 
$8,700,595  for  1940  and  $5,006,782  for  1939;  rum, 
$6,366,261  and  $4,413,129;  women's  cotton  apparel, 
$5,248,072  and  $7,671,831 ;  worked  linen,  $2,662,- 
387  and  $4,037,672.  Relative  to  conditions  in  the 
trades  in  cotton  and  linen  needlework,  see  under 
History,  below.  The  main  groups  of  imports  fiom 
the  United  States  were  vegetable  foods,  $19,670,- 
656  for  1940  and  $16,394,573  for  1939;  textile 
products  ( 1940)  ,$15,750,420  and  (1939)  $17,418,279 ; 
machinery  and  vehicles,  $12,678,098  and  $8,292,- 
527;  other  metal  goods,  $8,856,557  and  $5,561,450. 

Finance.  The  general  fund  of  the  Territorial 
Government  received,  in  the  fiscal  year  ended  with 
June  30,  1940,  insular  revenues  of  $16,867,933.  It 
expended  $15,393,982.  Insular  internal  taxes  made 


up  about  three-fourths  of  the  revenue.  Of  the  ex- 
penditure, $5,678,403  was  for  education;  $2,068,- 
895  for  public  health.  Bonded  debt  amounted  to 
$27,200,000  on  June  30,  1940. 

Transportation.  Highways  in  Puerto  Rico 
were  said  to  have  an  aggregate  length  of  11,252 
miles  in  1939.  Surfaced  roads  maintained  by  the 
Territory  totaled  1033  miles.  Railroads,  aggregat- 
ing 922  miles,  included  574  miles  for  the  special 
uses  of  producers  of  sugar.  Pan  American  Airways 
maintained  frequent  service  between  San  Juan  and 
Miami,  Florida.  Airplanes  also  covered  routes  to 
a  number  of  South  American  and  West  Indian 
points. 

Government.  Under  the  Organic  Act,  as  passed 
by  the  U.S.  Congress  in  1917  and  later  amended, 
Puerto  Rico  has  the  status  of  an  organized  Ter- 
ritory of  the  United  States.  Its  citizens  are  U.S. 
citizens.  A  Governor,  the  chief  executive  officer, 
holds  office  by  appointment  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  confirmed  by  the  U.S.  Senate.  The 
popular  vote  elects  a  Legislature  of  two  houses 
and  a  Resident  Commissioner  to  the  United  States. 

Governor  at  the  beginning  of  1940,  Admiral 
William  D.  Leahy,  U.S.N.  retired.  Resident  Com- 
missioner, Bolivar  Pagan. 

HISTORY 

General  Conditions.  The  Territory  experi- 
enced economic  improvement  in  1940.  External 
trade,  essentially  with  the  United  States,  increased, 
as  did  public  revenues  and  banking  business.  Po- 
litical partisanship  was  relatively  free  of  the  vio- 
lence that  had  marked  it  in  former  years  of  hard- 
ship and  discontent. 

Governor  Leahy's  Administration.  Governor 
Leahy  was  withdrawn  from  his  post  in  November 
to  become  Ambassador  to  France.  His  service  of 
some  14  months  had  not  lasted  long  enough  to  per- 
mit of  his  carrying  through  any  series  of  policies 
of  long  range.  Instead  of  appointing  an  immediate 
successor,  President  Roosevelt  entrusted  the  duties 
of  the  office  temporarily  to  the  Commissioner  of 
Education,  Dr.  Jose  M.  Gallardo,  Acting  Governor 
through  the  rest  of  1940. 

The  Legislature  held  a  regular  annual  session, 
convening  on  February  12.  It  transferred  to  the 
Federal  Government,  for  use  in  the  latter's  de- 
fenses, the  small  islands  of  Desecheo  and  Monito, 
in  the  Mona  Passage,  and  some  tracts  on  the  Bay 
of  San  Juan ;  granted  land  to  the  San  Juan  Hous- 
ing Authority ;  appropriated  $50,000  to  help  labor- 
ers grow  crops  for  their  subsistence ;  strengthened 
control  over  the  growth  and  marketing  of  coffee ; 
created  an  Advisory  Pardon  and  Parole  Board; 
permitted  the  use  of  alternate  jurors  in  some  sorts 
of  cases  at  law ;  enacted  a  measure  against  adul- 
terated and  improperly  branded  foods  and  drugs ; 
and  remodeled  the  law  as  to  traffic  on  the  high- 
ways, after  an  American  pattern.  The  Governor 
vetoed  a  bill  to  create  a  Territorial  Water-Re- 
sources Authority,  a  Federal  agency  of  like  pur- 
pose being  in  contemplation  at  the  time. 

Elections  and  Parties.  A  quadrennial  election 
(November  5)  voted  to  Bolivar  Pagan  another 
term  as  Resident  Commissioner  in  Washington. 
The  Coalition  party  (Republican- Socialist)  re- 
tained its  control  in  the  Legislature's  House  of 
Representatives  but  lost  'its  previous  majority  in 
the  Senate,  a  new  party,  the  Popular  Democratic, 
obtaining  a  Senatorial  majority  of  one  The  older 
minor  parties  did  not  in  any  case  make  conspicuous 
gams.  For  the  first  time  in  many  years  the  demand 
for  Puerto  Rico's  independence  was  not  a  dominant 


PUERTO  RICO 


640 


PUERTO  RICO 


issue.  Vote  (approximate):  Coalition,  215,130; 
Popular  Democratic.  206,405;  other,  127,467. 

In  the  field  of  partisanship  the  rise  of  the  new 
Popular  Democratic  party  won  chief  attention.  Its 
progenitor,  Senator  Luis  Munoz  Mann,  former 
Liberal  party  man,  had  charged  the  Federal  Di- 
rector of  Territories  and  Insular  Possessions,  five 
years  before,  with  not  trying  to  extend  the  New 
Deal  adequately  to  the  Territory;  later  he  had 
crusaded  successfully  for  enforcing  the  law  against 
great  landholdingfs  (q.v.  below).  The  party's  first 
convention,  held  in  July,  adopted  principles  sum- 
marized by  the  slogan,  "bread,  land,  and  liberty." 
It  favored  independence,  but  tempered  this  leaning 
with  a  readiness  to  accept  Statehood  in  the  Union. 
It  sought  division  of  big  estates  among  small  farm- 
ers. Its  goal  was  prosperity  for  the  struggling  part 
of  the  people,  and  it  gained  a  great  following 
among  the  small  cultivators.  Another  new  group, 
the  Unification  party,  formed  by  Speaker  Garcia 
Mendez  of  the  House,  in  protest  against  reported 
corruption  among  the  Coalition,  came  out  poorly  at 
the  polls;  it  had  sought,  outright,  for  Statehood. 
Garcia  Mendez  himself  was  involved  (September 
28)  in  an  encounter  at  Utuado,  fatal  to  one  man ; 
friends  maintained  that  a  band  had  tried  to  kill  him 
and  that  his  bodyguard  had  fired  to  save  him; 
hostile  accounts  made  these  two  the  aggressors. 
The  Nationalist  party  remained  in  existence  but 
did  not  enter  the  general  election ;  on  February  26 
it  re-elected  as  its  president  Pedro  Albizu  Campos, 
still  in  Federal  prison  for  attempting  to  overthrow 
United  States  rule  in  Puerto  Rico  by  organizing 
an  armed  rebellion. 

Defenses  of  the  Island.  The  Federal  drive  to 
put  the  United  States  in  an  adequate  state  of  de- 
fense made  much  work  in  Puerto  Rico.  Governor 
Leahy  proposed  in  October  that  the  WPA  increase 
its  working  force  in  the  Territory  to  30,000  men, 
from  19,162,  thus  raising  those  engaged  on  pre- 
paring defenses  to  20,000.  The  Island  was  regarded 
as  the  base  for  preventing  naval  invasion  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea  and  as  an  outpost  against  attack  on 
the  southeastern  coast  of  the  Union.  Against  1877 
acres  at  Punta  Borinquen,  obtained  by  condemna- 
tion for  a  base  of  military  aviation,  the  Depart- 
ment of  War  deposited  $332,728  toward  defraying 
the  claims  of  the  expropriated.  It  intended  to  turn 
the  site  into  a  highly  developed  airport,  at  con- 
siderable expense.  The  previously  undertaken  naval 
aeronautical  station  at  San  Juan  was  put  in  com- 
mission on  May  1,  just  a  little  over  a  year  after  its 
authorization,  among  nine  others  elsewhere,  by 
Congress ;  its  construction  and  equipment,  however, 
remained  far  from  complete. 

The  U.S.  military  draft  operated  in  the  Terri- 
tory. The  lottery  determining  the  eligibles'  num- 
bers for  drafting  was  held  in  San  Juan.  The  ma- 
chinery of  the  governmentally  maintained  Puerto 
Rican  Lottery  was  used.  Volunteers  came  forward 
in  such  numbers  that  it  seemed  likely  that  they 
would  forestall  the  conscripts  in  filling  the  4800 
required  enlistments.  The  chance  of  military  serv- 
ice offered  the  specific  attraction  that  army  pay  and 
subsistence  exceeded  the  prevailing  rate  of  wages. 
Nationalist  leaders  urged  resistance  to  the  draft, 
but  with  little  apparent  effect  Another  U.S.  de- 
fensive measure,  the  registration  of  aliens,  was 
reported  in  October  to  have  provoked  a  rush  to 
seek  naturalization,  on  the  part  of  many  of  mixed 
parentage,  who  had  wrongly  taken  their  citizenship 
in  the  United  States  for  granted.  Such  cases  might 
have  been  more  numerous,  but  for  a  ruling  of  the 
U.S.  Commissioner  of  Immigration,  in  April,  that 


children  born  abroad  of  native  Puerto  Rican  par- 
ents might  enter  as  citizens. 

Education,  Lands,  Wages  and  Hours.  The 
peoples'  awareness  of  the  advantage  of  knowing 
the  English  tongue  grew  by  experience.  Many  of 
the  volunteers  for  the  U.S.  Army  or  Navy  found 
themselves  rejected  for  lack  of  it.  Plenty  of  Puer- 
to Ricans  who  had  gone  to  the  United  States  could 
testify  to  its  usefulness.  The  new  feeling  gave 
point  to  a  dispute  about  the  teaching  of  the  lan- 
guage in  the  public  schools.  Dean  Osuna,  of  the 
College  of  Education  at  the  University,  blamed  the 
teachers  with  having  failed  to  learn  best  methods 
of  instructing  Spanish-American  children  in  Eng- 
lish. Commissioner  of  Education  Gallardo  was  con- 
demned by  the  Legislature  for  slack  promotion  of 
English-teaching.  He,  on  his  part,  declared  that  to 
give  the  children  a  knowledge  of  English  would 
require  an  expenditure  for  teaching  that  the  budget 
could  not  well  meet— one  that  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment ought  to  supply.  The  Governor's  report  in- 
dicated that  514  out  of  6030  teachers  gave  instruc- 
tion in  English.  From  this  it  would  appear  that  the 
schools  were  paying  about  $500,000  a  year  for 
teaching  English  to  nearly  300,000  pupils,  most  of 
whom  would  stay  less  than  four  years  in  school ; 
and  that  thus  the  schools  were  engaged  in  trying 
to  inculcate  the  English  language  at  the  cost  of  less 
than  $7  throughout  for  each  pupil 

The  landholding  issue  passed  through  an  active 
stage :  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court  upheld  a  40-year- 
old  law,  long  withstood,  restricting  the  areas  of 
individual  landed  properties  to  500  acres  The  de- 
cision was  welcome  to  small  farmers,  who  looked 
on  the  great  sugar  estates  as  smothering  their 
class ;  it  gave  worry  to  companies  that  had  invested 
money  in  equipment  for  the  production  of  sugar  on 
a  great  scale  from  cane  efficiently  grown  by  ex- 
perts on  such  estates.  One  of  the  main  ventures  of 
the  Puerto  Rican  Reconstruction  Administration, 
a  scheme  of  co-operative  landholding  known  as  the 
Lafayette  Central,  came  to  grief  in  August;  the 
participants  could  not  meet  the  sum  required  for 
the  first  payment  on  the  $2,000,000  that  their  hold- 
ings had  cost.  Parts  of  the  land  were  consequently 
offered  for  resale ;  in  December  a  decision  to  sell 
out  the  whole  enterprise  to  individual  owners  was 
announced. 

The  United  States'  system  of  regulating  wages 
and  hours  was  applied  actively  to  Puerto  Rico  in 
1940.  As  the  Island's  way  of  living  and  scale  of 
earnings  differed  radically  from  those  in  the  Un- 
ion, new  regulations  led  to  much  protest  and  some 
litigation.  An  extreme  case  was  that  of  makers  of 
fine  needlework,  largely  for  export.  These  people, 
working  mainly  in  their  homes,  numbered  possibly 
65,000  women;  they  embroidered  or  otherwise 
worked  such  articles  as  handkerchiefs,  silken  un- 
derwear, and  household  linen.  They  received  very 
little  by  the  hour,  according  to  American  stand- 
ards. An  investigating  committee  from  the  main- 
land came,  to  determine  a  proper  minimum  pay  in 
this  industry.  One  of  the  members,  David  Dubin- 
sky,  said  that  despite  a  Territorial  law  requiring 
that  the  needleworkers  get  at  least  12%  cents  an 
hour,  most  of  them  had  been  getting  only  2  cents. 
The  committee  recommended  to  the  Wages  and 
Hours  Division  that  they  receive  a  minimum  rate 
of  12%  cents  an  hour  for  homework  and  of  20 
cents  or  more  for  work  done  in  a  factory,  with 
some  addition  for  special  types  of  work.  Employ- 
ers doubted  the  possibility  of  doing  business  at  the 
extra  cost  and  threatened  to  leave  the  industry. 
Though  the  articles  that  it  produced  might  indi- 


PULITZER  PRIZES 


641 


QUEENSLAND 


vidually  sell  at  high  price,  such  a  price  did  not 
necessarily  give  a  substantial  return  on  the  hours 
of  nice  manual  work  required. 

See  also  BIRTH  CONTROL;  CHILDREN'S  BUREAU; 
SUPREME  COURT. 

PULITZER  PRIZES.  A  series  of  awards 
established  in  1915  by  the  will  of  Joseph  Pulitzer, 
publisher  of  the  New  York  World,  presented  an- 
nually by  Columbia  University  on  recommenda- 
tion of  the  advisory  board  of  the  Pulitzer  School 
of  Journalism,  for  outstanding  achievements  in 
letters  and  literature. 

In  1940,  as  announced  on  May  6,  the  awards  in 
literature  were :  Novel,  The  Grapes  of  Wrath,  by 
John  Steinbeck ;  play,  Time  of  Your  Life,  by  Wil- 
liam Saroyan ;  history,  Abraham  Lincoln:  The 
War  Years,  by  Carl  Sandburg;  verse,  Collected 
Poems,  by  Mark  Van  Doren;  biography,  Wood- 
row  Wilson:  Life  and  Letters,  vols.  vii  and  viii, 
by  Ray  Stannard  Baker.  (William  Saroyan  re- 
jected the  prize,  on  the  grounds  that  he  disap- 
proved of  patronage  of  the  arts,  and  the  $1000 
awarded  to  him  reverted  to  the  prize  fund.) 

In  journalism,  awards  were  made  to  Otto  D 
Tolischus  of  the  New  York  Times,  for  his  articles 
from  Berlin  explaining  the  economic  and  ideologi- 
cal background  of  war-engaged  Germany ;  to  Bart 
Howard  of  the  St  Louis  Post-Dispatch,  "for  dis- 
tinguished editorial  writing  during  the  year,"  as 
exemplified  in  Ins  editorial  "Europe's  Emperor," 
published  Mar  17,  1939;  to  the  Waterbury  (Conn.) 
Republican  and  American  "for  the  most  disinter- 
ested and  meritorious  public  service  rendered  by 
an  American  newspaper  during  the  year,"  in  rec- 
ognition of  their  exposure  of  graft  in  the  city 
administration  that  resulted  in  trial  and  conviction 
of  several  city  officials ,  to  S.  Burton  Heath  of  the 
New  York  World-Telegram  "for  a  distinguished 
example  of  a  reporter's  work  during  the  year,"  in 
recognition  of  his  series  of  articles  on  Federal 
Judge  Martin  T.  Manton  that  were  followed  by  the 
latter's  resignation,  indictment,  and  conviction  for 
accepting  financial  favors  from  companies  whose 
affairs  were  up  before  him  for  judicial  decision; 
to  Edmund  Duffy  of  the  Baltimore  Sun  for  a  dis- 
tinguished example  of  a  cartoonist's  work,  exem- 
plified by  his  cartoon  "The  Outstretched  Hand," 
printed  Oct.  7,  1940. 

Three  traveling  scholarships,  worth  $1500  each 
and  intended  to  give  the  recipients  a  year's  foreign 
travel,  were  awarded  to  David  D.  Newsom  of  Rich- 
mond, Calif. ;  Ross  P.  Schlabach,  Jr.,  of  Newport 
News,  Va.,  and  Miss  Nona  P.  Baldwin  of  Mont- 
clair,  NJ.  All  are  students  in  the  Graduate  School 
of  Journalism  at  Columbia. 

PULP.  See  PAPER  AND  PULP. 

PWA.  See  PUBLIC  WORKS  ADMINISTRATION. 

QATAR.  See  under  ARABIA. 

QUAKERS.  See  FRIENDS. 

QUARANTINE.  See  PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERV- 
ICE. 

QUEBEC.  A  Canadian  province.  Area,  594,- 
534  square  miles;  population  (1939  estimate), 
3,210,000,  as  against  (1931  census)  2,874,255.  Vital 
statistics  (1939) :  79,621  living  births,  33,388  deaths, 
and  28,911  marriages.  Chief  cities  (1931  popula- 
tions) •  Quebec,  the  capital  (130,594),  Montreal 
(818,577),  Verdun  (60,745),  Three  Rivers  (34,- 
450),  Hull  (29,433),  Sherbrooke  (28,933),  Outre- 
mont  (28,641).  Education  (l$37->38) :  715,751  stu- 
dents enrolled  in  schools  of  all  kinds,  including 
39,575  in  colleges  and  universities. 

Production.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural 
production  for  1939  was  $203,429,000.  Field  crops, 


which  covered  a  total  of  6,142,100  acres  in  1939, 
were  valued  at  $83,376.000.  Chief  field  crops 
(1939) :  oats  45,293,000  bu.,  barley  4,055,000  bu., 
buckwheat  2,483,000  bu.,  mixed  grains  4,763,000 
bu.,  potatoes  536,850  tons,  roots  309,850  tons,  hay 
and  clover  4,917,000  tons,  fodder  corn  559,000  tons. 
Livestock  (1939)  :  1,817,000  cattle  (including  1,002,- 
000  milch  cows),  744,000  swine,  647,000  sheep, 
297,000  horses,  8,128,000  poultry.  Fur  production 
(1938-39)  was  worth  $2,230,300.  Forestry  output 
(1938)  was  equal  to  890,590  M  cu.  ft.  and  was  val- 
ued at  $42,182,132.  The  fisheries  catch  in  1939  to- 
taled 48,420  tons  and  had  a  marketed  value  of 
$2,011,000  of  which  cod  represented  $633,300. 

Mineral  production  (1939)  was  valued  at  $77,- 
335,998,  including  gold  (953,377  fine  oz.)  $34,- 
455,998,  silver  (1,167,444  fine  oz.)  $472,675,  cop- 
per (117,238,897  Ib.)  $11,831,749,  zinc  (28,758,759 
Ib.)  $882,606,  asbestos  (364,454  tons)  $15,858,492. 
During  1940  Quebec's  output  of  gold  was  1,017,386 
oz.,  silver  1,328,854  oz.,  asbestos  345,581  tons,  and 
cement  3,850,937  bbl.  Manufacturing  (1938)  :  8655 
factories,  214,397  employees,  $428,614,029  net  value 
of  products. 

Government.  Finance  (year  ended  June  30, 
1939)  .  ordinary  revenue,  $60,836,000 ;  ordinary  ex- 
penditure,  $55,948,091 ;  net  public  debt  $252,719,- 
282.  The  King  is  represented  by  a  heulcnant-gov- 
ernor  (appointed  by  the  governor-general  in  coun- 
cil) who  is  advised  by  a  ministry  which  is  respon- 
sible to  the  legislature  and  resigns  office  when  it 
fails  to  have  the  confidence  of  that  body  In  the 
legislature  there  are  a  legislative  council  of  24  mem- 
bers (appointed  for  life  by  the  lieutenant-gover- 
nor) and  a  legislative  assembly  of  86  members  (70 
Liberals,  15  Union  Nationale,  and  1  Independent 
elected  on  Oct.  25,  1939)  elected  by  popular  vote 
Twenty-four  senators  (appointed  for  life)  and  65 
commoners  represent  Quebec  in  the  Dominion  par- 
liament at  Ottawa.  Lt.-Gov.,  Maj.-Gen.  Sir  Eu- 
gene Fiset  (appointed  Dec.  30,  1939)  ;  Premier, 
Adelard  Godbout  (Liberal). 

History.  Two  loans  were  floated  by  the  prov- 
ince early  in  1940 :  the  first  for  $25,000,000  was 
sold  privately ;  the  second,  for  $40,000,000  was  sold 
to  banks.  On  May  15,  1940,  the  city  of  Montreal 
defaulted  on  two  payments — one  of  $3,000,000  ow- 
ing to  banks  and  another  of  $3,637,300  issued  to 
the  public.  Steps  were  taken  to  alter  the  financial 
administration  of  the  city.  A  law  (effective  Jan. 
1,  1941)  was  passed  on  Apr.  25,  1940,  which  grant- 
ed women  the  right  to  vote  in  provincial  elections 
and  made  them  eligible  for  election  to  the  legisla- 
tive assembly.  On  Oct.  16,  1940,  Premier  Godbout 
brought  Hector  Perrier  into  his  cabinet  as  Provin- 
cial Secretary  and  gave  to  Henri  Groulx,  Minister 
of  Health,  the  new  portfolio  of  Minister  of  Social 
Welfare  It  was  announced  on  Nov.  23,  1940,  that 
the  final  payment  on  "seignorial  tenure,"  a  medi- 
eval system  of  landholding  brought  to  Canada  in 
the  17th  century,  would  be  paid  in  November.  The 
Quebec  legislature  voted  to  buy  all  land  held  under 
"seignorial  tenure,"  and  to  continue  to  charge  rent 
which  would  be  used  to  amortize  a  $3,000,000  loan 
made  to  finance  the  transaction.  In  time,  according 
to  the  government,  the  tenants  would  receive  title 
to  the  land.  See  CANADA  under  History. 

QUEENSLAND.  A  State  in  northeastern 
Australia.  Area,  670,500  square  miles;  population 
(Mar.  31,  1940),  1,018,362,  exclusive  of  full-blood 
aboriginals.  Vital  statistics  (1939)  •  20,348  births, 
9530  deaths,  9108  marriages.  Chief  cities:  Bris- 
bane, the  capital  (326,000  inhabitants  on  Dec.  31, 
1939),  Rockhampton  (32,526),  Townsville  (31,- 


QUISLING  542 


RADIO 


414),  Toowoonrfba   (29,056),  Iptwicfa    (22,056). 

Production.  Chief  agricultural  products:  sugar 
(763,242  tons  in  1937*38),  wheat  (£,585,000  bu.  in 
1939-40),  maize,  hay,  potatoes,  cotton,  grapes,  to- 
bacco, pineapples,  oranges.  Livestock  (1939)  :  23,- 
500,000  sheep,  6,125,000  cattle,  445,000  horses,  350,- 
000  swine.  Wool  (as  in  the  grease)  production 
(1940) :  190,000,000  ib.  Dairy  products  (1938-39)  : 
157,625,746  Ib.  of  butter,  15,768,543  ib.  of  cheese, 
19,021,752  Ib.  of  ham  and  bacon.  Chief  minerals 
(1939  values  where  available  are  given):  Gold 
(£1,428,598),  silver  and  lead,  copper,  tin,  coal 
(£1,167,844),  zinc.  Manufacturing  ^1938-39): 
3087  factories,  54,110  employees,  £19,301,475  net 
value  of  production  (£A  averaged  $3.8955  for 
1938;  $3.5338  for  1939).  Railways  (1939)  totaled 
6567  miles. 

Government.  Finance:  (1938-39)  revenue  £19,- 
333,369,  expenditure  £19,316,323;  (1939-40)  reve- 
nue £20,756,000,  expenditure  £20,740,000.  The  pub- 
lic debt  on  June  30,  1940,  totaled  £129,033,000. 
Executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor  who  is 
aided  by  a  council  of  ministers.  There  is  a  legisla- 
tive assembly  of  62  members,  elected  by  universal 
suffrage.  At  the  election  of  Apr.  2, 1938,  the  stand- 
ing of  the  political  parties  was  Labor  44,  United 
Country  13,  United  Australia  4,  and  Protestant 
Labor  1.  Governor,  Col.  Sir  Leslie  Orme  Wilson ; 
Premier,  William  Forgan  Smith  (Labor).  See 
AUSTRALIA  under  History. 

QUISLING,  Major  Vidkun.  See  NORWAY. 

QUIZ  PROGRAMS.  See  RADIO  PROGRAMS. 

RACKETEERING.  See  AMERICAN  FEDERA- 
TION OF  LABOR;  LABOR  CONDITIONS. 

RACKHAM  FUND.  See  BENEFACTIONS. 

RACQUETS.  See  COURT  GAMES 

RADIO.  By  Presidential  Order  the  long-talked- 
of  Defense  Communications  Board  was  created 
Sept.  24,  1940.  Official  statements  assured  that  the 
Board  "is  basically  a  planning  agency  .  .  .  will 
-have  no  power  to  censor  radio  or  other  communi- 
cation or  to  take  over  facilities  .  .  .  does  not  pro- 
pose to  interfere  with  normal  operation  .  ,  .  more 
than  is  necessary  for  national  protection."  How- 
ever, the  Board  "is  charged  with  the  important 
duty  of  charting  the  utilization  and  control  of  our 
communications  systems  in  the  best  interests  of  the 
national  security/'  and  will  function  through  a 
system  of  committees  having  appreciable  autonomy 
and  power.  The  DCB  was  designated  to  consist  of 
the  FCC,  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  of  the  Army, 
the  Director  of  Naval  Communications,  the  Assist- 
ant Secretary  of  State  in  charge  of  the  Division 
of  International  Communications,  and  the  Assist- 
ant Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  charge  of  the 
Coast  Guard. 

Incidental  to  National  Defense,  the  Federal  Com- 
munications Commission  (q.v.)  succeeded  in  sup- 
plementing its  original  Congressional  appropria- 
tion of  $2,100,000  for  the  current  fiscal  year  to  an 
effective  level  of  $4,000,000  to  facilitate  the  ex- 
tension of  its  investigatory  and  regulatory  efforts 
That  the  FCC  intends  to  '^craclc  down"  on  broad- 
casting chains  under  charges  of  monopoly  was  in- 
dicated by  the  trend  of  hearings  in  progress  as 
1940  closed.  Whereas  FOC  was  created  originally 
to  assist  in  the  purely  technical  problem  of  dis- 
tributing the  available  channels  m  the  radio -fre- 
quency spectrum  in  such  a  way  as  to  minimize 
interference  between  stations  or  between  channels, 
competent  observers  are  now  pointing  out  that 
FCC  is  In  a  position  to  do  an  effective  censorship 
job  by  the  simple  expcdfart  of  declining  to  renew 
any  or  all  of  the  short4erm  licenses  by  means  of 


which  it  now  controls  broadcasting  stations.  To 
train  some  4000  radio  and  signal  men  for  the  Re- 
serve, the  Navy  Department  announced  the  estab- 
lishment of  seven  schools  in  different  parts  of  the 
United  States. 

Highlight  of  radio  development  for  1940  is  the 
emergence  of  the  frequency-modulation  ("FM") 
system  of  radio  broadcast  transmission  into  recog- 
nized commercial  status.  This  static-free  radio  sys- 
tem (see  1938  and  1939  YEAR  BOOKS)  was  de- 
clared by  the  FCC  to  be  "one  of  the  most  signifi- 
cant contributions  in  recent  years"  when  the  FCC 
authorized  FM  on  a  commercial  basis  May  20, 
1940.  This  recognition  constitutes  a  fitting  tribute 
to  the  able  and  courageous  pioneering  efforts  of 
Maj.  £.  H.  Armstrong  and  his  associates.  The  fre- 
quency band— from  42,000  to  50,000  kilocycles- 
assigned  to  FM  by  FCC  is  intended  to  provide  40 
FM  channels  each  200  kc  wide,  35  for  regular 
broadcast  service  and  5  for  non-commercial  sta- 
tions. This  number  of  FM  channels  is  considered 
to  be  adequate  for  complete  United  States  cover- 
age because  FM  stations  can  be  located  within  300 
miles  of  each  other  without  serious  interference 
To  provide  for  FM  relay  channels,  the  frequency 
bands  of  from  156  to  168  megacycles  and  above 
300  me  also  were  assigned  to  FM.  Although  FM 
broadcasting  was  authorized  to  begin  Jan.  1,  1941, 
the  formulation  of  governing  rules  and  regulations 
involved  some  delay.  As  of  Dec.  6,  1940,  a  total 
of  some  25  construction  permits  had  been  issued 
by  FCC  for  FM  stations,  and  46  addition  appli- 
cations had  been  filed.  Its  noise-free  characteristic 
is  making  FM  especially  attractive  for  use  in  mo- 
bile equipment  Cor  police,  fire,  public -utility  emer- 
gency, and  military  services. 

A  new  record  was  established  in  1940  by  the 
radio  manufacturing  industry  in  the  sale  of  some 
11,000,000  receiving  sets,  bringing  the  estimated 
total  of  such  sets  in  the  United  States  to  52,000,- 
000.  Receivers  are  being  made  in  various  combina- 
tions of  broadcast  and  short-wave  radio,  television, 
and  record-playing  equipment.  The  size  range  has 
been  extended— downward  to  a  4%-lb.  150-milli- 
watt  "camera-case"  portable,  and  upward  to  a  full 
combination  of  the  above-noted  equipment  camou- 
flaged in  *  large  piece  of  period  furniture  of  top 
quality  and  fitted  with  two  or  more  speakers  to 
provide  full  tone  response  with  an  output  of  50 
watts  or  more.  In  general,  engineering  improve- 
ments resulted  in  receivers  having  better  tone,  pow- 
•er,  and  performance. 

Radio  has  felt  the  influence  of  war  and  is  play- 
ing a  vital  role  in  providing  direct  voice  control  of 
distant  and  highly  mobile  military  units.  The  im- 
pact on  the  industry  is  reflected  in  the  report  that 
by  the  close  of  1940  vacuum  tubes  were  being 
turned  out  at  the  rate  of  400,000  per  day.  Among 
short-wave  developments  for  1940  is  a  50-kw  inter- 
national broadcasting  station  at  Brentwood,  Long 
Island,  N.Y.,  a  joint  project  of  Columbia  Broad- 
casting System  and  Mackay  Radio  Telegraph  Co., 
designed  to  provide  13  different  frequency  channels 
which  may  be  selected  for  use  at  any  time  to  suit 
vagaries  of  atmospheric  conditions.  Also,  station 
WBZ  near  Boston  installed  50-kw  equipment  for 
short-wave  international  broadcasting  and  two  ad- 
ditional 50-kw  transmitters,  one  for  conventional 
amplitude-modulation  broadcasting  and  one  for 
frequency-modulation 

See  BROADCASTING  STATIONS  ;  RADIO  PROGRAMS  ; 
TELEVISION;  also,  AUTOMOBILES  under  Accidents; 
EVOCATION,  U.S.  OFFICE  OF  ;  FEDERAL  COMMUNI- 
CATIONS COMMISSION;  INTERNATIONAL  LAW;  TE- 


RADIOACTIVE  SUBSTANCES         643 


RADIO  PROGRAMS 


LEGRAPHY.  See  Music  under  General  News  for 
ASCAP-BMI  fight  over  performing  rights. 

G.  Ross  HENNINGER. 

RADIOACTIVE      SUBSTANCES.      Sec 

PHYSICS. 

RADIO  PROGRAMS.  Although  this  review 
of  1940  is  concerned  with  America,  the  marked 
influence  of  the  European  war  upon  broadcasting 
cannot  be  overlooked,  since  radio  today  is  interna- 
tional in  scope.  In  the  United  States,  radio  within 
the  year  1940  became  the  voice  of  national  defense. 

Broadcasting,  as  conducted  under  the  Stars  and 
Stripes,  is  appraised  as  an  outstanding  demonstra- 
tion of  democracy  in  action.  The  American  people 
are  free  to  listen  to  whatever  they  choose.  There 
is  no  censorship  of  the  programs  broadcast  by 
more  than  800  stations  serving  approximately  50,- 
000,000  receiving  sets,  8,000,000  of  which  are  in 
automobiles.  The  result  is  that  American  people 
are  the  best  informed  in  the  world. 

Statistics  indicate  that  approximately  10  per 
cent  of  radio's  time  in  1940  was  consumed  by  talks, 
while  at  least  another  9  per  cent  went  to  news — 
an  increase  of  5  per  cent  over  1939.  Because  the 
year  had  a  Presidential  campaign,  war  in  Europe, 
and  a  drive  for  national  defense  in  the  United 
States,  there  was  plenty  of  talk  on  the  wave- 
lengths. Despite  the  activity  and  divergent  opin- 
ions presented  by  a  wide  variety  of  organizations 
and  individuals,  the  broadcasters  operating  under 
their  code  of  equality  in  presenting  controversy, 
came  through  the  year  a  marked  credit  to  the 
American  system  of  broadcasting  All  sides  seemed 
to  be  satisfied  that  radio  in  the  United  States  had 
operated  fairly,  unbiased  and  uncensored. 

The  policy  of  handling  news  at  definite  periods 
operated  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  majority.  Few- 
er flash  bulletins  interrupted  the  regular  programs 
Commentaries  from  Europe  also  were  handled 
generally  at  specific  periods.  Censorship  muzzled 
Europe's  microphones  and  stripped  from  broad- 
casting much  that  otherwise  might  have  been  in- 
teresting There  was  little  reason,  therefore,  to 
assign  more  time  to  the  overseas  reporters.  War 
news  supplied  by  the  press  associations,  however, 
increased  because  of  the  tremendous  public  inter- 
est in  national  and  international  affairs.  World 
history  in  the  making  was  constantly  before  the 
American  listening  public  throughout  the  year. 

The  various  round-table  discussions,  public  for- 
ums, and  ethereal  platforms  aimed  at  greater  free- 
dom in  expression  in  an  effort  to  become  less 
"frozen."  Current  events  demanded  more  time 
from  radio  for  "civic  discussion."  Aid  to  Britain, 
a  two-ocean  NaVy,  the  care  of  refugees,  feeding 
of  Europe,  and  the  acquiring  from  Britain  of  de- 
fense bases  in  this  hemisphere,  were  only  a  few  of 
the  subjects,  the  pros  and  cons  of  which  were 
broadcast  coast-to-coast  to  assist  in  the  formula- 
tion of  public  opinion.  Incidentally,  of  the  news 
analysts,  Raymond  Gram  Swing,  H.  V.  Kalten- 
born,  Lowell  Thomas,  and  Elmer  Davis  were  fa- 
vorites among  radio  critics. 

Radio  is  preserving  a  sound  record  of  this  war. 
not  obtainable  from  1914-18.  The  declarations  of 
war  and  the  historic  speeches  that  followed  are 
etched  on  discs  for  posterity.  Electrical  transcrib- 
ing has  become  an  essential  branch  of  the  radio 
business :  More  firms  are  supplying  transcriptions, 
and  more  sponsors  are  turning  to  the  prepared-in- 
advance  program  recorded  on  discs. 

Oddly  enough,  the  1940  daily  pattern  of  broad- 
casting remained  quite  routine  or  stable;  in  fact, 


about  75  per  cent  of  the  time  was  allocated  in  ad- 
vance without  unforeseen  events  upsetting  the 
scheduled  programs.  On  an  average,  slightly  more 
than  20  per  cent  of  radio's  time  was  devoted  to 
education,  which  the  broadcasters  prefer  to  call 
"public  service  programs,"  since  the  word  "educa- 
tion" is  said  to  frighten  listeners  into  believing 
that  something  highbrow  is  about  to  be  broadcast 
In  the  year-end  polls,  the  American  School  of  the 
Air,  University  of  Chicago  Roundtable,  American 
Town  Meeting,  and  Damrosch  Music  Appreciation 
Course,  were  tops. 

About  20  per  cent  of  the  time  went  to  drama 
which  in  1940  became  more  professional,  attracting 
specialists  in  playwrighting  for  radio  as  an  art 
form.  To  embellish  their  efforts,  greater  attention 
was  given  to  selection  of  talents.  Helen  Hayes 
took  to  the  air  in  a  new  series  of  plays ;  Katherine 
Cornell  was  heard  in  her  radio  debut.  The  "Radio 
Theatre"  directed  by  Cecil  B.  DeMille,  ranked  on 
top  in  popularity  surveys  on  drama. 

Music,  recognized  as  the  backbone  of  broad- 
casting, consumed  about  55  per  cent  of  1940's 
radio  time,  with  25  per  cent  of  it  classical,  75  per 
cent  popular.  The  NBC  Symphony  directed  by 
Arturo  Toscanini,  the  New  York  Philharmonic, 
and  Metropolitan  Opera  were  outstanding  in  the 
classical  field.  "Soapbox  operas"  and  "washboard 
dramas"  continued  to  fill  the  air  in  the  daytime, 
luring  the  audience  to  wait  from  day  to  day  for 
the  solution  of  a  triangle  or  romance.  These  con- 
tinued serial  stones  change  on  a  15 -minute  sched- 
ule; the  broadcasters  justify  the  great  amount  of 
time  they  get  by  the  fact  that  they  are  in  general 
true-to-life,  and  people  hear  their  own  problems 
and  those  of  their  neighbors  unfold.  "One  Man's 
Family"  and  "the  Aldrich  Family,"  on  evening 
schedules,  ran  ahead  among  the  serials,  with  "Vic 
and  Sade,"  third.  See  Music  under  General  News. 

The  quiz  programs,  topnotch  among  them  "In- 
formation Please,"  "The  Quiz  Kids,"  "Dr.  I.  Q.," 
"Take  It  or  Leave  It,"  and  "Kay  Kyser's  Col- 
lege," continued  to  attract  the  invisible  crowds. 
The  year  added  to  the  number  of  audience-partici- 
pation programs.  In  many  instances  this  trend 
"loosened  up"  radio  and  made  it  more  informal, 
less  dependent  upon  prepared  and  rehearsed 
scripts;  the  programs  became  more  natural  and 
more  extemporaneous. 

In  the  United  States,  the  gross  revenue  of  the 
broadcasting  industry  for  1940  is  estimated  at 
more  than  $207,000,000.  As  an  indication  of  how 
much  of  radio  broadcasting  is  commercial,  the  Na- 
tional Broadcasting  Company  reports  for  1940  that 
approximately  33.4  per  cent  of  the  hours  were 
commercial,  and  66  6  per  cent  sustaining.  On  the 
networks,  news  broadcasts  showed  the  most  nota- 
ble gain.  Drama  and  comedy  also  picked  up  more 
time  compared  with  1939  Speaking  of  comedy, 
Jack  Benny  led  the  jesters  in  1940  popularity  polls, 
with  Bob  Hope,  Fred  Allen,  and  Eddie  Cantor  al- 
so high  up  in  the  parade.  Charlie  McCarthy,  lead- 
er in  recent  years,  relinquished  leadership  among 
the  jesters,  dropping  several  places. 

Contributing  to  the  strengthening  of  the  solidar- 
ity of  the  Americas,  stations  in  the  United  States 
increased  the  power  of  their  transmitters  and  im- 
proved the  efficiency  of  their  directional  beams.  In- 
ternationally, the  American  waves  are  aimed  to 
foster  friendship  and  good  trade  relations  among 
the  neighbors  of  the  Western  World. 

Just  as  each  year  in  radio  is  remembered  for 
some  dramatic  broadcast,  probably  the  one  fof 
which  1940  will  be  recalled,  was  the  one  of  June 


RADIOTELEPHONE  SERVICE 


644 


RAILWAYS 


22,  from  Compiegne,  in  the  forest  45  miles  north 
of  Paris.  There,  radio  observers  stood  around  the 
historic  "Armistice  car"  of  the  World  War  to 
broadcast  a  stirring  eye-witness  description  of  the 
dramatic  meeting  of  the  Germans  and  French — 
this  time  with  German  Army  officers  dictating  the 
terms,  at  the  table  along  which  Foch  sat  in  1918. 
Here  was  a  reversal  in  history,  and  this  time  all 
the  world  might  listen-in. 

Television,  though  unauthorized  to  operate  on  a 
commercial  basis,  made  history  however,  and  so 
1940  will  be  recorded  as  the  year  in  which  the 
NBC's  radio  camera  entered  the  political  arena, 
first  to  telecast  the  GOP  Convention  at  Philadel- 
phia. Films  of  the  democratic  conclave  in  Chicago 
were  flown  to  New  York  for  telecasting.  To  top 
off  the  television  performance.  President  Roose- 
velt was  seen  on  the  air  at  the  Democratic  rally  in 
Madison  Square  Garden,  and  a  week  later  Wendell 
Willkie,  the  GOP  candidate,  was  televised  at  the 
same  site.  These  events  inspired  the  comment  that 
as  "a  social  and  political  event  they  may  be  re- 
garded in  the  future  as  a  milestone  in  human  af- 
fairs." It  was  estimated  that  for  the  first  time  10,- 
000  persons  in  New  York  and  vicinity  witnessed 
by  television  the  nomination  of  a  candidate  for  the 
Presidency.  By  television,  the  election  returns  also 
were  illustrated  on  the  air  for  the  first  time.  Radio 
cameras  focused  on  charts,  figures,  and  a  huge 
score  board,  while  teletype  machines  of  press  asso- 
ciations were  seen  feverishly  typing  the  bulletins. 
ORRJN  E  DUNLAP  JR. 

RADIOTELEPHONE  SERVICE.  See  TE- 
LEPHONY. 

R.A.F.  Royal  Air  Force.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR. 
RAILROAD    RETIREMENT    BOARD. 

See  RAILWAYS. 

RAILWAYS.  The  Military  Transportation 
Section  of  the  Association  of  American  Railroads 
was  established  Aug.  1,  1940.  A.  H.  Gass  was  ap- 
pointed Manager.  It  was  located  in  the  Quarter- 
master General's  office  at  Washington,  D.C.  The 
avowed  object  was  to  make  it  unnecessary  for  the 
Government  to  take  over  the  operation  of  the  rail- 
ways in  case  of  war.  The  memory  of  what  hap- 
pened when  the  Government  took  over  the  opera- 
tion of  the  railways  in  the  World  War  was  un- 
pleasant enough  both  to  railway  owners  and  rail- 
way users  to  induce  them  to  try  to  avoid  it  in  the 
present  crisis. 

"Are  the  railways  in  physical  shape  to  meet  ade- 
quately the  strain  of  war  conditions?"  was  the 
question  asked  of  railway  officers  more  frequently 
than  any  other  in  1940.  J.  J.  Pelley,  President  of 
the  Association  of  American  Railroads  speaking 
in  Chicago  on  Oct.  10,  1940,  said  that  the  railways 
had  ample  line  haul  capacity  and  that  they  had 
ample  terminal  capacity,  provided  that  freight  be 
unloaded  promptly  upon  arrival  He  explained  that 
while  the  railways  had  628,000  fewer  cars  and  22,- 
000  fewer  locomotives  than  in  1918  the  cars  are 
much  larger  and  the  locomotives  are  nearly  half 
again  as  powerful  now  as  at  that  time.  He  said 
that  in  October,  1940,  there  were  1,503,055  serv- 
iceable freight  cars  on  line. 

It  is  a  fact  that  in  the  last  eight  years  mainte- 
nance expenses  of  railways  have  been  drastically 
cut,  but  the  contention  is  that  the  cuts  were  at  the 
expense  of  fine  housekeeping  and  did  not  impair 
efficiency.  Sufficient  rail,  tie,  and  ballast  renewal 
was  made  for  high  speeds  and  heavy  trains,  but  the 
ballast  toe  line  was  left  ragged  and  stations  were 
not  repainted.  Inspection  shows  that  the  main  lines 


serving  the  eastern  ports  are  in  first  class  condi- 
tion. There  was  no  apparent  let  down  in  main  line 
operating  standards.  The  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
and  the  New  York  Central  will  bear  the  brunt  of 
the  movement  of  material  to  the  seaboard.  The 
average  car  miles  per  day  in  1939  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania was  21.7  and  in  1940  was  22.7.  On  the  New 
York  Central  it  was  31.7  in  1939  and  36.6  in  1940. 
Freight  train  speeds  have  been  very  much  stepped 
up  in  the  last  few  years  through  the  use  of  the 
2-3-4  type  of  locomotive  in  freight  service  and 
through  the  use  of  the  superheater.  In  1940  many 
freight  trains  were  scheduled  at  40  to  45  miles  an 
hour  which  means  that  at  times  they  made  speeds 
of  60  miles  an  hour. 

Especial  attention  during  1940  was  given  to 
yard  operations,  for  these  have  been  the  bottle- 
necks of  railway  freight  movement.  The  factors 
that  did  most  to  improve  yard  operation  in  1940 
were  car  retarders,  Diesel-electric  switching  loco- 
motives, flood  lights  so  that  yards  could  be  worked 
24  hours  a  day,  telephones  and  teletypes  with  cen- 
tral control  of  signals  and  switches  in  yards,  and 
truck  motors  for  car  riders  so  that  a  minimum  of 
time  would  be  lost  in  returning  from  the  terminus 
of  one  job  to  the  starting  point  of  another  By  the 
middle  of  1940  there  were  31,000  freight  cars  with 
Duryea  cushioned  underframes.  The  damage  to 
freight  caused  by  shocks  in  switching  yards  has 
been  large ;  the  cushioned  underf rame  greatly  re- 
duces it. 

Diesel-electric  car  ferries  across  the  Great  Lakes 
have  opened  new  routes  between  the  Mississippi 
valley  and  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  There  are  now  45 
pairs  of  cities  having  overnight  freight  service ; 
the  shortest  distance  covered  by  this  overnight 
service  is  between  Denver  and  Minturn,  Colo ,  302 
miles  and  the  longest  between  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and 
Texarkana,  Ark.,  551  miles.  As  an  alternative  to 
all-rail  movement  of  material  from  the  West,  men- 
tion should  be  made  of  the  Seatram  put  in  service 
March  1  between  Texas  City  on  the  Gulf  and  New 
York.  The  Seatrain  is  500  feet  long  by  66  feet 
broad.  Freight  cars  are  loaded  onto  it  by  electric 
crane. 

There  was  a  test  of  the  capacity  of  railways  for 
troop  movement  in  August,  1940,  when  150,000 
men  (troops  in  maneuver)  were  carried  by  railway 
in  three  days.  This  average  of  50,000  a  day  com- 
pares with  an  average  of  37,000  a  day  at  the  peak 
of  the  troop  movement  in  1918 

Truck  Service.  The  co-ordination  of  trucking 
service  with  railway  service  in  facilitating  move- 
ment of  material  under  war  condition  is  important 
but  not  susceptible  of  precise  measurement.  While 
competition  between  railway  and  truck  is  still  ac- 
tive there  was  a  noticeable  trend  in  1940  toward 
a  supplementing  of  one  service  by  the  other.  Co- 
ordination is  being  retarded  by  an  interplay  of 
forces;  on  the  one  hand  railway  companies  are 
trying  to  maintain  a  transportation  monopoly,  and 
on  the  other  animosity  against  railways  is  hamper- 
ing them  in  extending  transportation  by  the  use  of 
trucks.  In  June,  1940,  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  (q.v.)  adjudged  unlawful  railway  tar- 
iffs providing  for  pickups  by  trucks  of  livestock 
in  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Wisconsin  destined  to  Chi- 
cago. The  reason  given  was  that  the  trucks  were 
subject  to  the  Motor  Carrier's  Act  and  thus  they 
"are  being  conducted  without  lawful  authority, 
since  no  certificate  that  public  convenience  and 
necessity  require  such  operations  has  been  sought 
or  obtained." 

There  was  a  strong  minority  opinion,  however, 


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645 


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which  pointed  out  that  this  was  in  effect  a  step 
toward  co-ordination  of  transportation  services. 
The  majority  took  the  view  that  it  was  an  attempt 
to  cut  rates  rather  than  co-ordinate  transportation. 
Without  going  into  technicalities,  the  railways  by 
extending  their  terminals  to  points  ten  miles  from 
the  railway  made  a  bid  for  part  of  the  haul  on 
livestock.  The  minority  laid  stress  on  the  "public 
convenience"  that  would  follow.  The  majority  laid 
stress  on  the  fact  that  the  railways  would  not  en- 
tirely lose  the  competitive  livestock  business  to 
the  trucks. 

On  its  Delmarva  division,  which  serves  the  pen- 
insula extending  south  from  Wilmington,  Del.,  to 
Cape  Charles,  Va.,  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  op- 
erates a  co-ordinated  truck  and  railway  service 
where  truck  lines  extend  to  territory  not  reached 
by  railway  and  also  parallel  railway  lines  but  do 
only  a  local  business,  thus  relieving  the  railway  of 
the  necessity  of  running  a  non-profit-earning  local 
freight  train.  It  is  an  important  development  be- 
cause it  suggests  a  form  of  co-ordination  that  has 
nation-wide  possibilities. 

In  the  west  the  Missouri  Pacific  Railroad  has 
put  fleets  of  trucks  in  operation.  Both  a  truck  line 
and  a  railway,  operate  from  Houston  to  Freeport, 
62  miles,  with  truck  lines  to  other  nearby  cities. 
Other  truck  lines  handle  merchandise  from  dis- 
tributing points  such  as  Dallas,  Beaumont,  Fort 
Worth,  San  Antonio,  Waco,  St  Louis,  Memphis, 
Little  Rock,  and  New  Orleans.  Through  the  Mis- 
souri Pacific  Freight  Transport  Company  a  flex- 
ible freight  service  is  furnished  for  much  of  south- 
east Texas,  which  also  furnishes  transport  for 
perishables  through  the  medium  of  small  refriger- 
ator units  carried  by  truck. 

A  larger  refrigerator  unit  is  being  used  in  the 
East  The  M.  H  Renken  Dairy  Company  of 
Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  has  placed  in  service  fourteen 
3000-gal  demountable  milk  tanks  These  tanks  can 
be  shifted  from  truck  to  flat-car  and  from  flat-car 
to  truck  to  give  co-ordinated  rail  and  truck  service. 
The  National  Dairy  Products  Corporation  is  using 
a  like  device,  so  that  by  October,  1940,  over  50,000 
gal.  of  milk  were  being  shipped  daily  to  the  New 
York  metropolitan  area  by  this  new  system  which 
combines  long  haul  rail  service  with  short  haul 
trucking. 

A  report  of  the  Bureau  of  Motor  Carriers'  Sec- 
tion of  Finance  before  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  recommends,  under  conditions  to  pro- 
tect labor,  that  the  Commission  approve  the  appli- 
cations of  the  Transport  Company  of  New  York 
to  acquire  various  motor  carriers  operating  over  a 
network  of  routes  extending  along  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  from  Massachusetts  to  Florida  and  into 
Ohio,  West  Virginia,  Tennessee,  Louisiana,  and 
Alabama.  In  all  there  are  56  companies  operating 
more  than  10,000  vehicles.  The  report  recommends 
that  the  Commission  deny  a  supplemental  applica- 
tion to  effectuate  singleness  of  title  to  the  oper- 
ating rights  of  the  motor  carriers  involved.  The 
bankers  for  the  proposed  merger  are  the  bankers 
for  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad. 

Diesel  Locomotives.  The  use  of  oil-electric 
(Diesel)  locomotives  is  complementary  to  the  use 
of  highway  trucks  in  that  it  gives  the  railways 
flexibility  for  on-line  service  as  the  truck  gives  the 
railway  flexibility  for  off-line  service.  This  does 
not  include  the  use  of  the  Diesel  in  switching 
yards,  where  the  Diesel  is  simply  an  improved 
tool  for  doing  the  same  work  heretofore  done  by 
the  steam  locomotive.  In  line  haul  work  the  Diesel 
adds  a  new  service. 


On  Jan.  1,  1940,  there  were  57  Diesel  locomo- 
tives on  order  for  16  railways.  During  1940  there 
were  462  Diesel  locomotives  ordered  by  60  rail- 
ways. The  trend  was  towards  the  use  of  more 
powerful  units.  Prior  to  1939  the  favored  unit  was 
600  h.p.  By  the  end  of  1940  it  was  generally  con- 
ceded that  the  1000-h.p.  unit  was  the  more  econom- 
ical. The  official  tests  that  were  made  used  600- 
h.p.  and  900-h.p.  units,  but  it  was  thought  that 
the  superiority  of  the  more  powerful  unit  over  the 
600-h.p.  unit  would  be  more  notable  if  the  1000- 
h.p.  unit  had  been  used  in  the  comparison. 

The  gal.  of  fuel  oil  burned  by  the  600-h.p.  unit 
per  hour  of  work  was  5630;  the  900  h.p.-unit  used 
6371  gal.,  but  the  cost  of  repairs  per  hour  of  work 
averaged  30.38  cents  for  the  600  h.p -unit  and 
27.55  cents  for  the  900-h.p.  unit.  In  other  words, 
with  an  increase  of  50  per  cent  in  power  there  was 
an  increase  of  but  13  per  cent  in  fuel  cost  and  an 
actual  decrease  in  cost  of  repairs. 

The  accusation  that  railways  have  been  remiss  in 
providing  adequately  for  the  strain  of  war  is  met, 
not  only  by  citing  improvements  such  as  the  Diesel 
locomotive,  but  also  by  pointing  to  the  fact  that 
Class  I  railways  in  the  first  five  months  of  1940 
bought  nearly  $400,000,000  of  supplies  of  which 
$284,160,000  was  for  materials  and  $112,143,000 
was  for  fuel-oil  and  coal. 

Transportation  Act  of  1940.  The  Transpor- 
tation Act  of  1940,  known  as  S.2009  while  it  was 
under  discussion,  was  passed  by  both  houses  of 
Congress  and  was  signed  by  the  President  on  Sep- 
tember 18.  The  Act  provides  for  the  appointment 
by  the  President  of  a  three-member  board  to  study 
the  relative  economy  of  various  agencies  of  trans- 
portation, and  government  aid  to  transportation. 
It  conditionally  repeals  land-grant  rates  and  re- 
lieves the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  of  the 
duty  of  making  proposed  consolidations  conform 
to  its  general  consolidation  plan.  [As  noted  in  pre- 
vious YEAR  BOOKS  this  duty,  as  interpreted  by  the 
Commission,  had  heretofore  effectively  blocked  all 
important  consolidations.] 

The  Act  provides  for  the  regulation  of  water 
carriers  on  much  the  same  comprehensive  scale  as 
railways  and  motor  carriers.  Thus  railways,  high- 
way motor  carriers,  and  waterways  are  brought 
under  regulation  in  respect  to  permits  to  operate, 
accounts,  and  rates.  The  Commission  is  permitted 
to  make  exceptions  for  water  carriers  that  trans- 
port commodities  in  bulk  by  contract  on  the  Great 
Lakes.  Water  carriers  are  required  to  make  joint 
rates  with  railways  and  may  establish  joint  rates 
with  motor  carriers.  Minimum  rates  may  be  or- 
dered by  the  Commission  as  well  as  maximum 
rates.  Foreign  competition  may  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration by  the  Commission. 

In  two  respects  the  Transportation  Act  of  1940 
departs  radically  from  former  regulation  of  rail- 
ways. In  giving  a  basis  for  judging  rates  to  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission  the  act  says :  "In 
the  exercise  of  its  power  to  prescribe  just  and 
reasonable  rates  the  Commission  shall  give  due 
consideration,  among  other  factors,  to  the  effect  of 
rates  on  the  movement  of  traffic  by  the  carrier  or 
carriers  for  which  the  rates  are  prescribed ,  to  the 
need,  in  the  public  interest,  of  adequate  and  effi- 
cient railway  transportation  at  the  lowest  cost  con- 
sistent with  the  furnishing  of  such  service ;  and  to 
the  need  of  revenues  sufficient  to  enable  the  car- 
riers, under  honest,  economical  management  to 
provide  such  service." 

Gone  is  valuation  of  railway  property  as  a  basis 
of  rate  making.  One  has  only  to  remember  the 


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644 


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years  of  wrangling  over  cost  of  reproduction  new 
or  original  cost  as  a  basis  on  which  to  allow  earn- 
ings of  6  per  cent  Theoretically,  just  rates  are 
discarded  in  favor  of  rates  that  will  move  the 
traffic  and  induce  continued  investment  in  railway 
facilities.  The  words  "among  other  factors"  should 
be  noted  however.  It  is  still  within  the  discretion 
of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  to  give 
weight  to  each  of  the  different  factors.  Apparently 
Congress  for  the  first  time  has  recognized  that  the 
ICC  acts  in  a  managerial  capacity.  Heretofore  Con- 
gress saw  the  ICC  only  as  a  curb  on  the  railways. 
The  second  respect  in  which  the  Transportation 
Act  of  1940  differs  radically  from  any  former 
regulation  of  railways  is  contained  in  the  declara- 
tion of  policy  in  the  Act: 

"It  is  hereby  declared  to  be  the  national  transportation 
pohcv  of  the  Congress  to  provide  for  fair  and  impartial 
regulation  of  all  modes  of  transportation  subject  to  the 
provisions  of  this  Act,  so  administered  as  to  recognize  and 
preserve  the  inherent  advantages  of  each;  to  promote  safe, 
adequate,  economical,  and  efficient  service  and  foster  sound 
economic  conditions  in  transportation  and  among  the  sev- 
eral earners;  to  encourage  the  establishment  and  main- 
tenance of  reasonable  charges  for  transportation  services, 
without  unjust  discriminations,  undue  preferences  or  ad- 
vantages, or  unfair  or  destructive  competitive  practices; 
to  cooperate  with  the  several  states  and  the  duly  author- 
ized, officials  thereof,  and  to  encourage  fair  wages  and 
equitable  working  conditions — all  to  the  end  of  developing, 
coordinating,  and  preserving  a  national  transportation  sys- 
tem by  water,  highway  and  rail,  as  well  as  other  means, 
adequate  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  commerce  of  the  United 
States,  of  the  Postal  Service,  and  of  the  national  defense 
All  the  provisions  of  this  Act  shall  be  administered  and 
enforced  with  a  view  to  carrying  out  the  above  declaration 
of  policy." 

Vitally  important  as  this  declaration  of  policy 
was,  there  were  some  pessimists  who  discounted 
it  because,  in  the  same  year  in  which  it  was  made 
the  law,  a  report  by  J.  B.  Eastman  was  made  pub- 
lic that  covered  government  aid  in  1936  which 
showed,  the  pessimists  thought,  how  the  policy 
might  be  falsified.  The  Eastman  report  estimated 
that  the  railways  had  been  aided  by  the  govern- 
ment to  the  amount  of  $35,635,000,  the  waterways 
to  the  amount  of  $128,528,000,  airways  to  the 
amount  of  $21,453,000,  and  motor  vehicles  to  the 
amount  of  $8,000,000.  The  pessimists  said  that  if 
an  Interstate  Commerce  Commissioner,  past  or 
present,  could  estimate  that  motor  vehicles  had 
been  aided  only  to  the  extent  of  $8,000,000,  then 
a  mere  declaration  of  policy  by  Congress  could  be 
brushed  aside  as  window  dressing. 

The  estimate  obviously  assumed  that  the  taxes 
of  motor  vehicles  paid  their  share  of  the  interest 
on  the  cost  of  construction  of  3,000,000  miles  of 
highways  and  their  share  of  the  cost  of  mainte- 
nance of  these  3,000,000  miles.  The  pessimists 
pointed  out  that  while  the  railways  also  paid  taxes, 
they  were  compelled  to  charge  rates  that  would 
cover  interest  on  the  cost  of  construction  of  the 
roadbed  they  used  and  also  cover  the  cost  of 
the  maintenance  of  that  roadbed  Under  such  an 
assumption  the  words  "unfair  «  .  .  competitive" 
would  be  meaningless.  The  fact  remains,  however, 
that  in  1940  Congress  recognized  that  railways 
were  desirable  in  a  national  transportation  system 
and  that  they  must  be  encouraged  as  well  as  re- 
strained. 

Railroad  Retirement  Board.  On  October  10 
the  President  signed  amendments  to  the  Railroad 
Unemployment  Act  which  increased  payments  by 
the  Railroad  Retirement  Board  to  unemployed  rail- 
way workers.  In  a  press  release,  dated  October  21, 
the  Board  said: 

The  Board  estimates  that  over  a  period  of  years  the  ef- 
fect of  the  amendments  wifl  be  to  raise  benefits  on  the 


average  by  about  73  per  cent  In  any  given  year,  however, 
the  increase  in  benefits  resulting  from  foe  amendments  may 
be  greater  or  lets  than  this  average  depending  upon  the 
number  of  unemployed  workers  and  the  length  of  their 
periods  of  unemployment.  .  .  . 

The  important  increase  in  the  benefit  rights  of  unem- 
ployed railroad  workers  is  made  without  increasing  the 
contributions  from  employers  which  maintain  the  system. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  present  contribution  rate  of  3  per 
cent  of  the  payroll,  exclusive  of  the  excess  over  $300  in 
monthly  earnings  per  employee,  will  be  sufficient  to  sup- 
port the  higher  level  of  benefits. 

In  making  this  estimate  it  is  evident  that  the 
Board  relied  on  increased  railway  employment 
which  would  at  the  same  time  increase  the  number 
of  payments  into  the  benefit  fund  and  decrease  the 
number  of  payments  from  the  benefit  fund. 

But  even  discounting  estimates  for  the  future  the 
results  achieved  in  the  past  and  the  current  position 
of  the  Board  was  thought  to  justify  an  increase  in 
benefits.  The  October,  1940,  Monthly  Review  of 
the  Railroad  Retirement  Board  gives  the  amount 
of  tax  collections  under  the  Carriers  Taxing  Act 
cumulative  through  September,  1940,  as  $412,869,- 
059,  and  the  total  and  retroactive  payments  as 
$338,154,367,  leaving  $74,714,692  excess  collections 
over  payments.  These  payments  were  divided :  Em- 
ployee Annuities  $234,091,003,  Pensions  $95,605.- 
724,  Survivor  Annuities  $2,373,631,  Death  Benefit 
Annuities  $1,990,759,  and  Lump -Sum  Death  Bene- 
fits $4,093,248. 

Of  the  administrative  expenses  of  the  Board  the 
October,  1940,  Monthly  Review  says:  "Of  the 
$2,536,000  appropriated  by  Congress  for  adminis- 
trative expenses  of  the  retirement  system  for  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1941,  a  total  of  $647,318 
had  been  expended  or  obligated  for  expenditure  by 
the  end  of  September."  The  Review  also  says. 
"Retirement  account  assets  at  the  end  of  September 
consisted  of  $85,400,000  invested  in  3  per  cent  spe- 
cial Treasury  notes  and  an  unobligated  cash  bal- 
ance of  $12,490,847,  in  addition  to  a  balance  of 
$77,530,000  in  the  amount  appropriated  by  Con- 
gress for  the  current  fiscal  year. 

"Employee  annuities  totaling  109,738  with  a 
monthly  amount  payable  of  $7,193,887,  were  in 
force  at  the  end  of  September."  [1940]  This  is 
apparently  a  monthly  payment  of  $65.56. 

At  the  end  of  June,  1940,  there  were  35,146  re- 
tirement pensions  in  force — the  average  pension 
was  $58.66  per  month.  Through  June  28,  1940,  the 
Railroad  Retirement  Board  certified  the  payment 
of  1,000,378  claims  for  unemployment  insurance. 
The  average  amount  paid  was  $14.80. 

National  Mediation  Board.  The  National  Me- 
diation Board,  created  in  1934,  consisting  of 
George  A.  Cook  (Chairman),  Otto  S.  Beyer,  Da- 
vid J.  Lewis,  with  Robert  F.  Cole  Secretary,  made 
its  annual  report  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30, 
1940.  The  Board  disposed  of  93  cases,  of  which  9 
covered  negotiations  of  new  cases  (rates  of  pay, 
working  conditions,  etc.),  51  changes  in  rates  of 
pay,  32  changes  in  existing  agreements,  and  one 
miscellaneous  case.  There  was  only  one  minor 
strike  occurring  among  employees  subject  to  the 
Railway  Labor  Act 

The  three  types  of  disputes  subject  to  the  juris- 
diction of  the  National  Mediation  Board  are:  (1) 
Disputes  among  employees  concerning  their  duly 
authorized  representative;  (2)  Disputes  between 
carriers  and  their  employees  over  negotiations  for 
new  agreements  or  changes  in  existing  agreements ; 
f  3)  Interpretation  of  mediation  agreements  where 
differences  arise  between  carriers  and  their  em- 
ployees as  to  the  meaning  or  application  of  such 
agreements.  In  all  there  were  182  disputes  and,  as 


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RAPID  TRANSIT 


noted  above,  93  of  these  were  settled  by  inducing 
the  parties  to  make  mediation  agreements.  There 
was  appropriated  $230,406  for  the  NMB  for  the 
fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1940.  The  Board's  oper- 
ating expenses  were  $149,502. 

The  difference  in  functions  between  the  National 
Mediation  Board  and  the  National  Railroad  Ad- 
justment Board  are  important.  Labor  agreements 
consummated  as  a  result  of  direct  negotiations  be- 
tween carriers  and  their  employees,  if  in  dispute, 
are  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  National  Ad- 
justment Board.  Agreements  arrived  at  with  the 
help  of  the  National  Mediation  Board,  if  in  dis- 
pute, are  subject  to  interpretation  by  the  Mediation 
Board  itself.  The  U.S.  Supreme  Court  has  upheld 
the  National  Mediation  Board. 

Earnings  and  Expenses.  The  following  fig- 
ures are  for  Class  I  railways  which  operate  234,- 
031  out  of  the  total  249,826  miles  of  railway  in  the 
United  States.  In  1940  total  operating  revenues 
amounted  to  $4,275,000,000,  compared  with  $3,995,- 
000,000  in  1939  Total  operating  expenses  in  1940 
amounted  to  $3,090,000,000,  compared  with  $2,918,- 
000,000  in  1939. 


Income  Account                   1940 

1939 

Total  Operating  Revenue          $4,275,000,000 
Freight                                   3,520,000,000 

$3,995,000,000 
3,251,000,000 

Passenger                                     4  IS,  000,000 

417,000,000 

Total  Operating  Expenses            3,090,000,000 
Maintenance  of  Way                   500,000,000 

2,918,000,000 
467,000,000 

Maintenance  of  Equipment         817.000,000 

766,000,000 

Transportation                         1  ,500,000,000 

1,418,000,000 

Net  Railway  Operating  Income       650,000,000 
Net  after  FwedCharges                 155,000,000 

589,000,000 
93,000,000 

New  Construction  and  Lines  Abandoned. 
Twenty-six  miles  of  new  lines  were  built  in  the 
United  States  in  1940  as  against  58  built  in  1939. 
Lines  abandoned  totaled  1299  miles  as  against  1783 
miles  in  1939 

Locomotives  Ordered.  The  total  number  of 
locomotives  ordered  was  782  comparing  with  469 
ordered  in  1939.  Of  the  694  which  were  ordered 
for  use  within  the  United  States  in  1940,  219  were 
steam  locomotives,  462  Diesel-electrics,  and  13  elec- 
trics. 

Locomotives  Built.  There  were  560  locomo- 
tives built  in  the  United  States  in  1940  and  355 
built  in  1939 

Freight  Cars.  Freight  cars  ordered  totaled  67,- 
591  in  1940  as  against  62,914  ordered  in  1939. 
There  were  56,603  freight  cars  built  in  1940  and 
27,236  built  in  1939. 

Passenger  Train  Cars.  Passenger-train  cars 
ordered  totaled  370  in  1940  and  435  were  ordered 
in  1939.  The  passenger  cars  built  in  1940  were  200 
in  number,  221  in  1939. 

Finance.  No  railway  receiverships  were  estab- 
lished in  1940.  One  of  the  reasons  for  this  is  that 
at  the  beginning  of  the  year  there  were  76,907 
miles  of  railway  already  in  the  hands  of  receivers 
or  trustees.  During  the  year  6  companies  with  a 
total  mileage  of  3675  were  taken  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  courts.  Three  of  these  were  important  rail- 
ways :  the  Mobile  and  Ohio ;  the  Chicago,  Great 
Western,  and  the  Chicago-Eastern  Illinois 

With  the  exception  of  the  sale  of  equipment 
trusts  no  new  financing  for  railways  was  done  in 
1940.  There  were  only  two  important  dividend 
changes :  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  paid  $1  50  a 
share  on  its  $50  par  value  shares,  and  the  Atchison 
Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  resumed  payments  on  its 
common  stock  with  a  pavment  of  $1  in  November, 
1940.  Total  dividend  disbursements  in  1940  were  a 


little  over  90  million  dollars  and  in  1939  were  a 
little  less  than  75  million  dollars. 

European  Railways,  While  no  reliable  figures 
for  the  operation  of  European  railways  in  1940 
were  available,  certain  general  conclusions  may  be 
drawn  from  the  news.  English  railways  were  main- 
tained at  a  very  high  standard.  Right  of  way  (per- 
manent way,  they  call  it)  has  been  more  rigid  than 
called  for  by  American  practice.  It  was  not  allowed 
to  deteriorate  with  the  falling  off  in  traffic;  cars 
and  locomotives  were  kept  in  excellent  repair.  In 
contrast  to  this  the  Russian  railways  were  under- 
maintained  or  lavishly  extended  as  was  thought  ex- 
pedient. Under  the  strain  of  troop  movement  for 
the  conquest  of  Finland,  the  Russian  railways  were 
quite  incapable  of  handling  the  soldiers,  and  their 
supplies  and  ordinary  traffic  was  almost  entirely 
neglected.  Under  the  strain  of  troop  movement  to 
France,  the  English  railways  were  able  to  handle, 
not  only  military  traffic,  but  also  ordinary  freight 
and  passenger  traffic  with  almost  no  delays. 

See  ACCIDENTS;  BRIDGES;  BUSINESS  REVIEW; 
VERMONT  An  account  of  the  major  accidents  is 
given  by  date  under  CHRONOLOGY 

WILLIAM  E.  HOOPER. 

RAPID  TRANSIT.  To  the  list  of  cities  hav- 
ing subways  or  underground  railways,  Chicago 
will  soon  be  added,  the  date  set  for  completion  be- 
ing June  30,  1941.  However,  the  new  lines  are  not 
for  a  separate  local  transportation  system,  but  are 
mainly  to  provide  for  connecting  the  several  ele- 
vated railways  by  means  of  subways  through  the 
congested  business  district.  Of  the  total  length  of 
8  75  miles  for  two  lines,  6  78  miles  were  completed 
in  January,  or  13,56  miles  of  single  track  and  tun- 
nel. Twin  tunnels  are  driven,  each  track  having  its 
own  "tube."  The  estimated  cost  is  $57,400,000,  of 
which  $34,270,000  is  to  come  from  the  city's  trac- 
tion fund,  and  the  remainder  is  a  grant  from  the 
Federal  government. 

One  line  runs  north  and  south  under  State  St., 
4.9  miles,  with  16  stations.  The  other  line  comes 
down  Milwaukee  Ave.,  south  on  Dearborn  St.,  and 
then  west  on  Congress  St.  to  a  loop  or  turnaround 
at  Wells  and  Market  Sts.  This  line  is  38  miles 
long,  with  13  stations.  A  deep-level  system  was 
adopted,  the  tunnel  tracks  being  about  45  ft.  below 
the  streets  At  stations,  there  is  a  mezzanine  floor 
18  ft.  below  the  street  for  ticket  offices  and  other 
facilities.  A  proposed  new  company,  to  be  formed 
by  merger  of  existing  separate  traction  companies, 
is  to  operate  the  subways  as  part  of  a  unified  local 
transportation  system.  This  company  would  assume 
the  cost  of  tracks,  signals,  and  station  equipment. 

In  New  York,  the  underground  railways  were 
extended,  about  three  miles  in  Manhattan  and  the 
same  length  in  Brooklyn,  while  some  25  miles  of 
the  older  elevated  lines  were  removed,  having  been 
superseded  by  modern  subway  lines.  The  city  took 
possession  of  the  Interborough  system  in  June, 
thus  completing  the  unification  of  all  the  rapid 
transit  lines.  The  new  6th  Ave.  subway  from  9th 
to  53d  Sts.  was  opened  on  December  15;  although 
only  2%  miles  long,  it  cost  $46,800,000  owing  to 
value  of  property  and  difficulties  of  construction. 

Street  railway  lines  make  but  Httle  progress,  and 
in  several  cities  they  are  being  superseded  to  vary- 
ing extent  by  motor-bus  lines.  This  is  the  case  in 
New  York  and  Brooklyn.  In  Chicago,  it  is  pro- 
posed to  convert  250  to  300  miles  of  street-car 
routes  to  bus  lines,  and  the  Chicago  &  West  Towns 
Ry.  has  substituted  buses  on  12  miles  of  its  former 
track  routes.  Traffic  congestion  in  parts  of  New 


RATIONING 


648 


RECLAMATION 


York,  due  to  the  use  of  the  streets  by  suburban  bus 
lines,  has  led  to  regulations  restricting  such  use 
and  requiring  these  bus  lines  to  use  terminal  sta- 
tions. 

Substitution  of  trackless-trolley  operation  for 
street-car  operation  has  been  effected  on  a  con- 
siderable scale  at  Milwaukee,  Wis.  Classification 
of  local  traffic  in  cities  of  the  United  States,  for 
1940,  has  been  given  as  follows :  Street  railways 
46  per  cent,  motor  bus  32,  elevated  and  under- 
ground lines  18,  and  trolley  bus  or  trackless  trolley 
4  per  cent. 

To  extend  its  rapid  transit  system,  the  city  of 
New  York  has  purchased  part  of  the  defunct  New 
York,  Westchester  and  Boston  Railway,  and  will 
convert  it  from  the  original  trolley  line  system  to 
the  third-rail  system,  to  conform  to  the  equipment 
of  the  city  lines.  See  ILLINOIS  ;  NEW  YORK. 

E.  E.  RUSSELL  TRATMAN. 

RATIONING.  See  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL; 
LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS;  AUSTRALIA,  BEL- 
GIUM, BOHEMIA  AND  MORAVIA,  BULGARIA,  DEN- 
MARK, FINLAND,  FRANCE,  GERMANY,  GREAT  BRIT- 
AIN, HUNGARY,  IRELAND,  ITALY,  JAPAN,  NETH- 
ERLANDS, NEW  ZEALAND,  NORWAY,  RUMANIA, 
SLOVAKIA,  SPAIN,  SWEDEN,  SWITZERLAND,  and 
YUGOSLAVIA  under  History 

RAYON.  Chemically  produced  fibers,  which 
have  won  world  acceptance  under  the  generic  term 
rayon,  achieved  another  year  of  expansion  in  both 
production  and  consumption  of  all  types  of  yarns. 
The  most  remarkable  circumstance  in  this  connec- 
tion is  that  the  increase  in  volume  was  independent 
of  any  influence  of  "war-orders  "  Other  important 
textile  fibers,  including  cotton,  wool,  and  silk,  have 
figured  in  the  government  contracts  for  clothing 
and  other  raw  materials.  Rayon,  as  the  latest  type 
of  fiber,  has  served  to  meet  every  demand  that  has 
been  made  upon  it  by  the  textile  mills  whether  op- 
erating on  cotton,  wool,  or  silk,  and  has  proven 
itself  to  be  universally  adaptable. 

In  considering  the  industry  in  America,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  keep  in  mind  that  all  of  the  prerequisites 
for  its  manufacture  are  available  in  ample  quanti- 
ties in  this  country  and  are  not  affected  to  any  de- 
gree by  importation  from  the  Eastern  Hemisphere. 
Wood  pulp  and  cotton  linter,  the  bases  for  all  ray- 
ons, have  remained  at  reasonable  price  levels,  and 
all  of  the  chemicals  necessary  for  their  conversion 
into  yarn  have  been  free  from  hysterical  price  ad- 
vances. 

For  the  year  1940,  production  of  all  types  of 
chemical  filament  yarns  and  rayon  staple  fiber 
yarns,  totaled  over  465  million  Ib  Stocks  in  the 
hands  of  yarn  spinners,  at  the  close  of  the  year, 
were  non-existent,  and  sales  into  1941  have  taken 
production  through  January  and  February  and  in- 
to March.  The  installed  capacity  of  rayon  and  oth- 
er chemically  produced  yarn  plants  in  the  United 
States,  as  of  Jan.  1,  1941,  is  reported  as  600  mil- 
lion Ib.  per  year. 

Due  notice  should  be  taken  of  the  marked 
achievements  of  the  past  year  in  the  use  of  rayon 
staple  fiber.  It  has  been  used  to  a  greater  extent  in 
the  past  12  months  in  connection  with  wool  in 
blends  running  as  high  as  40  per  cent  rayon  and 
60  per  cent  wool  than  in  any  other  year.  The  re- 
sulting fabrics  have  been  used  in  women's  wear, 
suitings,  and  ^cloakings,  men's  overcoatings  and 
suitings,  and  in  a  wide  line  of  upholsteries.  An- 
other outstanding  record  is  that  achieved  by  rayon 
staple  fiber  in  the  production  of  cord  tires  for  au- 
tos,  buses,  and  trucks,  and  the  adoption  of  rayon 


staple  fiber  especially  crimped  for  use  in  the  car- 
pet and  rug  industry.  Manufacturers  of  floor  cov- 
erings now  announce  that  they  have  solved  all 
problems  in  the  use  of  rayon  staple  fiber,  the  last 
of  which  was  overcome  when  it  was  given  a  per- 
manent curl  which  heretofore  has  been  solely  a 
property  possessed  by  coarse  wools.  With  resilien- 
cy, the  use  of  rayon  staple  fiber  in  the  carpet  in- 
dustry becomes  of  major  importance. 

Close  to  60,000  men  and  women  operatives  are 
assured  of  year-round  employment  in  this  indus- 
try, at  the  highest  wage  prevailing  for  work  of 
similar  character  in  any  other  textile  or  chemical 
plants. 

FRANCIS  A.  ADAMS. 

RECLAMATION,  Bureau  of.  The  Bureau 
of  Reclamation  is  engaged  in  the  construction,  op- 
eration, or  supervision  of  the  operation  of  68  irri- 
gation projects  or  divisions  of  projects  in  16  arid 
and  semiarid  States  in  the  West,  which  will  furnish 
ultimately  a  full  or  supplemental  water  supply  to 
approximately  10,000,000  acres  of  thirsty  land.  The 
funds  for  this  work  have  come  from  repayments 
by  the  water  users,  from  oil  leasing  and  other 
mineral  operations,  from  the  sale  of  public  lands, 
and  by  allotments  and  direct  appropriations  by  the 
Congress.  The  money  expended  is  returned  to  the 
U.S.  Treasury  for  deposit  in  the  Reclamation  Re- 
volving Fund  by  payments  of  settlers  and  from 
sales  of  power  and  water. 

During  the  1940  fiscal  year  the  Bureau  of  Rec- 
lamation continued  its  major  construction  pro- 
gram. Work  was  in  progress  on  27  projects  in  13 
States.  Thirteen  major  storage  dams  and  one  di- 
version dam  were  under  construction  during  the 
year.  Of  these,  four  for  storage  and  the  one  for  di- 
version were  completed.  Four  of  the  storage  dams 
under  construction  are  of  tremendous  size.  They 
are  Grand  Coulee,  Shasta,  Fnant,  and  Marshall 
Ford.  Grand  Coulee  will  be  the  largest  concrete 
dam  in  the  world,  while  Shasta  and  Friant  Dams 
will  be  second  and  fourth  largest;  and  Marshall 
Ford  will  be  fifth.  Boulder  Dam,  although  ranking 
first  in  height,  is  third  largest. 

Since  1902,  the  Bureau  of  Reclamation  has  com- 
pleted the  following  construction .  161  storage  and 
diversion  dams;  51  power  houses;  3058  buildings, 
20,575.9  miles  of  canals,  ditches,  and  drains ,  87.8 
miles  of  tunnels;  4802.5  miles  of  telephone  lines, 
300.5  miles  of  dikes ;  6377  flumes ;  21,525  culverts ; 
13,912  bridges ;  and  202,491  other  irrigation  struc- 
tures. Reservoirs  on  Federal  irrigation  projects 
had  a  combined  capacity  of  51,215,000  acre-feet  at 
the  end  of  the  fiscal  year. 

An  outstanding  project  under  construction  is  the 
Columbia  Basin  project,  designed  to  provide  water 
for  the  irrigation  of  1,200,000  acres  of  dry  land  in 
central  Washington  and  for  the  generation  of  large 
blocks  of  cheap  hydroelectric  power  for  irrigation 
pumping  requirements,  and  industrial  and  urban 
consumption.  Rising  to  a  height  of  553  feet  and 
stretching  across  the  Columbia  River  4300  feet, 
Grand  Coulee  Dam  was  nearing  completion  at  the 
end  of  the  fiscal  year.  Looking  forward  to  the 
time  in  1943  or  1944,  when  water  may  be  available 
for  the  irrigation  of  the  first  block  of  lands  in- 
cluded in  the  project  area,  the  Bureau  of  Reclama- 
tion in  Juty  1939,  launched  joint  investigations  of 
the  Columbia  Basin  Irrigation  project.  The  object 
of  the  investigations  is  to  plan  for  the  successful 
settlement  and  development  of  the  project  area, 
which  it  is  expected  will  support  an  increase  of 
350,000  in  population  of  the  State  of  Washington. 


RECLAMATION 


649   RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE  CORP. 


Another  major  undertaking  of  the  Bureau  in 
progress  is  the  Central  Valley  project  in  Califor- 
nia, designed  to  alleviate  critical  water  shortage 
and  problems  in  three  important  agricultural  areas 
through  the  conservation  of  waste  flood  waters  of 
the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Rivers.  By  means 
of  Shasta  Dam  in  the  north  and  Friant  Dam  in 
the  south,  regulation  of  both  the  Sacramento  and 
the  San  Joaquin  Rivers  will  provide  adequate  wa- 
ter to  supplement  the  irrigation  supply  of  a  large 
area  of  highly  productive  orchard  and  farm  lands 
in  the  southern  San  Joaquin  Valley;  re-establish 
navigation  to  Red  Bluff  on  the  Sacramento  River ; 
prevent  salt  water  intrusion  in  the  irrigation  chan- 
nels of  the  delta  of  the  Sacramento-San  Joaquin 
Rivers ;  provide  supplemental  water  for  irrigation, 
domestic  and  industrial  uses  in  other  areas,  and 
make  possible  the  generation  of  375,000  kilowatts 
of  water  power  at  Shasta  Dam.  At  the  end  of  the 
fiscal  year  construction  work  was  about  40  per 
cent  complete  on  Shasta  Dam,  to  be  560  feet  in 
height,  and  3500  feet  in  length  along  the  crest  The 
work  in  progress  also  includes  the  46-mile  Contra 
Costa  Canal,  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  reloca- 
tion around  the  Shasta  Dam  reservoir  site  and 
Friant  Dam,  to  be  320  feet  m  height  and  3430  feet 
in  length.  See  DAMS 

Boulder  Dam,  with  8  largest  generating  units 
and  1  smaller  one  in  operation  had  almost  dou- 
bled its  output  during  the  fiscal  year,  generating 
2,834,248,000  kilowatt-hours  of  electrical  energy. 
With  8  large  generators  in  operation,  the  present 
installation  includes  6  of  the  large  82,500  kilovolt- 
ampere  generating  units  in  the  Nevada  wing  and 
2  of  the  large  and  1  of  the  smaller  40,000  kv-a 
generating  units  in  the  Arizona  wing,  totaling  700,- 
000  kw  Ultimately  there  will  be  15  of  the  large 
and  2  of  the  smaller  generating  units  in  operation 
with  a  capacity  of  1,317,500  kw  Present  power 
contracts  will  not  only  return  the  cost  of  Boulder 
Dam  and  Power  Plant  to  the  Federal  Government 
with  interest  but  will  also  pay  certain  revenues  to 
the  States  of  Arizona  and  Nevada. 

The  80-mile  All-Amencan  Canal,  by  far  the 
largest  irrigation  ditch  in  the  United  States,  is 
practically  completed.  This  canal  with  its  130-mile 
Coachella  Branch  will  carry  Colorado  River  water 
to  irrigate  lands  in  Imperial  and  Coachella  Valleys 
in  southern  California.  Work  on  the  second  40- 
mile  section  of  the  Coachella  Canal  was  about  a 
third  completed  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year. 

The  population  of  the  53,205  irrigated  farms  and 
the  258  towns  and  cities  served  by  Federal  projects 
reached  a  total  of  837,617  persons.  Of  the  3,140,- 
976  acres  irrigated,  3,078,072  acres  were  harvested 
in  1939,  producing  crops  worth  $114,082,794,  or  an 
average  of  $37.06  per  acre. 

Under  the  present  construction  program,  the 
largest  in  the  Bureau's  history,  water  will  be  pro- 
vided for  about  2,500,000  additional  acres,  trans- 
forming them  from  sagebrush  wastes  into  pro- 
ductive farms  that  will  support  approximately  a 
million  people.  This  will  bring  to  5,000,000  acres 
the  total  of  new  lands  the  Bureau  has  watered. 
Supplemental  water  will  be  supplied  for  about 
3,500,000  acres  already  irrigated,  bringing  to  al- 
most 5,000,000  acres  the  land  which  will  have  been 
rescued  by  the  Federal  Government  supplying  sup- 
plemental water.  The  Bureau  of  Reclamation  es- 
timates that  as  many  as  20,000,000  acres  additional 
can  be  irrigated  with  water  resources  as  yet  un- 
developed and  policies  now  in  effect.  The  future 
growth  and  stabilization  of  conditions  in  the  West 
will  be  correlated  in  large  measure  with  the  con- 


servation of  these  remaining  water  resources  and 
their  beneficial  use. 

JOHN  C  PAGE. 

RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE  COR- 
PORATION (RFC).  The  Reconstruction  Fi- 
nance Corporation,  one  of  several  agencies  grouped 
under  the  Federal  Loan  Agency,  may  perform  all 
its  functions  to  Jan.  22,  1947,  or  such  earlier  date 
as  the  President  may  authorize.  The  Corporation 
was  created  by  Act  of  Congress  approved  Jan.  22, 
1932,  to  provide  emergency  financing  facilities  for 
financial  institutions,  to  aid  in  financing  agricul- 
ture, commerce,  and  industry,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses. Subsequent  legislation  extended  its  opera- 
tions The  capital  stock  of  the  Corporation  is 
$500,000,000,  fully  subscribed  and  paid  in  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  and  held  for  the  benefit 
of  the  United  States 

Public  No.  664,  approved  June  25,  1940,  author- 
ized the  Reconstruction  Finance  Corporation  to  aid 
the  Government  in  its  national  defense  program 
in  the  following  manner : 

"(1)  To  make  Joans  to,  or,  when  requested  by  the  Fed- 
eral Loan  Administrator  with  the  approval  of  the  Presi- 
dent, purchase  the  capital  stock  of,  any  corporation  (a) 
for  the  purpose  of  producing,  acquiring,  and  carrying  stra- 
tegic and  critical  materials  as  defined  by  the  President, 
and  (b)  for  plant  construction,  expansion  and  equipment, 
and  working  capital,  to  be  used  by  the  corporation  in  the 
manufacture  of  equipment  and  supplies  necessary  to  the 
national  defense,  on  such  terms  and  conditions  and  with 
such  maturities  as  the  Corporation  may  determine,  and 

"(2)  When  requested  by  the  Federal  Loan  Administra- 
tor, with  the  approval  of  the  President,  to  create  or  to 
organize  a  corporation  or  corporations,  with  power  (a)  to 
produce,  acquire,  and  carry  strategic  and  critical  materials 
as  defined  by  the  President,  (b)  to  purchase  and  lease  land, 
to  purchase,  lease,  build,  and  expand  plants,  and  to  pur- 
chase and  produce  equipment,  supplies,  and  machinery,  for 
the  manufacture  of  arms,  ammunition,  and  implements  of 
war,  (c)  to  lease  such  plants  to  private  corporations  to 
engage  in  such  manufacture,  and  (d)  if  the  President  finds 
that  it  in  necessary  for  a  Government  agency  to  engage 
in  such  manufacture,  to  engage  in  such  manufacture  it- 
self." 

In  aid  of  the  defense  program,  under  this  and 
other  authority,  the  RFC  has  made  commitments 
aggregating  approximately  $1,100,000,000  These 
include  the  creation  on  June  28,  1940,  of  the  Rub- 
ber Reserve  Company  to  acquire  a  reserve  supply 
of  raw  rubber;  $5,000,000  was  subscribed  to  the 
capital  stock  of  this  Company,  and  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  RFC  it  has  agreed  with  the  Inter- 
national Rubber  Regulation  Committee,  which  con- 
trols the  world  output  of  raw  rubber,  to  purchase 
up  to  430,000  tons  of  crude  rubber,  costing  ap- 
proximately $190,000,000.  Of  this  amount,  52,516 
tons  have  been  delivered,  20,139  tons  are  in  transit, 
and  16,343  tons  await  shipment.  In  order  not  to 
interfere  with  the  requirements  of  the  rubber  in- 
dustry, the  RFC  is  buying  in  co-operation  with  the 
industry  at  approximately  201  a  Ib.  The  industry 
agreed  to  carry  not  less  than  150,000  tons  to  meet 
its  current  needs. 

On  June  28,  1940,  the  Corporation  created  the 
Metals  Reserve  Company  with  a  capital  of  $5,000,- 
000  to  acquire  a  reserve  supply  of  critical  and  stra- 
tegic materials.  Purchases  of  such  materials  are  in 
excess  of  current  requirements.  The  Metals  Re- 
serve Company  has  made  commitments  to  acquire 
supplies  of  antimony,  chrome  ore,  copper,  graphite, 
manganese  ore,  tungsten  trioxide,  tin,  antimony, 
and  wolframite  at  a  total  cost  of  $376,724,200. 

The  Defense  Plant  Corporation,  created  Aug. 
22,  1940,  with  a  capital  of  $5,000,000,  has  made 
commitments  aggregating  $349,779,683  Of  this 
amount  $283,206,197  is  for  the  construction  of  plants 


RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE  CORP,  650 


RED  CftOM 


And  the  acquisition  of  machinery  *&d 
for  the  manufacture  of  airplanes  and  parts. 
plants  and  equipment  are  owned  by  the  Defense 
Plant  Corporation  and  leased  to  the  manufacturer. 
The  Corporation  is  protected  either  by  the  rent 
received  or  by  a  contract  of  reimbursement  from 
the  Army  or  Navy  Department.  Of  the  total,  $35,- 
550,000  is  for  machine  tools,  and  the  remainder  for 
docks,  shipyards,  and  the  manufacture  of  tanks  and 
tank  engines,  ordnance,  and  other  items. 

On  Aug.  29,  1940,  the  Defense  Supplies  Cor- 
poration  was  created  with  a  capital  of  $5,000,000 
to  acquire  and  carry  a  reserve  supply  of  critical 
and  strategic  materials  and  supplies  which  may  be 
necessary  in  the  national  defense  program.  At  the 
request  of  the  National  Defense  Commission,  it 
has  allocated  $50,000,000  for  the  purchase  of  high- 
test  aviation  gasoline.  It  has  contracted  for  the  pur- 
chase of  300,000  tons  of  nitrate  of  soda  from  Chile 
at  a  cost  of  $5,400,000.  It  is  transporting  to  and 
storing  in  this  country  250,000,000  Ib.  of  Australian 
wool.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  transportation  and 
storage  of  the  wool  is  $12,000,000,  to  be  provided 
by  the  President  from  the  "Emergency  Fund  for 
the  President"  contained  in  the  Military  Appro- 
priation Act,  1941.  The  wool  belongs  to  Great  Brit- 
ain, but  the  United  States  government  has  the  right 
to  use  any  part  of  it  that  it  may  need 

On  Oct.  23,  1940,  the  Defense  Homes  Corpora- 
tion was  incorporated  with  a  capital  of  $10,000,000, 
supplied  by  the  President  from  the  "Emergency 
Fund  for  the  President"  provided  m  the  Naval  and 
the  Military  Appropriation  Acts  of  1941.  The  Cor- 
poration assists  in  providing  homes  in  localities 
where  manufacturing  is  necessary  in  connection 
with  facilities  for  the  War  and  Navy  Departments 
when  private  capital  is  not  available,  and  where  it 
is  anticipated  that  the  homes  will  be  of  permanent 
value  to  the  community  after  the  present  emer- 
gency. Mortgages  placed  on  these  homes  will  be 
insured  by  Federal  Housing  Administration  (q.v  ) 
and  if  not  purchased  by  private  investors  will  be 
held  by  the  Federal  National  Mortgage  Associa- 
tion or  The  RFC  Mortgage  Company.  The  De- 
fense Homes  Corporation  furnishes  the  equity  in 
the  projects. 

In  addition  to  the  creation  and  capitalization  of 
the  foregoing  corporations,  and  loans  to  them  as 
outlined,  the  RFC  has  authorized  195  loans  to  167 
private  manufacturers  in  the  defense  program,  ag- 
gregating $127,394,965.  The  RFC  co-operates  with 
banks  in  making  loans  for  production,  plant  ex- 
pansion, or  other  national  defense  purposes  by  tak- 
ing participations  fin  any  such  loans.  Where  the 
bank  wishes  to  carry  the  entire  loan,  the  Corpora- 
tion gives  a  definite  take-out  agreement  under  the 
rates  now  in  effect  or  as  may  be  agreed  upon.  The 
Corporation  has  authorized  participations  to  the 
extent  of  $4,821,807  in  defense  loans  aggregating 
$6,786,894,  practkally  all  made  by  banks. 

The  construction  of  all  defense  plants  and  the 
acquisition  of  equipment  are  at  the  request  of  the 
War  or  Navy  Departments,  and  the  larger  defense 
loans  by  the  Corporation  to  manufacturers  en- 
gaged on  government  contracts  are  made  in  co- 
operation with  the  Defense  Comtnission  The  pur- 
chase of  defense  supplies  and  critical  and  strategic 
materials  is  made  at  the  request  of,  or  in  co-opera- 
tion with,  the  Defense  Coinmission  All  of  these 
subsidiaries  of  the  RFC  are  managed  and  operated 
by  directors,  officers,  and  employees  of  the  RFC 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Federal  Loan  Admin- 
istrator. 

Through  Dec.  31,  1940,  total  authorizations  by 


the  Corporation  and  tentative  commitments  out- 
standing at  the  end  of  the  month  were  $12,199,- 
428,377.01.  Cancellations  and  withdrawals  were 
$2,713,075,098.94,  and  $1,476,300,144,66  remains 
available  to  borrowers  and  to  banks  in  the  purchase 
of  preferred  stock,  capital  notes,  or  debentures,  etc. 
Total  disbursements  were  $8,010,053,133.41,  repay- 
ments and  other  credits  $6,181,589,851.66  (over  77 
per  cent). 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  loans  and  invest- 
ments, the  Corporation  has  allocated  $3,204,398,- 
637  69  for  relief  and  to  other  Governmental  agen- 
cies by  direction  of  Congress.  Under  an  Act  of 
Congress  passed  in  February,  1938,  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  was  directed  to  cancel  notes  of  the 
Reconstruction  Finance  Corporation  to  the  extent 
of  funds  outstanding  in  connection  with  allocation 
and  relief  disbursements ;  but  no  part  of  the  notes 
canceled  was  for  loans  made  to  borrowers,  or  for 
investments  made  by  the  Corporation,  and  no  debt 
due  to  the  Government  by  any  one  was  canceled 
The  total  amount  of  notes  canceled  up  to  Dec  31, 
1940,  was  $2,728,286,823  03 

After  the  payment  of  all  expenses  and  interest 
on  the  money  borrowed  to  lend,  the  Corporation 
has  accumulated  an  operating  surplus  in  excess  of 
$189,000,000,  after  providing  a  reserve  of  $125,- 
000,000  for  losses  and  contingencies  The  operating 
expenses  of  the  Corporation  have  been  substan- 
tially less  than  1  per  cent  of  the  amount  disbursed. 

EMIL  SCIJRAM. 

RECORDINGS.  See  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

RSD  CROSS,  American  National.  With  the 
outbreak  of  European  hostilities,  the  American 
Red  Cross,  working  in  association  with  sister  so- 
cieties throughout  the  world,  inaugurated  extensive 
war  relief  operations.  On  Oct.  31,  1940,  relief  to- 
taled $12,339,505.  This  was  made  possible  through 
response  of  the  public  in  oversubscribing  a  $20,- 
000,000  war  relief  appeal  which  began  May  10 
More  than  half  of  American  Red  Cross  expendi- 
tures on  European  relief  went  to  Great  Britain,  a 
total  of  $7,261,489  as  of  October  31.  An  American 
Red  Cross  Committee  was  set  up  in  London  to  ad- 
minister assistance  from  this  country  to  British 
relief  agencies.  American  women,  some  500,000  vol- 
unteers, were  engaged  during  the  year  in  the  pro- 
duction of  war  relief  garments  and  surgical  dress- 
ings for  use  abroad.  On  October  31,  the  central 
warehouse  at  Jersey  City,  N.J.,  had  received  14,- 
588,505  surgical  dressings  and  1,786,260  articles  of 
clothing  for  shipment.  Grave  needs  arising  in  Fin- 
land's postwar  period  prompted  the  American  Red 
Cross  m  October  to  begin  shipment  of  $1,000,000 
worth  of  Government-purchased  foodstuffs  and 
chapter  produced  garments.  Food,  clothing,  and 
medicines  also  moved  to  free  and  penetrated  China 
for  the  relief  of  needy  Chinese  war  victims.  To 
assist  the  millions  of  Americans  with  family  ties 
in  the  war  zones,  the  Red  Cross  conducted  an  In- 
quiry Service,  handling  some  59,000  letters  of  in- 
quiry up  to  November  15.  More  than  10,000  volun- 
teers in  the  New  York  City  area  gave  their  blood 
for  shipment  to  Great  Britain  for  die  treatment  of 
war-wounded  civilians  and  troops. 

The  American  Red  Cross  had  3721  chapters  with 
6585  chapter  branches  in  the  United  States  and  the 
insular  possessions  on  June  30,  1940.  In  the  12 
months  preceding  June  30,  the  American  Red  Cross 
conducted  disaster  relief  operations  at  the  scene  of 
102  catastrophes  occurring  in  Continental  United 
States.  Assistance  was  given  102,000  persons  at  a 
cost  of  $637,928.  During  the  year  94,24$  life  sav- 


REFORMED  CHURCH 


651 


REFUGEES 


ing  certificates  were  issued,  and  182,697  persona 
were  qualified  as  beginners  or  swimmers  under 
Red  Cross  supervision.  Through  the  same  period 
379,860  first  aid  certificates— the  largest  number 
in  the  30-year  history  of  the  program. 

The  problems  of  140,357  disabled  veterans  or 
their  families  were  dealt  with  by  chapter  workers. 
In  hospitals  and  regional  offices  of  the  Veterans' 
Administration  and  in  other  Government  hospitals, 
representatives  of  the  national  organization  dealt 
with  58,505  ex-service  men  or  their  families.  Chap- 
ters aided  12,155  men  now  in  regular  service,  or 
their  families.  Red  Cross  field  directors  in  Army, 
Navy,  Coast  Guard,  and  Marine  Corps  stations  and 
workers  in  Government  hospitals  handled  the  cases 
of  53,365  men  in  active  service  or  their  families 

On  the  active  list  of  the  Red  Cross  Nurses'  Re- 
serve are  43,258  nurses  ready  to  respond  to  calls 
from  Army.  Navy,  and  Red  Cross  disaster  serv- 
ice. Public  Health  nurses  made  1,038,363  nursing 
visits  to  or  on  behalf  of  patients ;  inspected  618,- 
623  school  children  within  the  12  months.  At  the 
close  of  the  fiscal  year  638  public  health  nurses 
were  employed  in  459  communities. 

During  the  year  868  Red  Cross  chapters  con- 
ducted 4440  courses  in  Home  Hygiene  and  Care  of 
the  Sick,  certificating  61,855  persons.  Accomplish- 
ments of  volunteers  in  special  services  included: 
Production  of  462,857  pages  of  Braille  transcribed 
by  hand  for  blind  readers,  and  683,106  pages  print- 
ed by  duplicating  process ;  18,834  Christmas  bags 
for  distantly  stationed  men  of  the  Army  and  Na- 
vy ;  the  making  of  66,379  calls  by  members  of  mo- 
tor corps ;  the  feeding  of  80,599  persons  by  canteen 
workers.  Membership  for  the  year  ended  June  30, 
1940,  was  7,139,263  men  and  women — an  increase 
of  1,470,583  over  the  previous  year. 

Increased  responsibilities  in  connection  with  the 
national  defense  program  greatly  enlarged  domes- 
tic operations  of  the  Red  Cross  during  the  year. 
Machinery  was  set  into  motion  for  the  induction 
of  4000  Red  Cross  nurses  into  the  Army  for  active 
duty;  at  the  request  of  the  Surgeon  General,  the 
Red  Cross  began  enrolling  medical  technologists 
for  service  when  and  if  needed ;  in  four  key  cities 
in  the  country,  Red  Cross  volunteers  grave  their 
blood  to  enable  specialists  to  perfect  new  methods 
of  saline  plasma  transfusions  for  military  use; 
metropolitan  chapters  began  training  Nurses'  Aides 
as  a  part  of  the  defense  program;  co-operating 
with  Harvard  University  the  Red  Cross  made  plans 
for  the  erection  of  a  100-bed  hospital  in  Great 
Britain  in  which  75  American  doctors,  Red  Cross 
nurses  and  medical  technicians  will  study  wartime 
diseases  under  siege  conditions,  reporting  findings 
to  the  Army,  Navy,  and  U.S.  Public  Health  Serv- 
ice. 

The  President  of  the  United  States  is  president 
of  the  American  Red  Cross.  Norman  H.  Davis  is 
chairman  of  the  Central  Committee,  having  been 
named  by  President  Roosevelt  on  Apr.  12,  1938,  to 
succeed  the  late  Rear  Admiral  Gary  T.  Grayson. 
The  Central  Committee  is  composed  of  18  mem- 
bers, six  of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States  to  represent  the  Government. 

REFORMED  CHURCH.  A  name  used  by 
three  religious  denominations  in  the  United  States. 
The  Reformed  Church  in  America,  formerly  the 
Reformed  Dutch  Church,  was  founded  in  New 
York  in  1628  as  a  branch  of  the  Reformed  Church 
in  Holland.  Headquarters,  25  East  22  Street,  New 
York,  N.Y.  The  Christian  Reformed  Church  was 
established  in  Michigan  in  1857  by  a  group  who 
withdrew  from  the  former  body.  Headquarters, 


Grand  Rapids,  Mich.  For  statistics,  see  RELIGIOUS 
ORGANIZATIONS. 

REFRESHER  COURSES.  See  EDUCATION; 
EDUCATION,  U.S.  OFFICE  OF;  SOCIAL  SECURITY 
BOARD 

REFUGEES.  The  year  1940  encompassed  the 
greatest  refugee  problem  of  all  history,  both  in 
numbers  of  people  involved  and  in  intensity  of 
suffering.  Even  the  migrations  following  the  first 
World  War,  which  involved  substantial  numbers 
of  Turks,  Greeks  and  Bulgarians,  Russians  and 
Armenians,  paled  in  comparison.  These  had  been 
partially  financed  and  directed  by  the  League  of 
Nations  and,  under  bilateral  treaties,  relatively  or- 
derly exchanges  of  populations  had  taken  place. 
The  decade  following  the  first  World  War  saw  a 
heavy  infiltration  into  Western  Europe  of  Russian 
and  Armenian  refugees  Although  they  suffered 
because  of  statelessness  and  the  attendant  political 
difficulties,  many  were  able,  in  the  prosperous  era 
of  the  1920s,  to  become  absorbed.  Nevertheless,  as 
late  as  1938,  the  League  of  Nations  reported  that 
almost  1,000,000  of  these  earlier  refugees  were  still 
unsettled. 

When  1940  opened,  Europe  held  about  4,500,000 
recent  refugees— close  to  4,000,000  Poles  who  had 
fled  eastward  and  southward  before  the  invading 
German  armies  in  September,  1939 ;  some  250,000 
Spanish  Loyalists  in  France;  and  about  140,000 
German,  Austrian,  and  Czech  refugees  in  various 
western  countries  of  asylum.  Early  in  the  year,  the 
Russian  conquest  of  Finland  necessitated  the  re- 
settling of  400,000  Finns  from  the  areas  ceded  to 
Russia  into  the  interior  of  Finland.  The  German 
invasion  of  Norway  in  April  gave  rise  to  a  similar 
internal  refugee  problem,  although  of  smaller  di- 
mensions. 

The  most  panicky  exodus  of  the  year  was  that 
following  the  German  conquest  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, when  3,000,000  Dutch,  Belgians,  Luxembur- 
gers,  and  Frenchmen  clogged  the  roads  of  South- 
ern France  in  their  retreat  from  the  Nazi  advance. 
A  refugee  flow  in  the  opposite  direction  took  place 
a  few  weeks  later  after  the  collapse  of  France, 
when  the  great  majority  of  these  fleeing  men, 
women,  and  children  returned  to  their  homes  to 
assume  the  role  of  conquered  peoples. 

Most  complicated  of  all  was  the  lot  of  the  refu- 
gees from  Central  Europe  who  had  fled  from  Ger- 
many and  the  lands  she  successively  swallowed  in 
the  period  since  1933.  These  German,  Austrian,  and 
Czech  refugees,  the  majority  of  them  Jews,  had 
been  existing  on  sufferance  in  their  countries  of 
asylum.  Forced  put  of  their  homelands  by  a  series 
of  legal  and  administrative  decrees,  they  had  crossed 
borders  into  contiguous  lands  where  they  were  per- 
mitted to  remain,  for  the  most  part,  on  the  assump- 
tion that  they  would  quickly  re-emigrate  to  lands 
of  permanent  refuge  overseas.  Countries  such  as 
France,  Holland,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  despite 
humanitarian  compassion,  were  unable  to  absorb 
large  numbers  of  foreigners,  predominantly  urban 
dwellers. 

Overseas  countries  accepted  large  numbers  of 
refugees  from  1933  onward.  Approximately  130,- 
000  entered  the  United  States  on  immigration  quo- 
tas. Over  110,000  found  asylum  in  Latin  America 
and  the  Philippines  Palestine  absorbed  about  90,- 
000  refugees  from  Germany,  Austria,  and  Czecho- 
slovakia, in  addition  to  about  150,000  Jewish  emi- 
grants from  Poland,  Rumania,  and  other  East  Eu- 
ropean countries.  From  20,000-30,000  refugees  went 
to  such  remote  places  as  Australia  and  the  Far 
East  These,  taken  together  with  the  140,000  refu- 


REFUGEES 


652 


RELIEF 


gees  who  had  remained  on  the  European  continent, 
completed  the  roster  of  the  500,000  persons  who 
had  fled  from  Greater  Germany  since  the  rise  of 
National  Socialism. 

The  difficulties  encountered  by  the  German  refu- 
gees during  1940  were  considerably  aggravated  by 
the  outbreak  of  the  war.  Bottlenecks  developed  in 
overseas  transportation  facilities;  the  closing  of 
the  Mediterranean,  when  Italy  entered  the  war  in 
June,  was  a  serious  blow.  A  trans-Siberian  route 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean  was  developed,  which  was 
used  by  substantial  numbers  of  refugees.  Lisbon 
became  the  chief  funnel  for  the  westward  refugee 
flow. 

The  more  than  100,000  Polish  refugees  who  had 
fled  to  the  Baltic  and  Balkan  countries  when  Po- 
land was  invaded,  faced  new  threats  during  1940 
when  Latvia,  Lithuania,  Estonia,  and  part  of  Ru- 
mania were  absorbed  by  Soviet  Russia,  while  Hun- 
gary and  the  rest  of  Rumania  came  increasingly 
under  German  domination.  Large  numbers  of  Poles, 
their  number  conservatively  estimated  at  300,000, 
were  deported  from  Soviet-occupied  Poland  to  Si- 
beria during  the  latter  part  of  the  year.  Smaller 
numbers  voluntarily  left  Lithuania,  Latvia,  and 
Estonia  for  refuge  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 

The  year  was  characterized  by  a  number  of  cross- 
movements  of  populations.  In  the  course  of  the 
German  re-organization  of  Poland,  Germans  who 
had  lived  in  the  Baltics  and  the  Balkans  were  re- 
patriated to  the  western  sections  of  Poland  incor- 
porated into  Germany  itself,  while  from  the  same 
area,  Poles  and  Jews  were  driven  eastward.  During 
the  fall  more  than  300,000  Germans  were  in  proc- 
ess of  repatriation  from  Bucovina,  Bessarabia,  and 
Rumania  to  Germany.  Earlier  in  the  year  some 
200,000  Austnans  had  been  moved  from  the  Ital- 
ian Tyrol  to  new  homes  in  Germany  and  Austria. 

England,  which  began  the  year  with  some  65,000 
refugees  from  Central  Europe,  after  the  invasion 
of  the  Low  Countries  sheltered  numbers  of  Dutch 
and  Belgian  nationals  as  well  as  German,  Austrian, 
and  Czech  refugees.  These  were  all  interned,  and 
during  the  late  summer  many  were  removed  to 
Canada,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand  together  with 
prisoners  of  war.  A  minor  refugee  movement,  but 
one  which  aroused  great  sympathy,  was  that  of 
7000  British  children  who  were  sent  to  Canada, 
the  United  States,  and  Australia  for  the  duration 
of  the  war.  This  plan  was  halted  after  several 
months  because  of  the  perils  of  overseas  trans- 
portation 

The  German  policy  of  forced  labor  involved  the 
transfer  of  several  hundred  thousand  Czech,  Dan- 
ish, Norwegian,  Dutch,  and  Belgian  workers  to 
the  farms  and  war  industries  of  the  Reich.  The 
refugee  tide  was  further  swelled  with  the  expul- 
sion of  10.000-20,000  Frenchmen  from  Lorraine 
into  unoccupied  France,  and  of  several  hundred 
Jews  from  Luxembourg.  During  the  fall,  the  in- 
ternment camps  in  unoccupied  France  were  also 
made  to  house  about  9000  Jews  from  the  Baden 
and  Palatinate  areas  of  Germany. 

The  refugee  problem  received  the  attention  of  a 
number  of  intergovernmental  and  private  agencies 
during  the  year.  Relief  work  in  France  was  con- 
ducted on  an  extensive  scale  by  the  American  Red 
Cross,  American  Friends  Service  Committee,  and 
the  American  Jewish  Joint  Distribution  Commit- 
tee. The  latter  organization  likewise  continued  to 
bring  help  to  distressed  refugee  and  native  Jewish 
populations  in  almost  every  country  of  Europe  and 
to  facilitate  the  emigration  of  large  numbers.  The 
Commission  for  Polish  Relief  was  active  through- 


out the  year.  The  Intergovernmental  Committee 
on  Refugees  was  unable,  because  of  war  conditions, 
to  launch  large-scale  settlement  projects.  Hopeful 
progress  was  made,  however,  in  the  settlement  of 
refugees  in  the  Dominican  Republic,  a  project 
which  had  been  started  early  in  the  year  with  the 
co-operation  of  the  Intergovernmental  Committee. 
Other  official  bodies,  such  as  the  office  of  the 
League  of  Nations  High  Commissioner  for  Refu- 
gees and  the  International  Labor  Office,  while  un- 
able to  move  forward  m  effective  action,  became 
increasingly  aware  of  the  enormity  of  the  prob- 
lem which  would  have  to  be  faced  when  the  war 
ended 

See  JEWS  ;  Music ;  WAR  RELIEF.  Also  see  BEL- 
GIUM, BRITISH  GUIANA,  BRITISH  HONDURAS,  DO- 
MINICAN REPUBLIC,  FRANCE,  MEXICO,  PALESTINE, 
and  PORTUGAL  under  History. 

Bibliography.  Sir  John  Hope  Simpson,  The  Refuge* 
Problem  Refugees  (London,  1939),  and  Refugees,  A  Re- 
view of  the  Situation  since  September  1938  (London,  1939), 
issued  under  the  auspices  of  The  Royal  Institute  of  In- 
ternational Affairs,  "Refugees,"  The  Annals  of  The  Amer 
ican  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science  (May,  1939) ; 
Survey  Graphic  supplement  November,  1940,  and  other 
articles 

JAMES  G.  MCDONALD. 

REGISTRATION  BOARDS.  See  DRAFT, 
MILITARY 

RELIEF.  Relief  and  work  relief,  which  had 
been  for  eight  years  the  largest  single  object  of 
Federal  expenditure  and  had  constituted  a  major 
congressional  issue  in  1939,  faded  somewhat  from 
the  public  interest  in  1940  as  attention  was  focused 
on  rearmament  and  employment  began  to  rise  The 
roster  of  total  recipients  (including  both  public 
assistance  under  the  Social  Security  Board  and 
work-relief  wages)  started  a  downward  trend  in 
March  and  reached  the  low  point  of  15,232,000  in 
September.  The  slight  rise  occurring  thereafter 
produced  no  figure  comparable  to  the  January  total 
of  18,386,000.  WPA  rolls  followed  unemployment 
downward  from  about  2,300,000  in  March  to  only 
1,900,000  in  December.  The  Treasury  Department 
reported  that  allocations  (warrants  issued)  under 
the  Emergency  Relief  Appropriation  Act  for  the 
fiscal  year  1941  totaled  only  $1,071,729,157,  as  com- 
pared  with  $1,795,478,539  under  the  Act  of  1939 
and  $2,529,649,668  under  the  Act  of  1938.  Expendi- 
tures (checks  issued)  for  the  first  half  of  the  1941 
fiscal  year  (to  Dec.  31,  1940)  were  $727,015,239, 
considerably  less  than  half  of  the  totals  for  the  fis- 
cal years  1940  ($1,835,290,498)  and  1939  ($2,617,- 
974,767). 

In  the  year's  national  elections,  likewise,  the  re- 
lief issue  failed  to  play  so  prominent  a  part  as  it 
might  have  in  any  of  several  preceding  years.  The 
Republican  platform  reiterated  the  contention  that 
administration  of  aid  to  the  needy  should  be  placed 
under  State  rather  than  Federal  control,  and  held 
out  the  hope  of  ultimately  reducing  the  need  for 
high  expenditures  by  measures  to  improve  eco- 
nomic conditions  However,  it  favored  the  raising 
of  old-age  benefits  as  far  as  revenues  would  per- 
mit and  guaranteed  continued  aid  to  farmers,  in- 
cluding continued  cash  benefits.  The  Democrats  al- 
leged that  the  placing  of  relief  administration  in 
the  hands  of  the  States  would  be  virtually  a  return 
to  the  dole.  They  promised  the  farmers  continued 
parity  (as  well  as  conservation)  payments,  and  ad- 
ditional funds  for  tenant  purchase  and  refinancing 
of  mortgages.  Obviously,  neither  party  felt  itself 
in  a  position  to  risk  its  popularity  with  the  voters 
by  taking  a  stand  against  the  preponderance  of 


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RELIGIOUS  BOOKS 


654        RETAIL  TRADE  AND  PRICES 


relief  expenditures  in  the  Nation's  unbalanced 
budget. 

There  was  a  more  noticeable  tendency  in  general 
to  accept  the  relief  rolls  as  a  permanent  rather  than 
an  emergency  burden  and  to  undertake  improve- 
ment of  the  set-up  under  which  they  were  to  be 
conducted.  Several  States  made  improvements  in 
their  laws  or  administration.  (See  the  articles  on 
the  States,  notably  CALIFORNIA.  NEW  JERSEY,  NEW 
YORK,  and  PENNSYLVANIA.)  A  special  committee 
of  the  House  of  Representatives,  investigating  the 
interstate  migration  of  destitute  citizens,  conducted 
hearings  during  the  76th  Congress.  Privately  ini- 
tiated was  a  grant  made  by  the  Falk  Foundation 
for  study  of  the  relief  problem. 

A  respect  in  which  the  present  system  is  notice- 
ably unsatisfactory  is  the  variation  in  assistance 
provided  in  various  States  under  the  public  assist- 
ance program  (where  the  Federal  Government 
matches  State  grants)  and  as  general  relief  (which 
is  entirely  financed  from  State  and  local  funds). 
For  example,  in  November,  1940,  general  relief 
payments  per  case  ranged  from  $299  monthly  in 
Mississippi  to  $37.15  in  New  York ;  old-age  pay- 
ments were  $7.92  monthly  in  South  Carolina  per 
recipient,  and  $37.88  in  California  A  series  of  arti- 
cles in  the  Social  Security  Bulletin  during  1940  by 
Daniel  S.  Gerig,  Jr.,  raised  the  question  as  to 
whether  a  formula  can  be  constructed  for  allocat- 
ing Federal  grants-in-aid  among  the  States  in  such 
a  way  as  to  secure  adequate  welfare  services  in  all 
States.  He  pointed  out  that  the  discrepancies  now 
existing  are  due  to  the  varying  financial  resources 
of  each  State ;  for  example,  per  capita  income  var- 
ied from  $207  to  $923,  mean  taxable  wage  per  em- 
ployee from  $413  to  $1102,  in  the  poorest  and 
wealthiest  States  One  solution  suggested  was  the 
adoption  of  variable-ratio  grants,  in  which  the  Fed- 
eral grants-in-aid  to  the  States  would  be  based  on 
the  per  capita  income  of  each  State.  Such  a  policy, 
according  to  Gerig,  would  not  raise  total  Federal 
payments  and  would  be  relatively  stable  from  year 
to  year. 

The  Emergency  Relief  Act  of  1940  appropriated 
$1,157,711,357  for  expenditure  in  the  nscal  year 
1940 ;  $975,650,000  was  for  the  WPA  and  might  be 
expended  within  eight  months.  The  Act  authorized 
$50,000,000  for  relief  of  European  refugees,  and 
authorized  the  President  to  require  disciplinary 
training  of  CCC  workers  in  non-combatant  trades 
and  skills  useful  to  the  Army  in  an  emergency.  An 
effort  to  repeal  the  provision  that  WPA  workers 
must  be  removed  from  the  rolls  after  18  months 
was  defeated  after  considerable  debate 

The  tables  on  page  653,  reprinted  from  the 
Social  Security  Bulletin,  show  the  number  of  re- 
cipients and  the  amounts  paid  under  the  public  as- 
sistance program  and  the  Federal  works  programs 
of  the  United  States.  The  reader  is  referred  to  the 
separate  articles  on  all  the  government  agencies 
there  listed,  on  the  SOCIAL  SECURITY  BOARD,  and 
on  the  various  Federal  lending  agencies  For  spe- 
cial discussion  of  farm  aid,  see  AGRICULTURE.  For 
non-government  activities  in  the  field  of  public 
welfare,  see  BENEFACTIONS  and  the  articles  there 
listed,  especially  WAR  RELIEF. 

RELIGIOUS  BOOKS.  See  LITERATURE, 
ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN. 

RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS.  The  ta- 
ble on  pages  655  and  656  presents  statistics  released 
during  1940  for  the  decennial  census  of  religious 
bodies  in  the  United  States.  Churches  having  fewer 
than  5000  members  have  not  been  given  a  separate 
listing.  However,  the  group  totals,  as  "Methodist 


bodies,"  include  all  denominations  in  the  connec- 
tion, regardless  of  membership.  For  more  recent 
statistics  on  the  larger  churches,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  separate  articles  in  this  volume. 

The  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census  summarized  the 
results  of  this  census  in  part  as  follows: 

According  to  the  returns  received,  there  were  in  conti- 
nental United  State*  in  1936.  256  Religious  Bodies  with 
199,302  organizations  and  55,807,366  members,  as  com- 
pared with  213  denominations  reporting  232,154  organi- 
zations and  54.576,346  members  in  1926. 


. 


As  the 


.,  .  .. 

term  "members  has  a  variety  of  uses,  each  church  was 
requested  to  report  the  number  of  members  according  to 
the  definition  of  membership  in  that  church  or  organi- 
zation .  .  . 

At  the  census  of  1936  the  total  expenditures  were  $518,- 
953,571,  as  compared  with  $817,214,528  in  1926  Under 
this  item  are  included  the  amount  expended  for  salaries, 
repairs,  etc  ;  for  payments  on  church  debt;  for  benevo- 
lences, including  home  and  foreign  missions;  for  denom- 
inational support,  and  for  all  other  purposes 

The  value  of  church  edifices  in  1936  was  $3,411,875,- 
467,  as  compared  with  $3,839,500.610  in  1926  This  item 
includes  any  building  used  mainly  for  religious  services, 
together  with  the  land  on  which  it  stands  and  all  furniture 
and  furnishings  owned  by  the  church  and  actually  used 
in  connection  with  church  services  It  does  not  include 
buildings  hired  for  religious  services  or  those  used  for 
social  or  organization  work  in  connection  with  the  church. 

RENTS.  See  BUILDING;  HOUSING  AUTHORITY, 
U  S  ;  LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS 

REPARATIONS  AND  WAR  DEBTS. 
War  debts  payments  in  default  to  the  U  S  Gov- 
ernment and  the  new  installments  due  June  15  and 
Dec.  15,  1940,  follow  : 


Previously 

due  and 

Due 

Due 

Country 

unpaid 

June  15 

Dec  15 

Belgium 
Czechoslovakia 

$89,269,900 
23,046,652 

$9,442,454 
1,682,813 

$4,642,454 
1,682,813 

Estonia 

5,728,689 

322,850 

468,850 

Finland 

159,398 

235,398 

France 
Great  Britain 

687,  197,254 
1,411,169,427 

102,372,111 
85,670,765 

41,569,745 
127,670,765 

Hungary 
Italy     . 
Latvia 

597,371 
122,486,131 
2,261,261 

37,411 
17,941,591 
134,883 

52,771 
3,387,031 
194,883 

Lithuania 
Poland 

1,936,495 
71,134,306 

172,802 
4,019,040 

121,467 
5,696,040 

Rumania 

12,741,311 

1,386,870 

956,310 

Yugoslavia 

2,917,578 

526,516 

154,062 

Total  . 

2,430,486,376 

223,889,505 

186,834,589 

Payer 

Paid  June  15 

Paid  Dec  15 

Finland  .. 

$159,398 

Hungary. 

9,828 

$9,828 

Rumania 

100,000 

Total 

269,226 

9,828 

The  German  Government  on  Sept.  30,  1940.  de- 
faulted on  an  installment  of  43,147,737  reichs- 
marks  due  the  U.S.  Government.  This  brought  the 
total  German  defaults  since  Sept.  30,  1933,  to  676,- 
127,241  reichsmarks  (reichsmark  =  $0.4033  at  par). 

REPRESENTATIVES,  U.S.  House  of. 
The  results  of  the  1940  elections  to  the  House  will 
be  found  under  ELECTION,  U.S.  and  in  articles  on 
the  States.  For  legislation  and  committees,  see 
UNWED  STATES. 

REPUBLICAN  PARTY,  CONVEN- 
TION, AND  CAMPAIGN.  See  ELECTIONS, 
U.S.  NATIONAL. 

RESERVE  OFFICERS'  TRAINING 
CORPS  (R.O.T.C.).  See  NAVAL  PROGRESS; 
MILITARY  PROGRESS 

RESETTLEMENT,  Rural.  See  FARM  SE- 
CURITY ADMINISTRATION. 

RESOURCES,  National.  See  NATIONAL  RE- 
SOURCES PLANNING  BOARD. 

RETAIL  TRADE  AND  PRICES.  See 
BUSINESS  REVIEW;  MARKETING. 


RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS        655        RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS 


UNITED  STATES  RELIGIOUS  BODIES  HAVING  5000  OR  If  ORE  MEMBERS 
[Derived  from  reports  of  fa  VS.  Census  of  Religious  Bodies- 1936] 


Denomination 

Number 
Churches 

Number  of 
Members 

Value  of 
Church 
Edifices* 

Annual 
Expenditures* 

Sunday 
(or  Sabbath) 
School 
Scholars  • 

Adventist  bodies—  total  for  6 

2,536 

165,815 

$8,776,620 

16,574,658 

119,756 

Advent  Christian  Church         

346 

26,258 

1,867,420 

321,922 

18,702 

Seventh-day  Adventist  Denomination  . 
Assemblies  of  God,  General  Council 

2,054 
2,611 

133,254 
148,043 

6,690,955 
6,099,541 

6,196,143 
2876463 

97,062 
179,356 

Baptist  bodies—  total  for  2  1  • 

1$ 

8.262,287 
1,329,044 

389,661,6% 
167  576  463 

55779,246 
19  577.463 

4,382,097 
892,872 

Southern  Baptist  Convention     . 
Negro  Baptists  (National  Baptist  Convention)        .     . 
American  Baptist  Association.     .                          .   . 
Colored  Primitive  Baptists            .     . 

13,815 
23,093 
1,064 
1,009 

2,700,155 
3,782,464 
115,022 
43,897 

117,766,295 
93,798,181 
1,507,798 
1.643,804 

19,630.844 
14,978,506 
352,529 
207.352 

1,664105 
1,656,638 
50,008 
13,572 

Duck  River  and  Kindred  Associations  (Baptist  Church 

of  Christ)  

91 

7,951 

49,615 

5,333 

992 

Free  Will  Baptists  

920 

76,643 

1,090,779 

192,620 

42,455 

General  Baptists.  ,          .            ... 

422 

36,573 

555,309 

103,799 

17562 

Primitive  Baptists  

1,726 

69,157 

2,180,047 

157,530 

2,631 

General  Association  of  Regular  Baptist  Churches  in  the 

266 

17,186 

234,595 

24,023 

3,358 

USA 

84 

22,345 

1,694.448 

340,376 

17,021 

Separate  Baptists    .   . 

69 

5,287 

66,670 

10,553 

2,932 

Seventh  Day  Baptists 

66 

6,698 

727,285 

85,027 

3,306 

United  American  Free  Will  Baptist  Church  (Colored)       . 

226 

19,616 

468,883 

79,712 

8,317 

United  Baptists 

277 

27,000 

179,215 

15,448 

4,929 

Brethren,  German  Baptist  —  total  for  4  bodies 
The  Brethren  Church  (Progressive  Dunkers) 
Church  of  the  Brethren  (Conservative  Dunkers) 

1,381 
163 
1,143 

188,290 
30,636 
153.516 

9,900,815 
2,113,753 
7,636,440 

1,720,956 
422,093 
1,285,817 

138,123 
23,871 
113,771 

Brethren,  Plymouth  —  total  for  8  bodies 

664 

25,806 

1,442,685 

504,519 

25,241 

Plymouth  Brethren  II  , 

344 

15,684 

1,054,068 

311,645 

16,994 

Brethren,  River—  total  for  3  bodies 

121 

7,026 

498,300 

96,838 

9,208 

Brethren  in  Christ 

90 

5,495 

429,500 

89,881 

8,517 

Buddhist  Mission  of  North  America 

35 

14,388 

622,610 

99,793 

6,332 

Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance 

444 

32,145 

3,448,939 

1,171,643 

43,536 

Christian  Union  . 

93 

6,124 

171,125 

33,427 

4,702 

Church  of  Armenia  In  America 

37 

18,787 

584,000 

105,638 

1,517 

Church  of  Christ  (Holiness)  USA      . 

106 

7,379 

305,152 

52,961 

3,675 

Church  of  Christ,  Scientist 

2,113 

268,915 

65.361,301 

10,429,418 

139,758 

Churches  of  God 

Church  of  God  . 

1,081 

44,818 

954,962 

568,030 

52,206 

Church  of  God.  Anderson,  Ind 

1,032 

56,911 

3,687,312 

942,568 

82,277 

(Tomlmson)  Church  of  God 
Church  of  God  and  Saints  of  Christ    . 

441 

213 

18,351 
37,084 

410,559 
544,270 

179.268 
363$49 

17,083 
17,356 

Church  of  God  in  Christ 

772 

31,564 

1,453,128 

392,009 

20,770 

Church  of  the  Nazarene 

2,197 

136,227 

8,987,961 

3,797,224 

226,608 

Churches  of  Christ         

3,815 

309,551 

10,717,977 

2,274,432 

191,150 

Churches  of  God,  Holiness 

35 

5,872 

116,900 

27,413 

2,312 

General  Eldership  of  the  Churches  of  God  in  North  America 

352 

30,820 

2,884,213 

378,175 

39,495 

Churches  of  the  Living  God—  total  for  2  bodies 

215 

9,363 

245,526 

86,090 

5,756 

Churches  of  the  New  Jerusalem—  total  for  2  bodies 
General  Convention  of  the  New  Jerusalem  in  the  U  S.A 
Congregational  and  Christian  Churches 

97 
82 
5,300 

5,964 
5,099 
976,388 

2,422,021 
2,135,691 
149,755,041 

245,497 
210,900 
16,110,465 

2,120 
2,078 
526,907 

Disciples  of  Christ            ... 
Eastern  Orthodox  Churches  —  total  for  1  1  bodies' 

5,566 
659 

1,196,315 
356,638 

88,070,194 
13,704.081 

11,273,%4 
1,991,039 

761,257 
21,549 

Apostolic  Episcopal  Church 
Greek  Orthodox  Church  (Hellenic) 

12 
241 

6,389 
189,368 

28,900 
6,688,227 

17,029 
1,013,132 

181 
13,553 

Rumanian  Orthodox  Church     

35 

15,090 

293,700 

65,063 

299 

Russian  Orthodox  Church 

229 

89,510 

4,936,350 

591,353 

4,293 

Serbian  Orthodox  Church     .     .  . 

27 

20,020 

498,765 

81,389 

848 

Syrian  Antiochian  Orthodox  Church 

61 

18,451 

555,139 

100,480 

1,386 

Ukrainian  Orthodox  Church  of  America 

28 

11,480 

486,900 

83,151 

646 

Evangelical  and  Reformed  Church 

2,875 

723,877 

77,581,798 

9.325,381 

480,909 

Evangelical  Church 

1,695 

212,446 

21,043,229 

4,057,521 

248,666 

Evangelical  Congregational  Church 
Evangelistic  Associations—  total  for  12  bodies 
Apostolic  Christian  Church.     .     . 

160 
270 
57 

23,894 
20,230 
5,841 

3,296,428 
1,988,720 
552,490 

461,969 
307,519 
41,048 

30,193 
15,478 
3,616 

Federated  Churches   

508 

88,411 

10,870,046 

1,408,560 

61,502 

Friends—  total  for  4  bodies*    .     . 

717 

93,697 

5,351,674 

898,138 

52,657 

Society  of  Friends  (Hicksite)      .     . 

115 

14,680 

1,408.950 

169,289 

5,200 

Society  of  Friends  (Orthodox)     ,    . 
Independent  Churches  

570 
384 

75,652 
40,276 

3,861,174 
3,725,653 

717,177 
692,046 

46,950 
32,864 

Independent  Negro  Churches  .   . 

50 

12,337 

180,300 

44,232 

2,006 

International  Church  of  the  Foursquare  Gospel 
Italian  bodies—  total  for  2     .       ...               .       .. 

205 
120 

16147 
11,114 

612.019 
442,860 

391743 
60,350 

19,584 
2,967 

Unorganized  Italian  Christian  Churches  of  N  A.. 

104 

9,567 

352,360 

51,626 

2,512 

Jewish  Congregations            ... 

3,728 

4,641,184 

123,284,677 

14,404,427 

104,392 

Latter-day  Saints—  total  for  6  bodies-                        .   . 
Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-day  Saints 
Reorganized  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-day  Saints 
Lutherans  —  22  bodies:            
American  Lutheran  Conference—  total  for  5  bodies    . 
American  Lutheran  Church 

2,072 
1,452 
567 
14,788 
5,855 
1,803 

774169 
678,217 
93,470 
4,244890 
1,424442 
499899 

20,763,350 
19,064,244 
1,615,126 
279,428.601 
81,027,758 
27,690.047 

3,372,227 
2,963,690 
399,010 
43,431,160 
13,187,871 
4,697,195 

293,685 
264,321 
28,451 
1,376,102 
444,417 
165,947 

Evangelical  Lutheran  Augustana  Synod  of  N  A 
Norwegian  Lutheran  Church  of  America 

1,133 
2.400 

327,472 
516,400 

24,902,814 
25.056,616 

3842,636 
3,994,253 

101,843 
149,682 

341 

47140 

1,964,311 

546,929 

15,496 

United  Danish  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  in  America 

178 

33,531 

1,413,970 

11,449 

Evangelical  Lutheran  Synodic*!  Conference  of  N.A  —-total 

for  5  bodies:     

4,926 

1,463,482 

78,292,729 

15,433,728 

289,795 

«  With  all  figures  in  this  column  read  "for  churches  reporting  "  Not  all  the  churches  enumerated  in  the  first  column  gave  a  report  In  thli 
category. 


RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS        656        RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS 

UNITED  STATES  RELIGIOUS  BODIES  HAVING  5000  OR  MORE  MEMBERS-Cattm*** 


Denomination 

Number  of 
Churches 

Number  of 
Members 

Value  of 
Church 
Edifices  • 

Annual 
Expenditures  • 

Sunday 
(or  Sabbath) 
School 
Scholars  • 

Lutherans  —  continued 

Evangelical  Lutheran  Synod  of  Missouri,  Ohio,  and 

Other  States      .. 

4,014 

1,192,553 

$66,273,902 

$13,138,974 

247,609 

Evangelical  Lutheran  Joint  Synod  of  Wisconsin  and 

Other  States  

718 

235,402 

10,104,627 

1,998,986 

33,661 

Slovak  Evangelical  Lutheran  Synod  of  the  U  S  A 

54 

18,910 

1,091,200 

169,507 

2|477 

Norwegian  Synod  of  the  American  Evangelical  Lu- 

theran Church 

59 

7,632 

453,850 

79,209 

1,226 

Negro  Mission  of  the  Synodical  Conference      . 
United  Lutheran  Church  in  America 
Finnish  Apostolic  Lutheran  Church  of  America 
Finnish  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  of  America  (Suomi 

81 
3,484 
123 

8,985 
1,286,612 
16,293 

369,150 
117,577,984 
207,559 

47,052 
14,366,739 
281645 

4,822 
627,181 
1,723 

Synod) 
Finnish  Evangelical  Lutheran  National  Church  of  Amer- 

160 

21,466 

958,437 

160,900 

4,899 

ica 

67 

6,157 

156,184 

29,772 

993 

Danish  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  in  America 
Mennonite  bodies  —  total  for  17. 

80 
913 

16,057 
114,337 

730,100 
4,759,632 

139,393 
1,111,116 

3,544 
113,136 

General  Conference  of  the  Mennonite  Church  of  N  A 

142 

26,515 

1,308,800 

311,207 

25.778 

Mennonite  Brethren  in  Christ 

112 

7.841 

706,970 

210,593 

11,399 

Mennonite  Brethren  Church  of  N.A. 

55 

7,595 

297,612 

105.062 

9,080 

Mennonite  Church          .     . 

342 

46,301 

1,809,535 

319,962 

52,070 

Old  Order  Amish  Mennonite  Church 

100 

9,887 

16,000 

10,992 

1,366 

Methodist  bodies—total  for  21- 

42,327 

7,001,617 

546,184,814 

79,560,919 

4,547,531 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church 
Colored  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 

4,578 
2252 
2,063 

493,357 
414,244 
269,915 

20,710,623 
14.750.16S 
6,148,826 

4,059,809 
2,319,367 
1,378,746 

238,185 
167,362 
94,668 

Congregational  Methodist  Church 

121 

8,293 

106,795 

17,143 

4,507 

Free  Methodist  Church  of  N.A.      .     . 

1,084 

37,587 

4,097,534 

1,167,385 

76,678 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  * 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South  * 
Methodist  Protestant  Church  » 

18,349 
11,454 
1,498 

3,509,763 
2,061,683 
148,288 

345,402,555 
117,567,532 
12,533,926 

46,231,459 
21,558,363 
1,704,717 

2,515,181 
1,261,966 
121,983 

Primitive  Methodist  Church  m  the  U  S  A 

91 

12,395 

2,043,250 

253,712 

13,337 

Reformed  Zion  Union  Apostolic  Church 

54 

5,035 

283,100 

18,460 

3,715 

Union  American  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 

71 

9,369 

516,630 

116,368 

4,786 

Wesleyan  Methodist  Connection  of  America 

565 

22,017 

1,606,235 

668,597 

40,387 

Moravian  bodies  —  total  for  3 

176 

36,519 

3,500,774 

480,630 

21.793 

Evangelical  Unity  of  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren 

inN.A 

41 

5,330 

86,250 

10,083 

1,689 

Moravian  Church  in  America 

132 

30,904 

3,402,524 

467,087 

19.904 

New  Apostolic  Church  

56 

6,147 

635,887 

53,066 

1,123 

Old  Catholic  Churches  in  America—  total  for  4  bodies 

69 

22,240 

367,900 

117,943 

5.500 

North  American  Old  Roman  Catholic  Church    .  . 

36 

14,985 

220,900 

74.222 

4,702 

Old  Catholic  Church  in  America 

24 

5,470 

144,500 

35,720 

259 

Pentecostal  Assemblies 

Pentecostal  Assemblies  of  Jesus  Christ 

245 

16,070 

444,214 

186,793 

12,249 

International  Pentecostal  Assemblies 

98 

6,333 

221,850 

96,714 

5,115 

Pentecostal  Assemblies  of  the  World 

87 

5,713 

287,670 

77,149 

3,877 

Pentecostal  Church,  Incorporated 

168 

9,681 

191,850 

110,624 

9,712 

Pentecostal  Holiness  Church      . 

375 

12,955 

682,596 

254.901 

24,261 

Pilgrim  Holiness  Church 

510 

20,124 

1,491,756 

604,727 

58,493 

Polish  National  Catholic  Church  of  America 

118 

63,366 

3,409,265 

422,188 

4,091 

Presbyterian  bodies—  total  for  10 

12,685 

2,513,653 

352,755,588 

48,210,689 

1,686,105 

General  Synod  of  the  Associate  Reformed  Presbyterian 

Church     .   . 

141 

21,981 

2,044,350 

320,209 

15,043 

Colored  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church          
Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church 

145 
t>99 

10,668 
49,975 

359,125 
2,160.676 

48,317 
376,524 

5,141 
35,206 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U  S 

2,967 

449,045 

53,197,115 

9,123,628 

331,833 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U  S  A 

7,789 

1,797,927 

270,464,  H5 

34,316,610 

1,154,985 

Synod  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  of  N  A 
United  Presbyterian  Church  of  N  A 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church 

83 
778 
6,407 

6,386 
170,967 
1,715,335 

1,002,903 
23,076,774 
266,400,447 

218,901 
3,711,043 
29,288,532 

6,241 
133,226 
432,679 

Reformed  bodies—  total  for  3 

986 

299,694 

30,326,429 

5,670,517 

153,951 

Christian  Reformed  Church      . 

272 

107,993 

4,999,077 

1,588.186 

34,062 

Free  Magyar  Reformed  Church  in  America 

19 

7,165 

475,479 

72,299 

572 

Reformed  Church  in  America 

695 

184,536 

24,851,871 

4,010,032 

119.317 

Reformed  Episcopal  Church   .   . 

67 

7,656 

1,803,925 

170,859 

4.978 

Roman  Catholic  Church    

18,409 

19,914,937 

787,001,357 

139,073,158 

972,891 

Salvation  Army  • 

1,088 

103,038 

21,781,052 

6,056,923 

122,463 

Scandinavian  Evangelical  bodies—  total  for  3. 
Evangelical  Free  Church  of  America 
Evangelical  Mission  Covenant  Church  of  America 

553 
102 
407 

56,827 
8,857 
43,981 

7,804,351 
891542 
6,173,909 

1,471,244 
236,542 
1,130,245 

65.441 
13.245 
48,162 

Spiritualists—  total  for  4  bodies-  . 
National  Spiritualist  Association.  .. 

424 
258 

27,352 
11,266 

934,165 
735,305 

296,005 
157,739 

2,797 
1,392 

Progressive  Spiritual  Church  .  . 

21 

11347 

93,500 

73,210 

1.191 

Unitarians                      .            .... 

305 

59,228 

19,098,977 

1,846,760 

14,879 

United  Brethren  bodies—  total  for  3: 
Church  of  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ 

2,762 
2,500 

392,897 
376,905 

28.253,633 
27,435,058 

4,574,149 
4,343,537 

337,154 
317,297 

Church  of  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ  (Old  Constitu- 

tion)..     .                     

248 

15,401 

774,500 

225,355 

18,857 

United  Holy  Church  of  America,  Inc.  ...                   . 
Univenalist  Church           

162 
339 

7535 
45853 

344,722 
9,286,523 

68,900 
824,176 

5,179 
12,811 

Volunteers  of  America*      

72 

7923 

435,005 

418,553 

4,292 

•  With  all  figures  in  this  column  read  "for  churches  reporting."  Not  all  the  churches  enumerated  in  the  first  column  gave  a  report  in  this 

*  The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  and  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church  were  united  in  1939 
as  the  Methodist  Church  (q.v.) 

•  For  the  word  "church"  read  "corps." 

*  For  the  word  "church"  read  "station/' 


REUNION 


657 


RHODESIA 


REUNION.  An  insular  colony  of  France,  420 
miles  east  of  Madagascar.  Area,  970  square  miles ; 
population  (1938),  210,000  Chief  towns :  St.  Denis 
(the  capital),  30,762  inhabitants  in  1936;  St  Paul  ; 
St.  Louis ;  St.  Pierre.  Chief  products :  sugar,  rum, 
manioc,  coffee,  tapioca,  vanilla,  and  spices.  Trade 
(1938)  :  imports,  263,900,000  francs ;  exports,  206,- 
400,000  francs  (franc  averaged  $0.0288  for  1938; 
$00251,  1939).  Budget  (1937):  balanced  at  61,- 
620,700  francs  (franc  averaged  $0  0405  for  1937). 
Governor,  M.  Truitart.  Reunion  adhered  to  the 
Vichy  Government  after  the  collapse  of  the  French 
Republic  in  1940.  See  FRANCE  under  History. 

REVENUES.  See  CUSTOMS,  BUREAU  OF; 
PUBLIC  FINANCE  ;  TAXATION  ;  and  the  articles  on 
foreign  countries  under  Finance. 

REYNOLDS  FOUNDATION.  See  BENE- 
FACTIONS. 

RFC.  See  RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE  CORPORA- 
TION 

RHODE  ISLAND.  Area,  1248  square  miles; 
includes  water,  181  square  miles  Population  (U.S. 
Census),  April,  1940,  713,346;  1930,  687,497.  Provi- 
dence, the  capital  (1940),  253,504.  The  urban  pop- 
ulation (inhabitants  of  places  of  2500  or  over) 
numbered  653,383  in  1940,  having  since  1930  gained 
17,954,  or  2  8  per  cent ;  while  the  small  rural  popu- 
lation, 59,963  in  1940,  had  gained  7895,  or  15  2  per 
cent — more  than  five  times  the  urban  rate  of  gain. 

Agriculture.  Rhode  Island  harvested,  in  1940, 
60,500  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  On  nearly 
three-fourths  of  this  area,  tame  hay,  occupying 
44,000  acres,  produced  56,000  tons  ($974,000  in  es- 
timated value  to  the  growers)  ;  potatoes,  4500 
acres,  gave  878,000  bu.  ($667,000)  ;  corn,  9000 
acres,  369,000  bu  ($284,000)  ;  apples  for  market, 
267,000  bu.  ($280,000).  Farms  numbered  3014  in 
1940  and  averaged  73  6  acres 

Manufactures.  Rhode  Island's  production  of 
manufactured  goods  amounted  to  $516,390,541  for 
1939;  $517,196,193  for  1937.  Other  related  totals 
for  1939  (each  with  1937's  in  parentheses)  •  1460 
(1409)  establishments,  paying  to  106,275  (108,- 
031)  persons  $105,406,950  ($112,933,084)  in  year's 
wa^es,  expended  $278,301,981  ($276,738,611)  for 
materials,  contract  work,  etc ,  and  added  to  mate- 
rials by  manufacture  $238,088,560  ($240,457,582) 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40,  in- 
habitants of  school  age  (from  4  years  to  20)  were 
reckoned  at  194,013.  Enrollments  of  pupils  in  all 
public  schools  numbered  114,198;  this  comprised 
65,841  in  elementary  study,  24,443  in  junior  high 
schools,  and  23,914  in  high  schools  Private  and  pa- 
rochial schools  had  34,060  enrollments  The  year's 
expenditure  for  public-school  education  totaled 
$10,716,795  Public  school  teachers,  4229,  aver- 
aged $1653  in  year's  salary. 

History.  The  legislature  held  a  regular  annual 
session,  ended  on  April  24  Although  under  the 
control  of  Republican  leaders  the  session  gave  no 
great  support  to  the  proposals  of  Governor  Van- 
derbilt:  it  passed  a  measure,  on  his  recommenda- 
tion, allowing  $50,000  for  the  investigation  of 
frauds  in  voting ;  but  it  passed  legislation  contrary 
to  his  wish  to  make  all  State  employees  pass  ex- 
aminations before  admittance  into  the  new  civil- 
service  system,  and  it  removed  the  State's  tax  of 
10  per  cent  on  tobacco  from  all  but  cigarettes. 
Providence  was  authorized  to  hold  a  referendum 
election  on  whether  to  adopt  a  nonpartisan  system 
of  local  government.  Restaurants  and  dancing- 
places  deriving  70  per  cent  or  more  of  their  re- 
ceipts from  sales  of  intoxicants  lost  the  right  to  a 


kind  of  license  that  had  allowed  them  to  operate 
on  Sundays  and  holidays. 

Governor  Vanderbilt  ran  into  difficulties  early 
in  the  year  on  account  of  his  admittedly  having 
hired  agents  to  run  down,  by  wiretapping,  cases  of 
possible  official  corruption.  Among  those  declaring 
that  they  had  been  subjected  to  this  kind  of  espio- 
nage were  Mayor  Thomas  P.  McCoy  of  Provi- 
dence and  Attorney  General  Jackvony,  a  Republi- 
can Vanderbilt,  accused  of  wiretapping  by  State 
Senator  McCoy,  the  Mayor's  brother,  early  in 
January,  later  admitted  that  he  had  used  this  way 
of  hunting  evidence  as  to  fraud  in  the  State  elec- 
tion of  1938 ;  he  defended  his  course  as  proper  for 
his  purpose.  Recent  revelations  elsewhere  had  nev- 
ertheless given  mechanical  espionage  a  bad  name, 
and  Vanderbilt's  wiretapping  underwent  a  public 
airing  in  May  before  a  committee  of  the  U.S. 
Senate. 

Elections.  At  the  general  election  (Novem- 
ber 5)  the  popular  vote  for  President  totaled  181,- 
122  for  Roosevelt  (Dem.)  and  138,214  for  Willkie 
(Rep  ).  Peter  G.  Gerry  (Dem  )  was  re-elected  U.S. 
Senator,  defeating  Lieutenant  Governor  James  O. 
McManus  (Rep.).  J.  Howard  McGrath  (Dem) 
was  elected  Governor,  defeating  Governor  William 
H  Vanderbilt  (Rep.). 

Officers.  Rhode  Island's  chief  officers,  serving 
in  1940,  were:  Governor,  William  H.  Vanderbilt 
(Rep.)  ;  Lieutenant  Governor,  James  O.  McMa- 
nus ;  Secretary  of  State,  J.  Hector  Paquin ,  Attor- 
ney General,  Louis  V.  Jackvony;  General  Treas- 
urer, Thomas  P.  Hazard ;  Comptroller,  Samuel  A. 
Place ;  Director  of  the  Department  of  Education, 
James  F.  Rockett. 

RHODES.  See  AEGEAN  ISLANDS,  ITALIAN. 

RHODESIA,  Northern.  A  British  protector- 
ate in  Africa.  Area,  290,320  square  miles ;  popula- 
tion (1938),  1,379,962,  including  1,366,425  Afri- 
cans, 13,000  Europeans,  and  537  Asiatics.  Chief 
towns:  Lusaka  (capital),  Livingstone,  Broken 
Hill,  Fort  Jameson,  Mazabuka.  Education  (1938)  : 
122,065  students  enrolled  in  schools  of  all  kinds 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  agricultural 
products:  maize,  wheat,  tobacco,  coffee,  oilseeds, 
citrus  fruits,  teakwood.  Mineral  output  (1939)  was 
valued  at  £11,511,370,  including  copper  (211,668 
tons),  cobalt  alloy  (3830  tons),  zinc  (12,695  tons), 
silver  (61,183  fine  oz  ),  gold  (4643  fine  oz  ).  Trade 
(1939)  :  imports,  £4,512,000;  exports,  £10,176,000. 

Government.  Budget  (1940) :  revenue,  £1,900,- 
786;  expenditure,  £1,598,530.  Northern  Rhodesia 
is  administered  by  a  governor,  assisted  by  an  ex- 
ecutive council.  There  is  a  legislative  council  of  17 
members,  including  the  governor  as  president.  Gov- 
ernor, Sir  John  Maybm  (appointed  Jan.  27,  1938). 

History.  Northern  Rhodesia  made  an  important 
contribution  to  the  British  Empire's  war  effort 
during  1940.  In  January  the  1st  Battalion  of  the 
Northern  Rhodesia  Regiment  and  the  Northern 
Rhodesia  Army  Service  Corps  arrived  in  Kenya 
When  Italy  entered  the  war  in  June,  they  partici- 
pated in  the  campaign  along  the  Kenya-Italian 
East  Africa  frontier  (see  EUROPEAN  WAR  under 
Campaigns  in  Africa)  Conscription  of  all  male 
British  subjects  in  Northern  Rhodesia  between  18 
and  45  years  of  age  was  introduced  June  12,  and 
additional  troops  were  sent  to  aid  the  British  forces 
in  East  and  North  Africa. 

The  Northern  Rhodesian  copper  mines  continued 
to  supply  Great  Britain  with  this  vital  war  metal. 
The  contract  entered  into  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment in  1939  to  purchase  265,000  short  tons  of 
copper  was  renewed  in  1940  for  the  same  amount 


RHODESIA 


«8 


ROADS  ARD  STREETS 


at  the  same  prices.  A  strike  of  skilled  Exiropean 
workers  in  the  Mufulira  and  Nkana  mines  in 
March  threatened  to  curtail  production.  Most  of 
their  demands  were  granted  and  they  returned  to 
work  on  March  27.  About  15,000  of  the  20,000  na- 
tive workers  in  the  copper  mines  meanwhile  struck 
for  higher  pay.  On  April  3,  while  non-strikers  at 
the  Nkana  mine  were  drawing  their  pay,  the  mine 
compound  was  attacked  by  about  3000  strikers. 
After  31  policemen  and  soldiers  guarding  the  mine 
had  been  injured  by  rocks  and  other  missiles,  the 
troops  fired  on  the  strikers,  killing  13  and  wound- 
ing 71,  of  whom  4  died.  Shortly  afterwards  the 
strikers  returned  to  work  at  the  increased  pay  of- 
fered them  before  the  strike  began. 

A  commission  of  inquiry  headed  by  Sir  John 
Forster  investigated  the  clash.  Later  the  govern- 
ment ordered  compulsory  arbitration  of  industrial 
disputes  that  could  not  be  adjusted  by  conciliation 
procedures.  The  Chief  Justice  of  Northern  Rho- 
desia was  named  chairman  of  the  permanent  arbi- 
tration tribunal 

RHODESIA,  Southern.  A  British  self-gov- 
erning colony  in  Africa.  Area,  150,333  square 
miles;  population  (1939),  1,385,560,  including 
1,319,000  natives,  and  60,720  Europeans.  Chief 
towns:  Salisbury,  the  capital  (32,846  inhabitants 
in  1936),  Bulawayo  (29,126),  Umtali,  Gwelo,  Ga- 
tooma,  Que  Que,  Eiffel  Flats,  Shibani.  Education 
(1938)  :  121,219  pupils  enrolled  in  schools  of  all 
kinds. 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  agricultural 
products,  maize,  wheat,  cotton,  tobacco,  ground- 
nuts, fruits,  and  dairy  products.  Livestock  (1938)  : 
2,295,675  cattle,  310,537  sheep,  121,777  swine  Min- 
eral production  (1939)  was  valued  at  £8,137,682, 
including  gold  (795,613  fine  oz.)  £6,227,282,  asbes- 
tos (58,313  short  tons)  £1,088,782,  chrome  ore 
(153,313  short  tons)  £186,577,  tin  concentrates 
(721  short  tons)  £86,188,  tungsten  (274  short  tons) 
£40,296,  nickel  ore  (2696  short  tons)  £26,431,  sil- 
ver, iron,  etc.  Trade  (1939) :  imports,  £9,054,359; 
exports,  £10,168,152. 

Communications.  A  total  of  1356  route  miles 
of  railway  was  in  operation  in  the  colony  during 
1938  and  this  was  supplemented  by  a  road  motor 
service  which  aggregated  1588  route  miles  There 
is  an  airways  network  which  links  the  important 
towns  and  includes  a  service  to  Beira,  Mozambique, 
the  whole  system  totaled  2769  route  miles  in  1940. 

Government.  Finance  (1938-39) :  revenue, 
£3,320,000;  expenditure,  £4,865,471;  public  debt, 
£12,367,224.  The  government  is  administered  by  a 
governor,  aided  by  an  executive  council.  There  is 
a  legislature  which  consists  of  a  legislative  as- 
sembly of  30  members  elected  for  a  five-year  term 
by  popular  franchise.  At  the  election  held  on  Apr. 
14,  1939,  the  standing  of  the  political  parties  was : 
United  Party  23,  Labor  Party  7.  Governor,  Sir 
H.  J.  Stanley  (appointed  in  1934) ;  Premier,  G. 
M.  Huggins  (United  Party). 

History.  Southern  Rhodesia  was  organized  for 
full  military  and  economic  participation  in  the 
British  Empire's  war  effort  during  1940.  In  April 
the  first  contingent  of  Southern  Rhodesian  troops 
joined  the  British  forces  in  Egypt.  It  included  ar* 
tillery,  engineer,  signal  corps,  armored  car,  in- 
fantry, and  machine-gun  units.  A  part  of  this  force 
was  sent  on  to  England.  When  the  Legislative  As- 
sembly convened  in  Salisbury  late  in  April,  the 
Governor  announced  that  a  compulsory  non-mili- 
tary service  system  would  be  combined  with  the 
existing  voluntary  military  recruiting  system  in 
order  to  maintain  essential  economic  activities. 


The  Legislative  Assembly  not  only  approved  a 
contribution  of  £1,500,000  to  the  Empire's  war 
chest  but  established  an  expanded  air-training  sys- 
tem comprising  seven  training  centers  and  designed 
to  attract  student  pilots  and  other  personnel  from 
various  parts  of  the  Empire.  A  contingent  of  Rho- 
desian airmen  arrived  in  Britain  in  August  for 
service  with  the  R.A.F.  All-Rhodesian  bomber  and 
fighter  squadrons  were  established  in  England. 
Others  served  with  the  British  forces  in  North 
Africa.  See  EUROPEAN  WAB  under  Campaigns  in 
Africa. 

To  finance  its  military  and  other  war  activities, 
Southern  Rhodesia  on  June  28  imposed  higher  in- 
come and  excess  profits  taxes.  Supplementary 
budget  appropriations  of  £1,178,336  were  requested 
October  24  to  cover  ordinary  and  war  expenditures 
for  1940-41.  This  brought  the  total  expenditure  for 
the  year  to  £8,500,000,  of  which  £2,750,000  was  to 
be  met  from  loans.  Early  in  1940  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land, acting  for  the  British  Treasury,  arranged  for 
the  direct  purchase  of  Rhodesian  gold  for  the  du- 
ration of  the  war.  On  March  1  the  colony's  first 
national  currency  notes  were  issued;  they  were 
gradually  to  replace  the  existing  currency,  con- 
sisting of  notes  of  the  Standard  Bank  of  South 
Africa  and  Barclays  Bank.  The  50th  anniversary 
of  the  hoisting  of  the  British  flag  over  Rhodesia 
was  celebrated  on  September  12 

See  SOUTH  AFRICA  under  History 

RICE.  The  rice  crop  in  the  United  States  in 
1940  was  estimated  by  the  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  to  total  52,754,000  bu.  from  1,051,000 
acres  versus  53,722,000  bu.  in  1939  from  1,040,000 
acres,  and  compared  with  the  1929-38  average  of 
44,254,000  bu  and  924,000  acres.  The  smaller  pro- 
duction, despite  the  increased  acreage,  was  due 
largely  to  lower  production  in  Louisiana  caused  by 
the  August,  1940,  storm.  Acre  yields  averaged  50  2 
bu.  in  1940,  51  7  bu.  in  1939,  and  47.9  bu.  over  the 
10-year  period.  Yields  in  producing  states  were: 
For  Louisiana  18,040,000  bu.,  Texas  16,005,000,  Ar- 
kansas 9,741,000,  and  California  8,968,000  bu.  The 
season  average  price  per  bu.  (preliminary)  re- 
ceived by  farmers  was  70.2  cents  and  the  value  of 
production  was  estimated  at  $37,052,000  compared 
to  72.8  cents  and  $39,095,000  in  1939. 

The  1940-41  crop  of  rough  rice  in  other  coun- 
tries was  for  China  2,440,000,000  bu.,  Japan  549,- 
968,000,  Burma  405,490,000,  Korea  (Chosen)  192,- 
766,000,  Formosa  (Taiwan)  84,894,000,  Manchuria 
34,588,000,  Italy  41,185,000,  Spain  11,758,000,  and 
Mexico  4,409,000  bu.  The  1939-^0  crop  of  Thailand 
(Siam)  was  225,152,000  bu.,  Philippine  Islands 
116,000,000,  British  India,  1,887,711,000,  Egypt  43,- 
493,000,  Argentina  4,752,000,  Chile  2,595,000,  and 
Uruguay  1,088,000  bu.  Total  world  production  in 
1940-41  Was  estimated  at  6,888,000,000  bu.  versus 
7,106,000,000  bu.  in  1939-40.  See  Production  under 
individual  countries. 

RIOM  TRIALS.  See  FRANCE  under  History. 

RIOUW-LINGGA.  See  NETHERLANDS  IN- 
DIES under  Area  and  Population. 

RIVERS.  See  ENGINEERS,  CORPS  OF;  FLOOD 
CONTROL;  MISSOURI;  WATERWAYS,  INLAND. 

ROADS  AND  STREETS.  Federal-State  co- 
operation in  highway  construction  during  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  resulted  in  the  completion  of 
11,397  miles  of  roads,  elimination  of  414  railroad- 
highway  grade  crossings,  protection  of  1201  cross- 
ings, and  reconstruction  of  87  obsolete  grade  sep- 
aration structures.  Of  the  $296.932,000  cost  the 
Federal  Government  provided  $172,952,000.  Im- 
provements were  made  to  7612  miles  of  the  Fed- 


ROADS  AND  STREETS 


659 


ROADS  AND  STREETS 


eral-aid  highway  system  in  rural  areas,  3281  miles 

HIGHWAYS  OF  THE  WORLD—  1940 

of  secondary  roads,  and  504  miles  of  city  streets. 

Area  to 

Work  approved  or  under  construction  on  June  30 

Road 

1  mile 

Auto- 

included  13,884  miles  of  highway,  412  crossing 

Continent  or  Country 

mileage 

ojfoad 

moUlei 

eliminations,  96  grade  crossing  reconstructions,  and 
741  crossing  protection  projects,  all  at  an  estimated 
cost  of  $394,000,000. 
New  York  City's  33-mile  Belt  Parkway  (Brook- 
lyn borough)  was  opened  to  traffic  June  29.  It 

AMERICA-Total  
Argentina  

4,140,168 
253115 
129057 
495.736 
22.613 
14,336 
2214 

3.8 
4.6 
25.4 
7.6 
12.4 
34.7 
19.9 

33,350,828 
273,500 
181,000 
1,420,924 

33,'l43 
45.212 

Brazil    

Chile    "".' 
Colombia.    . 
Cuba        

extends  from  Owl's  Head  Park  in  Brooklyn  to 

Ecuador     .  .  . 

3,311 

52.7 

3,602 

the  Bronx-  Whitestone  Bridge  in  northern  Queens 

Guatemala  ... 

Tamaii-a 

3,786 

11.2 
rt  £. 

11*629 

where  it  connects  with  existing  parkways  in  the 

Jamaica  .  . 
Mexico  

6,914 
56923 

U  O 

13.5 

105.'420 

Bronx.  The  Brooklyn-Battery  Tunnel,  put  under 

Newfoundland.   . 

6,159 

69 

5,459 

construction  late  in  the  year,  will  connect  the  Belt 
Parkway  with  the  West  Side  Express  Highway 
along  the  Hudson  River  in  Manhattan,  an  impor- 

Nicaragua 
Panama  &  Canal  Zone 
Peru  .   . 
Puerto  Rico   . 

1,550 
870 
16,559 
1,441 

31  7 
37.2 
316 
24 

805 
12,081 

'fi 

tant  part  of  which  is  in  use.  The  East  River  Ex- 
press Highway  in  Manhattan  extends  from  the 

Salvador,  El 
United  States 
Uruguay 

3,709 
3,065,000 

22,487 

35 
10 
32 

3,407 
31,009,870 
64,766 

Battery  at  the  south  end  of  the  island  northward 

Venezuela...   . 

5,882 

670 

33,024 

to  the  Triborough  Bridge  at  125th  St.,  a  distance 
of  nine  miles.  The  proposed  Harlem  River  Drive 
will  complete  a  belt  line  encircling  Manhattan. 

EUROPE—  Total 
Belgium 
Bulgaria  

3,528,170 
20,244 
19,605 

30 
06 
20 

9,534,690 
225,440 
4,811 

Completion  late  in  the  year  of  the  Midtown  Tunnel 
gave  vehicular  connection  between  Manhattan  and 

Denmark 
Eire  (Ireland) 

32,212 
48,550 
393  761 

05 
06 
0  5 

164350 
67,110 
2  398  500 

Queens  boroughs,  as  had  already  been  provided 

2631267 

08 

L959I200 

from  Manhattan  beneath  the  Hudson  to  New  Jer- 

Greece 

8,440 

60 

15,500 

sey  by  the  Holland  and  Lincoln  tunnels.    (For 

Hungary 
Italy 

51,049 
127  104 

07 
09 

25,200 
498  500 

maps  and  other  details  of  these  projects,  see  Engi- 

Netherlands    .  ' 

16,031 

08 

156',150 

neering  News-Record,  March  21,  May  9,  July  11, 
and  Nov.  31,  1940.) 

Norway 
Portugal...   . 
Spain 

26,155 
19,476 
70760 

48 
1  8 
27 

99,777 
49,320 
70000 

The  Pennsylvania  Turnpike,  a  161  -mile  express 

Sweden..       !..     .   .   '. 

54,707 

32 

22l',667 

toll-road  between  the  outskirts  of  Harrisburg  and 
Pittsburgh,  was  opened  September  30.  It  is  a  four- 
lane  highway,  by-passing  all  towns  and  without 

Switzerland 
United  Kingdom 
USSR  (with  U.S  S.R  in  Asia) 
Yugoslavia     .          

10,291 
180,527 
1,682,000 
26,534 

1  5 
05 
49 
3.6 

76,400 
2,429,580 
801,000 
21,873 

highway  or  railroad  crossings  at  grades.  It  was 
built  by  the  Pennsylvania  Turnpike  Commission 

Czecho-Slovakia  *  
Estonia*  ...                     .         . 

43,719 
13.416 

12 
14 

73,168 
6,549 

which  will  operate  it  until  its  cost  is  met  by  tolls 

Finland*  . 

39.826 

33 

7,968 

and  by  revenue  from  the  ten  privately-owned  serv- 
ice stations  along  the  road,  after  which  the  road 

Latvia* 
Luxemburg*. 
Poland*   . 

59,268 
2,558 
208,617 

04 
04 
07 

7,265 
10,751 
44,320 

will  become  a  part  of  the  state  highway  system. 

Rumania  *  .  . 

67,330 

18 

29,000 

In  Florida  the  New  Everglades  Highway  is  un- 
der construction  from  South  Bay  to  roads  enter- 

AFRICA— Total        .       . 
Algeria    

466,761 
43,239 

237 
196 

675,421 
35,500 

ing  Miami  and  Fort  Lauderdale,  69  miles.  In 

Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan 

14,240 

708 

4,850 

building  this  road  across  marsh  land,  floating  drag- 
line excavators  are  used  and  drillboats  for  blasting 
the  rock  underlying  the  muck.  The  trench  thus  ex- 

Fr. Equatorial  Africa 

47,583 
44,964 
6,838 
14,713 

194 
235 
607 
622 

7,304 
39,549 
33,787 
5,293 

cavated  is  filled  with  rock  rolled  in  layers  On  this 
the  roadbed,  also  of  stone,  finished  with  a  tar  prim- 

Fr W.Africa 
Italian  East  Africa  . 
Kenya  Colony 

33,565 
12,083 
16,537 

55  2 
482 
136 

15,803 
30,000 
11,723 

er,  is  built.  (For  map,  construction  methods,  and 
equipment,  see  Engineering  News-Record,  Aug. 

Madagascar  &  Reunion 
Morocco  (Fr  ) 
Mozambique 

15,534 
4,842 
17,545 

141 
33.3 
170 

9,500 
37,750 
7,057 

29,  1940.) 
In  Canada  73  of  the  91  miles  of  the  Queen  Eliza- 

Nigeria .  .  . 
South  Africa  (Union  of) 

21,277 
92,143 

17.5 
5.1 

7,814 
370,641 

beth  Way,  between  Toronto  and  Niagara  Falls, 

TunSa3^* 

22,356 
7,887 

16.1 
6.1 

4,552 
20J616 

was  put  in  service  on  August  29.  It  was  built  by 

the  Ontario  Department  of  Highways. 

ASIA—  Total     .. 

1,214,351 

8.4 

712,542 

World  Highways.  The  annual  survey  of  high- 
ways of  the  world,  brought  as  nearly  as  possible 

Br.  India. 
Br  Malaya    . 
Burma  

319,131 
7,873 
12,138 

3.5 
6.7 
167 

114,977 
45,061 
18,051 

to  the  dose  of  1940  by  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Foreign 

Ceylon  

18,660 

14 

27,996 

and  Domestic  Commerce,  shows  9,910,578  miles  of 
road,  an  average  of  5.1  square  miles  to  each  mile 

China  
Chosen 
French  Indo*China 

61,430 
19,043 
22,658 

700 
4.5 
126 

67,193 
8,250 
16,970 

of  road,  and  45,459,557  "automobiles."  Figures  for 

Iran  (Persia)..    . 

15,043 

41.7 

the  leading  countries  are  given  in  the  accompany- 

Iraq   
Japan     ... 

6,543 
591,766 

21.9 
0.2 

7|l25 
185,920 

ing  table. 
See  AUTOMOBILES  ;  BRIDGES  ;  ELECTRICAL  ILLU- 

Manchuria 
Netherlands  Indies 

20.1 
12.5 

13,350 
75,015 

MINATION;    NATIONAL    PARK    SERVICE;    RAPID 

Palestine.  .  . 

3,889 

23 

13,936 
ct  tin 

TRANSIT;  TUNNELS;  CONNECTICUT,  GEORGIA,  and 
PENNSYLVANIA  under  History;  countries  under 

Philippine  Islands 
Syria  &  Lebanon. 
Thailand  (Siam) 

6)569 
51574 

8  3 
113 
359 

53,642 
11,594 

Transportation. 

Turkey..;/ 

25,274 

116 

12,872 

Bibliography.  Afg.  Construction  of  Road*  and  Pave- 
mentt.  5th  ed.  (New  York)  ;  Franck  and  Lank*,  The  Pan 
Amencan  Hiahway,  from  the  R*o  Grand*  to  the  Canal 
Zone—  travel  book,  with  camera  and  notes  (New  York): 

AUSTRALASIA—  Total  . 
Australia  
Hawaii  ... 
New  Zealand  

561,128 
488,749 
2,040 
65,157 

58 
61 
31 
16 

1,186,076 

66',767 
276,145 

Geddea,  Magic  Motorway,  argument*  for  a  network  of 
air-line  superhighways  (New  York);  Gillette  and  Black, 
Road  and  Street  Construction  Methods  and  Costs  (Chi- 

*  Data  not  changed  to  new  alignment  of  the  several  countriea  of 
Europe. 

ROANOKE COLONY 


660    ROCKEFELLER  FOUNDATION 


)liography          _  ___ 

Users'  Conference,  Our 'Highways 'and  the  Nations  De- 
tent* (Washington);  Runner,  Geology  for  Civil  Engi- 
neer* a*  Applied  to  Highway  Engineering  (Chicago). 

M.  N.  BAKER. 

ROANOKE  COLONY.  See  NORTH  CARO- 
LINA under  History. 
ROCKEFELLER  FOUNDATION,  The. 

An  organization  chartered  in  1913  for  the  perma- 
nent purpose  of  promoting  the  well-being  of  man- 
kind throughout  the  world.  Its  program  is  con- 
cerned with  certain  definite  problems  in  the  fields 
of  the  medical,  natural,  and  social  sciences,  the 
humanities,  and  public  health.  For  work  in  these 
fields  the  Foundation  during  1940  appropriated  ap- 
proximately $9,800,000.  A  statement  of  the  major 
grants  follows. 

Medical  Sciences.  In  the  field  of  medicine  the 
Foundation's  interest  is  centered  on  mental  and 
nervous  diseases  and  its  contributions  are  largely 
for  the  furtherance  of  research  and  teaching  in 
psychiatry  and  allied  subjects  Appropriations  made 
in  1940  for  the  various  projects  were  $21,000  to 
Leland  Stanford  Junior  University  School  of  Med- 
icine for  researches  in  kidney  diseases ,  $23,000  to 
Johns  Hopkins  University  for  continuing  support 
to  subdepartment  of  neurology;  $175,000  to  Duke 
University  for  establishment  and  development  of 
a  division  of  psychiatry  and  mental  hygiene  in  the 
school  of  medicine;  $57,000  to  Harvard  Medical 
School  for  research  in  epilepsy ;  $106,000  to  Har- 
vard Medical  School  and  Massachusetts  General 
Hospital  for  teaching  and  research  in  psychiatry; 
$30,000  to  Harvard  University  for  research  in  in- 
dustrial hazards ;  $25,000  to  Tufts  College  for  re- 
search in  neurology;  $30,000  to  Tufts  College 
Medical  School  for  research  in  brain  chemistry; 
$42,000  to  Columbia  University  for  researches  in 
endocrinology  in  the  department  of  anatomy ;  $18,- 
250  to  the  University  of  Edinburgh  for  research 
in  psychiatry,  neurology,  and  neurosurgery ;  $14,- 
000  to  the  University  of  Brussels  for  teaching  and 
research  in  social  medicine ;  $10,000  to  West  China 
Union  University  for  the  public  health  practice 
field  to  be  administered  by  the  universities'  public 
health  council ;  $37,000  to  Worcester  State  Hospi- 
tal for  research  on  dementia  praecox ;  $10,800  to 
University  of  Manitoba  for  teaching  of  preventive 
medicine;  $12,500  to  American  Psychiatric  Asso- 
ciation for  expenses  of  teaching  conferences  for 
professional  personnel  of  state  mental  hospitals; 
$70,000  to  National  Research  Council  for  fellow- 
ships in  the  medical  sciences ;  $9000  to  Yale  Uni- 
versity School  of  Medicine  for  teaching  of  public 
health  and  preventive  medicine. 

Natural  Sciences.  The  Foundation's  work  in 
the  natural  sciences  is  centered  almost  entirely  on 
experimental  biology  and  appropriations  during 
1940  were  made  to  further  projects  in  this  branch. 
They  included :  $1,150,000  to  the  University  of  Cal- 
ifornia for  the  construction,  housing,  and  installa- 
tion of  a  giant  cyclotron ;  $24,000  to  the  State  Uni- 
versity of  Iowa  for  research  in  cellular  biology; 
$20,000  to  Indiana  University  for  research  in  cyto- 
genetics;  $55,000  to  the  University  of  Chicago 
for  research  in  spectroscopic  biology;  $110,400  to 
the  Marine  Biological  Laboratory,  Woods  Hole, 
for  the  construction  and  furnishing  of  an  addition 
to  the  library;  $200,000  to  the  Massachusetts  In- 
stitute of  Technology,  for  the  development  of  bio- 
logical engineering;  $40,000  to  Princeton  Univer- 
sity for  research  in  organic  chemistry ;  $28,000  to 
the  Catholic  University  of  America  for  research 


on  the  decomposition  and  synthesis  of  certain  poly- 
nuclear  ring  systems;  $15,000  to  the  University  of 
Texas  for  research  on  growth-promoting  sub- 
stances; $22,500  to  the  University  of  Wisconsin 
for  research  in  the  biochemistry  of  symbiotic  nitro- 
gen fixation ;  $57,000  to  the  California  Institute  of 
Technology  for  research  in  serological  genetics  and 
for  the  development  of  chemistry  in  its  relation  to 
biological  problems;  $17,000  to  Cornell  University 
for  research  in  molecular  structure;  $13,500  to 
Roscoe  B.  Jackson  Memorial  Laboratory  for  spe- 
cial research  in  genetics ;  $11,800  to  Columbia  Uni- 
versity for  research  on  the  biochemistry  and  genet- 
ics of  cystinuria  in  dogs ;  $11,250  to  the  University 
of  Uppsala  for  research  on  the  physical-chemical 
properties  of  proteins  and  other  substances;  $11,- 
000  to  McGill  University  for  research  in  cytology 
and  genetics ;  $21,000  to  Iowa  State  College  for  re- 
search in  genetics ;  $20,000  to  the  American  Insti- 
tute of  Physics  for  its  publication  program;  and 
$15,000  to  the  National  Research  Council  for  the 
establishment  of  a  revolving  fund  for  the  publica- 
tion of  mathematical  tables  and  aids  to  computa- 
tion and  bibliography  of  such  tables. 

Social  Sciences.  In  the  field  of  the  social  sci- 
ences, the  Foundation's  interest  at  the  present  time 
is  in  the  spheres  of  social  security,  public  adminis- 
tration, and  international  relations.  The  appropria- 
tions made  during  1940  were  as  follows :  $105,000 
to  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  toward  support 
of  the  Industrial  Research  Department  of  the 
Wharton  School ;  $105,000  to  the  Institute  for  Ad- 
vanced Studies  at  Princeton  toward  support  of  its 
work  in  economics;  $15,000  to  the  Social  Science 
Research  Council  for  use  by  its  Committee  on  So- 
cial Security,  and  $15,000  for  use  by  its  Public 
Administration  Committee;  $7500  to  the  Pacific 
Northwest  Council  of  Education,  Planning,  and 
Public  Administration  for  research  and  publica- 
tion; to  the  University  of  Minnesota,  $39,000  for 
its  public  service  training  program  and  $11,500  for 
a  study  of  employment  and  unemployment  in  St. 
Paul ;  $60,000  to  Leland  Stanford  Junior  Univer- 
sity toward  support  of  the  research  program  of 
the  Food  Research  Institute;  $10,000  to  the  New 
School  for  Social  Research  for  its  Graduate  Facul- 
ty of  Political  and  Social  Science;  $10,000  to  the 
Bureau  of  Business  Research  of  the  University  of 
Alabama  for  a  study  of  commodity  production  in 
the  Southeast;  $20,000  to  the  National  Bureau  of 
Economic  Research  for  research  in  fiscal  policy; 
$24,000  to  the  University  of  Oxford  for  its  Social 
Studies  Research  Committee  for  a  continuation  of 
previous  activities  and  new  war-time  research  pro- 
gram ;  $105,000  to  the  National  Institute  of  Public 
Affairs  for  experimentation  in  recruiting  and  train- 
ing personnel  for  the  Federal  Services. 

The  Humanities.  The  program  in  the  humani- 
ties is  concerned  with  the  techniques,  such  as  mu- 
seums, motion  pictures,  radio,  drama,  and  libraries 
by  which  cultural  levels  of  contemporary  society 
are  being  influenced,  and  with  the  promotion  of 
better  international  understanding  through  cultural 
interchanges.  Appropriations  in  1940  included  $50,- 
000  to  the  Folger  Shakespeare  Library  toward  the 
purchase  and  cataloguing  of  books  and  manu- 
scripts ;  $20,160  to  the  New  School  for  Social  Re- 
search for  experimental  demonstrations  of  music 
in  film  production ;  $35,400  to  Columbia  University 
for  studies  in  radio  listening;  $34,000  to  Cornell 
University  for  a  state-wide  program  in  music  and 
drama  and  for  the  development  of  Russian  studies ; 
$18,500  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  Radio  Council  to- 
ward expenses ;  $25,000  to  Leland  Stanford  Junior 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


661 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


University  for  work  in  drama;  $60,000  to  the  Mu- 
seum of  Modern  An  for  general  support  of  the 
Film  Library;  $19,500  to  Yale  University  for  ex- 
penses of  developing  and  testing  equipment  in  the- 
ater lighting;  $25,000  to  Duke  University  for  the 
purchase  of  books  and  other  documentation  in  the 
field  of  Latin-American  studies ;  $18,000  to  Tulane 
University  for  the  purchase  of  Latin-American 
books ;  $25,000  to  the  University  of  North  Carolina 
for  the  purchase  of  Latin-American  books  ;  $20,000 
to  the  Payne  Fund  for  expenses  of  preparing  mate- 
rials for  the  teaching  of  English  to  foreign-born 
residents  of  the  United  States;  $25,000  to  the 
American  Library  in  Paris,  Inc.,  for  general  ex- 
penses of  operation ;  $25,000  to  Princeton  Univer- 
sity toward  work  of  the  Listening  Center  of  its 
School  of  Public  and  International  Affairs ;  $52,- 
000  to  the  American  Council  of  Learned  Societies 
for  support  of  activities  of  the  Committee  on  Latin- 
American  Studies  and  for  general  expenses  of  the 
Council ;  $35,000  to  Brown  University  toward  col- 
lections of  material  on  early  American  history  and 
Hispanic  culture;  and  $15,000  to  the  Argentine- 
North  American  Cultural  Institute  of  Buenos  Aires 
for  development  of  its  program  of  teaching  Eng- 
lish, drama,  and  the  creative  arts. 

Public  Health.  The  Foundation  appropriated 
$2,000,000  for  the  work  of  its  International  Health 
Division  during  1940.  This  work  included  research 
on  a  number  of  selected  diseases,  among  them  yel- 
low fever,  malaria,  tuberculosis,  influenza,  the  com- 
mon cold,  rabies,  syphilis,  and  intestinal  parasit- 
ism; demonstrations  in  the  control  of  certain  of 
these  diseases  in  their  environment,  co-operation 
with  governments  in  the  organization  or  improve- 
ment of  important  services  of  central  or  local 
health  departments ;  and  the  development  of  public 
health  education.  Fellowships  in  public  health  were 
provided  and  public  health  personnel  were  given 
opportunities  for  training  in  connection  with  the 
health  demonstrations  and  through  travel 

Officers.  The  executive  officers  of  the  Founda- 
tion in  1940  were  Walter  W.  Stewart,  chairman  of 
the  board  of  trustees ;  Raymond  B  Fosdick,  presi- 
dent ;  Thomas  B.  Appleget  and  Selskar  M.  Gunn, 
vice-presidents ;  Alan  Gregg,  M  D ,  director  for 
the  medical  sciences ;  Warren  Weaver,  director 
for  the  natural  sciences ;  Joseph  H  Willits,  direc- 
tor for  the  social  sciences;  David  H  Stevens, 
director  for  the  humanities;  Wilbur  A  Sawyer, 
M.D,  director  of  the  International  Health  Divi- 
sion; Norma  S.  Thompson,  secretary;  Edward 
Robinson,  treasurer ;  George  J.  Beal,  comptroller  ; 
Thomas  M.  Debevoise,  counsel ;  and  Chauncey 
Belknap,  associate  counsel.  The  offices  of  the  Foun- 
dation are  located  at  49  West  49th  Street,  New 
York  City.  See  LIBRARY  PROGRFSS 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.  The 
spread  of  the  war,  with  Italy  an  active  participant, 
cast  a  pall  over  Vatican  City,  curtailed  many  of  its 
public  activities  in  1940,  and  stemmed  news  ema- 
nating from  that  source  Osservatore  Romano,  the 
official  newspaper  of  the  Vatican,  published  in 
Rome  itself,  came  under  censor  control  and,  in  the 
first  half  of  1940  the  only  source  for  many  Italians 
of  world  news,  was  allowed  to  report  only  religious 
events.  No  public  consistories  were  held,  although 
normally  the  appointment  of  Cardinals  would  have 
been  announced  On  Candlemas  Day,  receiving  rep- 
resentatives of  the  174  ecclesiastical  bodies  in 
Rome,  Pope  Pius  XII  enumerated  the  five  duties 
of  a  parish  priest,  saying  he  must  be  an  apostle,  a 
pastor  and  father  to  the  people,  a  mediator  between 
God  and  man,  a  preacher,  and  a  good  shepherd  re- 


lieving corporal  needs.  To  students  of  the  North 
American  College  in  May,  he  spoke  of  the  fruits 
the  sacerdotal  ministry  is  called  to  produce.  Be- 
cause of  the  war  this  college  was  later  closed,  for 
the  first  time  since  its  foundation  in  1859.  Attend- 
ing the  Requiem  Mass  in  St.  Peter's  on  the  first 
anniversary  of  the  death  of  Pius  XI,  the  Pope  re- 
called the  great  efforts  for  peace  of  his  predecessor 
and  re-emphasized  his  own  desire  for  the  pacifica- 
tion of  the  world.  On  the  occasion  of  an  audience 
accorded  members  of  the  Spanish  Naval  Mission, 
the  Holy  Father  praised  the  Spanish  people  for 
their  heroic  defense  of  their  "Catholic  faith  from 
the  very  grave  danger  that  threatened  it." 

A  secret  consistory  was  held  March  7  for  the 
purpose  of  naming  new  bishops.  Peace  was  the 
subject  of  the  Pope's  discourse  on  Easter  Sunday, 
at  which  time  he  bestowed  his  blessing  on  the  as- 
sembly in  St.  Peter's  Square  and  on  other  millions 
listening  by  radio  Asking  that  Catholics  through- 
out the  world,  and  particularly  the  children,  pray 
for  peace  during  May,  he  wrote  •  "We  desire  .  .  . 
that  all  should  interweave  their  prayers  with  Ours 
that  the  merciful  God,  by  His  powerful  command, 
may  hasten  the  end  of  this  calamitous  storm."  Sol- 
emn festivities  in  honor  of  St.  Francis  of  Assist 
and  St  Catherine  of  Siena,  chief  patrons  of  Italy, 
were  brought  to  a  close  May  5  with  a  pontifical 
Mass  in  Santa  Maria  sopra  Minerva,  the  Pontiff's 
titular  church  On  arriving  there  he  was  received 
with  military  honors  by  Italian  troops.  During  the 
months  of  May  and  June  the  following  canoniza- 
tions and  beatifications  took  place  with  impressive 
ceremonies  •  May  2,  the  canonization  of  Bl.  Mary 
of  St  Euphrasia  Pelletier,  foundress  of  the  Sis- 
ters of  the  Good  Shepherd,  and  Bl.  Gemma  Gal- 
gani,  Passionist  tertiary  of  Lucca ;  May  12,  beati- 
fication of  Ven.  Rose  Phillipine  Duchesne,  who 
introduced  the  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart  into 
America ;  May  19,  beatification  of  Ven.  Gioacchi- 
na  de  Vedruna  dc  Mas,  of  Spain,  foundress  of  the 
Institute  of  the  Carmelities  of  Charity;  May  26, 
beatification  of  Ven  Mary  of  the  Crucified  di 
Rosa,  foundress  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Hand- 
maids of  Charity;  July  2,  beatification  of  Ven. 
Maria  Wilhelmina  Emily  de  Rodat,  foundress  of 
the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family ;  June  9,  beatifica- 
tion of  Ven.  Ignatius  of  Laconi,  lay  Capuchin. 

On  May  7,  a  Concordat  with  Portugal,  an  agree- 
ment relating  to  missions  in  Portuguese  colonies, 
was  signed  at  the  Vatican ,  and  Antonio  Paccheco, 
newly  appointed  Ambassador  from  Portugal,  pre- 
sented his  credentials.  The  new  Ambassador  of 
Italy  to  the  Holy  See,  Bernard  Attolico,  was  re- 
ceived on  May  29 ;  Wladimir  d'Ormesson,  the  new 
Ambassador  of  France,  on  June  9 ;  and  Gen.  Car- 
los Quintanilla,  the  new  Ambassador  of  Bolivia, 
on  August  11.  In  commemoration  of  the  4th  cente- 
nary of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  Pius  XII  addressed 
a  letter  to  the  Society's  superior  general,  Very 
Rev.  Vladimir  Ledochowski,  praising  the  notable 
achievements  of  the  Jesuits  in  the  service  of  the 
Church  and  the  Holy  See,  their  great  scholars, 
educators,  missionaries,  and  saints.  Because  of  the 
war,  the  celebration  of  this  centenary  was  post- 
poned. 

The  Pontiff  on  October  13.  addressed  by  radio 
the  closing  session  of  the  3d  National  Eucnaristic 
Congress  of  Argentina,  in  Santa  Fe,  calling  upon 
the  pilgrims  to  pray  earnestly  for  peace  among  all 
mankind.  On  October  27,  he  delivered  a  discourse 
by  radio  to  the  National  Eucharistic  Congress  held 
in  Peru.  In  a  special  Mission  Sunday  broadcast, 
October  19,  he  appealed  to  the  Catholics  in  the 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH        662 


ROSE  ISLAND 


United  States  for  aid  to  the  missions  and  said 
their  "large-souled  liberality"  gives  honor  to  their 
name  "in  the  harvest  fields  of  the  Gospel  and 
among  the  tillers  of  Christ.'1  On  November  15,  he 
received  the  credentials  of  Rumania's  new  Ambas- 
sador to  the  Holy  See,  Basil  Grigorcea.  A  Motu 
Proprio  designated  November  24  as  a  "day  of  pub- 
lic prayer  that  all  those  who  had  died  as  a  result  of 
the  war  might  obtain  eternal  rest,  that  all  those 
who  suffered  or  mourned  as  a  result  of  the  war 
might  be  comforted,  and  that  true  peace  might  be 
restored  in  justice  and  all  peoples  united  as  broth- 
ers." In  another  Motu  Proprio  issued  in  December 
he  expressed  the  hope  that  the  warring  nations 
would  declare  a  truce  at  Christmas  and  gave  per- 
mission for  the  celebration  of  Mass  in  the  after- 
noon of  Christmas  Eve  in  those  countries  where 
blackouts  are  in  force,  thus  "overlooking  nothing 
that  can  bring  at  least  spiritual  comfort  to  those 
who  are  bearing  sorrows  and  distress  of  all  kinds 
because  of  war." 

During  the  year  preparations  to  meet  war  con- 
ditions were  quietly  made  at  the  Vatican  which, 
like  all  Rome,  observed  the  blackout.  Special 
bomb-proof  shelters  were  constructed  for  the  Pope 
and  the  inhabitants  of  Vatican  City,  and  special 
protection  from  explosives  was  given  many  of  the 
buildings.  As  always,  the  Vatican  witnessed  in- 
tense diplomatic  activities  but  obviously  little  in- 
formation of  these  were  given  publicity.  The  dip- 
lomatic corps  at  the  Vatican  during  1940  was  com- 
posed of  representatives  from  Argentina,  Belgium, 
Bolivia,  Brazil,  Chile,  Colombia,  Costa  Rica,  Cu- 
ba, Ecuador,  France,  Germany,  Great  Britain, 
Guatemala,  Haiti,  Honduras,  Hungary,  Ireland, 
Italy,  Yugoslavia,  Liberia,  Luxemburg,  Monaco, 
Nicaragua,  Panama,  Peru,  Poland,  Portugal,  Ru- 
mania, Salvador,  San  Marino,  Dominican  Repub- 
lic, Slovakia,  Spain,  Uruguay,  Venezuela. 

The  Cardinals.  No  new  Cardinals  were  created 
in  1940  and  deaths  reduced  the  Sacred  College  to 
55,  15  short  of  its  full  complement.  Emanuel  Ce- 
lestine  Cardinal  Suhard,  Archbishop  of  Reims, 
was  named  to  succeed  Cardinal  Verdier  (q  v.  un- 
der NECROLOGY)  as  Archbishop  of  Paris.  Isidro 
Cardinal  Goma  y  Tpmas,  Primate  of  Spain  and 
Archbishop  of  Madrid,  died  in  August  (q.v.  under 
NECROLOGY). 

The  Hierarchy:  The  following  episcopal  ap- 
pointments were  made  during  the  year :  Most  Rev. 
Guiseppe  Beltrami  was  named  Papal  Nuncio  to  El 
Salvador  and  Guatemala,  and  titular  Bishop  of 
Damascus;  Most  Rev.  Samuel  A.  Stritch,  Arch- 
bishop of  Milwaukee  was  made  Archbishop  of 
Chicago ;  Most  Rev.  Christian  Winkeltnann,  Aux- 
iliary Bishop  of  St.  Louis,  Bishop  of  Wichita; 
Most  Rev.  Moses  E.  Kiley,  Bishop  of  Trenton, 
Archbishop  of  Milwaukee ;  Very  Rev.  Sidney  M. 
Metzger,  titular  Bishop  of  Birta  and  Auxiliary 
Bishop  of  Santa  Fe;  Rt.  Rev.  Msgr.  Louis  La 
Ravoire  Morrow,  Bishop  of  Krishnagar,  India; 
Very  Rev.  Msgr.  Joseph  M.  Corrigan,  titular 
Bishop  of  Bilta  and  Rector  of  Catholic  Universi- 
ty, D.C;  Rt  Rev.  Msgr.  Vincent  J.  Ryan,  Bishop 
of  Bismarck,  N.D.;  Kt.  Rev.  Msgr.  George  J. 
Donnelly,  titular  Bishop  of  Coela  and  Auxiliary 
Bishop  pf  St  Louis ;  Rev.  Henry  J.  O'Brien,  titu- 
lar Bishop  of  Silta  and  Auxiliary  Bishop  of  Hart* 
ford;  Most  Rev.  William  A.  Griffin,  titular  Bish- 
op of  Savanus  and  Auxiliary  Bishop  of  Newark, 
Bishop  of  Trenton ;  Rev.  Thomas  A.  Boland,  tit- 
ular bishop  of  Hirana  and  Auxiliary  Bishop 
of  Newark;  Rev.  Bernard  Theodore  Espelage, 
O.F.M.,  first  Bishop  of  Gallup,  N.M.;  Rt  Rev. 


Msgr*  Joseph  P.  Hurley,  Bishop  of  St  Augustine; 
Most  Rev.  Joseph  Charbonneau,  Coadjutor  Bishop 
of  Montreal,  Archbishop  of  Montreal ;  Most  Rev. 
Joseph  G.  Pinten,  retired  Bishop  of  Grand  Rapids, 
titular  Bishop  of  Sela ;  Rt.  Rev.  Msgr.  J.  Francis 
A.  Mclntyre,  Auxiliary  Bishop  of  New  York. 

The  following  bishops  died :  Most  Rev.  Patrick 
Barry,  Bishop  of  St.  Augustine;  Most  Rev.  Ar- 
thur Jerome  Drossaerts,  Archbishop  of  San  An- 
tonio ;  Most  Rev.  Thomas  F.  Hickey,  retired  Bish- 
op of  Rochester;  Most  Rev.  John  Henry  Tihen, 
retired  Bishop  of  Denver;  Most  Rev.  Manuel 
Ruiz  y  Rodriguez,  Archbishop  of  Havana ;  Most 
Rev.  John  March,  Bishop  of  Harbor  Grace,  New- 
foundland ;  Most  Rev.  Charles  A.  Lamarche,  Bish- 
op of  Chicoutimi,  Quebec;  Most  Rev.  Edward  J. 
Byrne,  Archbishop  of  Dublin;  Most  Rev.  Pauhn 
Ladeuze,  titular  Bishop  of  Tiberius  and  Rector  of 
the  University  of  Louvain;  Most  Rev.  Michael 
Kelly,  Archbishop  of  Sydney,  Australia;  Most 
Rev.  Justino  Guitart  y  Villardero,  Bishop  of  Urel, 
Spain;  Most  Rev.  Casimir  Michalkiewicz,  Auxil- 
iary Bishop  of  Wilno,  Poland ;  Most  Rev.  Joseph 
G.  Forbes,  Archbishop  of  Ottawa ;  Most  Rev  Al- 
phonse  E.  Deschamps,  Auxiliary  Bishop  of  Mont- 
real ;  Most  Rev.  Georges  Gauthier,  Archbishop  of 
Montreal ;  Most  Rev.  Sylvester  Espelage,  O.F.M., 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Wuchang,  China,  and  titular 
Bishop  of  Oreo;  Most  Rev.  Stephen  Alencastre, 
SS.CC,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Hawaii. 

Statistics.  The  total  Catholic  World  popula- 
tion is  approximately  350,000,000  or  about  19  per 
cent  of  all.  Figures  compiled  by  the  official  Catho- 
lic Directory  for  1940  lists  the  Catholic  population 
of  the  United  States  at  21,403,136,  a  decrease  from 
1939  of  2371.  The  number  of  converts  was  73,677 
or  7734  more  than  in  the  previous  year.  The  Hier- 
archy numbers  22  Archbishops,  two  of  whom  are 
Cardinals,  and  114  Bishops.  The  secular  priests 
number  22,450,  a  decrease  of  119,  and  the  priests 
of  religious  orders  number  11,462,  an  increase  of 
491.  The  churches  total  18,733,  a  decrease  of  24, 
and  include  13,132  with  resident  pastors  and  5601 
missions  with  churches.  The  number  of  seminaries 
decreased  by  7,  the  total  being  202 ;  and  the  semi- 
narians increased  by  341,  the  total  being  17,087. 
There  are  143  colleges  for  boys,  a  decrease  of  38. 
Colleges  and  academies  for  girls  total  683,  an  in- 
crease of  6.  There  are  1411  high  schools,  49  more 
than  in  1939,  with  a  total  attendance  of  480,483,  a 
gain  of  39,210.  The  number  of  parochial  schools  is 
/59T.  an  increase  of  36,  and  an  attendance  of 
2,108,892,  an  increase  of  1922.  The  number  of  or- 
phanages is  303,  a  decrease  of  8 ;  and  the  number 
of  orphans  cared  for  was  33,624,  or  2582  less  than 
previously.  There  are  171  homes  for  the  aged  poor, 
an  increase  of  4 ;  and  703  hospitals,  an  increase  of 
24  There  were  at  the  end  of  1939,  34  commis- 
sioned chaplains  in  the  U.S.  Army,  19  in  the  Navy, 
66  chaplains  in  Veteran  Hospitals  and  21  auxilia- 
ries, 164  military  reserve  chaplains,  and  63  chap- 
lains in  the  National  Guard.  See  CATHOLIC  WEL- 
FARE CONFERENCE;  FRANCE,  GERMANY,  HUNGARY, 
and  POLAND  under  History ;  VATICAN  CITY. 

JOHN  G.  BRUNINI. 

ROOSEVELT,  Franklin  D.  See  ELECTIONS, 
U.S.  NATIONAL;  UNITED  STATES. 

ROOSEVELT  LIBRARY.  See  NEW  YORK. 

ROSE  ISLAND.  An  island  of  the  central 
Pacific  (approximately  14%°  S.  and  168°  W.), 
included  in  American  Samoa.  The  U.S.  Naval  Ap- 
propriations Bill  of  1939  provided  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  naval  air  base  on  the  island. 


ROSENWALB  FUND 


053 


RUBBER 


ROSENWALD  FUND.  See  BENEFACTIONS. 

ROSS  DEPENDENCY.  See  NEW  ZEALAND. 

ROTATION,  High-Speed.  See  PHYSICS, 

ROUMANIA.  See  RUMANIA. 

ROWING.  Among  college  boat  crews,  Wash- 
ington and  Cornell  were  pre-eminent  daring  1940. 
The  former  triumphed  over  California  in  its  an- 
nual April  regatta  and  then  came  east  to  win  the 
Intercollegiate  Rowing  Association  title  on  the 
Poughkeepsie  in  June.  The  Cornell  team  won  the 
Carnegie  Cup  race  from  Yale  by  the  margin  of 
two-tenths  of  a  second,  one  of  the  closest  races  in 
history,  but  finished  second  to  California  in  the 
Poughkeepsie  classic.  The  latter  competition  was 
marred  by  bad  weather  and  confusion.  In  one 
event,  the  varsity  crews  were  dispatched  in  waters 
that  were  so  turbulent  that  most  of  the  boats  were 
swamped  and  the  race  called  off.  It  was  later  con- 
ducted under  cover  of  darkness,  after  the  varsity 
race  had  run  its  course. 

In  the  mam  event,  after  Washington  and  Cor- 
nell, the  order  at  the  finish  was  as  follows:  Syra- 
cuse, third,  Navy  fourth,  California  fifth,  and  Co- 
lumbia sixth.  The  Washington  jayvee  aggregation 
\\on  their  event,  followed  by  Navy,  second,  and 
Cornell  freshmen,  third. 

It  was  a  big  season  for  lightweight  crews.  The 
Joseph  Wright  Cup,  the  trophy  for  150-lb.  oars- 
men, was  taken  by  Harvard  at  the  American  Hen- 
ley The  National  Association  of  Amateur  Oars- 
men staged  its  annual  competition  on  the  Shrews- 
bui  y  at  Red  Bank,  N  J  ,  and  here  Joe  Burk,  the 
world's  best-known  sculler,  won  the  national 
championship  by  outdistancing  Theofeld  Duboise, 
of  Winnipeg,  by  15  lengths 

The  Penn  A.C,  of  Philadelphia  annexed  the 
team  title  with  a  total  of  98  points  and  won  the 
Julius  H.  Barnes  trophy.  The  eight-oared  senior 
crew  event  was  also  taken  by  the  Penn  A  C. 

At  the  New  London  regatta,  the  Harvard  crew 
of  Tom  Bolles  was  easily  supreme  over  Yale. 

RUANDA-URUNDI.  See  under  CONGO,  BEL- 
GIAN. 

RUBBER.  For  the  first  time  in  its  history  the 
American  rubber  manufacturing  industry  was 
faced  last  year  with  the  possibility  of  having  its 
basic  raw  material — crude  rubber — cut  off.  The 
threat  hinged  on  the  international  situation,  and 
was  heightened  by  Japan's  joining  the  Axis  powers 
in  a  tripartite  agreement.  There  were  veiled  inti- 
mations from  Japan  that  if  the  United  States  saw 
fit  to  consider  that  country  as  an  aggressor  nation 
and  limit  exports  of  strategic  war  materials,  Japan, 
in  turn,  might  be  obliged  to  retaliate  by  cutting  off 

WORLD'S  RUBBER  SHIPMENTS— 1940 
[All  Figures  in  Long  Tons} 


Nether- 

Other 

Total 

British 

lands 

Planta- 

Planta- 

Total 

Grand 

Month  Malaya 

Indies 

tion 

tion 

Othrr 

Total 

Tan.      26,073 
Feb.      45,507 

54,336 
37,283 

24,008 
26,860 

104,417 
109,650 

2,985 
3,065 

107,402 
112,715 

Mar.     48,064 

43,385 

18,895 

110,344 

3,710 

114,054 

Apr       25,324 
May     57,7*6 
June     45,285 
July      42,735 

44,407 
40,310 
44,798 
60.500 

16,548 
20,450 
19,319 
19,450 

86,279 
118,496 
109,402 
122,685 

3,830 
3,530 
3,330 
4,160 

90,109 
122026 
112,732 
126,845 

Aug.     45,704 
Sept.     58,697 
Oct       52,580 

45,100 
44,000 
50,100 

25,936 
27,920 
24,950 

116,740 
130,617 
127,630 

2,670 
2,800 
2,815 

119,410 
133,417 
110,445 

Nov.     35,926 

37,400 

17,400 

90,726 

2,940 

93,666 

Dec      40,000 

45,000 

20,000 

105,000 

3,000 

108,000 

Ibtal  523,631 

546,619 

261,736 

1,331,986 

58,835 

1,370,821 

shipments  of  crude  rubber  from  the  Far  East,  from 
which  the  United  States  receives  about  98  per 
cent  of  its  rubber  supplies. 

That  the  Government  recognized  the  difficulties 
which  might  accrue  if  crude  rubber  shipments 
were  blocked,  even  temporarily,  was  evident  by  the 
action  which  followed  The  Reconstruction  Fi- 
nance Corporation  was  authorized  to  create  the 
Rubber  Reserve  Company,  capitalized  for  $5,000,- 
000,  half  of  which  was  subscribed  by  the  govern- 
ment and  the  other  half  by  independent  rubber 
manufacturers,  for  the  purpose  of  creating  a  stock- 
pile of  crude  rubber  to  be  used  for  "emergency" 
purposes  only.  The  Rubber  Reserve  Company 
shortly  after  its  organization  concluded  two  sepa- 
rate agreements  with  the  International  Rubber 
Regulation  Committee,  the  governing  body  of  the 
current  restriction  plan,  calling  for  the  purchase 
of  150,000  tons  in  1940  and  180,000  tons  in  1941. 
By  the  end  of  1940,  it  had  accumulated  in  excess 
of  56,000  tons  of  stockpile  rubber. 

CRUDE  RUBBER  CONSUMED  IN  PRODUCTS 

MANUFACTURED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

[AU  figures  in  Long  Ions] 


First  Nine  Months 

1940 

1939 

Passenger  Car,  Truck  &  Bus  Casings 
Passenger  Car,  Truck  &  Bus  Inner  Tubes 
Agricultural  (Farm)  Casings  and  Tubes 
Airplane  Casings  and  Tubes        .   . 
Motorcycle  Casings  and  Tubes       .... 

209,393 
30,513 
.      8,152 
431 
232 

204,649 
30.038 

Bicycle  Tires  and  Tubes*  
Solid  and  Cushion  Tires              .... 

.       1,956 
162 

'168 

Industrial  Pneumatic  &  Solid  Truck  Tires 

351 

238 

Tire  Accessories  &  Repair  Materials  . 

.      7.149 

7,793 

Mechanical  Rubber  Goods  

31,141 

27,381 

Boots  and  Shoes 

.     10,758 

11,365 

Insulated  Wire  &  Cable  Compounds 

5|358 

3,871 

Drug  Sundries  &  Surgical  Goods    .... 
Stationers'  Rubber  Goods  .   

2,655 
1.604 

2,786 
1,569 

Bathing  Apparel 

'479 

494 

Miscellaneous  Rubber  Sundries     .... 

.      1,686 

2,519 

Rubber  Clothing 

317 

409 

Automobile  Fabrics 

276 

190 

Other  Rubberized  Fabrics         

2,791 

2,965 

Hard  Rubber  Goods 

2,607 

1,877 

Heels  and  Soles    . 

8,024 

9,694 

Rubber  Flooring                        .     . 

1,022 

821 

Industrial  Sponge  Rubber  \ 
Foamed  Latex                   /    ' 

6,463 

3,126 

Sporting  Goods,  Toys  &  Novelties  . 

1,701 

1,658 

Grand  Total 

335,221 

315,719 

Source:  W  H.  Rickinson  fr  Son  Not*:  Total* lor  December  and 
for  the  year  were  estimated  by  the  aithdr, 


•  Including  single  tubes  and  juvenile  pneumatic  tires  and  tubes. 
(A)  Previously  included  with  Passenger  Car,  Truck  and  BUB 
Casings  and  Inner  Tubes  Source  Rubber  Manufacturers  As* 
sociation  The  grand  totals  are  estimated  to  be  approximately  75  % 
correct  with  regard  to  completeness 

The  recognized  danger  of  shortages  of  crude 
rubber  due  to  an  attempted  blockade  of  shipping 
centers  also  led,  indirectly,  to  the  announcement  of 
a  new  group  of  synthetic  rubbers.  The  Standard 
Oil  Company  of  New  Jersey  first  announced  that 
it  had  acquired  the  American  manufacturing  rights 
to  Buna  from  I.  G.  Farbenindustrie,  the  chemical 
trust  in  Germany.  Subsequently,  Standard  Oil  li- 
censed both  Firestone  and  U.S.  Rubber  to  produce 
Buna  for  their  own  requirements.  Standard  Oil 
later  announced  Butyl  Rubber,  a  co-polymer  of 
olefin  and  diolefin. 

Other  companies  joining  the  synthetic  rubber  pa- 
rade included  Goodnch,  with  Ameripol,  and  Good- 
year, with  Chemigum.  Later,  the  Goodrich  com- 
pany joined  forces  with  the  Phillips  Petroleum 
Company  to  organize  the  Hydrocarbon  Chemical 
and  Rubber  Company,  in  Akron,  with  the  patents 
of  both  companies  at  the  disposal  of  the  new  con- 
cern. Hydrocarbon  Chemical  calls  its  synthetic 
Hycar.  Although  it  was  not  publicly  announced, 


RUBBER 


664 


RUMANIA 


U.S.  Rubber  was  also  understood  to  have  a  new 
synthetic  rubber  ready  for  exploitation.  It  is  be- 
lieved, although  secrecy  surrounds  the  actual  com- 
positions, that  all  of  these  new  synthetic  rubbers, 
which  will  compete  with  Du  Font's  neoprene  and 
Thiokol,  made  by  Dow  Chemical  for  the  Thiokol 
Corporation,  are  based  on  butadiene, 

RECLAIMED  RUBBER  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES— 1940 
[All  Quantities  tn  Long  Tons] 


Pro- 

Consumption 

Month 

ductton 

Tons 

%  to  Crude 

Stocks* 

Jan 
Feb 

19,297 
17.992 

16,070 
15,370 

292 
308 

27,418 
28,603 

Mar 

17,234 

15,931 

317 

28,488 

16,568 

16,298 

325 

27,558 

May 

17,552 

15,719 

305 

28,397 

16,631 
14,342 
17,213 
.     16,428 
19,358 

14,912 
14,298 
14,224 
14589 
16,528 

32.1 
304 
283 
291 
293 

29,260 
28,053 
29,786 
30,287 
32.118 

July 
Aug 
Sept 
Oct. 

Nov 

17,689 

16,042 

294 

33,141 

Dec 

19,297 

17,109 

303 

34,701 

Total 

209,601 

187,090 

303 

34,701 

•  At  end  of  month  or  year  Source  Rubber  Manufacturers 
Association 

The  domestic  rubber  manufacturing  industry  as 
a  whole  enjoyed  a  successful  year.  The  larger  or- 
ganizations were  busy  on  military  orders  from 
England  and  France  in  the  first  part  of  the  year 
and  then  both  large  and  small  companies  benefited 
from  orders  issued  by  the  Government  later  in  the 
year  under  the  National  Defense  Program  By  the 
year-end,  defense  orders  placed  with  the  industry, 
ranging  from  gas  masks  to  new  types  of  bullet- 
resisting  inner  tubes,  were  estimated  at  $50,000,000. 
Due  to  these  conditions,  employment  in  the  indus- 
try improved  steadily,  both  with  respect  to  num- 
bers employed  and  man-hours  of  work  provided. 

WORLD  CONSUMPTION  OF  CRUDE  RUBBER— 1940 
[All  Figures  tn  Long  Tons] 


Untied 

United 

All 

Month 

States 

Kingdom 

Other 

Total 

Jan 
Feb 

54,978 
49,832 

11,148 
11,027 

25,374 

91,500 
95,200 

Mar 

50,192 

12,215 

31  [893 

94,300 

50,103 

12,546 

26,451 

89,100 

May 

51,619 

12,303 

21,478 

85,400 

June 
uly 
Aug.   . 

46,506 
47,011 
50,234 

12,000 
14,000 
13,000 

28,194 
23,589 
33,966 

86,700 
84,600 
97,200 

Sept 

50,206 

14,000 

19,094 

83,300 

Oct 

56,477 

12,000 

9,623 

78,100 

Nov 

54,652 

13,500 

19,048 

87,200 

Dec 

56,539 

14,000 

19,461 

90,000 

Total 

618,349 

151,739 

292,512 

1,062,600 

Sources  Rubber  Manufacturers  Association;  W.  H  Rickinson 
&  Son.  Note*  Consumption  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  estimated 
since  June,  1940,  World  Totals  are  completely  estimated 

Commercially,  the  rubber  industry  continued  to 
expand.  Goodyear  finished  the  installation  of  the 
world's  largest  conveyor  belt,  carrying  aggregate 
from  gravel  pits  at  Redding  to  the  Shasta  Dam  at 
Caram,  Calif ,  a  distance  of  9  6  miles  Uses  of 
Pliofilm,  the  rubber  hydrochloride  material,  were 
widened  to  include  the  packing  of  foods,  meat- 
stuffs,  etc.  Bullet-resisting  tires  and  bullet-sealing 
gasoline  tanks  for  airplanes  and  military  vehicles 
were  developed  Armor  plate  of  rubber  and  steel 
for  military  aircraft  was  introduced.  A  self-heat- 
ing aviator's  suit  made  its  appearance.  Advances 
in  the  casting  of  latex  in  plaster  and  other  molds 
were  recorded  Rubber  dies  were  used  for  stamp- 
ing out  sheet  metal  parts  for  airplanes  and  other 


uses.  A  new  type  of  cotton  tire  cord,  highly  heat 
resistant,  was  developed  by  the  National  Cotton 
Council  in  co-operation  with  Firestone.  Fiber-latex 
developments,  of  special  interest  to  the  textile 
trade,  were  announced. 

Developments  were  achieved  technically.  Rubber 
compounded  with  acetylene  black  was  found  to  be 
electrically  conductive.  Depolymerized  rubber,  pre- 
pared by  the  use  of  chlorostannic  acid,  was  used  in 
making  thermoplastic  resins.  It  was  determined 
that  latex  could  be  sterilized  in  the  presence  of 
buffer  solutions.  Chlorinated  rubber  was  employed 
for  the  manufacture  of  hard  types  of  lacquer  re- 
sistant to  the  action  of  sea  water.  Vulcanization  of 
rubber  plates  without  any  forms  was  begun.  Col- 
loidal lead  stabilized  with  0.25  per  cent  rubber  was 
found  to  impart  anti-knock  properties  to  gasoline. 

The  use  of  Meehanite  and  other  new  alloys,  pos- 
sessing increased  tensile,  good  transverse,  and  high 
compression  strength,  combined  with  excellent  cor- 
rosion resistance,  marked  the  progress  in  rubber 
machinery  and  equipment  A  new  type  press  for 
curing  sponge  or  blown  goods,  a  constant  control 
rubber  thread  covering  machine,  and  equipment  for 
producing  rubber-insulated  conductors  by  continu- 
ous vulcanization  were  included  among  the  new 
equipment  made  commercially  available.  A  tester 
for  foamed  latex  sponge  rubber,  a  V-belt  measur- 
ing machine,  a  plastograph  for  measuring  the  con- 
sistency of  rubber,  and  a  fluoroscopic  device  for 
x-raying  tires  were  among  laboratory  apparatus 
made  available 

The  big  news  within  the  industry  itself  was  the 
acquisition  of  both  the  Fisk  Rubber  Corporation 
and  the  Gillette  Rubber  Company  by  U.S.  Rubber 
During  the  year,  the  Bata  Shoe  Company  began 
operations  at  its  new  and  first  factory  in  the  United 
States  at  Belcamp,  Md.  Goodyear  constructed  an- 
other factory  at  St  Mary's,  Ohio  Goodrich  began 
the  construction  of  a  plant  at  Niagara  Falls,  N.Y  , 
for  the  manufacture  of  Koroseal.  DuPont  began 
work  on  its  Decpwater,  N  J ,  plant,  to  double  the 
production  of  neoprene. 

See  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL;  FLORIDA  under 
History;  SHOE  INDUSTRY. 

M  E.  LERNER 

RUMANIA.  A  monarchy  of  southeastern  Eu- 
rope Capital,  Bucharest.  King,  Carol  II  (abdi- 
cated Sept.  6,  1940)  and  Michael  V  (successor). 

Area  and  Population.  As  a  result  of  succes- 
sive territorial  cessions  made  during  1940,  the  area 
of  Rumania  was  reduced  from  113,884  square 
miles  to  about  88,714  and  the  population  from  an 
estimated  19,422,600  to  about  12,958,269.  Details 
of  the  ceded  areas  are  given  in  the  accompanying 
table  and  map. 

RUMANIAN  TERRITORIES  CEDED  IN  1940 


Tern  tones 

Ceded  to 

Date 

Area 
sq  miles 

Estimated 
population 

Bessarabia 
Northern 
Bukovma 
Northern 
Transylvania 
Southern  Dobruja 

Total 

USSR 
USSR 

Hungary 
Bulgaria 

June  28 
June  28 

Aug   30 
Sept     7 

17,151 
1,717 

19,  100  • 
2,982 

3,200,000 
500,000 

2,185,987- 
378,344 

25,170 

6,464,331 

•  Rumanian  estimates  According  to  Hungarian  estimates,  the 
area  ceded  was  17,000  square  miles  and  the  population  2,370,000 

It  was  estimated  that  about  half  of  the  popula- 
tion lost  by  Rumania  through  these  territorial 
transfers  was  Rumanian.  Over  1,800,000  Rumani- 
ans were  annexed  by  the  Soviet  Union,  about  1,150,- 


RUMANIA 


665 


RUMANIA 


000  by  Hungary  and  78,000  by  Bulgaria.  Of  the 
non-Rumanian  nationalities  in  the  ceded  districts, 
about  1,875,000  were  estimated  to  have  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  Soviet  Union,  1,200,000  to  Hungary, 
and  300,00p  to  Bulgaria. 

Populations  (estimated,  Jan.  1,  1939)  of  chief 
cities.  (1)  not  ceded  in  1940— Bucure§ti  (Bucha- 
rest) 648,162,  lasi  (Jassy)  104,471,  Galati  (Galatz) 
102,232,  Timisoara  (Temesvar)  89,872,  Ploesti 
77,376,  Arad  75,725,  Braila  68,561;  (2)  ceded 
in  1940— Chisinau  (Kishenev)  112,500,  Cernauti 
(Czernowitz)  109,698,  Cluj  (Klausenburg)  100,- 
272,  Oradea-Mare  (Grosswardein)  80,872. 

National  Defense.  The  strength  of  the  army 
in  the  latter  part  of  1940  was  uncertain  The  force 
was  reportedly  to  be  reorganized,  on  a  reduced 
scale,  in  accordance  with  German  design.  On  Nov. 
1,  1939,  according  to  the  U.S.A.  Adjutant  Gen- 
eral's office,  the  Rumanian  army,  prior  to  the  terri- 
torial dismemberment  of  1940,  had  800,000  men  in 
active  service  and  1,000,000  trained  members  of 
the  reserve  In  the  air  force  were  15,472  men, 
equipped  with  over  800  aircraft.  The  navy  main- 
tained in  the  Black  Sea  4  destroyers,  1  submarine, 
3  torpedo  boats  (formerly  Austrian),  4  motor- 
driven  gunboats,  and  a  depot  ship.  Patrol  boats 
were  maintained  on  the  Danube  River 

Education  and  Religion.  Attendance  at  school 
is  obligatory  for  those  of  proper  age  and  is  free 
in  the  public  schools  In  the  academic  year  1938-39 
schools  for  infants  and  for  elementary  pupils, 
mainly  public  schools  but  others  included,  num- 
bered 19,394  and  had  2,623,000  pupils.  In  the  year 
1937-38,  secondary  schools,  mainly  public,  num- 
bered 925  and  had  204,254  pupils  In  the  year  1938- 
39,  other  than  elementary  pupils  above,  669.187 
adults  were  instructed  in  elementary  schools  Four 
universities  were  maintained,  at  Bucharest,  lasi, 
Cluj  (m^Transylvania),  and  Cernauti  fin  Buko- 
vina),  prior  to  the  territorial  cessions  of  1940  By 
religious  affiliation  13,200,000  of  the  population 
were  reckoned  in  1938  as  connected  with  the  Or- 
thodox Church ;  1,426,813  with  the  Greek  Catho- 
lic; 1,200,000  Roman  Catholic;  1,500,000  Jews  (but 
after  the  cession,  about  700,000) ;  and  smaller  num- 
bers in  other  groups,  including  260,000  Moslems 

Production.  Three-fourths  of  the  population 
before  the  territorial  cession  were  encraged  in  farm- 
ing The  arable  land  totaled  (1937)  34.448,000 
acres,  or  47.3  per  cent  of  the  territory  Production 
of  cereals  in  1939,  by  metric  tons  •  Wheat.  4.452,- 
800;  barley.  816,400;  rye,  431.500;  oats,  487,000; 
maize.  6.051,200;  potatoes,  1,988,400;  the  produc- 
tion of  sugar  from  beets  totaled  127,900  metric 
tons  The  year's  production  of  wine  approximated 
11,542,000  hectoliters,  that  of  tobacco,  14,400  met- 
ric tons.  The  farms'  live  stock  included  in  1938, 
2,024,540  horses,  4,170,640  cattle,  11,808,780  sheep, 
and  3,030,306  swine  Agriculture  normally  pro- 
duced cereals,  animals,  and  some  animal  products 
well  in  excess  of  domestic  needs 

The  chief  mineral  production,  that  of  petroleum, 
attained  6,239,000  metric  tons  for  1939  and  6,601,- 
000  for  1938;  after  Russia's  it  was  the  main  part 
of  Europe's  production  Much  of  it  was  refined  in 
Rumania ;  production  of  gasoline  attained  1,529.000 
metric  tons  for  1938.  Wells  delivered  (1938)  1,725,- 
000.000  cubic  meters  of  natural  gas.  Mines  pro- 
duced (1939)  289,000  metric  tons  of  coal  and 
2,183,000  of  lignite.  Salt  mines  -(in  the  lower  Car- 
pathian area)  produced  370,000  metric  tons  in  1938 
Other  mineral  products  were  iron  ore,  pyrites,  lead, 
zinc,  and  copper,  all  secondary  as  to  quantity. 
Manufacturing  employed  (1937)  278,919  persons 


in  3512  establishments;  among  the  chief  sorts  of 
manufacture  were  flour-milling,  brewing,  and  dis- 
tilling. 

Foreign  Trade.  For  1939,  in  millions  of  lei, 
imports  22,846 ;  exports,  26,809.  For  1938,  imports 
18,768  and  exports  21,533.  Petroleum  products  and 
cereals  accounted  for  most  of  the  amount  of  ex- 
ports; in  1938,  petroleum  products  for  9313  mil- 
lions of  lei  and  cereals  for  5257.  Chief  imports  of 
1938  in  millions  of  lei ;  iron  and  steel,  4060 ;  ma- 
chinery, 3578 ;  textiles,  2848  Germany  took,  of  the 
exports  of  1938,  5707  millions  of  lei  and  sent,  of 
the  imports,  6908 ;  the  United  Kingdom  took  2386, 
sent  1529;  Czecho-Slovakia  took  2059,  sent  2465; 
France  took  1006,  sent  1444 

Finance.  Monetary  unit,  the  leu ;  quoted  nomi- 
nally in  1939  around  071  cent  in  U.S.  money  at 
New  York;  officially  rated  value  in  U  S.  money, 
December,  1940,  0.46  cents  The  budget  for  the 
year  1939-40  estimated  ordinary  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure, alike,  at  32,229  millions  of  lei ;  for  1938- 
39,  at  30,550.  For  1939-40  a  special  budget  for 
national  defense  carried  an  additional  6000  mil- 
lions Public  debt,  Apr.  1,  1939,  104,1274  millions. 
The  National  Bank's  gold,  21,028  million  lei,  was 
revalued  in  May,  1940,  at  31,542  million. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  Feb.  27, 
1938  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939)  was  suspended  and 
Parliament  dissolved  on  Sept.  5,  1940  By  royal 
decrees  of  September  5-6,  all  of  the  governing 
powers,  except  command  of  the  army  and  the 
rights  to  issue  currency  and  grant  decorations  and 
amnesty,  were  transferred  to  Gen.  Ion  Antonescu, 
Head  of  the  State  and  Premier.  The  Crown 
Council  created  in  1938  likewise  was  abolished 
King  Carol's  Front  of  National  Regeneration, 
which  in  1938  replaced  all  political  parties,  was 
replaced  by  the  Iron  Guard  in  September,  1940 
The  cabinet  appointed  Sept  14,  1940,  was  com- 
posed of  Iron  Guard  leaders,  army  officers,  and 
non-party  technicians. 

HISTORY 

Rumania  gave  up  to  Russia,  to  Hungary,  and  to 
Bulgaria  in  1940,  without  attempting  a  blow  in  de- 
fense, nearly  one-fourth  of  its  area  and  one-third 
of  its  inhabitants;  and  its  ruler,  King  Carol  II, 
abdicated  and  went  into  exile  These  changes 
marked  the  failure  of  the  country's  attempt  to  re- 
tain territory  that  it  had  gained  by  the  downfall  of 
Germany  and  her  partners  in  the  previous  Euro- 
pean war ;  about  two-thirds  of  the  territory  then 
acquired  was  now  given  up  The  failure  also  of 
the  monarchy's  policy  of  courting  one  strong  pro- 
tector after  another,  standing  by  none,  became 
manifest. 

Events  Leading  to  the  Partition.  The  de- 
mands of  Russia,  of  Hungary,  and  of  Bulgaria  on 
Rumania  were  of  long  standing.  Russia  had  begun 
its  efforts  to  recover  Bessarabia  soon  after  the  full 
establishment  of  the  U  S.S.R.  The  irredentist 
movement  in  Hungary  was  as  old  as  the  existing 
Hungarian  government.  The  new  European  war, 
breaking  out  in  1939,  brought  on  an  open  season 
for  territorial  seizures  outside  the  main  field  of 
struggle.  The  downfall  of  the  resistance  to  Ger- 
many in  western  part  of  the  European  continent 
made  it  simple  for  Germany  to  reach  out  a  hand 
toward  the  Rumanian  resources  and  necessary  for 
Russia  to  gather  its  intended  share  of  that  coun- 
try's territory  quickly  The  situation  for  which ^the 
seekers  of  Rumanian  territory  had  long  waited 
thus  came  about  in  June. 

Steps  in  the  Partition.  Russia  brought  into 


RUMANIA 


666 


RUMANIA 


BULGARIA 


Courtesy  of  New  York  Times 


THE  PARTITION  OF  RUMANIA 


Bessarabia  and  Northern  Bukovma  were  ceded  to  Soviet  Russia  on  June  28  Half  of  Transylvania  was  annexed  to  Hungary  under  the 
"arbitral  award"  announced  by  the  German  and  Italian  Foreign  Ministers  at  Vienna  on  August  30  Southern  Dobruja  was  ceded  to 
Bulgaria  by  a  Rumanian-  Bulgarian  treaty  signed  September  7 


position  in  May  a  force  for  crossing  the  Dniester 
River  into  Bessarabia.  In  the  middle  of  June  con- 
ferences between  Russia  and  the  Axis  powers 
were  reported  as  preparing  an  agreement  on  the 
approaching  partition.  The  first  noteworthy  en- 
counters of  Russian  and  Rumanian  troops  along 
the  Dniester  were  reported  on  the  24th.  On  the 
26th  Russia  demanded  of  Rumania  the  return  of 
Bessarabia  to  Russia  and  the  transfer  of  Northern 
Bukovina;  Rumania  was  told  to  agree  within  24 
hours.  It  agreed  to  the  cession  on  the  following 
day  and  on  June  28  details  of  the  transfer  were 
completed. 

Hungarian  troops  began  skirmishing  with  Ru- 
manian forces  on  the  Transylvanian  border  on 
July  2.  On  July  24,  Hitler  summoned  members  of 
the  Rumanian  ministry  to  a  conference,  July  26,  at 
Salzburg.  There  followed  conferences  between  the 
Hungarian  and  Rumanian  governments  and,  in 
August,  the  submission  of  the  Hungarian  demands 
to  arbitration  by  both  the  Hungarian  and  Ruma- 
nian governments.  The  Foreign  Ministers  of  Ger- 
many and  of  Italy,  Ribbentrop  and  Ciano,  acting 
as  an  arbitral  court,  issued,  August  30,  an  award 
delivering  to  Hungary  the  more  northerly  part  of 
its  former  Transylvanian  territory.  The  Rumanian 
Government  accepted  the  award.  The  Bulgarian 
claims,  which  had  also  been  pressed  in  July,  were 
settled  by  a  treaty  between  Bulgaria  and  Rumania, 
signed  September  7,  Rumania  ceding  the  southern 
part  of  Dobruja.  See  BULGARIA  and  HUNGARY 
under  History. 

Rumanian  Diplomacy.  The  government  of 
Rumania  used  diplomacy  to  avert  if  possible,  or 


diminish  the  seventy  of  its  neighbors'  territorial 
demands  It  avoided  any  effort  at  adequate  military 
resistance ;  but  as  far  as  offering  the  semblance  of 
a  determined  military  front  might  discourage  ag- 
gression, it  did  what  it  could.  The  forces  on  the 
frontiers  were  repeatedly  augmented  early  in  the 
year,  and  King  Carol  in  a  public  address  declared 
the  readiness  of  the  people  to  die  in  the  nation's 
defense. 

No  apparent  effort  was  made  to  win  help  from 
opponents  of  the  Axis,  despite  the  conditional  1939 
Anglo-French  guarantee  of  Rumania's  territorial 
integrity.  Great  Britain  was  for  the  moment  over- 
burdened with  its  own  difficulties  and  France  was 
prostrate.  Members  of  the  Balkan  entente  were 
quite  inadequate  to  take  on  the  protection  of  other 
territory  than  their  own.  Rumanian  readiness  to 
submit  to  German-Italian  arbitration  in  Hungary's 
favor  was  due  partly  to  fear  of  further  Russian 
penetration;  partly  also,  to  dread  of  the  Iron 
Guard,  of  which  Germany  had  at  the  critical  mo- 
ment sent  back  a  formidable  number,  refugees  in 
Germany,  to  their  own  land,  The  award  to  Hun- 
gary, indeed,  did  leave  to  Rumania  the  southern 
part,  somewhat  less  than  half,  of  the  territory 
originally  taken  from  Hungary.  The  policy  of 
favoring  Germany  had  the  drawback  of  affording 
free  ingress  to  the  German  agents  of  economic 
penetration  and,  especially,  to  German  troops, 
which  first  entered  in  the  guise  of  protectors 
against  further  Russian  inroads.  The  discredit  that 
these  calamities  brought  on  the  government  im- 
pelled King  Carol  to  make  repeated  changes  in 
the  ministry. 


RUMANIA 


667 


Fall  of  King;  Carol.  Whatever  the  merit  of  the 
policy  of  seeking  German  good  will,  it  did  not 
serve  to  save  Carol  II's  crown.  German  influence 
was  not  used  to  support  him.  Threatened  with  an 
uprising  by  his  bitterest  enemies — the  Iron  Guards, 
of  whom  his  government  had  executed  a  great 
number  after  their  assassination  of  Premier  Cal- 
inescu  in  1939 — he  was  forced  to  leave  the  country. 
He  wrote  his  abdication,  September  6,  designating 
his  18-year-old  son  Michael  as  his  successor.  After 
fleeing  to  Switzerland,  he  made  his  way  to  Portu- 
gal. The  reins  of  government  were  left  in  the 
hands  of  General  Ion  Antonescu,  a  former  politi- 
cal opponent,  whom  Carol  as  a  last  resort  had  re- 
leased from  confinement  and  vested  with  broad 
powers. 

Uprisings  under  Antonescu.  The  state  of  the 
country,  as  Antonescu  carried  on  the  government 
after  Carol's  departure,  invited  civil  war.  The 
throne  stood  in  discredit  as  having  failed  to  pre- 
vent the  year's  national  disasters.  The  new  sover- 
eign was  familiar  to  the  people — he  had  been  a 
child  king  during  the  years  of  Carol's  exclusion 
fiom  the  succession,  and  his  father  had  supplanted 
him.  He  was  not  a  figure  to  command  loyalty  as 
the  evident  possessor  of  personal  powers  adequate 
to  his  station.  The  Iron  Guards,  re-established  in 
the  country  since  spring,  had  a  sympathizer  or 
agent  in  the  ministry,  in  the  person  of  Vice  Pre- 
mier Hona  Sima.  Divided  among  themselves,  they 
could  not  well  unite  even  to  the  point  of  coming  to 
an  agreement  with  the  government.  Sima  was  be- 
lieved to  stand  with  the  most  influential  of  their 
factions.  The  Russian  occupation  of  Bessarabia 
had  meanwhile  helped  bring  into  Rumania  the 
Communist  propaganda,  and  it  had  made  progress 
amid  the  disordered  state  of  the  nation.  Nor  could 
the  government  proceed  easily  against  either  Com- 
munists or  Iron  Guards,  since  in  either  case  it 
would  risk  offending  one  of  the  powers  from 
which  it  had  most  to  fear,  Germany  and  Russia. 

Late  in  November  occurred  a  number  of  assas- 
sinations of  persons  of  note  who  had  incurred  the 
resentment  of  the  Iron  Guards.  Sixty-four  officials 
who  had  served  under  Carol  II  were  reportedly 
killed  on  November  27  alone.  The  "executions" 
were  regarded  as  having  been  carried  out  to  avenge 
that  of  the  Iron  Guard  leader  Codreanu  in  1938. 
A  number  of  Rumanian  intellectuals  were  among 
those  killed.  The  question  how  far  the  German 
authorities  had  sympathized  with  or  promoted  this 
retribution  made  it  difficult  for  the  government  to 
take  steps  against  the  perpetrators.  In  the  absence 
of  such  steps  persons  apprehending  a  like  fate 
took  alarm  and  fled  from  the  country  in  consider- 
able numbers.  The  Russian  authorities  protested 
to  Antonescu  against  his  failure  to  repress  the 
Iron  Guards'  acts  against  Communists. 

The  Rumanian  Earthquake.  On  November  11 
an  earthquake  said  to  be  the  most  destructive  in 
Rumanian  records  killed  a  great  number  of  per- 
sons (388  deaths  reported),  did  widespread  dam- 
age to  buildings  in  Bucharest  and  other  cities,  and 
caused  fires  and  other  damage  among  the  oil  wells. 
Ploesti,  in  the  oil  region,  was  reported  to  have 
suffered  heavily.  See  EARTHQUAKES. 

Interruption  of  the  operations  of  damaged  oil 
refineries  deprived  Germany  for  some  weeks  of 
their  output  of  liquid  fuels,  important  to  German 
warfare  since  Rumania  was  the  chief  source  of 
such  fuels  under  German  control. 

Subservience  to  Germany.  Antonescu's  gov- 
ernment, facing  the  risk  of  violent  opposition  from 
either  or  both  die  German-minded  Iron  Guard  and 


RUSSIAN  LITERATURE 

the  Russian-minded  Communists,  had  no  choke 
but  to  yield  to  Germany  a  broad  economic  mastery 
of  Rumania.  An  economic  agreement  with  Ger- 
many (reported  in  December)  allowed  German 
supervision  of  virtually  all  Rumanian  industry 
under  what  was  termed  a  co-operative  plan  for 
reconstructing  the  country's  business.  Antonescu 
promptly  furthered  the  agreement  by  expropri- 
ating the  private  interests,  largely  British,  that 
owned  and  operated  properties  for  the  production 
and  refining  of  petroleum.  The  question  of  the 
treatment  of  the  Rumanian  Jews  remained  in  doubt 
at  the  end  of  the  year ;  the  government  published. 
November  25,  some  results  of  an  investigation  of 
their  number  and  status;  662,244  had  been  ques- 
tioned, and  their  total  number  was  supposedly 
about  700,000. 

Also  see  GERMANY  and  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIAL- 
IST REPUBLICS  under  History ;  BALKAN  ENTENTE  ; 
COMMUNISM  ;  EUROPEAN  WAR  under  Italo-Greek 
War,  etc.;  JEWS;  LABOR  CONDITIONS;  LEAGUE  OF 
NATIONS;  REPARATIONS  AND  WAR  DEBTS. 

RURAL  ELECTRIFICATION  ADMIN- 
ISTRATION (REA).  See  CO-OPERATIVE  MOVE- 
MENT ;  ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER. 

RUSSELL,  Bertrand.  See  EDUCATION. 

RUSSELL  SAGE  FOUNDATION.  See 
BENEFACTIONS. 

RUSSIAN  LITERATURE.  Judging  by  pre- 
liminary reports,  over  26,000  books,  from  fiction 
and  poetry  to  scientific  works,  were  published  in 
the  Soviet  Union  in  1940;  that  marks  a  decrease 
of  about  5000  items  in  comparison  with  1939. 

Fiction.  In  rather  poor  literary  quality,  choice 
of  subjects,  and  prevailing  atmosphere,  the  year's 
fiction  differed  but  little  from  that  of  1939.  Among 
the  best  artistic  achievements,  The  Dark  Morning 
(Khmuroe  utro)t  by  A.  Tolstoy,  and  the  last  vol- 
ume of  M.  Sholokhov's  Quiet  Flows  the  Don 
( Tikhiy  Don)  stand  out  Tolstoy  is  a  distant  rela- 
tive of  L.  Tolstoy  and  an  uncrowned  king  of  So- 
viet authors.  The  Dark  Morning  is  the  continua- 
tion of  his  much  earlier  work  entitled  The  Road 
to  Calvary  (Khoshdenie  po  mukam).  Together, 
they  form  a  very  powerful,  swiftly  moving  pano- 
rama of  pre-revolutionary  and  revolutionary  Rus- 
sia, replete  with  color  and  "life-sap."  The  present 
work  covers  the  momentous  year  1918.  The  last 
volume  of  Sholokhov's  panoramic  novel  brings  to 
conclusion  the  chronicle  of  a  Cossack  family  which 
the  author  has  traced  all  through  the  First  World 
War  and  the  Soviet  revolution.  Although  at  places 
unnecessarily  long,  the  steady  epic  narrative  has 
substantial  literary  merits. 

Of  the  novels  devoted  to  contemporary  Soviet 
life,  Warm  Mountains  (Tyoplyia  gory),  by  S. 
Krushinsky,  must  be  noted.  It  portrays  truthfully, 
if  not  artistically,  the  life  of  "collectivized"  Rus- 
sian peasants,  the  daily  struggle  of  their  individu- 
alistic instinct  against  "the  rural  Socialism,"  and 
the  activities  of  the  persecuted,  but  still  surviving, 
Church.  In  By  the  Blue  Sea  (U  sinevo  moria), 
Vladimir  Ivanov  draws,  in  major  key,  a  picture  of 
an  industrial  community  and  the  milieu  of  new 
''Soviet-type"  intellectuals.  Much  attention  was  at- 
tracted by  R.  Fraerman's  Dingo,  the  Wild  Dog 
(Dikaia  sobaka  Dingo),  a  romanticized  story  of 
"return  to  nature,"  of  "primitive  life"  in  the  woods 
and  of  a  first  love ;  some  of  its  pages  are  written 
remarkably  well  M.  Zoschenko,  the  famous  hu- 
morist, wrote  a  new  volume  of  Short  Stories 
(Rafiskasy),  among  which  there  are  excellent,  sub- 
tle satires  of  Soviet  life  told  in  his  inimitable  man- 
ner of  a  shrewd  simpleton.  Of  the  numerous  his- 


RUSSIAN  LITERATURE 


668 


ST.  LUCIA 


torical  novels,  The  Great  Mouravi  (Velikiy 
Mouravi),  by  Miss  A.  Antonovsky,  deserves  men- 
tion for  a  very  detailed  portrayal  of  the  colorful 
Georgian  (Caucasian)  life  in  the  16th  century 
which  it  contains. 

The  present  war  found  but  little  reflection  in 
the  year's  fiction.  As  a  general  European  phenom- 
enon, it  is  treated  in  hardly  any  book.  It  is  to  the 
localized  Russian  end  of  it  alone,  that  is,  to  the 
absorption  (or  "liberation")  of  parts  of  eastern 
Europe  by  the  Soviets,  to  the  Russo-Finnish  War 
and  the  like,  that  a  few  works  were  devoted. 
Among  the  most  readable  of  them  is  The  Road 
to  the  West  (Doroga  na  sapad),  a  collection  of 
short  stories  by  V.  Lidin,  depicting  the  sweep  of 
the  Red  Army  into  Poland.  That  reticence  on  the 
European  aspect  of  the  war  is  in  line  with  the 
policy  of  the  Soviets  which  have  maintained  all 
along  that  it  has  no  bearing  to  speak  of  on  the  life 
of  Soviet  citizens. 

In  1940,  some  Moscow  writers  for  the  first  time 
spoke  frankly  of  the  deplorably  low  level  of  lit- 
erary skill  prevailing  in  Soviet  fiction.  Thus,  A. 
Kozachinsky  published,  -in  the  Literary  Gazette, 
an  article  entitled  In  Defence  of  the  Amusing  (  V 
saschitu  zanimatelnosti) .  Most  Soviet  fiction 
works,  he  asserted,  were  so  unamusing  that,  if 
numerous  Government-controlled  libraries  did  not 
buy  them,  they  would  not  sell  at  all 

Autobiography,  Biography,  and  History.  In 
this  branch  of  literature,  the  year  was  not  rich  in 
important  items  From  the  Shovel  to  Stalin's 
Plane  (Ot  wotvgui  k  stalinskomu  sawiolyotu), 
which  is  a  posthumusly  published  autobiography 
by  Mrs  P  Ossipenko,  a  noted  aviatrix  who  had 
perished  in  an  accident,  received  much  praise 
Lerwontov's  Creative  Path  (Tvorcheskiy  put  Ler- 
montozu),  by  L  Ginsburg,  is  a  well -documented 
and,  on  the  whole,  interesting  work.  In  the  mass 
of  historical  writings,  Highlights  of  the  Historical 
Development  of  the  Western  Ukraine  and  Byelo- 
Russia  (Osnovnyie  momenty  istorii  rasvitia  sa- 
Padnoy  Ukramy  i  Belorussii),  by  V.  Picheta,  a 
noted  authority  on  the  subject,  deserves  notice. 
From  M  Levchenko's  pen  came  an  informative 
History  of  Bysantium  (Iitoria  Visantii). 

Drama  and  Poetry.  Among  the  new  plays, 
The  Snow  Storm  (Metel),  by  the  talented  L.  Le- 
onov,  stands  out.  It  is  a  forceful  story  of  a  petty- 
bourgeois  family  of  Old  Russia  which  has  fully 
adapted  itself  to  Soviet  conditions  Communist 
critics  condemned  it  for  its  "unhealthy  political 
tendencies"  Typical  of  the  Soviet  Union's  new 
nationalistic  tendencies  is  the  amusing  Kremlin's 
Chimes  (Kremlyovskie  kurantv),  by  N  Pogodin, 
in  which  Lenin  is  pictured  as  far  more  of  a  Rus- 
sian nationalist  than  he  had  ever  been  A  Proko- 
fiev's In  Defence  of  those  in  Love  (V  saschitu 
vlyublyonnykh)  is  probably  the  best  volume  of  the 
year's  lyrical  poems 

Literatures  of  Non- Russian  Peoples  of  the 
Soviet  Union.  In  late  years,  the  Soviets  have 
been  stimulating  with  increasing  energy  the  de- 
velopment of  the  cultures  and  literatures  of  vari- 
ous non-Russian  peoples  comprised  in  the  Soviet 
Union,  from  Georgians  to  Moldavs,  Tartars,  etc 
Huge  sums  are  being  spent  on  the  publication  of 
their  works  in  their  native  tongues  and  also  on 
their  translation  into  Russian.  In  1940,  such  trans- 
lated works  held  a  place  of  great  importance  in 
the  publishers'  lists  in  Moscow.  Among  the  most 
important  of  such  works  was  the  Russian  version 
of  Djangar,  a  long  cycle  of  remarkable  heroic  po- 
ems composed  in  the  15-1 7th  centuries  by  the  peo- 


ples of  Mongolia.  Much  attention  was  also  given 
to  the  Works  (Proisvtdenia)  of  A.  Tzereteli,  a 
Georgian  poet-revolutionist  of  the  19th  century. 
£migr£  Literature.  War  conditions  and,  es- 
pecially, the  collapse  of  France  put  an  end,  at 
least  for  the  time  being,  to  the  activity  of  Russian 
£migr£  writers  most  of  whom  lived  in  Paris.  The 
only  emigre  work  of  importance  that  appeared 
in  1940  prior  to  June  was  Solus  Rex,  a  highly 
original  semi-fantastic  novel  by  the  brilliant  V. 
Sinn-Nabokov. 

ALEXANDER  I.  NAZAROFF. 

RUSSIAN  ORTHODOX  CHURCH.  See 

RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS. 

RUSSIAN  SOVIET  FEDERATED  SO- 
CIALIST REPUBLIC.  See  UNION  OF  SOVIET 
SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS  under  Area  and  Population 

RYAN  COLLECTION.  See  ART  under  Art 
Sales. 

RYE.  The  United  States  rye  crop  in  1940  was 
estimated  at  40,601,000  bu  by  the  U  S  Department 
of  Agriculture  compared  with  the  1939  crop  of  39,- 
049,000  bu  and  the  1929-38  average  production  of 
38,095,000  bu.  The  1940  production  was  obtained 
largely  from  smaller  acreages  sown  in  six  north-cen- 
tral states  which  accounted  for  two-thirds  of  the 
U  S.  rye  production  Although  the  area  harvested, 
3,192,000  acres,  was  17  per  cent  below  the  1939  acre- 
age and  2  per  cent  below  the  10-year  average,  yields 
per  acre  were  above  average  in  most  of  the  principal 
rye  states.  Acre  yields  averaged  12.7  bu  in  1940 
and  10.2  bu.  in  1939  Major  rye  states  were  •  North 
Dakota  with  9,776,000  bu ,  Minnesota  with  5,958,- 
000  bu ,  South  Dakota  5,640,000,  Nebraska  2,608,- 
000,  Wisconsin  2,509,000,  Indiana  1,785,000,  and 
Ohio  1,683,000  bu  The  season  average  price  per 
bu.  (preliminary)  received  by  farmers  was  406 
cents  and  the  value  of  production  was  estimated  at 
$16,498,000  in  1940  compared  to  440  cents  and 
$17,163,000  in  1939.  See  AGRICULTURE,— Crop  Pro- 
duction Table,  Imports  and  Exports 

SAARLAND.  See  GERMANY  under  Area  and 
Population. 

SABOTAGE.  See  FEDERAL  BUREAU  OF  INVES- 
TIGATION ;  FIRE  PROTECTION  ;  LABOR  CONDITIONS  ; 
BELGIUM,  BOHEMIA  AND  MORAVIA,  CANADA, 
FRANCE,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  HUNGARY,  IRELAND, 
NETHERLANDS,  NORWAY,  POLAND,  and  RUMANIA 
under  History. 

ST.  CHRISTOPHER.  See  LEEWARD  IS- 
LANDS. 

ST.  HELENA.  See  BRITISH  EMPIRE 

ST.  KITTS.  See  LEEWARD  ISLANDS. 

ST.  LAWRENCE  SEAWAY.  See  CANADA 
under  History;  DAMS;  POWER  PLANTS;  WATER- 
WAYS, INLAND 

ST.  LUCIA.  A  British  insular  colony  in  the 
Windward  Islands  group  of  the  West  Indies. 
Area,  233  square  miles;  population  (1939),  69,- 
084.  Chief  towns:  Castries  (capital),  12,000  in- 
habitants; Soufriere,  7309.  Education  (1938)  :  45 
schools  and  10,210  pupils  enrolled.  Chief  products : 
sugar,  copra,  limes,  cacao,  and  bananas  Trade 
(1938):  imports,  £189,303;  exports,  £169,907,  in- 
cluding re-exports  of  £43,267.  Sugar  accounted 
for  over  47  per  cent  of  the  total  domestic  export 
trade. 

Government.  Finance  (1939)  :  estimated  reve- 
nue, £82,371 ;  estimated  expenditure,  £95,498  The 
colony  is  governed  by  an  administrator  (subordi- 
nate to  the  governor  of  the  Windward  Islands), 
aided  by  an  executive  council.  There  is  a  legisla- 
tive council  of  12  members,  including  the  govcr- 


ST.  PIERRE  AND  MIQUELON         669 

nor  as  president.   Administrator,  Arthur  Alban 
Wright  (appointed  June  10,  1938). 

History.  The  "western  coast'1  of  St.  Lucia  was 
one  of  the  sites  in  which  the  U.S.  Government 
was  authorized  to  establish  naval  and  air  bases 
in  the  Anglo-American  notes  exchanged  Sept.  2, 
1940.  The  exact  sites  selected  were  announced  in 
November  as  follows:  (a)  a  seaplane  base  of  ap- 
proximately 120  acres  at  Gros  Islet  Bay  on  the 
north  coast  and  (b)  a  larger  area  at  Vieuxfort  at 
the  southern  end  of  the  island  for  a  heavy  bomber 
base.  Surveys  and  other  preliminary  work  for  the 
construction  of  these  bases  were  reported  under 
way  at  the  year  end.  See  BRITISH  WEST  INDIES 
and  GREAT  BRITAIN  under  History. 

ST.  PIERRE  AND  MIQUELON.  A 
French  colony  named  after  the  main  islands  in 
two  small  groups,  near  the  south  shore  of  New- 
foundland Area  of  St.  Pierre  group,  10  square 
miles;  Miquelon  group,  83  square  miles.  Total 
population,  4175.  Capital,  St.  Pierre.  Cod  fishing 
is  the  chief  industry.  Trade  (1938)  :  imports,  27,- 
709,000  francs;  exports,  19,240,000  francs  (franc 
averaged  $00288  for  1938;  $0.0251  for  1939).  The 
various  governmental  departments  were  under  the 
control  of  an  administrator  who  was  assisted  by  a 
consultative  council  of  administration. 
ST.  VINCENT.  See  WINDWARD  ISLANDS. 
SAKHALIN.  An  island  north  of  Japan  Area, 
28,597  square  miles.  The  northern  part  (14,662 
sq  mi  )  belongs  to  the  U.S  S.R. ;  the  southern  part 
(13,934  sq.  mi),  called  KARAFUTO,  belongs  to 
Japan. 

SALVADpR,  EL.  A  republic  of  Central 
America.  Capital,  San  Salvador. 

Area  and  Population,  The  smallest  and  most 
densely  populated  of  the  Central  American  states, 
£1  Salvador  has  an  area  of  13,176  square  miles  and 
a  population  estimated  at  1,744,535  on  Jan.  1,  1940. 
Indians  and  mestizos  constitute  the  vast  bulk  of 
the  population,  but  the  small  ruling  class  is  largely 
of  Spanish  descent  Populations  of  the  chief  cities : 
San  Salvador,  102,316  (1937)  ;  Santa  Ana,  83,302; 
San  Miguel,  44,793;  Santa  Tecla,  33,331;  Ahua- 
chapan,  31,245;  San  Vicente,  28,760,  Zatatecoluca, 
26,676,  Sonsonate,  21,138. 

Defense.  The  active  army  as  of  Nov.  1,  1940, 
numbered  about  4500  men.  Military  service  is 
compulsory  in  wartime. 

Education  and  Religion.  Illiteracy  remains 
widespread  Of  12,674  persons  married  m  1937,  55 
per  cent  of  the  men  and  64  per  cent  of  the  women 
could  not  read  or  write  The  1940  budget  allotted 
2,228,000  colones  for  education  The  latest  educa- 
tional statistics  showed  63,387  primary  and  1216 
secondary  students  and  395  enrolled  in  the  Nation- 
al University.  Roman  Catholicism  is  the  dominant 
religion. 

Production.  Coffee  exports  (55,792,000  kilos  of 
2  2  Ib.  in  1939)  accounted  for  84  per  cent  of  the 
value  of  all  exports.  A  census  ended  May,  1939, 
showed  139,940,727  coffee  trees  on  11,545  fincas 
(estates)  owned  by  10,921  proprietors  and  aggre- 
gating 202,432  acres.  Gold  and  silver,  sugar,  bal- 
sam, and  henequen  were  the  other  main  exports. 
Rice,  corn,  tobacco,  etc.,  are  other  crops  Cattle 
and  hog  raising  are  important  local  industries  The 
forests  yield  indigo  and  cabinet  woods.  A  factory 
makes  henequen  bags  for  shipping  coffee 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1939  totaled  22,100,- 
000  colones  (22,866,700  in  1938)  ;  exports,  31,875,- 
700  (27,365,000).  Coffee  exports,  1939,  were  26,- 
641,900  colones.  The  United  States  purchased  60 


SALVADOR,  EL 

per  cent  of  the  1939  exports ;  Germany,  9.0 ;  Nor- 
way, 72.  The  United  States  supplied  53  per  cent 
of  the  imports  in  1939;  Germany,  17.5,  United 
Kingdom,  6.9  per  cent.  See  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  Effective  Jan.  1,  1940,  the  budget  was 
changed  to  the  calendar  year  basis.  For  the  interim 
period  (July  1-Dec.  31,  1939)  revenues  were 
9,995,000  colones  and  expenditures  10,103,000  co- 
lones. The  1940  budget  estimates  were :  Revenues, 
24,267,000  colones  (22,047,000  in  1941)  ;  expendi- 
tures, 24,258,000  (22,044,000  in  1941).  Public  debt 
on  July  31,  1940 :  39,973,000  colones  (external, 36,- 
561,000;  internal,  3,412,000).  The  exchange  value 
of  the  colon  remained  stable  at  about  $0.40  during 
1940  and  preceding  years. 

Transportation.  In  1940  there  were  about  378 
miles  of  railways ;  3691  miles  of  national  and  mu- 
nicipal roads  (1640  miles  improved)  ;  and  air  lines 
connecting  San  Salvador  with  other  Central  Amer- 
ican cities  and  all  points  on  the  inter-American  air 
network.  The  chief  ports  are  La  Union,  La  Liber- 
tad,  and  Acajutla,  entered  by  698  ships  in  1938 

Government,  The  Constitution  of  Jan.  20,  1939, 
vests  executive  power  in  a  President  elected  for 
six  years  and  ineligible  to  succeed  himself.  Legis- 
lative power  rests  in  the  unicameral  National  As- 
sembly of  42  members  elected  for  one  year  by  uni- 
versal suffrage.  President  Maximihano  H  Mar- 
tinez seized  power  through  a  military  coup  Dec  2, 
1931.  After  serving  out  his  predecessor's  term,  he 
was  selected  for  a  four-year  term  beginning 
Mar.  1,  1935,  and  on  Jan.  21,  1939,  his  term  was 
extended  for  six  years  to  Jan.  1,  1945,  by  a  hand- 
picked  Constituent  Assembly  (see  1939  YEAR 
BOOK,  p.  693). 

History.  The  political  situation  in  El  Salvador 
remained  relatively  quiescent  during  1940  but  eco- 
nomic conditions  deteriorated  as  a  result  of  the 
spread  of  the  European  War  to  Scandinavia  This 
eliminated  markets  that  normally  absorbed  35  per 
cent  of  the  republic's  coffee  exports.  The  immedi- 
ate result  was  a  fall  in  coffee  prices  to  the  ap- 
proximate level  of  production  costs  and  the  de- 
pression of  all  other  business  activities  except  con- 
struction of  small  private  residences,  regarded  as 
the  safest  investment  under  existing  conditions. 
The  financial  position  of  the  government  remained 
strong,  however,  and  it  proceeded  actively  with  the 
construction  of  highways  and  other  public  works. 
Negotiations  were  in  progress  for  government 
purchase  of  the  pier  at  La  Libertad,  seaport  of  the 
capital.  In  his  message  of  Feb  15, 1940,  to  the  Na- 
tional Assembly,  President  Martinez  said  that  the 
effects  of  the  war  upon  Salvadorean  economy 
"obliged  us  to  continue  the  suspension  of  the  debt 
service."  Interest  and  amortization  payments  on 
the  foreign  (dollar)  debt  had  been  in  default  since 
Nov.  27,  1937. 

El  Salvador  joined  with  the  other  Central  Amer- 
ican republics  in  supporting  United  States  and 
inter-American  policies  of  hemisphere  defense.  In 
May  President  Martinez  co-operated  in  the  inter- 
American  protest  against  the  German  invasion  of 
Belgium,  Luxemburg,  and  the  Netherlands.  When 
Italy  declared  war  on  France,  the  government  per- 
mitted 300  Black  Shirt  members  of  the  local  Ital- 
ian colony  to  parade  through  San  Salvador,  but 
immediately  afterwards  a  law  was  adopted  ban- 
ning foreign  political  propaganda.  On  June  16 
students  in  the  capital  held  a  pro-French  demon- 
stration before  the  French  Legation.  President 
Martinez  condemned  the  European  dictatorships  in 
an  address  on  October  18.  Baron  Wilhelm  von 
Hundelhausen,  former  German  manager  of  the 


SALVATION  ARMY 


670 


SASKATCHEWAN 


government-owned  mortgage  bank,  was  expelled 
from  the  country  in  December. 

Sec  PAN  AMERICANISM. 

SALVATION  ARMY,  The.  A  world-wide 
organization  with  international  headquarters  at  101 
Queen  Victoria  St.,  London.  England,  whose  pur- 
pose is  the  salvation  of  mankind  from  all  forms  of 
distress — spiritual,  moral,  temporal.  The  move- 
ment was  first  organized  as  The  Christian  Mission 
in  the  East  End  of  London  in  1865  by  William 
Booth,  and,  in  1880,  was  extended  to  the  United 
States  The  government  is  military  in  character 
with  Gen.  George  L.  Carpenter  as  international 
head.  The  doctrine  of  The  Salvation  Army  is  a 
simple  evangelical  creed  based  on  the  Methodism 
from  whence  it  came. 

The  Salvation  Army  is  now  active  in  97  coun- 
tries and  colonies,  carrying  on  its  work  in  104  lan- 
guages. There  were  in  its  service  in  1939,  27,417 
officers  and  cadets;  11,003  persons  without  rank 
wholly  employed;  160,203  honorary  local  officers 
and  bandsmen ;  84,961  songsters ;  34,219  corps  ca- 
dets; and  17,816  corps  and  outposts  in  operation. 
Social  welfare  institutions  and  agencies  numbered 
1684,  free  day  schools  1132,  and  Naval  and  Mili- 
tary Homes  35.  It  published  126  periodicals,  with 
a  total  average  circulation  of  1,441,783  copies  per 
issue. 

There  were  in  the  United  States  in  1939,  1638 
corps  and  outposts,  4  Training  Colleges,  4821  offi- 
cers and  cadets,  and  44,247  honorary  local  officers 
and  bandsmen.  Converts  during  the  year  numbered 
68,031.  Social  Welfare  institutions  included  125 
men's  hotels  and  16  residential  hotels  for  young 
women,  accommodating  a  total  of  10,580.  Men's  So- 
cial Service  Centers  numbered  1 12  with  accommo- 
dation for  5373;  9  children's  homes  and  hospitals 
with  accommodations  for  846 ;  36  women's  homes 
and  hospitals  with  accommodations  for  2184;  and  2 
dispensaries  and  5  clinics  which  treated  20,503.  At 
Thanksgiving  and  Christmas  free  dinners  were  giv- 
en to  530,556  persons  and  toys  to  363,703  children. 
During  1939,  9847  prisoners  on  discharge  were 
assisted  by  The  Salvation  Army;  82,989  mothers 
and  children  were  given  summer  outings ;  76,000 
men  and  women  were  given  employment  through 
the  Army's  61  free  employment  bureaus ;  and  867 
missing  persons  found. 

The  National  Headquarters  of  The  Salvation 
Army  in  the  United  States  are  at  120  West  14th 
Street,  New  York  City.  National  Secretary,  Com- 
missioner Edward  J.  Parker. 

SAMOA.  A  group  of  14  islands  in  the  South- 
ern Pacific,  about  4000  miles  southwest  of  San 
Francisco.  The  islands  of  the  group  east  of  171° 
W.  longitude  belong  to  the  United  States;  those 
west  of  that  line  are  administered  by  New  Zealand 
under  a  mandate  of  the  League  of  Nations. 

American  Samoa.  American  Samoa  comprises 
the  islands  of  Tutuila,  Tau,  Qlosega,  Ofu,  Annuu, 
and  Rose  Island.  Swains  Island  is  included  in  the 
administrative  district  of  American  Samoa.  The 
total  area  is  76  square  miles  and  the  estimated 
population  on  July  1,  1940,  was  12,962,  mostly 
Polynesians  and  half-castes.  The  Naval  Station  at 
Pago  Pago  is  the  seat  of  government  The  popula- 
tion of  the  town  was  approximately  1000.  The 
harbor  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  South  Seas.  The 
average  school  enrollment  in  1939-40  was  about 
3260.  Instruction  is  in  English.  Copra  produced  and 
exported  in  the  fiscal  year  1939-40  was  766  tons 
valued  at  $28,473  The  value  of  imports  during  the 
same  year  was  $76,741 ;  exports,  $75,729.  Govern- 
mental revenues  in  1939-40  were  $110,027;  expend- 


itures, $114,341.  The  islands  are  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  U.S.  Navy  Department  and  are 
administered  by  the  commandant  of  the  naval  sta- 
tion at  Pago  Pago.  There  is  a  native  advisory 
council  called  the  Fono,  which  meets  annually. 
Governor,  Capt.  Lawrence  Wild,  U.S.  Navy  (as- 
sumed office,  Aug.  8, 1940). 

SAN  FRANCISCO  GOLDEN  GATE  EX- 
POSITION. See  FAIRS,  EXPOSITIONS,  AND  CEL- 
EBRATIONS. 

SANITATION.  See  GARBAGE  AND  RFFUSE 
DISPOSAL;  SEWERAGE  AND  SEWAGE  PURIFICATION; 
WATER  WORKS  AND  WATER  PURIFICATION. 

SAN  MARINO.  An  independent  republic  in 
Italy,  near  the  town  of  Rimini.  Area,  38  square 
miles;  population  (1939),  14,545.  Capital,  San 
Marino.  Chief  exports:  cattle,  wine,  building 
stone.  Financial  estimates  (1939-40)  were  bal- 
anced at  6,009,919  lire  (lira  averaged  $0.0520  in 
1939).  The  legislative  power  is  in  the  hands  of 
the  grand  council  of  60  members  elected  by  popu- 
lar vote.  Two  are  appointed  from  this  council 
every  six  months  to  act  as  regents. 

The  government  continued  San  Marino's  neu- 
trality after  Italy's  entrance  into  the  European 
War  on  June  10,  1940,  according  to  a  statement 
issued  Dec.  13,  1940,  by  the  consul  general  of  the 
republic  in  New  York. 

SANTA  CRUZ  DE  TENERIFE.  See  CA- 
NARY ISLANDS 

SANTO  DOMINGO.  See  DOMINICAN  RE- 

PUSAO  THOM&  AND  PRINCIPE.  See  POR- 
TUGAL under  Colonial  Empire 

SARAWAK.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

SASKATCHEWAN.  A  prairie  province  of 
Canada.  Area,  251,700  square  miles;  population 
(1939  estimate),  949,000,  as  against  (1936  census) 
930,893.  Vital  statistics  (1939):  18.019  living 
births,  6018  deaths,  7307  marriages.  Chief  cities 
(1936  census)  :  Regina,  the  capital  (53,354),  Sas- 
katoon (41,734),  Moose  Jaw  (19,805),  Prince  Al- 
bert (11,049),  Swift  Current  (5074).  Education 
( 1937-38 )  :  234,139  students  enrolled  in  schools  of 
all  kinds,  including  5901  in  schools  of  higher  edu- 
cation. 

Production.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural 
production  for  1939  was  $213,412,000.  Field  crops, 
sown  to  a  total  of  20,749,200  acres  in  1939,  were 
valued  at  $166,633,000.  Chief  field  crops  (1939)  : 
Wheat  250,000,000  bu,  oats  112,000,000  bu ,  barley 
26,000,000  bu.,  rye  9,300,000  bu.,  flaxseed  1,200,000 
bu.,  potatoes  86.050  tons,  hay  and  clover  445,000 
tons,  alfalfa  57,000  tons,  fodder  corn  38,000  tons. 
Livestock  (1939)  :  1,170,000  cattle  (including  490,- 
000  milch  cows),  800,000  horses,  470,000  swine, 
341,000  sheep,  9,512,000  poultry.  Fur  production 
(193&-39)  was  worth  $983,400  ($852,147  in  1937- 
38).  Forest  production  (1938)  was  equal  to  81,443 
M  cu.  ft.  and  valued  at  $2,252,936. 

Mineral  production  (1939)  was  valued  at  $8.794,- 
090,  including  gold  (77,120  fine  oz.)  $2,78^194, 
copper  (18,143,149  Ib.)  $1,829,997,  zinc  (37,278,001 
Ib.)  $1,144,062,  coal  (959,595  tons)  $1,255,142, 
silver  (1,141,600  fine  oz.)  $462,211.  Manufacturing 
(1938)  :  678  factories,  6123  employees,  $16,143,335 
net  value  of  products. 

Government.  Financial  estimates  (year  ended 
Apr.  30,  1940) :  Revenue,  $23,325,439;  expendi- 
ture, $23,656,200.  The  King  is  represented  by  a 
lieutenant  governor  (appointed  by  the  governor 
general  in  council)  who  is  assisted  by  a  ministry 
which  is  responsible  to  the  legislature  and  resigns 
office  when  it  fails  to  retain  the  confidence  of  that 


SAUDI  ARABIA 


671       SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE 


body.  In  the  legislative  assembly  there  are  52  mem- 
bers elected  by  popular  vote.  Six  senators  and  21 
commoners  represent  the  province  in  the  Dominion 
parliament  at  Ottawa.  Lieutenant  Governor,  A.  P. 
McNab  (appointed  Oct.  1,  1936) ;  Premier,  W.  J. 
Patterson  (Liberal).  See  CANADA. 

SAUDI  ARABIA.  See  under  ARABIA. 

SAXONY.  See  GERMANY  under  Area  and  Pop- 
ulation. 

SCALISE,  George.  See  LABOR  CONDITIONS 
under  Union  Movements. 

SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE.  Nor- 
wegian. Freedom  of  expression  was  abolished 
when  the  Nazis  invaded  Norway  on  Apr.  9,  1940. 
The  press  was  placed  under  rigid  censorship ;  the 
broadcasting  system  was  taken  over  by  the  in- 
vaders, and  no  public  statement  involving  the  new 
regime  was  permitted.  Norwegian  authors'  answer 
to  official  decrees  forbidding  the  printing  of  free 
thought  emerged  in  anonymity.  Prose  and  poetry, 
magnificent  in  their  manifestation  of  the  true  spirit 
of  Norway,  has  flowed  from  attics  and  cellars 
where  mimeograph  machines  have  replaced  the 
smooth-running  presses  of  other  days.  Passed  by 
hand  from  man  to  man  this  nameless  literature 
has  fed  Norse  contempt  for  the  invader,  and  crys- 
tahzed  his  determination  to  resist  nazification  at 
all  cost.  This  is  the  important  literary  production 
in  Norway  of  1940,  and  some  day  names  may  be 
mentioned — but  not  now. 

The  publishing  houses  of  Oslo  can  claim  no  great 
books  lor  the  seasons  of  1940.  Some  of  the  better 
known  names  appear,  but  others  are  missing.  What- 
ever Sigrid  Undset  had  to  say  she  has  said  from 
lecture  platforms  in  the  United  States.  Knut  Ham- 
sun turned  Nazi.  The  Tiden  Norsk  Forlag,  liberal 
publishing  house  closely  identified  with  the  labor 
party,  issued  no  list  at  all.  Not  a  single  book  deals 
with  the  tragedy  of  Norway.  Aksel  Sandemose, 
stormy  petrel  of  pre-invasion  literary  Norway,  au- 
thored a  timid  collection  of  short  stories  Fortel- 
linger  Fra  Andre  Tider  (Tales  from  other  Days). 
Arthur  Omre  produced  a  novel  with  the  sinister 
title  Dei  Onde  0ie  (The  Evil  Eye).  Barbra  Ring 
escaped  from  the  realism  of  Nazidom  to  the  nos- 
talgic yearnings  for  yesteryear,  naming  her  book 
Saann  er  Norge  (Such  is  Norway),  a  potpourri  of 
eulogies  of  the  scenic  grandeur  of  the  land.  Nils 
Johan  Rud  has  approached  the  Nazi  danger  zone 
in  his  novel  Godt  Mot,  Menneske  (Heads  High, 
Men)  in  which  the  horrors  of  the  1940  springtime 
are  woven  into  a  backdrop  for  the  theme  of  his 
book.  Arnulf  Overland,  the  great  poet,  presented 
the  people  of  Norway  with  a  volume  of  verse  Ord 
I  Alvor  til  det  Nor  she  Folk  (Words  in  Earnest 
to  the  Norwegians).  From  Gyldendal  publishing 
house  came  a  remarkable  book,  a  compilation  of 
excerpts  from  literary  masterpieces  of  bygone 
days,  showing  how  the  Norwegian  people  weath- 
ered other  crises,  Haarde  Tider  Har  Vi  Dfiiet  (We 
have  lived  through  Hardships  Before).  Herman 
Wildenvey  adds  another  chapter  to  his  autobiogra- 
phy, and  probably  had  his  tongue  in  his  cheek  when 
he  named  it  En  Lykkelig  Tid  (Days  of  Joy). 
Magnhild  Haalke's  facile  pen  and  keen  under- 
standing of  plain  people  resulted  in  a  story  of  a 
country  teacher's  struggle  against  prejudice  Her 
novel  Trine  Torgersen  won  first  prize  in  a  literary 
contest.  Gabriel  Scott  wrote  En  Drom  om  en  Drom 
(A  Dream  of  a  Dream),  a  novel  about  a  young 
author  who  leaves  his  laurels  to  meet  the  world. 
Danish.  Danish  writers  of  1940  have  detoured 
around  the  European  war  and  the  Nazi  invasion 
of  their  country.  The  great  novelist,  Johannes  V. 


Jensen,  added  a  new  collection  of  myths  to  his 
famed  cyclus,  now  numbering  eight  volumes;  he 
calls  his  current  work  Mariekonen;  it  spans  the 
glacier  period  in  Denmark  and  a  six  day  indoor 
bicycle  race  in  America.  Thit  Jensen  wrote  a  his- 
torical novel  based  on  the  life  of  King  Valdemar 
Atterdag.  Johannes  Wulf  presents  the  case  history 
of  an  office  clerk  versus  complete  freedom;  his 
book  is  called  Fast  Ansatt  (Steady  Job).  Cai  M. 
Woel  is  another  author  who  has  dipped  into  past 
history,  coming  up  with  Riget  af  Evighed  (The 
Eternal  Kingdom),  a  book  about  Canute  the  Holy 
and  his  dramatic  escape  from  the  peasants  of  Jut- 
land. The  bitter  struggle  of  the  unemployed  is 
vividly  portrayed  by  a  new  writer,  Eigil  Jensen ; 
his  novel  is  named  Hoc r  Var  Der  Ikke  en  Som  Lo 
(Wasn't  That  Someone  Laughing).  Jorgen  Niel- 
sen reappears  on  the  literary  scene  after  an  absence 
of  several  years;  his  novel  Dybet  (From  the 
Depths)  is  a  fine  study  in  child  psychology.  Erik 
Bertelsen  depicts  the  hardships  of  Danish  fisher- 
men on  the  west  coast  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  Kvinder  vcd  Strandcn  (  Wom- 
en of  the  Coast).  Karen  Aabye  tackles  the  prob- 
lems of  bachelor  girls:  if  the  self-supporting 
woman  of  today  can  retain  her  primitive  instincts, 
she  will  do  all  right.  The  title  of  her  novel  is  En 
Kvinde  Har  Alt.  Aage  Krarup-Nielsen  has  writ- 
ten a  historical  thriller,  Hans  Falk  Fra  Maketu, 
a  story  of  a  Danish  soldier  of  fortune  from  Na- 
poleonic days.  Tom  Kristensen  has  opened  the 
drawers  of  his  writing  desk  and  blown  the  dust 
off  poems  at  random,  calling  them  Digte  I  Dvqnct 
(Poems  of  yesterday).  Kristensen  thinks  it  is  good 
for  the  soul  to  do  a  little  retrospecting  m  these 
terrible  times.  Hakon  Stangerup  reviews  living 
Danish  literature  from  Saxo  to  Jacob  Paludan, 
Levende  Dansk  Litteratur. 

Swedish.  Of  the  three  Scandinavian  countries 
Sweden  is  the  only  one  to  escape  invasion  and 
attempted  nazification ;  freedom  of  expression  still 
prevails,  and  the  literary  production  in  1940  in 
Sweden  is  rich  and  full  with  a  noticeable  stress 
on  informative  literature  and  current  cultural 
trends.  There  is  also  poetry,  such  as  the  glorious 
Saang  och  Strid  (Song  and  Struggle)  by  Par 
Lagerkvist,  including  poems  on  the  tragedy  brought 
on  by  the  invasion  of  Norway  and  Denmark.  Ma- 
rika  Stiernstedt  appears  with  a  voluminous  novel, 
Man  Glommer  Ingenting  (Nothing  is  Forgotten)  ; 
it  is  an  able  presentation  of  the  problems  of  art 
and  love  between  two  artists,  the  male  species  of 
whom  is  encumbered  with  a  lawful  wife.  Sigfrid 
Siwertz  has  written  a  fascinating  book  on  dreams, 
Mer  An  Skuggor  (More  than  Shadows).  In  the 
experimental  vein  it  is  a  promising  addition  to  con- 
temporary Swedish  literature.  Another  berth  for 
the  fantastic  is  provided  by  Karin  Boye  whose 
brilliant  book  Kallocam  leads  the  reader  into  the 
State  of  the  future  Albert  Olsson  has  gone  to 
16th  century  Sweden  for  some  excellent  material 
for  his  work  Sand,  the  story  of  a  proud  landowner 
with  a  social  conscience.  K  G.  Ossiannilsson  offers 
a  challenge  to  the  meek  in  his  novel  Livet  Maaste 
Levas  (Life  Must  Go  On)  ;  the  moral  of  the  book 
is  that  it  will  never  do  to  resign  to  the  fact  that 
this  is  an  evil  world,  but  rather  that  one  should 
fight  it.  One  of  the  most  significant  literary  works 
of  the  year  in  Sweden  is  Eyvind  Johnson's  Sol- 
datens  Aaterkomst  (Return  of  the  Soldier).  It  has 
the  blood  and  bones  and  sinews  of  the  present  con- 
flict between  freedom  and  totalitarianism.  The 
Soldier  is  the  soldier  of  the  North,  the  young  man 
who  left  his  safe  haven  to  carry  arms  for  Loyalist 


SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE 


SCULPTURE 


Spain,  Fighting  Finland,  and  Invaded  Norway. 
Truly  a  classic  of  our  tragic  era.  Fritiof  Nilsson 
Piraten  has  enriched  the  field  of  short  stories  with 
a  magnificent  collection  called  Historier  fraan  Pars 
(Tales  from  Fars).  Fredrik  Book  traces  the  mak- 
ing of  a  man  back  to  the  conditioning  he  received 
in  school ;  his  book  is  called  Storskolan  (The  Big 
Class).  A  towering  contribution  to  the  understand- 
ing of  the  greatest  conflict  of  modern  times  is 
Harry  Martinson's  Verklighet  till  Dods  (Realism 
unto  Death).  Martinson  hates  the  cliches  of  life, 
the  ready-made  pattern  handed  to  millions  by  dic- 
tatorial decree  To  him  might  never  will  be  right. 
In  Jose  fine  Eller  Sag  Dct  Med  Blommor  (Jose- 
phine— or,  Say  it  with  Flowers),  Olle  Hedberg 
ably  cuts  a  slice  from  the  so-called  solid  middle- 
class  and  presents  it  slightly  spiced  to  the  reader ; 
it  is  the  story  of  a  spinster  who  gets  in  trouble 
with  her  snooty  relatives.  Eirik  Hornborg  has 
written  the  history  of  Sweden,  Sverigcs  Historia, 
from  the  earliest  days  of  the  kingdom  down  to  the 
present.  "Sweden,"  says  Hornborg,  "has  built  itself 
a  fine  house,  it  has  much  to  defend." 

HANS  OLAV 

SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE.  See  GERMANY  un- 
der Area  and  Population. 

SCHIZOPHRENIA.  See  PSYCHIATRY 

SCHOOL  LUNCH  PROGRAM.  See  SUR- 
PLUS MARKETING  ADMINISTRATION. 

SCHOOLS.  The  U  S  Office  of  Education  es- 
timated that  32,285,000  pupils  were  enrolled  in 
schools  of  all  types  in  the  United  States  for  the 
school  year  1940-41.  The  enrollments  were  dis- 
tributed as  follows  • 


Elementary 
Secondary 
Higher 

Nurse-training 
Business  colleges 

Subtotal 

Evening  and  part-time  schools 
Miscellaneous  schools,  trade,  etc 

Grand  Total 


21,550,000 

7,160,000 

1,425,000 

75,000 

75,000 

(30,285,000) 

1,950,000 

50,000 

32,285,000 


Private  schools  accounted  for  2,225,000  pupils  of 
the  total  elementary  enrollment  and  510,000  of  the 
total  secondary  enrollment  (four  years  of  high 
school).  Forty  thousand  of  the  680,000  kindergar- 
ten pupils  were  enrolled  in  private  kindergartens. 
Entering  the  first  grade  for  the  first  time  were 
2,100,000  pupils— 200,000  in  private  schools  and 
1,900,000  in  public  schools.  The  estimated  number 
of  graduates  for  both  public  and  private  schools 


was  as  follows:  Eighth  grade,  1,900,000;  high 
school,  1,250,000;  college,  177,000. 

Teachers  in  elementary  schools  totaled  725,000 
for  the  school  year  (650,000  in  public  schools  and 
75,000  in  private  schools)  ;  high  school  teachers 
numbered  315,000  (280,000  public  and  35,000  pri- 
vate). There  were  122,000  one-teacher  schools  hav- 
ing an  estimated  2,680,000  pupils.  The  number  of 
pupils  to  be  transported  at  public  expense  was 
4,500,000. 

Latest  information  on  school  expenditures  for 
the  country  as  a  whole  apply  to  the  school  year 
1937-^38  and  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  table. 
Later  information  by  States  appears  in  the  section 
on  Education  in  the  articles  on  the  States.  See  also 
EDUCATION  ;  EDUCATION,  OFFICE  OF  ;  UNIVERSI- 
TIES AND  COLLEGES.  For  school  buildings,  see  AR- 
CHITECTURE. For  foreign  statistics,  see  the  articles 
on  the  various  countries. 

SCIENCES,  National  Academy  of.  Sec 
ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES. 

SCOTLAND.  See  GREAT  BRITAIN  under  Area 
and  Population. 

SCOTTSBORO  CASE.  See  ALABAMA. 

SCULPTURE.  Not  many  monumental  works 
in  sculpture  were  executed  in  1940,  but  general 
activity  in  the  field  seemed  to  increase  and  a  great- 
er variety  in  materials  used  was  observed,-— wood 
and  stone  taking  precedence  over  bronze  and  mar- 
ble. See  ART. 

Sculpture  in  glass,  made  in  Sweden  and  in  the 
United  States,  attracted  wide  attention,  finding  fa- 
vor with  connoisseurs  of  art,  art  museum  directors, 
and  sculptors  of  outstanding  reputation.  Carl  Milles 
did  work  for  the  Orrefors  Glass  Company  in  this 
medium,  and  twenty-seven  world-renowned  sculp- 
tors of  this  and  other  countries  co-operated  in  like 
manner  with  the  Corning  Glass  Company  in  the 
production  of  sculpture  in  Steuben  Glass 

Sculpture  in  pottery  was  also  seen  to  advance  in 
popularity.  In  fact  in  1940  it  found  its  way  into 
almost  all  the  leading  exhibitions  Especially  nota- 
ble was  the  representation  in  the  Syracuse  Muse- 
um's Ceramic  Exhibition,  in  which  sculpture  in 
this  medium  carried  off  three  prizes  and  three 
honorable  mentions.  The  prize  and  honor  win- 
ners were  residents  of  California,  Ohio,  and  Con- 
necticut, indicating  the  widespread  interest  in 
this  art. 

In  order  to  increase  interest  in  scujpture  and  get 
more  examples  of  the  work  of  Amrican  sculptors 
in  American  homes,  an  organization  was  formed 
to  issue  reductions  of  such  in  "Limited  Editions" 
which  might  be  purchased  at  small  cost.  The  mate- 
rials used  were  imitation  stone,  concrete,  and  lead ; 


EXPENDITURES  FOR  SCHOOLS  REPORTING,  1937-38 
[Includes  capital  outlay] 


Typt  of  school 


Public 


PnvaU 


Total 


Elementary  schools  (including  kindergartens) 
High  schools  and  academies 

$1,333,376,527 
899,733.527 

$151,288,688* 
64,564,177- 

$1,484,665,215 
964,297,704 

Universities,  colleges,  and  professional  schools  (including  pre- 
paratory departments)  * 

279,812,761 

265,824,519 

545,657,100 

Schools  for  delinquents  0 

2,103,052 

224,326* 

2,327,378 

Schools  for  the  deaf  ' 

870,190 

1,992,321  < 

2,862,511 

Schools  for  the  blind  • 

1,020,706 

352,218  * 

1,172,924 

Schools  for  the  mentally  deficient  ' 
Government  schools  for  Indians  «... 

3,683,919 
8,923,814 

283,318  * 

3,967,237 
8,923,814 

Total.  .  . 

2,529,544,496 

484,529,587 

3,014,074,083 

.. 

»  Does  not  include  $51.475,945  public,  $87,717,562  private,  and  $139,193,507  total  expenditures  for  auxiliary  enterprises  and  activities 
and  for  other  noneducational  expenditures  . 

« 1936  data  for  State  and  private  residential  schools;  dty  public  schools  not  included 

*  Includes  expenditures  for  instructional  purposes  and  capital  outlay  for  schools  reporting  these  items. 

•  Not  including  amount  spent  for  tuition  in  public  schools— $650,712. 


SECOND  INTERNATIONAL 


673 


SEISMOLOGY 


prices  ranged  from  five  to  two  hundred  fifty  dol- 
lars. The  guarantors  paid  first  costs  of  casting. 

Two  medals  were  struck  and  distributed  by  the 
Society  of  Medalists  to  its  members  in  1940.  They 
were  by  Edmond  Amateis  and  Walker  Hancock, 
both  setting  forth  timely  and  thought-provoking 
themes.  An  equestrian  statue  in  bronze,  represent- 
ing Theodore  Roosevelt  as  explorer,  the  work  of 
James  Earle  Fraser,  was  erected  in  New  York  City 
on  a  site  adjacent  to  the  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory. A  bronze  portrait  bust  of  Ernest  Schelling 
by  Malvina  Hoffman  was  presented  by  friends  of 
the  musician  to,  and  permanently  placed  in  Carne- 
gie Music  Hall,  New  York.  The  Jefferson  nickel, 
designed  by  Felix  Schlag  of  Chicago,  was  minted 
and  put  in  circulation  in  1940. 

Under  a  Commission,  specially  appointed  by 
Congress,  a  competition  was  held  for  a  statue  of 
Thomas  Jefferson  to  be  placed  under  the  dome  in 
the  Jefferson  Memorial,  in  process  of  erection  in 
Washington,  D  C.  One  hundred  one  sculptors  com- 
peted, from  whom  six  were  selected  to  restudy  and 
resubmit  their  models.  One  of  these  was  in  turn 
chosen  to  make  further  submission  and  upon  his 
failure  to  meet  requirements,  two  of  the  other 
competitors  were  given  like  opportunity  Up  to  the 
close  of  the  year  none  had  been  successful  in  satis- 
fying the  Commissioners 

Three  sculpture  competitions  were  conducted  by 
the  Federal  Government  through  its  Section  of 
Fine  Arts  during  1940  with  the  purpose  of  obtain- 
ing sculpture  for  the  decoration  of  new  Federal 
buildings.  Five  hundred  seventy-three  sculptors 
competed,  making  one  thousand  ninety  entries.  One 
of  these  competitions  was  for  two  eight-foot  stat- 
ues to  be  placed  on  either  side  of  the  auditorium 
of  the  new  Social  Security  Building  at  Washing- 
ton, and  was  won  by  Robert  M  Cronbach  of  New 
York.  Another  was  for  three  attached  sculptures 
in  the  round  to  go  over  the  three  entrances  to  the 
new  War  Department  Building  and  was  won  by 
Henry  Kreis  of  Connecticut. 

Two  alabaster  statuettes  of  mourners  from  the 
tomb  of  Philip  the  Bold  and  his  son,  John  the 
Fearless,  in  a  monastery  near  Dijon  which  was 
destroyed  in  the  French  Revolution,  were  pur- 
chased by  the  Cleveland  Art  Museum  from  the 
Clarence  Mackay  estate ;  also  statues  of  two  Gothic 
Kings,  Clovis  and  Clothar,  carved  in  stone,  stand- 
ing for  many,  many  years  on  pedestals  on  either 
side  of  a  doorway  of  the  famous  French  abbey  of 
Moutiers-Saint-Jean,  but  likewise  victims  of  the 
Revolution  which  swept  all  France,  were  restored 
to  their  original  setting,  now  incorporated  in  the 
Cloisters,  New  York,  through  the  acquisition  and 
gift  of  Mr.  John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr 

Epstein's  statue  of  Adam,  a  bestial  monster  in 
pink  alabaster  weighing  three  tons,  was  brought  to 
this  country  in  the  spring  of  1940  and  exhibited  in 
New  York  for  a  few  weeks,  an  admission  fee  was 
charged,  but  so  little  interest  was  shown  that  its 
proposed  tour  of  the  States  was  apparently  aban- 
doned The  sculptor  himself  protested  against  the 
showing. 

LEILA  MECHLIN. 

SECOND  INTERNATIONAL.  See  SO- 
CIALISM 

SECRET  SERVICE,  U.S.  The  U.S.  Secret 
Service,  a  division  of  the  Treasury  Department, 
is  one  of  the  oldest  Federal  law-enforcement  agen- 
cies. It  was  established  during  the  Civil  War  and 
has  as  its  chief  duties  the  protection  of  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  his  family,  and  the  Pres- 


ident-elect; the  policing  of  the  White  House  and 
its  grounds ;  the  suppression  of  the  counterfeiting 
and  alteration  of  all  Government  obligations,  and 
the  protection  of  Treasury  buildings,  money,  and 
securities 

"Know  Your  Money"  became  the  keynote  of  an 
intensive  educational  campaign  of  education  against 
crime,  inaugurated  by  the  SecreJ:  Service  in  Janu- 
ary, 1940,  to  teach  the  Nation  the  difference  be- 
tween genuine  and  counterfeit  currency,  and  to 
remove  from  the  youth  of  the  country  the  tempta- 
tion to  engage  in  criminal  careers  through  the  so- 
called  "easy  money"  counterfeiting  route.  Educa- 
tional motion  pictures  were  shown  to  more  than 
4,500,000  persons,  and  approximately  6,000,000  ed- 
ucational pamphlets  were  distributed  by  Secret 
Service  personnel. 

That  the  campaign  has  been  effective  is  clearly 
evident.  During  the  fiscal  year  the  Secret  Service 
made  3281  arrests,  or  704  fewer  than  in  the  pre- 
vious year.  These  included  makers  and  passers  of 
counterfeit  notes  and  coins,  forgers  of  Government 
checks,  violators  of  the  Gold  Reserve  Act  and  the 
Federal  Farm  Loan  Act,  and  others  who  stole 
Government  property,  presented  false  claims  or 
committed  miscellaneous  offenses  over  which  the 
Secret  Service  has  jurisdiction 

Counterfeit  and  altered  notes  representing  $237,- 
335  were  seized  by  or  surrendered  to  the  Secret 
Service,  constituting  a  reduction  of  $186,759,  or 
44.03  per  cent,  as  compared  to  1939.  The  total  loss 
to  the  public  through  acceptance  of  counterfeit 
notes  and  coins  amounted  to  $197,381,  as  compared 
to  losses  of  $344,382  in  1939.  This  reduction  of 
$147,001  is  a  distinct  dividend  of  the  "Know  Your 
Money"  campaign. 

In  cases  brought  to  trial,  3005  persons  were  con- 
victed and  89  were  acquitted.  The  convictions  rep- 
resent 97.1  per  cent  of  the  cases  brought  to  trial, 
a  slight  increase  over  the  1939  high  of  97  per  cent. 

During  the  year  Congress  enacted  legislation  to 
permit  the  appointment  of  20  additional  men  to 
the  White  House  Police  Force,  which  now  con- 
sists of  80  well-trained  officers  who  guard  the 
Executive  Mansion  and  its  grounds,  under  the 
direction  of  Frank  J.  Wilson,  Chief  of  the  Secret 
Service. 

FRANK  J.  WILSON, 

SECURITIES  AND  EXCHANGE  COM- 
MISSION. See  BUSINESS  RFVIMV,  ELECTRIC 
LIMIT  AND  POWER  ;  FINANCIAL  REVIEW  under  Fi- 
nancial Regulation. 

SECURITY  MARKETS.  See  FINANCIAL 
REVIEW. 

SEISMOLOGY.  During  the  year  Landsberg 
published  a  summary  of  the  seismological  stations 
of  the  world  which  brings  out  in  a  striking  manner 
their  unequal  distribution  and  the  need  of  more 
observatories.  Landsberg  lists  478  stations  which  is 
an  approximate  average  of  one  station  per  one 
million  square  kilometers  of  the  earth's  surface. 
The  present  distribution  by  continents  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Europe  has  159  observatories  or  14  per  mil- 
lion square  kilometers,  Asia  156  or  3  7  per  million 
square  kilometers,  North  and  South  America  110 
or  2.7  per  million,  Australia  and  New  Zealand  22 
or  2.6  per  million,  Africa  9  or  0.3  per  million. 
Countries  with  the  largest  number  of  observatories 
are  Japan  with  127,  United  States  with  59,  and 
Italy  with  39  Countries  with  the  greatest  density 
of  stations  are  Japan  with  322  per  million  square 
kilometers,  Switzerland  with  145  and  Italy  with 
126.  It  is  to  be  specially  noted  that  Japan  has  nearly 


SELANOOR 


SHIPBUILDING 


all  the  observatories  in  the  continent  of  Asia  and 
that  the  United  States  has  more  than  half  of  the 
observatories  in  the  two  American  continents.  See 
EARTHQUAKES. 

RICHMOND  T.  ZOCH. 

SSLANGOR.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

SELECTIVE  SERVICE  ACT  AND  SYS- 
TEM. See  DRAFT,  MILITARY. 

SENATE,  U.S.  The  membership  of  the  U.S. 
Senate  at  its  assembly  on  Jan.  3,  1941,  is  shown  in 
the  accompanying  list.  Political  affiliation  is  shown 
in  each  case  after  the  name,  by  a  D  (Democrat), 
R  (Republican),  P  (Progressive),  FL  (Farmer 
Labor),  AL  (American  Labor),  or  I  (Independent). 

ALABAMA  ARIZONA 

John  H    Bankhead,  2d.,  D      Ernest   W.  McFarland.   D 
Lister  Hill,  D  Carl  Hayden,  D 

ARKANSAS  CALIFORNIA 

Hattie  W    Caraway,  D  Hiram  W    Johnson,  R 

John  E.  Miller,  D  Sheridan  Downey,  D 

COLORADO  CONNECTICUT 

Alva  B    Adams,  D  Francis  T.  Maloney,  D 

Edwin  C.  Johnson,  D  John  A.  Danaher,  R 

DELAWARE  FLORIDA 


James  M    Tunnell,  D 
araes  H.  Hughes,  D 


Charles  O    Andrews.   D 
Claude  Pepper,  D 


GEORGIA  IDAHO 

Walter  F.  George.  D  John  Thomas,  R 

Richard  B    Russell,  Jr  ,  D  D    Worth  Clark,  D 

ILLINOIS  INDIANA 


C.  Wayland  Brooks,  R 
Scott  W.  Lucas,  D 


Frederick  Van  Nuys,  D 
Raymond  E    Willis,  R 

KANSAS 


Arthur  Capper,  R 
Clyde  M    Reed,  R 

LOUISIANA 

John  H    Overton,  D 
Allen  J.  Ellender,  D 

MARYLAND 

Millard  E.  Tydings,  D 
George   L.   Radchffe,   E 


IOWA 

Guy  M    Gillette,  D 
Clyde  L.  Herring,  D 

KENTUCKY 

Alben  W    Barkley,  D 
Albert  B    Chandler,  D 

MAINE 

Ralph  O   Brewster,  R 
Wallace  H.  White,  R 

MASSACHUSETTS  MICHIGAN 

David  I    Walsh,  D  Arthur  H  Vandenberg,  R 
Henry  Cabot  Lodge,  Jr.,  R   Prentiss  M.  Brown,  D 

MINNESOTA  MISSISSIPPI 

Henrik  Shipstcad,  R  Pat  H,irnson,  D 

Joseph  H.  Ball,  R  Theodore  G    Bilbo,  D 

MISSOURI  MONTANA 

Bennett  Champ  Clark,  D  Burton  K   Wheeler,  D 

Harry  S    Truman,  D  James  E    Murray,  D 

NEBRASKA  NEVADA 

George  W.  Norris,  I  Berkeley  L    Bunker,  D 

Hugh  A    Butler,  K  Pat  McCarran,  D 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE  NEW  JERSEY 

H    Styles  Bridges,  R  William  H   Smatheri,  D 

Charles  W   Tobey,  R  W.  Warren  Barbour,  R 

NEW  MEXICO  Nrw  YORK 

Carl  A    Hatch,  D  Robert  F   Wagner,  D 

Dennis  Chavez,  D  James  M   Mead,  D 

NORTH  CAROLINA  NORTH  DAKOTA 

J<wiah  W    Bailey,  D  William  Langer,  R 

Robert  R.  Reynolds,  D  Gerald  P    Nyc,  R 

OHIO  OKLAHOMA 

Harold  H   Burton,  R  Elmer  Thomas,  D 

Robert  A.  Taft,  R  Josh  Lee,  D 

Out  cov  PEN  N  SLY  VAN  i  A 

Charles  L.  McNary,  R  Tames  J   Davis,  R 

Rufus  C.  Holman,  R  Joseph  F.  Guffey,  D 

RHODE  ISLAND  SOUTH  CAROLINA 

Peter  G.  Gerry,  D  Ellison  D    Smith,  D 

Theodore  F.   Green,  D  James  F    Byrnes,  D 

SOUTH    DAKOTA  TFNNFSSEE 

William  J.  Bulow,  D  Kenneth  McKellar,  D 

Chan  Gurney,  R  Tom  Stewart,  D 


TftXAl 

Morris  Sheppjtrd.  D 
Tom  Connally,  D 

VERMONT 

Warren  R.  Austin,  R 
George  D.  Aiken,  R 

WASHINGTON 
Homer  T.  Bone,  D 
Monrad  C.  Wallgren,  D 

WISCONSIN 

Robert  M.  La  Follette,  Jr.,  i 
Alexander  Wiley.  R 


UTAH 

Elbert  D.  Thomas,  D 
Abe  Murdock,  D 

VIRGINIA 
Carter  Glass,  D 
Harry  Flood  Byrd,  D 

WEST  VIRGINIA 
Matthew  M.  Neely,  D 
Harley  M.  Kilgore,  D 

WYOMING 

Joseph  C.  O'Mahoney,  D 
H.  H.  Schwartz,  D 


SENEGAL.  See  FRENCH  WEST  AFRICA. 
SENESCENCE,  Studies  of.  See  PSYCHIA- 
TRY ;  PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE. 
SERBIAN  ORTHODOX  CHURCH.  See 

RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS 

SEVENTH  DAY  ADVENTISTS.  See  AD- 
VENT  MOVEMENT. 

SEWERAGE  AND  SEWAGE  TREAT- 
MENT. The  Southwest  activated-sludge  plant  of 
the  Chicago  Sanitary  District,  the  largest  sewage 
treatment  plant  of  its  type  if  not  of  any  type  in 
the  world,  is  being  enlarged  from  a  capacity  of 
500  million  gallons  today  to  an  ultimate  900  mil- 
lion gallons.  A  suit  brought  against  the  district 
for  infringement  of  activated-sludge  patents  was 
decided  in  favor  of  the  patentees  some  time  ago, 
but  is  pending  on  appeal.  The  latest  patent  in- 
volved in  the  suit  expired  Nov  25,  1935.  During 
the  year  the  Milwaukee  Sewerage  Commission  fin- 
ished paying  $818,000  royalties  for  the  use  of  the 
activated-sludge  process.  Up  to  1936,  a  total  of 
$635,000  royalties  had  been  paid  by  a  hundred  mu- 
nicipalities. 

Cities  that  completed  sewage  treatment  works 
or  had  them  under  construction  in  1940  included 
Springfield,  Mass. ;  New  Haven,  Conn. ;  New 
York  (several  plants)  ;  Gary,  Ind  ;  Chicago  (al- 
ready mentioned)  ;  Rock  Island,  111. ;  South  St 
Paul,  Minn.,  to  serve  the  city,  stockyards,  and 
packing  plants.  Large  sewage  collection  or  dis- 
posal projects  in  the  planning  stage  include*  Bos- 
ton, sewage  treatment  works  at  Nut  Island,  to 
serve  the  South  Metropolitan  District;  extension 
of  North  Metropolitan  District  relief  sewer  from 
East  Boston  to  Deer  Island,  the  whole  estimated 
to  cost  $15,000,000;  Philadelphia,  extensive  sew- 
age treatment  works,  financing  method  in  abeyance 
since  State  Supreme  Court  held  $42,000,000  bond 
issue  proposal  unconstitutional ;  Louisville,  $4,100,- 
000  for  Ohio  River  intercepting  sewer  and  $1,600,- 
000  for  sewage  treatment  works;  Los  Angeles, 
relief  and  trunk  sewers,  additional  sewage  treat- 
ment works  and  ocean  outfall,  $32,000,000;  To- 
ronto, Ont.,  first  stage  of  activated-sludge  plant, 
$6,000,000;  U.S.  War  Department,  sewage  dis- 
posal works  for  National  Defense  projects 


Works  (New  York  and  London). 


M.  N.  BAKER. 


SEX  DETERMINATION.  See  ZOOLOGY. 

SEYCHELLES.  See  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

SHAN  STATES.  See  BURMA 

SHASTA  DAM.  See  RECLAMATION,  BUREAU  OF. 

SHEEP.  See  LIVESTOCK. 

SHIPBUILDING.  Both  merchant  and  war- 
ship building  in  the  United  States  during  1940  has 
been  very  active,  in  fact  several  private  and  Fed- 
eral yards  have  been  operating  at  peak  capacity. 
The  large  number  of  orders  that  have  been  placed 
can  be  laid  directly  to  the  war  in  Europe  and  to 


SHIPBUILDING 


675 


SHIPBUILDING 


the  necessity  for  the  United  States  to  be  prepared 
for  any  situation  which  might  arise. 

With  the  seizing  by  Germany  of  Norway,  Den- 
mark, Holland,  Belgium,  and  France  accurate  ac- 
counts of  shipbuilding  in  these  countries  are  not 
available.  War  pressure  has  doubtless  caused  Ger- 
man yards  to  devote  most  of  their  time  to  the 
building  of   submarines  and  small   fast  torpedo 
boats,  the  former  for  destroying  merchant  and 
warships  and  the  latter  for  harassing  convoys  of 
merchant  ships.  From  reports  of  the  proposed  in- 
vasion of  England,  Germany  is  believed  to  have 
built  a  large  number  of  barges  for  carrying  sol- 
diers and  war  equipment.  Italy,  it  may  be  assumed, 
because  of  her  lack  of  iron,  steel,  coal,  and  oil  has 
built  only  a  few  ships,  and  these  perhaps  subma- 
rines and  small  craft.  France  since  being  overrun 
by  Germany  has  practically  ceased  to  be  a  ship- 
ping and  shipbuilding  nation.  Late  in  December, 
1940,  the  British  government  awarded  an  order 
for  60  cargo  vessels  to  yards  in  the  United  States. 
Many  cargo,  and  cargo  and  passenger  vessels 
built  in  1940  for  the  account  of  the  U.S.  Maritime 
Commission  have  been  so  designed  that  they  can 
be  changed  into  auxiliaries  for  the  Navy,  or  trans- 
ports for  the  Army.  During  the  year  notable  ad- 
vances were  made  in  improved  construction  which 
has  given  increased  carrying  capacity,  safety,  and 
speed  Welded  ships  are  no  longer  a  novelty,  nor 
is  the  use  of  low  alloy  steels,  for  ships  of  welded 
alloy  steel  are  lighter,  stronger,  and  have  a  greater 
carrying  capacity  than  equivalent  ones  of  carbon 
steel.  Improvements  have  been  made  in  marine 
Diesel  engines,  boilers,  turbines,  and  auxiliaries, 
resulting  in  improved  operating  economy.    (See 
POWER  PLANTS.)  Safety  in  ship  design  and  con- 
struction has  been  given  much  study  by  Federal 
agencies   These  studies  include,  better  subdivision 
of  the  hull   into  compartments,  improved  radio 
equipment,  use  on  the  weather  deck  of  steel  hatch 
covers  instead  of  wood,  together  with  advanced 
designs  and  the  selecting  of  materials  that  tend 
to  prevent  and  stop  fires.  For  vessels  built  for  the 
Maritime  Commission,  Senate  Report  No.  184  is 
followed ;  a  vessel  being  divided  by  vertical  fire- 
resisting  bulkheads  so,  should  fire  break  out,  prac- 
tically all  that  can  burn  is  the  particular  product. 
The  Maritime  Commission  (see  also  SHIPPING) 
has  continued  to  be  an  important  Federal  agency 
in  shipbuilding  and  shipping.  For  it  not  only  has 
the  authority  to  place  contracts  with  shipyards, 
but  also  to  allocate  the  ships  built  to  different  op- 
erators. Of  the  ships  built  under  the  supervision 
of  the  Maritime  Commission  since  it  was  estab- 
lished by  the  Merchant  Marine  Act  of  1936,  to 
Dec.  1,  1940,  contracts  have  been  awarded  for  179, 
of  which  49  have  been  delivered.  The  following 
table  gives  data  on  different  types. 


Type 


Displacement  tons 


Designed  for 


C-l  cargo 


12,875 


C-2cargo 13,900 

C-3  cargo      .          .   .  17,600 

C-3  cargo  &  passenger  17,600 

Cargo-passenger 14,210 

Cargo 14,450 

Cargo          .   .     .  15,200 

Tankers        23,320 

Passenger                   .  35,400 


Efficient  handling  of  small 

cargoes 

Economical  operation. 
Fast  freight 

For  Pacific  ocean  service. 
For  South  American  trade. 
Fast  freight. 


_.i  speed,  large  capacity. 
Luxury  linero,  for  service 
on  the  Atlantic  and  to 
the  Orient 


Several  of  the  cargo  ships  have  accommodations 
for  eight  or  more  passengers ;  others  have  defense 
features  making  them  adaptable  for  war  service. 


Some  of  the  tankers  have  twin  screws  giving  a 
speed  of  19  knots. 

The  largest  and  finest  merchant  ship  completed 
in  1940,  was  the  trans-Atlantic  liner  America  built 
for  the  United  States  Lines  by  the  Newport  News 
Shipbuilding  Co.  She  has  a  striking  general  ap- 
pearance, and  her  interior  design,  passenger  ac- 
commodations, and  appointments  are  second  to  no 
foreign-built  liner.  Among  the  engineering  fea- 
tures are  elaborate  fire  detecting  and  extinguish- 
ing systems,  automatic  fire-protection  doors  in 
fire-screen  bulkheads,  and  the  largest  air-condi- 
tioning plant  installed  to  date  on  a  merchant  ship. 
General  dimensions:  length  overall  723  ft;  beam 
molded  93  ft.  3  ins.;  draft  loaded  32  ft.  8  ins.; 
displacement  loaded  35,400  tons ;  accommodations 
for  543  cabin  passengers,  418  tourist,  241  third 
class,  crew  643.  Propelling  machinery  consists  of 
six  water-tube  boilers  furnishing  steam  to  turbines 
that  drive  the  propellers  through  reduction  gears. 
On  official  trials  a  speed  of  25.3  knots  was  ob- 
tained. 

Another  outstanding  passenger  vessel  designed 
for  around  the  world  service  was  completed  in 
October,  1940,  This  vessel,  the  President  Jackson, 
is  one  of  six  C-3  Maritime  Commission  passenger 
and  cargo  liners  built  for  the  American  President 
Lines.  All  are  of  fireproof  construction  through- 
out, with  the  passenger  quarters  amidships.  The 
public  rooms,  hall,  recreation  space,  and  state- 
rooms are  attractively  decorated,  and  are  located 
on  the  promenade  deck,  while  below  are  the  din- 
ing room,  galley,  and  pantry.  General  dimensions : 
length  overall  492  ft. ;  beam  molded  69  ft  6  ins., 
draft  loaded  26  ft.  6  ins.;  displacement  16,190 
tons;  passengers  97;  crew  135;  driven  by  turbines 
at  a  speed  of  16%  knots.  A  sister  ship,  the  Presi- 
dent Monroe,  was  completed  in  December,  1940. 
Somewhat  similar  to  the  President  Jackson  is  the 
Sea  Fox,  delivered  in  March,  1940,  to  the  Moore 
&  McCormack  Lines,  but  the  Sea  Fox  was  not 
built  for  passenger  service  and  had  accommoda- 
tions for  only  twelve  passengers. 

Other  ships  have  been  put  in  service  for  carry- 
ing passengers  and  freight.  Of  these  is  the  Del- 
brasil,  completed  in  May,  1940,  embodying  the  lat- 
est requirements  of  various  Federal  agencies  and 
incorporating  features  recommended  by  the  Navy 
Department  to  facilitate  conversion  to  a  naval 
auxiliary  in  time  of  war.  The  passenger  quar- 
ters are  amidships,  and  the  arrangement,  decora- 
tions, comfort,  and  convenience  compare  favorably 
with  many  pre-war  trans-Atlantic  liners  General 
dimensions:  length  overall  492  ft;  beam  molded 
65  ft.  6  ins. ;  draft  loaded  25  ft.  6  ins. ;  displace- 
ment 14,210  tons ;  passengers  67 ;  crew  78 ;  speed 
loaded  16%  knots. 

The  ships  mentioned  above  are  steam  turbine 
driven  but  several  cargo  motorships  were  also 
completed.  Representative  of  these  is  the  Sea 
Witch  of  the  American  Pioneer  Line,  built  pri- 
marily for  carrying  cargo.  She  is  of  the  Maritime 
Commission  C-2  type,  length  overall  459  ft ,  beam 
molded  63  ft.,  draft  loaded  25  ft  10  ins.,  displace- 
ment 13,900  tons.  Main  propelling  machinery  con- 
sists of  two  3000  h  p  direct  reversible  Diesel  en- 
gines. Service  speed  15%  knots. 

The  importance  of  oil  in  modern  warfare  is  well 
shown  in  the  present  European  war.  To  meet  war 
and  commercial  needs,  several  large  tankers  have 
been  built  in  the  United  States.  One  of  the  largest, 
the  Ohio,  was  turned  over  by  the  builders  to  the 
Texas  Co.  in  June,  1940.  The  Ohio  is  513  ft.  10 
ins.  overall,  beam  molded  68  ft,  turbine  driven, 


SHIPPING 


676 


SHIPPING 


speed  16  knots,  and  can  carry  about  100,000  bbl. 
of  oil. 

Of  the  unique  ships  built  in  the  past  year  is  the 
Seatram  Texas,  operated  by  Seatrain  Lines,  a 
line  engaged  in  carrying  completely  loaded  freight 
cars  from  New  York  to  Cuba.  Other  interesting 
vessels  are :  the  electric  ferry  boat  E.  G.  D\ef en- 
bach;  United  States  lighthouse  tender  Juniper  ; 
survey  ship  Explorer  of  the  U.S.  Coast  &  Geo- 
detic Survey,  and  the  Diesel  engine  towboat  Twin 
Cities,  built  for  towing  oil  barges  from  St.  Paul, 
Minn,  to  St  Louis,  Mo.  A  rather  exceptional  ves- 
sel under  construction  at  Manitowoc,  Wis.  is  a 
large  car  ferry  (City  of  Midland),  406  ft.  long, 
designed  to  carry  34  freight  cars,  50  automobiles, 
and  376  passengers.  The  City  of  Midland  will  be 
put  in  service  early  in  1941  on  a  65  mile  run  from 
Ludington,  Mich,  across  Lake  Michigan. 

According  to  the  American  Bureau  of  Shipping 
Bulletin  covering  shipbuilding  activities  of  1940 
to  December  1st,  including  Maritime  Commission 
and  private  companies  in  the  United  States,  314 
vessels  aggregating  1,591,540  gross  tons  were  un- 
der construction  or  contracted  for.  Of  these,  96 
were  cargo  vessels  totaling  708,880  tons,  23  pas- 
senger-cargo of  211,400,  64  tankers  of  601,400,  the 
remaining  tonnage  consisting  of  tugs,  ferries,  and 
barges. 

CHAS.  H.  HUGHES. 

SHIPPING.  The  war  in  Europe,  and  the  trea- 
ty of  Japan  with  Germany  and  Italy,  with  its  im- 
plied warnings  to  the  United  States  and  the  Soviet 
Union,  still  further  disrupted  all  former  shipping 
routes.  Overseas  operation  of  German  and  Italian 
merchant  ships  with  North  and  South  America, 
Africa,  Japan,  and  the  Far  East  were  practically 
stopped  by  the  British  blockade.  Passenger  and 
cargo  vessels  flying  the  flags  of  Germany,  Italy, 
Norway,  Denmark,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  France 
were  unable  to  reach  their  home  ports  and  were 
tied  up  in  neutral  countries.  Of  the  well  known 
trans-Atlantic  liners  not  willing  to  leave  the  Unit- 
ed States  for  fear  of  seizure  by  the  British  is  the 
Normandie  of  the  French  Line,  besides  several 
Italian,  Belgian,  Dutch,  French,  and  German  car- 
go vessels. 

Sailings  of  United  States'  vessels  to  Europe 
were  curtailed  by  the  U.S.  Neutrality  Act  and 
further  phases  of  the  war.  Lines  previously  op- 
erating to  Europe  diverted  their  ships  to  safer 
routes,  and  to  excursions  from  New  York  and 
North  Atlantic  ports  to  West  Indies,  Bermuda, 
Caribbean  Sea,  and,  via  the  Panama  Canal,  to 
Pacific  coast  ports.  Among  the  popular  excursion 
ships  were  the  America,  Manhattan,  and  Wash- 
ington  of  the  United  States  Lines.  The  America 
is  the  largest  passenger  vessel  ever  built  in  the 
United  States. 

Shipping  losses  by  England,  Germany,  Italy, 
France,  and  other  countries  from  submarines, 
mines,  and  aircraft  are  difficult  to  determine,  for 
reports  published  by  the  countries  at  war  differ 
widely.  Some  German  raiders  were  able  to  get  free 
in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  to  destroy  ships, 
but  German  merchant  vessels  attempting  to  leave 
neutral  ports  were  seized  by  the  British.  Despite 
convoys  protected  by  warships  and  aircraft,  Brit- 
ish losses  continued  through  the  last  months  of 
1940  at  a  serious  rate.  (See  also  EUROPEAN  WAR.) 
Among  the  large  well  known  passenger  vessels 
sunk  in  1940  by  submarines,  mines,  or  bombs  are 
those  listed  in  the  next  column. 

Shipping  on  the  Great  Lakes  was  very  active. 


Norn* 

Tons 

When  sunk  in  1940 

President  Hording  .   . 

14,000 

May 

Orama  

20,000 

June 

Caledonia  

17,000 

« 

LaneastHa  .. 

16,000 

« 

CarintHa 

20,000 

« 

Champtain 

28,000 

July 

Arandora  Star 

15,000 

<« 

Transylvania 
Volendam 

17,000 
15,000 

August 

Empress  of  Britain 
Laurenttc 

42,000 
19,000 

October 
November 

Oslofjord     .     . 

18,000 

December 

The  movement  of  ore  in  bulk  freighters  was  esti- 
mated as  between  62,500,000  and  63,500,000  tons  at 
the  close  of  navigation.  At  Sault  Ste.  Marie  offi- 
cials considered  the  traffic  during  1940  to  be  50 
per  cent  higher  than  in  1939.  During  the  season 
more  than  20,000  vessels  passed  through  the  De- 
troit River.  Shipments  of  iron  and  other  ores, 
coal,  and  steel  through  the  Welland  Canal  was 
heavy,  and  showed  an  increase  of  about  1,000,000 
tons  over  1939.  The  Canadian  ports  of  Owen 
Sound,  Hamilton,  and  Port  Arthur  had  a  busy 
year.  Shipments  from  Lake  Ontario  eastward  in- 
to the  St.  Lawrence  River  were  the  highest  for 
several  years,  while  those  from  Montreal  and 
other  ports  on  the  St.  Lawrence  to  England  were 
exceptionally  heavy. 

See  COAST  GUARD;  EUROPEAN  WAR;  INSUR- 
ANCE; NEUTRALITY;  SHIPBUILDING. 

Maritime  Commission.  Established  under  the 
Merchant  Marine  Act  of  1936,  this  Commission 
is  an  important  Federal  agency  in  shipbuilding 
and  shipping.  In  shipping,  it  passes  on  charters 
of  United  States1  vessels  to  engage  in  foreign 
trade;  its  consent  must  be  secured  before  a  ves- 
sel is  sold ,  it  approves  or  disapproves  of  foreign 
trade  routes,  and,  furthermore,  contracts  for  the 
building  of  ships  and  allocates  them  to  operators. 
From  information  obtainable,  the  list  of  compa- 
nies operating  vessels  under  the  general  supervi- 
sion of  the  Maritime  Commission  in  1940  was  as 
follows : 


Companies  Routes 

American  Mail  Line  Puget  Sound  ports  to  Japan,  China, 

and  Philippine  Islands. 

American  Pioneer  Line  Far  east  service,  U  S  Atlantic  ports 

via  The  Panama  Canal  to  Philip- 
pine Islands,  China,  and  Japan. 

Australia  service,  U  S  Atlantic 
ports  via  The  Panama  Canal  to 
Australia  and  New  Zealand. 

Passenger  and  freight  service  from 
New  York  to  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Santos,  Montevido,  and  Buenos 
Aires 

Freight,  US  North  and  South 
Atlantic  ports  to  Brazil  and  River 
Plate 

U  S  North  Atlantic  to  West  Coast 
South  America 

US.  Pacific  Coast  ports  to  West 
Coast  South  America 

U  S  North  Atlantic  to  Spanish 
ports. 

US  North  Atlantic  to  Mexican 
ports 

US  West  Coast  ports  to  East 
Coast  South  America. 


American  Republics  Line 


Grace  Line 

Oriole  Lines 

N  Y.  &  Cuba  Mail 

Pacific  Republics  Line 


The  Commission's  approval  was  given  to  a  $20,- 
000,000  program  for  nine  new  ships  for  an  ex- 
panded Pacific  Northwest-Orient  run  of  the 
American  Mail  Line.  The  first  of  the  new  vessels 
is  scheduled  for  delivery  to  the  line  in  January, 
1941 ;  all  of  the  nine  will  be  in  service  by  1942,  re- 
placing the  six  older  ones  now  being  used.  The 


SHOCK  TREATMENTS 


677 


SHOOTING 


importance  of  the  Maritime  Commission's  build- 
ing program  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  Navy 
Department  took  over  for  its  own  use  seven  large 
high  speed  tankers,  and  three  C-2  and  two  C-3 
cargo  vessels.  The  Army,  for  troop  transports, 
has  obtained  several  ships  previously  owned  or  op- 
erated by  the  Commission. 

Maritime  Labor  Board.  The  activities  of  the 
Maritime  Labor  Board  are  of  much  interest  to 
shipping  men.  On  Mar.  1,  1940,  the  Board  sub- 
mitted to  the  President  and  Congress  its  report 
on  a  permanent  Federal  policy  for  the  amicable 
adjustment  of  all  disputes  between  maritime  em- 
ployers and  employees,  and  for  the  stabilization  of 
maritime  labor  relations. 

The  Board  assembled,  studied,  and  analyzed 
available  data  bearing  upon  labor  relations  in  the 
maritime  industry.  From  such  studies,  plus  expe- 
rience with  the  administration  of  Title  X  of  the 
Merchant  Marine  Act  of  1936,  the  Board  conclud- 
ed that  the  present  declared  policy  of  the  United 
States  with  respect  to  labor  relations  in  water- 
borne  commerce,  as  embodied  in  Section  1001  of 
Title  X,  should  be  continued.  The  experience  of 
the  Board  pointed  clearly  to  the  need  of  amending 
certain  provisions  of  Title  X  in  order  to  make  it 
more  effective  as  a  means  of  encouraging  the  prac- 
tice and  procedure  of  collective  bargaining  in  the 
maritime  industry. 

The  recommendations  of  the  Board  fall  into  two 
mam  categories :  (1)  specific  amendments  to  Title 
X  regarding  measures  necessary  to  strengthen  ex- 
isting facilities  for  making  and  maintaining  col- 
lective agreements,  and  for  the  amicable  adjust- 
ment of  disputes;  and  (2)  a  general  recommenda- 
tion intended  to  encourage  the  development  of 
collective  bargaining  in  the  maritime  industry  by 
removing  existing  impediments  to  its  growth. 
CHAS.  H.  HUGHES. 

SHOCK  TREATMENTS.  See  MEDICINE 
AND  SURGERY;  PSYCHIATRY 

SHOE  INDUSTRY.  World  Events  had  a 
disturbing  influence  on  markets,  production,  and 
operation  of  the  shoe  and  leather  industries  in 
1940  Thus  far,  for  the  United  States  at  least,  the 
shoe  industry  has  retained  a  good  sense  of  balance, 
but  the  whole  continent  of  Europe  has  been  lifted 
completely  out  of  the  economic  structure  of  the 
world  by  the  blockades  and  shoe  production  for  a 
war  rather  than  a  peace  economy  World  trade  in 
shoes  has  been  impeded  or  blocked.  In  Europe 
shoe  production  for  war  use  is  first,  for  regulated 
civilian  demand  second.  In  the  United  States  ci- 
vilian demands  are  still  paramount,  but  military 
requirements  are  noticed ;  6,000,000  pairs  of  shoes 
were  ordered  for  United  States  army,  navy,  and 
CCC  use  in  1940 — a  sharp  increase  over  the  yearly 
average  governmental  purchase  of  1,600,000  pairs 
between  1937-39.  The  shoe  industry  has  handled 
all  government  orders  without  "bottle-necks  " 

Leather  footwear  production  in  the  United  States 
lagged  behind  1939,  with  a  total  of  approximately 
398,065,000  pairs  for  the  year  as  compared  to  424,- 
136,000  in  1939  (a  peak  year).  But  production  of 
fabric  and  part  fabric  footwear  increased  26  6  and 
25  4  per  cent  over  1939's  figures  of  5  and  7  million 
pairs  respectively. 


Rubber  footwear  (rubbers,  overshoes,  sandals) 
reported  peak  production  in  1940.  War  demands, 
restrictions  on  international  trade,  development  of 
national  self-sufficiency  have  all  contributed  to 
world-wide  development  of  cheap  rubber  footwear, 
with  footwear  manufactured  with  moulded  rubber 
soles  showing  a  large  increase  in  1940.  Usage  of 
rubber  footwear  has  increased  greatly  in  China, 
India,  Africa,  and  South  America,  drawing  on 
nearby  supplies  of  rubber  and  displacing  imported 
leather. 

The  decade  1930  to  1940  showed  many  technical 
developments  in  the  shoe  industry :  new  lasts,  new 
processes,  new  materials,  unhned  shoes,  elasticized 
shoes,  and  now  plastic  shoes — the  softy,  the  wedge, 
the  casual  group.  The  United  States  now  produces 
shoes  comparable  with  the  world's  finest.  Whole- 
sale prices  were  steady  at  the  close  of  1940,  new 
novelty  styles  at  a  minimum.  See  LEATHER. 

JOHN  F.  W.  ANDERSON. 

SHOOTING.  Rifle  and  Pistol.  High  marks 
were  the  exception  rather  than  the  regular  thing 
in  shooting  contests  during  1940,  and  the  winners 
of  the  various  events  at  the  national  tournament 
at  Camp  Perry,  O.f  were  almost  consistently  less 
accurate  than  the  champions  of  other  years. 

Because  of  field  maneuvers  of  Regular  Army 
and  reserve  units,  the  national  matches  were  post- 
poned, and  the  change  of  date  not  only  reduced 
the  number  of  competitors  but  made  it  impossible 
for  many  of  the  top-notchers  to  attend 

The  scores  were  consistently  low  in  almost  every 
one  of  the  major  events.  At  the  Wimbledon  Cup 
match,  the  score  was  100-24  as  against  100-27  in 
1939.  At  the  President's  match,  the  1940  score  of 
146  was  one  point  below  that  of  the  previous  year. 
The  small-bore  championship  was  awarded  to  the 
man  with  a  score  of  3187,  where  the  winner  in 
1939  rolled  up  3192  points.  The  Dewar  team 
amassed  only  7898  points,  as  compared  with  7954 
in  1939. 

In  capturing  the  national  pistol  title,  Harry 
Reeves  made  a  score  that  was  10  points  under  last 
year's  mark.  However,  in  the  national  pistol  team 
event,  the  United  States  infantry  team  boosted  the 
score  to  1343  points  as  against  a  championship  to- 
tal of  1315  in  1939.  Individual  members  of  the 
Detroit  Police  Department  made  some  excellent 
scores,  but  the  team  was  not  impressive  as  a  whole. 

Skeet.  In  the  national  tournament  at  the  Onon- 
dago  Skeet  Club  Field,  Syracuse,  N.Y.,  Richard 
Shaughnessy  of  Dedham,  Mass ,  was  the  undis- 
puted ruler  of  the  realm.  He  strolled  off  with  the 
national  all -gauge  and  the  national  small-gauge 
crowns,  and  still  unsatisfied  he  afterward  dropped 
in  at  Lordship  and  captured  the  North  American 
titles  in  the  all-bore  contest,  emerging  with  12- 
gauge,  20-gauge,  and  .410-gauge  honors. 

Miss  Patricia  Laursen  of  Akron,  O.,  was  su- 
preme in  the  feminine  division.  She  made  a  per- 
fect 100  straight  to  win  the  woman's  crown. 

Trapshooting.  E.  H  Wolfe  of  Charleston, 
W.Va.,  won  the  Grand  American  championship 
which  was  held  at  Vandalia,  O.  He  exhibited  re- 
markable proficiency  in  the  face  of  disconcerting 
gales  that  swept  over  the  traps  throughout  the 
match.  Mrs.  Lela  Hall  of  Strasburg,  Mo.,  once 


UNITED  STATES  PRODUCTION  &  CONSUMPTION  OF  LEATHER  SHOES  IN  1940  (000  OMITTED) 


Production 
Consumption 


Women's 

165,877 
175,329 


If  en's  Mtsses  &•  Children's  Youths'  &•  Boys' 


101,845 
102,418 


39,799 
41,654 


14,801 
15,780 


Infants' 

21,723 
22,905 


All  Other 

54,020 
54,213 


Total 

398,065 
412,299 


SHORE  AND  BEACH  PROTECTION   678 


SKIING 


more  carried  off  the  "women's  honors.  She  broke 
95  out  of  100  birds  from  the  22-yard  line,  which 
is  a  sensational  record  in  any  sex 
SHORE  AND  BEACH  PROTECTION. 

See  GEOLOGY. 

SIAM.  See  THAILAND. 

SIDI  BARRANI.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR  under 
British  Victories  in  Africa. 

SIERRA  LEONE.  A  British  West  African 
colony  and  protectorate.  Total  area,  27,925  square 
miles,  of  which  the  parts  administered  as  colony 
(Sierra  Leone  peninsula,  the  Tasso,  Banana,  and 
York  islands,  and  the  town  of  Bonthe  on  Sherbro 
island)  equaled  256  square  miles  Total  population 
(1931  census),  1,768,480,  including  96,422  in  the 
colony.  Capital,  Freetown  (63,572  inhabitants  in 
1938). 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  products :  kola 
nuts,  palm  kernels,  ginger,  rice,  groundnuts,  pias- 
sava,  cassava,  hides,  diamonds,  gold,  iron  ore,  plati- 
num, and  chromite.  Trade  (1938)  :  imports,  £1,500,- 
342;  exports,  including  re-exports,  £2,388,929  of 
which  diamonds  accounted  for  £858,055,  iron  ore 
£646,421,  palm  kernels  £457,031,  gold  £207,940,  gin- 
ger £60,680.  Shipping  entered  during  1938  aggre- 
gated 2,712,979  tons. 

Government.  Finance  (1939)  :  revenue,  £1,131,- 
357;  expenditure,  £1,165,062;  public  debt  (Dec.  31, 
1938),  £1,288,259.  The  colony  and  protectorate  are 
administered  by  a  governor,  assisted  by  an  execu- 
tive council.  There  is  a  legislative  council  of  23 
members  (including  the  governor  as  president) 
which  legislates  for  both  the  colony  and  the  pro- 
tectorate. Governor  and  Commander-in-Chief,  Sir 
Douglas  Jardine  (appointed  May  21,  1940). 

History.  The  diversion  of  British  merchant 
shipping  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  following 
Italy's  entrance  into  the  European  War  and  the 
extension  of  hostilities  to  the  near-by  French  col- 
onies greatly  increased  the  commercial  and  stra- 
tegic importance  of  the  Freetown  harbor  and  naval 
base  during  the  latter  half  of  1940  The  colony's 
military  defenses  were  strengthened  In  mid-year 
the  Governor  was  authorized  to  enroll  all  males 
between  the  ages  of  18  and  45  in  the  Defense  Re- 
serve force. 

The  colony  was  hard  hit  by  lower  prices  for  its 
export  products  caused  by  the  war.  However,  sub- 
stantial progress  was  reported  in  social  and  eco- 
nomic matters.  A  law  authorizing  and  regulating 
trade  unions  went  into  effect  January  1.  A  work- 
men's compensation  bill  was  adopted  by  the  Legis- 
lative Council.  In  the  Sierra  Leone  Protectorate, 
the  system  of  native  administration  introduced 
from  Nigeria  on  an  experimental  basis  was  ex- 
tended at  the  request  of  the  native  chiefs.  A  slum 
clearance  scheme  for  the  poorer  sections  of  Free- 
town was  initiated  through  a  commission  appointed 
by  the  Governor. 

SILK.  See  TEXTILES. 

SILK  SCREEN  PROCESS.  See  PRINTS. 

SILVER.  With  minor  fluctuations  in  May  and 
June,  the  price  of  silver  was  stable  at  34.750  per 
fine  oz.,  New  York.  This  was  slightly  lower  than 
in  1939  when  the  price  ranged  from  42  75tf  to  34.75 
and  averaged  39.082^.  Newly  mined  domestic  silver 
was  purchased  by  the  Government  at  70%tf  per  oz. 

In  London  the  price  rose  slightly  during  the  year 
from  21.892  pence  per  oz.  in  January  to  23.015  in 
December,  with  an  average  for  the  year  of  22.281 
compared  with  20  57  pence  in  1939  The  world  sil- 
ver market  was  again  dominated  by  the  purchase 
policy  of  the  U.S.  Treasury.  Mexico  was  the  prin- 
cipal beneficiary  of  this  policy  and  sold  silver  to 


the  United  States  at  the  rate  of  about  $3,000,000 
a  month.  Strong  efforts  were  made  in  the  U.S. 
Senate  to  repeal  that  part  of  the  Silver  Purchase 
Act  relating  to  foreign  silver,  but  the  opposition 
to  the  measure  was  unable  to  marshal  a  majority 
vote.  Despite  continued  buying  by  the  Treasury, 
the  goal  of  a  75-25  gold-silver  ratio  in  the  metal 
backing  of  the  currency  receded  still  further  from 
attainment  The  Treasury  still  lacked  more  than 
2  billion  oz.  of  reaching  the  legal  ratio. 

The  American  Silver  Producers  Research  Proj- 
ect for  extending  the  uses  of  silver  in  industry 
completed  a  three-year  program  with  headquarters 
at  the  Bureau  of  Standards  at  Washington,  and 
transferred  its  activities  to  the  plant  of  Handy 
and  Harman  at  Bridgeport,  Conn.  The  future  work 
of  the  project  will  be  confined  to  commercializing 
the  uses  of  silver  explored  since  1937. 

The  value  of  United  States  silver  production  in 
1940  exceeded  that  of  any  previous  year,  under  the 
administration's  silver  buying  program.  The  pro- 
duction of  71,688,150  oz.,  valued  at  $50,977,440  com- 
pares with  the  1939  production  of  65,119,513  oz. 
valued  at  $44,202,279.  The  production  in  1915  was 
74,961,075  pz.  but  the  value  was  only  $37,397,300 

World  silver  production  in  1940  was  estimated 
at  278,000,000  oz.,  compared  with  264,200,000  oz. 
in  1939,  according  to  Handy  &  Harman.  Gains  in 
consumption  of  silver  occurred  in  sterling  silver- 
ware, jewelry,  and  in  the  industrial  field  The  arts 
and  industry  of  the  United  States  and  Canada 
used  41,000,000  oz.  of  silver  in  1940. 

H.  C.  PARMELEE. 

SINGAPORE.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

SINKIANG.  See  CHINA  under  Area  and  Pop- 
ulation. 

SIRUP.  See  SUGAR. 

SIXTH  COLUMN.  See  FIFTH  COLUMN. 

SKATING.  Speed.  Principal  honors  in  the 
1940  world  of  speed  skating  went  to  Miss  Made- 
line (Maddy)  Horn  of  Beaver  Dam,  Wis.,  and 
Leo  Freisinger  of  Chicago.  The  former  success- 
fully defended  the  women's  senior  North  Ameri- 
can and  national  outdoor  titles,  at  LaCrosse,  Wis., 
and  Schenectady,  N.Y.,  respectively. 

Freisinger  replaced  Charles  Leighton  and  Ken- 
neth Bartholomew^  both  of  Minneapolis,  as  North 
American  and  national  ruler. 

Figure.  Four  ice  revues  were  staged  at  Madison 
Square  Garden  during  the  193^-40  season.  They 
were  the  Ice  Follies,  Miss  Sonja  Heme's  Holly- 
wood Ice  Revue,  the  European  Ice  Revue,  and  the 
yearly  charity  carnival  of  the  Skating  Club  of 
New  York.  Approximately  250,000  persons  were 
attracted  to  the  spectacles. 

At  the  national  amateur  championships  in  Cleve- 
land, O.,  Gene  Turner,  19  years  old  of  Los  Ange- 
les, Calif.,  was  crowned  champion.  His  nearest 
rival  was  Ollie  Haupt  Jr.,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.  Tur- 
ner succeeded  Robin  Lee  of  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  who 
deserted  the  amateur  ranks  to  become  a  profes- 
sional instructor. 

The  women's  national  title  was  won  for  the 
third  successive  year  by  Miss  Joan  Tozzer,  with 
Miss  Hedy  Stenuf .  former  European  star,  now  of 
Rochester,  N.Y.,  finishing  second.  With  Bernard 
Fox  of  Boston,  Mass.,  as  her  partner,  Miss  Tozzer 
also  shared  in  the  pair  championship.  The  national 
fours  title  was  captured  by  Miss  Jannette  Ahrens, 
Miss  Mary  Louise  Premer,  Robert  Upgren,  and 
Lyman  E  Wakefield,  Jr.,  of  the  St.  Paul  Figure 
Skating  Club 

SKIING.  The  tremendous  interest  in  skiing  as 


SLOAN  FOUNDATION 


679 


SLOVAKIA 


one  of  America's  foremost  winter  sports  assumed 
unparalleled  proportions  during  1940.  The  number 
of  persons  who  took  up  the  game  as  a  purely  rec- 
reational adventure  was  somewhere  in  the  hun- 
dreds of  thousands.  More  and  more  Norwegian 
rules  and  terminology  were  introduced  into  the 
American  variety  of  the  sport,  notably  the  slalom 
or  flag  turn  regulation  designed  to  make  the  runs 
safer  by  interposing  turns  and  breaks 

Outstanding  competitive  events  of  the  season 
drew  more  than  4000  entrants.  The  national  jump- 
ing championship  among  the  Class  A  skiers  was 
captured  by  Alf  Engen  of  Sun  Valley,  Calif.;  the 
collegiate  title  was  awarded  to  Eddie  Gignac  of 
Middlebury  College.  In  the  international  jump  at 
Brattleboro,  Vt.,  first  honors  were  taken  by  Toger 
Tokle,  the  young  Norwegian.  At  Sun  Valley,  Dick 
Durrance  was  the  pre-eminent  amateur  in  down- 
hill and  slalom  racing.  Among  women  skiers,  Miss 
Nancy  Reynolds  of  Montclair,  N.J.,  and  Mrs. 
Grace  Carter  Lindlcy  of  Minneapolis  were  out- 
standing performers.  Miss  Marilyn  Shaw  of  Stowe, 
Vt ,  a  high  school  girl,  captured  the  women's  na- 
tional open  and  closed  combined  downhill  and 
slalom  titles. 

SLOAN  FOUNDATION.  See  BENEFAC- 
TIONS. 

SLOVAKIA.  A  former  province  of  the  Czecho- 
slovak republic,  proclaimed  an  independent  repub- 
lic by  the  provincial  parliament  on  Mar.  14,  1939, 
and  taken  under  German  protection  by  a  treaty 
signed  Mar.  18,  1939  Capital,  Bratislava  (Lem- 
berg).  See  CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 

Area,  Population,  etc.  Exclusive  of  territories 
ceded  to  Hungary  and  including  areas  transferred 
to  the  republic  by  Germany  from  Poland,  Slovakia 
has  an  area  of  approximately  14,390  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  2,414,163  (1939  estimate) 
There  are  nearly  2,000,000  Slovaks,  about  100,000 
Germans,  180,000  Jews,  80,000  Hungarians,  and 
20,000  Ruthenians  (Ukrainians).  The  population 
of  Bratislava,  capital  and  chief  city,  was  170,668 
(estimated)  in  1935.  Roman  Catholicism  is  the  pre- 
dominant religion. 

Agriculture  and  forestry  are  chief  sources  of 
livelihood.  Industry,  mining,  and  commerce  are  of 
secondary  importance  Production  of  wheat  in  1939 
was  321,600  metric  tons ;  rye,  200,800  metric  tons. 
Barley,  oats,  sugar-beets,  and  corn  are  other  lead- 
ing crops.  Lead  and  copper  are  the  principal  min- 
erals. 

Government.  The  Slovak  People's  party,  led 
by  Josef  Tiso,  a  R.oman  Catholic  priest,  adopted 
fascism  of  the  Nazi  variety  as  its  ruling  principle 
and  imposed  it  upon  Slovakia  when  the  province 
obtained  regional  autonomy  within  the  Czecho- 
slovak republic  in  November,  1938  (see  1938  YEAR 
BOOK,  p  201).  Following  the  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence and  the  acceptance  of  German  protection, 
a  new  constitution  making  Slovakia  an  authoritar- 
ian "Christian  National  Republic"  was  adopted 
by  the  one-party  parliament  on  June  21,  1939.  The 
Constitution  provided  for  a  parliament  of  80  mem- 
bers elected  by  the  people  for  five  years  from  a 
one-party  list ;  a  President  elected  by  Parliament ; 
and  a  National  Council  of  22  members  exercising 
wide  executive  and  legislative  powers  through  its 
chairman,  acting  as  Premier. 

The  National  Council  is  composed  of  6  repre- 
sentatives appointed  by  the  President,  10  of  the 
Slovak  People's  party,  and  6  of  the  corporative 
civil  service,  labor,  and  commerce  organizations. 
The  Premier  has  power  to  summon  or  dismiss  Par- 
liament at  his  discretion,  veto  any  of  its  measures, 


and  with  the  approval  of  the  National  Council  leg- 
islate by  decree  without  ratification  by  Parliament 
President  in  1940,  Josef  Tiso  (elected  Oct  26, 
1939) ;  Premier,  Bela  Tuka.  The  Constitution  rec- 
ognized the  Slovak  National  party  (successor  to 
the  Slovak  People's  party)  as  the  sole  legal  politi- 
cal party.  Minority  rights  and  religious  liberty  was 
granted  to  all  Slovak  citizens.  The  former  national 
minority  parties  were  given  the  status  of  subdi- 
visions of  the  Slovak  National  party. 

Under  the  Slovak-German  treaty  of  Mar.  18, 
1939,  Slovakia  agreed  to  permit  German  military 
occupation  of  its  frontier  districts  along  the  Polish 
border,  to  "organize  its  own  military  forces  in 
close  collaboration  with  the  German  armed  force," 
and  to  "conduct  its  policy  in  close  collaboration 
with  the  German  Government"  A  German-Slovak 
military  agreement  ratified  Aug.  18,  1939,  placed 
the  Slovak  military  forces  under  German  com- 
mand and  authorized  German  military  occupation 
of  the  entire  country  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p. 
182  f.).  For  1940  developments,  see  History. 

History.  The  difficulties  that  harassed  the  new 
Slovak  state  during  1939  increased  throughout  the 
following  year.  The  republic  fell  more  and  more 
under  German  control.  Its  army  was  reorganized 
in  January  and  many  German  officers  were  re- 
ported to  have  been  placed  in  Slovak  regiments. 
The  gearing  of  the  Slovak  economy  into  that  of 
the  Reich  had  further  adverse  results  Large-scale 
exportation  of  foodstuffs  to  Germany  and  the  cut- 
ting off  of  former  trade  relations  with  Bohemia 
and  Moravia  and  other  Central  European  countries 
produced  a  food  crisis  in  Slovakia  during  the 
spring  months. 

As  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  (q.v.),  Nazi  Ger- 
many employed  the  willing  German  minority  and 
the  unwilling  Jewish  minority  in  Slovakia  as  in- 
struments for  riveting  German  control  upon  the 
country.  Backed  by  Berlin,  the  German  minority 
leader,  Franz  Karmasin,  pressed  the  Tiso  regime 
for  greater  privileges  and  autonomous  rights  for 
Germans,  for  closer  Slovak  co-operation  with  the 
Reich,  and  for  the  elimination  of  Jews  from  all 
fields  of  activity.  Germans  frequently  occupied  the 
places  of  influence  vacated  by  Jews  under  pressure. 

Seeking  to  retain  some  measure  of  independence, 
the  Slovak  Government  resisted  the  more  extreme 
German  demands.  Premier  Tuka  admitted  on  Feb- 
ruary, 13  that  German  military  and  police  officers 
were  in  Slovakia  "by  invitation  "  Early  in  March 
it  was  reported  that  all -German  regiments  were 
being  formed  among  the  German  minority.  But  the 
Tiso  regime  delayed  application  of  the  full  Nazi 
anti-Jewish  program  as  long  as  possible  in  an  ef- 
fort to  prevent  further  German  infiltration  into 
Slovak  economic  life  It  was  disturbed  by  evidence 
of  growing  popular  distrust  of  both  Germany  and 
of  Slovak  leaders  co-operating  with  the  Reich 

The  issue  of  German  domination  led  to  a  split 
between  the  moderate  Slovak  National  party  lead- 
ers and  the  strongly  pro-German  leader  of  the 
party's  Hlinka  Guard  (Storm  Troop)  organiza- 
tion, Alexander  (Sano)  Mach.  After  a  tour  of  the 
Reich,  Mach  resigned  as  Hlinka  Guard  commander 
February  21  to  prod  the  government  into  closer 
conformity  with  the  Hitler  program.  Interior  Min- 
ister F.  Durchansky,  on  the  other  hand,  urged 
closer  contact  with  Soviet  Russia  as  a  counter- 
weight to  Germany. 

The  great  German  victory  over  France  in  June 
forced  the  government  to  give  way  and  accept  Ber- 
lin's complete  plans  for  the  "new  order"  in  South- 
eastern Europe.  Mach  resumed  command  of  the 


SLUM  CLEARANCE 


680 


SOCIALISM 


Hlinka  Guard  and  was  taken  into  the  government 
as  Minister  of  Propaganda.  On  July  28  President 
Tiso,  Premier  Tuka,  and  Mach  conferred  with 
Hitler  at  Berchtesgaden.  Immediately  after  their 
return  to  Bratislava,  Mach  replaced  the  allegedly 
pro-Soviet  Durchansky  as  Minister  of  Interior. 
Later  he  was  named  Vice  Premier,  but  retained 
the  Interior  portfolio  and  Hlinka  Guard  leader- 
ship. 

As  Minister  of  Interior,  Mach  launched  a  vigor- 
ous drive  against  the  underground  Communist 
movement,  which  had  been  secretly  disseminating 
Pan-Slav  propaganda.  He  approved  Karmasin's 
formal  request  for  extensive  autonomous  privileges 
for  the  German  minority  (August  3).  The  elimi- 
nation of  Jews  from  Slovakia's  economic,  social, 
and  cultural  life  was  pressed  as  rapidly  as  eco- 
nomic conditions  permitted  under  authority  granted 
the  government  by  Parliament  early  in  September. 
This  new  course,  initiated  at  the  conference  with 
Hitler  in  July,  culminated  November  24  in  Slo- 
vakia's formal  adherence  to  the  German-Italian- 
Japanese  agreement  for  a  new  world  order. 

Friction  between  the  Slovak  Government  and 
Hungary  over  the  treatment  of  the  Hungarian 
minority  in  Slovakia  and  the  Slovak  minority  in 
Hungary  became  more  intense  early  in  1940.  In 
February  the  Slovak  Government,  in  response  to 
vigorous  protests,  withdrew  its  decree  forbidding 
the  Hungarian  minority  press  to  use  Hungarian 
names  in  referring  to  places  in  Slovakia  But  the 
Slovak  agitation  against  the  Hungarian  minority 
continued,  led  by  the  Hlinka  Guard  Late  in  April 
there  were  anti-Hungarian  demonstrations  in  Brat- 
islava. Demands  were  made  for  restoration  of  the 
districts  ceded  to  Hungary  under  threat  of  inva- 
sion in  1938  and  1939.  On  April  30  the  Hungarian 
Foreign  Minister  publicly  warned  Slovakia  that 
Hungary  would  retaliate,  despite  German  protec- 
tion of  the  republic,  if  the  treatment  of  the  Mag- 
yar minority  was  not  improved 

SLUM  CLEARANCE.  See  HOUSING  AU- 
THORITY, U.S. 

SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION.  An  or- 
ganization founded  in  1846  according  to  the  terms 
of  the  will  of  James  Smithson  of  England,  who 
in  1826  bequeathed  his  property  to  the  United 
States  of  America  "to  found  in  Washington,  un- 
der the  name  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  an 
establishment  for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of 
knowledge  among  men."  The  purposes  of  the  In- 
stitution are  carried  out  by  scientific  research,  ex- 
ploration, and  publication.  It  also  administers  the 
following  bureaus  which  are  supported  by  Con- 
gressional appropriations :  The  United  States  Na- 
tional Museum,  National  Collection  of  Fine  Arts, 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  International  Ex- 
change Service,  National  Zoological  Park,  and 
Astrophysical  Observatory.  It  also  administers  the 
Freer  Gallery  of  Art  and  the  Division  of  Radia- 
tion and  Organisms.  The  new  National  Gallery  of 
Art  was  established  as  a  bureau  of  the  Institution 
but  is  administered  by  the  Board  of  Trustees  of 
the  Gallery. 

The  expendable  income  of  the  Institution  for 
1940,  consisting  of  income  from  investments,  in- 
come from  miscellaneous  sources,  and  gifts  for 
special  objects  (excluding  income  from  the  Freer 
endowment)  was  approximately  $200,000.  Its  en- 
dowment funds  (exclusive  of  the  Freer  endow- 
ment) totaled  $2,197,622.  The  Institution  and  the 
government  bureaus  under  its  direction  published 
78  volumes  and  pamphlets,  of  which  146,156  copies 
were  distributed  to  libraries,  educational  institu- 


tions, and  individuals.  The  secretary  is  Charles  G. 
Abbot,  D.Sc. ;  the  assistant  secretary,  Alexander 
Wetmore,  Ph.D. 

SMOKING,  Effect  of.  See  MEDICINE  AND 
SURGERY. 

SMUGGLING.  See  CUSTOMS,  BUREAU  OF  un- 
der Enforcement  of  Customs  Laivs\  NARCOTIC 
DRUGS  CONTROL;  PHOTOGRAPHY  under  Applied 
Photography. 

SOAP  INDUSTRY.  See  CHEMISTRY,  INDUS- 
TRIAL. 

SOCIALISM.  For  organized  Socialism  1940 
on  the  European  continent  was  a  year  of  tragedy. 
At  the  end  of  the  year,  Socialist  Parties  main- 
tained a  fearful  and  cautious  existence  under  the 
German  protective  occupation  of  Denmark  and  un- 
der the  constant  threat  of  it  in  Sweden.  Socialism 
is  in  similar  condition  in  Finland,  where  the  great 
threat  is  still  Russia.  There  is  still  a  Socialist 
Party  in  Switzerland.  In  every  other  country  in 
which  it  existed  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  it 
has  been  crushed  by  the  German  occupation;  its 
leaders  killed,  imprisoned,  or  driven  to  flight  to 
Great  Britain  or  America.  The  once  mighty  Sec- 
ond International,  with  which  all  the  Democratic 
Socialist  Parties  were  affiliated,  is  no  more.  Its 
secretary,  Dr.  Friedrich  Adler,  now  in  the  United 
States,  believes  that  it  will  be  impossible  to  re- 
organize the  International  during  the  war.  Such 
parties  as  survive  on  the  continent  are  not  free 
agents.  An  International  organization  composed 
mostly  of  exiles  might  be  reassembled  in  Great 
Britain,  but  necessarily  it  would  have  to  be  sub- 
ordinated to  the  plans  of  the  British  government 
for  the  winning  of  the  war.  Nothing  would  be 
gained  by  setting  up  a  limited  debating  society  in 
the  United  States. 

The  outstanding  exception  to  this  story  of  trag- 
edy is  the  great  increase  in  the  strength  of  the 
British  Labor  Party.  Its  leaders  now  sit,  not  only 
in  the  large  British  cabinet,  but  in  the  Prime  Min- 
ister's smaller  war  cabinet.  They,  especially  Ernest 
Bevin,  leader  of  the  Transport  Workers,  the 
largest  union  in  Britain,  now  Minister  of  Labor, 
are  next  to  the  Prime  Minister,  the  strongest  men 
in  the  cabinet  and  in  the  country.  The  exigencies 
of  war  have  compelled  the  British  economy  to  take 
long  strides  in  collectivism.  It  will  be  impossible 
for  a  postwar  England,  whatever  the  military  re- 
sults of  the  war,  to  restore  so  much  of  private 
capitalism  as  there  was  prior  to  the  beginning  of 
the  war,  and  it  is  unlikely  that  the  old  British 
caste  system  can  emerge  relatively  as  unscathed 
as  after  the  First  World  War. 

The  war  has  the  enthusiastic  support  of  the 
British  Labor  Party,  and,  since  the  blitzkrieg,  the 
critical  support  of  the  Independent  Labor  Party, 
which,  however,  opposed  labor  participation  in  the 
cabinet  and  introduced,  near  the  end  of  the  year, 
a  resolution  asking  for  a  clarification  of  British 
war  aims  and  an  effort  to  begin  peace  negotiations 
The  resolution  was  overwhelmingly  defeated  Lat- 
er Herbert  Morrison  of  the  British  Labor  Party, 
Minister  of  Home  Security  in  the  cabinet,  in  re- 
plying to  Hitler's  speech  to  the  German  workers, 
avowed  war  aims  that  were  genuinely  Socialist  in 
contradistinction  to  Hitler's  national  Socialism. 
They  were  not,  however,  clear  and  explicit,  either 
with  regard  to  Europe  or  to  the  future  develop- 
ment of  democracy  within  the  British  Empire. 

It  is  too  early  to  judge  with  certainty  the  future 
power  of  the  British  Labor  Party,  with  its  non- 
Marxist  type  of  Socialism.  Great  Britain  is,  how- 
ever, the  one  country  in  which  the  present  revolu- 


SOCIALISM 


681 


SOCIALISM 


tion  toward  collectivism  may  most  probably  follow 
Socialist  lines,  and,  after  the  strain  of  war  is  over, 
develop  democratic  control  rather  than  fascist 
Everywhere  the  gulf  between  democratic  Socialist 
Parties  and  the  Communist  Party  widens.  While 
Socialists  do  not  believe  that  the  partial  alliance 
between  Hitler  and  Stalin  will  be  permanent,  they 
see  in  it  a  major  source  of  Hitler's  power  for  ag- 
gression. There  has  been,  however,  some  differ- 
ence of  opinion  in  Socialist  ranks  concerning  the 
degree  of  probability  that  the  British  and  French 
governments  might  have  reached  a  satisfactory 
understanding  with  Stalin  under  a  wiser  diploma- 
cy. There  was  no  difference  of  opinion  but  that 
Stalin  was  responsible  for  the  final  success  of  his 
long  efforts  to  silence  Trotsky  who  was  assassi- 
nated during  the  summer  in  Mexico  City. 

In  the  United  States  division  of  socialist  opinion 
on  the  proper  policy  for  the  American  government 
to  follow  concerning  the  war,  was  sharpened  by 
the  success  of  the  German  blitzkrieg.  The  organ- 
ized Socialist  Party,  however,  held  to  its  position 
that  to  put  this  country  into  war  would  end  de- 
mocracy here  for  an  indefinite  period  without  com- 
pensating benefits  to  other  lands ;  that  it  would 
strengthen  Churchill  and  the  British  imperialists, 
as  against  the  development  of  British  socialism, 
and  that  it  would  not  even  guarantee  complete 
military  victory  in  a  war  that  would  have  to  be 
fought  on  two  oceans  and  two  continents. 

The  Socialist  Party  Convention  was  held  the 
first  week  of  April  in  Washington,  D.C.  To  the 
Convention  the  National  Executive  Committee  re- 
ported that  careful  inquiry  had  revealed  no  sign 
of  a  nationwide  Labor,  Farmer  Labor,  or  Progres- 
sive Party.  The  Convention  decided,  by  an  over- 
whelming majority,  that  to  carry  on  for  Socialism 
required  it  to  nominate  a  national  ticket.  Norman 
Thomas,  the  Party  candidate  in  1928,  1932,  and 
1936,  was  nominated  for  President,  and  Maynard 
Krueger,  Assistant  Professor  of  Economics  in 
Chicago  University,  for  Vice-President. 

The  Party  platform  asserted  that  immediate 
democratic  socialization  was  the  only  alternative 
to  a  drift  to  fascism,  imperialism,  and  war.  Effec- 
tive democracy,  economic  as  well  as  political,  it 
held,  requires  a  great  increase  in  production  and  a 
more  equitable  division  of  it.  This,  in  turn,  re- 
quires social  control  of  money,  banking,  and  credit, 
socialization  of  the  great  natural  resources,  and 
socialization  of  those  industries  and  services  in 
which  private  ownership  restrains  production.  The 
platform  emphasized  the  necessity  of  the  preserva- 
tion of  civil  liberty. 

Later  in  the  campaign,  when  conscription  be- 
came an  issue,  the  Party  and  its  candidates  vigor- 
ously opposed  it  as  unnecessary  in  peace  time  for 
military  defense,  and  in  itself  an  invitation  to  mil- 
itarism and  imperialism  and  an  undemocratic  rev- 
olution in  the  American  way  of  life  at  its  best. 

Legislation  and  the  interpretation  of  legislation 
in  various  states  made  it  harder  for  new  or  minor- 
ity parties  to  get  on  the  ballot  than  ever  before 
The  Socialist  Party  was  not  a  direct  object  of 
attack  but  suffered  somewhat  indirectly  because  of 
the  efforts  to  exclude  the  Communist  Party 

It  succeeded  in  placing  its  Presidential  ticket 
and  in  some  cases  State  or  local  tickets  on  the  bal- 
lots in  29  States,  containing  about  75  per  cent  of 
the  population.  In  other  States  attempts  were  made 
to  write  in  votes,  which  attempts  were  ignored  in 
the  final  official  reports  except  in  Oregon.  The 
total  vote  officially  reported  was  116,796.  This  was 
the  largest  vote  of  any  of  the  minority  parties,  but 


the  smallest  vote  in  the  Party's  history  since  1900. 
The  course  of  the  election  confirmed  the  tendency 
of  the  United  States  to  be  a  two-party  or  almost 
a  two-leader  country,  in  which  even  socialists — in 
the  broad  sense  of  the  word — and  progressives  are 
concerned  for  the  selection  of  what  they  regard  as 
the  less  of  two  evils. 

After  the  election  the  Party  decided  to  try  to 
increase  its  educational  activity  through  the  pub- 
lication of  an  official  handbook  outlining  its  eco- 
nomic policies,  the  enlargement  of  its  weekly,  the 
Call,  and,  if  possible,  a  fuller  and  better  use  of  the 
radio.  It  also  decided  to  champion  a  more  generous 
treatment  of  refugees  in  America  and  to  push  the 
democratization  of  the  processes  by  which  the 
President  and  vice-president  are  elected. 

In  terms  of  the  fulfillment  of  its  own  prophecies, 
Socialism  universally  found  itself  in  a  strange  po- 
sition. It  was  clear  enough  by  the  end  of  1940  that 
the  world  was  caught,  not  only  in  war,  but  revo- 
lution. The  revolution,  however,  was  of  an  ugly 
pattern  which  did  not  conform  to  Socialist  expec- 
tations. It  was  collectivist  but  predominantly  to- 
talitarian. Hitler  talked  of  "the  world  of  labor" 
against  "the  world  of  gold,"  but  he  remained  the 
worst  enemy  of  democratic  Socialism 

Even  in  the  United  States  a  Socialist  Party, 
which  had  never  been  inherently  a  strong  force  in 
the  national  life,  saw  what  it  had  been  accustomed 
to  call  its  immediate  demands  appropriated  by  the 
Old  Parties  and  especially  by  President  Roosevelt 
under  the  New  Deal.  This  fact  was  strikingly  evi- 
dent from  a  consideration  of  the  campaign  con- 
ducted by  Wendell  L.  Willkie,  the  Republican  can- 
didate for  President.  He  regarded  himself,  and  was 
regarded  by  many  of  his  followers,  almost  as  a 
religious  crusader  for  a  return  to  an  economy  of 
freedom  and  abundance,  free  from  autocratic  gov- 
ernment control.  Yet,  so  far  was  he  from  indorsing 
laissez  faire  economics,  that  he  felt  obliged  spe- 
cifically to  list  and  approve  all  President  Roose- 
velt's major  reforms.  Under  Mr.  Roosevelt,  Mr. 
Willkie  evidently  felt  that  those  reforms  led  to 
destruction  but  under  him  they  would  mean  salva- 
tion! The  fact  worth  emphasis  is  that  all  these 
reforms  were  an  application  of  Socialist  immediate 
demands — demands  which  were  ignored  or  almost 
contemptuously  rejected  by  both  the  old  parties  in 
1928  and  barely  discussed  even  as  late  as  1932. 

No  Socialist  of  any  school  would  argue  that 
these  reforms  have  achieved  Socialism  On  the 
contrary,  socialists  argue  the  necessity  of  social- 
ism on  the  basis  of  the  failure  of  these  reforms  to 
work  a  major  cure  in  our  unnecessary  poverty  and 
insecurity.  Nevertheless,  they  are  completely  in- 
consistent with  the  theory  of  "the  automatic  equi- 
librium of  markets,"  that  self  adjustment  which 
was  the  heart  of  the  theoretical  system  that  Mr. 
Willkie  desired  to  defend. 

The  year  1940  saw  the  emergence  of  no  great 
Socialist  theoretical  restatement,  but  there  was 
much  activity  of  discussion  Socialists  who  had 
thought  that  they  were  firmly  opposed  to  all  con- 
ceivable nationalist  wars  found  themselves  com- 
pelled to  justify  in  socialist  terms  their  ardent  sup- 
port of  the  British  war  against  Hitler.  Socialists 
who  had  believed  that  the  "final  conflict"  would  be 
between  private  finance  capital,  largely  monopo- 
listic, and  working-class  socialism,  found  that  the 
march  of  collectivism  tended  to  make  the  struggle 
one  between  totalitarianism  and  democratic  social- 
ism. Socialists  who  had  felt  it  possible  to  derive 
all  needed  wisdom  by  deduction  from  the  writings 
of  Marx,  discovered  problems  on  which  the  great 


SOCIALIST  LABOR  PARTY 


SOCIAL  SECURITY  BOARD 


theoretician  of  modern  socialism  had  shed  little 
direct  light, 

Even  the  word  "socialism"  now  raises  in  the 
minds  of  the  public  the  most  blurred  confused  pic- 
ture since  the  rise  of  modern  socialism.  Stalin  says 
that  the  U.S.S.R.  has  achieved  socialism;  Hitler 
that  Germany  has  achieved  national  socialism.  Be- 
sides the  Socialist  Party  in  America  there  is  the 
old  Socialist  Labor  Party,  to  say  nothing  of  a 
Social  Democratic  Federation  and  at  least  two 
Trotskyist  groups.  Yet  so  rich  is  the  socialist  tra- 
dition and  so  vital  its  hope  that  one  may  expect  a 
theoretical  and  organizational  renaissance  of  ef- 
fective world  socialism. 

See  AUSTRALIA,  NEW  ZEALAND,  SWEDEN,  and 
WISCONSIN  under  History. 

NORMAN  THOMAS. 

SOCIALIST  LABOR  PARTY.  Sec  ELEC- 
TIONS, U.S.  NATIONAL. 

SOCIALIST  PARTY.  See  ELFCTIONS,  U.S. 
NATIONAL;  SOCIALISM. 

SOCIAL  SECURITY  BOARD  (SSB).  The 
Social  Security  Board  has  administrative  respon- 
sibility for  three  Nation-wide  programs,  designed 
to  bring  greater  security  to  the  American  people. 
These  are  old-age  and  survivors  insurance,  em- 
ployment security,  and  public  assistance,  as  estab- 
lished under  the  Social  Security  Act.  The  first  two 
of  these  are  insurance  systems  designed  to  protect 
wage  earners  against  future  want;  the  third  pro- 
vides immediate  cash  aid  on  the  basis  of  need  for 
three  groups  who  are  unable  to  support  themselves 
— the  aged,  the  blind,  and  dependent  children. 

During  1940,  major  developments  under  these 
social  security  programs  included :  The  beginning 
of  monthly  benefit  payments  under  the  old-age  and 
survivors  insurance  system  on  Jan.  1,  1940;  the 
naming  of  the  Bureau  of  Employment  Security  as 
a  national  defense  agency  charged  with  mobilizing 
qualified  workers  thiough  the  U.S.  Employment 
Service  for  national  defense  industries ;  the  ac- 
ceptance of  merit  principles  and  establishment  of 
merit  systems  for  the  selection  and  promotion  of 
personnel  in  all  State  employment-security  and 
public-assistance  agencies;  and  effective  Jan  1, 
1940,  matching  by  Federal  funds  of  a  higher  level 
of  public-assistance  payments  by  States  to  the 
needy  aged,  blind,  and  dependent  children. 

These  developments,  together  with  continuing 
progress  in  the  day-by-day  administration  of  the 
social  security  programs,  made  1940  an  outstand- 
ing milepost  in  the  American  advance  toward 
greater  social  security. 

Amendments  passed  in  1939  had  laid  the  basis 
for  the  extension  and  strengthening  of  social  se- 
curity programs  which  marked  1940  These  amend- 
ments completely  altered  the  structure  of  the  old- 
age  insurance  program,  adding  benefits  for  de- 
pendents and  survivors  of  insured  workers  to  its 
original  retirement  features.  Payment  of  monthly 
benefits  to  retired  workers  over  65  and  their  fami- 
lies and  to  the  survivors  of  insured  workers  be- 
came payable  Jan.  1,  1940,  two  years  earlier  than 
provided  in  the  original  act.  Claims  awards  during 
the  first  12  months  of  benefit  payments  were  made 
to  some  255,000  individuals,  calling  for  monthly 
payments  at  a  rate  of  $4,700,000  The  number  of 
individuals  receiving  these  monthly  benefits  and 
the  amount  payable  to  them  will,  of  course,  in- 
crease markedly  with  each  month  that  passes. 
Within  this  over-all  figure  of  255,000  beneficiaries 
are  encompassed  retired  workers  over  65  who  have 
been  engaged  in  employment  covered  by  old-age 


and  survivors  insurance,  their  wives  over  65,  and 
their  dependent  children  under  18,  and  the  survivors 
of  insured  workers  who  died  after  1939— widows 
over  65,  widows  regardless  of  age  who  are  caring 
for  their  young  dependent  children,  the  children 
themselves,  and  aged  dependent  parents. 

The  amendments  of  1939  included  workers  over 
65  in  the  system,  thus  making  it  possible  for  many 
who  were  already  old  to  acquire  sufficient  wage 
credits  for  benefits.  Under  this  program,  which 
applies  to  all  workers  in  commercial  and  industrial 
employment,  individual  social  security  accounts  have 
already  been  set  up  for  some  52,000,000  people.  In 
these  accounts  are  recorded  wages  from  covered 
employment  which  serve  as  the  basis  for  deter- 
mining eligibility  for  benefits  and  the  amount  of 
benefit  payments. 

These  benefits  are  paid  for  by  taxes  on  employ- 
ees in  jobs  covered  by  the  program  and  on  their 
employers.  The  tax  rate  is  1  per  cent  for  each  on 
*  wages  paid  until  1943.  Thereafter,  it  increases  % 
per  cent  every  three  years  until  it  reaches  a  maxi- 
mum of  3  per  cent  each  in  1949.  The  tax  applies 
only  to  the  first  $3000  a  year  in  wages  paid  to  an 
employee.  This  tax  money  goes  into  an  Old-Age 
and  Survivors  Insurance  Trust  Fund  in  the  U.S. 
Treasury,  from  which  all  benefits  are  paid. 

Field  offices  have  been  established  in  central 
towns  and  cities  throughout  the  country  to  serve 
workers  and  their  employers  in  all  matters  relating 
to  old-age  and  survivors  insurance.  At  the  close  of 
1940,  475  of  these  field  offices  were  in  operation. 

Protection  against  want  for  jobless  workers  dur- 
ing periods  of  unemployment  was  also  strength- 
ened through  the  unification  of  two  services — job 
insurance  and  job  employment — to  form  the  em- 
ployment security  program.  This  program,  which 
is  a  joint  Federal-State  enterprise,  was  the  result 
of  the  President's  Reorganization  Plan  No.  I,  ef- 
fective July  1,  1939,  which  provided  for  the  trans- 
fer of  the  U.S.  Employment  Service  to  the  Social 
Security  Board  and  its  co-ordination  with  the 
Board's  Bureau  of  Unemployment  Compensation 
This  same  integration  of  employment-service  and 
unemployment-compensation  activities  is  also  true 
in  the  States  Every  State  has  its  own  unemploy- 
ment-compensation law  under  which  jobless  work- 
ers who  are  insured  receive  weekly  out-of-work 
benefits  and  its  own  employment  service  with  local 
offices  which  register  the  unemployed  and  help 
them  to  find  new  jobs. 

Federal  co-operation  encouraged  the  States  to  en- 
act unemployment-compensation  laws  States  with 
laws  approved  by  the  Social  Security  Board  re- 
ceive Federal  grants  covering  the  administrative 
expenses  of  their  employment-security  program, 
including  employment-service  operations.  A  Fed- 
eral pay-roll  tax  of  3  per  cent  is  levied  on  employ- 
ers of  eight  or  more  in  all  but  a  few  specifically 
excluded  occupations,  but  up  to  90  per  cent  of  this 
tax  may  be  offset  by  contributions  made  by  em- 
ployers in  States,  with  approved  laws,  to  the  State 
unemployment  fund. 

Every  State,  Alaska,  Hawaii,  and  the  District 
of  Columbia  is  receiving  grants  for  administration 
of  its  employment-security  program  from  the  Fed- 
eral Government.  Over  28,000,000  workers  in  the 
United  States  are  insured  under  their  State  unem- 
ployment-compensation laws,  and  unemployment 
benefits  have  been  payable  in  all  the  States  since 
July  1,  1939.  During  1940,  weekly  benefits  totaling 
about  $520,000,000  were  paid  to  over  5,500,000  job- 
less workers  by  the  various  States.  There  are  now 
in  operation  in  all  the  States  over  1500  local  em- 


SOCIAL  STUDIES 


683     SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


ployment  offices  and  3000  additional  part-time  of- 
fices. During  1940,  placement  of  workers  in  jobs 
in  private  industry  reached  a  new  high,  because  of 
the  unusual  demand  for  labor  from  defense  indus- 
tries. All  told,  some  3.800,000  jobs  were  filled, 
3,200,000  of  them  in  private  industry. 

The  U.S.  Employment  Service,  as  part  of  its 
responsibility  under  the  defense  program,  insti- 
tuted a  special  study  of  workers  registered  with 
the  local  employment  offices  to  find  those  who  had 
previous  work  experience  that  was  suitable  for 
defense  needs,  and  to  determine  which  workers 
who  were  no  longer  engaged  in  their  former  trade 
could  refurbish  their  "rusty"  skills,  which  would 
qualify  them  for  defense  jobs,  by  being  given  "re- 
fresher" courses.  To  facilitate  the  movement  of 
workers  to  areas  where  there  was  a  demand  for 
their  services,  a  system  of  regional  labor  transfer 
offices,  working  closely  with  the  State  employment 
services,  was  established. 

Another  development  during  the  year  had  im- 
portant bearing  upon  the  efficiency  with  which 
State  social  security  programs  were  operating.  This 
was  the  organization  and  institution  of  plans  for 
the  selection  and  promotion  on  a  merit  basis  of 
personnel  in  State  employment-security  and  public- 
assistance  agencies.  The  amendments  of  1939  had 
included  a  requirement  that  all  States,  in  the  in- 
terests of  proper  administration,  must  adopt  a  mer- 
it system  for  such  personnel,  effective  Jan.  1,  1940. 

Federal  co-operation  and  aid  to  the  States  has 
also  played  an  important  part  in  the  Nation-wide 
development  of  public-assistance  programs  for  the 
needy  aged,  the  needy  blind,  and  dependent  chil- 
dren. The  Federal  Government  matches,  dollar  for 
dollar,  within  certain  limits,  State  payments  to 
needy  individuals  under  public-assistance  plans  ap- 
proved by  the  Social  Security  Board.  For  aid  to 
the  aged  and  the  blind  the  act  provides  Federal 
money  may  be  used  to  share  in  payments  to  indi- 
viduals up  to  a  combined  Federal-State  total  of 
$40  a  month ;  for  dependent  children  the  limit  set 
for  Federal  matching  is  $18  for  the  first  dependent 
child  and  $12  for  every  other  dependent  child  in 
the  same  home. 

By  the  end  of  1940,  every  State,  Alaska,  Hawaii, 
and  the  District  of  Columbia  was  participating  in 
the  old-age  assistance  program;  43  of  these  juris- 
dictions had  approved  plans  for  aid  to  the  blind; 
and  a  like  number  for  aid  to  dependent  children 
A  total  of  some  3,000,000  needy  men,  women,  and 
children  were  receiving  monthly  cash  payments  un- 
der these  plans,  including  2,000,000  aged,  50,000 
blind,  and  845,000  dependent  children  in  350,000 
families. 

Federal  grants  to  States  for  public  assistance 
from  Feb.  1, 1936,  when  Federal  funds  first  became 
available,  through  Dec.  31,  1940,  totaled  $1,066,- 
120,000.  Of  this  amount,  $891,755,000  represented 
grants  for  old-age  assistance ;  $25,809,000  for  aid 
to  the  blind ;  and  $148,556,000  for  aid  to  dependent 
children.  Grants  made  for  1940  totaled  $310,769,- 
000.  Of  this  amount,  $245,327,000  represented  grants 
for  old-age  assistance;  $6,880,000  for  aid  to  the 
blind ;  and  $58,562,000  for  aid  to  dependent  chil- 
dren. See  RELIEF. 

ARTHUR  J.  ALTMEYER. 

SOCIAL  STUDIES.  See  EDUCATION. 
SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS.  The 

following  is  a  list  of  leading  national  and  inter- 
national organizations,  with  their  officially  pro- 
claimed objectives  and  a  concise  report  of  their 
activities  during  the  year  1940. 


They  are  listed  alphabetically  according  to  the 
first  specific  word  in  each  title.  Certain  classifica- 
tions have  been  omitted  in  this  list  because  they 
are  presented  fully  elsewhere  in  this  volume.  The 
reader  is,  therefore,  referred  to  the  following  ar- 
ticles as  a  supplement :  for  accrediting  associations, 
to  the  article  on  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES,  also, 
EDUCATION;  for  labor  organizations,  to  AMERICAN 
FEDERATION  OF  LAHOR,  CONGRESS  OF  INDUSTRIAL 
ORGANIZATIONS,  and  LABOR  CONDITIONS  ;  for  po- 
litical parties  and  groups,  to  ELECTION,  U.S.  NA- 
TIONAL; for  religious  bodies,  to  the  table  of  RE- 
LIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS,  as  well  as  to  interdenomi- 
national groups  listed  below ;  for  sport  organiza- 
tions, to  articles  on  various  sports  and  Amateur 
Athletic  Union,  below;  for  foundations,  trusts, 
etc.,  to  BENEFACTIONS  and  the  articles  there  re- 
ferred to ;  for  war  relief  agencies,  to  WAR  RELIEF 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  also,  RJJD  CROSS  and  REF- 
UGEES. For  government  agencies,  learned  acade- 
mies, and  institutes  see  separate  articles 

Accountants,  National  Association  of  Cost,  listed  un- 
der Cost 

Actors'  Fund  of  America,  founded  in  1882  to  care  for 
the  impoverished,  aged,  and  infirm  members  of  the  theatri- 
cal profession  Membership  (1939):  2120.  President:  Dan- 
iel Frohman.  Secretary:  Robert  Campbell  Headquarters: 
1619  Broadway,  New  York  City.  The  Fund,  supported  by 
donations,  benefit  performances,  and  a  limited  endowment, 
spends  $140,000  and  $180,000  a  year  A  home  for  retired 
actors  is  maintained  in  Englewood,  N  J 

Adult  Education,  American  Association  for.  founded 
in  1926  to  serve  as  a  clearing  house  for  information, 
initiate  activities  and  assist  enterprises  already  m  opera- 
tion, and  to  aid  and  advise  individuals  who,  although 
occupied  with  some  vocation  or  interest,  desire  to  continue 
their  education.  Membership.  1400.  President.  Harry  A. 
Overstreet.  Director:  Morse  A  Cartwrijrht  Headquarters: 
60  East  42  Street,  New  York  City.  The  1940  meeting, 
held  in  New  York  with  an  attendance  of  2023,  had  as  its 
theme  "The  Democratic  Way  and  the  Educational  Process.** 
During  the  year  an  active  program  of  adult  education  for 
democracy  was  conducted,  and  another  relating  aduJt  edu- 
cation to  the  defense  programs  was  inaugurated,  resulting 
in  the  publication  of  three  periodicals.  Defense  Papers, 
Defense  Digests,  and  Community  Councils  in  Action 

Advancement  of  Oolored  People,  National  Association 
for  the,  founded  in  1909  to  combat  the  spirit  of  persecu- 
tion which  confronts  colored  people  in  the  United  States, 
safeguard  their  rights,  and  secure  for  them  equal  oppor- 
tunity with  all  other  citizens  Membership:  100,000  Presi- 
dent: Arthur  B.  Spmgarn.  Executive  Secretary:  Walter 
White.  Headquarters.  69  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City. 
The  Spmgarn  Medal  for  1940  was  awarded  to  Dr  Louis 
T.  Wright  of  New  York  The  32d  Annual  Conference 
will  be  held  in  Houston,  Texas,  June,  1941.  See  LYNCH- 
ING; NEGROES. 

Advancement  of  Musio,  National  Bureau  for  the, 
founded  in  1916  to  promote  musical  interest  and  activities 
and  to  aid  those  interested  m  them  It  has  no  membership 
other  than  the  ten  members  of  the  Board  of  Control.  Presi- 
dent and  Managing  Director.  C.  M  Tremame.  Secretary: 
Osbourne  McConathy.  Headquarters*  45  West  45  Street, 
New  York  City.  The  Bureau  co-ordinates  existing  agencies 
in  the  field  of  music  and  promotes,  also,  National  Music 
Week  (beginning  the  first  Sunday  in  May),  school  music 
contests  and  festivals,  and  group  instruction  in  applied 

Advancement  of  Science,  American  Association  for 
the,  founded  in  1848,  a  democratic  and  representative 
organization  devoted  to  the  whole  field  of  science.  Organ- 
ized in  15  sections,  it  has  over  20,000  members  and  174 
associated  societies.  President:  Dr.  Irving  Langmuir.  Per- 
manent Secretary:  Dr  F.  R.  Moulton.  Headquarters: 
Smithsonian  Institution  Building,  Washington,  D  C.  In 
1940  a  paper  by  Dr  Herald  R  Cox,  Rocky  Mountain 
Laboratory,  U.S.  Public  Health  Service,  was  selected  for 
the  Theobald  Smith  Award  in  the  Medical  Sciences;  it 
was  entitled  "Cultivation  of  Ridcettsiae  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Spotted  Fever.  Typhus,  and  Q  Fever  Groupi 
in  the  Embryonic  Tissues  ot  Developing  Chicks"  The 
Thousand  Dollar  Prize  was  awarded  to  D.  R.  Hoagland 
and  D.  I.  Arnon.  University  of  California,  for  the  paper 
entitled  "Availability  of  Nutrients  with  Special  Reference 
to  Physiological  Aspects,"  presented  at  the  meeting  in 
Philadelphia;  Dec  27,  1940,  to  Jan.  2,  1941  Scheduled 
meetings:  Durham,  N.H..  week  of  June  23,  1941;  Chicago, 
111..  w?ek  of  SeP™  22,  1*41;  Dallas,  Tex,'  Dec.  29,  iW. 
to  Jan.  3,  1942.  See  PSYCHIATRY. 

Advancement  of  Science,  British.  Association  for  the. 
founded  in  York,  England,  in  1831.  President.  Sir  Richard 


SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS      684     SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


Gregory;  Secretary,  O.  J.  R.  Howmrth.  Headquarters: 
Burlington  House,  London,  W.  1.  The  Association  holds 
an  annual  meeting  at  which  papers  are  read  (subsequently 
published)  and  sets  aside  an  annual  sum  for  scientific  re- 
searches. In  lieu  of  the  appointed  1940  meeting,  a  short 
Conference  was  arranged,  July  25-27,  in  the  University 
of  Reading,  which  dealt  m  general  terms  with  Science  in 
National  and  International  Aspects.  It  was  decided  that 
the  13  sections  of  the  Association  would  not  meet  individ- 
ually unless  cause  should  arise,  and  no  new  sectional  offi- 
cers were  appointed.  The  April  issue  of  the  official  journal, 
The  Advancement  of  Science,  was  reduced  in  bulk,  owing 
to  the  rationing  of  paper,  but  publication  was  expected  to 
continue. 

Advertising  Federation  of  America,  founded  in  1905 
to  advance  the  interests  of  all  who  create,  sell,  or  use 
advertising,  and  to  increase  its  usefulness  to  the  consuming 
public.  Membership.  10,000.  President:  Elon  G  Borton. 
Secretary:  May  O.  Vander  Pyl.  Headquarters:  330  West 
42  Street,  New  York  City.  The  37th  annual  convention 
and  exposition  will  be  held  at  the  Hotel  Statler,  Boston, 
Mass.,  May  25-29,  1941. 

Aeronautic  Association,  National,  founded  in  1922,  a 
non-profit  and  non-partisan  organization  representing  the 
public  interest  in  aviation  and  interested  in  every  phase 
of  aviation.  Membership:  over  10,000.  President  Gill 
Robb  Wilson  General  Manager:  G.  deFreest  Larner  Head- 
quarters. Willard  Hotel,  Washington,  D.C.  Activities  of 
1940  included  the  National  Aviation  Forum  held  at  Wash- 
ington, D.C ,  in  May  and  the  Denver  Air  Congress,  July 
7-10.  The  Mackay  Trophy  for  1939  was  awarded  in  1940 
to  the  Second  Bombardment  Corps,  U  S.  Army  Air  Corps, 
for  a  hazardous  flight  made  to  Chile,  Feb  4,  1939,  to  carry 
medical  supplies  to  the  earthquake  area  The  Collier  Trophy 
for  1939  was  awarded  to  the  domestic  airlines  of  the 
United  States  for  their  high  record  of  safety,  with  special 
recognition  to  Drs.  Walter  M.  Boothby  and  William  R. 
Lovelace,  II,  of  the  Mayo  Foundation  and  to  Capt.  Harry 
C.  Armstrong  of  the  U.S.  Army  Medical  Corps,  for  their 
work  m  aviation  medicine  in  general  and  pilot  fatigue  in 
particular.  The  1941  meeting  is  tentatively  scheduled  for 


July  at  Louisville,  Ky 
Alcoholism,  World  * 


League  against,  founded  in  1919 

to  attain  by  means  of  education  the  total  suppression  of 
alcoholism  throughout  the  world.  Membership:  51  national 
temperance  organizations  in  31  countries  Executive  Sec- 
retary: Ernest  H  Cherrington.  Headquarters'  Westerville. 
Ohio.  During  1940  the  League  continued  to  supply  factual 
and  source  matenal  to  temperance  organizations  in  prac- 
tically every  country,  to  publishers  of  temperance  periodi- 
cals, and  to  schools.  It  maintains  at  Westerville,  Ohio,  a 
large  reference  library  on  the  subject  of  alcohol. 

Amateur  Athletic  Union  of  the  United  States,  founded 
in  1888  to  improve  and  promote  amateur  sports  and  the 
civic  interest  of  the  Nation,  by  the  education  of  all  classes 
in  the  benefits  to  be  derived  by  participation  in  athletics. 
The  A. A  A.  establishes  a  uniform  test  of  amateur  stand- 
ing and  uniform  rules  governing  the  snorts  within  its 
jurisdiction,  regulates  and  awards  the  atnletic  champion- 
ship of  the  United  States,  and  promotes  legislation  in  the 
interest  of  sports  facilities  President'  L  di  Benedetto 
Secretary  D  T  Ferris.  Headquarters  233  Broadway, 
New  York,  N  Y  For  activities  and  awards  during  1940, 
see  the  separate  articles  on  the  various  sports 

American  Legion.  See  separate  article 

American-Scandinavian  Foundation,  founded  in  1911 
to  assist  cultural  relations  between  America  and  the 
Scandinavian  countries.  President-  Henry  Gnrldard  Leach 
Headquarters'  116  East  64  Street.  New  York  Citv 

Antiquarian  Society,  American,  founded  in  1812  with 
the  maintenance  of  a  national  library  of  American  history 
as  its  chief  purpose.  The  library  contains  nearly  700,000 
titles  and  is  free  for  the  use  of  all  qualified  scholars. 
Membership  200  President:  Samuel  Eliot  Morison  Di- 
rector Clarence  S  Brigham.  Headquarters  Worcester, 
Mass.  Clifford  K  Shipton  was  appointed  librarian  in  Oc- 
tober, 1940  Scheduled  meetings:  Boston,  Mass,  April, 
1941;  Worcester,  Mass.,  October,  1941. 

Anti-Saloon  League  of  America,  founded  in  1895  to 
promote  temperance  education  and  legislation;  a  non-mem- 
bership organization.  President*  Bishop  Ralph  S.  Cush- 
man.  General  Secretary.  George  W  Crabbe  Headquarters: 
131  B  Street,  S  E.,  Washington,  D  C  The  biennial  na- 
tional convention  held  in  Washington,  D  C ,  Nov.  24-26, 
1940,  reaffirmed  the  general  program  adopted  in  1938  The 
League  noted  in  its  report  that,  during  1940,  the  first 
State  which  had  legalized  liquor  following  repeal  of  na- 
tional prohibition  reversed  its  attitude  In  an  advisory 
referendum  on  August  27,  South  Carolina  voted  189,361 
for  and  130,366  against  repeal  of  the  liquor  law,  a  ma- 
jority of  58,995  In  Oklahoma,  on  November  5,  a  repeal 
of  the  State  prohibition  amendment  was  defeated  by  374,- 
911  to  290,752  Returns  showed  a  slight  increase  in  the 
number  of  no-license  units  in  elections  held  during  1940 
under  local  option 

Applied  Psychology,  American  Association  for,  found- 
ed in  1937  to  promote  the  service  which  psychology  as  a 
science  can  render  society  m  its  application  in  business, 
education,  industry,  law.  medicine,  mental  hygiene,  social 
welfare,  and  related  fields.  Membership:  600.  President: 


ing  Psychology,  the  first  biographical  directory  of  applied 
psychologists.  Scheduled  meeting:  Northwestern  Univer- 
sity, September,  1941. 

Archaeological  Institute  of  America,  founded  in  1879 
to  promote  and  direct  archaeological  investigation  and  re- 
search Membership:  1600.  President*  William  Bell  Dins- 
moor.  General  Secretary:  Dr.  Men  wether  Stuart  Head- 
quarters' 504  Schermerhorn  Hall,  Columbia  University. 
The  1941  meeting  will  be  held  at  Hartford,  Conn  ,  Dec. 
29-31. 

Architects,  The  American  Institute  of,  founded  in  1857 
to  promote  the  efficiency  of  the  profession,  to  advance 
education  in  architecture  and  allied  subjects,  and  to  make 
the  profession  of  increasing  service  to  society.  Member- 
ship* 3048.  President*  Edwin  Bergstrotn  Secretary 
Charles  T.  Ingham  Headquarters  The  Octagon,  1741 
New  York  Avenue,  N  W  ,  Washington,  D  C  Mrs.  Beatrix 
Farrand,  landscape  architect,  was  elected  an  honorary  mem- 
ber in  1940.  The  73d  Annual  Convention  will  be  held  in 
Yosemite  Park,  Calif.,  May  17-21,  1941 

Artists  Congress,  American.  See  ART  under  Other  De- 
velopments. 

Arts,  The  American  Federation  of,  founded  in  1909  to 
develop  art  and  its  appreciation  President  Hon  Robert 
Woods  Bliss  Director:  Thomas  C  Parker  Headquarters 
Barr  Building,  Washington,  D  C.  The  1941  annual  con- 
vention will  be  held  in  Washington,  D  C ,  concurrently 
with  the  opening  of  the  National  Gallery  of  Art 

Arts  and  Letters,  National  Institute  of,  founded  in 
1898  to  further  the  interests  of  literature  and  the  fine  arts 
Membership  250  President  Walter  Dnmrosch  Secretary 
Henry  S  Canby.  Headquarters  16R  Enst  71  Street,  New 
York  City  A  Gold  Medal  was  awarded  m  1940  to  William 
Adams  Delano  for  architecture  Scheduled  meetings  the 
Public  Ceremonial,  Tan  18,  1941,  at  Carnegie  Hall  in  New 
Yoik;  the  Annual  Dinner-Meeting,  Dec  10,  1941,  in  New 
York 

Arts  and  Sciences,  American  Academy  of,  founded  m 
1780  to  encourage  scientific  work  and  publication  Mem- 
bership* 779  Fellows  and  129  Foreign  Honorary  Members 
President*  Harlow  Shapley  Recording  Secretary  Hudson 
Hoagland.  Headquarters:  28  Newbury  Street,  Boston, 
Mass  During  1940  a  number  of  grants  for  research  work 
were  made  from  funds  given  the  Academy  for  that  pur- 
pose Meetings  are  held  monthly,  October  through  May. 

Asiatic  Association,  American,  founded  in  1898  to 
study  relations  between  Asiatic  countries  and  the  United 
States  Membership*  200.  President*  Howard  E  Cole. 
Secretary  John  B  Chevalier  Headquarters  India  House, 
Hanover  Square,  New  York  City 

Astronomical  Society,  American,  founded  in  1899  to 
advance  astronomy  and  closely  related  branches  of  science. 
Membership*  627.  President:  Joel  Stebbms  Secretary* 
Dean  B  McLaughlm,  University  of  Michigan  Observa- 
tory, Ann  Arbor,  Mich.  The  Annie  J.  Cannon  Prize  was 
awarded  in  1940  to  Julie  Vinter  Hansen,  astronomer  at 
the  Observatory  of  Copenhagen.  Scheduled  meetings  Sep- 
tember. 1941,  Yerkes  Observatory,  Williams  Bay,  Wis  ; 
December,  1941  (tentatively  in  Cleveland) 

Audubon  Society,  National,  founded  in  1905  for  the 
protection  of  wild  birds  and  animals  Membership  156 
affiliated  clubs  and  6115  individuals  President*  Guy  Emer- 
son Executive  Director  John  H.  Baker  Headquarters 
1006  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City  Activities  during 
1940  included  a  campaign  to  stop  illegal  traffic  in  wild 
bird  plumage,  investigation  of  the  destruction  of  fish- 
eating  birds  at  fish  hatcheries  and  rearing  ponds,  and  the 
appointment  of  a  full-time  representative  of  the  Society 
for  the  State  of  California.  Research  projects  were  con- 
ducted in  connection  with  the  Roseate  Spoonbill,  the  Cali- 
fornia Condor,  and  the  Ivory-billed  Woodpecker.  The  1941 
annual  meeting  is  scheduled,  October  17-21,  in  New  York 
City. 

Automobile  Association,  American,  founded  in  1902 
to  provide  a  national  network  of  service  and  protection 
for  motor-club  members  and  to  work  for  the  improvement 
of  motoring  conditions  Membership  in  A.A.A.  Clubs* 
about  1,021,000.  President:  Thos  P.  Henry  General  Man- 
ager: Russell  E.  Singer.  Headquarters*  17th  Street  and 
Pennsylvania  Avenue,  N.W.,  Washington,  D.C  During 
1940  the  million-member  mark  was  passed  for  the  first 
time.  A  nationwide  Pedestrian  Protection  Contest  was  par- 
ticipated in  by  all  States  and  hundreds  of  cities;  the  first 
State  prize  went  to  Minnesota  and  first  prize  for  large 
cities  to  Cleveland.  Ohio.  A  roadside  protection  program 
was  formulated  following  extensive  public  hearings.  The 
President  of  the  Association  was  appointed  to  the  National 
Defense  Advisory  Commission  (q.v  )  and  the  Association 
engaged  in  defense  activities,  including  official  observation 
of  Army  maneuvers 

Automobile  Manufacturers  Association,  founded  in 
1913  for  service  to  the  motor  industry.  Membership:  29. 
President:  Alvan  Macauley.  Secretary:  Byron  C.  Fqy. 
Headquarters-  New  Center  Building,  Detroit,  Mich.  The 
Association  conducts  annually  the  National  Automobile 


SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS      685     SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


Show  at  New  York.  The  1941  meeting  will  be  held  at 
Detroit  in  June. 

Bacteriologists^  Society  of  American,  founded  in  1899 
to  promote  the  science  of  bacteriology  and  bring  together 
American  bacteriologist*  for  demonstration  and  discussion 
of  methods  and  consideration  of  subjects  of  common  in- 
terest.  Membership:  about  1500.  President:  Dr.  O.  T. 
A  very.  Secretary:  Dr.  I.  L.  Baldwin.  Headquarters:  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin.  Madison,  Wis.  The  Eh  Lilly  Award 
in  Bacteriology  and  Immunology  for  1940  was  granted  to 
Dr  D.  W.  Woolley  of  the  University  of  Rochester.  The 
1941  meeting  will  be  held  in  Baltimore,  Md.t  Dec.  20-31. 

Bankers  Association.  American,  founded  in  1875  to 
promote  the  welfare  and  usefulness  of  banks,  secure  uni- 
formity of  action  on  subjects  of  importance  and  provide 
opportunity  for  discussion  thereon,  and  to  provide  educa- 
tional opportunities  for  bank  officers  and  employees  Mem- 
bership: 14,333.  President:  P.  D.  Houston.  Headquarters: 
22  East  40  Street.  New  York  City.  Four  new  departments 
were  established  in  1940 — Consumer  Credit,  Research  in 
Mortgage  and  Real  Estate  Finance,  Economics,  and  Cus- 
tomer Relations  Scheduled  meetings  Regional,  March 
5-7,  1941,  in  New  York  City  and  March  20-21  in  Louis- 
ville, Ky  ;  Trust,  February  4-7,  New  York  City;  Annual 
Convention,  September  28-October  2,  Chicago,  111.  See 
BANKS  AND  BANKING 

Bankers'  Association,  Investment.  See  FINANCIAL  RE- 
VIEW under  Financial  Regulation 

Banks,  National  Association  of  Mutual  Savings,  listed 
under  Mutual 

Bar  Association,  American,  founded  in  1878  to  advance 
the  science  of  jurisprudence,  promote  the  administration 
of  justice  and  uniformity  of  legislation  and  judicial  deci- 
sion, uphold  the  honor  of  the  profession,  encourage  cordial 
intercourse  among  members  of  the  Bar,  and  correlate  ac- 
tivities of  State  Bar  Associations  Membership  31,622 
President  Jacob  M  L.ishly  Executive  Secretary  Olive 
G.  Ricker  Headquarteis  1140  North  Dearborn  Street, 
Chicago,  111.  In  1940  the  Award  of  Merit  was  given  to 
the  State  Bar  of  Texas  and  the  Cleveland  Bar  Association. 
The  American  Bar  Association  Medal  was  awarded  to 
Roscoe  Pound,  Dean  Emeritus  of  Harvard  Law  School 
and  the  Ross  Essay  Prize  to  T.  F  Green  of  Athens,  Ga. 
Scheduled  meetings*  House  of  Delegates,  Mar.  17-18, 
1941,  Chicago,  Annual,  Sept  29,  1941,  Indianapolis. 

Beethoven  Association.  See  Music 

Better  Business  Bureaus,  Inc.,  National  Association 
of,  founded  in  1913  to  encourage  the  formation  of  and 
assist  in  the  development  of  Better  Business  Bureaus  en- 
gaged  in  fostering  truth  in  advertising  and  opposing  fraud 
and/or  unethical  practices  in  advertising  and  selling  Mem- 
bership 74  associations.  President:  R  J  Bauer  Secre- 
tary Muriel  N.  Tsvetkoff,  San  Francisco  Better  Business 
Bureau  The  1941  meeting  will  be  held  in  Los  Angeles, 
Calif.  In  May,  1940,  a  Business-Consumer  Relations  Con- 
ference was  held  in  New  York  City 

Bible  Society,  American,  founded  in  1816  to  encourage 
wider  circulation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  without  note  or 
comment  throughout  the  world  Membership  probably 
over  10,000  President  John  T  Manson  General  Secre- 
tary Dr  Eric  M  North  Headquarters'  Park  Avenue  and 
57th  Street,  New  York  City.  Universal  Bible  Sunday  was 
observed  Dec  8,  1940  The  1941  annual  meeting  will  be 
held  May  8 

Bibliographical  Society  of  America,  founded  in  1904 
to  promote  bibliographical  research  and  issue  publications 
Membership  750  President-  Randolph  G  Adams.  Perma- 
nent Secretary.  George  L.  McKay,  47  East  60  Street,  New 
York  City  Scheduled  meetings:  June,  1941,  in  Boston; 
December,  1941 

Birth  Control  Federation  of  America,  Inc ,  founded 
in  1939  by  the  American  Birth  Control  League  (1921)  and 
the  Birth  Control  Clinical  Research  Bureau  (1923)  to 
foster  planned  parenthood  by  making  birth  control  infoi- 
mation  available  Membership,  about  34,000  Margaret 
Sanger  is  Honorary  Chairman.  President*  Dr  Richard  N 
Pierson.  Secretary.  Albert  D  Lasker  Headquarters-  501 
Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City.  The  1941  annual  meet- 
ing is  scheduled,  Jan.  28-30,  in  New  York  City  Sec 
BIRTH  CONTROL 

Blind,  Inc.,  American  Foundation  for  the,  founded  in 
1921  to  promote  those  interests  of  the  blind  which  cannot 
be  advantageously  handled  by  local  agencies  President* 
M.  C.  Migel  Executive  Director:  Robert  B  Irwm  Head- 
quarters* 15  West  16  Street,  New  York  City.  Activities 
include  research,  assistance  and  consultation  service  to 
local  agencies,  special  services  to  individuals,  scholarships, 
and  a  reference  and  lending  library. 

Blindness,  National  Society  for  the  Prevention  of, 
listed  under  Prevention. 

B'nai  B'rith,  a  Jewish  service  and  fraternal  organiza- 
tion, founded  in  1843  to  further  the  highest  ideals  of  hu- 
manity through  a  program  that  encompasses  adult  education, 
promotion  of  youth  welfare,  communal  service,  philan- 
thropy, patriotism,  and  good  will.  Membership*  125,000. 
President.  Henry  Monsky.  Secretary:  Maurice  Bisjnrer. 
Headquarters:  1003  K  Street,  N.W.,  Washington,  D.C. 
During  1940  B'nai  B'rith  contributed  $55,000  for  war  re- 


lief and  refugee  aid,  established  a  national  defense  com- 
mittee to  co-operate  with  the  Government  and  agencies  en- 
gaged in  morale  work,  and  embarked  with  the  Red  Cross 
on  a  nationwide  home  service  program  for  families  of 
men  in  the  armed  service.  Nearly  1,000,000  people  of  all 
races  and  creeds  attended  B'nai  B'rith  patriotic  meetings 
and  youth  and  democracy  rallies  organized  by  Aleph  Zadik 
Aleph,  the  youth  agency  Hillel  Foundations  increased  to 
50,  serving  30,000  Jewish  college  men  and  women  with  a 
program  of  religious  and  social  welfare  and  cultural  ac- 
tivities. Boy  Scouting  was  made  an  integral  part  of  the 
activity  of  B'nai  B'rith  during  the  year.  The  next  triennial 
convention  will  be  held  in  Chicago,  Mar.  29-Apr.  2,  1941. 

Board  of  Beview  of  Motion  ^Pictures,  Inc.,  National, 
listed  under  Review. 

Botanical  Society  of  America,  Inc.,  established  in  1906 
as  a  clearing  house  for  the  botanists  of  America.  It  sup- 
ports projects  of  general  interest  to  botanists,  provides  an 
opportunity  for  the  presentation  and  publication  of  re- 
search studies,  and  accepts  and  administers  funds  for 
certain  purposes  Membership*  1250.  President:  E.  N. 
Transeau.  Secretary:  Paul  R  Burkholder,  Osborn  Botani- 
cal Laboratory,  Yale  University,  New  Haven,  Conn  The 
Society  will  meet  in  Dallas,  Tex ,  in  December,  1941. 

Boys'  Olubs  of  America,  Inc.,  organized  nationally  in 
1906  by  existing  Boys'  Clubs  to  promote  their  develop- 
ment and  improvement.  Membership.  348  organizations 
reaching  300.000  boys.  President.  William  Edwin  Hall. 
Chairman.  Herbert  Hoover.  Secretary:  William  Ziegler, 
Jr  Headquarters:  381  Fourth  Avenue,  New  York,  N.Y. 
During  1940  the  organization  successfully  concluded  a 
Five  Year  Mile  Post  Plan,  during  which  the  number  of 
clubs  and  members  was  materially  increased  A  special 
medal  was  awarded  to  James  Gilbert  White  for  his  out- 
standing service  in  the  cause  of  the  underprivileged  boy. 
The  1941  annual  conference  will  be  held  in  May. 

Boy  Sconts  of  America,  founded  in  1910  to  promote 
the  ability  of  boys  to  do  things  for  themselves  and  others, 
to  train  them  in  Scoutcraft,  and  to  teach  them  patriotism, 
courage,  self-reliance,  and  kindred  virtues  Membership: 
1,421,945  President:  Walter  W.  Head.  Chief  Scout  Exec- 
utive  James  E  West.  Headquarters:  2  Park  Avenue, 
New  York,  N  Y  During  1940  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America 
launched  a  Program  of  Action  for  Strengthening  and  In- 
vigorating Democracy  and  joined  with  15  other  national 
organizations  (under  the  auspices  of  the  Citizenship  Edu- 
cational Service)  in  issuing  "A  Call  to  All  Americans," 
a  statement  designed  to  arouse  all  citizens  to  vitalize  the 
ideals  of  American  Democracy.  Boy  Scouts  participated 
in  both  the  San  Francisco  and  New  York  World's  Fairs. 
At  the  New  York  Fair  a  Demonstration  and  Service  Camp 
was  maintained  where  nearly  3000  Scouts  camped  for  one 
week  each  while  rendering  service  to  the  Fair. 

Broadcasters,  National  Association  of,  founded  in 
1922  to  promote  and  defend  the  American  system  of  pri- 
vately owned,  competitively^  operated  radio  and  to  render 
every  aid  to  those  engaged  in  it  to  enable  them  to  operate 
in  the  public  interest.  Membership:  510.  President  Neville 
Miller  Assistant  to  the  President  C  E.  Amey,  Jr  Head- 
quarters Normandy  Building,  1626  K  Street,  N  W  , 
Washington,  D  C  See  Music 

Broadcast  Music,  Inc.   (Bid).  See  Music 

Bund,  German-American.  See  DIES  COMMITTEE,  FAS- 
CISM 

Business  and  Professional  Women's  Olubs,  Inc.,  The 
National  Federation  of,  founded  in  1919  to  bring  about  a 
spirit  of  co-operation  among  business  and  professional 
women  of  the  United  States  and  to  extend  opportunities  to 
them  through  education  along  the  lines  of  industrial,  scien- 
tific, and  vocational  activity.  Membership*  70,000.  Presi- 
dent. Dr  Minnie  L  Maffett  Executive  Secretary*  Louise 
Franklin  Bache  Headquarters  1819  Broadway,  New  York 
City  During  1940  the  Federation  followed  a  program  on 
"Making  Democracy  Work,"  making  use  of  discussion 
and  other  approved  adult-education  media  in  the  clubs  and 
exploring  ways  in  which  groups  can  go  from  study  to 
action  in  an  intelligent  way  New  York  State  was  selected 
as  a  testing  ground  for  methods  in  organization  and  pro- 
gram in  an  effort  to  see  why  more  women  do  not  belong 
to  organized  groups  A  studv  entitled  "Should  Married 
Women  Work"  was  published  The  next  biennial  conven- 
tion will  be  held  in  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  July  6-12,  1941 

Campaign  for  Youth  Needs.  See  article  on  YOUTH 
MOVEMENT 

Camp  Fire  Girls,  Inc.,  incorporated  in  1912  to  provide 
an  opportunity  for  girls'  personal  development,  through 
group  experiences,  leisure-time  activities,  and  cultivation 
of  skills  Membership-  278,451.  The  President  is  Mrs. 
Elbert  Williams,  Secretary  and  National  Executive,  Mr. 
Lester  F.  Scott.  Headquarters:  88  Lexington  Avenue. 
New  York  City.  During  1940  Camp  Fire  Girls  placed 
special  emphasis  on  the  safety  and  health  features  of  the 
program  in  an  activities  project  called  "Skillful  Living. 
They  made  home  safety  surveys,  drew  up  codes  for  them- 
selves as  bicyclers,  roller  skaters,  and  pedestrians,  prac- 
ticed skill  in  sports,  considered  well  balanced  meals,  and 
well  balanced  daily  schedules  with  time  for  work,  fun,  and 
relaxation.  The  older  girls  undertook  a  citv  housekeeping 
project  which  involved  a  study  of  the  city  s  electric,  gas, 


SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS     686     SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


and  water  supplies  and  sanitation  system.  Albums  record- 
ing data  collected  and  recommendations  made  were  teat 
to  National  Headquarters. 

Cancer,  Inc.,  The  American  Society  for  the  Control 
Of,  listed  under  Control. 

Care  of  European  Children,  U.S.  Committee  for  the. 
See  CHILDREN'S  BUREAU,  Wxa  RELIEF. 

Catholic  Welfare  Conference.  See  separate  article. 

Chamber  of  Commerce,  International,  founded  in  1920 
to  provide  business  men  and  organizations  with  a  con- 
tinuing mechanism  for  interchange  of  information,  joint 
study,  consultation,  and  periodical  conference.  Member- 
ship: National  Committees  in  32  countries  and  affiliated 
organizations  in  18.  President:  J.  Sigfrid  Edstrom  of 
Sweden.  Chairman  of  the  American  Section:  Eliot  Wads- 
worth;  Manager,  Chauncey  D.  Snow.  Headquarters.  38 
Coura  Albert  Premier,  Paris,  France  (temporarily  re- 
moved to  9,  Vastra  Tradgardsgatan,  Stockholm,  Sweden). 
Offices  of  the  American  Section:  1615  H  Street,  NW, 
Washington,  D.C.  During  1940  the  International  Chamber 
of  Commerce  entered  upon  studies  of  Economic  Recon- 
struction and  established  co-operative  arrangements  with 
the  American  Arbitration  Association  for  settlement  of 
trade  disputes  involving  American  business  men. 

Chamber  of  Commerce,  United  States  Junior.  An  or- 
ganization founded  in  1920  to  organize  young  men  be- 
tween 21  and  35  for  civic  service  and  community  building 
activities.  Membership:  120,000.  Headquarters:  Merchan- 
dise Mart  Building,  Chicago,  111.  Americanism  week  was 
observed  Feb.  12-22,  1940  Prizes  and  trophies  valued  at 
about  $8000  were  awarded  for  committee  activities  and 
excellence  of  operation,  and  local  and  National  Distin- 
guished Service  Awards  were  made  to  outstanding  young 
men.  The  1941  annual  convention  will  be  held  in  Minne- 
apolis, Minn.,  June  18-21. 

Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  United  States,  estab- 
lished in  1912  primarily  as  a  vehicle  for  the  expression  of 
national  business  opinion  on  important  economic  questions 
Membership:  1626  chambers  of  commerce  and  trade  asso- 
ciations, 6441  individuals,  and  3519  associates.  President: 
James  S.  Kemper.  Secretary-  Ralph  Bradford.  Head- 
quarters: 1615  H  Street,  N.W,  Washington,  DC.  The 
Chamber  is  centering  its  attention  mainly  upon  defense 
problems,  holding  many  regional  conferences  of  business 
leaders  in  all  parts  of  the  countiy  to  discuss  the  place  of 
industries  in  the  national  defense  effort.  Chamber  spokes- 
men appear  before  congressional  committees  to  present  a 
practical  business  viewpoint  on  pending  legislation.  Twelve 
service  departments  are  maintained  covering  the  main  di- 
visions of  business  activity  Publications  include  the  Na- 
tion's Business,  a  monthly,  the  Washington  Review,  bi- 
monthly, special  legislative  bulletins,  and  committee  re- 
ports. The  29th  Annual  Meeting  will  be  held  in  Washing- 
ton, D.C.,  Apr.  28-May  1,  1941 

Chautauqua  Institution,  founded  in  1874  for  religious 
and  educational  purposes  President  Arthur  E.  Bestor 
Secretary:  Charles  E.  Pierce.  Headquarters:  Chautauqua, 
N.Y.  A  program  of  music,  lectures,  and  religions  services 
is  conducted  during  July  and  August  each  year 

Chemical  Industry,  Society  of.  See  CHEMISTIY,  IN- 
DUSTRIAL. 

Chemical  Society,  American,  founded  in  1876  to  ad- 
vance chemistry,  chemical  research  and  knowledge,  and 
the  qualifications  and  usefulness  of  chemists.  Membership: 
25,414.  President.  Harry  N.  Holmes  Secretary  Charles  L. 
Parsons  Headquarters*  Mills  Building,  Washington,  D.C. 

In  1940  the  Award  in  Pure  Chemistry  was  made  to 
Laurence  Olin  Brockway,  the  Eh  Lilly  and  Company 
Award  to  Eric  G.  Ball,  and  the  Women's  Award  to  Mary 
Engle  Petmmgton.  At  the  request  of  the  Executive  Office 
of  the  President  and  in  co-operation  with  the  National 
Roster  of  Scientific  and  Specialized  Personnel,  the  Society 
gathered  a  National  Roster  of  over  50,000  chemists  and 
chemical  engineers.  Two  general  meetings  were  conducted 
during  the  year  at  which  a  successful  Employment  Clear- 
ing House  brought  together  employers  and  employees.  The 
Society's  publications  were  increased  in  size,  and  one  new 
local  section  was  established.  Meetings  in  1941.  St.  Louis, 
April  7-11,  and  Atlantic  City,  Sept.  8-12.  See  CHEM- 
ISTRY. 

Child  Labor  Committee,  VatioaaL  founded  in  1904  to 
promote  legislation  dealing  with  child  labor  and  related  sub- 
jects, conduct  investigations,  advise  on  administration,  and 
maintain  an  information  service.  Membership*  about  15.- 
000.  Chairman:  Homer  Folks.  Headquarters:  419  Fourth 
Avenue,  New  York  City.  Activities  m  1940  included  an 
investigation  of  children  employed  on  the  legitimate  stage, 
participation  in  hearings  on  Federal  child-labor  bills,  par- 
ticipation in  the  White  House  Conference  on  Children  in 
a  Democracy  (see  CHILDREN'S  BUREAU),  and  a  field  trip 
by  the  General  Secretary  to  FSA  Rural  Rehabilitation, 
migrant  camp,  and  farm  purchase  projects  in  10  States. 
Six  new  publications  were  issued. 

China  Society  of  America,  The,  founded  in  1913  to 
promote  friendly  relations  and  a  better  understanding  be- 
tween the  peonies  of  the  United  States  and  China.  Mem- 
bership: 300.  President:  William  M.  Chadbourne.  Head- 
quarters: 570  Lexington  Avenue,  New  York  City*  During 
1940  luncheons  were  held  in  honor  of  Dr.  Lin  Yutang  and 


MsJ.  Evans  Carlson,  The  Society  distributed  Information 
about  China  to  teachers  throughout  the  United  State*  and 
published  China  magazine. 

Christian  Endeavor,  International  Society  of,  formed 
in  1885  to  further  the  training  of  young  people  in  the 
Christian  life,  among  societies  and  unions  in  about  SO 
evangelical  denominations  in  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada. Membership:  approximately  2,000,000.  President: 
Dr.  Daniel  A.  Poling.  Executive  Secretary:  Carroll  M. 
Wright.  Headquarters.  41  Mt.  Vernon  Street,  Boston. 
Mass.  The  Rainbow  Jubilee  Year  (60th  anniversary)  of 
the  first  group  was  held  in  1940,  climaxed  by  the  celebra- 
tion of  Christian  Endeavor  Week,  Jan.  26-Feb.  2,  1941. 
The  38th  International  Convention  will  be  held  in  Atlantic 
City.  N.J.,  July  8-13,  1941. 

Christian  Front.  See  DIES  COMMITTEE;  FASCISM;  NEW 
YORK  under  New  York  City 

Christians  and  Jews,  National  Conference  of,  founded 
in  1928  to  moderate  and  finally  eliminate  a  system  of 
prejudices  which  disfigures  business,  social,  and  political 
relations.  Membership:  16.500.  Co-Chairmen:  Arthur  H. 
Compton,  Carlton  J.  H.  Hayes,  Roger  W.  Straus.  Direc- 
tor: Everett  R.  Chnchy.  Headquarters:  300  Fourth  Ave- 
nue, New  York  City.  The  Wilhamstown  Institute  of 
Human  Relations  will  be  held  at  Williamstown,  Mass., 
the  last  week  in  August,  1941. 

•  Churches,  The  World  Council  of,  established  as  a  pro- 
visional committee  after  the  world  conferences  at  Oxford 
and  Edinburgh  m  1937  to  unite  the  churches  of  the  world 
on  the  Fedcial  principle  for  co-operative  service  and  the 
promotion  of  Christian  unity.  Membership*  70  denomina- 
tions. World  Chairman:  The  Archbishop  of  York  General 
Secretaries:  Dr.  W.  A.  Visser  't  Hooft.  Geneva;  Dr. 
William  Paton,  London;  Dr.  Henry  Smith  Leiper,  New 
York  Regional  consultations  on  wartime  responsibilities  of 
the  Churches  were  held  in  the  Balkans,  in  Canada,  and 
in  England,  as  well  as  in  Geneva  in  1940  A  chaplaincy 
service  to  prisoners  of  war  was  organized  and  likewise 
a  special  service  to  refugees  from  Europe  The  American 
Section  meets  in  New  York  City  in  May  and  October. 

City  Managers'  Association,  The  International,  found- 
ed in  1914  to  aid  in  the  improvement  of  local  government 
administration  and  the  proficiency  of  city  managers  Mem- 
bership: 596.  President:  Roy  S.  Braden  Headquarters: 
1313  East  60  Street,  Chicago,  111  Publications  issued  in 
1940  included  The  Municipal  Year  Book,  1940,  edited  by 
Ridley  and  Nolting,  and  Municipal  Public  Relations  by 
Elton  D.  Woolpcrt.  The  Institute  for  Training  in  Munici- 
pal Administration  made  available  two  new  correspondence 
courses:  The  Technique  of  Municipal  Administration  and 
Municipal  Recreation  Administration. 

Civic  Federation,  The  National,  founded  in  1900  to 
aid  m  moulding  a  sound  public  opinion.  Chairman  of  the 
Executive  Council-  Mack  W  Becks.  Secretary:  Mrs 
Ralph  M.  Easley.  Headquarters:  74  Trinity  Place,  New 
York  City.  Church  attendance  was  advocated  in  1940  to 
stimulate  religious  recovery.  Patriotic  posters  were  dis- 
tributed in  schools,  boys'  clubs,  and  Grange  halls  to 
counteract  the  propaganda  of  the  dictators  and  inculcate 
American  principles,  especially  in  the  minds  of  youth. 

Civil  Engineers,  American  Society  of,  founded  in 
1852  to  advance  engineering  and  architectural  knowledge 
and  practice,  to  maintain  high  standards  and  encourage 
intercourse  in  the  profession  There  are  64  local  sections 
and  120  affiliated  student  chapters.  Membership,  16,694. 
President:  Frederick  H.  Fowler.  Secretary:  George  T. 
Seabury.  Headquarters.  Engineering  Societies  Building, 
33  West  39  Street,  New  York  City.  The  Norman  Medal 
was  awarded  in  1940  to  Charles  H  Lee,  the  Croes  Medal 
to  C.  A.  Mockmore,  the  Laurie  Prize  to  Stanley  M  Dore, 
the  Wellington  Prize  to  Rufus  W.  Putnam,  the  Colling- 
wood  Pnze  for  Juniors  to  B.  K.  Hough,  Jr  ,  the  Construc- 
tion Engineering  Prize  to  Howard  L.  King,  and  the  Her- 
ing  Medal  of  the  Sanitary  Engineering  Division  to  A.  J. 
Schafmayer  and  the  late  B  E.  Grant.  The  1941  Annual 
Meeting  was  scheduled  Jan.  15-17  in  New  York  City; 
other  meetings  at  Baltimore,  April  23-25,  San  Diego,  July 
23-25,  and  Chicago,  Oct.  15-17,  1941. 

Civil  Liberties  Union,  American,  founded  in  1920  to 
maintain  the  Bill  of  Rights  for  everybody,  without  excep- 
tion. Membership:  5626  Chairman  of  the  National  Com- 
mittee: Edward  A.  Ross.  Chairman  of  the  Board  of  Direc- 
tors: Rev.  John  Haynes  Holmes.  Director.  Roger  N. 
Baldwin.  Headquarters:  31  Union  Square  West,  New 
York  City.  The  Union  continued  during  the  year  its  prac- 
tice of  publicly  condemning  or  commending  proposed  legis- 
lation or  court  decisions  affecting  democratic  rights.  The 
150th  anniversary  of  the  submission  of  the  Bill  of  Rights 
to  the  States  was  celebrated  under  the  auspices  of  national 
and  local  committees  A  large  national  conference,  or- 
ganized in  New  York,  Oct.  13-14,  and  attended  by  2500 
persons,  was  devoted  to  "Civil  Liberties  in  the  Present 
Emergency."  The  radio  news  service  throughout  the  year 
served  113  stations  in  40  States  with  a  weekly  script  en- 
titled "Civil  Liberty  in  the  News."  In  a  one-act  play  con- 
test conducted  in  co-operation  with  the  One-Act  Play 
Magazine,  a  $100  prize  was  awarded  to  Noel  Houston's- 
According  to  the  Lav  (produced  at  the  Provincetown 
Playhouse  m  New  York)  and  Philo  Higley'i  First  Frt+- 


SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS      687     SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


B< 

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dom.  Dr.  Harry  F.  Ward,  chairman  of  the  Union  since 
its  organization,  resigned  in  1940  because  of  opposition  to 
the  resolution  defining  qualification!  for  membership  on 
the  National  Committee  and  Board  of  Directors.  A  con- 
troversy, long  latent,  arose  in  the  Board  of  Directors  over 
participation  of  Communists  in  the  Union's  affairs.  At 
the  annual  meeting  a  resolution  was  adopted  by  the  Board 
and  the  National  Committee  holding  it  "inappropriate  for 
any  person  to  serve  on  the  governing  committees  of  the 
Union  or  on  its  staff,  who  is  a  member  of  any  political 
organization  which  supports  totalitarian  dictatorship  in 
any  country,  or  who  by  his  public  declarations  indicates 
his  support  of  such  a  principle."  The  Union  had  not  for 
20  years  elected  a  Communist  to  its  governing  committee 
or  staff,  although  two  persons  had  joined  the  Communist 
party  after  their  election  One  was  Elizabeth  Gurley  Flynn, 
member  of  the  Board  of  Directors,  whose  resignation  was 
requested  and  refused.  The  Board  instituted  proceedings 
to  remove  her,  and  the  points  at  issue  were  submitted  to 
the  entire  membership  of  the  Union.  Early  returns  showed 
775  in  favor  of  the  Board's  action  with  160  opposed.  Re- 
ceipts for  the  year  in  all  funds  were  $34,343,  an  increase 
of  $4112.  Four  new  committees  were  formed  during  the 
year,  three  in  Illinois.  Publications  included  the  yearly 
Story  of  Civtl  Liberty,  the  Civil  Liberties  Quarterly,  and 
a  running  index  of  all  relevant  magazine  articles. 

Civil  Service  Reform  League,  National,  founded  in 
1881  to  improve  and  extend  the  merit  system  in  the  public 
service.  Membership:  3000.  President*  Samuel  H.  Ordway, 
"r  Executive  Secretaiy  H  Eliot  Kaplan  Headquarters. 
_121  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City  In  1940  a  nationwide 
Committee  of  Business  and  Industry  was  organized  to 
arouse  interest  in  the  merit  system  The  League's  field 
program  was  extended  through  organization  of  State  com- 
mittees and  of  merit-system  institutes  throughout  the 
country.  A  fifty-dollar  prize  was  offered  to  the  Junior 
Chamber  of  Commerce  submitting  the  outstanding  report 
of  merit-system  activity.  During  the  year  the  League  was 
active  in  behalf  of  the  Ramspeck  Bill  (see  CIVIL  SERVICE). 
the  inclusion  of  national  defense  positions  under  civil 
service  rules,  and  the  adoption  of  civil  service  laws  in 
bevcral  States  and  cities. 

Oiyltan  International,  founded  in  1918  for  the  building 
of  good  citizenship,  curbing  of  crime,  and  elimination  of 
tuberculosis  Membership  about  10,000.  President  Dr. 
Don  C  Rogers  Secretary  Arthur  Cundy  Headquarters 
800  Farley  Building,  Birmingham,  Ala  For  the  fiscal  year 
1939-40  the  organization  reported  the  largest  gam  since 
its  inception.  Citizenship  Essay  Contests,  conducted  in 
public  high  schools,  were  participated  in  by  50,000  stu- 
dents, $5000  in  prizes  were  awarded  The  international 
convention  will  be  held  at  Chicago  in  June,  1941 

Classical  League,  American,  formed  in  1919  as  a  na- 
tional organization  for  teachers  of  classics  Membership 
4600  President-  B  L  Ullman.  Secretary -Treasurer 
Rollm  H  Tanner,  New  York  Umversity;  New  York  City 
The  organization  publishes  The  Classical  Outlook  and 
maintains  a  Service  Bureau  It  will  meet  (with  the  Na- 
tional Education  Association)  at  Atlantic  City,  Feb  25. 
1941,  and  at  Boston,  Tune  30-July  2 

Goal  Association,  National.  See  COAL  AND  COKE 

Colored  People,  National  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement Of,  listed  under  Advancement. 

Color  Print  Society,  American.  See  PRINTS 

Composers  and  Conductors,  The  National  Association 
for  American,  founded  in  1933  to  advance  the  interests  of 
the  American  composer,  especially  in  relation  to  orchestral 
conductors,  and  to  secure  a  hearing  for  serious  works  of 
merit  Membership  over  500.  President  Sigmund  Spaeth. 
Headquarters  The  Henry  Hadley  Studio,  15  West  67 
Street,  New  York  City.  In  addition  to  regular  meetings 
and  concerts,  the  Association  sponsored  in  1940  All-Ameri- 
can programs  at  the  Hotel  des  Artistes  and  the  Macdowell 
Club,  an  orchestral  concert  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  a  memorial  concert  at  the  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Letters  in  honor  of  Henry  Hadley,  and  broadcasts  of 
American  music  over  stations  WNYC,  WQXR,  and 
WABC.  The  Henry  Hadley  Memorial  Library  was  estab- 
lished at  the  New  York  Public  Library  under  the  direction 
of  Carleton  Sprague  Smith  The  Henry  Hadley  Medal  for 
service  to  American  music  during  1939-40  was  awarded  to 
Gene  Buck,  President  of  ASCAP.  Certificates  were  award- 
ed to  Roy  Harris,  Howard  Barlow,  Serge  Koussevitzky, 
F.  D.  Perkins,  and  Station  WNYC 

Composer^  Authors,  and  Publishers,  American  Socie- 
ty of  (ASOAP),  founded  in  1914  to  provide  American 
creators  of  musical  works  a  co-operative  movement  to  pro- 


resulting.  Awards  made  during  the  year  included  eight 
fellowships  ($720  each)  for  college  musical  plays  and 
awards  of  $100  each  in  law  schools  throughout  the  coun- 
try for  essays  on  copyright  law.  An  annual  membership 
meeting  is  held,  usually  in  April.  See  MONTANA;  Music 
under  General  News. 

Composers,  Inc.,  The  League  of,  founded  in  1923  to 
further  the  works  by  living  composers  of  all  nationalities, 
as  well  as  to  help  composers  by  commissions  for  new  works 
and  general  promotion  of  their  compositions.  Executive 
Chairman.  Mrs.  Arthur  M.  Reis.  Headquarters.  113  West 
57  Street,  New  York  City.  In  the  1940-41  season,  the 
League  took  its  first  step  m  promoting  distribution  of  new 
music  on  records,  releasing  by  subscription  Schonberg's 
"Pierrot  Luna  ire  "  Commissions  were  awarded  to  Robert 
Palmer  and  Bernard  Rogers  for  radio  and  to  Theodore 
Chanler  for  the  Town  Hafl  Award.  The  League  publishes 
a  quarterly,  Modern  Music,  and  conducts  a  program  series 
m  New  York  and  over  the  air.  Two  programs  at  the  Muse- 
um of  Modern  Art  m  1940-41  featured  Darius  Milhaud 
and  Music  with  Films 

Oonsumer-Betailer  Council,  Inc.,  National,  founded  in 
1937  to  enable  consumers  and  retailers  to  work  out  to- 
gether their  mutual  problems.  Membership*  American  As- 
sociation of  University  Women,  American  Home  Econom- 
ics Association,  General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs, 
American  Retail  Federation,  National  Association  of  Food 
Chains.  National  Retail  Dry  Goods  Association,  National 
Shoe  Retailers  Association,  National  Better  Business  Bu- 
reau, Inc.  Chairman:  H.  W  Brightman.  Executive  Secre- 
tary: Roger  Wolcott.  Headquarters:  8  West  40  Street, 
New  York  City.  Accomplishments  of  1940  included  an 
agreement  by  the  National  Association  of  Food  Chains  to 
adopt  labels  approved  by  the  Council  on  certain  canned 
fruits  ^and  vegetables,  and  the  inauguration  of  an  experi- 
ment in  Newark,  N  J.,  whereby  local  consumer  and  mer- 
chant groups  adopted  a  program  of  informative  labeling  on 
one  line  of  silk  hosiery.  Important  distributors  in  the  gen- 
eral merchandise  field  inaugurated  or  intensified  programs 
of  informative  labeling  based  on  the  Council's  recommenda- 
tions A  meeting  devoted  to  the  subject  of  how  consumers 
and  business  may  co-operate  in  the  defense  program  was 
attended  by  250  representatives  of  consumer  groups  and 
industries  Publications  of  the  year  included  Informative 
Labeling,  Informative  Selling,  and  A  Plan  for  Cooperation 
Between  Consumers  and  Local  Retailers  The  annual  din- 
ner meeting  will  be  held  in  October,  1941,  in  New  York 
City 

Consumers  League,  National,  founded  in  1899  to  awak- 
en consumer  responsibility  for  conditions  under>  which 
goods  are  made  and  distributed,  and  through  investigation, 
education,  and  legislation  to  promote  fair  labor  standards 
Member  snip*  15,000,  including  State  and  National  Leagues 
President  •  Josephine  Roche  Chairman  of  the  Board  of  Di- 
rectors. John  Howland  Lathrop.  General  Secretary  Mary 
Dublin.  Headquarters,  114  East  32  Street,  New  York  City 

Consumers'  Ee search,  Inc.,  founded  as  the  Consumers' 
Club  in  1927  and  incorporated  in  1929  to  provide  unbiased 
information  and  counsel  on  goods  bought  by  the  ultimate 
consumer  Number  of  subscribers  60,000.  President  and 
Technical  Director:  F.  J  Schhnk  Secretary  Clark  C 
Willever  Headquarters:  Washington,  NJ  The  Annual 
Cumulative  Bulletin,  issued  in  September,  1940,  listed  over 
4000  products  by  brand  name  as  Recommended,  Interme- 
diate, and  Not  Recommended,  and  included  basic  reference 
data  on  consumer  problems  An  analysis  of  1940  automo- 
biles was  issued  in  January,  1940 

Consumers  Union  of  the  United  States,  Inc.,  founded 
in  1936  to  test  and  report  on  consumer  goods  and  services. 
Membership:  85,000.  President  Colston  E  Warnc.  Direc- 
tor Arthur  Kallet  Headquarters  17  Union  Square  West, 
New  York  City.  A  two-day  conference  on  "Science  in  the 
Service  of  the  Consumer"  was  held  at  Massachusetts  State 


era!  Manager:  John  G.  Paine.  Headquarters:  30  Rocke- 
feller  Plaza,  New  York  City.  During  1940  Federal  Courts 
in  three  jurisdictions,  Nebraska,  Tennessee,  and  Florida, 
sustained  ASCAP*s  challenge  of  the  constitutionality  of 
the  uniform  anti-ASCAP  law  in  various  States  aimed  at 
outlawing  ASCAP's  licensing  operations.  The  U  S  Su- 
preme Court  announced  in  December  that  it  would  review 
decisions.  Many  radio  stations  started  1941  without  re- 
•ewal  o€  ASCAP  licenses,  radical  changes  in  programs 


listed  under  General. 

Control  of  Cancer,  Inc.,  The  American  Society  for 
tne,  founded  in  1913  to  save  lives  from  cancer  by  collect- 
ing and  disseminating  knowledge,  and  to  co-operate  with 
medical  groups  in  raising  funds  for  indigent  patients  or 
other  projects.  The  Society  does  not  treat  patients,  nor  ad- 
minister hospitals,  clinics,  or  laboratories.  Membership: 
700.  President:  Dr.  John  J  Morton.  Jr.  Secretary  Dr 
Frank  E.  Adair.  Headquarters*  350  Madison  Avenue,  New 
York  City.  During  1940  prizes  totalling  $1875  were  award- 
ed in  a  poster  competition  April  was  set  aside  by  Con- 
gressional Resolution  as  Cancer  Control  Month,  and  a 
nationwide  educational  and  money-raising  campaign  was 
organized  and  directed  by  the  Women's  Field  Army  of 
the  Society.  More  than  175,000  women  were  enlisted  m 
the  Army,  10,000  lectures  were  delivered,  3,000,000  leaf- 
lets distributed,  and  900  radio  broadcasts  presented.  A 
two-reel  film  "Choose  to  Live,"  prepared  in  co-operation 
with  the  U.S.  Public  Health  Service,  was  released  m  April 
and  seen  by  an  estimated  6,000,000  people  during  the  year. 
The  1941  meeting  is  scheduled,  March  1,  in  New  York 
City. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS      688     SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


Cooperative  Alliance,  International.  See  CO-OPERATIVE 
MOVEMENT. 

Cooperative  League  of  the  USA,  Tbe,  founded  in  1916 
as  a  national  educational  federation  of  consumer  co-opera- 
tives devoted  to  the  extension  of  the  consumer  co-operative 
movement  through  organization  and  operation  of  consumer- 
owned  business  enterprises  Membership:  1,115,000  mem- 
bers in  18  affiliated  regional  associations.  President  Dr. 
ernes  P.  Warbasse.  General  Secretary:  E.  R.  Bowen 
eadquarters*  608  S.  Dearborn  Street,  Chicago,  111.,  167 
West  12  Street.  New  York  City;  726  Jackson  Place, 
Washington,  D  C  The  12th  Biennial  Congress  and  Silver 
Anniversary  celebration  of  the  founding  of  the  League  was 
held  in  Chicago,  Oct.  16-18,  1940.  The  Washington  office 
was  opened  in  July.  See  CO-OPERATIVE  MOVEMENT. 

Co-operatives.  See  also  under  Farmer  Co-operatives  and 
Farmers'  Educational  and  Co-operative  Union;  and  the  ar- 
ticle on  CO-OPERATIVE  MOVEMENT 

Cost  Accountants,  National  Association  of,  founded  m 
1919  for  the  advancement  of  the  science  of  industrial  ac- 
counting and  the  mutual  self -betterment  of  its  members. 
Membership:  10,000.  President:  V.  H.  Stempf.  Secretary 
and  Business  Manager:  S.  C.  McLcod.  Headquarters  385 
Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City.  The  1941  annual  meet- 
ing will  be  held  in  New  York  in  June. 

Cotton  Manufacturers,  National  Association  of,  found- 
ed in  1854  for  service  to  cotton  mills  in  the  northeastern 
section  of  the  United  States.  Membership,  about  450. 
President:  Russell  T.  Fisher.  Headquarters.  80  Federal 
Street,  Boston,  Mass.  Student  Honor  Medals  were  award- 
ed in  various  textile  schools  in  1940. 

Credit  Union  National  Association,  founded  in  1934  to 
organize  and  service  credit  unions  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada  Membership:  46  State  leagues  serving  2,500,000 
members.  President:  William  Reid.  Managing  Director* 
Roy  F.  Bergengren  Headquarters  1342  E.  Washington 
Street,  Madison,  Wis.  During  1940  the  Association  ac- 
quired a  five-acre  tract  on  Lake  Mendota,  Madison,  Wis  . 
on  which  a  national  headquarters  building  will  be  erected 
by  public  subscription  as  a  memorial  to  the  late  Edward 
A.  Filene,  founder  of  the  credit  union  movement  m  the 
United  States.  Canadian  credit  unions  were  accepted  to 
membership  m  1940,  and  1400  new  unions  were  organized. 
The  seventh  annual  meeting  will  be  held  in  Jacksonville, 
Fla.,  May  1-3,  1941 

Cruelty  to  Animals,  The  American  Society  for  the 
Prevention  of,  listed  under  Prevention 

Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution,  National  So- 
ciety, founded  in  1890  for  historical,  educational,  and  pa- 
triotic purposes  Membership:  143,115  in  2545  chapters. 
President  General:  Mrs  Henry  M.  Robert,  Jr.  Head- 
quarters .  Memorial  Continental  Hall,  Washington,  D  C 
During  1940  the  Society  celebrated  its  Golden  Jubilee  with 
individual  anniversary  projects  in  hundreds  of  chapters 
The  regular  program  included  work  for  the  advancement 
of  American  music  (begun  in  1938),  training  for  the  for- 
eign-born and  reduction  of  illiteracy,  aid  to  poor  children 
and  the  elderly  (through  contributions  of  $110,000  in  two 
years),  reforestation  activities  in  co-operation  with  the 
U.S.  Forest  Service,  education  in  the  correct  use  of  the 
Flag,  maintenance  of  a  library  and  museum,  and  historical 
and  genealogical  research.  Two  schools  are  maintained  by 
D.A.R.  funds  In  1940,  356  girls  and  209  boys  received 
loan  scholarships  in  institutions  upholding  American  nnn- 
ciples  During  the  past  two  years  682,492  conies  of  the 
Manual  for  Citizenship  were  distributed  A  D  A.R  Na- 
tional Preview  committee  in  New  York  evaluates  motion 
pictures,  and  a  list  of  pictures  of  merit  is  published  in  the 
National  Historical  Magazine.  In  1939  and  1940,  4623 
programs  and  1615  hours  of  broadcasting  were  given  over 
607  different  stations,  furthering  the  historical  and  educa- 
tional activities  of  the  Society.  The  Fiftieth  Continental 
Congress  will  be  held  in  Washington,  DC,  April  14-18, 
1941 

Defend  America  by  Aiding  the  Allies,  Committee  to. 
founded  m  1940  to  promote  the  necessary  legislation  and 
executive  action  to  insure  effective  aid  to  Britain  and  other 
countries  defending  themselves  against  aggression  Mem- 
bership: 603  national  members  and  780  local  chapters.  Na- 
tional Chairman  Ernest  W.  Gibson  National  Director. 
Clark  M  Eichelberger.  Headquarters  8  West  40  Street, 
New  York  City.  The  organization  seeks  to  mobilize  public 
sentiment  in  support  of  Great  Britain  and  her  allies 

Dental  Association,  American,  founded  m  1859  for 
educational  purposes.  Membership,  about  49,000  Presi- 
dent: Oren  A  Oliver.  Executive  Secretary  Gerald  D. 
Timmons  Headquarters:  212  E.  Superior  Street,  Chicago, 
111.  A  Centennial  Meeting  was  held  in  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
Sept.  9-13,  1940.  The  1941  meeting  will  be  held  in  Hous- 
ton, Tex.  See  DENTISTRY. 

Dietetic  Association,  The  American,  founded  in  1917 
to  bring  about  closer  co-operation  among  dietitians  and 
between  dietitians  and  workers  in  allied  fields,  and  to  im- 
prove conditions  and  raise  the  standard  of  dietary  work. 
Membership:  4600  President:  Nelda  Ross.  Headquarters: 
185  N.  Wabash  Avenue,  Chicago,  111  A  program  in  con- 
nection with  defense  was  begun  in  1940  The  1941  meet- 
ing will  be  held  in  St.  Louis,  October  20-24 

Economic  Association,  American,  founded  in  1885  to 


encourage  research  and  freedom  of  discussion  and  issue 
publications.  Membership:  3097  members;  1318  subscrib- 
ers. Headquarters:  Northwestern  University,  Evan  at  on, 
111.  The  annual  meeting  in  New  Orleans,  Dec.  27-30, 
1940,  was  devoted  to  current  vital  problems  in  retrospect 
and  prospect;  eg.  the  Federal  budget,  Deficit  Financing, 
the  price  level  and  the  gold  problem,  the  role  of  private 
investment,  and  economic  consequences  of  the  war.  A  spe- 
cial session  commemorated  the  semicentennial  of  Alfred 
Marshall's  Principles. 

Economic  Entomologists,  American  Association  of, 
founded  in  1889  to  promote  the  study  and  to  advance  the 
science  of  entomology,  and  to  publish  the  Journal  of  Eco- 
nomic Entomology,  etc.  Membership:  1320.  President  J. 
R.  Parker.  Secretary:  Ernest  N.  Cory.  Headquarters: 
College  Park,  Md.  The  Eastern  Branch  of  this  Association 
awarded  a  medal  and  cash  prize  during  1940  to  Raimon  L 
Deard  for  a  paper  entitled  "The  parasitic  castration  of 
Anasa  tristis  Deg.  by  Trichopoda  pennifes  Fabr  and  its 
effect  on  reproduction."  The  golden  jubilee  was  celebrated 
m  December,  1939.  The  1941  meeting  will  be  held  in  San 
Francisco,  December  27-31. 

Economic  Besearch,  National  Bureau  of,  founded  in 
1920  to  encourage  investigation,  research,  and  discovery, 
and  the  application  of  knowledge  to  the  well-being  of  man- 
'kind;  and  in  particular  to  conduct  exact  and  impartial  in- 
vestigations in  the  field  of  economic,  social,  and  industrial 
science.  Membership*  27  members  of  the  Board  of  Direc- 
tors President*  W  L.  Crum  Headquarters*  1819  Broad- 
way, New  York  City.  Nine  publications  were  issued  in 

1940  dealing    with    finance   companies,   consumer    credit, 
credit  practices,  manufacturing  output,  etc 

Economy  League,  The  National,  founded  in  1932  as  a 
patriotic,  national,  non-partisan  organization  advocating 
sound  Federal  finance.  Membership:  3500  Chairman: 
Frnest  Angell.  Executive  Director:  H  G  W  Sundelof 
Headquarters.  280  Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City. 

Education.  See  also  the  societies  listed  under  Adult 
Education,  International  Education,  Kindergarten  Asso- 
ciation, Progressive  Education.  For  accrediting  associa- 
tions, see  the  article  on  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COI-LFCFS 

Education,  American  Council  on,  a  council  of  national 
educational  associations,  organizations  having  related  in- 
terests, approved  educational  institutions,  State  depart- 
ments of  education,  and  city  school  systems,  founded  in 
1918  as  a  center  of  co-operation  and  co-ordination  in  the 
field  of  education.  Membership*  500  organizations  and  in- 
stitutions. President  George  F.  Zook  Chairman  Henry 
W  Holmes.  Secretary  George  D  Stoddard  Headquar- 
ters. 744  Jackson  Place,  N  W.,  Washington,  DC  Educa- 
tion and  the  national  defense  claimed  the  first  interest  of 
the  Council  in  1940  Special  committees  and  nn  added  staff 
member  (Francis  J  Brown  of  New  York  University)  were 
appointed  to  keep  in  touch  with  swiftly  movinj?  government 
procedures  and  to  serve  as  a  clearinghouse  of  information 
to  members  High  officials  of  the  War  Department,  the 
Navy  Department,  the  Advisory  Commission  to  the  Coun- 
cil on  National  Defense,  the  National  Resources  Planning 
Board,  and  others  were  kept  informed  concerning  educa- 
tional resources,  both  of  personnel  and  facilities.  That  is 
also  true  of  members  of  the  Senate  and  the  House  as  legis- 
lation proceeded  through  conference  to  enactment  Fre- 
quent conferences  of  Council  officers  with  government  offi- 
cials contributed  to  laws  and  regulations  so  fashioned  that 
as  far  as  possible  the  best  interests  of  education  have  been 
conserved.  The  Council  sought  the  judgments  of  educators 
in  all  quarters  of  the  country  and  m.ide  these  judgments 
known  to  officials  responsible  for  government  policy  By 
means  of  bulletins,  letters,  and  conferences,  the  Council 
kept  educators  informed  concerning  the  plans  of  govern- 
ment as  those  plans  were  being  formulated.  The  work  of 
the  standing  committees  was  continued  during  the  year 
The  annual  meeting  will  be  held  in  Washington,  D  C.,  in 

1941  See  EDUCATION 

Education  Association  of  the  United  States,  National 
(NEA)f  founded  in  1857  to  advance  the  interests  of  the 
teaching  profession,  promote  the  welfare  of  children,  and 
foster  the  education  of  all  the  people.  Membership  203,- 
429  President  Donal  DuShanc  Executive  Secretary 
Willard  E.  Givens  Headquarters  1201  Sixteenth  Street, 
N  W.,  Washington,  D.C.  A  National  Committee  on  Edu- 
cation and  Defense  was  created  in  1940,  and  offices  of  the 
following  departments  were  established  in  the  NEA  build- 
ing National  Association  of  Secondary  School  Principals; 
National  Council  for  the  Social  Studies ,  American  Associa- 
tion for  Health,  Physical  Education  and  Recreation,  and 
Classroom  Teachers.  Through  the  Activity  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Induction  into  Citizenship  Congress  named  the 
third  Sunday  in  May  as  Citizenship  Recognition  Day.  The 
Personal  Growth  Leaflets  were  developed.  The  1941  annual 
meeting  will  be  held  in  Boston,  June  29 -July  3.  See  EDU- 
CATION. 

Education  by  Badio,  National  Committee  on,  founded 
in  1930  to  act  as  spokesman  for  organized  education,  to  act 
as  a  clearinghouse  for  information  about  educational 
broadcasting,  and  to  promote  the  educational  use  of  radio 
and  co-operative  radio  councils.  Membership:  nine  repre- 
sentatives of  constituent  organizations.  Chairman:  Dr. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS      689      SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


Arthur  G.  Crane.  Secretary:  S.  Howard  Evans.  Head- 
quarters: 1  Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City. 

Electrical  Engineers,  American  Institute  of,  founded 
in  1884  for  the  advancement  of  the  theory  and  practice  of 
electrical  engineering  and  allied  subjects  and  maintenance 
of  high  professional  standards.  Membership:  17.916.  Head- 
quarters. 33  West  39  Street,  New  York  City.  The  Lamme 
Medal  was  awarded  in  1940  to  Norman  Wilson  Storer  for 
work  in  electrical  traction.  The  1941  national  conventions 
will  be  held  in  Philadelphia.  January  27-31;  Toronto, 
June  16-20,  and  Yellowstone  National  Park,  August  27-29. 

Elks,  Benevolent  and  Protective  Order  oil  fraternal 
organization  founded  in  1868.  Grand  Exalted  Ruler:  Jo- 
seph G.  Buch.  Grand  Secretary  J.  Edgar  Masters.  Head- 
quarters Elks  National  Memorial  Building,  Chicago,  111. 
A  Commission  of  National  Defense  and  Public  Relations 
was  appointed  by  the  Grand  Lodge  in  1940  to  co-operate 
in  any  national  crisis  The  1941  annual  Grand  Lodge  Ses- 
sion will  be  held  in  Philadelphia. 

Emergency  Peace  Mobilization.  See  COMMUNISM. 

Engineering  Societies.  See  under  Civil  Engineers,  Elec- 
trical Engineers,  Engineers,  Mechanical  Engineers,  Min- 
ing and  Metallurgical  Engineers 

Engineers.  American  Society  of,  founded  in  1912  to 
centralize  all  engineers  in  a  single  representative  body. 
Membership'  22,950  President.  Fred  Gross  Acting  Secre- 
tary W.  A.  Card.  Headquarters:  Gross  Building,  Berwyn, 
111  The  1941  meeting  will  be  held  in  Chicago,  June  30. 

English  Institute,  The,  founded  in  1939  to  afford  an 
opportunity  for  mature  scholars  in  the  field  of  English  to 
meet  together  in  a  series  of  informal  conferences  and  dis- 
cuss questions  of  literary  and  philological  research  In 
1940  the  Conferences  were  attended  by  103  persons  Chair- 
man Prof  George  Sherburn.  Secretary:  Prof  Rudolf 
Kirk,  Rutgers  University,  New  Brunswick,  N  J  The  sec- 
ond annual  meeting  of  the  Institute,  in  1940,  was  marked 
by  the  appearance  of  the  first  number  of  the  English  Insti- 
tute Annual,  composed  of  papers  from  the  first  session. 
The  1941  session  is  to  be  held,  September  8-13,  at  Colum- 
bia University,  New  York  City 

English-Speaking  Union,  founded  m  1920  to  draw  to- 
gether in  the  bond  of  comradeship  the  English-speaking 
people  of  the  world  Membership  about  15,000  Headquar- 
ters 30  Rockefeller  Plaza,  New  York  City  Activities  in 

1940  included  tbe  Lord  Lothian  Dinner,  a  Getieva  Benefit, 
Sir    Evelyn    Wrench's    tour    through    the    United    States, 
adoption   of   Namesake   Towns   and   Destroyers,   establish- 
ment of  an  Overseas  Children's  Committee  and  a  Mothers 
Club,  and  a  Gracie  Fields  Concert 

Engraving,  American  National  Committee  of.  See 
PRINTS 

Entomologists,  American  Association  of  Economic, 
listed  under  hconomic 

Etchers,  Society  of  American.  See  PRINTS 

Ethnological  Society,  American,  founded  in  1842  The 
Society  meets  regularly  for  lectures  and  discussions  of  sci- 
entific work  and  problems  in  anthropology,  and  publishes  a 
series  of  monographs  Membership  247  President  Prof 
Wm.  D.  Strong.  Secretary  Dr.  Cora  Du  Bois  Headquar- 
ters American  Museum  of  Natural  History — New  York 
Academy  of  Sciences 

Eugenics  Society,  Inc.,  American,  founded  m  1926  to 
improve  the  quality  of  future  citizens  through  formulation 
of  eugenic  policies,  public  education,  and  encouragement 
of  research  Membership  650  President.  Dr.  Maurice  A 
Bigelow.  Secretary  Rudolf  C  Bertheau  Headquarters- 
RKO  Building,  Rockefeller  Center,  New  York  City.  The 

1941  spring  Conference  will  be  held  April  15-16 
Farmer  Co-operatives,  National  Council  of,   founded 

in  1929  to  promote  the  interests  of  and  serve  as  a  confer- 
ence body  tor  farmers'  co-operatives  Membership-  55  di- 
rect and  associate  organizations  President  John  D  Mill- 
er. Executive  Secretary-  Ezra  T  Benson  Headquarters 
1731  I  Street,  N.W.,  Washington,  D  C.  The  1941  meeting 
was  scheduled  for  Washington.  D  C.,  January  8-10. 

Farmers.  Associated.  See  CALIFORNIA 

Farmers'  Educational  and  Oo-Operative  Union  of 
America,  founded  in  1902  to  secure  equity,  establish  jus- 
tice, and  apply  the  Golden  Rule  Membership  about  90,- 
000,  not  including  honorary  members  President  James  G 
Patton  Secretary-  J.  M  Graves.  Headquarters  18  N 
Klein  Street,  Oklahoma  City.  Okla  The  National  Conven- 
tion was  held  at  Denver,  Colo  ,  Nov  18-20  1940 

Farmers  of  America,  Future.  See  EDUCATION,  U  S. 
OFFICE  OF 

Fashion  Group.  See  FASHION  EVENTS 

Federal  Union,  Inc.  See  UNION  Now 

Fellowship  Forum,  American.  See  Dirs  COMMITTEE 

Fire  Protection  Association,  National,  founded  m  1896 
to  promote  the  science  and  improve  the  methods  of  fire 
protection  and  prevention,  to  obtain  and  circulate  informa- 
tion, and  to  secure  the  co-operation  of  its  members  in  es- 
tablishing safeguards  against  fire  loss.  Membership  5010. 
President:  Alvah  Small.  General  Manager-  Percy  Bughee 
Headquarters:  60  Batterymarch  Street,  Boston  Mass.  See 
FIRB  PROTECTION. 

Fire  Underwriters,  National  Board  of,  an  educational, 
factual,  and  engineering  organization  founded  in  1866  and 
supported  by  the  capital  stock  fire  insurance  business. 


Membership:  195.  President:  F.  D.  Layton.  General  Man* 
ager  W.  E.  Mallaheu.  Headquarters:  85  John  Street, 
New  York  City.  The  1941  meeting  will  be  held  May  22  in 
New  York  City.  See  FIRE  PROTECTION;  INSURANCE. 

Foreign  Born,  American  Committee  for  Protection  of, 
listed  under  Protection. 

Foreign  Policy  Association,  Inc.,  founded  in  1918  to 
carry  on  research  and  educational  activities  to  aid  in  the 
understanding  and  constructive  development  of  American 
foreign  policy.  Membership:  18,400.  President:  Frank 
Ross  McCoy.  Secretary:  Dorothy  F.  Lect  Headquarters: 
22  East  38  Street,  New  York  City.  The  Association  pub- 
lishes a  weekly  Bulletin  including  the  Washington  News 
Letter;  semi-monthly  Foreign  Policy  Reports  and  Pan 
American  News,  and  Headline  Books.  The  annual  meet- 
ing will  be  held  in  October,  1941.  Discussion  luncheons 
are  scheduled  periodically  at  the  Hotel  Astor,  New  York 

Foreign  Relations,  Inc.,  Council  on,  founded  in  1917 


lory.  Headquarters.  45  East  65  Street,  New  York  City. 
The  Council  publishes  a  quarterly  review,  Foreign  Af- 
fairs, and  two  annuals,  The  United  States  in  World  Af- 
fairs by  Shepardson  and  Scroggs  and  The  Political  Hand- 
book of  the  World 

Foresters,  Society  of  American,  founded  in  1900  to 
represent,  advance,  and  protect  the  interests  and  standards 
of  the  profession  of  forestry  and  to  provide  a  medium  for 
the  exchange  of  professional  thought  Membership:  4708. 
President :  Dr.  Clarence  F  Korstian  Executive  Secretary: 
Henry  E.  Clepper.  Headquarter^  •  Mills  Building,  Wash- 
ington, D  C.  The  40th  anniversary  of  the  founding  of  the 
Society  was  observed  at  a  meeting  of  550  members  and 
guests,  held  m  Washington,  D.C ,  Dec.  19-21,  1940.  The 
1941  meeting  will  be  held  m  Jacksonville,  Fla  ,  December 
18-20 

Forestry  Association,  American,  founded  in  1875  for 
the  advancement  of  intelligent  management  and  use  of  the 
country's  forests  and  related  resources  of  soil,  water,  wild- 
life, and  outdoor  recreation.  Membership  14.000  Presi- 
dent W  S.  Rosecrans.  Executive  Secretary  Ovid  Butler 
Headquarters'  9 19-1 7th  Street,  NW,  Washington,  DC 
The  1941  meeting  will  be  held  in  Los  Angeles,  April 
15-17 

Fraternal  Congress  of  America,  National,  founded  in 
1886  to  unite  all  fraternal  benefit  societies  of  America  for 
mutual  improvement  and  concert  of  action  Membership' 
86  societies  President*  Alexander  O  Benz  Manager 
Foster  F.  Farrell.  Headquarters  35  E.  Wacker  Diive, 
Chicago,  111.  The  1941  meeting  will  be  held  September 

French  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  United  States, 
Inc.,  founded  in  1896  to  foster  commercial  relations  be- 
tween France  and  the  United  States  Membership  about 
1000.  President:  Pierre  C.  Cartier  Executive  Secretary. 
Fiimm  Guego.  Headquarters  5  East  52  Street,  New  York 
Citv  The  annual  meeting  was  scheduled,  Jan  30,  1941. 

Future  Farmers  of  America.  See  EDUCATION,  U  S  OF- 
FICE or 

Garden  Club  of  America,  founded  m  1913.  Member- 
ship about  8000  Secretary.  Mrs  Hermann  G.  Place. 
Headquarters.  598  Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City.  The 
1941  meeting  will  be  held  m  Rochester,  N  Y.,  in  May. 

Gas  Association,  American,  founded  in  1918  by  hold- 
ing companies,  gas  operating  companies,  manufacturers  of 
gas  appliances  and  equipment,  and  individuals  Member- 
ship: 5300.  President-  T  J  Stnckler.  Managing  Director: 
Alexander  Forward.  Headquarters  420  Lexington  Ave- 
nue, New  York  City.  In  1940  the  Charles  A  Munroe 
Award  was  granted  to  Herman  Russell,  President  of  the 
Rochester  (N.Y.)  Gas  and  Electric  Corporation,  and  the 
Beal  Medal  to  Raymond  F  Hadley  of  Philadelphia  for  his 
paper,  "Studies  in  Microbiological  Anaerobic  Corrosion  " 
The  1941  annual  convention  will  meet  in  Atlantic  City  m 
October,  and  the  Natural  Gas  Section  at  Dallas,  May  5-8. 
See  GAS  INDUSTRY  __ 

General  Contractors  of  America,  Inc..  The  Associated, 
a  trade  association  founded  in  1918.  Membership:  2535. 
President:  M.  W.  Watson.  Managing  Director:  H.  E. 
Foreman.  Headquarters  Munsey  Building,  Washington, 
D.C.  The  annual  convention  will  be  held  at  Houston,  Tex- 
as, Feb.  17-20,  1941.  A  G  C.  members  performed  a  large 
portion  of  the  National  Defense  Construction  Program  in- 
itiated in  1940. 

Geographical  Society,  American,  a  research  institution 
founded  in  1852  Membership:  3101.  President:  Roland  L 
Redmond.  Director:  Dr.  John  K.  Wright.  Headquarters- 
Broadway  at  156  Street,  New  York  City.  During  1940  the 
Society  published  Inner  Asian  Frontiers  of  China  by  Owen 
Lattimore;  Environment  and  Conflict  m  Bur  opt:  Eighteen 
Basic  Maps,  and  nine  sheets  of  the  great  map  of  Hispanic 
America/bringing  the  number  to  97  out  of  a  total  of  107 
sheets.  The  Cullum  Geographical  Medal  for  1940  was 
awarded  to  Dr  Robert  Cushman  Murphy  and  the  Charles 
P.  Daly  Medal  to  Prof.  Carl  O.  Sauer 

Geographical  Society,  Royal,  founded  m  1830  for  the 
advancement  of  geographjcaj  science.  Membership:  circa 


gOCIETIBS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS      690     SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


6000.  President:  Field  Marshal  Sir  Philip  Chetwode.  Sec- 
retary: Arthur  R.  Hinks.  Headquarters:  Royal  Geograph- 
ical Society,  Kensington  Grove,  London,  S.W.  7.  The 
Founder's  Medal  was  awarded  in  1940  to  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Harold  Ingrams,  the  Patron's  Medal  to  Lieut.  Alexander 
R.  Glen,  and  the  Victoria  Medal  to  Mr.  O.  G.  S.  Craw- 
ford. The  Society  publishes  the  monthly  Geographical  Jour- 
nal, technical  publications,  and  maps. 

Geographic  Society,  The  National  founded  in  1888  for 
the  increase  and  diffusion  of  geographic  knowledge.  Mem- 
bership: 1,100,000.  President:  Gilbert  Grosvenor  Secre- 
tary: George  W.  Hutchison.  Headquarters:  1146  Sixteenth 
Street,  Washington,  D  C.  During  the  year  The  Society 
co-operated  with  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  sending 
an  archeological  expedition  to  the  States  of  Veracruz  and 
Tabasco,  Mexico.  Under  the  leadership  of  Matthew  W 
Stirling,  the  party  uncovered  five  colossal  heads  and  other 
monuments  of  a  great  pre-Columbian  civilization  Dr.  Jo- 
seph  P.  Connolly  and  James  D.  Bump  served  as  leaders  of 
the  National  Geographic  Society-South  Dakota  School  of 
Mines  paleontologies!  expedition  to  the  Badlands  of  South 
Dakota.  See  EXPLORATION.  Dr.  Irvine  C.  Gardner  led  the 
National  Geographic  Society-National  Bureau  of  Standards 
eclipse  of  the  sun  expedition  to  Patos.  Brazil  On  Octo- 
ber 1.  a  program  of  tests  with  radio  signals  to  determine 
the  behavior,  during  total  eclipses,  of  ionized  layers  in  the 
upper  atmosphere  was  successfully  completed.  Photographs 
were  made  of  the  four  times  of  apparent  contact  of  the 
sun  and  moon,  of  the  inner  corona,  and  of  the  flash  spec- 
trum. In  addition  to  its  official  publication,  the  National 
Geographic  Maga*ine,  the  Society  published  "An  Initial 
Series  from  Tres  Zapotes,  Veracruz,  Mexico,"  a  mono- 
graph in  its  series  of  Contributed  Technical  Papers. 

German-American  Bund.  See  DIES  COMMITTEE;  FAS- 
CISM. 

Girl  Scouts,  Inc.,  founded  in  1912  to  help  girls  develop 
as  good  citizens  and  resourceful  people  through  group  self- 
government  and  activities  in  the  following  fields  home- 
making,  arts  and  crafts,  nature,  the  out-of-doors,  literature 
and  dramatics,  community  life,  international  friendship, 
sports  and  games,  health  and  safety,  music  and  dancing, 
and  vocational  exploration  Membership:  628,948.  Presi- 
dent: Mrs.  Harvey  S  Mudd.  National  Director.  Mrs. 
Paul  Rittenhouse  Headquarters'  14  West  49  Street,  New 
York  City.  Girl  Scout  Anniversary  Week  was  celebrated 
March  12-18,  1940,  and  Girl  Scout  Week,  October  27  to 
November  2.  The  Western  Hemisphere  Encampment 
(August  14-18)  was  attended  by  22  girls  from  American 
countries  outside  the  United  States  and  by  82  girls  from 
the  United  States  In  the  summer  of  1940  the  Girl  Scout 
national  headquarters  suggested  that  all  local  Girl  Scout 
groups  co-ordinate  their  service  and  citizenship  activities 
by  setting  up  special  citizenship  bureaus  Many  councils 
have  established  such  bureaus  and  Girl  Scouts  throughout 
the  country  are  renewing  their  traditional  emphases  on 
practical  citizenship  problems  and  preparation  for  any 
emergency  The  1941  convention  will  be  held  at  Dallas, 
Tex  ,  October  19-25. 

Governors'  Conference.  See  under  State  Governments 
below. 

Grange,  The  National,  an  Order  formed  in  1867  to  give 
to  the  American  farmer  better  social  and  educational  op- 
portunities, economic  betterment,  and  higher  spiritual  and 
patriotic  idealism.  Membership'  800,000  Master:  Louis 
J.  Taber.  Secretary:  Harry  A.  Caton  Headquarters' 
Peoples  Life  Building,  Washington,  D  C ,  and  970  Col- 
lege Avenue,  Columbus,  Ohio.  During  1940  the  Grange 
added  400  Juvenile.  Subordinate,  and  Pomona  Granges  and 
a  new  State  Grange  in  Wyoming,  making  a  total  of  8000 
Subordinate  Granges  and  37  organized  States  In  legisla- 
tion it  was  active  in  supporting  the  Truth-in-Fabncs  Bill, 
the  Walter  Logan  Bill,  and  legislation  to  promote  national 
defense  Accomplishments  in  co-operative  activities  added 
to  the  farmer's  income  through  patronage,  dividends,  and 
better  prices  The  National  Grange  Session  will  convene  at 
Boston,  Mass.,  in  1941,  the  Diamond  Jubilee  year  of  the 
organization. 

Group  Health  Association.  See  MEDICINE  AND  SUK- 
GIBY. 

Hadassah,  Inc.,  The  Women's  Zionist  Organization  of 
America,  founded  in  1912  to  foster  Zionist  ideals  in  Amer- 
ica through  Jewish  education  and  to  conduct  activities  in 
Palestine  which  include  promotion  of  public  health,  land 
redemption  and  afforestation,  and  immigration  and  coloni- 
zation through  Youth  Ahyah.  Membership  94,000  Presi- 
dent. Mrs  David  de  Sola  Pool.  Executive  Secretary  Miss 
J.  N.  Leibel  Headquarters'  1860  Broadway,  New  York, 
tf.Y.  Events  of  1940  included  contributions  to  the  Jewish 
National  Fund  in  January  and  the  celebration  of  Hadas- 
sah's  28th  birthday,  the  80th  birthday  of  Theodore  Herri 
founder  of  Zionism,  and  the  birthday  of  Miss  Henrietta 
Szold,  Honorary  President  Membership  week  was  ob- 
served November  8-15  and  National  Education  Day  at 
Hunter  College,  New  York  City,  December  3  The  29th 
Annual  Convention1  will  be  held  in  October,  1941 
Health.  See  under  Group  Health:  Public  Health. 
Henry  George  School  of  Sedftl  Science,  founded  in 
1933  to  teach  the  philosophy  of  Henry  George.  Member- 
ship hundreds  of  volunteer  instructors  throughout  the 


country  and  over  20,000  graduates.  Director:  Frank  Chodo- 
rov.  Headquarters:  30  East  29  Street,  New  York  City. 
Classes  are  held,  not  only  in  the  headquarters  building, 
but  in  public  buildings,  Y.M.C  A.  and  church  buildings, 
homes,  offices,  etc. ;  3000  students  were  graduated  in  1940. 

Highway  Users  Conference,  National,  a  fact-finding, 
information-giving,  co-ordinating  agency  of  national  groups 
of  motor  vehicle  users,  founded  in  1932  to  bring  about 
taxation  and  regulation  policies  that  will  insure  to  the 
public  the  maximum  benefits  of  highway  facilities.  Member- 
ship: 27  national  organizations  President:  Alfred  P.  Sloan, 
Jr.  Director.  Chester  H.  Gray.  Headquarters:  938  Na- 
tional Press  Building,  Washington.  D  C. 

Hispanic  Society  of  America.  See  separate  article. 

Holland  Society  of  Hew  York,  founded  in  1885  for 
historical  and  genealogical  work.  Membership:  limited  to 
1000  annual  members.  President.  Arthur  R.  Wendell. 

fecretary.    Frank    H.    Vedder.    Headquarters.    90    West 
treet,  New  York  City.  At  the  annual  banquet,  Nov.  14, 

1940,  a  gold  medal  was  awarded  to  Henry  Ford  for  emi- 
nence in   scientific    manufacturing  beneficial   to  all   man- 
kind. The  1941  annual  meeting  will  be  held  April  7. 

Home  Economics  Association,  American,  organized  in 
1908  for  development  and  promotion  of  standards  of  home 
and  family  life  that  will  best  further  individual  and  social 
welfare  Membership:  15,180  individuals,  2345  student 
clubs,  and  six  groups  of  homemakers.  President.  Gladys 
Branegan  Executive  Secretary:  Edna  Van  Horn  Head- 
quarters :  620  Mills  Building,  Washington,  D  C.  Dunng 
1940  the  Association  adopted  a  basic  platform  for  con- 
sumer-business relations,  and  undertook  to  compile  a  com- 
plete directory  of  home-economics  trained  women  for  use 
in  emergency  service.  Progress  was  made  in  a  program 
to  promote  standardization  of  and  specification  tor  con- 
sumer goods  and  to  encourage  the  use  of  informative  sell- 
ing Six  international  fellowships  were  awarded  to  young 
women  from  Argentina,  China,  and  Peru.  The  Bonlen 
Award  was  granted  to  Dr  Henry  C.  Sherman.  The  1941 
meeting  will  be  held  in  Chicago,  June  22-26. 

Hospital  Association.  American,  founded  in  1899  to 
promote  the  welfare  of  the  people  through  the  development 
of  hospital  and  out-patient  service  Membership:  2854  in- 
stitutions and  2296  individuals.  President.  Dr.  Basil  C 
MacLean  Treasurer.  Asa  S  Bacon.  Headquarters  18 
Division  Street,  Chicago,  111.  In  1940  the  Award  of  Merit 
was  granted  to  Dr.  S  S.  Goldwater.  The  National  Hospital 
Day  Certificates  of  Award  went  to  St.  Luke's  Hospital, 
Milwaukee,  Wis  ,  and  the  Goldsboro  Hospital,  Goldsboro, 
N  C  The  43d  Annual  Convention  will  be  held  Sept.  15-19, 

1941,  in  Atlantic  City,  NT 

Housing   Conference,   National   Public,   listed   under 

Humane  Association,  The  American,  founded  in  1877 
for  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  children  and  animals  Mem- 
bership: 11,000  President*  Sydney  H  Coleman.  General 
Manager:  Eric  H.  Hansen,  135  Washington  Avenue,  Al- 
bany, N.Y.  The  13th  annual  Humane  Trap  Contest,  held 
in  1940,  brought  in  150  entries.  A  poster  and  a  photograph- 
ic contest  were  also  conducted.  The  1941  meeting  will  be 
held  m  Hollywood,  Calif.,  October  20-24. 

Hygiene.  See  under  Mental  Hygiene;  Social  Hygiene 

Industrial  Conference  Board,  Inc.,  The  National, 
founded  in  1916  for  scientific  research,  professional  edu- 
cation, practical  service,  and  public  information  in  the 
field  of  business  economics  and  business  management 
President:  Dr  Virgil  Jordan  Secretary  Fairfield  E.  Ray- 
mond. Headquarters.  247  Park  Avenue,  New  York  City 

Industrial  Democracy,  League  for,  founded  in  1905 
with  the  purpose  of  education  for  a  new  social  order  based 
on  production  for  use  and  not  for  profit.  Membership 
2000  President:  John  Dewey.  Executive  Director:  Harry 
W.  Laidler.  Headquarters:  112  East  19  Street,  New  York 
City.  The  League  celebrated  its  35th  anniversary  in  New 
York,  Nov.  28,  1940.  Meetings  scheduled  in  1941  include 
a  conference  on  Defense  of  Living  Standards,  February 
15,  and  a  June  Conference  in  New  York. 

Industrial  Relations  Counselors,  Inc.f  established  in 
1926  to  advance  the  knowledge  and  practice  of  human 
relationships  in  industry,  commerce,  education,  and  gov- 
ernment Director*  T  H  A  Tiedemann  Headquarters* 
1270  Sixth  Avenue,  New  York,  N,Y.  The  organization 
conducts  research,  offers  a  consulting  service,  mainly  for 
industrial  corporations,  and  maintains  a  specialized  in- 
dustrial-relations library  and  an  information  service.  Fif- 
teen volumes  and  four  monographs  were  published  by  the 
close  of  1939. 

International  Education,  Institute  of,  a  non-member- 
ship organization,  founded  in  1919  to  increase  international 
understanding  through  interchange  of  students,  circuiting 
of  lecturers,  teacher  and  librarian  exchanges,  and  publica- 
tion of  books,  pamphlets,  and  a  News  Bulletin.  The  In- 
stitute serves  as  a  general  clearing  house  of  information 
in  its  field.  Director:  Stephen  Dnggan.  Headquarters :  2 
West  45  Street,  New  York  City.  For  the  academic  year 
1940-41,  220  fellowships  and  scholarships  were  awarded 
for  study  at  United  States  colleges  and  universities  and 
28  for  Americans  at  foreign  universities.  Events  of  1940 
included  expansion  of  cultural  relations  with  Latin  Amer- 
ica and  increased  assistance  for  displaced  foreign  scholars. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS      691     SOCIETIES  AND  AftfiOCIATtOUft 


Bankers'  Association.  Sea  FINAKCIAL  R» 
Vx«w  under  Ffoautt*/  Jfop«fo*»oH. 

Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  American,  founded  in  1908 
to  promote  the  interests  of  the  Industry.  Membership:  about 
1800.  President:  Walter  S.  Tower.  Secretary:  G  S.  Rose. 
Headquarter!:  350  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City.  The 
Institute's  medal  was  awarded  in  1940  to  Jame*  E.  Loae, 
Vice-President  of  the  Carnegie-Illinois  Steel  Corporation. 
The  49th  General  Meeting  was  held  in  New  York,  May 
23,  1940. 

Jewish  Welfare  Board.  See  separate  article. 

Junior  Leagues  of  America,  Inc.,  Association  of  the. 
founded  in  1921  to  unite  the  150  local  Junior  Leagues  and 
through  them  to  educate  their  members  for  effective  volun- 


Headquarters:  Hotel  Waldorf-Astoria,  New  York  (5ity. 
The  1941  annual  conference  was  scheduled  in  St.  Louis, 
January  27  to  February  1. 

Kindergarten  Association,  national,  founded  in  1909 
to  help  secure  the  advantages  of  kindergarten  education 
for  all  the  nation's  children.  Membership  varies  from  2245 
to  8000.  President:  Maj  Bradley  Martin.  Executive  Sec- 
retary: Miss  Bessie  Locke.  Headquarters:  8  West  40 
Street,  New  York  City.  As  a  result  of  the  work  done  by 
the  Association  83  new  kindergartens  were  opened  in  1940 
Five  new  leaflets  were  distributed.  The  annual  meeting  is 
held  at  the  national  headquarters  in  January. 

King's  Daughters  and  Sons,  International  Order  of 
The,  in  1886  "for  the  development  of  spiritual  life  and 
stimulation  of  Christian  activities  "  Membership:  53,446. 
President-  Mrs  Henry  S  Eley  Secretary  Mrs  Claude 
E  Lcber.  Headquarters:  144  East  37  Street,  New  York 
City  The  General  Convention  met  in  Oakland,  Calif.,  in 
June,  1940  The  next  meeting  is  scheduled  to  be  held  in 
Jackson,  Miss  ,  in  1942  The  Central  Council  will  meet  in 
Chautauqua  in  August,  1941. 

Kiwanis  International,  founded  in  1915  to  unite  com- 
munity leaders  in  each  business  and  profession  for  civic, 
social,  and  welfare  service  to  their  towns  Membership: 
110,000  (2131  clubs)  President-  Mark  A.  Smith.  Acting 
Secretary  George  W.  Kimball  Headquarters  520  N 
Michigan  Avenue,  Chicago,  111  The  organization  observed 
its  25th  anniversary  in  1940.  Over  29,000  community  serv- 
ice activities  were  completed  in  the  fields  of  aid  to  under- 
privileged children,  vocational  assistance,  urban-rural  rela- 
tions, conservation,  safety,  aid  to  youth,  etc.  The  1941 
annual  convention  will  be  held  in  Atlanta,  June  15-19 

Knights  of  Pythias,  a  fraternal  organization  founded 
in  1864  Membership-  350,000  Supreme  Chancellor-  Ray 
O  Garbcr  Headquarters-  1054  Midland  Bank  Building, 
Minneapolis,  Minn.  The  Supreme  Lodge  meets  biennially, 
the  next  meeting  being  in  1942 

Ku  Klux  Klan.  Inc.,  Knights  of  the,  founded  in  1915 
to  organize  a  solid  block  of  native-born,  white,  Protestant, 
Gentile  Americans  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  under 
oath  the  following  principles  the  tenets  of  the  Christian 
religion;  white  supremacy;  protection  of  pure  womanhood; 
just  laws  and  hbertv,  closer  relationship  of  pure  Ameri- 
canism; upholding  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States: 
sovereignty  of  State  rights;  separation  of  Church  and 
State,  freedom  of  speech  and  pre^;  closer  relationships 
between  Capital  and  Labor,  preventing  the  causes  of  mob 
violence  and  lynchings,  preventing  unwarranted  strikes  by 
foreign  labor  agitators;  prevention  of  fires  and  destruction 
of  property  of  lawless  elements;  limitation  of  foreign  im- 
migration; much  needed  local  reforms:  Inw  and  order 
Membership*  over  5,000,000.  Imperial  Wi/ard  ( President)  • 
James  Arnold  Colcscott.  Imperial  Khgrapp  (Secretary) 
Tames  M  George  Headquarters  3155  Roswell  Road,  At- 
lanta, Ga.  In  1940  Klan  leaders  who  refused  to  drop  anti- 
practices  and  adhere  to  the  program  of  pro-Americanism 
were  eliminated  A  unified  national  program,  as  announced 
by  the  Imperial  Wizard  in  June,  1939,  was  adopted  See 
FASCISM;  GEORGIA 

Labor  Legislation,  American  Association  for,  an  or- 
ganization of  socially  minded  economists,  lawyers,  jour- 
nalists, labor  leaders,  and  employers,  founded  in  1906  to 
attack  needless  industrial  evils  from  the  general  welfare 
viewpoint.  It  functions  as  the  American  arm  of  the  Inter- 
national Association  for  Social  Progress,  formed  in  1925. 
President  Joseph  P.  Chamberlain.  Secretary:  John  B 
Andrews  Headquarters:  131  East  23  Street,  New  York 
City.  In  1940  a  special  report  on  Labor  Law  Administra- 
tion in  North  Carolina  was  issued,  and  the  quarterly 
American  Labor^  Legislation  Review  completed  its  30th 
year  of  publication.  The  34th  Annual  Meeting  was  held 
in  Chicago,  Dec.  27-30,  1940,  several  sessions  being  held 
jointly  with  the  American  Political  Science  Association, 
the  American  Statistical  Association,  and  the  American 
Sociological  Society.  See  LABOR  LFOI  SLAT  ION 

Law  Institute,  The  American,  founded  in  1923  to  pro- 
mote the  clarification  and  simplification  of  the  law  and  its 
better  adaptation f  to  social  needs,  to  secure  the  better  ad- 
ministration of  justice,  and  to  encourage  and  carry  on 
scholarly  and  scientific  legal  work.  Membership:  750.  Pres- 
ident: George  Wharton  Pepper.  Director:  William  Draper 
Lewis.  Headquarters:  3400  Chestnut  Street,  Philadelphia, 


Pa.  The  annual  metrrinjf  will  be  held  in  Washington.  D  C, 
May  6-9,  1941.  See  CKiLftfctN'B  BUftiAtt;  Pttsoitt,  PA* 
MOLK,  AND  CHIMB  CONTROL. 

League  of  Nations  Association,  Ine.,  founded  in  1923 
to  teach  the  need  for  the  co-operation  of  all  nations  in 
building  an  international  organization  as  the  essential  basis 
of  peace.  Membership:  10,000.  President-  Dr  Frank  G. 
Boudreau.  Director:  Clark  M.  Eichelberger.  Headquarters: 
8  West  40  Street,  New  York,  N.Y.  During  1940  the  As- 
sociation co-operated  with  the  Commission  to  Study  the 
Organization  of  Peace  in  a  series  of  15  weekly  broadcasts 
over  CBS.  entitled  "Which  Way  to  Lasting  Peace?"  and 
in  simultaneous  student  discussions  of  issues  raised  in  the 
programs,  awards  were  given  for  the  best  recommendations 
sent  by  study  groups.  The  14th  national  high  school  ex- 
amination contest  was  held  Apr  12,  1940;  1210  schools 
competed  and  a  first  prize  of  $500  Was  awarded  in  lieu  of 
the  usual  trip  to  Europe. 

Legal  Aid  Organisations,  National  Association  of. 
founded  m  1911  as  a  central  body  to  promote  legal  aid 
work  and  organizations,  and  to  co-operate  with  the  judi- 
ciary, the  bar,  and  all  organizations  interested  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice.  Membership:  48  organizations. 
President:  John  S.  Bradway.  Secretary:  Emery  A.  Brown- 
ell.  Headquarters:  25  Exchange  Street,  Rochester.  N.Y. 
During  1940  new  legal  aid  organizations  were  established 
in  Plainfield,  N  J  ,  Portland,  Me.,  Stockton.  Calif.,  and 
Vancouver,  B  C.  Other  important  events  included  the 
formation  of  a  Committee  on  Legal  Aid  Teaching  by  the 
Association  of  American  Law  Schools  and  formation  of  a 
Legal  Aid  Clinic  at  Vanderbilt  University.  Nashville, 
Tenn  Publications  of  the  year  pertained  to  forms  of  or- 
ganizations and  legal  aid  records  and  standards,  and  in- 
cluded also  a  bibliography. 

Legion  of  Decency,  National,  founded  in  1934  to  re- 
view and  morally  evaluate  current  entertainment  motion 
pictures.  Membership  of  the  Episcopal  Committee  on  Mo- 
tion Pictures  5.  Executive  Secretary  The  Rev  John  J. 
McClafferty.  Headquarters  485  Madison  Avenue,  New 
York  City 

Legislators'  Association,  American.  See  under  State 
Governments  below. 

Library  Association,  American  (A.L.A.),  founded  in 
1876  to  provide  complete  and  adequate  library  coverage 
for  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Membership:  16,000 
President:  Charles  H.  Brown  Executive  Secretary  Carl 
H  Milam.  Headquarters.  520  N.  Michigan  Avenue,  Chi- 
cago, 111.  During  1940  the  association  was  reorganized 
through  revision  of  its  constitution  and  by-laws  It  di- 
rected a  Rockefeller  Foundation  grant  for  a  three-year 
project  providing  American  books  for  selected  popular  li- 
braries in  Denmark,  Eire,  England,  Finland,  France,  the 
Netherlands,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Switzerland,  and  a 
grant  for  a  three-year  project  covering  work  and  studies 
on  library  co-operation  with  Latin- America ;  adopted  a 
policy  statement  on  "Libraries  and  the  war  in  Europe  ; 
co-operated  with  other  groups  in  behalf  of  national  defense 
and  democracy ;  increased  library  service  through  help  from 
State  and  national  aid;  issued  two  new  quarterlies  College 
and  Research  Libraries  and  The  Hospital  Book  Guide 
along  with  many  professional  bulletins,  books,  and  pam- 
phlets and  book  lists,  continued  work  for  Federal  aid 
legislation;  conducted  several  library  surveys;  and  admin- 
istered various  foundation  grants  of  funds  for  books,  li- 
braries and  library  training  in  United  States  and  Canada. 
The  Newbery  Award  was  granted  in  1940  to  James  Daugh- 
erty  for  Daniel  Boone\  Caldecott  Award  to  Ingri  and 
Edgar  Parin  d'  Aulaife  for  Abraham  Lincoln',  Library 
Publicity  Honor  Roll  to  52  libraries  and  four  editors; 
Honorary  Membership  to  Dr  Frank  Pierce  Hill  and  Dr. 
Herbert  Putnam  See  LIBRARY  PROGRESS. 

Library  Association,  The,  founded  m  1877  (incorpo- 
rated by  Royal  Charter  in  1898)  to  unite  all  persons  en- 
gaged  or  interested  in  libraries,  hold  examinations  and 
maintain  a  professional  register,  promote  the  establishment 
of  public  libraries,  encourage  bibliographical  study,  pub- 
lish journals,  and  hold  conferences.  Membership:  6250. 
President:  Arundell  Esdaile  Secretary:  P.  S.  J.  Welsford. 
Headquarters:  Chaucer  House,  Malet  Place,  London,  W  C  1. 
The  Association's  Carnegie  Medal  for  an  outstanding  chil- 
dren's book  published  in  Great  Britain  during  1939  was 
awarded  to  Miss  Eleanor  Doorly  for  Tk*  Radium  Woman 
Plans  for  the  1941  meeting  were  in  abeyance  during  tern* 
pornry  international  inconvenience 

Lions  Clubs,  International  Association  of,  founded  in 
1917  as  a  national  organization  for  local  Lions  Clubs, 
which  are  composed  of  representative  business  and  profes- 
sional men  interested  in  the  development  of  their  communi- 
ties. Membership:  138,000.  President.  Karl  M  Sorrick 
Secretary-General:  Melvin  Jones.  Headquarters  332  S. 
Michigan  Avenue.  Chicago,  111.  Activities  are  grouped 
under  eight  headings:  boys  and  girls;  citizenship  and  pa- 
triotism: civic  improvements;  community  betterment,  edu- 
cation: health  and  welfare;  safety)  sight  conservation  and 
the  blind.  Under  the  last-named  program,  14,811  pairs  of 
eyeglasses  were  donated  to  the  needy  and  7515  copies  of 
the  Lions  Juvenile  Braille  Mayatine  were  distributed*  In 
the  field  of  citizenship  and  patriotism.  Lions  Clubs  fea- 
tured ifl  1940  community-wide  discussions  recruiting  for 


SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS      692     SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


nayjr  fliers  and  .other  units,  cooperation  with  the  FBI 
against  Fifth  Column  activities,  and  establishment  of  Na- 
tional Guard  units.  The 


, 

.  2Sth  annual  convention  will  be 

held  in  New  Orleans,  July  22-25,  1941. 
Irttmber  Manufacturers  Association 
FORESTRY. 


tton,   National.    See 


. 

Management  Association,  Inc.,  American,  founded  by 
a  merger  of  predecessor  organisations  in  1923  to  provide 
executives  of  commercial  and  industrial  companies  with  a 
means  of  exchanging  information  on  management  policies 
and  techniques.  Membership:  4000  Headquarters:  330 
West.  42  Street,  New  York  City.  Meetings  scheduled  for 
1941  included  the  Financial  Management  Conference,  New 
York  City,  January  22-23;  Conference  for  Personnel  Ex- 
ecutives,  Chicago,  February  12-14;  Packaging,  Packing, 
and  Shipping  Conference,  Chicago,  April  1-4;  Conference 
for  Marketing  and  Sales  Executives.  New  York  City. 
April;  Insurance  Conference,  Atlantic  City,  May:  and 
meetings  for  Production  and  Office  Management  Execu- 
tives 

Manufacturers,  National  Association  of  (N.A.M.),  an 
organization  of  individuals,  firms,  and  corporations  en- 
gaged in  manufacturing,  founded  in  1895  with  the  follow- 
ing general  objectives:  (I)  the  promotion  of  the  industrial 
interests  of  the  United  States;  (2)  the  fostering  of  the 
domestic  and  foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States;  (3) 
the.  betterment  of  the  relations  between  employeis  and 
their  employees;  (4)  the  protection  of  the  individual  lib- 
erty and  rights  of  employer  and  employee;  (5)  the  dis- 
semination of  information  among  the  public  with  respect 
to  the  principles  of  individual  liberty  and  ownership  of 
Property;  (6)  the  support  of  legislation  in  furtherance  of 
those  rinciples  and  opposition  to  legislation  in  derogation 
7000.  President:  H.  W.  Prcntis,  Jr. 


there  .  .  .  ,  . 

Secretary  Noel  Sargent.  Headquarters:  14  West  49  Street, 
New  York  City.  The  Association  has  a  number  of  standing 
committees  and  advisory  groups  The  Committee  on  Agri- 
cultural Co-operation  strives  to  gather  unbiased,  impartial 
facts  upon  which  American  businessmen  can  build  a  bet- 
ter understanding  of  the  farm  situation.  The  Committee 
on  Economic  Policy  works  in  the  entire  basic  field  covered 
by  the  TNEC  investigation  The  Committee  on  Economic 
Security  analyzes  existing  social  security  legislation  and 
considers  all  new  proposals,  non-governmental  as  well  as 
governmental,  for  the  promotion  of  economic  security.  Un- 
der the  sponsorship  of  the  Employment  Relations  Commit- 
tee of  the  N.A  M  a  two  weeks  Institute  on  Employment 
Relations  was  held  in  conjunction  with  the  University  of 
Vermont  in  Burlington,  Vt.,  Aug  19-30,  1940.  This  Com- 
mittee has  published  Workers  over  Forty,  What  Employees 
Think,  and  Model  Employment  Procedures  The  Commit- 
tee on  Study  of  Depressions  has  issued  two  special  reports 
on  the  depression  problem  The  Committee  on  National 
Defense  and  Industrial  Mobilization  was  formed  to  help 
the  Government  organize  the  nation's  industrial  resources 
in  the  interests  of  national  defense  Under  the  sponsorship 
of  the  Committee  on  Patents  and  Research  19  national 
awards  and  565  local  awards  were  given  in  1940  in  the 
field  of  invention  at  patent  dinners  held  in  various  cities 
of  the  country.  In  addition,  the  Association  has  been  spon- 
soring the  most  widespread  and  complete  program  ever 
undertaken  by  organized  industry  to  tell  its  story  to  the 
public  through  the  National  Industrial  Information  Com- 
mittee. 

Masons.  See  article  on  FREEMASONRY. 

Mathematical  Society,  American,  founded  m  1888  for 
the  promotion  and  publication  of  research  in  mathematics. 
Membership:  2300.  President:  Prof.  Marston  Morse.  Sec- 
retary: Prof  J.  R.  Kline.  Headquarters  Low  Memorial 
Library,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City.  In  1940 
a  new  international  abstracting  journal  was  established, 
the  monthly  Mathematical  Reviews.  A  War  Preparedness 
Committee  was  active.  Meetings  in  1941  will  be  held  in 
New  York  City  in  February,  Washington  in  May,  and 
Chicago  in  September. 

Mayors,  United  States  Conference  of,  founded  m  1932 
as  a  clearing  house  for  American  cities  on  problems  of 
municipal  government  Membership:  190  cities  over  50,000 
in  population  President:  Mayor  F  H.  LaGuardia  Execu- 
tive Director-  Paul  V.  Betters.  Headquarters:  730  Jackson 
Place,  Washington,  D.C 

Mechanical  Engineers,  The  American  Society  of. 
founded  in  1880  to  promote  mechanical  engineering  and 
allied  arts  and  sciences.  Membership-  15,000.  President: 
William  A.  Hanley.  Headquarters:  29  West  39  Street, 
New  York  City.  The  60th  anniversary  of  the  Society  was 
celebrated  in  1940.  It  participated  in  the  national  defense 
program  through  public  meetings  devoted  to  ordnance  man- 
ufacture discussion,  committee  service  in  research  and 
standardization,  and  the  assembly,  of  records  of  individual 
members  available  for  key  positions  in  the  defense  pro- 
pram.  At  the  annual  meeting.  Dec.  4.  1940,  the  A.S  M  E. 
Medal  was  awarded  to  Charles  F.  Kettenng;  the  Holley 
Medal  to  Edwin  H  Armstrong  (radio  communication); 
the  Warner  Medal  to  William  Benjamin  Gregory  (hy- 
draulic engineering),  the  Melville  Medal  to  Carl  A.  W. 
Brandt  for  his  paper  "The  Locomotive  Boiler":  and  the 
Pi  Tau  Sigma  Award  to  George  A.  Hawkins  (high-pres- 
sure steam  research).  Meetings  are  scheduled  to  be  held 


in  Atlanta,  Apr.  1-3.  1941;  Kansas  City,  June  16-20: 
Louisville,  October  12-15,  and  New  York  City  (annual 
meeting),  December  1-5. 

Medical  Association,  American,  founded  in  1847  to 
promote  the  science  and  art  of  medicine  and  the  betterment 
of  public  health.  Membership:  117,163.  President:  Frank 
H.  Lahey.  General  Manager:  Olm  West  Headquarters: 
535  N.  Dearborn  Street,  Chicago,  111.  The  Distinguished 
Service  Medal  and  Citation  for  distinguished  service  in 
the  science  or  art  of  medicine  was  awarded.  Tune  10.  1940, 
to  Dr.  Chevalier  Jackson  of  Philadelphia.  The  Association 
will  meet  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  June  2-6,  1941.  See  MEDI- 
CINE AND  SURGERY. 

Medical  Association,  Canadian,  founded  in  1867  and 
interested  m  all  matters  concerning  the  practice  of  medi- 
cine Membership:  5000.  President:  Gordon  Fahrni  Gen- 
eral Secretary:  T.  C.  Routley  Headquarters:  184  College 
Street,  Toronto,  Canada.  In  1940  the  federation  of  all  the 
Provincial  Medical  Associations  in  Canada  as  divisions  of 
the  Canadian  Medical  Association  was  completed.  The 
Association  will  meet  m  Winnipeg,  June  23-27,  1941. 

Mental  Hygiene,  Inc.,  The  National  Committee  for, 
founded  in  1909  to  promote  interest  and  action  throughout 
the  United  States  in  the  prevention  and  control  of  mental 
illness  and  the  conservation  of  mental  health.  Membership. 
770.  President:  Dr.  Adolf  Meyer  Medical  Director.  Dr. 
Gdorge  S.  Stevenson.  Associate  Secretary-  Paul  O.  Ko- 
mora  Headquarters:  1790  Broadway,  New  York  City 
During  1940  the  President  and  Medical  Director  became 
members  of  a  planning  committee  to  administer  the  Hogg 
Foundation,  established  under  a  grant  of  two  and  one-half 
million  dollars  to  the  University  of  Texas  for  mental  health 
work  in  that  State.  The  1941  meeting  of  the  National 
Committee  is  to  be  held  in  New  York  City  the  second 
Thursday  in  November 

Meteorological  Society,  American,  founded  in  1919  for 
the  advancement  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  of  meteorol- 
ogy (including  climatology)  and  its  application  to  public 
health,  agriculture,  engineering,  transportation,  and  other 
forms  of  industry  and  commerce  Membership  about  1300 
President.  F.  W.  Reichelderfer  Secretary.  Charles  F 
Brooks.  Headquarters.  Blue  Hill  Observatory,  Milton, 

Mining  and  Metallurgical  Engineers,  American  In- 
stitute of,  founded  in  1871  to  promote  the  arts  and  sciences 
connected  with  the  production  of  useful  minerals  and 
metals  and  the  welfare  of  those  employed  in  these  indus- 
tries Membership  10,697  President-  John  R.  Suman 
Secretary:  A  B.  Parsons  Headquarters-  29  West  39 
Street,  New  York  City.  The  James  Douglas  Medal  was 
awarded  in  1940  to  Louis  D  Ricketts.  the  Lucas  Medal 
to  E.  DeGolyer,  the  Hunt  Medal  to  Axel  Hultgren  and 
Gosta  Phragmen,  and  the  Johnson  Award  to  P  V  Martin 
The  1941  annual  meeting  was  scheduled  February  17-20 

Mining  Congress,  The  American,  founded  in  1898  to 
advance  the  welfare  of  all  branches  of  the  mining  industry, 
foster  safer  and  more  efficient  methods  of  production,  and 
represent  the  industry  m  governmental  matters  Member- 
ship: 9000  President.  Howard  I.  Young.  Secretary.  Jul- 
ian D  Conover.  Headquarters:  309  Munsey  Building, 
Washington,  D  C.  The  Annual  Coal  Convention  and  Ex- 
position will  be  held  in  Cincinnati,  Apr  28  to  May  2, 
1941,  the  Metal  Mining  Convention  and  Exposition  in 
San  Francisco,  Sept.  29  to  Oct.  2  1941,  and  the  annual 
business  meeting  in  Washington,  Jan  14,  1941. 

Modern  Language  Association  of  America,  organized 
m  1883  to  promote  literary  and  linguistic  research  in  all 
the  fields  of  the  Modern  Languages  and  Literatures  Pres- 
ident: Karl  Young.  Headquarters-  100  Washington  Square, 
New  York  City.  During  1940  the  Association  published 
ten  books.  The  1941  meeting  will  be  held  in  Indianapolis 
during  the  Christmas  holidays. 

Modern  Woodmen  of  America,  a  fraternal  life  insur- 
ance society  formed  in  1883.  It  furnishes  legal  reserve 
life  insurance  to  men,  women,  and  Junior  members.  Mem- 
bership: 425,000.  President  Oscar  E.  Aleshire.  Secretary. 
J.  G  Ray.  Headquarters:  Rock  Island,  111  The  1941  na- 
tional convention  or  Head  Camp  will  be  held  in  June 

Museums,  American  Association  of,  founded  in  1906 
to  help  museums  solve  their  problems  and  increase  their 
usefulness.  Membership-  1100.  President  Clark  Wissler. 
Director:  Laurence  Vail  Coleman.  Headquarters:  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  Washington,  D.C.  The  Association  has 
two  major  functions — long  range  work  that  shapes  broadly 
the  course  of  museum  development  and  direct  and  imme- 
diate usefulness  to  museums.  The  former  program  was 
practically  finished  in  the  1940  fiscal  year  with  the  pub- 
lication of  a  three-volume  critical  study  by  Laurence  Vail 
Coleman,  The  Museum  in  America,  and  the  Association 
turned  to  the  application  of  its  years  of  study.  Effort  to 
add  to  the  membership  resulted  in  the  largest  income  from 
that  source  in  the  history  of  the  Association.  A  new  re- 
gional group,  the  Washington  State  Museum  Conference, 
was  organized  The  Carnegie  Corporation  increased  the 
amount  of  its  support  for  general  purposes  from  $10,000 
to  $12.500  annually.  The  Museum  News  completed  its  17th 
annual  volume.  In  the  spring  of  1940,  Mr.  Henry  W. 
Kent,  Secretary  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  pro- 


SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS      693     SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


vickd  for  an  award  to  be  made  from  time  to  time  for  dis- 
tinguished service  to  the  cause  of  museum  education.  The 
first  award  was  made  to  the  Association's  Director  at  the 
35th  annual  dinner  in  Detroit.  May  24.  The  1941  meeting 
will  be  held  in  Columbus,  Ohio,  in  May. 

Music.  See  organizations  listed  under  Advancement  of 
Music  and  Composers:  also,  the  article  on  Music. 

Music  Appreciation,  National  Committee  for.  See  Mo- 

81  Music  Clubs,  National  Federation  of,  founded  in  1898 
to  bring  into  working  relation  with  one  another  organiza- 
tions and  individuals  associated  with  musical  .activity,,  to 
aid  musical  education  and  develop  and  maintain  high 
musical  standards  throughout  America.  Membership:  47UU 
clubs.  President:  Mrs.  Vincent  H.  Ober.  Secretary:  Mrs. 
W.  A.  Goforth  Publication  Offices:  320  Wait  Avenue, 
Ithaca,  N.Y.  The  Stillman  Kelley  Scholarship  Fund  for 
talented  children  who  cannot  afford  to  study  was  created 
in  1940  and  the  first  award  was  made  to  David  Smith  ot 
Cincinnati  A  plan  of  motion-picture  awards  for  musicians 
and  composers  in  the  films  was  adopted,  a nd  P"l«mna ry 
work  was  done  on  the  biennial  awards  of  $1000  each  to 
three  winners  m  Young  Artist  Contests  A  nationwide 
Loyalty  Through  Music  Crusade  was  launched  to  meet 
the  need  for  rcaroused  patriotism.  The  next  biennial  con- 
vention  will  be  held  in  Los  Angeles,  June  19-25,  1941. 

Music  Council,  Inc.,  National,  organized  in  April,  1940, 
to  provide  a  forum  for  the  discussion  of  problems  affect- 
ing national  musical  life,  to  speak  with  one  voice  for  mu- 
sic in  the  United  States,  to  provide  for  an  interchange  of 
musical  information,  to  encourage  the  co-ordination  of  the 
efforts  of  musical  organizations,  to  conduct  surveys  of 
important  problems,  to  encourage  the  development  of  the 
artof  music,  and  to  foster  the  highest  ethical  standards 
in  it  Membership  26  nationally  active  associations  Pres- 
ident Edwin  Hughes,  338  West  89  Street,  New  York  City. 
Secretary  Franklin  Dunham  Meetings  are  to  be  called 

^/rA...ciaUon   o,, 

i        assf  SS-MAS 

President*  Myron  F  Converse  Executive  Secretary.  John 
W  Sandstedt.  Headquarters:  60  East  42  Street,  ttew 
York  City  The  year  1941  wilt  mark  the  125th  anniversary 
of  the  mutual  savings  bank  system  At  the  end  of  1940 
these  banks  were  serving  the  greatest  number  of  depositors 
and  holding  the  greatest  total  of  deposits  in  their  history. 
The  annual  conference  of  the  Association  will  be  held  in 
Philadelphia,  Apr.  30  to  May  2.  1941  . 

Nature  Association,  American,  founded  in  1922  to 
stimulate  public  interest  in  every  phase  of  Nature  and  the 
out-of-doors,  and  to  further  the  practical  conservation  of 
the  great  natural  resources  of  America.  Membership/  70,- 
000.  President.  Arthur  Newton  Pack.  Secretary  Richard 
W  Westwood.  Headquarters  1214  16th  Street,  N.W.. 
Washington,  D  C.  During  1940  the  Association  conducted 
and  published  the  results  of  two  studies;  a  survey  of  road- 
side  conditions  in  Flonda  and  a  study  of  conservation 
education  in  the  schools  under  a  special  endowment  of  the 
American  Nature  Association  to  Cornell  University.  Leg- 
islation of  constructive  character  looking  to  the  conserva- 
tion of  natural  resources  was  actively  supported. 

Netherland-America  Foundation,  Inc.,  of  Holland 
House,  founded  in  1921  to  deepen  understanding  and 
fr?e?dship  between  the  Netherlands^  and  the  United  States 
through  educational  and  cultural  channels  Membership 
125  President-  Thomas  J.  Watson  Secretary  Harold  de 
Wolf  Fuller  Headquarters-  10  Rockefeller  Plaza,  New 
York  City.  The  annual  meeting  is  held  the  third  luesday 
in  January.  During  1940  the  Foundation  presented,  in 
association  with  Holland  House,  a  concert  of  Contempo- 
rary Dutch  Music  and  several  art  exhibitions 

Newspaper  Publishers  Association,  American,  founded 
in  1887  to  foster  and  protect  the  interests  of  the  news- 
paper publishing  business  Membership  456  ,PrC8genV 
John  S.  McCarrens.  Secretary:  Norman  Chandler.  Head- 
quarters:  370  Lexington  Avenue,  New  York  City.  The 
1941  meeting  will  be  held  in  New  York  City,.  April  22-24. 
No  Foreign  Wax  Committee,  founded  in  December, 
1940,  to  keep  America  out  of  foreign  war.  Chairman: 
Verne  Marshall.  Treasurer:  Robert  A  Lancaster.  Head- 
quarters- 100  East  42  Street,  New  York  City.  t 

Numismatic  Society,  The  American,  founded  in  1858 
for  the  collection,  preservation,  and  study  of  coins,  medals, 
and  decorations  of  all  countries.  Membership:  443.  Presi- 
dent: Edward  T.  Newell.  Secretary  and  Curator:  Sydney 
P  Noe.  Headquarters.  Museum  at  Broadway  and  156th 
Street,  New  York  City  During  1940  an  exhibition  was 
held  of  the  collection  of  Architects'  Medals  presented  to 
the  Society  by  Mr  and  Mrs.  Robert  J.  Eidlitz.  Meetings 
are  held  at  the  Museum  on  the  second  Saturday  in  Janu- 
ary, April,  and  November. 

Nurses'  Association,  American,  founded  in  1896  to 
promote  the  professional  and  educational  advancement  of 
nurses,  to  elevate  the  standard  of  nursing  education,  and 
to  establish  and  maintain  a  code  of  ethics  among  nurses 
Membership-  166,286.  President:  Julia  C.  Stimson,  R  N. 
Secretary:  Mrs.  Mary  A.  Hickey,  R.N.  Headquarters. 
1790  Broadway,  New  York  City.  During  1940  sections 


for  Men  Nurses  and  General  Staff  Nurses  were  created, 
and  the  Association  co-operated  in  the  activities  of  the 
Nursing  Council  on  National  Defense.  Studies  were  made 
in  the  interest  of  placement  service  and  vocational  counsel- 
ing, organization  and  program  of  professional  registries, 
service  in  small  hospitals,  shorter  hours  (with  special 
reference  to  private  duty  nurses),  and  the  status  ot  sub- 
sidiary workers  with  regard  to  the  care  of  the  sick.  The 
next  Biennial  Convention  will  be  held  in  Chicago  in  May, 
1942,  in  conjunction  with  the  National  League  of  Nursing 
Education,  and  the  National  Organization  for  Public 
Health  Nursing 

Odd  Fellows,  Independent  Order  of,  a  fraternal  or- 
ganization founded  m  1819  to  relieve  the  distressed,  bury 
the  dead,  and  educate  orphans.  Membership:  1,406,835. 
Grand  Sire.  James  A  Hagerman.  Grand  Secretary:  £dw. 
G.  Ludvigsen  Headquarters:  16  West  Chase  Street,  Balti- 
more, Md.  The  1941  meeting  will  be  held  in  DCS  Momes, 
Iowa,  September  15 

Orchestral  Association,  National.  See  Music. 
Oriental  Society,  American,  founded  in  1842  for  the 
promotion  of  research  in  oriental  languages  and  cultures 
and  the  publication  of  books  and  papers.  Membership:  840. 
President-  Dr  Arthur  W  Hummel.  Secretary:  Prof.  Fer- 
ns J.  Stephens,  Yale  University.  New  Haven,  Conn.  The 
1941  meeting  will  be  held  in  Chicago,  April  15-17. 

Ornithologists'  Union.  The  American,  founded  in  1883 
for  the  advancement  of  its  members  in  ornithological 
science,  publication  of  a  journal  and  other  works,  and  ac- 
quisition of  a  library.  Membership.  1460  President:  James 
P  Chanm  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New 
York  City  Secretary  Lawrence  E  Hicks  In  1940  the 
Brewster  Award  was  granted  to  Dr  James  L  Peters  for 
his  Birds  of  the  World.  The  1941  meeting  will  be  held  in 
Denver,  Colo ,  in  Tune 

Ort,  Women's  American,  founded  in  1927  and  devoted 
to  the  creation  of  a  new  occupational  existence  for  refu- 
gees and  the  masses  of  European  Jews  through  trade- 
schools,  farm  colonies,  and  industrial  workshops  It  is 
affiliated  with  American  Ort  Federation  and  World  Ort 
Union,  which  have  operated  training  centers  m  Europe 
for  the  past  60  years.  Membership  about  5000.  President- 
Mrs.  Edward  B  Gresser.  Headquarters  212  Fifth  Ave- 
nue, New  York  City.  Events  of  1940  included  the  Annual 
Donor  Luncheon,  May  14,  and  the  Annual  Membership 
Tea,  December  17,  in  New  York  City.  Chapter  meetings 
are  held  monthly  throughout  cities  of  the  United  States. 
Pacific  Relations,  Institute  of,  founded  m  1925  to  pro- 
mote scientific  investigation  and  rational  discussion  of  the 
problems  and  mutual  relations  of  the  peoples  of  the  Pacific 
area  Membership  1732.  Secretary-General  Edward  C 
Carter  Headquarters  of  the  Amencan  Council:  129  East 
52  Street,  New  York,  N.Y.  Publication  of  a  series  of 
books  on  "Inquiry  into  the  Smo-Japanese  Conflict"  was 
continued  in  1940.  Round  table  discussions  were  held  in 
Honolulu,  San  Francisco,  Chicago,  Los  Angeles,  and  New 
York  A  seminar  program  was  held  jointly  with  the  For- 
eign Policy  Association,  and  a  study  outline  on  "Essentials 
of  Far  Eastern  Peace"  was  distributed  among  college  and 

8  lpainte0rsPSand    Sculptors,    National    Association    of 
Women,  listed  under  Women 

Pan  American  Union.  See  separate  article. 

Pan  Pacific  Union,  founded  in  1917,  after  ten  years  of 
preliminary  work  by  the  founder  Alexander  Hume  Ford, 
for  the  promotion  of  better  relation  in  Pacific  countries 
through  a  fuller  knowledge  of  each  other.  Membership: 
500  President-  A.  D  Castro  of  Honolulu,  former  Consul 
for  Brazil.  Executive  Secretary:  A  Y.  Satterthwaite. 
Headquarters:  1025  Union  Trust  Building,  Honolulu.  Dur- 
ing 1940  the  Union  addressed  a  memorial  to  the  Pacific 
governments  seeking  cessation  of  hostilities.  Pan-Pacific 
or  Balboa  Day  was  observed,  September  25.  A  meeting 
scheduled  in  New  Zealand  in  January  was  postponed  on 
account  of  the  war,  and  no  international  meetings  have 
been  scheduled  recently.  „  _ 

Parents  and  Teachers,  The  National  Congress  of, 
founded  in  1897  as  the  National  Congress  of  Mothers,  to 
promote  the  welfare  of  children  and  youth  in  home,  school, 
church,  and  community.  Membership:  2.379,599.  Presi- 
dent: Mrs.  William  Kletzer.  Secretary:  Mrs  Charles  D. 
Center.  National  Office-  600  S.  Michigan  Boulevard,  Chi- 
cago, HI.  On  Nov  14,  1940,  the  organization  of  the 
Nevada  Congress  of  Parents  and  Teachers  brought  into 
the  National  Congress  the  last  unorganized  State  in  the 
nation.  A  three-year  program  of  action  on  "The  Child  m 
His  Community''  was  inaugurated,  based  on  the  findings 
and  recommendations  of  the  1940  White  House  Conference 
on  Children  in  a  Democracy  (see  CHILDREN'S  BU«AU). 
The  organization  accepted  membership  on  the  National 
Co-ordinating  Committee  on  Education  and  Defense. 

Peace.  See  Emergency  Peace  Mobilization,  No  Foreign 
War  Committee,  World  Alliance  for  International  Friend- 
ship, World  Peace  Foundation,  as  well  as  the  immediately 
following  group 


SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS      604     SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


Washington,  D.C.  An  Institute  on  Puerto  Rican  problems 
was  held  in  1940.  The  1941  annual  convention  will  be  held 

at^ac«lcOerln«i;  Na&bnal,  founded  in  1933  with  a 
three-fold  purpose:  (1)  as  a  council  board  at  which  its 
members  express  their  views  on  American  foreign  policy 
and  formulate  and  clarify  issues;  (2)  as  a  clearinghouse 
to  receive,  record,  and  publicize  the  views  of  its  affiliated 
organizations;  (3)  as  a  publisher  and  program  servicing 
agency  to  provide  its  member  organizations  and  the  pub- 
lic with  objective,  non-partisan  information  Membership. 
38  national  organizations  President.  Walter  W  Van 
Kirk.  Headquarters:  8  West  40  Street,  New  York  City. 
The  annual  meeting  was  held  May  7-8,  1940,  at  Interna- 
tional House.  New  York 

Pen  Women,  National  League  of  American,  founded 
in  1897  to  promote  the  creative  cultural  arts  ot  the  pen, 
pencil,  and  brush.  Membership:  3000.  President:  Edna 
Knight  Gasch  Headquarters:  409  Willard  Hotel,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.  A  biennial  convention  was  held  in  Washing- 
ton. D  C..  in  April,  1940. 

People's  Lobby,  Inc.,  The,  founded  in  1931  (formerly 
the  People's  Reconstruction  League,  founded  in  1920)  to 
work  for  legislative  and  administrative  measures  in  the 
national  capital,  in  the  interest  of  all  the  people  Member- 
ship 1875.  President:  Bishop  Francis  J.  McConnell.  Exec- 
utive Secretary.  Benjamin  Marsh.  Headquarters:  1410 
H  Street,  N.W.,  Washington,  D.C.  During  1940  the  or- 
ganization distributed  about  half  a  million  reprints  of  its 
material  from  the  Congressional  Record  It  was  active  in 
getting  the  Selective  Service  Bill  amended  to  exclude  cer- 
tain features,  and  sought  to  popularize  profitless  defense 
and  a  pay-as-you-go  policy  for  national  defence  The  1941 
annual  meeting  was  scheduled  at  the  Town  Hall  Club, 
New  York  City,  Jan  13 

Petroleum  Institute,  American,  founded  in  1919  to 
afford  a  means  of  co-operation  with  the  government,  foster 
trade  in  petroleum  products,  promote  the  interests  of  the 
industry,  the  mutual  improvement  of  its  members,  and 
the  study  of  related  arts  and  sciences  Membership  about 
4000.  President:  Axtell  J  Byles.  Secretary:  Lacey  Walker. 
Headquarters:  50  West  50  Street,  New  York  City  Meet- 
ings in  1941  include  the  llth  Mid- Year  Meeting,  in  Tulsa, 
Okla.,  May  19-23.  and  the  22nd  Annual  Meeting  in  San 
Francisco,  November  3-7 

Philatelic  Society,  American,  an  organization  of  stamp 
collectors,  founded  in  1886  for  mutual  benefit  Member- 
ship: 5016.  President:  Rollm  E  Flower  Secretary  Dr. 
H.  A.  Davis  Headquarters  3421  Coif  ax  "A,"  Denver, 
Colo.  The  annual  meeting,  held  in  late  summer,  is  sched- 
uled for  Baltimore,  Md  .  in  1941 

Philological  Association,  American,  founded  in  1869 
for  the  advancement  and  diffusion  of  philological  knowl- 
edge. Membership:  1068  President:  G.  M  Calhoun.  Secre- 
tary L.  R.  Shero,  Swarthmore  College,  Swarthmore,  Pa. 
In  1940  the  Association  appropriated  $1000  to  the  British 
Classical  Association  in  appreciation  of  the  continued  pub- 
lication under  war  conditions  of  the  Classical  Quarterly 
and  the  Classical  Review.  The  1941  meeting  will  be  held 
in  Hartford,  Conn ,  December  39-31  See  PHILOLOGY, 
CLASSICAL. 

Physical  Society,  American,  founded  in  1899  for  the 
advancement  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  of  physics  Mem- 
bership: 3800.  President:  Dean  George  B  Pegram  Secre- 
tary: Dr.  K.  K.  Darrow.  Headquarters  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, New  York  City.  The  annual  meeting  will  convene, 
Dec.  26,  1941. 

Physicians,  American  College  of,  founded  in  1915  as 
an  organization  of  qualified  specialists  to  maintain  and 
advance  the  highest  possible  standards,  perpetuate  the  his- 
tory and  best  traditions  of  medicine  and  medical  ethics. 
and  to  maintain  the  dignity  and  efficiency  of  Internal 
Medicine  in  its  relationship  to  public  welfare.  Member- 
ship: 3  masters,  3200  fellows,  and  1217  associates;  total, 
4420  President:  Dr.  Roger  I.  Lee.  Executive  Secretary 
£  R  Loveland.  Headquarters:  4200  Pine  Street,  Phifa- 
lia,  Pa.  The  25th  anniversary  of  the  founding  of  the 


supervising  standards  for  residencies  in  Internal  Medicine 
and  allied  specialties.  In  addition  to  numerous  State  or 
sectional  meetings,  intensive  postgraduate  courses  were 
conducted  in  various  centers.  The  John  Phillips  Memorial 
Award  for  achievement  in  Internal  Medicine  was  awarded 
to  Dr.  Rene"  J  Dubos  of  New  York  City  The  25th  annual 
session  will  be  held  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Apr  21-25,  1941 

Planning  and  Civic  Association,  American,  formed  in 
1935  by  a  merger  of  the  American  Civic  Association 
(1904)  and  the  National  Conference  on  City  Planning 
(1909).  It  promotes  public  understanding  and  support  of 
planning  for  the  best  use  of  land,  water,  and  other  natural 
resources,  higher  ideals  of  civic  life,  and  safeguarding  of 
natural  wonders,  scenic  possessions,  and  recreation  facili- 
ties.  President:  Horace  M.  Albright.  Executive  Secretary 
Harlean  James.  Headquarters:  901  Union  Trust  Building. 
Washington,  D.C  During  1940  the  Association  published 
the  American  Planning  and  Civic  Annual,  the  quarterly 
Panning  cmf  CMC  Comment,  and  held  several  conferences 


on  Federal  and  city  narks.  Meetings  in  1941  Include  the 
Annual  Dinner,  Washington,  D.C.,  January  29,  and  the 
Joint  Planning  Conference.  Philadelphia,  May  12-14. 

Poetry  Week  Fellowship  of  National  Poetry  Center, 
an  organization  of  poets  and  friends  of  poetry,  founded 
in  1927  to  advance  the  art,  especially  through  the  interna- 
tional celebration  of  Poetry  Week,  held  annually  the 
fourth  week  in  May.  Founder-Director:  Anita  Browne. 
Headquarters:  30  Rockefeller  Plaza,  New  York  City.  In 
addition  to  the  celebration  of  Poetry  Week  in  1940,  the 
National  Poetry  Center  conducted  a  National  Poetry  Day 
at  the  New  York  World's  Fair,  in  connection  with  which 
gold  medals  were  awarded  in  every  State  throughout  the 
Nation.  The  largest  book  of  poetry  in  the  world,  published 
by  the  Poets  Press  of  the  National  Poetry  Center  was  ex- 
hibited. Junior  and  Senior  Poetry  Prizes  were  awarded  at 
the  winter  meeting  at  the  Vassar  Club,  and  certificates 
were  presented  to  poets  of  merit  at  different  meetings. 
Other  awards  include  Gold  Emblems  of  Honor  presented 
to  the  foremost  man  and  woman  poet  in  New  York  State, 
Annual  Poetry  Scholarship  Awards,  and  Poetry  Parch- 
ments of  Honor.  The  Center  also  conducts  Poetry  radio 

Prpoi5sh' National  Alliance  of  the  U.S.  of  N.A.,  a  fra- 
ternal society  founded  in  1880  for  benefit  insurance  and 
educational  and  charitable  activities.  Membership:  300,000. 
President:  I  K.  Rozmarek.  General  Secretary:  A.  S 
Szczerbowski.  Headquarters  1514-20  W.  Division  Street, 
Chicago,  111  During  1940  the  60th  Anniversary  was  cele- 
brated at  Palmer  House.  A  convention  is  held  once  every 
four  years,  and  the  subsidiary  lodges,  which  number  about 
2000,  meet  monthly 

Political  and  Social  Science,  The  American  Academy 
of,  founded  in  1899  to  provide  a  forum  for  the  discussion 
of  the  great  political,  social,  and  industrial  problems  con- 
fronting the  world  Membership-  8000  to  9000  President: 
Dr  Ernest  Minor  Patterson  Secretary:  Dr.  J.  P.  Lichten- 
berger.  Headquarters  3457  Walnut  Street,  Philadelphia. 
A  bi-monthly.  The  Annals,  is  published.  The  1941  annual 
meeting  was  scheduled  for  Philadelphia  in  April 

Political  Science,  Academy  of,  an  international  learned 
society  for  advancing  the  political  sciences  and  their  appli- 
cation to  political,  economic,  and  social  problems;  founded 
in  1880.  Membership-  6911  President:  Wesley  C.  Mitch- 
ell Director:  Miss  Ethel  Warner  Headquarters*  Fayer- 
weather  Hall,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City  At 
the  semi-annual  meeting  on  Apr.  11.  1940,  in  New  York 
City  "Economic  Nationalism,  Trade  Barriers  and  the 
War"  was  discussed  At  the  sixtieth  annual  meeting  on 
November  13th  the  topic  under  discussion  was  "The  De- 
fense of  the  United  States  " 

Political  Science  Association,  American,  founded  in 
1903  to  foster  scholarly  interest  in  the  scientific  study  and 
improvement  of  politics  and  public  law,  administration,  and 
diplomacy.  Membership:  2857  President:  Frederic  A. 
Ogg  Secretary*  Kenneth  Colegrove.  Headquarters  105 
Harris  Hall,  Northwestern  University,  Evanston,  111  The 
Association  maintains  a  Personnel  Service  indicating  the 
records  of  young  scholars  available  for  appointment.  The 
1941  annual  meeting  will  be  held  in  New  York  City,  De- 
cember 29-31 

Postmasters  of  the  United  States,  National  Associa- 
tion of,  incorporated  in  1936  for  the  betterment  of  the 
Postal  Service  and  mutual  assistance  of  all  Postmasters. 
Membership:  28.054.  President*  Michael  J.  O'Rourke 
Secretary:  John  J.  Hart.  Headquarters:  Ottawa,  111.  Dur- 
ing 1940  a  Chapter  of  the  Association  was  organized  in 
Alaska.  Eleven  States  had  100  per  cent  membership,  in- 
cluding every,  postmaster  in  the  State  The  1941  annual 
convention  will  be  held  in  Boston,  Mass  ,  in  September 

Prevention  of  Blindness,  National  Society  for  the, 
founded  in  1915,  concerned  with  the  control  and,  where 
possible,  the  elimination  of  the  causes  of  blindness,  im- 
paired vision,  and  eyestrain — not  with  activities  on  behalf 
of  those  already  blind.  Membership  18,645.  President- 
Mason  H.  Bigelow.  Secretary  Miss  Regina  E.  Schneider 
Headquarters:  1790  Broadway,  New  York  City.  The  Soci- 
ety co-operates  with  the  medical  profession,  industry, 
nurses,  medical  social  workers,  and  educational  authorities 
in  its  efforts  to  conserve  sight.  It  furnishes  information 
regarding  the  relationship  of  sight  to  numerous  environ- 
mental factors,  stimulates  study  of  the  causes  of  blindness, 
counsels  government  and  voluntary  agencies,  and  serves 
as  a  clearinghouse  in  its  field. 

Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals,  The  American  So- 
ciety for  toe  (A8FOA),  founded  in  1866  President- 
Alexander  S.  Webb.  Secretary:  Richard  Welling.  Head- 
quarters: 50  Madison  Avenue,  New  York,  N.Y.  During 
1940,  the  Society  handled  287,825  small  animals  in  5 
animal  shelters  and  a  hospital,  and  investigated  11,799 
cases  of  cruelty  The  Humane  Education  Department  gave 
instruction  to  55,071  children  and  conducted  a  photo- 
graphic contest  for  Junior  High  School  Children  The 
annual  meeting  was  held  Jan.  2,  1941. 

Prevention  of  Lynching,  Association  of  Southern 
Women  for  the.  See  LYNCHING. 

Prison  Association,  American,  founded  in  1870  to  im- 
prove laws,  law  enforcement,  and  penal  and  correctional 
institutions,  to  study  the  causes  of  crime,  and  to  care  for 


SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS      695     SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


and  provide  employment  for  paroled  and  discharged  prison- 
en  and  probationers.  The  Association  maintains  a  free 
clearinghouse  of  information.  Membership:  890.  Presi- 
dent: James  A.  Johnston.  General  Secretary:  E.  R.  Cass. 
Headquarters:  135  East  15  Street,  New  York,  N.Y.  The 
Annual  Congress,  which  may  be  attended  by  anyone  who 
wishes  to  profit  thereby,  will  be  held  in  San  Francisco, 
Aug.  18-22,  1941. 

Progressive  Education  Association,  incorporated  in 
1931  to  develop  and  promote  progressive  principles  of  edu- 
cation through  field  conferences,  a  Service  Center  for 
members,  preparation  and  distribution  of  educational  ma- 
terials, and  publication  of  two  journals.  Progressive  Edu- 
cation and  Frontiers  of  Democracy.  Membership:  about 
10,000.  President:  Car  let  on  Washburne.  Executive  Secre- 
tary: Frederick  L.  Redefer.  Headquarters:  221  West  57 
Street,  New  York  City.  In  1940  the  eight-year  experiment 
of  the  Association's  Commission  on  the  Relation  of  School 
and  College  was  completed  Publications  of  the  year  were 
Democratic  Education  (suggestions  for  education  and  na- 
tional defense)  and  a  series  of  books  on  the  reorganization 
of  the  secondary  school  curriculum.  In  addition  to  numer- 
ous regional  conferences,  a  national  conference  is  sched- 
uled Feb.  19-22,  1941,  in  Philadelphia.  See  EDUCATION. 

Protection  of  Foreign  Born,  American  Committee  for, 
founded  in  1933  to  promote  better  relations  between  native 
and  foreign  born  by  education;  to  combat  discrimination 
on  the  ground  of  race,  nationality,  or  non-citizenship,  to 
encourage  and  facilitate  naturalization;  and  to  prevent  the 
destruction  of  American  families  by  deportation  It  is 
not  a  membership  organization,  but  has  400  annual  con- 
tributors. Chairman  Carey  McWilliams.  Headquarters 
79  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City.  The  Fourth  National 
Conference,  held  in  Washington,  D.C.,  in  March,  1940, 
was  attended  by  representatives  of  organizations  having 
5,000.000  members.  The  Conference  was  greeted  by  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt,  Secretary  Hull,  and  other  members  of  the 
Cabinet  The  1941  Conference  will  be  held  at  Atlantic 
City,  NJ  ,  March  29-30. 

Psychiatric  Association,  American,  founded  in  1844 
to  further  the  study  of  mental  diseases;  to  further  psychi- 
atric hospitals,  education,  and  research,  and  to  apply  psy- 
chiatric knowledge  to  other  branches  of  medicine,  to  other 
associations,  and  public  welfare  Membership.  2423.  Presi- 
dent Dr.  George  H.  Stevenson.  Executive  Assistant: 
Austin  M  Davies  Headquarters-  9  Rockefeller  Plaza, 
New  York  City  Activities  in  1940  included  the  compila- 
tion of  military  information  and  data  and  the  preparation 
of  a  biographical  directory  of  members  of  the  Association 
The  1941  meeting  was  scheduled  for  Richmond,  Va., 
May  5-9 

Psychological  Association,  American,  founded  in  1892 
to  advance  psychology  as  a  science  Membership:  2739. 
President-  Herbert  Woodrow.  Secretary:  Willard  C.  Ol- 
son. Headquarters.  University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor, 
Mich.  The  1941  meeting  is  scheduled  September  3-6  at 
Northwestern  University. 

Psychology.  American  Association  for  Applied,  listed 
under  Applied 

Public  Affairs,  Institute  of,  founded  in  1927  to  explore 
by  formal  addresses  and  open  forum  discussions  important 
public  problems.  Membership:  3000  yearly,  32,000  total 
Director*  Hardy  Cross  Dillard  Secretary-  Anne  Cowle 
Yates.  Headquarters:  University  of  Virginia,  Charlottes- 
ville,  Va  Students  from  colleges  in  all  sections  of  the 
East  participated  in  the  1940  sessions.  The  1941  sessions 
will  be  held  at  the  University  of  Virginia  at  the  end  of 
June. 

Public  Health  Association,  American,  founded  in  1872 
to  promote  and  protect  the  public  health.  Membership: 
7100.  President:  Dr.  W.  S.  Leathers.  Executive  Secre- 
tary: Dr.  Reginald  M.  Atwater.  Headquarters:  1790 
Broadway,  New  York  City  The  Association  prepared 
during  1940  a  study  on  community  organization  for  health 
education,  and  published  reports  on  Control  of  Communi- 
cable Diseases.  Fellowship  privileges  were  extended  to 
professional  public  health  workers  in  Latin  America  The 
A.P.H.A.  adopted  an  Official  Declaration  of  Attitude  on 
Desirable  Standard  Minimum  Functions  and  Suitable  Or- 

Snlzation  of  Health  Activities    A  Committee  on  Public 
ealth  in  National  Defense  was  appointed.  The  Sedgwick 
Memorial  Medal  was  awarded  m  1940  to  Dr    Hans  Zins- 
ser.  In  a  City  Health  Contest,  financed  by  a  group  of  life 
'  is,  the  winners  were  (by  groups  accord- 
:   Milwaukee,  Wis.;   Memphis,  Tenn.; 


annual  meeting  was  scheduled  in  New  York  City,  Jan- 
uary 24-25 

Public  Welfare  Association,  American,  founded  in 
1930  to  serve  as  a  clearinghouse  on  public  welfare  informa- 
tion, and  to  provide  technical  and  consultant  services  to 
public  welfare  administrators.  Membership-  about  2500. 
President:  William  Hodson.  Director:  Fred  K.  Hoehler. 
Headquarters  1313  East  60  Street,  Chicago,  111.  A  Na* 
tlonal  Council  of  State  Public  Assistance  and  Welfare 
Administrators  and  a  National  Council  of  Local  Welfare 
Administrators  were  organized  in  1940.  Meetings  of  the 
two  National  Councils  were  held  in  Chicago  in  May  and 
at  th^,FL1fth  Annu«l  Round  Table  Conference  of  the  Amer- 
ican Public  Welfare  Association,  December  4-8,  in  Wash- 
mgton,  D.C  See  JUVENILE  DELINQUENCY. 

Badio,  National  Committee  on  Education  by,  listed 
under  Education 

Radio  Manufacturers  Association.  See  FKDXXAL  COM- 
MUNICATIONS COMMISSION. 

Eailroads,  Association  of  American,  founded  in  1934 
to  promote  trade  and  commerce  in  the  public  interest, 
further  improve  railroad  service,  and  maintain  the  integ- 
rity and  credit  of  the  railroad  industry  where  concert  of 
policy  and  action  are  required.  Membership:  138  railroad 
systems  and  180  associate  members.  President:  J.  J 
Pelley.  Secretary-Treasurer  H  J  Forster.  Headquarters. 


insurance  companies,  the  winners  were  (by  groups  accord* 
ing  to  population):  Milwaukee,  Wis.;  Memphis,  Tenn.j 
New  Haven  and  Hartford,  Conn. ;  Newton,  Mass.;  Green- 
wich, Conn.,  and  Plainfield,  NJ.;  Englewood,  N  J.  A 
Rural  Health  Contest  was  conducted  also,  financed  by  the 


Rural  Health  Contest  was  conducted  also,  financed  by  the  specialty  stores  and  representation  in  national  legislative 
Kellogg  Foundation.  The  70th  annual  meeting  will  be  held  matters  in  industry  relations.  Membership.  5700.  Presi- 
at  Atlantic  City,  NJ.,  Oct.  14-17,  1941  dent:  Frank  MaynVld  General  Manager-  Lew  Hahn. 


Public  Housing  Conference,  National,  an  association 
of  individuals  and  organizations,  founded  in  1931  to  pro- 
mote slum  clearance  and  low-rent  housing  through  an  es- 
tablished Federal-State-Local  service.  Membership-  1000 
President:  Mary  K.  SimkhovUch.  Executive  Dnector: 
Helen  Alfred.  Headquarters:  122  East  22  Street,  New 
York  City.  The  1940  program  Included  meetings,  publica- 
tions, housing  tours,  and  the  use  of  visual  material  and 
the  radio  to  support  a  campaign  against  slums.  The  1941 


have  a  chance  to  play,  that  everybody  in  America,  young 
or  old,  shall  have  an  opportunity  to  find  the  best  and  most 
satisfying  use  of  leisure  time  Membership  8836.  First 
Vice-President:  John  G.  Wmant.  (The  Presidency  is  va- 
cant )  Secretary:  Howard  Braucher.  Headquarters:  315 
Fourth  Avenue,  New  York  City  In  the  defense  emer- 
gency which  arose  during  1940.  the  Association  was  par- 
ticularly active  in  attempting  through  recreation  to  main- 
tain the  morale  of  the  people  and  to  give  such  service  as 
it  can  to  help  communities  near  defense  camps  provide 
adequate  leisure-time  programs  for  men  on  leave  The 
25th  National  Recreation  Congress  was  held  at  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  Sept.  30-Oct  4,  1940. 

Red  Gross,  American  National.   See  separate  article, 

Research  Council,  National,  founded  in  1916  to  "pro- 
mote research  in  the  mathematical,  physical,  and  biological 
sciences,  and  in  the  application  of  these  sciences  to  engi- 
neering, agnculture,  medicine,  and  other  useful  arts,  with 
the  object  of  increasing  knowledge,  of  strengthening  the 
national  defense,  and  of  contributing  in  other  ways  to  the 
public  welfare."  Membership:  about  200,  composed  in 
majority  of  representatives  of  85  scientific  and  technical 
societies;  together  with  about  1150  members  of  committees 
of  the  Council  and  its  Divisions.  Chairman:  Ross  G  Har- 
rison. Executive  Secretary:  Albert  L.  Barrows.  Headquar- 
ters: 2101  Constitution  Avenue.  Washington,  D  C.  The 
Council  conducts  a  wide  range  of  research  activities  in  the 
medical  and  natural  sciences  under  the  sponsorship  or 
supervision  of  specially  appointed  committees.  Series  of 
post-doctorate  fellowships  are  administered  m  the  medical 
and  m  the  natural  sciences  A  number  of  publications  re- 
sulting from  work  of  the  Council's  Committees  are  issued 
each  year,  either  commercially  or  in  the  Bulletin  or  Re* 
print  and  Circular  Series  of  the  Council  As  an  operating 
agency  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  the  Council 
has  been  called  upon  frequently  during  the  past  year  by 
agencies  of  the  Government  for  advice  and  assistance  in 
connection  with  research  relating  to  the  national  defense. 

Research  Council  of  Canada,  National,  founded  in 
1916  to  have  charge  of  all  matters  affecting  scientific  and 
industrial  research  in  Canada  which  may  be  assigned  to 
it  by  the  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council  on  Scientific 
and  Industrial  Research  Membership  15.  President:  Lt.- 
Gen.  A.  G.  L.  McNaughton  (recalled  to  active  duty)  Act- 
ing President:  C.  J.  Mackenzie  Secretary.  S.  P  Eagleson. 
Headquarters:  National  Research  Building,  Ottawa.  Can. 
The  peacetime  program  of  the  Council  *a*  modified  in 
1939-40  to  meet  the  needs  for  scientific  and  industrial  re- 
search relating  to  war  projects  Construction  of  new  aero- 
nautical laboratories  was  begun.  Supplementing  its  labora- 
tory establishment  at  Ottawa,  the  Council  granted  69 
scholarships  for  postgraduate  research  and  provided  116 
grants-in-aid  to  responsible  research  workers  in  univer- 
sities for  special  investigations.  Special  provision  was 
made  for  research  on  war  projects  at  various  centers 

Retail  Dry  Goods  Association,  National,  a  trade  asso- 
ciation founded  in  1911  for  research  work  in  common 
management  and  operating  problems  of  department  and 

specialty  *  ^'       ' '  •—'-•— 

matters 

dent:    F. rf~    _  —    „_-      _ 

Headquarters:  101  West  31  Street.  New  York  City.  The 
week  of  Sept  16,  1940,  was  set  aside  for  National  Retail 
Demonstration.  During  the  year  the  association  conducted 
a  co-operative  program  with  the  Government  to  prevent 
unjustified  price  increases  in  consumer  goods,  and  in- 
augurated 20  conferences  with  industries  to  effect  practical 
means  of  compliance  with  the  Wool  Labeling  Law.  The 
Wolf  Retail  Award  for  the  most  effective  package  created 
in  the  department  store  field  in  1939  was  awarded  to 


SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS      696     SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


Gimbel  Brothers,  New  York.  A  medal  was  awarded  in 
1940  to  Maj.  Benjamin  H.  Namm.  President  of  the  Namm 
Store,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  for  outstanding  service  for  the 
retail  trade  over  a  period  of  years.  Mra.  Typical.  Customer 
for  1940  was  Mrs.  Roy  Fleming  of  Hot  Springs,  Ark. 
Meetings  scheduled  for  1941  are  the  Annual  Convention, 
New  York  City,  Jan.  13-17  and  the  Mid- Year  Convention, 

ChECeav\°;wJofeM2oUon  Pictures,  Inc.,  National  Board  of. 
An  organization  founded  in  1909  to  encourage  the  best 
uses  of  the  motion  picture  recreationally,  educationally, 
and  artistically.  Membership-  500.  The  .President  is  Dr. 
A.  A.  Brill;  Executive  Director,  James  Shelley  Hamilton. 
Headquarters:  70  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City  The 
15th  annual  announcement  of  the  Board's  choices  of  the 
best  films  of  the  year  was  made  on  Dec.  23.  1940,  as  fol- 
lows: Best  film  of  the  year.  The  Grapes  of  Wrath,  best 
foreign-language  film.  The  Baker's  Wife:  best  documen- 
tary film,  The  Fight  for  Life,  with  Honorable  Mention 
given  to  Power  and  the  Land.  The  ten  best  American 
films  selected,  in  order  of  preference,  were:  The  Grapes  of 


nff    A  ne   £»wti*»*    J^l»*cr,    VTI/TW    w»r»   *nv    wr  »f»«*»    ctiiu   «»«.  ^  •-•.•••- 

Bot&ry  International,  a  worldwide  organization  which 
serves  as  a  clearinghouse  for  all  Rotary  Clubs,  the  fiist 
of  which  was  formed  in  1905.  A  Rotary  Club  is  a  group 
of  representative  men  (one  from  each  business  or  pro- 
fession in  a  community)  who  gather  together  to  further 
the  ideal  of  service  in  community  and  business  contacts. 
Membership:  5042  clubs:  209,940  members.  President: 
Armando  de  Arruda  Pereira  of  Brazil  Secretary:  Chesley 
R.  Perry  Headquarters:  Chicago,  111  ,  with  additional 
offices  in  Zurich,  London,  and  Bombay.  Rotary  Observance 
Week,  Feb.  18-24.  1940,  was  a  worldwide  celebration  of 
Rotary's  35th  anniversary.  More  than  300  "Institutes  of 
Understanding"  were  sponsored  by  Rotary  clubs  in  the 
U.S  A  ,  presenting  outstanding  speakers  on  vital  world 
problems  in  community  forums  and  in  high  schools  Rotary 
International  contributed  $50,000  for  war  relief  in  1940 
through  the  International  Red  Cross,  the  American  Red 
Cross,  the  Canadian  Red  Cross,  the  British  Red  Cross, 
and  the  Chinese  Red  Cross.  Rotary  clubs  throughout  the 
world  contributed  to  a  special  Rotary  International  fund 
which  provides  assistance  to  Rotanans  and  their  families 
in  the  war-torn  countries  of  the  world.  Rotary  Interna- 
tional assisted  in  the  evacuation  of  many  children  from 
Europe,  placing  them  in  the  homes  of  North  American 
Rotanans.  The  31st  annual  convention  of  Rotary  Interna- 
tional was  held  in  Havana,  Cuba,  June  9-14,  and  was  at- 
tended by  nearly  4000  Rotanans  and  their  families  from 
32  countries  of  the  world. 

Boyal  Geographical  Society,  listed  under  Geographical 
Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  founded  in  1799 
for  the  promotion,  diffusion,  and  extension  of  science  and 
useful  knowledge.  Membership  about  900  President-  The 
Right  Hon.  Lord  Eustace  Percy  Secretary  Maj.  Charles 
E.  S.  Phillips.  Headquarters:  21  Albemarle  Street,  Lon- 

Boysi  Society,  founded  in  1662  for  improving  natural 
knowledge  Membership:  450  and  an  additional  50  foreign 
members  President:  Sir  Henry  Dale  Secretaries:  Prof 
A.  V.  Hill  and  Prof.  A.  C.  G.  Egerton.  Headquarters: 
Burlington  House,  London,  W.  1.  Awards  were  made  dur- 
ing 1940  as  follows.  Copley  Medal  to  P  Langevm;  Rum- 
ford  Medal  to  K.  N.  G.  Sieghbahn;  Royal  Medals  to  P. 
M.  S.  Blackett  and  F.  H.  A.  Marshall;  Davy  Medal  to 
H.  C.  Urcy,  Darwin  Medal  to  J  P.  Hill,  Sylvester  Medal 
to  G  H.  Hardy,  and  Hughes  Medal  to  A  H.  Compton 
The  Bakerian  Lecture  was  delivered  by  Prof.  N  V.  Sidg- 
wick  on  June  24,  1940.  Plans  for  1941  were  unsettled 
owing  to  the  war,  except  for  an  Anniversary  Meeting 
scheduled  December  1.  See  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL 

Safety  Council,  National,  founded  in  1913  to  bring 
about  public  understanding  of  the  steps  necessary  to  pre- 
vent accidents  of  all  kinds.  Membership.  5216  President: 
Col.  John  Stilwell.  Managing  Director.  W.  H  Cameron. 
Headquarters'  20  N.  Wacker  Drive,  Chicago,  111.  Reports 
were  made  during  1940  by  six  special  accident-study  com- 
mittees on  Night  Traffic  Hazards,  Speed  Regulation,  Pe- 
destrian Control  and  Protection,  Tests  for  Intoxication, 
Winter  Driving  Hazards,  and  National  Traffic-Law  En 
forcement.  The  year's  accident-prevention  activities  cul 


their  full  support  of  the  defense  housing  program.  The 
League  published  the  10th  of  its  series  of  year  books. 
Savings  and  Loan  Annals  1939.  The  year  1940  represented 
the  first  billion-dollar  lending  year  for  the  Association 
since  1930. 

Scandinavian  Foundation,  American-,  listed  under 
American. 

Science,  American  and  British  Associations  for  the 
Advancement  of.  listed  under  Advancement. 

Sculpture  Society,  National,  founded  in  1893  to  ad- 
vance the  knowledge,  creation,  and  appreciation  of  good 
sculpture  by  annual  exhibitions  and  all  other  means  in  the 
Society's  power.  Membership:  280.  President:  Paul  Man- 
ship.  Secretary:  Mrs.  Margaret  French  Cresson.  Head- 
quarters: 115  East  40  Street,  New  York  City.  The  Medal 
of  Honor  was  awarded  in  1940  to  Herbert  Adams  in  rec- 
ognition of  his  distinguished  sculpture  and  devoted  services 
to  the  profession.  First  prize  for  design  of  the  Medal  of 
Honor  was  won  through  competition  by  Henry  Kreis.  In 
the  spring  a  Sculpture  Festival  Exhibition  was  held  at  the 
Whitney  Museum  of  Art,  New  York 

Securities  Dealers,  National  Association  of.  See  FI- 
NANCIAL REVIEW  under  Financial  Regulation 

Seeing  Bye,  The,  a  philanthropic  organization  founded 
in  1929  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  dogs  as  guides  to 
blind  persons.  Membership'  15,367  President-  Henry  A 
Colgate.  Treasurer:  Herman  J.  Cook.  Mrs.  Harrison 
Eustis,  founder,  is  the  Honorary  President  The  organiza- 
tion maintains  a  school  at  Morristown,  N.J.,  where  dogs 
are  trained,  separately  for  three  months  and  with  their 
blind  masters  for  a  period  of  one  month.  During  the  fiscal 
year  ending  Sept.  30,  1940,  144  Mind  men  and  women 
were  graduated  with  their  educated  dogs,  304  applicants 
were  investigated,  and  116  were  accepted  for  classes  during 
the  succeeding  year  Approximately  570  persons  now  use 
Seeing  Eye  dogs.  The  maximum  cost  to  the  blind  person 
is  $150  although  the  actual  cost  of  training  the  dog  is  many 
times  that  amount 

Shipbuilders,  National  Council  of  American,  founded 
in  1921  by  shipbuilders,  ship-repairers,  and  manufacturers 
of  marine  equipment  in  a  united  effort  to  promote  a  sound 
shipbuilding  industry  as  the  basis  of  the  American  mer- 
chant marine  and  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  navy  yards,  and 
to  improve  conditions  in  the  industry.  Membership  51 
President.  H.  Gerrish  Smith.  Secretary.  C.  C.  Kncrr. 
Headquarters:  21  West  Street,  New  York  City  The  an- 
nual meeting  will  be  held  in  April,  1941,  at  the  Whitehall 
Club.  New  York  City. 

Silver  Legion  of  America.  See  DIFS  COMMITTTE 
Social  Hygiene  Association,  American,  formed  in  1914 
to  inform  the  public  about  the  national  program  and  needed 
community  action,  to  combat  syphilis  and  gonorrhea,  to 
fight  prostitution  and  other  unwholesome  conditions,  to 
promote  sound  sex  education  and  training  for  marriage 
and  parenthood,  and  to  protect  and  improve  the  American 
family  as  the  basic  social  institution  Membership  147 
organizations,  approximately  10,000  individuals.  President- 
Dr.  Ray  Lyman  Wilbur.  Executive  Director:  Dr.  Walter 
Clarke.  Headquarters:  1790  Broadway,  New  York  City 
The  Association  undertakes  to  promote  an  eight-point  pro- 
gram in  48  States,  working  in  co-operation  with  other  in- 
terested agencies.  Services  include  advice  and  consultation, 
surveys,  distribution  of  literature,  films,  and  other  mate- 
rials During  1940  the  Fourth  National  Social  Hygiene 
Day  was  sponsored  with  more  than  5000  meetings  through- 
out the  country.  A  digest  of  laws  relating  to  the  control  of 
syphilis  and  gonorrhea  was  published,  and  a  new  sound 
film,  With  These  Weapons,  was  distributed.  The  William 
Freeman  Snow  medal  for  distinguished  service  in  the  so- 
cial hygiene  field  was  presented  to  Gen  John  J  Pershing. 
and  1  1  cash  awards  were  made  to  the  Junior  Chambers  of 
Commerce  conducting  the  most  successful  anti-syphilis 
projects.  Regional  conferences  were  scheduled  in  Phila- 
delphia, New  Orleans,  Los  Angeles,  St  Louis,  and  New 
York  on  Feb.  5,  1941. 

Social  Science,  Henry  George  School  of,  listed  under 
Henry  George. 

Social  Sciences,  National  Institute  of,  incorporated  in 
1899  to  reward  distinguished  services  rendered  to  human- 
ity, either  by  election  to  membership,  or  by  bestowal  of  its 
Honor  Medals,  or  other  insignia.  Membership  590.  Presi- 
dent: William  Edwin  Hall.  Secretary  Miss  Rosina  Hahn. 
Headquarters:  271  Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City.  At 


minated  in  the  29th  National  Safety  Congress  and  Expo-        the  annual  dinner,  May  7,  1940.  in  New  York  City,  gold 
sition  in  Chicago,  October  7-11.  The  Association's  service        medals  were  awarded  to  Wendell  L   Willkie,  Mrs.  Carrie 


,  . 

was  expanded  through  standard  magazines,  Safe  and 
Health  Practices  Pamphlets,  Safety  Posters,  and  thousands 
of  miscellaneous  publications.  Hundreds  of  awards  were 
made  in  all  kinds  of  safety  contests  —  traffic,  industrial,  and 
otherwise.  See  ACCIDENTS. 

Saving!  and  Loan  League,  United  States,  a  trade  or- 
ganization founded  in  1892  by  the  savings,  building,  and 
loan  associations  of  the  United  States,  whose  assets  total 
$6,500,000.000  and  whose  chief  business  is  the  lending  of 
money  to  finance  home  ownership.  Membership  3700  asso- 
ciations and  47  affiliated  State  leagues.  President:  Paul 
Endicott.  Secretary  H  F.  Cellarius.  Headquarters:  333 
N.  Michigan  Avenue,  Chicago.  111.  At  the  annual  conven- 
tion in  Chicago,  Nov.  11-15,  1940,  the  Associations  pledged 


,          . 

Chapman  Catt,  and  Dr.  James  E.  West,  Chief  of  the  Boy 
Scouts.  The  1941  annual  meeting  was  scheduled  in  New 
York  City,  February  4 

Social  Work,  National  Conference  of,  founded  in  1873 
to  facilitate  discussion  of  the  problems  and  methods  of 
practical  human  improvement,  to  increase  the  efficiency  of 
organizations  devoted  to  this  cause,  and  to  disseminate  in- 
formation. It  does  not  formulate  platforms.  Membership: 
6000.  President.  Jane  M.  Hoey.  General  Secretary:  How- 
ard R.  Knight.  Headquarters:  82  N.  High  Street,  Colum- 
bus, Ohio.The  1941  meeting  will  be  held  in  Atlantic  City. 

Social  Workers,  American  Association  of,  founded  in 
1921  to  formulate  and  establish  standards  of  personnel  and 
of  conditions  under  which  social  work  is  practiced*  to  dis- 


SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS      697     SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


seminate  information  concerning  the  profession,  and  to  con- 
duct  investigations  which  contribute  to  an  understanding 
of  social  welfare  needs.  Membership:  11,250.  President: 
Wayne  McMillen.  Executive  Secretary.  Walter  West. 
Headquarters:  130  East  22  Street,  New  York  City.  A 
survey  of  relief  conditions  in  the  United  States  was  pub- 
lished in  May,  1940.  The  1941  Delegate  Conference  will 
be  held  in  Atlantic  City  in  May. 

Sociological  Society,  The  American,  founded  in  1905 
to  encourage  sociological  research,  discussion,  teaching, 
and  publication.  Membership:  1031  President:  Robert  M. 
Maclver.  Secretary:  Harold  A.  Phelps  Headquarters. 
University  of  Pittsburgh,  Pittsburgh.  Pa.  During  1940  the 
Society  completed  a  study  of  members  and  instituted  a 
study  of  the  role  of  sociology  in  the  national  emergency. 
A  leaflet  on  Occupations  of  Sociologists  was  published. 
The  1941  meeting  will  be  held  in  Washington,  D.C.,  De- 
cember 29-31. 


ties,  and  government  departments,  and  some  2000  indus- 
trial concerns,  who  hold  membership  either  directly  or  by 
group  arrangement.  President.  R  E  Zimmerman.  Secre- 
tary P.  G.  Agnew  Headquarters:  29  West  39  Street, 
New  York  City  The  National  Defense  Program,  with  its 
need  for  co-ordination  of  defense-production  standards, 
highlighted  almost  all  standardization  work  in  the  mechani- 
cal field  in  1940,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  the  Associa- 
tion was  speeding  up  work  on  undertakings  most  urgently 
needed  for  defense — for  example,  work  on  screw  threads, 
on  bolts,  nuts,  and  wrench  openings,  on  machine  pins;  on 
wire  and  sheet  metal  gages;  on  fits  of  machine  parts;  and 
on  some  of  the  safety  codes  which  are  needed  to  protect 
the  inexperienced  labor  that  is  being  turned  into  defense 
production  During  the  year  73  standards  were  approved, 
including  one  on  Twist  Drills  and  the  American  Standard 
Rules  for  Rounding  Off  Numerical  Values,  which  sets 
forth  a  simple  and  effective  method  of  rounding  numbers, 
pointing  out  a  common  error  in  the  practice  followed  by 
most  schools  A  committee  representing  groups  interested 
in  photographic  supplies  and  equipment  completed  the  first 
standard  in  this  field — a  proposed  Method  for  Determining 
the  Photographic  Speed  of  Roll  Film,  Film  Packs,  and 
Miniature  Camera  Films,  which  was  being  published  for 
a  year's  trial.  The  National  Electrical  Code  was  completely 
revved,  and  a  new  edition  of  the  American  Standard 
Building  Exits  Code  provided  technical  data  on  exit  facili- 
ties in  public  buildings  Progress  was  made  on  the  stand- 
ardization of  sizes  tor  children's  clothing — a  project  in 
which  there  is  wide  public  interest  The  committee  in 
charge  completed  a  series  of  average  body  dimensions  for 
boys  in  the  age  range  from  kindergarten  to  junior  high 
school  Four  new  projects  in  the  field  of  safety  were  au- 
thorized during  the  year  Safety  Code  for  Quarry  Opera- 
tions. Performance  Requirements  for  Protective  Occupa- 
tional Footwear;  Safety  Standards  for  Household  Lad- 
ders; Safety  Standards  for  General  Industrial  Stairs  De- 
spite the  war  in  Europe,  the  American  Standards  Associa- 
tion kept  up  its  contacts  with  the  national  standardizing 
bodies  of  other  countries,  and  was  able  to  supply  American 
companies  filling  foreign  orders  with  information  and  ma- 
terial that  they  could  obtain  nowhere  else.  The  British 
Purchasing  Commission  continually  called  on  the  ASA  for 
standards  and  specifications.  See  PHOTOGRAPHY  under 
Physical  Measurements. 

SUte  Governments,  The  Council  of,  founded  in  1925 
by  the  States  to  encourage  co-operation  among  them,  to 
make  State  government  more  effective,  and  to  serve  as  a 
clearinghouse  of  information  for  public  officials  It  is  also 
the  secretariat  of  the  Governors'  Conference,  the  American 
Legislators'  Association,  the  National  Association  of  At- 
torneys General,  the  National  Association  of  Secretaries 
of  State,  and  the  National  Conference  of  Commissioners 
on  Uniterm  State  Laws.  (The  Council  was  appointed 
secretariat  for  the  last-named  Conference  on  Sept  9,  1940, 
at  its  annual  meeting  with  the  American  Bar  Association.) 
Membership:  44  States.  President.  Gov.  Harold  E.  Stas- 
sen  Executive  Director:  Frank  Bane.  Headquarters:  1313 
East  60  Street,  Chicago,  111.  The  Council  participated  in 
the  work  of  the  Board  of  Inquiry  into  Great  Lakes  Fisher- 
ies, set  up  Feb.  29,  1940,  and  co-operated  with  the  Divi- 
sion  of  State  and  Local  Co-operation  of  the  National  De- 
fense Advisory  Commission  after  its  formation.  A  Federal- 
State  Conference  on  Law  Enforcement  Problems  of  Na- 
tional Defense  was  held  in  co-operation  with  the  Depart- 
ment of  Justice  in  Washington,  August  5-6  The  Fifth 
General  Assembly  was  scheduled  to  meet  in  Washington, 
Jan.  21-24,  1941. 

Statistical  Association,  American,  founded  in  1839  as 
a  scientific  and  educational  organization  of  persons  seri- 
ously interested  in  the  application  of  statistical  methods  to 
practical  problems,  the  development  of  more  useful  meth- 
ods, and  the  improvement  of  basic  statistical  data.  Mem- 
bership- 2750.  President:  Prof.  Wmfield  W.  Riefler  Sec- 
retary R  L.  Funkhouser.  Headquarters:  1626  K  Street, 
N.W.,  Washington.  D.C 

Student  Federation  of  America,  National,  founded  in 
1925  to  achieve  a  spirit  of  co-operation  among  U.S.  stu- 


dents, to  develop  and  vigorously  express  an  intelligent  stu- 
dent opinion  on  questions  of  national  and  international 
importance,  to  further  an  enduring  peace,  and  to  create 
and  endeavor  to  execute  a  program  for  the  youth  of  Ameri- 
ca on  vital  problems.  The  Federation  acts  independently  of 
any  political  party  or  religious  sect.  Membership  student 
councils  of  about  125  colleges  and  universities  President: 
John  Darnell.  Headquarters:  1410  H  Street,  N  W.,  Wash- 
ington, D  C.  The  17th  annual  congress  will  be  held  Dec. 
27-31.  1941. 

,  Student  Service,  International,  founded  in  1920  to  pro- 
vide the  student  with  opportunity  for  action  without  losing 
sight  of  his  responsibility  for  objective  and  thorough  study. 
It  is  not  a  membership  organization  Chairman  of  the  Ex- 
ecutive Committee:  Alvm  Johnson.  General  Secretary:  Jo- 
seph P.  Lash.  Headquarters.  8  West  40  Street.  New  York 
City.  In  addition  to  its  traditional  work  of  aiding  student 
refugees,  the  I  S  S.  was  expanded  in  1940  to  include  con- 
ferences on  problems  of  democracy,  voluntary  work  camps, 
and  publication  activities.  Meetings  scheduled  for  1941  in- 
cluded a  conference  on  "War  Aims"  at  Smith  College, 
March  4,  a  conference  on  "The  Student  and  National  De- 
fense at  Yale  in  April,  and  annual  conferences  in  Sep- 
tember and  December 

Student  Union,  American,  founded  in  1935  to  defend 
democratic  education,  keep  America  out  of  war,  and  pre- 
serve American  democratic  traditions.  Membership  20,000. 
President:  Richard  Bancroft.  Executive  Secretary  Her- 
bert Witt.  Headquarters:  381  Fourth  Avenue,  New  York 
City.  Events  of  1940  included  a  Peace  Strike  in  April,  a 
Summer  Institute,  a  Fall  Planning  Conference,  and  the 
Sixth  National  Convention.  The  Seventh  National  Conven- 
tion will  be  held  Christmas  week,  1941 

Sunday-School  Union,  American,  founded  m  1824  to 
establish  and  maintain  Sunday  schools  and  to  publish  and 
circulate  moral  and  religious  publications  Thirty-six  lay- 
men constitute  the  Board  of  Managers  President:  Dr.  E. 
Clarence  Miller.  Secretary-  John  H.  Talley  Headquarters 


Surgeons,  American  College  of,  founded  by  the  sur- 
geons of  the  United  States  and  Canada  in  1913  to  advance 
the  science  and  the  ethical  and  competent  practice  of  sur- 
gery, to  establish  hospital  standards,  to  engage  in  research, 
to  aid  in  better  instruction  of  doctors,  to  formulate  stand- 
ards of  medicine,  and  to  improve  all  adverse  conditions 
surrounding  the  ill  and  injured  wherever  found  President. 
Evarts  A.  Graham.  Secretary:  Frederic  A.  Besley  Head- 
quarters: 40  East  Erie  Street,  Chicago,  111.  Three  sectional 
meetings  were  held  in  1940  in  addition  to  the  annual  meet- 
ing and  clinical  congress  at  Chicago,  October  21-25  Work 
was  carried  on  by  the  following  departments  Hospital 
Standardization,  Clinical  Research,  Library  and  Depart- 
ment of  Literary  Research,  Medical  Motion  Pictures,  and 
Graduate  Training  for  Surgery.  The  award  for  Prize 
Winning  Case  Histories  was  granted  to  Dr.  Martin  Batts, 
Jr  ,  of  Ann  Arbor. 

Swedish  Historical  Foundation,  American,  established 
in  1926  to  promote  good  citizenship  and  patriotic  purposes 
among  citizens  of  Swedish  origin  Membership  5000 
President:  Dr.  Julius  Lincoln  Corresponding  Secretary: 
Dr.  Amandus  Johnson.  Headquarters  American  Swedish 
Historical  Museum,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Lecturers  in  1940 
included  Willem  van  Loon,  Pearl  Buck,  and  Luise  Olsen. 
The  Lucia  Festival  was  presented,  depicting  Christmas  life 
in  Sweden.  The  1941  meeting  will  be  held  in  Philadelphia 
in  June. 

Temperance  Groups.  See  under  Alcoholism,  Anti-Sa- 
loon League,  Woman  s  Christian  Temperance  Union. 

Testing  Materials,  American  Society  for,  a  technical 
society  founded  in  1898  to  promote  knowledge  of  the  ma- 
terials of  engineering  and  to  standardize  specifications  and 
the  methods  of  testing  Membership:  4400.  President* 
W.  M.  Barr.  Secretary-Treasurer:  C.  L.  Warwick.  Head- 
quarters: 260  S.  Broad  Street,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  During 
1940  the  14th  award  of  the  Charles  B.  Dudley  Medal  and 
the  first  Sanford  E  Thompson  Award  were  made  to  T.  F. 
Wilhs  and  M.  E.  De  Reus  for  their  paper  on  "Thermal 
Volume  Change  and  Elasticity  of  Aggregates  and  Their 
Effect  on  Concrete  "  In  1941  the  Spring  Meeting  and  Com- 
mittee Week  will  be  held  at  Washington.  D  C  ,  March 
3-7,  and  the  Annual  Meeting  and  Sixth  Exhibit  at  Chi- 
cago, June  23-27. 

Trucking  Associations,  Inc.,  American,  a  national  as- 
sociation for  the  motor  freight  industry,  organized  in  1933. 
Membership:  51  associations.  President:  Ted  V  Rodgers. 
General  Manager-  J.  V.  Lawrence.  Headquarters  1013 — 
16th  Street,  N  W.,  Washington,  D.C.  During  1940  a  na- 
tional advertising  campaign  was  launched  m  national  week- 
ly magazines.  Numerous  prizes  and  awards  were  granted 
for  fleet  safety  work  and  driver  skill 

Tuberculosis  Association,  National,  founded  in  1904 
for  the  study  and  prevention  of  tuberculosis  Membership: 
over  1600.  President:  Dr.  P.  P.  McCain.  Secretary:  Dr. 
Charles  J.  Hatfield  Headquarters:  1790  Broadway,  New 
York  City.  In  1940  the  Trudeau  Medal  was  awarded  to 


SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS      696     SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 


Dr.  William  Charles  White.  The  1941  Annual  meeting  was 
scheduled  to  be  held  in  San  Antonio,  May  5-8. 

Unlveralty  Professors,  American  Association  of,  a 
professional  organization  of  college  and  university  teachers 
and  investigators,  founded  in  1915  to  facilitate  more  ef- 
fective co-operation  among  its  members,  to  promote  the 
interests  of  higher  education  and  research,  and  to  increase 
the  usefulness  and  advance  the  standards  and  ideals  of  the 
profession.  The  nature  of  its  work  is  indicated  by  the  titles 
of  the  committees,  which  include  Academic  Freedom  and 
Tenure.  Freedom  of  Speech,  International  Relations,  Edu- 
cational Standards,  Author-Publisher  Contracts,  Profes- 
sional Ethics,  Relation  of  Junior  College*  to  Higher  Edu- 
cation, Co-operation  with  Latin-American  Universities. 
Pensions  and  Insurance,  Preparation  and  Qualification  of 
Teachers,  Encouragement  of  University  Research,  Library 
Service,  and  the  Economic  Welfare  of  the  Profession. 
Membership:  about  16,000.  President:  Frederick  S.  Deibler. 
General  Secretary:  Ralph  E.  Himstead.  Headquarters:  744 
Jackson  Place,  N.W.,  Washington.  D.C.  An  annual  meet- 
ing is  held,  usually  in  the  last  week  of  December. 

university  Woman,  American  Association  of,  founded 
in  1882  for  practical  work  in  education,  especially  the 
raising  of  standards  in  higher  education  for  women  Mem- 
bership: over  68,000.  President:  Margaret  S.  Momss. 
General  Director:  Kathryn  McHale.  Headquarters:  1634 
I  Street,  N.W.,  Washington,  D.C.  The  number  of  local 
branches  increased  by  28  to  a  total  of  891  on  June  1,  1940. 
During  the  year  the  Association  developed  a  program  for 
local  branches,  relating  their  efforts  to  defense  needs,  and 
launched  a  movement  for  registration  of  members  to  secure 
information  useful  in  connection  with  national  defense.  A 
nation-wide  program  of  study  and  community  activities 
was  carried  on  by  local  groups,  particularly  on  schools,  the 
child  and  the  family,  international  relations,  the  consumer, 
social  welfare,  other  social  and  economic  topics,  and  the 
arts.  Eighteen  new  study  guides  were  published  in  these 
fields  in  addition  to  the  40  previously  issued.  Approximate- 
ly $48,000  was  added  to  the  fellowship  endowment  fund, 
which  now  totals  over  $574,500,  and  13  research  fellow- 
ships were  awarded.  Homes  were  offered  for  4000  refugee 
children,  and  $17,907  was  contributed  to  aid  women  war 
refugees.  A  Code  of  Ethics  for  Volunteers  was  issued.  The 
National  Biennial  Convention  will  be  held  in  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  May  5-10,  1941. 

Veterans  of  Foreign  Wars  of  the  United  States,  found- 
ed in  1899  to  perpetuate  the  comradeship  formed  among 
men  who  have  borne  arms  in  America's  wars  and  cam- 
paigns on  foreign  soil  or  in  hostile  waters,  and  to  con- 
tinue their  patriotic  service  in  behalf  of  the  nation  as  a 
whole,  of  children,  and  particularly  of  disabled  veterans 
and  the  widows  and  orphans  of  veterans  Membership' 
about  250.000  Commander-in-Chicf  •  Dr.  Joseph  C  Me- 
nendez.  Headquarters:  Broadway  at  34th  Street,  Kansas 
City,  Mo.  During  1940  the  V  F  W.  promoted  the  display 
of  approximately  12,000  24-sheet  billboard  posters  on  sign- 
boards in  every  State  proclaiming  "Foreign  'isms'  can't 
divide  Americans — United  we  stand!— One  Nation  indi- 
visible with  liberty  and  justice  for  all,"  as  a  part  of  the 
V  F  W  *s  nationwide  educational  campaign  on  American- 
ism. Ftfth  Column  Facts,  a  detailed  expose"  of  Commu- 
nist, Nazi,  and  Fascist  methods  and  organizations  in  the 
United  States,  was  pnnted  and  more  than  200,000  copies 
were  placed  within  the  first  few  weeks  through  the  offices 
of  more  than  3500  local  V.F.W.  posts  and  2000  V.F  W. 
Auxiliary  units.  Also  included  in  the  Americanism  educa- 
tional campaign  were  more  than  600  full-page  Memorial 
Day  and  Armistice  Day  newspaper  editorials  calling  for  a 
re-dedication  of  the  spirit  of  Americanism  and  adherence 
to  our  national  ideals  and  principles  V  F  W.  legislative 
achievements  in  1940  included  enactment  of  the  Philippine 
Travel  Pay  Bill  providing  for  the  payment  of  travel  pay 
and  allowances  to  a  group  of  Philippine  Insurrection  vet- 
erans for  services  rendered  in  1900-02  Another  increased 
the  pensions  of  approximately  30,000  World  War  widows 
whose  veteran  husbands  died  of  service-connected  disabili- 
ties, from  approximately  $30  to  approximately  $40  a  month 
each.  Another  liberalization  of  veterans  laws,  obtained  with 
the  support  of  the  V.F.W.,  was  embodied  in  a  Veterans' 
Administration  ruling  providing  that  total  disability  ratings 
may  henceforth  be  applied  to  many  cases  not  previously 
allowable 

Gold  V.F  W  Citizenship  Medals  were  awarded  in  1940 
to  J.  Edgar  Hoover,  Director  of  the  Federal  Bureau  of 
Investigation,  for  his  leadership  in  the  exposure  of  Fifth 
Column  sabotage  of  American  ideals  and  institutions,  and 
to  Harry  M  Warner,  president  of  Warner  Brothers  Pic- 
tures. Robert  Stotler,  the  year's  outstanding  Boy  Scout, 
received  the  annual  scholarship  award  and  gold  medal. 
About  100,000  students  participated  in  the  fifth  annual 
national  high  school  essay  contest.  The  41st  annual  na- 
tional encampment  was  held,  Aug.  25-30,  1940,  at  Los 

Veterinary  Medical  Association,  American,  founded  in 
1863  to  promote  veterinary  science  and  its  proper  applica- 
tion. Membership-  6200.  President:  H.  W  Jakeman  Sec- 
retary L.  A.  Merillat.  Headquarters:  600  South  Michigan 
Ave.,  Chicago,  111  The  International  Veterinary  Congress 
prize  for  outstanding  research  was  awarded  in  1940  to  Dr. 


I.  Forest  Huddleson  of  Michigan  State  College.  The  1940 
meeting,  held  in  Washington,  IXC.,  was  the  largest  in  the 
association's  history.  The  1941  meeting  is  scheduled  Aug. 
11-15  at  Indianapolis,  Ind.  See  VETUUWAKY  MEDICINE. 

Vocational  Association,  Inc.,  American,  founded  in 
1925  with  the  conviction  that  occupational  education  is  a 
primary  right  and  privilege  of  every  citizen  and  that  the 
public  school  must  extend  its  services  to  include  guidance, 
training  for  vocational  competence,  occupational  placement, 
and  the  adjustment,  training,  and  retraining  of  adults. 
Membership:  24,000.  President:  L.  R.  Humpherys.  Execu- 
tive Secretary.  L.  H.  Dennis.  Headquarters:  1010  Ver- 
mont Avenue,  N  W.,  Washington,  D.C.  During  1940  the 
Association  gave  organized  assistance  to  (the  effective  de- 
velopment of  vocational  training  for  national  defense  in- 
dustries Over  a  quarter  of  a  million  persons  were  trained 
for  occupations  in  defense  industries  in  the  last  six  months 
of  the  year  and  thousands  were  in  training  at  the  year's 
end  The  annual  convention  will  be  held  in  Boston.  Mass , 
m  December.  1941. 

Vocational  Guidance  Association,  Inc.,  National, 
founded  in  1913  to  unite  persons  engaged  or  interested  in 
any  phase  of  vocational  guidance.  Membership:  3100.  Pres- 
ident. Mary  P.  Corre.  Executive  Secretary:  Ralph  B. 
Kenney  Headquarters:  425  West  123  Street,  New  York 
City.  In  November,  1940,  a  Conference  on  Defense  and 
Vocational  Guidance  was  held  jointly  with  the  Occupa- 
tional Information  and  Guidance  Service  of  the  U.S.  Of- 
fice of  Education  in  Washington  The  1941  national  con- 
vention was  scheduled  at  Atlantic  City,  February  19-22. 

Weights  and  Measures,  American  Institute  of,  found- 
ed in  1916  to  defend  the  English  system  of  weights  and 
measures  against  pro-metric  propaganda  Membership*  85 
corporations.  President*  W  K.  Ingalls.  Secretary:  Robert 
F.  Cogswell.  Headquarters:  33  Rector  Street,  New  York, 

Wildlife  Institute,  American,  an  educational  and  scien- 
tific organization  for  the  restoration  of  North  American 
wildlife,  founded  in  1935.  President:  Frederic  C.  Walcott 
Secretary  T.  Paul  Miller.  Headquarters:  822  Investment 
Building,  Washington,  D  C.  The  Institute  maintains  ten 
co-operative  game  management  and  wildlife  research  units 
in  different  States  Activities  during  1940  included  water- 
fowl investigations  at  Delta,  Man.,  Canada,  bass  stream 
improvement  in  Indiana,  initiation  of  a  study  of  the  At- 
lantic salmon  on  the  Dennys  River,  Maine,  and  publica- 
tion of  the  results  of  study  on  fish  predators.  The  Sixth 
North  American  Wildlife  Conference  was  scheduled  Feb. 
17-19,  1941,  at  Memphis,  Tenn 

Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  National, 
founded  in  1874  to  unite  the  Christian  women  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  for  the  education  of  public  sentiment  to  total 
abstinence  from  the  use  of  all  alcoholic  liquors,  and  to 
tram  the  young  in  habits  of  sobriety.  Membership*  about 
500,000  President.  Mrs  Ida  B.  Wise  Smith  Secretary: 
Mrs.  Anna  Marden  DcYo  Headquarters:  1730  Chicago 
Avenue,  Evanston,  111.  An  outstanding  project  of  the  year 
was  the  holding  of  25  Regional  Conferences,  by  which 
every  State  in  the  Union  was  covered.  The  object  was 
"training  for  service  "  Each  local  union  in  the  United 
States  (of  which  there  are  almost  10,000)  was  asked  to 
make  a  survey  of  the  social  welfare  conditions  existing  in 
the  community  and  fill  out  a  questionnaire  showing  the 
results.  The  facts  revealed  were  used  to  show  the  condi- 
tions brought  about  by  the  entrenchment  of  saloons  in  the 
economic,  political,  and  social  life  of  the  community. 

An  annual  convention  will  be  held  in  Grand  Rapids, 
Mich.,  Aug.  28  to  Sept.  3,  1941 

Women  of  the  U.S.,  Inc.,  National  Council  of,  founded 
in  1888  as  a  confederation  of  workers  committed  to  the 
overthrow  of  all  forms  of  ignorance  and  injustice,  and  to 
the  application  of  the  Golden  Rule  to  society,  custom,  and 
law.  Membership:  17  affiliated  organizations;  5,000,000  in- 
dividuals. President:  Mrs  Harold  V  Milhgan  Executive 
Secretary:  Mrs.  Charlotte  Payne  Headquarters:  501  Madi- 
son Avenue,  New  York  City.  During  1940  the  Council 
presented  a  series  of  radio  broadcasts  over  the  NBC  Blue 
Network,  entitled  "Peggy  Wood's  Quilting  Bee";  organ- 
ized a  Women's  Emergency  Council  to  consider  the  role 
of  women  in  national  defense  and  developed  a  program 
entitled  "What  Women  Can  Do  to  Preserve  Democracy"; 
celebrated  September  16  as  National  Council  of  Women 
Day  at  the  New  York  World's  Fair,  with  the  theme  "The 
Efficiency  of  Democracy";  participated  in  the  Women's 
Centennial  Congress,  December  17-19;  and  presented  ra- 
dio book  reviews  over  70  stations  (to  continue  through 
1941).  A  list  of  the  ten  best  books  on  the  crisis  in  de- 
mocracy was  selected  and  made  public.  The  Council  was 
chosen  as  the  sponsoring  organization  of  the  talks  heard 
during  intermission  throughout  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
Saturday  afternoon  broadcasts  during  the  1940-41  season. 
An  illuminated  parchment  was  presented  to  Princess  Juli- 
ana of  the  Netherlands,  pledging  the  devotion  of  the 
Council's  efforts  to  the  cause  of  democracy. 

Women  Painters  and  Sculptors,  National  Association 
of,  founded  m  1889  to  exhibit  and  displav  works  of  art  by 
contemporary  artists.  Membership:  800.  President:  Bianca 
Todd.  Executive  Secretary:  Josephine  Droege.  Headquar- 
ters: the  Argent  Galleries,  which  the  Association  main- 


SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS     699      SOIL  CONSERVATION  SERVICE 


tains,  42  West  57  Street,  New  York  City.  The  Auodation 
sponsors  an  Annual  Exhibition,  at  which  a  number  of 
prizes  are  awarded,  general  exhibitions,  rotary  shows,  a 
sketch  class,  lectures,  etc.  The  annual  open  meeting  is  held 
at  the  headquarters  the  second  Wednesday  in  April. 

Women's  Clubs,  General  Federation  of,  founded  in 
1890  to  bring  into  communication  with  one  another  the 
various  women's  clubs  throughout  the  world.  President: 
Mrs.  Saidic  Orr  Dunbar  Headquarters:  1734  N  Street, 
N.W.,  Washington,  D.C.  The  Golden  Anniversary  of  the 
Federation  was  celebrated  in  1940.  Study  programs  of  the 
year  were  devoted  to  an  Imaginary  Tour  of  Latin  America, 
used  by  2126  clubs.  The  Purposes  of  Education  in  Ameri- 
can Democracy,  and  Spiritual  Values  in  Family  Life  An 
actual  Good  Neighbor  Tour  to  South  America  was  made 
by  22  club  women  in  the  summer.  The  Federation  devel- 
oped a  tentative  platform  for  consumer  business  relations 
and  co-operated  with  other  groups  in  a  consumer  informa- 
tion program.  Other  events  included  participation  in  the 
White  House  Conference  on  Children  in  a  Democracy, 
observance  of  Citizenship  Days,  essay,  art,  and  other  con- 
tests, youth  improvement  programs,  and  public  safety  pro- 
grams A  triennial  convention  will  be  held  at  Atlantic 
City,  May  19-24,  1941 

women  Voters,  National  League  of,  established  in 
1920  to  promote  political  education  through  active  partici- 
pation of  citizens  in  government  Membership*  31  affiliated 
State  Leagues  and  556  local  Leagues.  President  Miss 
Marguerite  M  Wells.  Secretary  Mrs.  Paul  Ehel.  Head- 
quarters :  726  Jackson  Place,  Washington,  D  C.  A  biennial 
convention  was  held  in  New  York  City  in  April,  1940.  The 
1941  meeting  of  the  General  Council  will  be  held  in  Wash- 
ingtpn,  D.C  ,  May  6-8 

world  Alliance  for  International  Friendship  through 
the  Churches,  founded  in  1914  to  promote  international 
goodwill  and  peace  Membership-  about  1000  President. 
Ut  Rev  G  Ashton  Aldham  General  Secretary-  Henry 
A  Atkinson.  Headquarters.  70  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 
City  The  organization  published  in  1940  a  monthly  News 

I  ctter,  four  News  Letter  Supplements,  Buildtng  a  Peace 
Committee  in  the  Church,  and  Worship  Services  for  Peace 
and  Brotherhood 

World  Peace  Foundation,  established  in  1910  to  promote 
international  order  and  peace  through  publications,  study 
groups,  and  a  reference  service  It  has  no  membership 
other  than  the  15  Trustees  President.  George  H.  Blakes- 
lee  Director-  S  Shepard  Jones  Headquarters'  40  Mt. 
Vernon  Street,  Boston,  Mass  The  Foundation  inaugurated 
a  new  pamphlet  series  in  1940,  America  Looks  Ahead,  and 
published  Document*  on  American  Foreign  Relations,  Vol. 

II  Various  round  table  discussions  were  held  on  American 
foreign  policy 

Young  Men's  Christian  Associations,  The  National 
Council  of,  formed  as  a  national  committee  in  1866  The 
first  local  organization  was  formed  in  London  in  1844  (in 
the  United  States  m  1851)  for  the  physical,  mental,  social, 
moral,  and  religious  education  of  youth  Membership: 
1,316,573.  President:  Ralph  W  Harbison.  General  Secre- 
tary Eugene  E  Barnett  Headquarters.  347  Madison 
Avenue,  New  York  City  Significant  events  of  1940  in- 
cluded the  Annual  National  Council  legislative  meeting; 
the  third  National  Hi-Y  Congress  of  1000  delegates  from 
high  school  YMCA  clubs,  the  National  Young  Men's  As- 
sembly presenting  local  young  men's  councils  conferring 
nationally  about  jobs,  war,  government,  education,  mar- 
riage, and  snare  time,  the  23d  Silver  Bay  Industrial  Con- 
ference on  industrial  relations  followed  by  15  field  con- 
ferences; a  special  project  m  Citizenship  and  Public  Af- 
fairs education  among  young  people,  adaptation  of  the 
normal  service  in  military  establishments  to  enlarged  mili- 
tary and  defense  units  and  especially  Selected  Service 
Trainees;  ^also  participation  through  the  World's  Alliance 
of  YMCA's  in  service  to  war  prisoners  on  reciprocal  per- 
mission in  belligerent  countries  abroad,  also  national  cele- 
bration of  the  96th  anniversary  of  YMCA  founding  by  a 
Youth  Service  Project  competition  with  awards  presented 
by  Mayor  LaGuardia  for  the  judges  at  the  New  York 
World's  Fair 

Young  Women's  Christian  Associations  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  established  m  1906  to  advance  the 
physical,  social,  intellectual,  and  spiritual  interests  of 
young  women.  Membership,  about  500,000  President. 
Airs.  Henry  A  Ingraham  General  Secretary  Miss  Emma 
P.  Hirth.  Headquarters:  600  Lexington  Avenue,  New  York 
City.  In  April,  1940,  the  16th  national  triennial  convention 
of  the  Y.W.CA.'s  of  the  U  S.A.  was  held  in  Atlantic 
City,  N.J.,  bringing  together  2200  delegates  from  44  States, 
the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  10  foreign  countries  By  unani- 
mous vote  of  this  body,  major  emphasis  in  program  during 
the  coming  trienmum  will  continue  to  be  on  Religion, 
Democracy,  and  Building  a  World  Community  An  out- 
standing event  of  the  convention  was  the  observance  of 
the  85th  anniversary  of  the  founding  of  the  Y.W.C  A.  in 
England,  at  which  time  a  short  radio  talk  by  Queen  Eliza- 
beth of  England  was  heard.  During  1940  the  Association 
in  the  United  States  continued  financial  assistance  to  the 
Y.W.C.A.  in  China,  and  also  established  a  special  fund 
for  the  purpose  of  helping  Y  W.C.A.'s  in  Europe  meet  the 
heavy  emergency  demands  created  by  the  war.  A  temporary 


office  of  the  World's  Council  of  the  Y.W.CA.,  headquar- 
ten  in  Geneva,  Switz.,  was  opened  in  Washington,  D.C.. 
in  the  autumn  in  order  that  communication  with  Associa- 
tions throughout  the  world  might  be  facilitated.  In  1940 
approximately  3.000,000  women  and  girls  shared  in  the 
programs  carried  on  by  the  1400  local  centers  in  the  United 
States. 

Youth  Commission,  American,  formed  in  1935  to  in- 
vestigate the  problems  of  and  develop  a  comprehensive 
program  for  the  care  and  education  of  youth.  Membership : 
16.  Chairman-  Owen  D.  Young.  Director:  Floyd  W. 
Reeves.  Headquarters:  744  Jackson  Place,  Washington, 
D  C.  During  1940  the  Commission  conducted  (in  co-opera- 
tion with  the  American  Institute  of  Public  Opinion)  a  poll 
of  public  opinion  on  youth  and  education.  Recommenda- 
tions were  made  for  public  and  private  action  in  the  fields 
of  occupational  adjustment  of  youth,  community  responsi- 
bility for  youth,  youth  organizations,  and  youth  and  de- 
fense. Publications  of  the  year  were  in  the  field  of  Neg/o 
and  rural  youth,  occupational  adjustment,  community 
responsibility  for  youth,  and  the  high  school  curriculum. 
Forthcoming  publications  are  planned  in  the  fields  of  rec- 
reation, family  living,  and  work  camps.  See  EDUCATION; 
YOUTH  MOVEMENT. 

Youth  Congress,  American,  established  in  1934  to  serve 
as  a  co-operating  center  and  a  clearinghouse  for  all  youth 
and  youth-serving  organisations  Membership  organiza- 
tions estimated  to  reach  4,500,000  young  people.  Chairman: 
Jack  Me  Michael.  Executive  Secretary  Joseph  Cadden. 
Headquarters.  230  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City;  Wash- 
ington Bureau,  907-1 5th  Street,  N  W  ,  Washington,  D.C. 
The  Sixth  Annual  American  Youth  Congress  was  held  at 
Lake  Geneva.  Wis.,  July  3-7,  1940  A  National  Youth 
Citizenship  Institute  was  conducted  in  Washington,  D.C., 
February  10-12  See  YOUTH  MOVEMENT 

Youth,  National  Foundation  for  American.  See  YOUTH 
MOVEMENT 

Youth  Needs,  Campaign  for.  See  YOUTH  MOVEMENT. 

Zionist  Organisation  of  America,  founded  in  1897  to 
enlist  public  support  for  the  upbuilding  of  a  Jewish  na- 
tional homeland  in  Palestine  and  to  foster  a  program  of 
Jewish  renaissance  Membership  50,000.  President.  Ed- 
mund I.  Kaufman  Executive  Director*  Rabbi  Isadore 
Breslau.  Headquarters:  1720- 16th  Street,  N.W.,  Wash- 
ington, D  C  The  destruction  of  European  Jewish  com- 
munities thrust  upon  the  American  Zionist  Organization 
the  sole  responsibility  for  continuing  the  upbuilding  of 
the  Holyland.  During  1940  headquarters  were  moved  from 
New  York  City  to  Washington  and  a  campaign  for  150,- 
000  members  was  launched.  The  44th  annual  convention 
will  be  held  in  July,  1941 

Zionist  Organisation  of  America,  Women's,  listed  un- 
der Hadassah. 

Zonta  International,  a  classified  service  club  for  wom- 
en executives,  organized  in  1919  to  encourage  high  ethical 
standards  in  business  and  to  improve  the  legal,  profes- 
sional, economic,  and  political  status  of  women.  Member- 
ship about  4500  President:  Mrs.  May  Moyers  McElroy. 
Executive  Secretary:  Miss  Harriet  C.  Richards  Head- 
quarters: 59  E.  Van  Buren  Street,  Chicago,  111  A  new 
district  was  organized  in  1940 — District  5,  comprising  the 
States  of  Texas,  Oklahoma,  Arkansas,  and  Louisiana.  The 
20th  Annual  Convention  was  held  at  Estes  Park,  Colo ,  in 
June,  and  Zonta  Week  was  observed  November  3-8  The 
Amelia  Earhart  Scholarship  for  post-graduate  study  in 
aeronautical  engineering  was  awarded  to  Miss  Rose  E. 
Lunn,  a  student  at  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 
The  1941  convention  will  be  held  at  Memphis,  Tenn.,  June 
18-21. 

SOCIOLOGY.  See  LITERATURE,  ENGLISH  AND 
AMERICAN  under  Sociology. 

SOCOTRA.  See  ARABIA  under  Aden  Protec- 
torate. 

SOIL  CONSERVATION  SERVICE.  The 
Soil  Conservation  Service  is  helping  farmers  and 
public  agencies  to  attack  a  wide  variety  of  physical 
land  problems,  with  a  view  to  advancing  social  and 
economic  conditions  through  control  of  erosion, 
conservation  of  rainfall,  and  desirable  adjustments 
in  the  use  of  agricultural  land. 

An  increasing  amount  of  the  Service's  work  in 
1940  has  been,  and  will  continue  to  be,  concen- 
trated in  local  soil  conservation  districts.  These 
local  subdivisions  of  the  States,  organized  by  farm- 
ers under  State  law,  have  now  been  established  in 
38  States.  Upon  request,  the  Service  goes  into  a 
district  and  plays  an  active  part  in  its  operations 
program  on  the  land.  It  helps  make  preliminary 
surveys  and  assigns  a  technical  staff  to  aid  the 
farmers  in  developing  and  carrying  out  soil  con- 


SOIL  CONSERVATION  SERVICE      700 


SOMALILAND 


serration  plans.  In  addition,  the  Service  may  make 
equipment  available,  provide  seed  and  seedlings  for 
erosion  control  plantings,  and  furnish  CCC  labor 
to  assist  in  getting  conservation  work  started.  On 
Nov.  1,  1939,  the  Service  was  extending  active 
assistance  to  148  districts  covering  approximately 
83,000,000  acres;  twelve  months  later,  field  tech- 
nicians were  stationed  in  274  districts,  comprising 
165,000,000  acres.  In  these  districts,  more  than  29,- 
000  farm  conservation  plans  were  made  during 
1940,  and  field  work  was  started  on  approximately 
6,000,000  acres. 

Closely  related  to  the  work  in  co-operation  with 
soil  conservation  districts  is  the  operation  of  ero- 
sion control  demonstration  projects.  While  the 
number  of  demonstration  projects  and  number  of 
CCC  camps  working  on  private  lands  remained 
unchanged,  conservation  operations  were  initiated 
on  6000  additional  farms  comprising  about  1,500,- 
000  acres  in  project  and  camp  areas. 

At  the  close  of  the  year,  erosion  control  work 
under  the  Service's  guidance  in  projects,  camps, 
districts,  and  other  areas  was  either  completed  or 
under  way  on  nearly  120,000  farms,  covering  more 
than  30,000,000  acres  and  located  in  every  State, 
Hawaii,  and  Puerto  Rico. 

In  its  work  of  relieving  social  and  economic 
maladjustments  in  rural  areas  by  purchasing  land 
unsuited  to  cultivation  and  developing  it  for  some 
better  adapted  use,  such  as  forestry,  grazing,  or 
wildlife,  the  Service  this  year  purchased  approxi- 
mately 1,500,000  acres  of  land.  Development  opera- 
tions were  completed  on  approximately  3,000,000 
acres.  A  total  of  approximately  11,000,000  acres 
have  been  purchased  under  this  program. 

The  development  of  small  water  facilities,  au- 
thorized by  the  Pope- Jones  Act  of  1937  for  the  17 
arid  and  semi-arid  western  States,  progressed  no- 
tably this  year.  With  the  Soil  Conservation  Serv- 
ice giving  technical  guidance,  and  the  Farm  Se- 
curity Administration  furnishing  financial  help, 
facilities  such  as  wells,  windmills,  stock  ponds,  and 
water-spreading  systems  were  constructed  or  re- 
paired on  more  than  1600  farms  and  ranches.  By 
the  end  of  the  year  assistance  under  the  water  fa- 
cilities program  had  been  extended  to  some  3800 
families,  representing  approximately  2,000,000  acres 
of  land. 

Flood  control  work  on  the  land,  involving  treat- 
ment for  erosion  control  and  waterflow  retarda- 
tion, began  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year  on  the 
watershed  of  the  Los  Angeles  River  in  southern 
California.  The  Service  is  collaborating  in  this 
work  with  the  Forest  Service  and  the  Bureau  of 
Agricultural  Economics.  The  three  agencies  have 
now  completed  preliminary  examinations  of  141 
major  watersheds,  and  detailed  surveys  are  com- 
pleted or  under  way  in  41  of  these  to  provide  a 
basis  for  actual  operations. 

The  year  brought  a  great  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  farm  forestry  projects  established  in  pre- 
dominantly agricultural  areas.  In  these  projects, 
the  Service  helps  farmers  build  up  their  woodlands, 
both  for  income  production  and  erosion  control. 
At  the  same  time,  farmers  are  assisted  in  the  de- 
velopment of  conservation  plans  for  crop  lands  and 
pastures.  During  the  year  32  projects  were  started. 
So  far,  35  farm  forestry  projects  have  been  estab- 
lished in  31  States. 

Under  the  supervision  of  the  Service,  39  CCC 
camps  are  engaged  in  farm  drainage  work  in  11 
States.  The  enrolees  work  in  public  drainage  dis- 
tricts clearing  out  ditches,  repairing  tile  drains, 
and  making  other  improvements  in  existing  drain- 


age systems.  To  date,  about  9500  miles  of  ditches, 
and  345  miles  of  tile  have  been  strengthened  and 
improved. 

Surveys  of  agricultural  land  to  determine  the 
type  of  soil,  amount  of  slope,  degree  of  erosion, 
and  present  use  of  the  land  are  an  essential  pre- 
liminary to  most  of  the  Service's  work.  Lands  sur- 
veyed in  soil  conservation  districts  and  demonstra- 
tion areas  are  classified  as  (1)  suitable  for  cul- 
tivation without  special  practices,  (2)  suitable  for 
cultivation  with  simple  erosion  control  practices, 
(3)  suitable  for  cultivation  with  complex  or  in- 
tensive practices,  (4)  suitable  for  uses  that  may 
involve  short  periods  of  cultivation,  or  (5)  not 
suitable  for  cultivation.  During  the  year,  surveys 
were  completed  over  38,755  square  miles,  bringing 
the  total  area  surveyed  by  the  Service  to  approxi- 
mately 62,500  square  miles. 

In  addition  to  its  action  work  on  the  land,  the 
Service  is  also  conducting  a  comprehensive  pro- 
gram of  research.  Problems  connected  with  soil 
conservation,  flood  control,  farm  drainage,  and  ir- 
rigation are  being  investigated  in  co-operation  with 
State  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  and  to 
some  extent  with  other  Federal  Bureaus  at  127 
field  stations  about  the  country.  Significant  re- 
search findings  are  used  to  implement  the  Service's 
operations  program,  and  are  made  available  to 
other  agencies  and  to  the  public  generally. 

On  July  1,  1940,  soil  conservation  work  on  Fed- 
eral lands  such  as  Indian  reservations  and  public 
domain  areas  was  transferred  by  order  of  the  Pres- 
ident from  the  Soil  Conservation  Service  to  the 
Department  of  the  Interior.  Under  this  reorgani- 
zation, the  latter  Department  is  charged  with  the 
responsibility  for  erosion  control  and  water  con- 
servation work  on  all  lands  under  its  own  juns- 
diction.  The  Soil  Conservation  Service,  however, 
will  continue  its  operations  on  privately  owned 
lands  and  on  public  lands  not  administered  by  the 
Interior  Department 

HUGH  H.  BENNETT. 

SOILLESS  AGRICULTURE   (HYDRO- 
PONICS). See  BOTANY. 
SOILS   AND    SOIL    CONSERVATION. 

See  AGRICULTURAL  ADJUSTMENT  ADMINISTRA- 
TION ;  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY  AND  ENGINEER- 
ING, BUREAU  OF;  FERTILIZERS.  KENTUCKY  under 
History:  LAND  UTILIZATION,  OFFICE  OF. 

SOLOMON  ISLANDS.  See  AUSTRALIA; 
BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

SOMALILAND,  British.  A  British  protec- 
torate in  Africa,  along  the  south  shore  of  the  Gulf 
of  Aden;  conquered  by  Italy  during  August  of 
1940.  Area,  68,000  square  miles ;  population  ( 1938) , 
350,000,  including  2700  non-natives.  Chief  towns: 
Berbera  (capital),  Hargeisa,  Burao,  Zeila,  Eri- 
gavo. 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  agricultural 
crops:  barley,  maize,  sorghum,  wheat.  Livestock 
raising  was  the  principal  occupation  of  the  people. 
Livestock  (1936  estimate)  :  2,500,000  sheep,  2,000,- 
000  goats,  1,500,000  camels,  30,000  cattle,  2000  don- 
keys, and  1000  horses.  Trade  (1938)  :  imports, 
£728,050  (cotton  piece  goods,  dates,  rice,  and  sugar 
were  the  main  imports) ;  exports,  £207,548  (sheep, 
goats,  skins,  myrrh,  and  frankincense  were  the 
chief  exports).  Shipping  entered  in  1938  totaled 
169.643  tons. 

Government.  Finance  (1938)  :  revenue,  £206,- 
074 ;  expenditure,  £227,341.  Free  grant-in-aid  ( 1938) 
totaled  £30,000.  Under  British  rule  the  protectorate 
was  administered  by  a  governor  (whose  headquar- 


8OMALILAND 

ters  were  at  Sheikh)  and  he  was  represented  by  a 
district  officer  in  each  of  the  administrative  dis- 
tricts. 

For  the  military  campaign  resulting  in  the  Brit- 
ish withdrawal  in  1940,  see  EUROPEAN  WAR  under 
Campaigns  in  Africa ;  ITALIAN  EAST  AFRICA  un- 
der History. 

SOMALILAND,  French.  A  French  colony 
in  Africa,  at  the  southern  entrance  to  the  Red  Sea. 
Area,  8492  square  miles ;  population  (1936  census), 
44,240,  including  27,380  Somalis,  4200  Arabs,  12,- 
000  Danakils.  Djibouti,  the  capital,  had  20,000  in- 
habitants in  1939. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  chief  occupations 
of  the  people  were  fishing,  salt  mining,  and  the 
transit  of  goods  to  and  from  Italian  East  Africa. 
Trade  (1938)  :  imports,  147,700,000  francs  (the 
chief  imports  were  cotton  yarns,  cotton  goods,  cat- 
tle, coal,  and  sugar)  ;  exports,  85,300,000  francs 
(the  main  exports  were  coffee,  hides,  and  salt). 
The  1938  transit  trade  was  valued  at  521,563,195 
francs  (franc  averaged  $0.0288  for  1938;  $0.0251 
for  1939).  Shipping  entered  at  Djibouti  in  1938 
totaled  2,823,096  tons  There  is  a  railway  from 
Djibouti  to  Addis  Ababa,  Italian  East  Africa,  496 
miles  in  length. 

Government.  Finance  (1939)  •  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure were  estimated  to  balance  at  26,000,000 
francs  in  the  local  budget  A  governor,  assisted  by 
an  administrative  council,  controlled  the  govern- 
ment of  French  Somahland. 

History.  The  Italo-French  armistice  of  June 
24, 1940,  provided  for  demilitarization  of  the  French 
Somaliland  coast  for  the  duration  of  the  war,  the 
evacuation  of  French  troops  from  the  coastal  zone, 
the  surrender  of  their  arms,  and  full  Italian  con- 
trol and  use  of  the  port  of  Djibouti  and  of  the 
Somaliland  section  of  the  French-owned  Djibouti- 
Addis  Ababa  railway.  General  Gentilhomme,  Gov- 
ernor of  French  Somaliland  and  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Anglo-French  forces  in  French  and 
British  Somaliland,  repudiated  the  Vichy  Govern- 
ment's surrender  and  joined  the  "Free  French" 
forces  of  Gen.  Charles  de  Gaulle.  He  was  unable 
to  win  the  colony  over  to  his  course,  however,  and 
at  the  end  of  July  General  Germain  took  command 
of  the  French  military  forces  and  the  civil  admin- 
istration on  behalf  of  the  Vichy  regime  Shortly 
afterwards  Italian  forces  from  Italian  East  Africa 
entered  the  southern  part  of  French  Somaliland 
without  opposition  and  used  it  as  a  base  for  their 
successful  invasion  of  British  Somaliland  in  Au- 
gust. 

The  Italian  military  commission  charged  with 
applying  the  terms  of  the  armistice  in  French  So- 
maliland arrived  in  Djibouti  on  August  31.  It  was 
reported  to  have  received  a  hostile  reception  from 
the  civilian  populace.  Early  in  September  General 
Germain  turned  over  the  civil  administration  of 
the  colony  to  M.  Nouillatas,  an  official  from  French 
Indo-China,  and  the  military  command  to  General 
Aym6.  The  British  applied  their  naval  blockade 
to  the  colony  when  it  adhered  to  the  Vichy  Gov- 
ernment and  it  was  reported  in  October  that  a 
serious  food  shortage  had  developed. 

See  FRANCE  and  ITALIAN  EAST  AFRICA  under 
History;  EUROPEAN  WAR  under  Campaigns  in 
Africa. 

SOMALILAND,  Italian.  See  ITALIAN  EAST 
AFRICA. 

SOUTH  AFRICA,  Union  of.  A  self-govern- 
ing dominion  composed  of  former  British  colonies 
in  the  southern  part  of  Africa  and  ranking  as  a 
member  of  the  British  Commonwealth  of  Nations. 


701 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


Capital,  Pretoria  (seat  of  administration)  ;  Cape 
Town  (seat  of  the  Legislature). 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  by  provinces 
and  the  population  by  provinces  and  racial  compo- 
sition as  officially  estimated  for  June  30,  1939,  are 
shown  in  the  accompanying  table. 

SOUTH  AFRICA    AREA  AND  POPULATION 
(Estimated,  June  30, 1939] 

Area,  sq.  Asiatics 

Province  miles      Europeans     Bantus       frmtxed 

Cape  of  Good  Hope      277,169  •  818,700  2,130,400  734,900 

Natal  .     35284  199200  1,640.800  212,200 

Transvaal               .  .  110,450  897,600  2,645,400  81,200 

Orange  Free  State          49,647  201,000  580,900  17,700 

Total  .  472,550    2,166,500    6,997,500    1,046,000 

•  Including  Walvis  Bay  (430  sq  miles) 

The  census  population  of  May  5,  1936,  totaled 
9,589,898  (European,  2,003,857;  non-European, 
7,586,041),  as  compared  with  a  total  estimated  pop- 
ulation of  10,160.000  (European,  2,116,500;  non- 
European,  8,043,500)  on  June  30,  1939.  European 
births  registered  in  1939  numbered  53,805  (25.4 
per  1000)  ;  deaths,  19,846  (94  per  1000).  Popula- 
tions of  the  chief  cities,  including  suburbs,  at  the 
1936  census  were,  with  the  number  of  Europeans 
in  parentheses:  Johannesburg,  519,384  (257,671)  ; 
Cape  Town,  344,233  (173,412)  ;  Durban,  259,606 
(95,033)  ;  Pretoria,  128,621  (76,935) ;  Port  Eliza- 
beth, 109,841  (53,461)  ;  Germiston,  79,440  (32,564) ; 
East  London,  60,563  (31,311)  ;  Bloemfontein,  64,- 
233  (30,291).  The  same  census  showed  that  the 
home  language  of  1,120,770  persons  (55  93  per  cent 
of  the  European  population)  was  Afrikaans,  783,- 
071  (39.08  per  cent)  English,  50,411  (2.52  per  cent) 
English  and  Afrikaans,  17,810  German,  and  17,684 
Yiddish. 

National  Defense.  For  defensive  measures  tak- 
en in  the  course  of  South  African  participation  in 
the  European  War  see  History,  below.  Reports  pri- 
or to  Nov.  1,  1940,  credited  South  Africa  with 
5000  active  in  armed  service  and  a  reserve  of  15,- 
000  trained  in  military  service  but  inactive;  com- 
bined total,  20,000;  in  air  service,  1500  of  the  ac- 
tive troops.  Citizens  of  European  descent  are  liable 
to  serve  in  war  from  the  age  of  17  years  to  60; 
those  under  25  years  of  age  are  liable  also  to  peri- 
ods of  military  training.  Before  the  European  War 
the  statutory  permanent  force  had,  June  30,  1939, 
287  officers  and  4997  men,  including  1568  in  the 
South  African  Air  Force.  The  Department  of  De- 
fense estimated  its  expenditures  for  1938-39  at 
£1,797,530  (South  African).  A  feature  of  the  mili- 
tary skill  of  the  people  is  a  system  of  rifle  associa- 
tions in  which  citizens  not  entered  for  active  train- 
ing but  still  under  the  age  of  25  years  get  practice 
in  the  use  of  the  rifle  In  1939  the  rifle  associations 
had  124,131  members.  A  South  African  Naval 
Service  was  maintained  and  had  in  1939  headquar- 
ters at  Simonstown. 

Education  and  Religion.  State-conducted  and 
State-aided  public  schools  numbered  4471  in  1937 
for  pupils  of  European  stock  and  4850  for  others ; 
pupils  numbered,  respectively,  381,550  and  546,225. 
Normal  expenditures  of  these  schools,  1939,  £9,354,- 
422,  S.A.  At  Cape  Town,  Stellenbosch,  Witwa- 
tersrand,  and  Pretoria  are  four  universities ;  that 
at  Pretoria,  the  University  of  South  Africa,  a 
Federal  body,  conducts  five  colleges  in  different 
parts  of  the  Union.  Universities'  students  num- 
bered, in  1937,  8707.  According  to  the  census  of 
1936  the  religious  affiliations  of  people  of  Europe- 
an descent  were  chiefly :  Dutch  churches,  1,088,826; 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


702 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


Anglican.  345.103 ;  Presbyterian,  82,283 ;  Method- 
ist, 140,658;  Roman  Catholic,  92,352;  Jewish,  90,- 
662. 

Production.  South  Africa  grows,  for  export, 
wool  and  other  animal  products,  sugar,  citrus 
fruits,  and  cereals.  Its  mines  produce  principally 
gold;  also  diamonds  and  several  base  metals.  Its 
manufactures  are  largely  engaged  in  processing  its 
products  and  in  providing  what  cannot  readily  be 
imported.  The  production  of  gold,  the  Union's 
greatest  single  source  of  wealth,  increased  under 
the  influence  of  the  European  War ;  Great  Britain 
supplied  an  eager  market  for  the  output.  From 
12,819,344  troy  02.  for  the  calendar  year  1939,  it- 
self a  new  maximum  of  yearly  production,  the 
yield  of  gold  mounted  to  more  than  14,000,000  oz. 
for  1940  (by  early  approximation).  In  terms  of 
U.S.  money  these  totals  represented,  in  value  of 
gold,  respectively  some  $450,000,000  and  over  $490,- 
000,000.  Much  of  the  value  went  to  pay  the  workers 
on  the  mines  and  metallurgical  works ;  mines  paid 
an  estimated  £12,000,000  in  dividends  in  1939,  of 
which  some  £8,500,000  was  believed  to  have  gone 
to  stockholders  in  South  Africa;  another  great 
sum  went  to  pay  South  African  taxes  and  the 
Union's  appropriation  of  some  £5,000,000,  the  ex- 
cess of  producers'  receipts  over  the  150  shillings  an 
oz.  guaranteed  by  the  British  Government.  Produc- 
tion of  other  minerals  included  (1938)  coal,  17,- 
536,230  tons  (£4,729,423)  ;  diamonds,  L,238,608  met- 
ric carats  (£3,496,243) ;  manganese  ore,  422,757 
tons  (£560,602).  See  also  GOLD. 

Production  from  farms,  for  the  world's  markets, 
was  dominated  by  wool.  The  total  output  of  wool, 
for  the  year  ended  with  June  30,  1940,  attained 
some  793,415  bales;  this  lacked  somewhat  of  the 
total  for  the  year  previous.  Most  of  it  went  into 
exports.  About  5,000,000  boxes  of  citrus  fruits  are 
produced  yearly  for  the  foreign  market.  See  also 
DAMS  ;  INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  of  1939  totaled  £91,- 
341,108;  exports,  £34,196,010,  not  to  count  gold. 
The  chief  articles  of  export,  other  than  gold, 
were:  wool,  £7,256,301;  citrus  fruits,  £1,667,855; 
hides  and  skins,  £1,737,630;  sugar,  £1,840,518;  dia- 
monds, £1,861,441.  Chief  imports  were  electrical 
machinery  and  material,  £4,210,573;  foodstuffs, 
£4,840,651;  cotton  piece  goods,  £3,999,703;  and 
great  aggregates  of  machinery  and  textiles  diverse- 
ly classified.  The  United  Kingdom  sent  £37,203,000 
of  the  imports  of  1938  and  took  £58,791,000  of  the 
exports ;  the  United  States  and  Germany  followed 
in  importance. 

Finance.  The  unit  of  money  is  the  South  Afri- 
can pound;  its  value  in  U.S.  money  averaged 
$4.4017  for  1939  and  $3.98  for  1940  The  Union's 
budget  as  prepared  for  the  year  1940-41  totaled 
£57,255,000  and  included  £14,000,000  of  special  war- 
time expenditure.  It  involved  expected  issue  of 
some  £22,500,000  of  debt.  A  second  budget  for  the 
same  year,  presented  on  August  28,  called  for  mili- 
tary-expenditure of  £32,938,000,  the  issue  of  £23,- 
616,000  in  bonds,  and  an  increase  of  20  per  cent  in 
the  income  tax.  The  Union's  public  debt  was  stated, 
Feb.  28,  1940,  as  £102,700,000  external  and  £184,- 
300,000  internal  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  with 
Mar.  31,  1940,  the  budget  anticipated  revenues  of 
£44,442,014  and  expenditures  of  £44,110,000;  but 
the  year  ended  with  a  surplus  of  £1,050,000. 

Transportation.  Railway  mileage  in  the  Union 
and  in  South-West  Africa  on  Mar  31,  1938,  to- 
taled 13,620  (government,  13,213;  private,  407). 
For  the  year  ended  Mar.  31,  1939,  the  Minister  of 
Railways  and  Harbors  estimated  revenues  at  £38,- 


240,437  and  expenditures  at  £39,889,025.  The  high- 
way mileage  in  1939  was  88,949.  A  six-year  pro- 
gram calling  for  the  construction  of  5400  miles  of 
national  roads  at  a  cost  of  some  £20,000,000  was 
started  in  1936.  Up  to  Dec.  31,  1938,  1227  miles 
of  these  highways  were  constructed.  The  sum  of 
£4,500,000  was  appropriated  for  continuation  of 
this  program  during  1939-40.  The  South  African 
cities  are  linked  with  Egypt,  Europe,  and  London 
by  Imperial  Airways.  The  South  African  Airways, 
operating  six  services,  carried  34,162  passengers 
and  3,005,639  Ib.  of  freight  and  mails  in  1938,  Dur- 
ing 1938  6182  vessels  of  24,869,085  net  registered 
tons  entered  the  ports.  See  PORTS  AND  HARBOKS. 

Government.  Executive  power  is  exercised  by 
the  Governor  General,  appointed  by  the  King  on 
recommendation  of  the  South  African  government, 
and  by  the  Executive  Council  (cabinet),  which  is 
responsible  to  Parliament.  Parliament  consists  of 
a  Senate  of  44  members  (8  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor General  and  36  elected)  and  a  House  of  As- 
sembly of  153  members,  elected  by  white  male  and 
female  suffrage  for  five  years  unless  sooner  dis- 
solved. Governor  General  in  1940,  Sir  Patrick 
Duncan  (assumed  office  March,  1937). 

The  line-up  in  the  House  of  Assembly  following 
the  September,  1939,  split  in  the  United  South  Af- 
rican National  party  over  participation  in  the  Eu- 
ropean War  was:  National  Government  bloc,  85 
(Smuts  wing  of  United  party,  69 ;  Dominion  party, 
9,  Labor  party,  4;  Native  representatives,  3); 
Hertzog  wing  of  United  party,  39 ;  Malanites,  29. 
Prime  Minister,  Minister  of  External  Affairs, 
Minister  of  Defense,  Gen.  Jan.  C.  Smuts,  who  re- 
placed Prime  Minister  J.  B.  M.  Hertzog  on  Sept. 
5,  1939.  Other  members  of  the  cabinet  were:  Na- 
tive Affairs,  Deneys  Reitz;  Finance  and  Educa- 
tion, J.  H.  Hofmeyr;  Commerce  and  Industries, 
R.  Stuttaford ;  Agriculture  and  Forestry,  Col.  W. 
R.  Collins;  Interior  and  Public  Health,  H.  G. 
Lawrence;  Railways  and  Harbors,  F.  C.  Stur- 
rock;  Posts  and  Telegraphs,  Public  Works,  Sen. 
C.  F.  Clarkson;  Labor  and  Social  Welfare,  W.  B. 
Madeley ;  Lands,  Sen.  A  M.  Conroy ;  Justice,  Dr. 
Colin  F.  Steyn ;  Mines,  Col  F.  C.  Stallard ;  Min- 
ister without  Portfolio,  Maj.  P.  V.  G.  Van  der  Byl. 

HISTORY 

The  Political  Conflict.  The  bitter  controver- 
sy between  the  pro-war  and  anti-war  elements  in 
South  Africa  that  broke  out  in  September,  1939 
(see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939),  continued  with  mounting 
intensity  during  1940.  After  declaring  war  on  Ger- 
many on  Sept.  6,  1939,  Prime  Minister  Smuts  had 
prorogued  Parliament  until  January,  1940,  and 
governed  through  a  series  of  emergency  decrees. 
When  Parliament  reassembled  on  Jan.  19,  1940, 
the  Governor  General  announced  that  it  would  be 
asked  to  confirm  the  declaration  of  war  and  grant 
the  government  further  powers  for  carrying  on 
the  struggle.  General  Hertzog,  leader  of  the  anti- 
war groups,  immediately  introduced  a  motion  in 
the  House  of  Assembly  calling  for  termination  of 
the  state  of  war  and  adoption  of  a  neutrality  policy 
by  the  Union. 

After  five  days  of  debate,  the  Hertzog  motion 
was  defeated  on  January  27  by  a  vote  of  81  to  59. 
The  debate  was  marked  by  a  speech  of  General 
Hertzog  defending  Hitler  and  by  Prime  Minister 
Smuts'  reply  that  South  Africa  could  not  with- 
draw from  the  war  without  sacrificing  both  its 
honor  and  its  vital  interests.  Dr.  D.  F.  M.  Malan, 
leader  of  the  Nationalist  Republican  party,  sup- 
ported the  Hertzog  motion  and  in  addition  de- 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


mandcd  that  South  Africa  sever  all  connections 
with  Great  Britain  immediately.  Previously  his 
party  had  stood  for  the  "eventual"  formation  of  a 
republic.  He  attacked  General  Smuts  as  leader  of 
the  English-speaking  South  Africans,  who  were 
"letting  down"  the  Afrikanders  by  "playing  the 
Empire's  game."  Former  Defense  Minister  Pirow, 
supporting  General  Hertzog,  warned  Prime  Min- 
ister Smuts  that  there  would  be  serious  conse- 
quences if  South  African  troops  were  sent  out  of 
the  country. 

Following  defeat  of  their  motion,  General  Her- 
tzog and  Dr.  Malan  on  January  28  agreed,  subject 
to  approval  by  the  entire  membership  of  both 
groups,  to  merge  their  parties  as  the  Reunited  Na- 
tionalist or  People's  party.  They  issued  a  state- 
ment asserting  that  "a  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment, separated  from  the  British  Crown,  is  best 
suited  to  the  traditional  aspirations  of  the  South 
African  people"  and  the  only  effective  guarantee 
that  South  Africa  would  not  be  drawn  again  into 
Britain's  wars.  At  General  Hertzog's  insistence, 
the  statement  declared  a  republic  could  be  achieved 
only  with  the  consent  of  the  nation  and  on  a  basis 
of  equal  language  and  cultural  rights  for  both  the 
Boer  and  British  elements  of  the  population 

The  Malan  bloc,  however,  showed  growing  un- 
willingness to  abide  by  this  formula.  In  July  the 
Malamtes  announced  plans  for  a  mass  meeting  "to 
consider  active  constitutional  steps  to  establish  a 
republic  "  General  Hertzog  curtly  refused  to  par- 
ticipate in  a  step  that  seemed  likely  to  lead  to 
civil  war.  When  the  inaugural  Congress  of  the 
new  Nationalist  party  met  early  in  November,  the 
Malan  group  deleted  the  clause  in  the  party  plat- 
form calling  for  equal  treatment  for  English-  and 
Afrikaans-speaking  South  Africans  General  Her- 
tzop  then  left  the  new  party  and  on  December 
12  he  and  his  former  Finance  Minister,  N  C. 
Havenga,  announced  their  resignation  from  Par- 
liament and  retirement  from  party  politics  There 
was  a  split  among  Hertzop's  adherents,  with  some 
joining  the  Malanitc  movement  for  a  Boer-domi- 
nated republic  and  others  supporting  the  govern- 
ment bloc.  This  and  the  simultaneous  British 
victory  over  the  Italians  in  North  Africa  strength- 
ened the  position  of  the  Smuts  Government. 

In  the  meantime,  General  Hertzog  had  continued 
his  fight  against  Prime  Minister  Smuts'  war  pol- 
icy. The  latter,  in  support  of  his  contention  that 
Germany  aimed  at  the  reconquest  of  South -West 
Africa  as  a  part  of  its  plan  for  world  domination, 
made  public  on  February  7  further  data  concern- 
ing Nazi  activities  in  both  the  Union  and  in  South- 
West  Africa.  He  said  the  funds  collected — some- 
times by  threat  and  intimidation — from  persons  of 
German  birth  or  extraction  in  these  territories 
"for  relief  in  Germany"  had  been  retained  by  the 
Nazis  for  propaganda  and  other  purposes  in  South 
Africa.  He  charged  the  Nazis  with  giving  finan- 
cial assistance  to  South  African  Fascist  move- 
ments such  as  the  Gray  Shirts,  who  carried  on  an 
active  anti-Jewish  propaganda  in  rural  districts. 

General  Smuts  told  Parliament  that  Kenya  and 
Tanganyika  were  northern  outposts  of  the  Union, 
and  that  if  need  arose  South  Africa  would  give 
military  aid  to  British  territories  right  up  to  the 
Equator.  He  added  that  while  South  Africa  could 
not  remain  disinterested  regarding  the  future  of 
the  British  colonies  on  the  north,  that  did  not  nec- 
essarily preclude  the  ultimate  establishment  of  an- 
other British  Dominion  in  that  part  of  Africa. 

The  German  invasion  of  the  Netherlands  on 
May  10  caused  some  of  General  Hertzog*s  influ- 


ential Afrikander  followers  to  switch  their  SUJH 
port  to  Prime  Minister  Smuts.  Sensational  Nazi 
military  successes  led  the  Prime  Minister  in  mid- 
May  to  appeal  to  all  citizens  to  support  the  gov- 
ernment's firm  policy.  He  declared  there  were 
some  signs  of  subversive  movements  and  warned 
that  the  government  was  setting  up  a  special  or- 
ganization to  deal  strongly  with  the  remnants  of 
the  "fifth  column."  He  also  warned  a  section  of 
the  press  to  cease  helping  the  enemy  under  the 
guise  of  politics. 

The  day  after  Italy's  entrance  into  the  war, 
Prime  Minister  Smuts  broadcast  an  announcement 
that  South  Africa  was  at  war  with  Italy.  Parlia- 
ment was  not  consulted.  About  200  Italians  resid- 
ing in  the  Union  were  interned  and  many  more 
Germans  were  rounded  up.  On  June  15  the  Prime 
Minister  assumed  direct  command  over  all  South 
African  defense  forces.  Three  days  later  it  was 
announced  that  a  "small  military  force"  had  been 
sent  to  the  border  of  Portuguese  Mozambique  as 
a  "precautionary  measure"  On  the  same  day  the 
Prime  Minister  in  a  radio  broadcast  again  pledged 
full  support  of  Britain.  He  pointed  out  that  Italy's 
action  had  brought  the  war  closer  to  South  Africa 
and  that  the  Union's  danger  as  a  valuable  eco- 
nomic and  strategic  prize  was  very  great. 

The  collapse  of  France  stirred  the  anti-war 
groups  in  South  Africa  to  new  efforts.  On  June  24 
General  Hertzog  and  Dr.  Malan  issued  a  joint 
letter,  demanding  the  immediate  summoning  of 
Parliament  and  withdrawal  from  the  war  On  June 
28  demonstrations  called  by  General  Hertzog  were 
held  in  many  centers  of  the  Union  and  resolutions 
were  passed  urging  the  government  to  seek  an 
"honorable  peace"  with  Germany  and  Italy  "with- 
out delay."  One  resolution  asked  the  people  to  dis- 
obey a  government  order  commandeering  all  rifles 
of  military  pattern. 

Undeterred  by  this  opposition,  the  government 
proceeded  to  speed  up  war  preparations  and  ex- 
tend further  aid  to  the  hard-pressed  British.  The 
opposition  demand  that  Parliament  be  summoned 
was  granted.  When  the  legislators  assembled  at 
the  end  of  August,  General  Hertzog  again  intro- 
duced his  motion  for  immediate  withdrawal  from 
the  war.  He  asserted  that  the  war  was  already 
lost,  that  Britain  stood  no  chance  against  the  com- 
bined German  and  Italian  forces,  and  that  the 
patience  of  the  Afrikanders  with  the  government's 
"senseless  policy"  was  neanng  its  limit. 

General  Smuts  replied  that  the  government 
would  not  be  "deflected  from  our  course  by  Hit- 
ler's victories  or  glorification  of  Germany."  He 
declared  there  was  every  prospect  of  a  British  vic- 
tory and  said  South  Africa  would  fight  on  until 
that  victory  was  achieved  On  August  31  the 
House  of  Assembly  upheld  the  government's  pol- 
icy, 83  to  65.  On  September  5  it  passed  by  a  ma- 
jority of  24  votes  the  War  Measures  (Amend- 
ment) Bill,  granting  the  government  full  powers 
to  act  on  all  matters  connected  with  the  war.  The 
only  exceptions  made  barred  enforcement  of  the 
conscription  powers  in  the  Defense  Act  or  in- 
fringement upon  the  rights  and  privileges  of  Par- 
liament. 

War  Contribution.  The  preparations  for  mili- 
tary and  economic  support  of  the  British  war 
effort  made  in  1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939)  were 
steadily  expanded  throughout  1940.  In  April  the 
Union  made  available  its  air-training  facilities  to 
the  Royal  Air  Force.  A  British  air  mission  under 
Air  Chief  Marshal  Sir  Robert  Brooke- Popham 
was  sent  to  South  Africa  to  supervise  the  joint 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


704 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA 


training  of  air  recruits  from  South  Africa,  the 
British  Isles,  and  the  British  colonies  in  Africa. 

The  South  African  Air  Force  began  to  play  a 
part  in  actual  warfare  in  East  Africa  immediately 
after  Italy  entered  the  conflict.  Beginning  July  14, 
a  steady  flow  of  troops  and  equipment  from  South 
Africa  was  concentrated  in  Kenya  to  prevent  an 
Italian  drive  southward  from  Ethiopia  and  to  re- 
lieve British  troops  for  services  in  other  parts  of 
Africa.  Under  the  direction  of  Hendrik  van  der 
Byl,  Director-General  of  War  Supplies,  remark- 
able progress  was  made  in  mobilizing  industry  for 
the  production  of  war  material  of  all  kinds.  Mili- 
tary explosives,  shells,  air  bombs,  grenades,  rifle 
ammunition,  trench-mortars  and  guns,  armored 
cars  and  other  military  vehicles,  uniforms,  boots, 
blankets,  tinned  food,  and  other  equipment  were 
turned  out  in  large  quantities.  Part  of  this  output 
went  to  supply  British  armies  in  Egypt  and  Pales- 
tine, thus  relieving  the  strain  on  British  industry. 

A  South  African  purchasing  mission  was  sent 
to  the  United  States  to  buy  airplane  engines,  ma- 
chine guns,  and  the  more  complicated  types  of  ar- 
tillery not  produced  in  South  Africa.  Other  arma- 
ments of  this  kind  were  obtained  in  Great  Britain. 
At  the  same  time  preparations  were  rushed  in 
South  Africa  for  a  greatly  expanded  economic 
production  in  the  event  the  war  spread  to  the 
nearby  Portuguese  and  Belgian  colonies.  The  first 
textile  factories  in  South  Africa  were  constructed 
by  the  Director-General  of  War  Supplies'  office. 

A  dozen  other  plants  were  built  for  the  pro- 
duction of  war  supplies.  The  Iscor  steel  plant, 
opened  at  Pretoria  in  1935,  was  expanded  to  a 
capacity  of  440,000  ingot  tons  yearly,  and  a  new 
steel  plant  was  authorized.  Construction  of  small 
freighters  for  service  in  African  waters  was  be- 
gun. Schools  were  established  for  the  training  of 
thousands  of  additional  industrial  workers.  The 
co-operation  of  both  labor  and  capital  was  ob- 
tained, the  manufacturers  producing  on  the  basis 
of  cost  plus  a  small  percentage  and  the  labor 
unions  agreeing  to  eliminate  strikes  and  job  chang- 
ing for  the  duration  of  the  war.  Four  labor  repre- 
sentatives, paid  by  the  unions,  worked  in  the  De- 
partment of  War  Supplies  to  insure  an  adequate 
supply  of  labor  for  the  factories.  A  Commandeer- 
ing Law  published  May  25  permitted  the  requisi- 
tioning of  buildings,  supplies,  foodstuffs,  forage, 
horses,  vehicles,  and  other  articles  necessary  for 
maintaining  the  defense  forces  in  the  field. 

A  South  African  delegation  was  sent  to  the  con- 
ference of  British  Dominions  and  colonies  of  the 
Middle  and  Far  East,  held  in  New  Delhi,  India, 
beginning  October  25.  Its  objective  was  to  co- 
ordinate and  increase  the  flow  of  war  materials 
and  supplies  to  the  Allied  armies  in  Africa,  the 
Near  East,  and  the  British  Isles.  On  October  27 
Prime  Minister  Smuts  flew  to  Khartoum  in  the 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  to  confer  with  Anthony 
Eden,  British  Minister  for  War,  who  was  inspect- 
ing preparations  to  meet  the  expected  Italo-Ger- 
man  drives  toward  the  Suez  Canal  and  the  oil 
fields  of  Asia  Minor. 

Other  Economic  Measures.  While  the  war 
proved  a  decided  stimulus  to  the  Union's  indus- 
trial and  mining  enterprises,  agriculture  was  ad- 
versely affected  by  the  loss  of  European  markets, 
particularly  in  France.  The  conflict  also  imposed 
a  severe  strain  upon  the  government's  finances, 
despite  the  sound  position  of  the  Treasury  at  the 
outbreak  of  war.  The  government  took  various 
measures  to  adjust  the  Union's  economy  and  fi- 
nances to  the  new  situation. 


To  prevent  the  slowing  up  of  defense  industries 
through  raw  material  shortages,  the  government 
in  March  obtained  first  claim  on  incoming  cargo 
space  from  the  British  shipping  authorities,  and  in 
return  agreed  to  buy  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
Empire  whenever  possible.  In  the  budget  estimates 
announced  for  1940-41,  several  million  pounds 
were  set  aside  for  the  establishment  of  a  new  In- 
dustrial Development  Corporation  to  aid  the  estab- 
lishment of  selected  private  industrial  enterprises. 

A  revision  of  the  system  of  taxing  the  gold  min- 
ing industry  was  introduced  in  connection  with  the 
1940-41  budget  The  levy  on  sales  of  gold  at  prices 
above  150  shillings  per  ounce  was  withdrawn. 
Gold  miners  operating  at  a  narrow  margin  of 
profit  obtained  relief  while  taxes  were  increased 
on  high-profit  mines.  Under  an  agreement  an- 
nounced April  22,  the  Bank  of  England,  acting  for 
the  British  Treasury,  undertook  to  buy  all  South 
Africa's  gold  output  from  the  Union  Government 
at  the  full  official  price.  The  Union  Treasury's 
profit  on  this  transaction  was  estimated  at  £2,000,- 
000  or  more  annually. 

With  the  proceeds  of  heavy  taxes  levied  on  the 
mining  industry,  the  government  extended  large 
subsidies  to  agriculture.  The  farms  suffered  from 
a  labor  shortage  as  a  result  of  recruiting  and  the 
rapidly  increasing  employment  of  native  labor  in 
the  mines.  To  check  this  trend,  the  government  re- 
laxed its  restrictions  upon  the  importation  of  na- 
tive mine  labor  from  Mozambique.  A  Moratorium 
Act  was  promulgated  for  the  benefit  of  volunteers 
serving  with  the  military  forces.  Government  con- 
trol was  extended  over  transactions  in  South  Afri- 
can securities  and  foreign  currencies.  Arrange- 
ments were  made  with  the  British  Government  for 
the  sale  of  South  Africa's  entire  wool  clip  during 
the  war  and  for  a  year  thereafter. 

SOUTH  AMERICA.  A  continent  comprising 
10  republics  (Argentina,  Bolivia,  Brazil,  Chile, 
Colombia,  Ecuador,  Paraguay,  Peru,  Uruguay, 
and  Venezuela)  and  three  colonies  (British  Guiana, 
French  Guiana,  and  Surinam).  Total  area,  about 
6,934,356  square  miles ;  population,  91,300,000  (Dec. 
31, 1938  estimate).  See  EXPLORATION  ;  PAN  AMER- 
ICANISM ;  PAN  AMERICAN  UNION;  and  separate 
articles  on  each  country  and  colony. 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  A  State  of  Aus- 
tralia. Area,  380,070  square  miles ;  population,  ex- 
clusive of  full  blood  aboriginals,  597,387  (Mar. 
31,  1940,  estimate).  Vital  statistics  (1939):  9618 
births,  5739  deaths,  5670  marriages.  Chief  cities : 
Adelaide  (322,990  inhabitants  on  Dec.  31,  1939), 
Port  Pirie  (11,677  in  1933),  Mount  Gambier 
(5542).  Education  (1938)  :  1077  State  schools  and 
83,277  students;  184  private  schools  and  16,356 
students;  there  is  a  State  university  at  Adelaide. 

Production,  Chief  agricultural  products :  Wheat 
(40,984,726  bu.  in  1939-40),  barley,  oats,  hay, 
grapes,  wine,  dried  fruits.  Livestock  (1939)  : 
9,940,570  sheep,  351,013  cattle,  190,013  horses,  119,- 
660  pigs.  Dairy  output  (1938-39)  :  20,716,584  Ib.  of 
butter,  18,457,598  Ib.  of  cheese,  5,987,363  Ib  of  ham 
and  bacon.  Wool,  as  in  the  grease  (1940) :  102,- 
000,000  Ib.  Mineral  production  (1938)  was  valued 
at  £2,932,473,  including  ironstone  (£2,582,171)  and 
gold  (£46,922).  Manufacturing  (1938-39) :  2067 
factories,  43,3/1  employees,  £13,678,930  net  value 
of  production  (Australian  £  averaged  $3.8955  for 
1938;  $3.5338  for  1939).  There  were  2558  route 
miles  of  railway  on  June  30,  1939. 

Government.  Finance  (1939-40) :  Revenue, 
£12,756,000;  expenditure,  £12,919,000;  public  debt, 
£109,344,000.  Executive  power  rests  with  a  gov- 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


705 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


ernor,  assisted  by  a  council  of  responsible  minis- 
ters. There  is  a  parliament  consisting  of  a  legis- 
lative council  of  20  members  (10  re-elected  every 
3  years)  and  a  house  of  assembly  elected  for  a  3- 
year  term.  Governor,  Sir  Malcolm  Barclay-Har- 
vey (appointed  Mar.  2,  1939)  ;  Premier,  Thomas 
Playford. 

History.  It  was  announced  on  Aug.  7, 1940,  that 
the  public  works  committee  of  the  State  legislature 
had  recommended  the  expenditure  of  £3,122,000  to 
build  a  pipe  line  (235  miles  long)  from  Morgan  on 
the  Murray  River  to  Whyalla  on  Spencer's  Gulf 
to  provide  1,200,000,000  gallons  of  water  annually 
for  Whyalla  and  900,000,000  gallons  for  the  inter- 
vening northern  districts. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA.  Area,  30,989  square 
miles ;  includes  water,  494  square  miles.  Population 
(U.S.  Census),  April,  1940,  1,899,804;  1930, 1,738,- 
765.  Charleston  (1940),  71,275;  Columbia,  the  cap- 
ital, 62,396.  The  urban  population  of  the  State  rose 
(1930-40)  by  95,031,  to  466,111 ;  the  rural,  by  66,- 
008,  to  1,433,693. 

Agriculture.  South  Carolina's  harvest  of  1940 
covered  5,124,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops; 
nearly  three-fifths  bore  cotton  or  corn.  Cotton,  on 
1,242,000  acres,  grew  970,000  bales  ($47,045,000  in 
estimated  return  to  the  cultivators)  ;  corn,  1,736,- 
000  acres,  gave  24,304,000  bu.  ($17,985,000) ;  to- 
bacco, 82,000  acres,  81,590,000  Ib.  ($12,565,000)  ; 
tame  hay,  730,000  acres,  539,000  tons  ($7,276,000)  ; 
oats,  495,000  acres,  10,890,000  bu.  ($5,227,000)  ; 
sweet  potatoes,  63,000  acres,  5,040,000  bu.  ($3,780,- 
000)  ;  potatoes,  28,000  acres,  3,192,000  bu.  ($2,745,- 
000) ;  wheat,  215,000  acres,  2,688,000  bu.  ($2,365,- 
000)  ;  peaches,  1,915,000  bu.  ($2,202,000). 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40,  the 
number  of  South  Carolina's  inhabitants  of  school 
age  (from  6  years  to  20,  inclusive)  was  stated  as 
677,587.  Of  the  481,750  reported  enrollments  in  the 
public  schools  for  that  year,  those  of  pupils  in  the 
elementary  studies  comprised  196,308  whites  and 
198,642  Negroes;  in  high  schools,  69,537  whites 
and  17,263  Negroes.  The  year's  expenditures  for 
public-school  education  totaled,  for  whites  $14,- 
975,108;  for  Negroes,  $2,570,226.  The  teaching 
force,  9662  whites  and  5660  Negroes,  averaged  re- 
spectively, in  pay  for  the  year,  $978  and  $391. 

History.  More  or  less  dissatisfaction  with  the 
State's  still  recent  abandonment  of  prohibition  of 
alcoholic  beverages  for  a  system  of  licensed  liquor 
stores  caused  pressure  on  the  Legislature  to  re- 
store prohibition.  The  lawgivers  passed  an  act  call- 
ing for  an  advisory  referendum  vote  of  the  peo- 
ple. This  vote  was  cast  at  the  State  primary  elec- 
tions, much  more  widely  attended  than  the  general 
elections  in  November.  The  result  (August  27) 
was  a  majority  of  about  3  to  2  for  prohibition  in 
a  total  of  nearly  300,000,  which  approximated  30 
per  cent  of  the  State's  white  population.  Further 
action,  if  any,  awaited  the  next  session  of  the  Leg- 
islature. 

Against  the  opposition  of  U  S.  Senator  E  D. 
Smith,  a  pronounced  anti-New-Dealer,  the  State's 
Democratic  convention  voted  (May  15)  by  more 
than  2  to  1,  in  favor  of  nominating  President 
Roosevelt  for  a  third  term. 

At  the  general  election  (November  5)  the  popu- 
lar vote  for  President  totaled  95,470  for  Roosevelt 
(Dem.)  and  4360  for  Willkie  (Rep.).  Six  Demo- 
crats, all  incumbents  but  one,  were  elected  U.S. 
Representatives.  No  State  officers  and  no  U.S  Sen- 
ator were  elected.  Of  the  popular  vote  for  Willkie 
given  above,  a  considerable  part  (1727)  was  not 
Republican,  but  was  cast  for  a  separate  and  alto- 


gether different  list  of  electors  under  the  designa- 
tion of  Jeffersonian  Democrats. 

Officers.  South  Carolina's  chief  officers,  serving 
in  1940,  were:  Governor,  Burnet  R.  Maybank 
(Dem.) ;  Lieutenant  Governor,  J.  £.  Harley ;  Sec- 
retary of  State,  W.  P.  Blackwell ;  Treasurer,  Jef- 
ferson B.  Bates ;  Attorney  General,  John  M.  Dan- 
iel ;  Comptroller,  A.  J.  Beattie ;  Superintendent  of 
Education,  James  H.  Hope. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA.  Area,  77,615  square  miles ; 
includes  water,  747  square  miles.  Population  (U.S. 
census),  April,  1940,  642,961 ;  1930,  692,849.  Sioux 
Falls  (1940),  40,832;  Pierre  (the  capital),  4322. 
While  the  population  of  the  State  as  a  whole  de- 
creased (1930-40)  by  49,888,  the  urban  population, 
going  against  that  trend,  increased  briskly,  by  27,- 
180,  to  158,087,  almost  all  the  incorporated  places 
of  2500  or  over  partaking  in  the  increase ;  the  rural 
majority  of  the  population  diminished  by  77,068, 
to  484,874. 

Agriculture.  South  Dakota's  harvest  of  1940 
covered  13,652,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops. 
More  than  half  of  the  area  bore  corn,  wheat,  and 
oats.  Corn,  on  2,784,000  acres,  made  50,112,000  bu. 
($28,063,000  in  estimated  value  to  the  cultivator)  ; 
wheat,  2,707,000  acres,  gave  26,221,000  bu.  (esti- 
mated at  $17,306,000) ;  oats,  1,936,000  acres,  53,- 
240,000  bu.  ($11,180,000).  Among  other  crops  were 
barley,  1,666,000  acres,  30,821,000  bu.  ($10,171,- 
000) ;  tame  hay,  778,000  acres,  765,000  tons  ($3,596,- 
000) ;  flaxseed,  293,000  acres,  1,904,000  bu.  ($2,456,- 
000) ;  rye,  470,000  acres,  5,640,000  bu.  ($1,861,000)  ; 
grain  sorghums,  443,000  acres,  3,544,000  bu.  ($1,559,- 
000) ;  potatoes,  32,000  acres,  2,016,000  bu.  ($1,210,- 
000). 

Mineral  Production.  More  than  nine-tenths 
of  the  minerals  produced  in  South  Dakota  in  1938 
was  due  to  gold  mined  in  the  Black  Hills.  The 
remainder  was  mainly  such  stone,  sand,  and  gravel 
as  would  meet  needs  in  the  State.  The  recoverable 
gold  material  mined  in  1940,  according  to  prelimi- 
nary estimate,  totaled  592,936  oz.,  valued  at  $20,- 
752,760,  as  against  the  total  for  1939  of  618,536  oz., 
$21,648,760.  The  gold  ore  contained,  in  each  of  the 
years  of  1939  and  1940,  silver  valued  in  excess  of 
$100,000.  About  nine-tenths  of  the  yearly  total  of 
gold  continued  to  come  from  the  ores  of  the  Home- 
stake  Mine,  in  Lawrence  County. 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40 
South  Dakota's  inhabitants  of  school  age  were 
reckoned  at  186,251 :  of  these,  135,597  were  be- 
tween 6  and  17  years  old;  the  rest,  between  17  and 
21.  Enrollments  of  pupils  in  public  schools  during 
the  year  numbered  136,447 ;  of  these,  98,441  in  ele- 
mentary study  and  the  rest,  38,006,  in  high  school. 
The  year's  expenditure  for  public-school  education 
totaled  $12,312,609.  The  teachers,  8014,  averaged 
in  year's  pay,  $757.86  for  elementary  and  $1020.81 
for  high-school  positions. 

History.  The  decline  in  the  total  of  population 
between  1930  and  1940  (see  above),  amounting 
almost  to  50,000  set  the  highest  rate  of  loss,  some- 
what over  7  per  cent,  for  any  of  the  six  States  of 
the  Union  whose  populations  had  shrunk.  While 
it  pointed  to  adversity,  its  most  obvious  cause,  the 
dry  years  and  consequent  crop  failures  that  had 
coincided  with  the  depressed  prices,  foreclosures, 
and  insolvencies  of  the  earlier  'thirties,  had  passed. 
Economic  conditions  in  the  State  were  again  toler- 
able. 

The  State's  credit  sufficed  to  enable  it  in  1940  to 
carry  out  in  full  the  operation,  begun  in  1939,  of 
refunding  $20,425,000  of  its  rural-credit  bonds. 
This  operation  effected  what  was  known  as  the 


SOUTHERN  RHODESIA 


906 


SPAIN 


level  debt-service  plan.  It  issued,  in  place  of  oat- 
standing  bonds  that  were  to  mature  before  1950, 
other  bonds  maturing  only  in  the  decade  thereafter. 
The  new  bonds  paid  the  same  interest  as  the  old 
ones  until  dates  when  the  old  ones  would  have 
matured;  thereafter  the  new  ones  were  to  pay  only 
3  per  cent  per  annum.  This  still  required  the  State 
to  pay  out  yearly,  for  a  good  many  years,  at  $2,500,- 
000  or  more,  but  it  relieved  the  finances  of  the  risk 
that  a  great  part  of  the  debt  might  come  due  when 
it  could  neither  be  paid  nor  borrowed  over  again. 

At  the  general  election  (November  5)  the  State's 
popular  vote  for  President  gave  177,065  for  Will- 
kie  (Rep.)  and  131,362  for  Roosevelt  (Dem.). 
Harlan  J.  Bushfield  (Rep.)  was  re-elected  Gover- 
nor, defeating  L.  W.  Bicknell  (Dem.). 

Officers.  South  Dakota's  chief  officers,  serving 
in  1940,  were:  Governor,  Harlan  J.  Bushfield 
(Rep.) ;  Lieutenant-Governor,  Donald  C.  Mc- 
Murchie ;  Secretary  of  State,  Olive  A.  Rmgsrud ; 
Treasurer,  W.  G.  Douglas;  Auditor,  W.  W.  War- 
ner; Attorney-General,  Leo  A.  Temmey;  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Instruction,  J.  F.  Hmes. 

SOUTHERN  RHODESIA.  See  RHODESIA, 
SOUTHERN. 

SOUTH  GEORGIA;  SOUTH  ORK- 
NEYS. See  FALKLAND  ISLANDS. 

SOUTH  POLE.  See  POLAR  RESEARCH. 

SOUTH-WEST  AFRICA.  A  territory  ad- 
ministered by  the  Union  of  South  Africa  under  a 
mandate  from  the  League  of  Nations.  Total  area, 
including  the  Caprivi  Zipfel,  317,725  square  miles; 
population  (1938),  365,000.  The  census  of  1936 
showed  (exclusive  of  Walvis  Bay)  357,787,  in- 
cluding 261,724  natives  and  30,677  Europeans  (of 
whom  9632  were  German  speaking  and  of  these 
6244  were  British  or  South  African  subjects). 
Chief  towns:  Windhoek  (capital),  10,651  inhabit- 
ants in  1936,  Luderitz,  Keetmanshoop,  Swarkop- 
mund,  Walvis  Bay.  Education  (1938)  :  11,373  stu- 
dents in  the  180  schools  of  all  kinds. 

Production  and  Trade.  Stock  raising  is  the 
chief  industry.  Agriculture,  owing  to  the  low  rain- 
fall, is  almost  impossible — except  in  the  northern 
and  northeastern  portions  of  the  country.  Live- 
stock (1938) :  908,061  cattle,  3,074,257  sheep,  1,420,- 
322  goats,  28,164  horses.  Chief  minerals :  diamonds, 
gold,  iron,  lead,  tin,  copper,  vanadium,  tungsten. 
Trade  (1939) :  imports,  £2,220,000 ;  exports,  £3,348,- 
000  (South  African  £  averaged  $4.4017  for  1939). 

Government.  Budget  ( 1940-41 )  :  revenue,  £607,- 
000  (£748,300  for  1939-40)  ;  expenditure,  £813,000 
(£824,657).  South-West  Africa  is  included  in  the 
South  African  Customs  Union  and  a  lump  sum 
based  on  the  customs  and  excise  taxes  on  goods 
consumed  in  the  territory  is  paid  over  to  the  ad- 
ministration. The  Union  of  South  Africa  parlia- 
ment has  vested  the  administration  of  the  territory 
in  the  governor-general  of  the  Union,  and  he  has 
placed  his  powers  in  the  hands  of  an  administrator 
who  is  assisted  by  an  executive  council,  an  adviso- 
ry council,  and  a  legislative  council  of  18  members 
(12  elected  by  the  voters,  and  6  appointed  by  the 
administrator  and  approved  by  the  governor-gen- 
eral). Administrator,  Dr.  D.  G.  Conradie. 

History.  South-West  Africa  was  divided  dur- 
ing 1940  by  the  conflict  between  pro-war  and  anti- 
war factions  that  agitated  the  Union  of  South 
Africa.  In  elections  to  the  Legislative  Council  held 
toward  the  end  of  February  the  United  party,  sup- 
porting Prime  Minister  Smuts  and  his  pro-war 
policy,  won  10  of  the  12  elective  seats.  The  other 
seats  went  to  the  Nationalists,  who  advocated  the 
Hertzog-Mftfon  anti-war  policy  and  who  had  the 


support  of  the  German  element  in  the  colony. 

Prime  Minister  Smuts  on  Feb.  7,  1940,  gave  out 
further  information  concerning  the  activities  of 
the  Nazi  overseas  organization  in  South- West  Af- 
rica. He  said  the  Nazi  movement  in  the  colony 
was  organized  on  the  cell  basis,  with  its  own  secret 
newspaper  and  a  party  "arbitrator"  who  usurped 
the  functions  of  the  regular  courts.  The  Nazi  lead- 
ers in  South-West  Africa  either  fled  or  were  in- 
terned upon  the  outbreak  of  war  in  1939.  Further 
precautions  against  an  attempted  coup  by  the  Nazis 
were  taken  during  1940.  See  SOUTH  AFRICA,  UN- 
ION OF,  under  History, 

SOVIET  UNION.  See  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SO- 
CIALIST REPUBLICS. 

SOYBEANS.The  production  of  soybeans  for 
beans  in  the  United  States  in  1940  was  estimated 
by  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  at  79,837,- 
000  bu.,  12.5  per  cent  below  the  91,272,000  bu.  of 
1939,' and  compared  with  the  1929-38  average  of 
27,318,000  bu.  New  high  records  were  established 
again  in  1940  for  total  acreage  with  10,528,000 
acres  and  acreage  harvested  for  beans  4,961,000 
acres  versus  9,506,000  and  4,417,000  acres,  respec- 
tively, in  1939.  The  lower  production  in  1940,  in 
spite  of  the  record  acreage,  was  attributed  to  the 
low  acre  yield  due  to  hot  dry  weather  early  in  July 
and  in  August,  especially  in  the  important  soybean 
States  of  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio.  Average  acre 
yields  were  16.1  bu.  in  1940  and  20.7  bu.  in  1939. 
States  leading  in  yields  of  soybeans  for  beans  were : 
Illinois  35,140,000  bu ,  Iowa  15,026,000,  Indiana  10,- 
989,000,  Ohio  8,400,000,  North  Carolina  2,282,000, 
and  Michigan  and  Missouri  each  with  1,176,000  bu. 
The  season  average  price  per  bu.  (preliminary)  re- 
ceived by  farmers  was  75.8  cents  in  1940  and  the 
value  of  production  was  estimated  at  $60,535,000  ver- 
sus 81.4  cents  and  $74,299,000  in  1939.  Soybean  hay 
production  declined  to  6,312,000  tons  from  4,883,- 
000  acres  in  1940  from  6,565,000  tons  from  4,612,- 
000  acres  in  1939.  The  area  of  soybeans  grazed  or 
plowed  under  in  1940  totaled  1,618,000  acres. 

The  1940  crop  of  soybeans  in  Manchuria  was 
officially  estimated  at  140,984,000  bu.  (144,952,000 
bu.  in  1939). 

SPAIN.  A  State  of  southwestern  Europe.  Capi- 
tal, Madrid. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  196,607  square 
miles,  including  the  Balearic  Islands  ( 1935  sq.  mi  ) 
and  the  Canary  Islands  (1279  sq  mi.).  The  popu- 
lation in  1940  was  estimated  at  26,000,000  (23,564,- 
000  at  1930  census),  including  the  Balearic  Islands 
(estimated  pop.,  381,594  in  1939)  and  the  Canaries 
(286,154  in  1939).  Living  births  in  1938  numbered 
about  453,584  (17.8  per  1000) ;  deaths,  417,919 
(16.4).  Populations  of  the  chief  cities  were  (1934 
estimates  except  as  stated) :  Barcelona,  1,399,000 
(1940)  ;  Madrid,  1,194,000  (1940)  ;  Valencia,  352,- 
802;  Seville,  238,727;  Malaga,  203,844;  Saragossa, 
189,062;  Bilbao,  175,898. 

Colonial  Empire.  The  principal  divisions  of 
the  colonial  possessions  of  Spain  are  listed  in  the 


Colony  (Capital) 

Spanish  Guinea  »  (Santa  Isabel)     
Spanish  Morocco  '(Tetuan)          .   .     .. 
Western  Sahara  *  (Villa  Cisneros) 

Total  

Sg  mi.m    Population* 

10,124       120,000 
8,108       750,000 
110,036       110,038 

128,570       890,000 

•  Estimated  b  Includes  Rio  Muni  (on  the  mainland)  and  the 
islands  of  Fernando  Po,  Annobon.  Corisco.  Great  Elobey,  and 
Little  Elobey  « Excluding  Tangier  which  was  occupied  by 
Spanish  troops  on  June  14.  1940,  and  incorporated  with  Spanish 
Morocco  on  Nov.  14,  1940.  See  TANGIER  under  History.  *  In- 
cludes Rio  de  Oro,  Adrar,  and  Ifni. 


SPAIN 


707 


SPAIN 


accompanying  table.  For  administrative  purposes 
the  Balearic  Islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  the  Ca- 
nary Islands  off  the  northwest  coast  of  Africa,  and 
the  areas  of  Ceuta  and  Melilla  in  north  Africa,  are 
considered  an  integral  part  of  Spain. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  1930  census 
showed  45  per  cent  of  the  adult  population  as  un- 
able to  read  or  write.  Under  the  Franco  regime, 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  re-established  as 
the  official  religion.  The  religious  orders  recovered 
their  pre-republican  legal  status,  properties,  State 
subsidies,  teaching  rights,  jurisdiction  over  ceme- 
teries, and  other  privileges  (see  History).  In  1935 
there  were  4,720,260  pupils  in  42,766  elementary 
schools;  130,752  pupils  in  111  secondary  schools, 
and  31,905  students  in  11  universities. 

Production.  Agriculture,  mining,  manufactur- 
ing, and  fishing  are  the  chief  occupations.  Spanish 
economy  was  badly  disrupted  by  the  civil  war  of 
1936-39  and  the  European  War  (see  History).  The 
principal  products  in  1939  were  (in  metric  tons), 
with  1940  estimates  in  parentheses .  Wheat,  2,877,- 
900  (3,300,000) ;  barley,  1,408,300  (2,000,000)  ;  rye, 
410,300  (700,000);  oats,  478,600;  corn,  843,300; 
rice,  178,100  (225,152,000  bu.  in  1940-41)  ;  pota- 
toes, 4,781,700  (average  for  193CW4)  ;  beet  sugar, 
111,000  in  1939-40;  wine,  17,200,000  hectoliters  in 
1937  (hectoliter  equals  26.42  U.S.  gal.)  ;  olive  oil, 
370,000  in  1939-40;  wool  and  mohair,  27,200  in 
1938 ;  rayon  and  staple  fiber,  1399 ;  lignite,  204,000 ; 
coal,  6,753,000;  pyrites  (exports),  1,636,000;  iron 
ore,  2,184,735  (average  for  1933-39) ;  pig  iron  and 
ferro-alloys,  500,000;  steel  ingots  and  castings, 
600,000 ;  copper  ore,  820,000  tons  (exports  of  Rio 
Tinto  mines  only);  lead  (smelter),  27,000;  zinc 
(smelter),  11,300;  quicksilver,  1450  (imports  from 
Spain  into  principal  importing  countries).  The 
chief  manufactures  are  cotton  textiles,  paper,  glass, 
etc.  The  1940-41  orange  crop  was  estimated  at  24,- 
443,000  boxes  of  70  Ib.  each.  Many  other  fruits, 
cork,  and  fishery  products  normally  are  exported. 

Foreign  Trade.  Publication  of  Spanish  trade 
statistics  was  suspended  early  in  1936  and  not  re- 
sumed until  1940,  when  data  covering  the  last  nine 
months  of  1939  were  made  available.  Converted 
into  U.S.  dollars,  imports  for  April-December, 
1939,  were  $111,978,000  ($287,256,000  for  calendar 
year  1935) ;  exports,  $78,287,000  ($192,173,000,  in- 
cluding gold  and  silver).  Foodstuffs  accounted  for 
42  per  cent  of  the  1939  imports  as  against  14  per 
cent  of  the  1935  total.  The  relative  proportion  of 
all  other  major  classes  of  imports  showed  a  marked 
decline  in  1939  as  compared  with  1935.  The  princi- 
pal 1939  exports  were  (nine  months)  :  Foodstuffs, 
$46,217,000;  minerals,  $10,929,000;  chemical  prod- 
ucts, $6,794,000;  wood  and  vegetable  matter  and 
their  manufactures,  $5,027,000.  Argentina  supplied 
27.9  per  cent  of  the  1939  nine  months'  imports  (2  5 
in  1935) :  United  States,  14  (16.8) ;  Germany,  12.9 
(13.7) ;  United  Kingdom,  5.1  (10.4) ;  France,  1.7 
(5.5).  Of  the  1939  exports,  the  United  Kingdom 
took  25.4  per  cent  (21.7  in  1935)  ;  Germany,  24.8 
(12.7) ;  United  States,  10.1  (9.5)  ;  Italy,  62. 

Finance.  According  to  a  statement  of  the  Min- 
ister of  Finance  on  Aug.  6,  1940,  the  Franco  Gov- 
ernment's receipts  during  the  civil  war  of  1936-39 
were  3,684,000,000  pesetas  and  expenditures  11,- 
944,000,000  pesetas.  The  deficit  was  largely  cov- 
ered by  advances  of  7,600,000,000  pesetas  from  the 
Bank  of  Spain.  During  the  nine  postwar  months 
of  1939.  receipts  were  2,498,000,000  and  expendi- 
tures 5,118,000,000  pesetas.  In  September,  1939,  the 
Bank  of  Spain  made  another  advance  of  2,500,000,- 
000  pesetas  to  the  government 


Appropriations  for  the  ordinary  1940  budget 
amounted  to  5,960,245,000  pesetas  (about  one- 
fourth  higher  than  the  pre-ciyil-war  budget).  In 
addition,  extraordinary  expenditures  of  1,200,977,- 
000  pesetas  were  authorized  for  repairing  civil  war 
damages,  defense,  etc.  Revenue  for  part  of  the 
ordinary  and  all  of  the  extraordinary  budget  was 
obtained  by  borrowing.  Subscriptions  to  3-per  cent 
five-year  Treasury  notes,  opened  July  8,  1940,  to- 
taled over  4,000,000,000  pesetas.  The  1940  budget 
was  extended  through  1941  by  a  decree  of  Dec.  30, 
1940.  The  foreign  debt  in  August,  1940,  was  esti- 
mated at  1,250,000,000  gold  pesetas.  The  average 
exchange  rate  of  the  peseta  was  $0.1063  for  the 
last  nine  months  of  1939  and  $0.0932  for  1940. 

Transportation.  Spain  in  1940  had  about  10,- 
340  miles  of  railway  lines,  70,760  miles  of  roads, 
and  air  lines  connecting  Madrid  and  the  other 
chief  Spanish  cities  with  Berlin,  Rome,  the  Canary 
and  Balearic  Islands,  with  London  and  New  York 
via  Lisbon,  Portugal,  and  with  Tetuan  and  Melilla 
in  Spanish  Morocco.  An  85,000,000-peseta  appro- 
priation for  road  construction  was  made  on  June 
21,  1940.  Railway  communication  with  Italy  and 
Germany  across  France  was  re-established  as  of 
Aug.  10,  1940. 

Government.  Following  a  victory  of  the  Leftist 
parties  in  the  Cortes  elections  of  Feb.  16,  1936.  a 
military  revolt  broke  out  July  17,  1936,  which 
forced  the  capitulation  of  the  Republican  Govern- 
ment on  Apr.  1,  1939.  The  republic  established  in 
1931  was  replaced  by  a  Fascist  dictatorship  under 
Gen.  Francisco  Franco,  leader  of  the  revolt,  as 
Leader  (Caudillo)  of  the  Empire,  Chief  of  State, 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Army,  Premier,  and 
head  of  the  Falange  Espafiola  (government  party), 
in  which  were  merged  all  political  groups  support- 
ing the  revolt  and  the  army.  All  other  political 
parties  were  outlawed.  Under  a  series  of  decrees 
issued  in  1937,  1938,  and  1939  (see  those  YEAR 
BOOKS),  General  Franco  exercised  his  dictatorial 
powers  directly  (he  assumed  power  in  1939  to  is- 
sue decrees  without  consulting  his  cabinet) ,  through 
a  cabinet,  and  through  the  governing  organs  of 
the  Falange  Espafiola. 

The  cabinet  was  composed  as  follows  at  the  end 
of  1940 :  Premier  and  Minister  of  Interior,  Gen- 
eral Franco;  Foreign  Affairs,  Ramon  Serrano 
Suner ;  Acting  Minister  of  Interior,  Jos6  Lorente 
Sanz;  Air,  Gen,  Vig6n  Suerodiaz;  Navy,  Vice- 
Adm.  Salvador  Moreno ;  Army,  Gen.  Jos6  Varela ; 
Justice,  Esteban  Bilbao  Eguia ;  Finance,  Jose"  Lar- 
raz  Lopez ;  Commerce,  Demetrio  Carceller  Segura ; 
Education,  Jos6  Ibafiez  Martin;  Public  Works, 
Alfonso  Pena  Boeuf ;  Agriculture  and  Labor,  Joa- 
qum  Benjumea  Burin ;  Minister  without  Portfolio, 
Pedro  Gamero  del  Castillo. 

The  organs  of  the  Falange  Espafiola  consist  of 
a  National  Council  of  about  100  members,  repre- 
senting the  various  Nationalist  political  interests, 
and  a  Political  Council  of  19,  composed  of  dele- 
gates to  the  National  Council  and  serving  as  the 
permanent  governing  body  of  the  party.  Franco 
is  president  of  the  National  Council  and  appoints 
its  Secretary-General.  It  is  empowered  to  deter- 
mine the  structure  of  both  State  and  government 
party,  control  syndical  organizations,  etc.  The 
president  of  the  Political  Council  of  the  party  is 
Ram6n  Serrano  Suffer,  Franco's  brother-in-law, 
and  the  guiding  spirit  of  the  Falange  Espafiola. 

HISTORY 

Internal  Development!.  Conditions  within 
Spain  went  from  bad  to  worse  during  1940.  Re- 


SPAIN 


708 


SPAIN 


construction  after  the  civil  war  had  barely  started 
when  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War  on  Sept. 
1,  1939,  interrupted  plans  for  pushing  rehabilita- 
tion with  German  technical  and  economic  aid.  The 
collapse  of  France  in  June,  1940,  enabled  Spain  to 
reopen  overland  communications  with  Germany 
and  Italy.  But  the  resultant  economic  exchange 
was  more  than  offset  by  the  extension  of  the  Brit- 
ish blockade  to  Spain  at  the  end  of  July.  The  crops 
harvested  in  1940  were  considerably  better  than  in 
1939,  but  remained  insufficient  to  feed  the  popula- 
tion, particularly  in  view  of  the  continued  disloca- 
tion of  surface  transportation  systems.  Moreover 
the  continuance  of  the  bitter  internal  dissensions 
that  had  produced  the  civil  war,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  new  tensions  within  the  government  itself, 
placed  added  difficulties  in  the  way  of  national  re- 
construction. The  government's  lively  preoccupa- 
tion with  military  preparations  and  ambitions  had 
a  similar  effect. 

The  net  result  was  a  general  tightening  of  the 
hunger  and  privation  that  had  afflicted  the  Spanish 
people  since  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  in  1936. 
By  the  end  of  1940,  large  sections  of  the  popula- 
tion were  reported  to  be  severely  undernourished 
or  facing  starvation.  Effective  December  1  the 
bread  ration  for  the  rich  and  well-to-do  was  re- 
duced to  increase  the  quantity  available  for  the 
poor.  The  government  ordered  the  cultivation  in 
1941  of  all  lands  that  had  been  under  the  plow 
since  1900.  Only  the  relaxation  of  the  British 
blockade  to  permit  imports  of  com,  obtained  on 
credit  from  Argentina,  and  of  Red  Cross  food 
supplies  from  the  United  States  prevented  actual 
famine  in  certain  districts.  The  Civil  Governor  of 
Madrid  on  December  20  declared  that  "the  hunger 
and  misery  of  Spain  grieves  us  to  the  heart,"  but 
could  offer  little  hope  for  an  improvement  of  con- 
ditions. This  was  because  the  Spanish  Government 
was  unwilling  to  give  the  political  assurances  and 
make  the  adjustments  of  foreign  policy  that  would 
have  opened  the  way  for  large-scale  importations 
of  food  and  other  essential  supplies  from  the  Unit- 
ed States,  Latin  America,  and  the  British  Empire 
countries. 

Political  Trends.  The  restriction  of  overseas 
imports  into  Spain  by  the  British  blockade  was 
introduced  after  the  Madrid  Government  showed 
every  intention  of  throwing  in  its  lot  with  the  Axis 
powers  in  the  hope  of  consolidating  the  Fascist 
system  in  Spain  and  securing  territorial  compen- 
sation at  the  expense  of  Britain  and  France.  The 
British  used  the  blockade  as  an  effective  weapon 
for  cutting  off  transhipments  of  war  materials  to 
Germany  through  Spain  and  also  for  keeping  Spain 
neutral  by  restricting  imports  to  bare  subsistence 
requirements.  See  GREAT  BRITAIN  under  History 
for  further  details. 

Britain's  fear  that  General  Franco  would  either 
join  in  the  conflict,  or  permit  German  troops  to 
cross  Spain  to  attack  Gibraltar,  was  deepened  not 
only  by  Franco's  foreign  policies  (see  below)  but 
also  by  the  strengthening  of  the  power  of  the  pro- 
Axis  Fascist  section  of  the  Falange  Espafiola  as 
against  the  other  elements  in  the  government  party 
•—monarchists,  some  army  officers,  and  clericals — 
who  in  general  favored  a  policy  of  neutrality. 

The  pro-Axis  trend  was  reflected  in  the  replace- 
ment of  the  outspoken  Air  Minister,  Gen.  Juan 
Yague,  on  June  28  by  Gen.  Juan  Vig6n  Suerodiaz. 
General  Franco  on  October  17  ousted  Col.  Juan 
Beigbeder  y  Atienza,  another  pro-neutral  army 
leader,  from  the  key  post  of  Foreign  Minister.  He 
appointed  to  the  vacancy  his  brother-in-law,  Ser- 


rano Sufier,  Minister  of  Interior  and  the  strongly 
pro-Axis  leader  of  the  Spanish  Fascist  movement 
Serrano  Suner  declared  that  his  appointment 
meant  Spain's  acceptance  of  the  "new  order"  in 
Europe.  Franco  himself  took  over  Serrano  Sufter's 
former  post  of  Minister  of  the  Interior. 

Earlier  in  the  year  the  political  pendulum  ap- 
peared to  be  swinging  away  from  the  Fascists  and 
their  program.  In  opposition  to  the  Fascists,  the 
government  on  March  6  decreed  the  return  to  the 
grandees  of  the  lands  expropriated  by  the  republic 
for  distribution  among  the  peasants.  On  January 
27  the  extensive  properties  and  lands  of  the  Jesu- 
its, confiscated  by  the  republican  government  in 
1932,  were  restored  by  decree.  This  appeared  to 
open  the  way  for  a  settlement  of  the  controversy 
over  the  appointment  of  Spanish  bishops  that  had 
deadlocked  negotiations  for  a  concordat  between 
the  Vatican  and  the  Franco  Government  late  in 
1939  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  719).  Nevertheless 
the  deadlock  continued  through  1940.  The  Vatican 
organ  Osservatore  Romano  on  October  5  issued 
an  unprecedented  rebuke  to  Serrano  Suner,  who  as 
special  envoy  of  Franco  had  visited  Rome  for  con- 
sultations with  Italian  officials  without  making  the 
customary  request  for  a  pontifical  audience.  The 
wealthy  were  likewise  antagonized  by  further 
heavy  increases  in  taxes,  decreed  December  22, 
and  by  General  Franco's  order  of  July  17  increas- 
ing wages  of  day  laborers  by  one-sixth. 

Treatment  of  Opposition.  Another  sign  of 
extremist  domination  of  the  government  was  the 
continued  harsh  repression  of  the  elements  that 
had  fought  to  defend  the  republic.  Vatican  sources 
reported  on  January  25  that  Spanish  prisons  and 
concentration  camps  still  held  500,000  political 
prisoners,  including  a  number  of  priests,  and  that 
25  persons  had  been  executed  the  preceding  month. 

The  government  on  March  2  promulgated  a  law 
aimed  primarily  at  Masonry.  It  provided  for  the 
dissolution  of  all  secret  orders,  the  confiscation  of 
their  properties,  and  imprisonment  for  six  years 
of  persons  engaging  in  propaganda  on  their  behalf. 
The  police  on  June  19  announced  the  breaking  up 
of  "a  vast  and  clandestine  organization"  supported 
by  Spanish  Communists  living  abroad.  The  execu- 
tion of  Luis  Companys,  former  head  of  the  au- 
tonomous government  established  in  Catalonia  un- 
der the  republic,  was  announced  October  16.  Six 
days  later  five  other  prominent  members  of  the 
former  Republican  Government  were  sentenced  to 
death,  despite  appeals  for  clemency  from  some  of 
the  Spanish-American  republics.  These  men  were 
among  about  90  prominent  Catalan  and  Republi- 
can leaders  who  had  taken  refuge  in  France  and 
were  turned  over  to  the  Franco  Government  by  the 
P£tain  regime. 

Seeking  to  check  the  rising  tide  of  popular  dis- 
content, the  government  toward  the  end  of  the 
year  arrested  several  hundred  merchants  and  man- 
ufacturers charged  with  profiteering  or  hoarding 
and  sent  them  to  labor  camps.  Steps  were  also  tak- 
en to  tighten  restrictions  upon  the  press  and  other 
forms  of  communication. 

Expansionist  Aims.  The  serious  internal  situ- 
ation served  as  an  effective  brake  upon  Spain's  en- 
trance into  the  European  War  on  the  side  of  the 
Axis  so  long  as  Britain  appeared  able  to  continue 
the  struggle.  But  it  did  not  curb  the  expansionist 
aims  of  the  Franco  Government  nor  prevent  it 
from  making  all  preparations  for  taking  the  great- 
est possible  advantage  of  a  British  defeat. 

The  government  continued  to  spend  large  sums 
upon  its  fighting  forces.  The  Civil  Guard,  Spain's 


SPAIN 


709 


SPAIN 


famous  rural  police  force,  was  placed  under  army 
control  on  March  17.  On  August  20  the  compul- 
sory military  service  term  was  increased  to  two 
years  instead  of  one.  War  Minister  Varela  visited 
the  strategically  situated  Canary  Islands  at  the  end 
of  October  and  on  December  29  General  Franco 
authorized  the  "urgent"  expropriation  of  lands  at 
Las  Palmas  in  the  Canaries  for  the  construction  of 
a  large  military  base.  By  a  decree  of  December  6, 
all  boys  and  youths  between  7  and  22  years  of  age 
were  organized  in  a  Youth  Front  for  political  and 
pre-military  training. 

The  extent  of  Nationalist  ambitions  was  re- 
vealed during  the  French  military  debacle  in  June, 
when  it  seemed  probable  that  Britain  too  would 
soon  surrender.  On  May  13,  a  Foreign  Office  com- 
munique" had  reaffirmed  Spain's  policy  of  neutrali- 
ty, proclaimed  in  1939.  A  month  later  (June  13), 
following  Italy's  entrance  into  the  war,  General 
Franco  substituted  a  policy  of  "non-belligerency" 
for  that  of  neutrality.  According  to  the  newspaper 
Amba,  organ  of  the  Falange  Espanola,  "non-bel- 
ligerency" implied  all  aid  to  the  Axis  powers  short 
of  actual  entrance  into  the  war.  On  June  14  Span- 
ish troops  occupied  Tangier  (q.v.)  in  defiance  of 
the  Allied  powers  signatory  to  the  treaty  interna- 
tionalizing that  territory,  and  on  November  14  it 
was  incorporated  into  Spanish  Morocco.  There 
were  reports  that  Spain  was  fortifying  the  Tan- 
gier Zone,  with  the  aid  of  German  engineers,  and 
installing  long-range  guns  capable  of  covering  the 
Strait  and  bombarding  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar  on 
the  opposite  side. 

In  mid-June,  coincident  with  the  announcement 
that  Germany  and  Italy  had  invited  Spain  to  par- 
ticipate in  drafting  the  peace  terms  to  be  offered 
France,  the  Nationalist  press  called  for  the  ces- 
sion to  Spam  of  Gibraltar,  part  of  French  Moroc- 
co, and  the  principality  of  Andorra  in  the  Pyre- 
nees. 

Much  emphasis  was  placed  upon  the  opportunity 
that  an  Axis  victory  would  present  for  the  exten- 
sion of  Spanish  influence  in  Latin  America.  Gen- 
eral Franco  on  November  7  established  a  Council 
of  Hispanicism  to  strengthen  Spain's  relations 
with  Spanish  America  and  the  Philippines.  For- 
eign Minister  Serrano  Suner  aroused  some  alarm 
and  much  criticism  in  Latin  America  by  compar- 
ing the  new  Council  to  the  Council  of  the  Indies, 
through  which  Spain  once  ruled  the  American 
colonies.  Arnba  on  October  13  proclaimed  Spain's 
determination  to  defend  the  rights  of  the  Latin 
American  nations,  protect  the  Spanish  spirit  there, 
and  extend  the  "new  order"  being  established  in 
Europe  to  Latin  America. 

With  this  objective  in  view,  the  Spanish  Gov- 
ernment and  press,  acting  in  conjunction  with 
Falangist  branches  in  the  Latin  American  coun- 
tries, fought  to  curb  the  influence  of  the  United 
States  in  Hispanic  America  and  to  disrupt  the  Pan 
American  movement  (see  PAN  AMERICANISM). 
The  negotiations  between  Uruguay  and  the  United 
States  for  the  construction  of  inter-American  de- 
fense bases  in  Uruguay  with  American  aid  pro- 
voked a  furore  of  denunciation  in  Spain.  How- 
ever Spain's  assumption  of  a  "big  brother"  role 
toward  the  Spanish  American  nations  was  not  at- 
tended with  great  success.  See  ARGENTINA,  CHILE, 
COLOMBIA,  CUBA,  ECUADOR,  MEXICO,  and  URU- 
GUAY, under  History. 

Negotiations  with  the  Axis.  When  German 
troops  extended  their  occupation  of  France  to  the 
Spanish  frontier  on  June  28-29,  they  received  a 
cordial  welcome  and  promises  of  material  and 


moral  support  from  Spanish  army  officers  and  of- 
ficials. During  the  summer  and  autumn,  while  the 
fate  of  Britain  hung  in  the  balance,  the  Spanish 
press  prepared  the  country  for  entrance  into  the 
conflict  on  the  side  of  the  Axis  and  a  joint  Span- 
ish-German attack  upon  Gibraltar.  On  July  17 
General  Franco  told  a  gathering  of  officers  that 
"there  remains  for  us  as  a  duty  and  a  national  mis- 
sion control  of  Gibraltar,  expansion  in  Africa  and 
continuance  in  the  policy  of  unity."  There  were 
accompanying  demonstrations  in  Madrid  and  other 
cities  demanding  the  return  of  Gibraltar. 

While  refusing  German  and  Italian  pressure  for 
an  immediate  declaration  of  war,  General  Franco 
in  September  sent  Serrano  Suner  to  Berlin  and 
Rome  to  lay  the  foundations  for  closer  Spanish 
collaboration  with  the  Axis  and  to  obtain  specific 
pledges  concerning  the  territorial  compensation  to 
be  obtained  in  return.  This  involved  an  adjustment 
of  conflicting  Italian  and  Spanish  claims  in  French 
Morocco,  reported  to  have  been  effected  through 
the  influence  of  Hitler.  The  Rome  press  on  Octo- 
ber 1,  during  Serrano  Suner's  visit,  stated  that 
Spain's  role  in  the  Axis  was  fixed,  but  that  she 
would  bide  her  time  to  "strike  for  her  rights." 

As  British  resistance  stiffened  and  Axis  difficul- 
ties grew,  both  Italy  and  Germany  increased  pres- 
sure upon  General  Franco  for  more  active  aid.  In 
this  they  were  supported  by  the  Spanish  Fascists. 
On  October  23  Chancellor  Hitler  conferred  with 
Franco  at  the  Spanish  border  and  reportedly 
sought  to  persuade  him  to  allow  German  troops  to 
cross  Spanish  territory  to  attack  Gibraltar,  with- 
out calling  on  Spain's  military  assistance  Franco 
was  said  to  have  replied  that  the  crucial  food 
shortage  did  not  permit  of  even  this  limited  co-op- 
eration with  the  Reich.  However  Spanish-German 
relations  became  increasingly  close.  The  opening 
of  a  rail  link  across  France  permitted  the  shipment 
of  considerable  quantities  of  Spanish  iron  ore  and 
other  minerals,  almonds,  fruits,  etc.,  to  Germany 
in  return  for  some  manufactured  articles.  On  No- 
vember 18  Serrano  Suner  returned  to  Berlin  for 
further  conferences  with  Hitler,  during  which  ter- 
ritorial annexations  were  again  discussed.  Subse- 
quently the  Spanish  press  began  to  bring  pressure 
upon  the  Vichy  Government  for  territorial  conces- 
sions in  Morocco. 

Hostility  to  United  States.  Spanish  press  at- 
tacks upon  United  States  policies,  particularly 
Washington's  aid  to  Britain  and  support  of  inter- 
American  co-operation,  became  extremely  violent 
during  November  while  the  Uruguayan  base  issue 
was  under  discussion.  However  a  hostile  demon- 
stration before  the  U.S.  Embassy  in  Madrid  by 
university  students  brought  an  apology  from  the 
Franco  Government  on  November  22,  and  a  curb 
on  the  anti-American  press  campaign.  The  primary 
reason  for  this  change  was  the  refusal  of  the  State 
Department  at  Washington  to  proceed  with  nego- 
tiations for  food  shipments  to  Spain  until  the 
Franco  Government  adopted  a  more  friendly  atti- 
tude toward  both  Britain  and  the  United  States. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  year  Washington,  with 
Britain's  consent,  agreed  to  permit  the  American 
Red  Cross  to  send  a  few  million  dollars'  worth  of 
food  and  medical  supplies  to  Spain.  More  sub- 
stantial aid  to  Spain  in  the  form  of  credits  for  the 
purchase  of  foodstuffs,  cotton,  etc.,  was  prevented 
by  Franco's  adherence  to  his  pro-Axis  policies. 
The  United  States  also  objected  to  Spain's  mili- 
tary occupation  of  Tangier  (q.v.). 

For  the  Spanish-Portuguese  mutual  assistance 
pact  of  July  30,  see  PORTUGAL  under  History.  Also 


SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES  710  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES 


see  BELGIUM,  FRANCE,  GERMANY,  GREAT  BRITAIN, 
ITALY,  and  MOROCCO,  under  History;  FASCISM; 
INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  ;  LABOR  CONDITIONS. 

SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES. 
World  conditions  have  made  it  very  difficult  to  as- 
semble materials  for  such  articles  as  these.  Con- 
sequently this  presentation  of  the  year's  activities 
must  not  be  token  as  exhaustive,  nor  must  the 
omission  of  any  country  be  held  as  evidence  that 
it  was  non-productive  in  1940. 

The  following  works  are  of  general  interest: 
John  Tate  Lanning,  Academic  Culture  in  the  Span- 
ish Colonies;  Dwight  Carroll  Miner,  The  Fight 
for  the  Panama  Route,  the  Story  of  the  Spooner 
Act  and  the  Hay-Herran  Treaty ;  Miles  P.  Du- 
val,  Jr.,  Cadiz  to  Cathay: the  Story  of  the  Long 
Struggle  for  a  Waterway  Across  the  American 
Isthmus  (both  books  important  and  supplement 
each  other)  ;  Duncan  Aikman,  The  All-American 
Front;  Lewis  Hanke  and  Raul  d'Eca,  Handbook 
of  Latin  American  Studies  1938;  John  T.  Whita- 
ker,  Americas  to  the  South  (objective  and  timely 
study  of  conditions  in  the  Hispanic  countries). 

Argentina.  Of  the  materials  that  have  come  to 
hand,  the  field  of  erudition  shows  the  heaviest  con- 
tributions, with  verse  in  second  place. 

Prizes.  The  Comision  Nacional  de  Cultura 
awarded  the  prizes  for  Criticism,  Philosophy,  and 
Essays  for  the  triennium  1937-39 :  the  first  to  the 
important  critical  history  El  Arte  de  los  Argen- 
tines, by  Jose*  Le6n  Pagano;  the  second  to  La 
£tica  formal  y  los  valor es,  by  Carlos  Astrada; 
and  the  third  to  Tres  Ensayos  espanoles,  by 
Ignacio  B.  Anzoategui.  The  prizes  for  History 
for  the  same  triennium  were  awarded  as  follows : 
to  Ram6n  J.  Carcano,  La  guerra  del  Paraguay; 
to  Col.  Juan  Beverma,  Las  invasiones  inglesas  al 
Rio  de  la  Plata;  and  to  Juan  Alfonso  Carrizo, 
Cancionero  popular  de  las  provincias  de  Salt  a, 
Jujuy,  y  Tucumdn,  y  cantares  de  Tucumdn.  First 
prize  in  the  poetry  contest  held  in  Buenos  Aires 
by  the  journal,  Martin  Fierrof  went  to  Juan  Ro- 
dolfo  Wilcock  for  his  Libro  de  Condones  y 
Poemas.  The  Municipality  of  Buenos  Aires'  first 
prize  in  literature  for  1939  was  awarded  to  Au- 
gusto  Mario  Delfino  for  his  group  of  short  stories 
entitled  Fin  de  Siglo. 

Drama.  Ricardo  Rojas  continued  his  triumph 
with  successive  editions  of  Oll&ntay  (first  per- 
formed with  such  acclaim  in  1939).  It  should  be 
remembered  that  Rojas  began  working  on  this 
play  as  early  as  1909,  his  father,  being  governor 
of  a  Quechua-speaking  province  of  Argentina.  His 
more  recent  work,  Un  Titan  de  los  Andes,  sets 
forth  his  scholarly  investigations  concerning  the 
transmission  of  the  legend  from  earliest  times 
down  to  the  present.  Ataliva  Herrera  (a  poet  of 
real  distinction  and  grace)  produced  Las  vir genes 
del  Sol,  highly  praised  for  his  re-creation  of  the 
city  of  Cuzco,  capital  of  Peru,  as  of  November, 
1532.  Maestro  Alfredo  L.  Schiuma  set  it  to  music 
and  it  was  performed,  and  won  great  applause,  in 
the  Teatro  Colon  at  Buenos  Aires. 

Verse.  Julia  Prilutzky  Farny  de  Zmny  produced 
Viaje  sin  partida  (25  exquisite  sonnets,  a  love 
story,  by  a  woman  graduate  in  law  and  a  master 
analyst  of  the  human  soul),  and  J.  Alfredo  Fontao, 
Ldmpara  de  amor  (nearly  fifty  sincere,  dainty 
poems  all  addressed  to  one  lady). 

Erudition.  Bibhoteca  "La  tradicidn  Argentina" 
(appearing  weekly)  has  already  published  35  vols. 
of  about  150  pages  each.  Other  works  of  erudition 
that  may  be  listed  are:  Madaline  W.  Nichols, 
Sarmiento:  a  Chronicle  of  Inter-American  Friend- 


(a 
da 


(important  contribution  to  inter-American 
studies,  new  information  concerning  this  great  Ar- 
gentinian who  did  so  much  to  give  his  country* 
men  a  faithful  interpretation  of  us)  ;  Enrique 
Larreta,  Tiempos  iluminados  (charming  book  of 
reminiscences  of  outstanding  moments  in  the  life 
of  the  author  from  early  childhood  through  his 
last  diplomatic  visit  to  Bordeaux)  ;  Aida  Cometta 
Manzoni,  El  Indio  en  la  Poesia  de  America  Es- 
panola  ;  Manuel  Galvez,  Vida  de  Hipdlito  Yrigo- 
yent  el  hombre  del  misterio  (powerfully  written)  ; 
Alberto  Rembao,  Mensaje,  movimtento,  y  masa 
a  spiritual  book  with  a  world  vision  of  present 

y  problems). 

Academi*  Argentina  de  Letras.  Early  in  the 
year,  Juan  P.  Ramos,  member-elect,  was  formally 
received,  with  the  reading  of  his  entrance  dis- 
course, Juan  Maria  Gutierrez.  At  the  request  of 
the  members-elect,  the  Academia  at  its  meeting 
April  25,  voted  to  receive  formally  this  year  only 
two  of  them,  Juan  Alvarez  and  Jose"  Leon  Pagano, 
and  leave  the  other  two  (Ramon  J.  Carcano  and 
Enrique  Banchs)  for  initiation  in  1941. 

Necrology.  Argentina  suffered  several  severe 
losses  from  among  her  men-of  -letters,  her  states- 
men, and  her  teachers  and  scholars. 

Guillot,  Victor  Jam.  Novelist,  dramatist,  historian, 
orator,  journalist,  educator,  statesman  (elected  four  times 
as  Deputy  to  the  Chamber),  and  outstanding  parliamen- 
tarian, died  in  August.  Among  his  principal  writings  are: 
Htstorias  nn  tmportancta  (second  Municipal  Prize,  1921); 
El  alma  en  el  po*o  (first  Municipal  Prize,  1925);  Terror 
(short  stories,  1938);  La  aventura  del  hombre  (seven 
plays,  1938);  Paralclo  55  (travel  stories  from  his  exile 
in  the  south);  Heroitmo  ctvtl,  and  an  historical  work, 
Cobildos  Colontales 

Onettt,  Osjrlos  Maria.  Influential  professor  and  investi- 
gator of  Argentine  and  American  literatures  and  folklore 
in  the  Institute  Nacional  del  Profesorado  in  Parana,  died 
July  25.  His  last  work,  Cuatro  closes  sobre  Sarmiento. 
escritorf  was  published  by  the  University  of  Tucumdn  and 
is  considered  very  important.  As  a  poet  he  is  known  for 
three  inspired  works:  El  desfile  amoroso,  El  barco  de  vela, 
and  Prownciamta  con  estrellas  federate*. 

Garcia,  Qin6s.  Brilliant  poet,  died  July  18,  at  the  age 
of  twenty-five.  His  first  book.  Las  Ausencias,  appeared 
in  1935,  when  he  was  twenty.  It  was  prologued  by  Roberto 
Giusti,  Director  of  Nosotros,  who  went  especially  to  San 
Nicolas,  where  the  burial  took  place,  and  made  an  address 
setting  forth  his  judgment  of  the  poet's  merits. 

Bolivia.  The  materials  that  have  reached  us 
from  Bolivia  are  chiefly  erudition. 

Fiction.  Roberto  Leiton,  Los  Eternos  Vaga- 
bundos  (sympathetic  study  of  the  tragedy  of  the 
Bolivian  tin  mines;  many  striking  pictures  of 
nature  and  the  natives). 

Erudition.  Gustavo  Adolfo  Otero  edits  Tihu- 
anacu  (Antologfa  de  los  principals  escritos  de  los 
cronistas  coloniales  americanistas  e  historiadores 
bolivianos),  an  enlightening  sketch  of  3000  years 
of  pre-Colombian  Tihuanacu  culture  and  its  spread 
from  Easter  Island,  west  of  Chile,  to  the  Rio  Ne- 
gro in  Amazonas.  Abelardo  Villalpando  Retamozo, 
La  Cuestidn  del  Indio,  a  keen  study,  with  a  purview 
of  Bolivian  history  from  ancient  times  to  the  pres- 
ent. Aquiles  Vergara  Vicuna,  El  Mar,  nexo  de  pax 
entre  Bolivia  y  Chile,  a  strong,  documented  plea 
for  the  return  of  the  port  of  Arica  to  Bolivia. 

Chile.  Chile  this  past  year  was  long  on  erudi- 
tion as  compared  with  other  forms  of  literature, 
fiction  taking  second  place. 

Erudition.  Luis  Alberto  Sanchez,  Garcilaso 
Inca  de  let  Vega  (valuable,  fascinating  accounts, 
accompanied  by  a  glossary  of  Quechua  phrases)  ; 
Domingo  Amunategui  Solar,  Estudios  Histdricos 
(interesting  series  of  essays)  ;  Roberto  Meza 
Fuentes,  De  Dias  Mirdn  a  Rubin  Dario  (course 
at  title  University  of  Chile  on  the  evolution  of 
Hispanic-  American  poetry)  ;  Guillermo  Rojas  Car- 


SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES  711  SPANISH- AMERICAN  LITERATURES 


ratcp,  Filoloffia  Chilena:  Guia  bibliogrdfica  y 
critic*  (first  prize  of  the  Academia  Chilena  de  la 
Lengua)  ;  Victor  M.  Vergara,  La  Isla  de  Pascua 
— Dominacidn  y  Dominio  (publicaciones  de  la  Aca- 
demia Chilena  de  la  Historia),  authoritative  book 
concerning  the  history  and  complications  of  the 
ownership  of  Easter  Island;  Antonio  Roco  del 
Campo,  Panorama  y  Color  de  Chile  (to  be  recom- 
mended to  foreigners  who  wish  to  get  a  back- 
ground for  understanding  Chileans  and  their  cul- 
ture; Julio  Vicufta  Cifuentes,  Prosas  de  Otros 
Dias,  a  posthumous  work  collected  (from  many 
sources  of  original  appearance)  and  published  by 
the  son;  Julio  Vicufia  Luco. 

Fiction.  Luis  Durand,  Mi  Amiga  PidSn  y 
Otros  Relates  (ten  excellent  short  stories  about 
country  life  in  southern  Chile) ;  Sady  Zanartu, 
Chile  cito  (23  short  stories  dealing  with  Chilean 
life,  history,  outlook  on  life,  and  social  conditions 
of  today)  ;  Juan  Marin,  Orestes  y  yo  (psychologi- 
cal novel  written  by  a  doctor  concerning  a  doctor 
and  his  wife  and  son,  all  three  of  them  abnormal)  ; 
Hugo  Blym,  Puno  (a  careful  study  of  another 
phase  of  the  Indigenist  problem). 

Prizes.  The  1938  Chilean  Writers'  Society 
Prize  went  to  Rube*n  Az6car  for  his  novel,  Genie 
en  la  Isla.  The  Faculty  of  Philosophy  and  Educa- 
tion in  the  University  of  Chile  offered  a  reward 
for  the  best  study  of  Alberto  Blest  Gana.  Owing 
to  the  excellence  of  the  best  two  studies  the  com- 
mittee decided  to  split  the  prize  between  them, 
awarding  one  half  to  each  author.  The  one  by 
Hernan  Diaz  Arrieta  (pen-name  "Alone")  ap- 
peared as  Don  Alberto  Blest  Gana:  Biografia  y 
Critica  (the  best  study  thus  far  about  Blest  Gana 
or  any  Chilean  author). 

Necrology.  The  Academia  Chilena  de  la  Len- 
gua  lost  heavily  through  death  during  the  year. 

Silvft  Vild6sola,  Carlos.  Born  in  Cheihuaihue  (Angol), 
studied  in  the  Lyceo  de  Chilian,  the  Institute  Nacional, 
the  Colegio  de  San  Ignacio,  and  the  Universidad  Cat6Hca. 
Thereafter  he  devoted  himself  to  journalism  and  was  sec- 
retary of  the  Chilean  Legation  at  London  (1900-02)  He 
belonged  to  the  Socie'te'  des  Gens  de  Lettres,  Pans,  and 
held  the  decorations  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  Commander 
of  the  Order  of  the  British  Empire,  Knight  of  the  Order 
of  San  Mauncio  y  San  L&zaro,  and  officer  of  the  Order  of 
Leopold  of  Belgium  Possessed  of  an  easy  and  picturesque 
style,  he  gave  us  two  novels:  La  Montana  and  Bnsas  de 
mar.  a  travel  book,  En  la  nieve  (Santiago,  1913),  a  study, 
Pcrwdismo  y  letra*  en  Chile  (1914),  Del  dolor  y  de  la 
mucrte  la  guerra  vtsta  por  un  chtleno  (1916).  and  Le 
Chili  et  la  Guerre  Despite  his  brilliant  qualities  that  would 
have  permitted  him  to  play  an  outstanding  role  in  any 
congress,  politics  never  tempted  him.  He  died  Dec.  22, 
1939,  at  the  age  of  70. 

Barriga,  Juan  Agnstln.  Writer  and  lawyer,  bora  in 
Santiago,  1853,  pursued  his  studies  in  the  Institute 
Nacional  and  in  the  University  of  Chile,  early  collaborated 
on  the  newspaper,  La  Estrclla  de  Chile,  becoming  later 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  review.  Arte  y  Lctras  (1884). 
He  was  also  professor  of  the  University  of  Chile  and  of 
the  Catholic  University,  and  served  as  deputy  of  the 
conservative  party  Because  of  the  political  incidents  of 
1891,  he  was  exiled  and  resided  for  a  while  in  Montevideo 
and  Buenos  Aires.  He  was  the  oldest  member  of  the 
Academia  Chilena  (Correspondiente  de  la  Academia  Es- 
pafiola)  since  the  Real  Academia  Espanola  elected  him 
directly  Correspondiente  in  1895,  during  a  period  when 
the  Academia  Chilena  was  inactive.  He  was  also  Cor- 
respondiente of  the  Real  Academia  Scvillana  de  Buenas 
Letras.  Among  his  published  works  are  De  la  lenaua 
cattellana  como  tnstrumento  de  art*  literario;  Don  Mar- 
celino  MenendeM  y  Pelayo;  and  Ducursos  y  notas  critic  as, 

Ecneniane  Gandarlllas,  Joi6  Miguel.  Elected  to  mem- 
bership in  the  Academia  Chilena,  he  took  possession  of  his 
chair,  Nov.  18,  1937,  but  his  membership  in  the  Academy 
was  of  such  short  duration  that  his  entrance  discourse 
could  not  be  published  until  the  numbers  25  and  26  of 
Tome  VII,  published  in  1940  and  bearing  the  news  of 

Poblttt  Bscudero,  Egidlo.  Man-oMetters  and  journal- 
ist, born  in  Los  Andes,  Nov.  25,  1860.  After  completing 
the  Humanities  course  in  the  Seminary  of  Santiago,  and 
•erring  in  several  administrative  capacities,  he  became 


professor  in  the  Naval  School,  1901-05.  Thereafter  he 
devoted  himself  almost  wholly  to  journalism  and  figured 
on  the  editorial  staff  of  La  Union  of  Valparaiso;  of  El 
Pais,  of  Concepci6n,  of  which  he  was  aim  Director;  and 
of  El  Mercuric,  having  made  popular  during  this  period 
the  pseudonym  of  "RonquiHo.  In  1928  he  was  made 
Secretary-General  of  the  Central  Chamber  of  Commerce. 
As  Director  and  President  of  the  Circulo  de  la  Prensa  of 
Valparaiso,  he  organized  the  Federacidn  Nacional  de  PC- 
riodlstas  and  the  holding  of  the  Congreso  de  la  Prensa. 
He  published  poems,  short  stories,  novels,  and  dramas. 
Among  his  other  publications  may  be  mentioned:  Humo* 
radas  (collection  of  his  articles);  Tratado  del  Derecho 
industrial;  Cuentos  de  Ronquilh;  a  translation  of  Virgil's 
Aeneid  into  harmonious  Castilian  verse;  a  very  fine  novel, 
La  Avenida  de  la*  Acaceat,  and  his  drama.  La  Mnjer  de 
d tar.  His  verse  translation  of  the  Aeneid  was  so 
approved  by  Chileans  and  others  that  the  Chilean  / 

ot  the  Language,  of  which  he  was  a  member,   

him  for   the  Nobel  Prize,  an  act  which  will   suffice  to 
prove  what  his  fellow  academicians  thought  of  him. 

Colombia.  Erudition.  Max  Grillo,  El  H ombre 
de  las  Leyes  (estudio  del  General  Francisco  de 
Paulo  Santander  en  la  Guerra  de  la  Independ- 
encia) ;  Ignacio  £.  Copete,  La  Fiducia  (t6sis  de 
grado  para  obtener  el  titulo  de  Doctor  en  Derecho 
y  Ciencias  Politicas)  ;  Daniel  Ortega  Ricaurte,  La 
Hoya  del  Atnasonas,  (obra  laureada  con  el  primer 
premio  de  la  Sociedad  Geografica  de  Colombia  y 
de  la  Universidad  Nacional  en  el  concurso  de 
1938) ;  Jose  Manuel  P6rez  Sarmiento,  Causa* 
Celebris  a  los  Precursores,  Tomo  I ;  Nicolas  Gar- 
cfa  Samudio,  Crdnica  del  muy  Magnifico  Capitdn, 
Don  Gonsalo  Sudres  Renddn,  publication  of  the 
Colombian  Academy  of  History  as  a  homage  to 
the  city  of  Tunja  on  the  fourth  centenary  of  its 
founding ;  Luis  Augusto  Cuervo,  Bailes  de  Antano, 
a  bit  of  history  of  the  social  life  of  the  country  in 
connection  with  its  social  and  native  dances ;  Man- 
uel Jose  Forero,  Santander,  Prdcer  de  la  Inde- 
pendencia  Nacional ;  B.  Matos-Urtado,  Perfiles  de 
Santander  y  un  Diario  intdito  de  su  enferntedad  y 
muerte  (1840-1940) ;  1840  Muerte  de  Santander 
(Publicacion  Colombiana  de  Historia),  highly  il- 
lustrated and  documented  volume. 

Verse.  A.  Ortiz-Vargas,  Las  Torres  de  Man- 
hattan, a  very  attractive,  sympathetic  picture  and 
analysis  of  what  New  York  stands  for  in  matters 
of  culture,  in  the  form  of  an  epic  poem ;  German 
Pardo  Garcfa,  Seleccidn  de  sus  Poemas,  and  Pres- 
encia  which  some  critics  claim  is  the  finest  expres- 
sion of  Colombian  verse. 

Necrology.  The  following  death  occurred  dur- 
ing December  of  1939: 

Ooenaga,  Florentine.  Man-of-lerters  and  government 
official;  born  in  Riohacha  in  1859;  died  in  Santa  Marta. 
Colombia,  Dec.  14,  1939  Studied  in  the  Colegio  del 
Espiritu  Santu  where  he  obtained  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Jurisprudence  and  Professor  of  Political  Science.  As  soon 
as  he  finished  his  career,  he  was  called  by  the  members 
of  the  Junta  de  Delegacies  Conservadores.  He  went  to 
Spain  in  1884  and  remained  there  a  year  as  an  agrgge' 
ot  the  Colombian  Legation.  Back  in  his  own  country  he 
served  from  1886  to  1888  as  fiscal  of  the  Tribunal  of 
Cnndinamarca  and  was  elected  magistrate  of  the  Tribunal 
of  Magdalena  In  1800  he  figured  as  deputy  for  Riohacha 
and  Valledupaz  and  in  the  congresses  of  1892  and  1894 
as  Senator.  In  1891  he  was  Rector  of  the  University  of 
Bolivar  and  1893.  the  Prefect  of  Riohacha. 

Cuba.  Erudition.  Gerardo  Castellanos  G.,  Pen- 
sando  en  Agramonte:  Habana — Catnaguey,  schol- 
arly work  dealing  with  one  of  Cuba's  most  import- 
ant  historical  personages;  Carlos  Enriquez,  Tilin 
Garcia  (a  novel  of  the  Guajiro  similar  to  La  trage- 
dia  del  Guajiro,  by  Ciro  Espinosa,  mentioned  in 
the  1939  YEAR  BOOK;  Alberto  Arredondo,  El  Ne- 
gro en  Cuba,  a  real  study  to  evaluate  the  Cuban 
Negro  as  an  integral  part  of  the  Island  national- 
ity ;  Francisco  Gonzalez  del  Valle,  Heredia  en  la 
Habana,  part  of  a  series  of  "cuadernos  de  la  his- 
toria  habanera";  Alfonso  E.  Paez,  Recordando  a 


SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES  712  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES 


Hercdia,  a  series  in  one  volume  of  illuminating 
critical  essays  on  Heredia ;  Cosme  de  la  Torriente, 
Cuarenta  Anos  de  mi  Vido,  1898-1938  (the  author 
had  a  share  in  the  military  rebellion  which  finally 
overthrew  the  Spanish  dominion  and  in  the  resto- 
ration work  which  brought  about  the  establish- 
ment of  the  republic). 

Fiction.  Enrique  Serpa,  Dias  de  Trinidad,  an 
important  little  volume  first  appearing  as  a  series 
of  newspaper  articles  in  El  Pais,  now  reappearing 
in  book  form  as  a  direct  result  of  a  genuine  de- 
mand on  the  part  of  several  internationally-known 
Cuban  men  -of  -letters ;  Lydia  Cabrera,  Cuentos 
Negros  de  Cuba,  an  important  volume  of  22  folk 
tales  collected  by  the  author — the  first  Cuban 
woman  in  the  field  of  Afro-Cuban  folklore^-with 
a  prologue  by  Fernando  Ortiz,  the  Vice-Director 
of  the  Academia  Cubana  himself  an  authority  on 
Afro-Cuban  affairs. 

Dominican  Republic.  Erudition.  Pedro  Hen- 
riquez Urena,  Plenitud  de  Espana  (E studios  de 
Historia  de  la  Cultura),  and  El  Espanol  en  Santo 
Domingo;  Charles  Callan  Tansill,  The  US.  and 
Santo  Domingo,  1798-1873,  important  account  of 
diplomatic  history  based  on  wide  research  in  ar- 
chives of  France,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  and 
U.S. ;  Flerida  de  Nolasco,  De  Musica  espanola,  an 
attractive  second  work  completing  her  first  work 
on  music;  Manuel  A.  Pena  Battle,  Las  Devasta- 
ciones  de  1605  i  1606  (contribucidn  al  e studio  de  la 
realidad  dominicana) ,  published  by  the  Comision 
de  Publicaciones  as  a  valuable  addition  to  Domini- 
can history;  Manuel  Rodriguez  Objio,  Gregorio 
Luperon  e  Historia  de  la  Restoracion,  important 
historical  document  published  by  the  government 
to  commemorate  the  first  centenary  of  the  death 
of  the  author ;  Leonardo  Henriquez  (son  of  the 
celebrated  Dominican  diplomat  and  historian,  Max 
Henriquez  Urena) ,  Cartilla  Diplom&tica,  a  useful 
handbook  for  beginning  diplomats ;  Pablo  Peralta, 
El  Evangelio  del  Gaucho  Juan  Claridd,  the  gaucho 
evangel  of  Juan  Clarida  constitutes  a  civic  and  lay 
moral  for  every  day. 

Verse.  Enrique  Henriques,  Noctumos  i  otros 
poemas,  a  volume  of  unusually  beautiful  poems 
representing  different  ages  and  experiences  of  life ; 
Carmen  Natalia,  Alma  Adentro,  a  volume  of  ex- 
quisite poems  that  invite  one  to  enter  the  very 
sanctuary  of  her  dreaming  soul;  Americo  Lugo, 
Heliotropo,  the  first  edition,  published  in  1908,  was 
highly  praised  by  Manuel  Arturo  Machadp.  In  this 
new  edition  the  poet  has  given  some  additional  ma- 
terial and  the  critics  claim  that  beautiful  as  was 
the  original,  these  new  parts  are  still  more  beautiful. 

Ecuador.  Erudition.  Pio  Jaranillo  Alvarado, 
La  Presidente  de  Quito,  Vol.  II  (mempria  his- 
torica-juridica  de  los  origines  de  la  nacionalidad 
ecuatoriana  y  de  su  defensa  territorial),  these  two 
volumes  together  with  his  earlier  El  India  Ecua- 
toriano  are  of  fundamental  importance  to  a  real 
knowledge  of  Ecuador;  Jose  Gabriel  Navarro, 
Contribuciones  a  la  Historia  del  Arte  en  el  Ecua- 
dor, Vol.  II,  a  second  volume,  handsomely  illus- 
trated, of  this  monumental  history ;  Augusto  Arias, 
Paginas  de  Quito,  an  exceedingly  beautiful  book 
describing  the  very  inmost  soul  of  Quito. 

Fiction.  Eduardo  Moro  Moreno,  Humo  en  las 
Eras,  a  collection  of  five  short  stories,  with  a  short 
introduction  by  Carlos  M.  Espinosa,  portrays  the 
condition  of  the  Indian  before  the  coming  of  the 
Whites. 

Necrology.  Included  below  is  the  death  of 
Remigio  Crespo  ToraJ  who  died  during  July  of 


Jlminei  Ken*,  Nicola*.  Ecuadorian  public  official; 
born  in  Quito,  Sept.  8,  1883:  died  in  Guayaquil,  May  2. 
1940.  Graduate.  Faculty  of  Jurisprudence,  University  of 
Quito;  chief  of  Archives,  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs; 
Under-Secretary,  Ministry  of  Government;  Secretary,  Bu- 
reau of  Telegraphs:  Under-Secretary,  Ministry  of  Public 
Works;  member,  Sociedad  Juridico-Literana  of  Quito, 
Academia  Nacional  de  Historia  del  Ecuador,  Correspond- 
ent, Academia  Nacional  de  Historia  de  Venezuela;  Knight 
Commander  de  la  Orden  de  Mento  del  Ecuador;  received 
national  homage  for  his  literary  and  journalistic  accom- 
plishments in  1937;  author  of  several  works,  biographical, 
critical,  literary,  legal,  and  educational. 

Torsi,  Bemigio  Crespo.  Ecuadorian  litterateur  and 
statesman:  born  in  Cuenca  in  1860;  died  July  8,  1939,  in 
Cuenca.  While  still  a  student,  he  was  elected  deputy  to 
the  Convention,  soon  gained  reputation  as  notable  orator. 
Re-elected  five  times  he  became  Vice-President  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1887  and  President  in  1888.  He 
was  a  man  of  wide  culture  having  traveled  much  through- 
out South  America,  the  United  States,  and  Europe;  was 
a  member  of  the  Academia  Ecuatoriana ;  inspired  poet  and 
keen  en  tic;  justly  considered  one  of  the  great  lights  of 
Ecuador.  Among  his  writings  are  Olttmos  Pensamientos 
at  Bolivar,  a  poem  awarded  a  prize  by  the  University  of 
Quito  (1884);  America  y  Espana,  awarded  a  prize  by  the 
Academia  Ecuatoriana  in  1888,  and  Mi  Poema. 

Guatemala.  Fiction.  El  is  a  Hall,  Mostasa,  a 
sequel  to  her  Semilla  de  mostasa,  is  to  be  followed 
by  a  third  volume,  Mostasa  en  flor.  The  two  books 
already  out,  picturing  Guatemalan  national  history 
with  the  broader  appeal  of  Spanish  colonial  life  in 
general,  are  very  important  as  fiction,  and  as  his- 
tory; J.  Fernando  Juarez  Munoz,  El  Secreto  de 
una  Celda,  a  delightful  historical  novel  by  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Sociedad  de  Geografia  e  Historia  de 
Guatemala,  the  plot  of  which  is  developed  during 
1716-17,  and  includes  the  earthquake  of  San  Miguel. 

Erudition.  J.  Antonio  Villacorta  C,  Historia 
de  la  Capitania  General  de  Guatemala,  hailed  as 
the  most  complete  history  of  colonial  times  that 
has  appeared  on  the  continent ;  Jos6  Maria  Bpnilla 
Ruano,  Mosdico  de  Voces  y  Locuciones  Viciosas; 
Maximo  Soto  Hall,  Los  Mayas,  a  careful  study 
of  the  various  aspects  of  the  Mayan  Indians  and 
their  culture;  Chester  Lloyd  Jones,  Guatemala 
Past  and  Present:  the  author  made  his  first  trip 
to  South  America  on  an  educational  mission  in 
1914,  as  a  member  of  a  group  of  educators  sent  by 
the  American  Association  for  International  Con- 
ciliation. From  that  time  until  this,  having  been  a 
constant  student  of  inter-American  questions  he 
has  been  able  to  produce,  concerning  Central 
America  and  Guatemala,  what  is  considered  to  be 
the  most  comprehensive  study  which  has  thus  far 
appeared  in  English. 

Honduras.  Erudition.  Nestor  Bermudes,  Es- 
critor  de  Honduras  (perfiles  fugaces),  small  cuarto 
volume,  215  pages  of  text,  brief  sketches  of  Hon- 
duran  Writers. 

Mexico.  From  Mexico  the  past  year  the  great- 
est number  of  works  has  been  in  erudition.  Of 
general  interest  is  a  new  scholarly  journal,  entitled 
Revista  de  Literatura  Mexicana,  first  number  July- 
September,  1940.  It  will  appear  quarterly.  Director 
Antonio  Castro  Leal  has  a  fine  editorial  board  of 
natives  and  foreigners. 

Erudition.  Veinte  siglos  de  arte  mexicano,  pro- 
duced by  specialists  in  the  various  branches  and 
epochs  of  art,  and  by  co-operation  between  the 
Government  of  Mexico  and  the  New  York  Mu- 
seum of  Modern  Art,  with  biographies  of  the  art- 
ists and  the  corresponding  bibliography,  very  im- 
portant ;  Xavier  Villaurrutia,  Textos  y  pretextos, 
a  poet's  first  book  of  criticism  and  one  of  the  best 
published  in  Mexico  in  recent  years ;  Verna  Carle- 
ton  Millan,  Mexico  Reborn,  and  Nathaniel  and  Syl- 
via Weyl,  The  Reconquest  of  Mexico,  two  very 
important  books,  complement  each  other,  written 
from  totally  different  points  of  view;  Rafael 


SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES  713  SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES 


Hcliodoro  Valle,  Bibliograffa  de  Ignacio  Manuel 
Altamirano,  important  work  concerning  versatile 
writer,  number  8  of  the  Bibliografias  Mextcanas ; 
Fernando  Ocaranza,  Ju&rez  y  sus  amigos,  thor- 
oughly documented  study  of  this  complicated  pe- 
riod in  Mexican  life;  Moises  Saenz,  Mexico  in- 
tegro,  important  study  of  many  phases  of  Mexican 
life  looking  toward  its  unification;  G.  G6mez  de 
Estavillo,  Recreacion  filoldgica  (ensalada  de  len- 
guas),  a  jovial,  humoristic  study  of  the  peculiari- 
ties of  certain  languages,  especially  English,  French, 
and  Spanish;  Genaro  Fernandez  Mac  Gregor 
(Member  of  the  Mexican  Academy,  Correspondi- 
ente  de  la  Espafiola,  and  author  of  Apunte  Critico 
sobre  el  Arte  Contempordneo ;  La  Santificacion  de 
Sor  Juana  Ines  de  la  Cruz ;  Caratulas ;  El  Doctor 
Mora  Redimvo:  Selection  de  sus  obras — Estudw 
Critico ;  Genaro  Estrada ;  and  Novelas  Triviales) 
has  recently  published  a  volume  of  literary  studies, 
Mies  Tardia\  Genaro  Estrada,  Bibliografia  de 
'Goya,  a  posthumous  work,  showing  the  enormous 
{bibliographical  notes  that  Estrada  had  accumulated 
and  which  are  now  published,  with  sincere  devo- 
tion, by  Jose  Moreno  Villa,  but,  as  he  himself 
notes  in  the  last  paragraph  of  his  prologue,  with 
An  alphabetically  arranged  index ;  Carlos  Gonzalez 
Pena,  Histona  de  la  literatura  mexicana  desde  los 
arigenes  hasta  nuestros  dias,  second,  corrected,  and 
•enlarged  edition  of  this  history,  by  a  well  known 
university  professor  and  academician,  first  pub- 
lished in  1928,  now  considered  the  best  balanced 
treatment  we  have  of  the  development  of  Mexican 
.literature ,  C  Rincon  Gallardo,  Manganas  y  peales 
a  la  XVI  edicwn  del  Diccwnarw  dc  la  Academia 
Espanola.  Su  vocabulano  de  cquitacton.  Voces  ig- 
noradas  Dectres  y  refranes  del  charro  mexicano. 
^Mexico  o  Mejicof  Prologue  by  F.  J.  Santa- 
maria;  L.  Fernandez-Guerra  y  Orbe,  Don  Juan 
Ruts  de  Alar  con  y  Mendosa.  Extracto  con  wuevos 
documentos  y  datos.  (ed  by  A.  Teja  y  Zabre)  ;  J. 
Jimenez  Rueda,  Juan  Ruiz  de  Alar  con  y  su  tiempo  • 
Roscoe  B.  Gaither,  Expropriation  in  Mexico:  the 
Facts  and  the  Law,  sticking  strictly  to  Mexican 
law,  the  author  demonstrates  the  illegality  of  the 
expropriation  law. 

Fiction.  Mariano  Azuela,  Avansada  Mexico  is 
being  watched  by  the  Central  American  Republics 
and  the  South  American  Republics  that  are  pre- 
dominantly Indian,  concerning  the  way  she  goes 
about  the  solution  of  the  indigenous  Indian  prob- 
lem. One  critic  expects  Avansada  to  be  this  year's 
best  seller  in  Mexico  and  probably  in  all  the  rest 
of  Spanish  America.  A.  Izquierdo  Albinana,  Caos, 
a  poignant  study  of  the  delicate  sensibilities  of  a 
mestizo  whose  inferiority  complex  produces  "chaos" 
within  him. 

Verse.  Jos6  Gorostiza,  Muerte  sin  fin,  a  volume 
of  some  of  the  most  living  and  crystal  clear  verse 
that  has  recently  appeared  in  Mexico :  the  author 
develops  musically  a  vision  or  a  sensation  of  what 
life  is,  rather  than  a  thought;  Alfonso  Reyes, 
Villa  de  Union  (4  de  julio  de  1880),  a  kind  of 
short  story  in  three  parts  each  treated  in  a  differ- 
ent meter — hendecasyllables,  hendecasyllables  in- 
terspersed with  heptasyllables,  and  romances. 

Nicaragua.  Necrology.  The  death  of  Dr.  San- 
tiago Arguello  Barreto  is  recorded  here. 

ArgUello  Barreto,  Dr.  Santiago.  A  celebrated  Nicara- 
guan  jurisconsult,  poet,  educator,  diplomat,  and  man- 
oMetters;  died  July  4,  1940.  Born  in  Leon,  Nov.  2,  1874, 
he  completed  his  legal  studies  at  the  age  of  twenty-two 
Having  served  as  local  judge,  district  j'udge,  president  of 
the  Court  of  Appeals  of  the  West,  Vice-Dean  of  the 
Faculty  of  Law,  and  President  of  the  National  Congress, 
he  became  in  1896,  upon  the  organization  of  the  Provi- 
sional Government,  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  when  only 


twenty-four.  Among  his  other  works  we  may  mention:  Dt 
tterra  cdlida  (verse);  Viaj*  al  pait  de  la  decadencia 
(prose) ;  Leccwnes  de  literature  es '  "  '  ~ 


and  Ojo  y  alma  (verse). 


i  espafiola;  Ocaso  (drama); 


Panama.  Erudition.  Octavio  Mendez  Pereira, 
Tierra  firme,  an  attractive  book  about  Panama 
down  to  its  capture  in  1671  by  the  English  pirate 
Henry  Morgan,  and  Samuel  Lewis,  Retazos. 

Necrology.  The  following  deaths  occurred  dur- 
ing 1940. 

MirJ,  Blcardo.  Panamanian  writer;  born  Nov.  5.  1883, 
died  Mar.  2,  1940.  Self-educated,  be  achieved  high  honors. 
Consul  at  Barcelona,  chief  of  the  National  Archives,  per- 
manent secretary  of  the  Academia  Panamefla;  Officer  of 
the  Order  of  the  Sun  of  Peru;  founded  (1907)  the  literary 
review  Nuevos  Ritos,  which  ran  for  many  years;  published 
Fhr  de  Maria  (1921).  Among  his  other  works  the  follow- 
ing  are  outstanding.  Pretudtos  (1908),  Lot  segundos 
preludios  (1916),  La  leyenda  del  Pacifico  (1919.  1924). 

Andrew,  OulUenno.  Panamanian  journalist,  diplomat, 
publicist,  and  litterateur;  born  Aug.  8,  1879;  died  in 
Hollywood,  Calif.,  Oct  2.  1940.  Colonel,  Panamanian 
army;  member,  Municipal  Council;  Secretary,  Legation 
m  Costa  Rica,  Sub-Secretary,  Foreign  Affairs;  National 
Deputy;  President,  National  Assembly;  Secretary,  Public 
Instruction;  Minister  Plenipotentiary,  England,  France 
and  Spain,  Colombia,  and  Cuba:  and  Secretary  of  Gov- 
ernment and  Justice,  editor,  Biblioteca  de  Cultura  Na- 
ctonal,  founder,  El  Heraldo  del  Istmo,  La  Prensa,  and  El 
Tvempo\  member:  Academias  Panamcnas  de  la  Lengua 
and  de  la  Historia;  Sociedad  de  Artes  y  Letras  de  Cadiz, 
Past  Grand  Master  of  Grand  Lodge  (Masonic) ,  Sovereign 
Grand  Commander  of  the  Supreme  National  Council  of 
Thirty-third  degree  Scottish  Rite,  Shrmer,  Decorations. 
Order  of  Saint  Saba  (second  class),  Rumania;  Order  of 
Carlos  de  Cespedes  (first  class).  Cuba;  Doctor  Honoris 
Causa,  Faculty  of  Law  and  Political  Sciences  of  Panama; 
author  of  several  books  on  a  variety  of  subjects 

Lewis,  Samuel.  Illustrious  Panamanian  journalist,  lit- 
terateur, scholar,  and  statesman,  born  Sept.  22,1871,  died 
Apr.  17,  1939.  Secretary  of  State,  Office  of  Foreign  Af- 
fairs; Member,  Commission  for  Preservation  of  National 
Monuments:  Member  Grand  Council,  Order  of  Vasco 
Nunez  de  Balboa;  Member,  Academias  Panamenas  de  la 
Lengua  (founder  and  director)  and  de  la  Historia  (treas- 
urer), and  Corresponding  Member,  Academias  de  la  His- 
toria de  Bogata  and  de  Caracas,  Sociedad  Geografica  de 
Lima,  Sociedad  de  Geograf  la  e  Historia  de  Guatemala,  and 
Atcneo  de  San  Salvador.  He  was  also  Gran  Cord6n  de  la 
Orden  del  Libertador  (Venezuela),  Medalla  de  Honor 
de  Instrucci6n  Pubhca  (Venezuela),  Officicr  d'lnstruction 
Publique  (France),  and  Grand  Cross  of  Vasco  Nufiez  de 
Balboa  (Panama).  Among  his  most  important  publications 
are.  Apuntes  y  Convert  aciones  (1925),  followed  by  Anota- 
ciones  at  'Tamborito*  de  Aaustin  del  Sax,  and  Retasos,  in 
preparation  at  the  time  of  his  death  and  published  post- 
humously, in  1940,  accompanied  by  many  tributes  published 
about  the  author. 

Peru.  Fiction.  Giro  Alegrfa,  Los  Perros  ham- 
brientos,  a  keen  study  of  shepherd  life  in  the  high- 
lands of  Peru;  Luis  E.  Valcarcel,  Cuentas  y 
Leyendas  Incas  and  Garctlaso  El  Inca,  visto  desde 
el  dngulo  indio,  both  of  these  books  are  real  con- 
tributions to  the  problem  of  the  Indian,  the  former 
treating  it  sentimentally  and  the  second  realistical- 
ly, along  with  clear  evidence  of  the  author's  own 
affection  for  the  Indian;  Fernando  Romero,  Mar 
y  Playa,  the  author,  although  a  sailor  by  profes- 
sion, is  an  enthusiast  in  the  folklore  of  the  Negro 
in  Peru.  He  helped  organize  La  Insula,  an  insti- 
tute for  the  study  of  folklore  and  Peruvian  civili- 
zation. Angelica  Palma,  La  Sombra  Alucinante,  a 
posthumous  work  published  by  her  sister,  Renege 
Falma.  The  volume  takes  its  name  from  the  first 
of  two  novelettes,  the  other  of  which  is  Al  asar\ 
the  volume  includes  also  a  short  story,  Dos  hy- 
pdtesis.  Although  not  of  the  author's  best  work, 
they  do  suggest  her  ability  to  do  interesting  psy- 
chological work  without  resorting  to  verbosity,  and 
they  are  a  welcome  addition  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  author. 

Verse.  Cesar  Valle  jo,  Espana,  apart  a  de  tni  esie 
c&lis  (IS  poems,  with  a  preface  "Profecia  de 
America"  by  Juan  Larrea),  fine  poems  about  the 
Spanish  War. 


SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURES  714 


SPANISH  LITERATURE 


Puerto  Rico.  Erudition.  Maria  Cadilla  de 
Martinez,  Jucgos  i  Condones  Infantile*  de  Puerto 
Rico,  a  valuable  book  to  put  beside  her  earlier 
book  concerning  songs  and  popular  games  in  the 
Jardin  de  Boringuen\  Ruben  Gotay-Montalvo, 
Mientras  Arde  la  Hoguera  (apuntes  de  un  cor- 
responsal  cotnbatiente),  a  Puerto  Rican  law  stu- 
dent's account  of  his  experiences  in  the  Republican 
army  in  Madrid  and  among  the  Aragonese  peas- 
antry. 

Drama.  Manuel  M&idez  Ballester,  El  Clamor 
de  los  Surcos  (Drama  en  Tres  Actos),  this  play 
won  first  prize  and  Diploma  of  Honor  of  the  Puer- 
to Rican  Ateneo  in  a  contest  for  theatrical  works 
held  in  1938 ;  first  performance,  Dec.  15,  1939,  and 
by  the  same  playwright,  Tiemfio  Muerto  (Tragedia 
en  Tres  Actos),  with  a  laudatory  and  critical  essay 


and  Transcend*ntali*acionet  matemdticas  ilegiti- 
mat ;  Fernando  Garcia  Esttban,  Vida  de  Florencio 
Sdnche*,  a  more  detailed  study  of  the  Uruguayan 
playwright  than  any  other  biographer  has  given 
was  made  possible  because  the  author  had  personal 
conversations  with  the  widow  and  actual  access  to 
many  letters  unknown  to  previous  authorities. 

Necrology.  The  deaths  are  recorded  of  the  fol- 
lowing writers : 

Qan6n,  Eugenio.  Uruguayan  journalist,  writer,  and 
statesman,  took  part  in  the  revolutions  of  El  Quebracho 
and  Tricolor;  was  deputy  and  senator  during  various  pe- 
riods until  the  coup  d  ctat  of  1898.  Thereupon  he  went  to 
Paris  and  worked  m  the  editorial  office  of  Le  Fiqaro, 
where  he  wrote  frequently  concerning  American  questions. 


by Jose*  A.  Balseiro. 


Salvador.  For  reasons  directly  connected 
with  the  turmoil  through  which  the  World  is  pass- 
ing at  present,  we  have  been  in  arrears  of  literary 
happenings  in  £1  Salvador  for  two  or  three  years. 
The  Academias  Salvadorefias  de  la  Lengua  y  de 
la  Historia,  on  Feb.  19,  1939,  held  a  joint  session 
to  take  action  with  the  Committee  from  San 
Miguel  (natal  city  of  the  great  teacher,  Francisco 
Gavidia)  for  the  coronation  of  the  illustrious  Sal- 
vadorean. The  coronation  was  approved  and  oc- 
curred Mar.  26,  1940.  He  had  been  previously 
granted  a  Gold  Medal,  a  life  pension,  and  later  the 
title  of  Honorary  Director  of  the  National  Li- 
brary, wherein  should  hang  his  portrait. 

Necrology.  During  a  relatively  long  period  the 
Academy  was  obliged  to  suspend  its  activities,  and 
during  that  period  it  lost  six  of  its  members 
through  death  In  due  time  the  vacancies  of  Velado, 
Masferrer,  and  Guzman  were  filled  by  the  election 
of  Drs.  Julio  Enrique  Avila,  Hermogenes  Alvara- 
do,  and  Jose"  Llerena  h.,  respectively. 

Velado,  OsJixto.  The  previous  President  of  the  Acad- 
emy, the  exquisite  poet,  who  shone  like  a  star  of  the  first 
magnitude  in  the  Parnassus  of  El  Salvador 

crazmAn,  Dr.  David  J.  A  notable  physician,  orator, 
naturalist,  and  statesman,  serving  as  deputy,  sub-secretary, 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  inspector  general  of  pri- 
mary schools.  He  organized  the  national  museum  and  the 
national  library  of  El  Salvador,  the  museum  of  Nicaragua, 
and  published  numerous  scientific  works,  such  as,  Topoprafia 
fistca  y  mfd%ca  de  El  Salvador 

Fprtfn,  Dr.  Miguel  A.  Secretary  of  the  Academy,  a 
distinguished  professional  in  the  forum  and  the  chair 

Maiferrer,  Alberto.  A  professor  who  made  of  his  Chair 
and  the  Press  a  luminous  point  from  which  to  spread 
abroad  human  justice,  in  chaste  prose  and  verse 

Belloso  y  8&nchei,  Msgr.  Alfonso.  An  apostle  so  filled 
with  faith  that  he  considered  nothing,  however  difficult,  as 
"impossible"  if  it  would  work  for  the  "public"  welfare 

Lalnez,  Prof.  Juan  J.  He  was  a  great  teacher,  a  fine 
painter,  and  an  authority  on  the  linguistics  of  the  pre- 
colonial  languages. 

Pinto,  Miguel,  p.  After  a  life  devoted  to  activities  of 
positive  profit  to  the  nation  and  especially  in  the  career 
of  journalism,  died  in  San  Francisco  on  Aug.  10,  1940, 
whither  he  had  gone  in  search  of  health. 

Fiction.  Ignacio  Visquez,  El  Centaur o,  a  pleas- 
ing novel  about  Salvadorean  life,  by  the  talented 
Official  Mayor  of  the  Ministry  of  Government. 

Erudition.  Dr.  Rafael  Gonzalez  Sol,  Historia 
del  Arte  de  la  Musica  en  El  Salvador;  Miguel 
Angel  Garcia,  Diccionario  Histdrico  Enciclopedico 
de  El  Salvador  (vol  IX  of  a  highly  praised  work). 

Uruguay. —Erudition.  Homenaje  al  poeta  Fed- 
erico  Garcia  Lorca  contra  su  fusilamtento.  Prosas 
de  Pablo  Neruda  y  Emilio  Oribe.  Ill  aniversario. 
1936-39.  Carlos  Vaz  Ferreira,  the  learned  Rector 
of  the  University  of  Montevideo,  published  two 
books  containing  five  lectures  that  he  delivered  at 
the  University  of  Buenos  Aires,  entitled  La  actual 
crisis  del  mundo  (desde  el  punto  de  vista  racional) 


La  R4pHbhqu*  Argentine  •  Son  kistotre,  Sa  vie  tconomique, 
Ses  finances,  and  L'Amenque  du  Sud  att  XX*  wcle: 
L' Argentine  et  I' Uruguay. 

Imlsi,  Xiitisa.  Uruguayan  poetess,  critic,  and  journalist; 
died  Apr.  10,  1940  She  worked  on  the  staff  of  La  Raid* 
of  Montevideo,  and  her  book  Sentir  (1916),  won  high 
praise  from  the  critics  for  its  finished  form,  depth  of  senti- 
ment, and  human  emotion  She  wrote  two  other  volumes  of 
verse:  Inquutud  (1922),  Poemas  de  la  tnmovilidad  (1926). 
and  two  volumes  of  criticism  Dos  grandes  maestro* .  Road 
y  Rcyles  and  A  travet  de  hbros  y  au tores  (1925). 

Venezuela.  Fiction.  Julian  Padron,  Madru- 
gada,  his  second  novel,  surpassing  even  his  sensa- 
tionally successful  La  Guancha ;  marvelously  clear- 
cut,  restrained  style. 

Verse.  Jacinto  Fombona-Pachano  (author  of 
El  Batall6n,  short  novel ;  El  Canto  del  Hijo,  poem ; 
Virajes,  poems;  and  Evoluci6n  de  la  Poesia  Mo- 
derna  Venesolana,  essay)  published  as  the  poetic 
fruit  of  his  sojourn  as  a  diplomat  in  the  United 
States,  the  dainty  little  volume  of  verse  entitled 
Las  Torres  Desprevenidas. 

Drama.  Julian  Padron,  Pardsitas  Negras  (sain- 
ete  en  tres  actos  y  siete  cuadros),  the  author's 
second  work  for  the  theater,  Fogata  being  his  first. 

Erudition.  £  Gil  Borjes,  Discursos  en  homenaje 
al  Libertador;  Martin  J^.  Gornes  Mac-Pherson, 
Sangre  de  Asia  en  America  (through  excavations 
of  his  own  the  author  is  well-grounded  in  his  dis- 
cussions of  trie  sources  whence  came  the  pre-Co- 
lumbian visitors  to  South  America).  Proclamas  i 
Discursos  del  Libertador  (Publicacton  Oficial  por 
decreto  del  Presidente  de  la  Republtca)  (important 
volume  of  452  pages  highly  illustrated).  Thomas 
Rourke,  Man  of  Glory,  Simdn  Bolivar.  The  author 
had  already  proven  his  ability  with  a  work  enti- 
tled, Gdmez — Tyrant  of  the  Andes.  The  present 
work  profits  from  the  experience  gained  in  writing 
the  earlier  book  and  Bolivar  emerges  in  a  way  to 
earn  the  other  part  of  the  title.  Mariano  Pic6n 
Salas,  1941,  a  volume  of  essays  by  a  distinguished 
Venezuelan  who,  after  many  years  of  exile  in 
Chile,  returned  to  his  native  land  after  the  death 
of  the  dictator,  Juan  Vicente  G6mez,  and  now  deals 
with  the  past  and  present  Venezuelan  nation. 

JOHN  D.  FITZ-GERALD. 

SPANISH  GUINEA.  See  SPAIN  under  Co- 
lonial Empire. 

SPANISH  LITERATURE.  The  general 
state  of  unrest  throughout  the  world  has  made  it 
very  difficult  to  assemble  materials  for  articles 
such  as  this.  For  that  reason  it  is  more  appropriate 
than  ever  to  say  that  the  treatment  is  not  exhaus- 
tive. Nevertheless,  some  things  have  reached  us 
and  the  following  are  not  without  interest  in  the 
Hispanic  field. 

Verse.  Jose  D.  de  Quijano,  El  Madrid  del  800 
and  Blasdn  (Versos  de  la  Cdrcel);  Jos6  Garner, 
Nabi  (Pocma),  originally  written  in  his  native 


SPANISH  LITERATURE 


715 


SSB 


Catalan,  in  1939  he  translated  it  into  Castilian; 
Federico  Garcia  Lorca,  Poeta  en  Nueva  York, 
with  four  original  sketches,  a  poem  by  Antonio 
Machado  and  a  prologue  by  Jos&  Bergamfn — 
frankly  pro-loyalist 

Fiction.  Ricardo  Le6n,  Vardn  de  Deseos  (2d 
ed.),  Jauja  (2d  ed.) ;  Bajo  el  Yugo  de  los  Barbaras 
and  Roja  y  Gualda  (both  2d  eds.  of  works  that 
first  appeared  1932  and  1934  respectively  as  first 
two  volumes  of  a  series  Jornadas  de  la  Revolu- 
cidn)  ;  Ram6n  J.  Sender,  El  lugar  del  Hombre,  a 
powerful  novel  of  the  turmoil  of  the  world  today, 
and  of  the  turmoil  within  Spain ;  Joaquin  Alvarez 
Quintero  published  late  in  1939  a  volume  of  tales 
(cuentos),  Con  Los  Ojos;  Jose"  Herrera  Petere, 
Niebla  de  Cuernos  (lawyer,  and  officer  on  the  staff 
of  the  Loyalist  Army,  pro-Loyalist)  ;  A.  Palacio 
Valde"s,  Album  de  un  vie  jo  (segunda  parte  de  la 
"novela  de  un  novelista"),  a  posthumous  work  in 
one  volume;  Jose"  Maria  Peman,  Romance  del 
Fantasma  y  Dona  Juanita,  a  novel,  with  illustra- 
tions by  Teodoro  Delgado. 

Drama.  Dies  comedias  del  sigh  de  oro:  An 
annotated  omnibus  of  ten  complete  plays  by  the 
most  representative  Spanish  dramatists  of  the 
Golden  Age  (ed.  by  H.  Alpern  and  J.  MarteO  ; 
Lope  de  Vega,  El  Palacio  confuse  (together  with 
a  study  of  the  Menaechmi  theme  in  Spanish  litera- 
ture by  C.  H.  Stevens) ;  Guillen  de  Castro,  Las 
Mocedades  del  Cid  (ed.  by  G.  W.  Humphrey  with 
introductory  notes) ;  Tirso  de  Molina  [Gabriel 
Tellez],  El  Burlador  de  Sevilla,  El  condenado  por 
desconfiado,  La  prudencia  en  la  mujer  (ed.  with 
introduction  by  P.  Henriquez  Urefia).  Joaquin 
Alvarez  Quintero  finished  several  comedies  that 
were  to  be  produced  during  that  season,^  but  none 
was  published  during  the  year ;  Jose"  Maria  Peman, 
La  Dansa  de  los  velos  (comedia  en  tres  actos  y  en 
prosa,),  and  De  ellos  es  el  mundo  .  .  .  (pelicula 
representable  en  un  acto  y  cinco  cuadros). 

Erudition.  Erudition  has  been  more  prolific 
than  the  other  branches.  Angel  Gonzalez  Palencia, 
La  Espana  del  Sigh  de  Oro ;  Luis  Torres  and  A. 
Ruiz  Castillo,  Miguel  Fleta:el  Hombre,  el  "Dwo? 
y  su  Musa ;  Leonardo  Martin  Echeverria,  Espana: 
El  Pais  y  los  Habitantes,  highly  illustrated,  with 
155  intercalated  figures,  160  plates,  and  14  maps 
hors  texte ;  Adolf o  Salazar,  Musica  y  sociedad  en 
el  sigh  XX:  Ensayo  de  critica  y  de  estttica  desde 
el  punto  de  vista  de  su  funcidn  social ;  Marques  de 
Santillana,  Prose  and  Verse,  chosen  by  J.  B. 
Trend,  with  an  excellent  Introduction',  Lope  de 
Vega,  Del  monte  sale  (quien  el  monte  quema), 
(Palaeographic  ed.  with  excellent  studies  and  notes 
by  Emilio  Le  Fort  Pefia)  ;  Agustin  de  Rojas,  El 
natural  desdichado  (with  introduction  and  notes  by 
James  White  Crowell)  ;  Cinco  ensayos  sobre  don 
Juan  (ed.  with  prologue  by  A.  Castro,  contains  es- 
says by  Gregorio  Marafion,  Ramiro  de  Maeztu, 
Jos6  Ingenieros,  ^Azorin,  and  Ram6n  Perez  de 
Ayala)  ;  Juan  Ruiz  de  Alarc6n,  La  Verdad  sospe- 
chosa  (ed.  by  P.  Henriquez  Urefta  and  J.  Bpgli- 
ano)  ;  Maria  Zambrano,  Pensamiento  y  poesia  en 
la  vida  espanola ;  Eugenio  d'Ors,  "Nuevo  glosario" 
— "La  tradicidn,  Introduccidn  a  la  vida  angelica 
(cartas  a  una  spledad),  Glosas  a  Portugal  (all  the 
foregoing  published  in  Buenos  Aires),  and  two 
new  editions  of  his  artistic  studies,  Tres  horas  en 
el  Museo  del  Prado,  and  a  new  work,  Jardin 
Botdnico;  Jos6  Maria  G.  de  la  Torre,  Ricardo 
Le6n  o  el  genio  de  la  lengua  (Ensayo  critico  del 
libro  "El  Amor  de  los  Amores")  ;  Lucy  Elizabeth 
Weir,  The  Ideas  Embodied  in  the  Religious  Drama 
of  C  alder  6nt  a  careful  study  of  an  important  ques- 


tion ;  Salvador  de  Madariaga,  Christopher  Colum- 
bus, an  important  work  presenting  Columbus  as  a 
real  human  being,  in  the  authors  own  English; 
Isabel  de  Palencia,  /  Must  Have  Liberty,  impor- 
tant for  an  understanding  of  Spain's  present  posi- 
tion in  the  world,  author  has  grown  with  the  coun- 
try and  helped  it  to  develop— in  the  author's  own 
English ;  Marques  de  la  Cadena,  El  gran  cardenal 
de  Espana,  D.  Pedro  Gonzalez  de  Mendosa  (es- 
tudio  historico-biografico)  ;  Jesus  Bal  y  Gay,  Ro- 
mances y  Villancicos  espanoles  del  siglo  XVI,  an 
important  work  arranged  in  modern  notation  for 
piano  and  voice ;  Flenda  de  Nolasco,  De  Musica 
Espanola,  based  on  Julian  Ribera's  work  on  the 
Cantigas  of  Alfonso  el  Sabio,  she  has  identified 
several  Cuban  and  Dominican  dance  forms ;  Jos6 
Bergamin,  El  Alma  en  un  hilo  (Vol.  3  of  a  series 
entitled,  Disparadero  espanol)  ;  Narciso  Alonso 
Cortes,  Cofrades  de  Santa  Maria  de  Esgueva 
(Miscelanea  Vallisoletana,  6'  Serie),  valuable  stud- 
ies by  the  Director  of  the  Academia  de  Bellas 
Artes  de  Valladolid;  Gregorio  Marafion,  Don 
Juan,  another  of  the  psychological  studies  of  great 
characters  in  history  and  legend,  to  which  this 
great  physician  and  surgeon  has  accustomed  us; 
Am6rico  Castro,  The  Meaning  of  Spanish  Civili- 
sation, inaugural  lecture  as  Professor  of  Spanish 
at  Princeton  University ;  Augustus  Campbell  Jen- 
nings, A  Linguistic  Study  of  the  Cartulano  de  San 
Vicente  de  Uviedo;  Alfonso  Mar  tines  de  Toledo: 
El  Arcipreste  de  Talavera,  o  sea  El  Corbacho 
(newly  edited  according  to  the  Escorial  Codex,  by 
Lesley  Byrd  Simpson)  ;  Ronald  Hilton,  Campo- 
amor,  Spain,  and  the  World,  an  important  study 
of  an  interesting  period  in  the  history  of  Spanish 
culture;  Baltasar  Grecian,  El  Critic6n  (edici6n 
critica  y  comentada  por  M.  Romera-Navarro). 
(the  third  volume)  ;  Pedro  Salinas,  Reality  and 
the  Poet  in  Spanish  Poetry,  six  lectures  given  in 
1937  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  delightful 
and  thought  provoking ;  Victor  R.  B.  Oelschlager, 
A  Medieval  Spanish  Word-List ;  John  Tate  Lan- 
ning,  Academic  Culture  in  the  Spanish  Colonies,  a 
soundly  documented  account  of  the  creation  and 
rise  of  universities  in  Spanish  America ;  John  Van 
Home,  Bernardo  de  Balbuena — biografia  y  criti- 
ca, a  patient  work  of  love  carried  to  fulfillment 
over  a  score  of  years;  and  two  very  important 
works  by  the  great  master  of  Romance  philology 
and  Spanish  literature  and  history,  Ram6n  Men£n- 
dez  Pidal :  a  long  hoped  for  sixth  edition,  correct- 
ed and  enlarged,  of  his  Manual  de  Gramdtica  His- 
torica  Esbanola,  and  a  new  printing  of  the  second 
edition  of  his  Antologia  de  prosistas  espanoles. 

The  Royal  Spanish  Academy.  On  Jan.  15, 
1915,  Ricardo  Leon  took  formal  possession  of  his 
chair  in  the  Spanish  Royal  Academy  of  the  Lan- 
guage. At  about  that  date  in  1940  the  Academy 
celebrated,  with  due  ceremony,  the  twenty-fifth 
anniversary  of  that  earlier  event 

JOHN  D.  FJTZ-GERALD. 

SPANISH  MOROCCO.  See  MOROCCO  ;  SPAIN 
under  Colonial  Empire;  TANGIER  under  History. 

SPANISH  MUSEUM.  See  HISPANIC  SO- 
CIETY. 

SPELMAN  FUND.  See  BENEFACTIONS. 

SPITSBERGEN.  See  NORWAY. 

SPORTS.  See  separate  article  on  each  sport; 
also,  NEGROES. 

SQUASH  RACQUETS,  SQUASH  TEN- 
NIS.  See  COURT  GAMES. 

SSB.  See  SOCIAL  SECURITY  BOARD. 


STAMP  COLLECTING 


716 


SUEZ  CANAL 


STAMP  COLLECTING.  On  May  6,  1940, 
the  postage  stamp  was  100  years  old.  The  adhesive 
designed  by  Rowland  Hill  created  philately,  the 
hobby  of  stamp  collecting.  The  year  1940  was  a 
twelve-month  of  strife  and  little,  relatively,  was 
done  to  observe  an  event  that  revolutionized  one 
of  the  earliest  forms  of  communication — the  letter. 

In  Britain,  where  the  postage  stamp  was  born,  a 
great  international  exhibition  was  cancelled  be- 
cause of  war  and  the  celebration  was  limited.  The 
embattled  Britons  did  note  the  event,  however, 
with  a  special  series  of  stamps  incorporating  the 
design  of  Hill,  Queen  Victoria  on  the  "Penny 
Black,"  the  first  stamp,  with  that  of  more  recent 
issues  showing  a  profile  of  King  George  VI.  Sev- 
eral other  nations  also  issued  stamps  for  the  anni- 
versary, but  the  international  aspect  of  the  cele- 
bration was  shattered  by  gun-fire  and  bombs. 

In  the  Americas,  nations  of  the  Pan  American 
Union  observed  twenty-five  years  of  amicable  re- 
lations, most  of  them  issuing  stamps  for  the  oc- 
casion. In  Europe,  conquered  people  saw  their 
stamps  defaced  by  strange  printing  of  the  con- 
queror. 

In  Poland,  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  Denmark, 
Norway,  and  Luxemburg  native  issues  were  sur- 
charged in  German,  replaced  by  new  stamps  from 
Germany  or  their  values  raised  to  care  for  the  in- 
creased cost  in  distribution.  Lithuania,  Latvia,  and 
Esthonia  surrendered  to  Russia  and  their  stamps, 
too,  took  on  a  new  look.  Finland,  which  opposed 
the  Soviet  Republics,  used  stamps  to  raise  funds 
for  its  lost  cause. 

Stamps  of  France  were  overprinted  and  Ger- 
many once  more  considered  Alsace  and  Lorraine 
part  of  the  Reich,  surcharging  German  stamps  for 
use  in  these  districts.  Rumania  dropped  a  king  for 
a  sat  elite  and  a  dictator  and  posthumously  honored 
the  slain  leader  of  forces  which  drove  it  into  domi- 
nation by  Germany.  Rumania,  under  pressure,  sur- 
rendered soil  to  the  U.S.S.R.,  Hungary,  and  Bul- 
garia and  these  nations  marked  their  gains  with 
stamps. 

Britain's  blockade  of  the  axis  powers  forced 
Germany  to  route  its  international  mail  through 
Russia  and  Japan.  Italy  sent  its  mail  by  air,  via 
Africa  and  the  South  Atlantic  to  South  America 
and  up  that  continent's  west  coast  to  escape  British 
censorship  and  confiscation. 

Among  peaceful  pursuits  observed  was  the  open- 
ing of  air  mail  service  between  the  United  States 
and  New  Zealand  and  the  appearance  of  a  new 
name  among  postage  stamp  issuing  countries — 
Pitcairn  Islands,  the  major  island  of  the  group 
being  the  home  of  the  historic  mutineers  from 
H.M.S.  Bounty  and  Captain  Bligh. 

While  other  nations  were  subjected  to  conquer- 
ors, the  United  States  saw  fit  to  remember  that 
slavery  no  longer  existed  within  its  borders  with  a 
stamp  celebrating  Abraham  Lincoln's  Emancipa- 
tion Proclamation.  The  United  States  also  com- 
memorated the  activities  of  thirty-five  of  its  citizens 
who  by  peaceful  means  had  become  its  "Heroes  of 
Peace,"  as  the  series  was  called— educators,  artists, 
poets,  authors,  scientists,  composers,  and  inventors 
being  among  those  honored.  Stamps  marked  the 
fiftieth  anniversaries  of  the  admission  to  statehood 
of  Idaho  and  Wyoming,  the  four  hundredth  anni- 
versary of  Coronado's  explorations  of  the  south- 
west, and  the  historic  services  of  the  Pony  Ex- 
press. Along  less  peaceful  lines,  the  United  States 
commemorated  its  effort  to  re-arm  with  three 
stamps. 

The  world's  most  valuable  stamp,  the  one-cent- 


magenta  British  Guiana  of  1856,  was  sold  by  the 
heirs  of  the  late  Arthur  Hind  for  a  price  reported 
at  $40,000. 

The  nations  of  the  world  issued  more  than  2000 
stamps  in  1940. 

DAVID  LIDMAN. 

STATE,  U.S.  Department  of.  See  PAN 
AMERICANISM;  UNITED  STATES  under  Adminis- 
tration. 

STEAM-GENERATING  UNITS.  See 
POWER  PLANTS. 

STEEL.  See  IRON  AND  STEEL;  also,  ELECTRI- 
CAL INDUSTRIES. 

STEROLS.  See  BIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY. 

STOCK  EXCHANGE,  STOCK  PRICES. 
See  FINANCIAL  REVIEW. 

STORMS.  See  HURRICANES. 

STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS.  See  BRITISH 
MALAYA. 

STRATEGIC  MATERIALS.  See  DEFEN- 
SIVE PREPARATIONS;  GEOLOGY;  MARKETING;  RE- 
CONSTRUCTION FINANCE  CORPORATION. 

STRAWBERRIES.  See  FERTILIZERS. 

STRIKES.  See  LABOR  CONDITIONS  under 
Strikes;  also,  CALIFORNIA,  CONCILIATION  SERVICE, 
U.S. ;  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES,  U  S.  under  Attitude 
of  Organised  Labor;  NATIONAL  LABOR  RELATIONS 
BOARD;  AUSTRALIA,  BULGARIA,  CANADA,  DEN- 
MARK, FRANCE,  MEXICO,  NEW  ZEALAND,  and 
SOUTH  AFRICA  under  History. 

STUDENT  AID.  See  NATIONAL  YOUTH  AD- 
MINISTRATION ;  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES. 

STUDENT  WORK  PROGRAM.  See  NA- 
TIONAL YOUTH  ADMINISTRATION. 

STYLE.  See  FASHION  EVENTS 

SUBMARINES.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR;  NAVAL 
PROGRESS. 

SUBVERSIVE  ACTIVITIES.  See  DIES 
COMMITTEE;  FEDERAL  BUREAU  OF  INVESTIGATION  ; 
IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRATION,  AND  NATURALIZATION. 

SUBWAYS.  See  FOUNDATIONS;  MUNICIPAL 
OWNERSHIP  ;  NEW  YORK  under  New  York  City ; 
RAPID  TRANSIT. 

SUDAN.  See  ANGLO-EGYPTIAN  SUDAN; 
FRENCH  WEST  AFRICA 

SUEZ  CANAL.  A  sea-to-sea  canal  across  the 
Isthmus  of  Suez,  providing  passage  for  ships  be- 
tween the  Red  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean.  Oper- 
ated by  the  Suez  Canal  Company,  holding  a  con- 
cession from  the  Egyptian  Government;  normal 
main  route  between  maritime  Europe  and  the  ports 
of  the  Indian  and  western  Pacific  oceans. 

Use  of  the  Suez  Canal  fell  off  progressively 
during  the  first  16  months  of  the  European  War. 
For  September,  1939,  shipping  traffic  was  less  than 
half  of  the  volume  of  September,  1938;  and  for 
August,  1940,  the  number  of  vessels  using  the  ca- 
nal, only  43,  came  to  less  than  one-tenth  of  the 
corresponding  number,  458,  for  August,  1939,  the 
last  month  before  the  start  of  the  war. 

In  the  entire  calendar  year  1939  (of  which  the 
last  third  fell  within  the  European  War),  the  ca- 
nal passed  5227  ships  totaling  29,573,000  net  tons. 
In  1938,  ships'  passages  numbered  6127 ;  their  ag- 
gregate net  tonnage  was  34,523,084 ;  their  passen- 
gers numbered  464,126.  Great  Britain  accounted 
for  50.4  per  cent  of  the  tonnage  of  1938,  Italy  for 
13.4 ;  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  France,  and  Nor- 
way followed  in  importance.  Of  that  year's  ton- 
nage of  shipping,  the  northward-bound  exceeded 
the  southward  by  some  1 ,100,000  tons.  Actual  weight 
of  goods  transported  through  the  canal,  somewhat 


SUGAR 


717 


SUPREME  COURT 


less  than  the  tonnage  just  stated,  came  to  28,779,- 
000  tons. 

A  convention  of  1888  exempted  the  canal  from 
blockade  in  time  of  war ;  but  the  blockading  opera- 
tions of  both  the  belligerent  parties  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean rendered  it  impracticable  for  belligerents 
of  either  side  to  make  general  use  of  the  canal  in 
1940.  In  September,  1940,  the  Suez  Canal  Compa- 
ny suspended  the  payment  of  dividends. 

See  EGYPT  under  History ;  EUROPEAN  WAR. 

SUGAR.  The  sugar-beet  crop  in  the  United 
States  in  1940  was  estimated  by  the  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  at  11,969,000  tons  of  beets 
from  921,000  acres,  expected  to  produce  about 
1,729,000  tons  (equal  to  1,850,000  raw  ton  basis)  of 
sugar,  compared  with  the  10,781,000  tons  of  beets, 
917,000  acres,  and  1,643,000  tons  of  sugar  in  1939, 
the  1929-38  average  of  8,937,000  tons  of  beets 
from  792,000  acres  and  1,300,000  tons  of  sugar. 
The  acre  yield  was  13  tons  versus  11.8  tons  in  1939 
and  11.3,  the  10-year  average.  The  1940  sugar 
yield  per  acre  harvested  was  indicated  at  1  88  tons, 
compared  with  1.79  tons  in  1939  and  1  81  tons  in 
1938,  but  sugar  recovery  was  indicated  at  a  lower 
figure  than  in  1939  and  1938.  Production  of  beet 
sugar  in  leading  States  was  estimated  for  Cali- 
fornia 448,000  short  tons,  Colorado  310,000,  Mon- 
tana 166,000,  Michigan  161,000,  Idaho  142,000,  and 
Nebraska  111,000  tons.  Production  of  sugar-cane 
for  sugar  in  1940  was  marked  by  a  very  adverse 
season  in  Louisiana  and  a  favorable  outturn  in 
Florida.  The  1940  sugar-cane  crop  of  the  two 
States,  including  cane  for  seed,  was  grown  on 
259,000  and  30,400  acres  respectively,  and  was  esti- 
mated as  3,335,000  and  1,216,000  tons,  equivalent 
to  242,000  and  116,000  tons  of  sugar.  Molasses  as 
a  sugar-cane  by-product  totaled  24,786,000  gal. 
Sugar-cane  sirup  produced  in  eight  southern  States 
totaled  14,809,000  gal  and  the  sorgo  sirup  made  in 
16  States  amounted  to  11,865,000  gal.  Maple  prod- 
ucts reported  hy  10  States  included  2,628,000  gal 
of  sirup  and  629,000  Ib.  of  maple  sugar.  The  1940 
maple  season  in  general  was  both  late  and  short  in 
most  States  producing  maple  products.  In  New 
England  operations  were  hampered  by  deep  snows 
and  storms 

World  sugar  production,  as  depicted  in  The 
World  Sugar  Situation  (U.S.  Dept  Agri.,  1940), 
increased  sharply  from  1918  to  1930,  declined 
slightly  during  the  early  depression  years,  and  then 
increased  sharply  to  a  new  record  high  in  1936. 
Production  in  1939  was  indicated  to  be  the  third 
largest  on  record.  Sugar  production  in  the  princi- 
pal importing  countries  increased  steadily  from 
1918  to  1936 ;  that  in  the  principal  exporting  coun- 
tries fluctuated  widely  but  the  general  level  in- 
creased very  little  in  the  last  decade. 

The  world's  cane-sugar  production  for  the  1940- 
41  season,  according  to  estimates  of  Willett  and 
Gray  issued  Jan.  18,  1941,  amounted  to  18,570,894 
tons.  Production  in  leading  world  areas  was :  Loui- 
siana 209,821  tons,  Florida  105,715,  Puerto  Rico 
810,325,  Virgin  Islands  7500,  and  Hawaii  865,000; 
Cuba  2,300,000 ;  Dominican  Republic  375,000 ;  Mex- 
ico 295,000;  Peru  450,000;  Argentina  500,000; 
Brazil  1,272,405;  British  India,  gur  (low  grade) 
3,100,000,  and  white  sugar  1,212,000;  Java  1,750,- 
000;  Japan  1,176,530;  Philippine  Islands  1,087,000; 
Australia  825,000;  Mauritius  326,000;  and  Natal 
510,000  tons.  The  world's  beet-sugar  production  in 
1940-41  was  estimated  to  total  10,867,750  tons,  in- 
cluding United  States  1,543,000;  Canada  90,000; 
Germany  2,400,000;  Czechoslovakia  520,000;  Po- 
land 500,000;  U.S.S.R.  (Russia  and  Ukraine) 


2,700,000;  Great  Britain  485,000  and  Ireland  90,- 
000;  Italy  475,000;  Sweden  300,000;  France  238,- 
000;  Belgium  250,000;  Netherlands  285,000;  and 
Denmark  245,000  tons.  The  grand  world  total  for 
1940-41  was  estimated  at  29.438,644  tons  compared 
to  30,339,831  tons  in  1939-40  which  comprised  19,- 
210,603  tons  of  cane-sugar  and  11,129,228  tons  of 
beet-sugar.  See  AGRICULTURAL  ADJUSTMENT  AD- 
MINISTRATION ;  CUSTOMS,  BUREAU  OF. 

SUICIDES.  See  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

SULFANILAMIDE  AND  DERIVA- 
TIVES. See  BIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY;  MEDICINE 
AND  SURGERY;  VETERINARY  MEDICINE. 

SULLIVAN  COLLECTION.  See  ART  un- 
der Art  Sales. 

SULPHUR.  According  to  the  Freeport  Sul- 
phur Company,  the  domestic  industry  had  on  hand 
in  1940  an  adequate  supply  of  sulphur  for  all  of 
the  varied  needs  of  national  defense.  This  condi- 
tion was  m  marked  contrast  to  that  prevailing  in 
1918  when  the  supply  of  sulphur  was  one  of  the 
major  worries  of  the  Government.  In  1940  the  in- 
dustry had  a  two-year  supply  above  ground  and 
ample  resources. 

Production  for  1940  is  estimated  at  2,753,000 
tons.  Shipments  amounted  to  2,554,000  tons,  of 
which  725,000  tons  was  exported.  Inasmuch  as  pro- 
duction was  in  excess  of  total  shipments,  substan- 
tial tonnage  was  added  to  stocks  above  ground, 
which  were  probably  in  excess  of  4,000,000  tons. 
This  reserve  was  augmented  by  the  importation  of 
about  38,000  tons  of  sulphur  shipped  into  the  Pa- 
cific Northwest  from  Trail,  B  C. 

H.  C.  PARMELEE. 

SUMATRA.  See  NETHERLANDS  INDIES  under 
Area  and  Population. 

SUPERMARKETS.  See  MARKETING. 

SUPREME  COURT,  U.S.  Literature.  The 
Supreme  Court's  Sesquicentennial  was  observed 
in  Washington,  February  1,  with  addresses  by  the 
Chief  Justice,  the  Attorney  General,  and  President 
Beardsley  of  the  American  Bar  Association  (309 
U.S.  v-xv;  26  A.B.AJnl.  171,  199,  203,  207-8,  the 
latter  containing  a  list  of  all  of  the  Court's  mem- 
bers). "The  First  Decade,"  7  U.  of  Chicago  L. 
Rev.  631  (Charles  Warren) ;  "Mr.  Justice  Miller 
(1862-90),"  pp.  viii,  456  (Chas.  Fairman;  re- 
viewed, 26  A.B.AJnl.  59) ;  "Chief  Justice  Fuller," 
ib.  691  (F.  J.  Loesch)  ;  "Mr  Justice  Brandeis," 
(1916-39),  16  Tenn.L.Rev.  441  (R.  B.  C.  How- 
ell)  ;  "Tradition  and  Judicial  Review,"  26  A.B. 
AJnl.  208  (K.  C.  Umbreit) ;  "American  Democ- 
racy and  the  Supreme  Court,"  14  Temple  U.L. 
Quar.  210  (F.  Paddock). 

Work.  The  October,  1939,  term  ended  June  3, 
1940,  with  946  cases  disposed  of,  in  151  of  which 
individual  opinions  were  written  and  in  97  more 
per  curiam  opinions.  The  October,  1940,  term  be- 
gan on  October  7.  Justice  Murphy  had  meanwhile 
taken  his  seat  on  February  5.  ( See  an  "Appraisal" 
by  Dean  Bates,  26  A.B  AJnl.  107).  "Business  at 
the  October  Terms,  1937,  1938,"  53  Haru.L.Rev. 
579  (H.  M.  Hart) ;  also  as  to  1938, 26  Va.L.Rev.  1, 
274,  697  (Moore  &  Adelson)  ;  "Review  of  Three 
Judge  Court  Decisions,"  8  GW.L.Rev.  31.  On 
May  16,  Chief  Justice  Hughes  explained  to  the 
American  Law  Institute  the  functions  of  the  Ad- 
ministrative Office  of  the  United  States  Courts 
(1939  YEAR  BOOK  420)  which  now  works  in  two 
divisions,  (1)  Business  Administration  and  (2) 
Procedural  Studies  and  Statistics.  (26  A.B.AJnl. 
472,  723). 

Decisions.   Constitutional.  Current  articles 


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718 


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picture  the  present  at  a  period  of  constitu- 
tional change;  e.g.  "Constitution  Making  by  the 
Supreme  Court  Since  1929,"  15  IndJLJnL  179  (H. 
E.  Willis);  "Recent  Developments  in  Federal 
Jurisprudence,"  73  VS.LJtev.  513  (A.  Holtz- 
hoff);  "Shifts  in  Constitutional  Doctrines,11  25 
AMuUnL  629  (F.  J.  Hogan)  ;  "Changing  Con- 
stitutional  Phases,"  19  BostonU.L.Rev.,  509  (T. 
R.  Powell) ;  "Some  Aspects  of  Am.  Constitutional 
Law,"  53  Harv.L.Rev.  529  (id.).  The  Supreme 
Court's  decisions  (1939  YEAR  BOOK  420)  that  rati- 
fication of  constitutional  amendments  is  a  political 
question,  are  discussed  in  53  HarvJ^Jlev.  134 ;  39 
ColumbiaL.Rev.  932;  26  A.B.AJnl  617;  24  Mmn. 
L.Rev.  393;  17  N.Y.U.L.Quar.  Rev.  122;  13  So. 
Cal.L.Rev.  122. 

Sovereignty.  A  State  statute  purporting  to  void 
claims  against  a  decedent's  estate  if  not  filed  with- 
in a  specified  time,  may  not  be  invoked  against  the 
United  States.  U.S.v.Summerlin,  310  U.S.  414. 
And  its  immunity  from  suit,  except  by  permission, 
applies  to  a  cross-claim  (in  a  proceeding  by  it)  in 
excess  of  the  original  claim.  U.S.v.US.  Fidelity 
&  Guaranty  Co.,  309  U.S.  506. 

Separation  of  Powers.  A  second  award  of  com- 
pensation under  a  private  act  of  Congress,  passed 
nearly  five  years  after  the  original  award  under 
the  Longshoremen's  Act,  does  not  invade  the  judi- 
cial function  nor  infringe  due  process.  (Const. 
Am'dt  V)  Paramtno  Lumber  Co.  v.  Marshall,  309 
U.S.  370. 

Constitutional  Provisions  Construed.  (Nu- 
merals at  left  indicate  article,  section,  and  para- 
graph of  U.S.  Const ) 

I,8,(l).  The  legislative  power  "to  lay  ...  im- 
posts," is  exclusive  and,  when  delegated  to  the 
President,  is  not  subject  to  judicial  review.  U.S. 
v.  George  S.  Bush  &  Co.,  310  U.S.  37.  (But  see 
Panama  Refining  Co  v.  Ryan,  293  U.S.  433.) 

Ij8,(S)  (interstate  commerce)  is  infringed  by  a 
State  statute  imposing  a  sample-room  tax  on  a 
non-resident  retailer,  "the  actual  effect  of  which 
is  to  discriminate  in  favor  of  intrastate  business," 
(Best  &  Co  v.  Maxwell,  311  U.S  454).  A  com- 
plaint of  "conspiracy  to  monopolize  the  bill-post- 
ing business  on  the  Pacific  coast  ...  to  the  great 
injury  and  damage  of  plaintiff/1  states  a  cause  of 
action  under  the  Sherman  Act  (C.  E  Stevens  Co. 
v.  Foster,  311  U.S.  255)  which  also  supported  the 
prosecution  in  US.  v.  Socony-Vacuum  Oil  Co. 
(310  U.S.  150)  of  12  or  more  oil  companies  and 
various  individuals  charged^with  having  "combined 
and  conspired"  to  raise  artificially  prices  of  gaso- 
line, etc.  A  jury  found  them  guilty  and  the  district 
court's  sentence  ($5000  fine  for  each  corporation 
and  $1000  for  each  individual)  was  affirmed  by  the 
Supreme  Court,  reversing  the  Court  of  Appeals. 
But  the  Sherman  Act  was  held  inapplicable  to  a 
"sit-down"  strike  (Apex  Hosiery  Co.  v.  Leader, 
310  U.S  469).  Whether  payment  of  mileage,  earned 
by  leased  tank-cars  and  credited  to  the  lessee  con- 
stitutes a  "rebate"  under  the  Elkins  Act,  is  an 
administrative  problem,  and  when  suit  is  brought 
therefor  the  court  should  await  the  ICC's  determi- 
nation (Gen.  Am.  Tank  Car  Corp.  v.  El  Dorado 
Terminal  Co ,  308  U.S.  422). 

Ifl,(17).  The  "exclusive  legislation"  which  Con- 
gress may  exercise  over  a  Post  Office  site  is  politi- 
cal only.  Until  actually  exercised  on  a  given  sub- 
ject (e.g.  Labor)  the  existing  State  laws  continue 
(James  Stewart  &  Co.,  Inc.  v.  Sadrakula,  309  U.S. 
94).  IV,  1,  requiring  "full  faith  and  credit"  for 
judgments,  "precludes  inquiry  into  the  merits  of 
the  cause  (in  which  the  judgment  was  rendered), 


the  logic  or  consistency  of  the  decision,  or  the 
validity"  of  its  basic  principles.  Milliken  v.  Meyer, 
311  U.S. 

Amendment  V.  Eminent  Domain  "is  within  .  .  . 
the  constitutional  power"  of  the  U.S.  Government ; 
its  contractee  is  not  liable  for  acts  in  the  exercise 
thereof  and  right  of  recovery  in  the  Court  of 
Claims  provides  for  compensation  (Yearsley  v. 
Ross  Construction  Co.  309  U.S.  18). 

Amendment  XIV.  Price-fixing  by  statute  is  not 
necessarily  invalid  (Mayo  v.  Canning  Co.,  309  U.S. 
310,  318),  and  a  State  statute  penalizing  conspira- 
cies to  fix  prices,  except  for  "agricultural  products 
or  livestock,"  was  held  not  to  infringe  the  "equal 
protection  clause"  (Tigner  v.  Texas,  310  U.S.  141, 
overruling  Connolly  v.  Union  Sewer  Pipe  Co., 
184  U.S.  540).  An  oil  proration  order  of  the  Texas 
Ry.  Commission  was  challenged  as  "confiscatory," 
and  the  challenge  was  upheld  by  both  district  and 
circuit  courts.  The  Supreme  Court,  with  two  dis- 
sents, reversed  their  judgments,  pointing  out  the 
technical  character  of  the  question  and  declining 
"to  supplant  the  Commission's  judgment,  even  in 
the  face  of  convincing  proof  that  a  different  result 
would  have  been  better."  (Ry.  Com.  v.  Rowan, 
310  U.S.  573). 

Amendment  XIV,  1  is  not  infringed  by  State 
legislation  requiring  insurance  by  licensed  com- 
panies to  be  obtained  "through  regularly  consti- 
tuted, registered  resident  agents  or  agencies"  who 
shall  receive  "the  usual  and  customary  commis- 
sions," not  more  than  half  of  which  may  be  shared 
by  non-resident,  licensed  brokers;  although  the 
policy  may  have  been  "negotiated  outside  (the 
State)  with  an  assured  whose  residence  is  outside 
...  by  an  agent  or  broker  living  outside"  ( Osborn 
v.  Oslin,  310  U.S.  53,  with  two  dissents).  In 
Hansberry  v.  Lee,  311  U.S.  32,  "due  process"  was 
held  lacking  where  a  State  court  pronounced  final, 
as  to  petitioners,  a  judgment  upon  an  agreement 
(not  to  sell  land  to  colored  people)  to  which  they 
were  not  parties  and  which  imposed  no  joint  lia- 
bility. 

So  religious  freedom  was  held  to  be  infringed 
by  a  State  act  penalizing  the  solicitation  of  funds 
from  the  public  generally,  for  a  religious  or  simi- 
lar purpose,  or  within  the  county  where  the  recipi- 
ent organization  ("Jehovah's  witnesses")  is  locat- 
ed ;  except  with  the  approval  of  the  Public  Wel- 
fare Council's  secretary  (Cantwell  v.  Connecticut, 
310  U.S.  296).  But  a  requirement  that  public  school 
teachers  and  pupils  salute  the  national  flag,  in- 
fringes neither  Amendment  I  nor  XIV,  both  of 
which  were  held  to  be  infringed  by  anti-picketing 
legislation  of  Alabama  (Thornhll  v.  Ala.,  310 
U.S.  88)  and  California  (Carlson  v.  Cal.,  310  U.S. 
106;  county  ordinance).  These  decisions  led  to  the 
annulment  of  Oregon's  popularly  adopted  anti- 
picketing  law.  A  State  statute  was  found  not  to  be 
invalid  for  vagueness  in  Minn.  v.  Probate  Court, 
309  U.S.  270,  274. 

Procedure.  In  the  following  cases  the  doctrine 
of  Erie  R.  Co.  v.  Tompkins,  304  U.S.  94  (1938 
YEAR  BOOK  393)  was  applied  by  directing  that  the 
decision  of  an  intermediate  State  court  be  fol- 
lowed :  West  v.  Am.  T.&T.  Co.,  311  U.S.  223 ;  Six 
Companies  v.  Joint  Highway  Dist.,  311  U.S.  180; 
Fidelity  etc.  Trust  Co.  v.  Field,  311  U.S.  169; 
Stoner  v.  N.Y  L.  Ins.  Co.,  311  U.S.  464;  the  doc- 
trine is  inapplicable  to  a  State  court's  interpreta- 
tion of  Federal  law,  Kloeb  v.  Armour  &  Co.,  311 
U.S.  199;  Deitrick  v.  Greaney,  309  U.S.  190;  nor 
is  a  suit  to  enforce  the  statutory  liability  of  joint 
stock  land  bank  shareholders,  subject  to  the  State 


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719 


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statute  of  limitations.  Russell  t/.  Todd,  309  U.S. 
280. 

Remedies.  The  ground  of  Federal  jurisdiction 
must  clearly  appear  in  a  petition  for  certiorari. 
McGoldrick  v.  Gulf  Oil  Corp.,  301  U.S.  2.  "Man- 
damus is  the  proper  remedy"  to  compel  a  U.S.  dis- 
trict judge  to  call  associates,  pursuant  to  Jud. 
Code  sec.  1266,  and  pass  on  the  constitutionality  of 
a  statute.  Ex  parte  Bransford,  310  U.S.  354. 

Parties.  A  private  market  dealer  is  not  a  "party 
in  interest"  who  may  sue  to  enjoin  unnecessary  ex- 
tension of  a  railway  line  under  Transportation 
Act  (1920)  sec.  402  (20)  L.  Singer  &  Sons  v. 
U.P.R.  Co.,  311  U.S.  295 ;  nor  may  a  private  person 
sue,  without  consent  of  the  United  States,  on  the 
bond  of  a  postmaster,  though  his  negligence  is  al- 
leged (U.S.  v.  Nat.  Surety  Corp.,  309  U.S.  165). 
But  the  defrauded  purchaser  of  a  "security"  may 
sue  to  enjoin  the  transfer  of  issuer's  corporate  as- 
sets, regardless  of  "the  amount  in  controversy  or 
citizenship  of  the  parties"  and  although  the  Securi- 
ties Act  of  1933  (sec.  12,  2)  merely  authorizes 
mm  "to  recover  the  consideration  paid,"  etc.  (Deck- 
en  v.  Independence  Shares  Corp.,  311  U.S.  282). 
Where  the  purchaser  of  a  farm  at  a  sale  under 
Bankruptcy  Act  sec.  75,  was  not  made  a  party  to 
the  farmer-debtor's  appeal  from  the  order  of  con- 
firmation, the  proper  course  is  not  dismissal,  but 
citation  of  the  purchaser  (Miller  v.  Hatfield,  309 
U.S.  1). 

Notice.  Under  the  Miller  Housing  Act  of  1935, 
a  material-man  may  recover  on  a  contractor's 
bond,  by  sending  (though  not  by  registered  mail  as 
the  act  requires)  a  written  notice  which  reaches 
one  of  the  contractors,  though  not  addressed  to 
them  (Fleisher  etc.  Co  v.  US.,  311  U.S.  15). 
Designation  of  an  agent  for  service  of  process  "in 
any  action  in  the  state,"  includes  one  in  the  U.S. 
district  court  (Okla.  Packing  Co.  v.  Okla.  Gas  & 
El.  Co,  309  U.S.  4). 

Trial  In  Smith  v.  Texas,  311  U.S.  128,  a  Ne- 
gro's conviction  of  rape  was  reversed  upon  a  show- 
ing that  in  the  same  year  and  the  previous  one  no 
Negro  had  served  on  the  local  grand  jury,  and  not 
more  than  one  in  any  of  the  preceding  years.  Like- 
wise, confessions  extorted  from  an  accused,  vitiate 
conviction  (Chambers  v.  Florida,  309  U.S.  227; 
White  v.  Texas,  310  U.S.  530).  But  denial  of  a 
motion  for  continuance,  after  competent  counsel 
have  been  assigned  to  the  accused,  is  not  a  denial 
of  "due  process"  (Avery  v.  Alabama,  308  U.S. 
444. 

Findings  and  Judgment.  A  decree  enjoining,  until 
final  hearing,  enforcement  of  the  Florida  Citrus 
Act  was  reversed  for  lack  of  "findings  of  fact  up- 
on ...  vital  issues."  under  Procedural  Rule  52(9) 
(Mayo  v.  Lakeland  etc.  Co.,  309  U.S.  310).  But,  in 
determining  whether  it  shall  grant  or  deny  a  license 
for  broadcasting  (not  a  common  carrier  activity) 
the  FCC  need  not  find  whether  economic  injury  to 
an  existing  station  would  result  (FCC  v.  Sanders 
etc.  Station,  309  U.S.  470).  Under  Procedural 
Rule  50  (b)  the  grant  of  a  motion  for  judgment  is 
not  a  denial  of  an  alternative  motion  for  a  new 
trial  (Montgomery  Ward  &  Co.  v.  Duncan,  311 
U.S.  243).  A  decree  pursuant  to  legislation  subse- 
quently declared  unconstitutional,  is,  nevertheless 
res  adjudicata  (Chicot  Co.  Drainage  District  v. 
Bank,  308  U.S.  371),  and  alleged  invalidity  of  the 
result  of  invoking  a  statute,  whose  constitutionality 
is  not  assailed,  presents  no  question  for  the  three 
judge  court  provided  by  sec.  266  of  the  Judicial 
Code  (Ex  parte  Bransford,  310  U.S.  354).  Legis- 
lative history  of  the  "enlistment  allowance"  under 


Act  of  June  10,  1922,  reviewed  and  found  to  have 
been  suspended  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1939.  by  a  proviso  of  the  appropriation  act 
(US.y.  Dickerson,  310  U.S.  554). 

Review.  "An  order  (of  a  district  court)  denying 
a  motion  to  quash  a  subpoena  duces  tecum  direct- 
ing a  witness  to  appear  before  a  grand  jury,"  is 
not  a  "final  decision,"  which,  alone,  the  circuit 
court  is  authorized  to  review  (Cobbledick  v.  U.S., 
309  U.S.  323).  A  Deputy  Commissioner's  finding 
that  a  decedent  was  not  "a  member  of  the  crew," 
under  sec.  3  of  the  Longshoremen's  Act,  and  that 
his  widow  was  entitled  to  compensation,  was  up- 
held as  supported  by  evidence  (So.  Chicago  etc. 
Co.  v.  Bassett,  309  U.S.  251).  An  FCC  order  re- 
fusing consent  to  the  assignment  of  a  radio-station 
license,  is  not  an  order  refusing  such  license  and 
is  not  appealable  (FCC  v.  Columbia  Broadcasting 
System,  311  U.S.  132).  Applicable  legislation,  en- 
acted while  a  case  is  pending,  for  review,  will  be 
applied  by  the  appellate  court  (Carpenter  v.  Wa- 
bash  Ry.  Co.,  309  U.S.  23).  Where  it  is  uncertain 
whether  a  State  court  decided  a  case  under  the 
State  or  the  Federal  Constitution,  the  Supreme 
Court  will  remand  the  case  for  clarification  (Min- 
nesota v.  Nat.  Tea  Co.,  309  U.S.  551). 

Miscellaneous.  Bankruptcy.  By  general  or- 
der, the  Rules  of  Civil  Procedure  are  made  appli- 
cable in  bankruptcy,  so  far  as  practicable"  (Stone 
J.  in  SEC  v.  US.  Realty  Co.,  310  U.S.  434,  468). 
The  SEC  may  be  permitted  to  intervene  in  pro- 
ceedings under  ch.  xi  of  the  Bankruptcy  Act, 
though  it  has  no  pecuniary  interest  therein  (ib). 
A  farmer-debtor's  petition  under  sec.  75  of  the 
Act,  subjects  him  and  his  property  to  the  U.S. 
district  court's  exclusive  jurisdiction;  without  its 
consent,  no  State  court  may  exercise  jurisdiction 
thereof  (Kalb  v.  Feuerstein,  308  U.S.  433).  Leave 
to  sell  property  under  deeds  of  trust,  without  entry 
of  the  required  stay  order,  is  reversible  error 
(Borchard  v.  Col.  Bank,  310  U.S.  311).  The  farm- 
er-debtor must  be  given  opportunity  to  redeem  at  a 
value  fixed  by  the  court,  before  a  public  sale  of  his 
property  is  ordered  (Wright  v.  Union  Central  L. 
Ins.  Co.,  311  U.S.  273;  but  cf.  Union  etc.  Bank  v. 
Byerly,  310  U.S.  1).  A  U.S.  district  court  which 
granted  a  lien  on  railway  property,  under  reorgani- 
zation in  another  bankruptcy  court,  was  upheld  in 
Warren  v.  Palmer,  310  U.S.  132.  The  court  may 
order  sequestration  of  disputed  oil  and  refer  the 
question  of  title  to  the  highest  court  of  the  State 
in  which  the  oil  is  located  (  Thompson  v.  Magnolia 
Petroleum  Co.,  309  U.S.  478).  A  prior  execution 
lien  on  the  debtor's  property  is  not  automatically 
released  by  an  adjudication  in  bankruptcy,  but  may 
be  preserved  for  the  benefit  of  the  bankrupt's  es- 
tate (Fischer  v.  Pauline  Oil  &  Gas  Co.,  309  U.S 
294).  Where  a  plan  for  composition  of  a  munici- 
pality's debts  was  confirmed  without  fully  inform- 
ing creditors  of  its  fiscal  agent  which  owned  a 
considerable  block  of  the  municipal  bonds  and  acted 
in  a  dual  capacity,  confirmation  was  set  aside  (Am. 
etc.  Ins.  Co.  v.  Avon  Park,  311  U.S.  138).  Appeals 
from  compensation  orders  may  not  be  taken  as  of 
right,  but  are  discretionary  with  the  Court  of  Ap- 
peals (Dickinson  Industrial  Site  v.  Cowan,  309 
U.S.  382).  The  time  for  appeal  runs  from  the  de- 
nial of  a  motion  for  rehearing,  considered  on  its 
merks  (Bowman  v.  Lopereno,  311  U.S  262). 

Contracts  A  clause  in  a  telegraph  contract,  lim- 
iting to  $500  the  company's  liability  for  delay,  etc., 
prescribes  a  maximum  and  not  liquidated  damages 
(W^tem  U.  Tel.  Co.  v.  Nester,  309  U.S.  582).  A 
State  statute  regulating  the  withdrawal  of  building 


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720         SURPLUS  MARKETING  ADM. 


and  loan  association  shares  is  a  valid  exercise  of 
the  police  power,  paramount  to  the  issuer's  obliga- 
tion to  permit  withdrawal  (Veix  v.  6th  Ward  B. 
&  L.  Ass'n.,  310  U.S.  32;  dist  Treigle  v.  Acme 
etc.  Ass'n.,  297  U.S.  189).  "Public  Contracts  Act," 
requiring  contractor  to  pay  prevailing  minimum 
wages  "in  the  locality  ...  as  determined  by  the 
Secretary  of  Labor,"  vests  no  right  in  prospective 
bidders,  even  though  such  determination  may  have 
been  erroneous"  (Perkins  v.  Lukens  Steel  Co., 
310  U.S.  113). 

Use  of  a  machine  which  infringed  no  existing 
patent  when  first  marketed,  will  not  be  enjoined, 
although  it  comes  within  the  terms  of  a  subsequent- 
ly enlarged  and  reissued  patent  (Sontag  Chain 
Stores  Co.  Ltd.  v.  Nat.  Nut  Co.,  310  U.S.  281). 

Powers.  The  "general  power  of  appointment" 
mentioned  in  the  1926  Revenue  Act  (sec.  302,  f ) 
covers  a  power  to  "appoint  to  anyone,  including  his 
own  estate  and  his  creditors"  (Morgan  v.  Com'r., 

309  U.S.  78). 

Public  Domain.  The  government's  grant  to  San 
Francisco  of  lands  and  rights  in  the  Hetch-Hetchy 
Valley,  conditioned  upon  non-transfer  to  a  public 
utility,  was  held  to  have  been  unlawfully  used  and 
such  use  was  enjoined  in  US.  v  San  Francisco, 

310  U.S.  16  In  U.S.  v.  Nor.  Pac.  R.  Co  ,  311  U.S. 
317  the  Court  found  various  breaches  of  the  condi- 
tions upon  which  a  land  grant  of  1863  had  been 
made  to  the  company  and  remanded  the  cause  to 
the  district  court  for  further  proceedings. 

Territories.  The  limit  of  corporate  land  owner- 
ship to  500  acres,  by  the  Puerto  Rico  Organic  Act 
(sec.  39),  which  is  not  "a  law  of  the  United  States" 
and  provides  no  penalty,  is  nevertheless  enforcible 
by  quo  warranto  proceedings,  authorized  by  the 
territorial  legislature  (Puerto  Rico  v  Rubert  Her- 
manos,  Inc.,  309  U.S.  543)  which,  "in  the  exercise 
of  its  police  power,"  may  "prohibit  bulk  shipments 
of  distilled  spirits" ;  but  not  the  use  of  trademarks 
thereon,  affixed  outside  the  territory,  which  would 
infringe  the  Inter-American  Trade  Mark  Conven- 
tion of  1929  (Bacardi  Corp.  v.  Domenech,  311  U.S. 
150).  The  Puerto  Rican  Supreme  Court's  ruling 
that  awards  under  the  local  Workmen's  Compen- 
sation Act  may  be  enforced  by  distraint  and  may 
not  be  enjoined,  found  not  "clearly  and  inescapably 
wrong"  (Bonet  v.  Texas  Co ,  308  U.S.  463). 

Waters.  In  US.  v.  Appalachian  Power  Co.,  311 
U.S.  377,  the  New  River  ( Va.  and  W.Va.)  was  de- 
clared a  navigable  stream  and  so  subject  to  Federal 
control;  though  two  lower  courts  had  held  the 
contrary  and  41  States  joined  in  supporting  them. 
"Flood  protection,  watershed  development,  recov- 
ery of  the  cost  of  improvements,"  as  well  as  navi- 
gability, said  Reed,  J.,  "are  parts  of  commerce 
control."  Wyoming  asked  that  Colorado  be  ad- 
judged in  contempt  for  diverting  from  the  Laramie 
River  more  water  than  a  previous  decree  permitted. 
The  Supreme  Court  denied  the  petition  without 
resolving  the  merits  but  admonished  Colorado  to 
keep  strictly  within  the  limits  (Wyoming  v.  Colo- 
rado, 309  U.S.  572).  Upon  application  of  Illinois 
and  the  Chicago  Sanitary  District  for  more  water 
from  the  St.  Lawrence-Great  Lakes  watershed,  a 
special  master  was  appointed  "to  make  a  summary 
inquiry  .  .  .  and  report"  (Wisconsin  v.  Illinois, 
309  U.S.  569) 

Boundaries.  The  rule  of  prescription  applied  and 
that  of  "thalweg"  (using  the  "thread,"  center,  of 
a  boundary  stream)  recognized;  but  the  latter 
yields  to  the  rule  that  a  boundary  is  unalterable  by 
avulsion  (sudden  and  violent  change),  and  the 
boundary  between  two  States  fixed  at  the  center  of 


the  original  Mississippi  main  channel,  now  dry 
(Arkansas  v.  Tennessee, 311  U.S.  1). 

See  INSURANCE;  NATIONAL  LABOR  RELATIONS 
BOARD;  WAGE  AND  HOUR  ADMINISTRATION.  For 
comment  on  decisions  see  articles  on  each  subject, 
as  ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER. 

C.   SUMNER   LOBINGIER. 

SURETY  BONDING.  See  INSURANCE. 

SURGERY.  See  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY. 

SURINAM  (NETHERLANDS  GUIA- 
NA). A  South  American  colony  of  the  Nether- 
lands. Area,  54,291  square  miles ;  population  (Dec. 
31,  1938),  173,089,  including  Negroes  and  Indians 
living  in  the  interior.  Education  (1938):  122 
schools  and  20,911  students.  Capital,  Paramaribo, 
52,760  inhabitants. 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  products  •  sugar, 
coffee,  rice,  maize,  bauxite,  gold,  balata,  bananas, 
salt,  and  cacao.  Livestock  (1938)  :  22,272  cattle, 
4766  goats,  7196  swine.  Trade  (1938):  imports, 
6,861,756  guilders;  exports,  6,609,139  guilders 
(guilder  averaged  $05501  for  1938;  $0.5334  for 
1939).  Shipping  (1938)  •  435  ships  aggregating 
486,001  register  tons  cleared. 

Government.  Finance  (1940)  •  local  revenue, 
4,189,000  guilders;  state  subvention,  3,328,000  guil- 
ders; expenditure,  7,517,000  guilders.  The  execu- 
tive authority  of  Surinam  is  under  the  control  of  a 
governor  who  is  aided  by  an  advisory  council. 
There  is  a  representative  body  known  as  the  States 
of  Surinam,  consisting  of  15  members  (10  elected 
by  the  voters,  and  5  appointed).  Governor,  Dr.  J. 
G.  Kielstra  (appointed  Aug.  16,  1933).  See  CURA- 
CAO under  History  for  the  effect  of  the  European 
War  on  the  status  of  the  Netherlands  West  Indies. 

SURPLUS  MARKETING  ADMINIS- 
TRATION (SMA).  The  Surplus  Marketing 
Administration  is  an  agency  of  the  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  Under  provisions  of  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt's  Third  Reorganization  Order  ef- 
fective June  30,  1940,  administrative  functions  and 
responsibilities  of  the  Federal  Surplus  Commodi- 
ties Corporation  and  of  the  Division  of  Marketing 
and  Marketing  Agreements  of  the  Agricultural 
Adjustment  Administration  were  consolidated  in 
the  Surplus  Marketing  Administration.  Funds  de- 
rived from  a  sum  equivalent  to  30  per  cent  of  the 
gross  customs  receipts  of  the  previous  year,  as  des- 
ignated by  Section  32,  Public  Number  320,  ap- 
proved Aug.  24,  1935,  and  additional  funds  which 
may  be  appropriated  by  Congress,  are  provided  to 
carry  on  the  various  activities  of  this  agency. 

The  Surplus  Marketing  Administration  admin- 
isters surplus  removal  and  marketing  agreement 
programs,  developed  to  assist  farmers  in  dealing 
more  effectively  with  agricultural  marketing  prob- 
lems complicated  by  war  in  Europe  and  Asia.  Sur- 
plus removal  programs  are  designed  to  encourage 
increased  domestic  consumption  and  to  develop 
wider  market  outlets  for  farm  products.  Marketing 
agreement  programs  seek  to  stabilize  markets  and 
improve  returns  to  producers  by  establishing  more 
orderly  selling  conditions. 

Several  mechanisms  have  been  developed  by  the 
Department  for  the  purpose  of  dealing  with  agri- 
cultural surpluses.  Principal  among  them  are  the 
food  and  cotton  stamp  plans,  the  school  lunch  pro- 
gram, and  the  low-cost  milk  program  for  moving 
increasing  quantities  of  farm  products  into  con- 
sumption among  needy  families.  Also  important 
are  programs  for  direct  purchase  and  distribution 
of  surplus  commodities,  for  diverting  surpluses  to 
by-products  and  to  develop  new  uses  and  new  out- 


SURPLUS  MARKETING  ADM. 


721 


SURPLUS  MARKETING  ADM. 


lets,  and  for  encouraging  exports,  primarily  of  cot- 
ton goods  and  of  wheat  and  wheat  flour. 

The  Food  Stamp  Plan,  started  in  May,  1939,  has 
been  extended  gradually  throughput  the  country. 
Where  this  plan  is  in  operation,  increased  buying 
power  in  the  form  of  blue-colored  food  stamps  is 
placed  in  the  hands  of  families  eligible  for  public 
aid.  These  blue  stamps  are  exchanged  at  local 
stores  for  foodstuffs  officially  listed  as  being  in 
surplus.  In  order  to  obtain  the  free  blue  stamps, 
participants  are  in  general  required  to  buy  speci- 
fied amounts  of  orange-colored  stamps  to  be  used 
in  the  purchase  of  any  food  product.  This  require- 
ment assures  the  continuance  of  normal  expendi- 
tures for  food.  The  blue  stamps  given  with  the 
orange-colored  stamps  bought  make  possible  a  50 
per  cent  increase  in  food  buying  power  which  is 
directed  at  moving  designated  agricultural  surplus- 
es into  consumption  through  regular  trade  chan- 
nels. Instead  of  the  5  cents  a  meal,  which  is  about 
the  average  they  have  been  spending,  persons  tak- 
ing part  in  the  plan  have  at  least  7%  cents  for  each 
meal. 

By  the  end  of  December,  1940,  the  Food  Stamp 
Plan  had  been  extended  to  267  areas  throughout 
the  United  States,  and  was  actually  operating  in 
226  of  these  areas.  Nearly  3,000,000  low-income 
consumers  were  taking  part  in  the  plan,  and  new 
buying  power  at  the  rate  of  about  $5,000,000  a 
month  was  being  spent  for  officially  listed  surplus 
foods  at  local  stores  in  these  areas.  It  is  expected 
that  by  the  close  of  the  current  fiscal  year  the 
Food  Stamp  Plan  will  have  been  extended  to  some 
300  areas,  and  will  be  serving  about  5,000,000  needy 
persons  New  buying  power  at  the  rate  of  more 
than  $10,000,000  a  month  will  then  be  made  avail- 
able for  the  purchase  of  listed  surplus  foods. 

The  general  operating  principles  of  the  Food 
Stamp  Plan  are  followed  in  the  Cotton  Stamp 
Plan.  Under  the  plan  for  cotton,  eligible  persons 
have  the  opportunity  of  buying  green-colored 
stamps  in  the  same  approximate  amount  that  they 
formerly  spent  for  clothing  and  household  goods 
made  from  cotton.  Minimum  and  maximum  pur- 
chase rates  are  fixed  and  within  those  limits,  for 
every  dollar's  worth  of  green-colored  stamps 
bought,  a  dollar's  worth  of  brown-colored  stamps 
is  given  free  Both  stamps  are  good  in  any  retail 
store  in  the  areas  where  the  plan  operates,  in  ex- 
change for  any  product  made  entirely  from  Amer- 
ican cotton  and  manufactured  in  this  country. 

Started  in  May,  1940,  the  Cotton  Stamp  Plan  is 
being  carried  out  on  an  experimental  basis.  By  the 
end  of  December,  it  had  been  extended  for  testing 
in  16  areas,  and  operations  were  under  way  in  11 
of  these  areas.  While  additional  areas  are  to  be 
designated  for  the  Cotton  Stamp  Plan  during  the 
current  fiscal  year,  extension  of  the  plan  wttl  be 
gradual  until  its  overall  merit  is  firmly  established. 

An  increasingly  important  outlet  for  surpluses 
of  foodstuffs  is  being  provided  by  the  school  lunch 
program  for  undernourished  children.  This  activity 
depends  largely  on  the  co-operation  and  initiative 
of  local  civic,  fraternal,  educational,  and  welfare 
organizations.  These  groups  assume  the  responsi- 
bility of  operating  the  school  lunch  program  in 
their  respective  localities.  Surplus  foods  bought  by 
the  Surplus  Marketing  Administration  and  shipped 
to  State  welfare  agencies  for  distribution  to  the 
needy  are  made  available  for  use  in  the  school 
lunches.  Foods  needed  in  addition  to  the  surplus 
commodities  are  bought  or  otherwise  obtained  by 
the  local  sponsoring  groups  in  order  to  provide  the 
school  children  with  well-balanced  noon  meals. 


The  school  lunch  program  is  being  expanded 
materially.  The  objective  for  the  current  year  is 
to  reach  6  million  undernourished  children  with 
the  lunches  made  in  whole  or  in  part  from  surplus 
commodities.  Last  year  about  half  this  number  of 
children  were  served  in  the  peak  month. 

Under  the  direct  purchase  and  distribution  pro- 
grams, a  wide  range  of  surplus  farm  products  has 
been  made  available  for  distribution  by  State  wel- 
fare agencies  to  public-aid  families  and  for  use  in 
the  school  lunches.  During  the  last  fiscal  year  more 
than  3,000,000,000  Ib.  of  surpluses  of  over  40  agri- 
cultural products  were  bought  under  the  direct 
purchase  activities.  This  involved  a  total  expendi- 
ture slightly  in  excess  of  117  million  dollars.  Direct 
purchases  of  agricultural  surpluses  are  made  as 
need  arises  for  improving  marketing  conditions  for 
individual  commodities. 

An  opportunity  for  needy  families  to  increase 
their  consumption  of  milk  is  afforded  by  the  low- 
cost  milk  programs  operating  in  Boston,  Chicago, 
Washington,  New  Orleans,  and  New  York  City. 
These  programs  supplement  operations  under  Fed- 
eral marketing  agreement  programs  regulating  the 
handling  of  milk  in  the  respective  markets.  They 
are  made  possible  by  a  Federal  subsidy  payment^to 
handlers  and  a  special  price  to  producers  for  milk 
that  is  sold  for  use  by  eligible  families  at  about  5 
cents  per  quart.  The  low-cost  milk  programs  bring 
into  fluid  consumption  surplus  milk  which  other- 
wise would  be  used  for  manufacturing  purposes  at 
lower  prices  to  farmers.  Further  extension  of  low- 
cost  milk  programs  to  other  marketing  areas  is 
contemplated. 

New  uses  and  wider  outlets  for  agricultural  sur- 
pluses are  being  encouraged  for  a  number  of  farm 
products.  During  the  current  fiscal  year,  new  uses 
being  developed  include  those  for  making  cotton 
bale  covers,  the  use  of  cotton  in  the  manufacture 
of  insulation  material,  and  the  use  of  cotton  in 
making  writing  paper.  Surplus  peanuts  are  being 
diverted  to  oil  and  other  by-products,  and  the  man- 
ufacture of  starch  is  being  encouraged  through 
the  diversion  of  surplus  potatoes  from  regular 
trade  channels.  Surplus  walnuts  are  being  diverted 
to  the  shelling  trade.  Wider  market  outlets  are  be- 
ing developed  through  a  program  for  winter  pears. 
Another  program  is  encouraging  sales  of  Puerto 
Rican  Coffee  in  continental  United  States  markets. 

Export  subsidy  programs  are  operating  on  a 
more  or  less  limited  basis  largely  because  of  un- 
settled world  conditions  One  program  is  encourag- 
ing sales  of  cotton  products  to  foreign  countries. 
Exports  of  wheat  and  wheat  flour  are  being  as- 
sisted through  another  program  which  now  applies 
to  exports  of  wheat  from  Pacific  coast  ports  to  the 
Philippines  or  to  European  destinations,  and  to 
wheat  flour  from  that  area  to  the  Philippines,  and 
from  all  parts  of  the  continental  United  States  to 
any  country  or  place  in  the  Americas  and  adjacent 
islands,  except  Puerto  Rico,  Alaska,  and  the  Canal 
Zone,  and  to  islands  east  of  the  Americas  lying  on 
or  west  of  40°  west  longitude. 

Marketing  agreement  programs  are  continuing 
to  play  an  important  part  in  stabilizing  selling  con- 
ditions for  a  wide  range  of  agricultural  commodi- 
ties and  in  improving  returns  to  producers  Alto- 
gether, 46  programs  are  in  effect,  29  for  milk  and 
dairy  products,  and  17  for  fruits,  vegetables,  and 
other  crops.  During  the  last  fiscal  year,  the  farm 
value  of  commodities  sold  under  marketing  agree- 
ment programs  exceeded  400  million  dollars. 

Additional  marketing  agreement  programs  are 
expected  to  become  effective  dqring  the  coqrse  of 


SVALBARD 


722 


SWEDEN 


the  current  fiscal  year.  At  the  request  of  industry 
groups,  preliminary  steps  are  under  way  for  the 
development  of  these  new  programs  for  a  few 
fluid  milk  markets  and  for  certain  crops  grown  in 
concentrated  producing  areas.  Operations  under 
marketing  agreement  programs  will  continue  to  be 
supplemented  by  surplus  removal  activities. 

MILO  PERKINS. 

SVALBARD.  See  NORWAY. 

SWAZILAND.  See  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

SWEDEN*  A  constitutional  monarchy  of 
Scandinavia.  Capital,  Stockholm.  Sovereign  in 
1940,  Gustaf  V,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne 
Dec.  8,  1907. 

Area  and  Population.  Sweden  has  an  area  of 
173,341  square  miles  and  a  population  estimated 
on  Jan.  1,  1940,  at  6,341,000  (6,250,506  at  1935 
census).  Live  births  in  1939  numbered  96,866  (15.3 
per  1000)  ;  deaths,  72,753  (11.5)  ;  marriages,  56,- 
725  in  1938 ;  immigrants,  5756  in  1938 ;  emigrants, 
2062  in  1938.  Estimated  populations  of  the  chief 
cities  on  Jan.  1,  1939,  were :  Stockholm,  570,771 ; 
Goteborg,  275,763;  Malmo,  151,247;  Norrkoping, 
69,434;  Halsingborg,  61,365. 

National  Defense.  See  History  below. 

Education  and  Religion.  Schooling  is  com- 
pulsory and  there  is  practically  no  illiteracy.  Of 
761,287  children  of  school  age  (7  to  14  years)  in 
1936,  666,060  were  attending  elementary  schools. 
In  1938-39  there  were  36,560  students  in  govern- 
ment high  schools  and  12,855  in  universities.  The 
Lutheran  Protestant  Church,  to  which  6,124,490 
persons  adhered  in  1930,  is  recognized  as  the  State 
church.  There  were  also  6653  Jews,  4763  Roman 
Catholics,  3981  Methodists,  805  Baptists,  and  1499 
others. 

Production.  Under  normal  conditions,  approxi- 
mately half  the  working  population  is  engaged  in 
agriculture  and  the  remainder  chiefly  in  fishing, 
lumbering,  manufacturing,  and  commerce.  The 
1940  harvest  was  20  per  cent  lower  than  the  aver- 
age for  the  period  1936-39,  reducing  agricultural 
income  about  375,000,000  crowns  below  normal 
years.  The  1939  harvest  was  valued  at  1,228,000,- 
000  crowns.  Estimated  yields  of  the  chief  crops  in 
1940  were  (in  metric  tons)  :  Wheat,  454.500;  bar- 
ley,  192,600;  rye,  296,100;  oats,  1,133,900;  pota- 
toes, 1,868,300  in  1939;  beet  sugar,  275,400  in  1939- 
40.  Livestock  statistics  for  1939  were:  2,976,000 
cattle,  1,316,000  swine,  373,000  sheep,  616,000 
horses,  and  50,000  goats.  Production  of  the  sea 
fisheries  in  1938  was  124,200  metric  tons,  valued 
at  31,700,000  crowns.  Wood  pulp  output  in  1938 
was  3,061,000  metric  tons. 

The  major  industrial  products  in  1938  (in  met- 
ric tons  unless  otherwise  specified)  were:  Iron 
ore,  8,500,000;  pig  iron,  714,000;  steel  (ingots  and 
castings),  972,000  (1,200,000  in  1939) ;  coal,  431,- 
000;  copper  ore,  9300  (10,500  in  1939) ;  zinc,  34,- 
600;  lead,  8600;  aluminum,  1900;  manganese, 
2100;  pyrites,  186,000;  tungsten,  110;  margarine, 
59,000 ;  wool  and  mohair,  600 ;  rayon,  7961 ;  silver, 
35.1  in  1939;  gold,  7300  kilograms  in  1939;  beer, 
41,950,000  gal. ;  alcohol.  11,914,000  gal. ;  electricity, 
8jl50,000,pOO  kilowatt-hours;  paper,  979,000  met- 
ric tons  in  1937.  Income  from  operations  of  the 
Swedish  merchant  marine  was  416,000,000  crowns 
in  1939  (236,200,000  in  1938).  Shipping  tonnage 
launched  in  1939,  94,000. 

Foreign  Trade.  Merchandise  imports  in  1939 
were  valued  at  2,489,000,000  crowns  (2,081,700,000 
in  1938)  and  exports  at  1,879,000,000  (1,843,300,- 
000  in  1938).  Principal  exports  were  iron  and 


steel,  machinery,  paper,  wood,  minerals.  In  1938 
the  exports  were  distributed  chiefly  as  follows  (in 
crowns)  :  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  446,915,000; 
Germany,  328,779,000;  United  States.  165,785,000; 
Norway,  124,927,000;  Denmark,  87,883,000;  Fin- 
land, 86,437,000.  Of  the  imports  (valued  in 
crowns),  Germany  supplied  480,940,000;  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  376,319,000;  United  States, 
336,749,000;  Denmark,  118,070,000;  the  Nether- 
lands, 114,794,000.  See  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30, 
1940,  there  was  an  actual  deficit  of  924,000,000 
crowns.  Estimates  for  1940-41  were :  Ordinary  re- 
ceipts, 1,692,400,000  crowns ;  capital  receipts,  306,- 
700,000;  ordinary  expenditures,  1,456,700,000;  cap- 
ital expenditures,  306,700,000.  A  deficit  of  1,700,- 
000,000  crowns  was  anticipated.  Public  debt, 
4,518,000,000  crowns  on  Dec.  31,  1940  (2,701,376,- 
000  on  Aug.  28,  1939).  The  Swedish  crown  (kro- 
na)  averaged  $0.2399  in  1939  and  $0.2380  in  1940. 

Transportation.  Sweden  in  1940  had  about 
10,381  miles  of  railways,  over  53,000  miles  of 
highways  (see  ROADS  AND  STREETS),  and  air  lines 
connecting  with  the  principal  cities  of  northern 
Europe.  The  State  railway  lines  in  1939  carried 
12,508,450  metric  tons  of  freight  and  50,645,587 
passengers  as  against  21,965,757  metric  tons  of 
freight  and  36,967,667  passengers  carried  by  the 
private  lines.  The  State  lines  reported  a  surplus  of 
21,570,424  crowns;  private  lines,  surplus  of  15,- 
292,884  crowns.  The  Swedish  Air  Lines  in  1939 
carried  48,029  passengers  (46,845  in  1938).  The 
merchant  marine  as  of  June  30,  1940,  comprised 
1310  steam  and  motor  vessels  of  1,503,426  gross 
tons,  a  net  decrease  of  1.9  per  cent  since  the  out- 
break of  the  European  War.  War  losses  up  to 
Dec.  30,  1940,  totaled  79  vessels  of  186,300  gross 
registered  tons  and  459  lives.  A  ship  canal  across 
the  Falsterbo  Peninsula  to  connect  the  Kattegat 
with  the  Baltic  Sea  was  under  construction  in 
1940. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  1809,  as  sub- 
sequently amended,  vested  executive  power  in  a 
hereditary  King,  acting  under  the  advice  of  a 
Council  of  State  (Cabinet),  which  is  responsible 
to  the  Diet  or  Riksdag.  The  Upper  Chamber  of 
the  Riksdag  has  150  members,  one-eighth  of  whom 
are  elected  annually  by  provincial  and  city  coun- 
cils ;  the  Lower  Chamber,  230  members,  elected  by 
direct  male  and  female  suffrage  for  four  years. 
The  coalition  cabinet  appointed  Dec.  13, 1939,  con- 
sisted of:  Premier,  Per  Albin  Hansson  (Social 
Democrat)  ;  Justice,  Prof.  K.  G.  Westman  (Agrar- 
ian) ;  Foreign  Affairs,  Christian  Guenther  (So- 
cial Democrat) ;  Defense,  P.  E.  Skold  (Social 
Democrat)  ;  National  Economy,  G.  H.  Eriksson 
(Social  Democrat)  ;  Communications,  Gustaf  An- 
dersson  (People's  party) ;  Finance,  E.  Wigforss 
(Social  Democrat) ;  Education,  Gosta  Bagge 
(Conservative)  ;  Agriculture,  A.  Pehrsson-Bram- 
storp  (Agrarian)  ;  Commerce,  J.  F.  Domo  (Con- 
servative) ;  Social  Affairs,  F.  Gustav  Moeller  (So- 
cial Democrat) ;  Ministers  without  Portfolio,  N. 
Quensel  (Agrarian)  and  Thorwald  Bergquist 
(People's  party). 

HISTORY 

Policy  Toward  Finland.  Despite  vigorous 
criticism  of  its  non-interventionist  policies  by  for- 
mer Foreign  Minister  Rickard  Sandier  and  a  sub- 
stantial bloc  of  minority  opinion,  the  Hansson  Gov- 
ernment clung  to  its  careful  "keep  out  of  war" 
policy  throughout  1940.  It  permitted  some  10,000 
Swedish  volunteers  to  help  the  Finns  in  their  brave 


SWEDEN 


723 


SWEDEN 


struggle  against  the  Russian  invaders  (see  EURO- 
PEAK  WAR)  and  encouraged  the  shipment  of  large 
military  and  non-military  supplies  from  or  through 
Sweden  to  Finland.  But  the  government  rejected 
Finland's  despairing  appeals  for  help  from  the 
Swedish  army  and  air  force.  It  refused  to  permit 
the  passage  of  Allied  troops  across  Sweden  to  aid 
Finland.  With  the  support  of  King  Gustaf,  it  re- 
buffed Sandler's  appeal  of  January  17  to  the  Riks- 
dag, urging  the  occupation  of  the  Aland  Islands 
by  Swedish  troops  to  forestall  the  establishment  of 
a  Soviet  base. 

When  Finland  was  worsted  in  the  unequal  strug- 
gle with  Russia,  the  Swedish  Government  served 
as  the  intermediary  through  which  the  onerous 
Finnish-Soviet  peace  of  March  12  was  concluded 
(see  FINLAND  under  History).  The  Swedish  peo- 
ple extended  further  extensive  private  aid  to  Fin- 
land for  relief  and  reconstruction  purposes  when 
the  Russo-Finnish  war  was  ended.  But  the  Hans- 
son  Government  quickly  dropped  a  proposal  for  a 
Finnish-Norwegian-Swedish  mutual  defense  pact 
when  Moscow  expressed  its  opposition. 

German  Invasion  of  Norway.  Sweden's 
"hands  off"  policy  in  the  Russo-Finnish  war  was 
motivated  by  fear  of  a  German  attack  and  the  con- 
sequent conversion  of  Scandinavia  into  a  main 
theater  of  the  European  War.  The  same  fear  in- 
duced Stockholm  to  follow  an  identical  policy  of 
armed  neutrality  when  Germany  occupied  Den- 
mark and  invaded  Norway  on  April  9.  See  DEN- 
MARK and  NORWAY  under  History 

On  February  25  the  Swedish,  Norwegian,  and 
Danish  Foreign  Ministers,  meeting  in  Copenhagen, 
had  agreed  to  "act  as  a  unit"  in  safeguarding  their 
neutrality  (see  DENMARK  under  History).  But 
coincident  with  her  attack  upon  Norway,  Germany 
warned  Sweden  to  avoid  intervention  and  the 
Swedish  Parliament  agreed  to  preserve  strict  neu- 
trality in  a  secret  session  on  the  night  of  April  9. 
A  few  days  later  Premier  Hansson  firmly  rejected 
a  German  demand  to  use  Swedish  territory  and 
the  Swedish  telephone  and  telegraph  system  to 
supply  and  communicate  with  German  troops  fight- 
ing in  Norway.  King  Gustaf  wrote  Hitler  person- 
ally that  Sweden  would  defend  her  neutrality  at  all 
costs.  Swedish  armed  forces  were  mobilized  de- 
spite German  assurances  that  Swedish  neutrality 
would  be  respected.  German  airplanes  that  repeat- 
edly flew  over  Swedish  territory  were  fired  upon. 
Elaborate  precautions  were  taken  against  "fifth 
column"  activities  in  Sweden. 

Results  of  Neutrality.  As  a  result  of  these 
policies,  Sweden  managed  to  stay  out  of  the 
spreading  European  conflict  during  1940.  But  with 
Norway  and  Denmark  in  German  hands,  Sweden 
was  cut  off  from  all  economic  and  political  con- 
tact with  the  Allied  and  neutral  countries  of  West- 
ern Europe  and  the  Americas.  From  both  the  mili- 
tary and  economic  point  of  view  Sweden  was  at 
Berlin's  mercy.  At  the  same  time  Sweden's  de- 
fenses against  Russia  were  markedly  weakened  by 
Finland's  defeat.  There  was  ever-present  danger 
that  the  Soviet  Government  would  complete  the 
conquest  of  Finland  at  the  first  favorable  opportu- 
nity. Believing  that  Germany's  defeat  by  the  Allies 
would  open  the  way  to  Soviet  domination  of  the 
Continent,  many  Swedes  were  led  to  hope  for  a 
German  victory. 

The  difficulties  and  dangers  of  Sweden's  new 
position  in  Europe  were  brought  home  to  her  peo- 
ple with  increasing  force  as  the  year  advanced. 
Early  in  July  the  Swedish  Government,  over  the 
protest  of  Great  Britain,  agreed  to  provide  trans- 


port facilities  for  war  materials  and  unarmed  Ger- 
man soldiers  traveling  between  Germany  and  Nor- 
way. On  July  9  Dr.  Alfred  Rosenberg,  official 
German  Nazi  philosopher,  announced  the  Reich's 
intention  of  taking  all  the  Scandinavian  peoples 
into  the  "greater  Germanic  unity  of  the  North  Sea 
and  Baltic  room,"  which  would  present  "a  com- 
mon political  and  economic  front  toward  the  out- 
side." 

The  German  press  adopted  an  increasingly 
threatening  tone  toward  Sweden,  warning  that  the 
Reich  could  not  countenance  "unfriendly"  ac- 
counts of  European  events  in  Swedish  newspapers. 
These  incidents  aroused  indignation  in  Sweden. 
Premier  Hansson  on  July  28  and  other  leading 
Swedes  expressed  the  nation's  determination  to  re- 
main free  and  independent.  But  growing  economic 
pressures  forced  the  Swedes  to  readjust  their  econ- 
omy and  their  national  policies 

With  its  trade  restricted  to  Germany,  German- 
occupied  territories,  Finland,  and  the  Soviet  Union, 
the  Swedes  on  July  12  concluded  new  trade  agree- 
ments with  the  Reich  and  Norway  based  on  the 
Nazi  trade  principles.  Exchange  rates  and  prices 
were  fixed  arbitrarily  to  Germany's  advantage. 
Sweden  undertook  to  sell  the  Reich  greater  quan- 
tities of  paper,  pulp,  and  lumber  than  Germany  re- 
quired, with  the  knowledge  that  the  Germans 
would  probably  resell  part  of  them  to  other  coun- 
tries in  competition  with  Sweden.  Moreover  the 
Swedes  were  obligated  to  buy  German  luxury 
goods  they  did  not  need  at  prices  fixed  in  Berlin. 

These  same  principles  were  applied  in  a  more 
comprehensive  Swedish-German  trade  pact  of  De- 
cember 16  and  in  trade  agreements  that  the  Reich 
Government  concluded  with  Sweden  on  September 
10  on  behalf  of  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands  and 
in  December  on  behalf  of  Denmark.  Toward  the 
end  of  September  the  Swedish  Government  yielded 
to  German  attacks  upon  the  Swedish  press  It  con- 
fiscated three  issues  of  a  liberal  newspaper  that 
had  expressed  doubt  as  to  the  accuracy  of  official 
German  reports  concerning  German  air  losses. 
Similar  action  was  taken  against  a  newspaper  that 
printed  accounts  of  alleged  British  terrorism  in 
Iceland. 

Relations  with  Russia.  The  Swedes  sought  to 
lessen  this  growing  pressure  from  the  Reich^  by 
establishing  closer  relations  with  the  Soviet  Union. 
After  months  of  negotiation,  Sweden  on  Septem- 
ber 9  extended  a  100,000,000-crown  credit  to  Rus- 
sia for  the  purchase  of  Swedish  machine  tools  and 
signed  another  agreement  for  increased  trade. 
Sweden  agreed  to  purchase  75,000,000  crowns 
worth  of  Russian  oil  products,  fodder,  manganese 
ore,  etc.,  annually  while  Moscow  was  to  take  100,- 
000,000  crowns  worth  of  Swedish  machinery  and 
other  steel  manufactures.  But  the  Stockholm  au- 
thorities continued  to  watch  Soviet  activities  in 
Finland  and  the  Baltic  States  with  deep  uneasi- 
ness. On  August  16,  when  a  new  Soviet  attack 
upon  the  Finns  seemed  likely,  Foreign  Minister 
Guenther  delivered  a  speech  indicating  that  in  this 
case  Sweden  might  abandon  neutrality  and  join 
forces  with  Finland  Beginning  September  1  Swe- 
den undertook  to  furnish  Finland  with  50,000,000 
crowns  worth  of  iron,  steel,  and  other  products  for 
reconstruction  purposes  and  to  provide  an  addi- 
tional credit  of  25,000,000  crowns. 

Defense  Preparations.  Throughout  this  try- 
ing period,  the  Swedish  government  and  people 
worked  feverishly  to  strengthen  their  defenses 
against  attack  from  without  and  "fifth  column" 
activities  within.  War  industries  operated  at  top 


SWEDEN 


724 


SWIMMING 


capacity  to  make  good  the  shortages  resulting  from 
shipments  of  military  supplies  to  Finland  and  to 
provide  new  defense  equipment  The  army  general 
staff  was  reorganized  March  21,  with  Maj.  Gen. 
Iva  Holmquist  succeeding  Lieut.  Gen.  Per  Sylvan 
as  Commander  in  Chief.  More  conscripts  were 
called  to  the  colors  for  extended  training. 

In  May  a  Home  Defense  Corps  of  50,000  men 
was  established  to  deal  with  invasion  by  para- 
chutists and  troop-carrying  airplanes.  Defense  or- 
ganizations of  various  kinds  were  formed  for  all 
physically-fit  Swedes  over  16  years  of  age.  On 
May  8  a  100-mile  mine  belt  protecting  the  en- 
trances to  Stockholm  and  other  ports  was  laid.  On 
May  24  the  government  announced  that  the  1936 
rearmament  program,  scheduled  for  completion  in 
1945-46,  had  been  in  the  main  "more  than  carried 
out."  The  Riksdag  on  April  17  approved  a  685,- 
000,000-crown  defense  budget  for  1940-41  and  au- 
thorized the  government  to  exceed  this  sum  if  nec- 
essary. A  defense  loan  of  500,000,000  crowns, 
launched  May  1,  was  over-subscribed  by  August. 
On  August  2  the  Riksdag  was  called  in  extraordi- 
nary session  to  consider  further  emergency  defense 
measures  and  increase  defense  appropriations.  The 
defense  program  received  a  setback  when  110  mili- 
tary planes  ordered  in  the  United  States  were  req- 
uisitioned by  the  Washington  Government  on  Oc- 
tober 22.  Subsequently  about  32,000,000  crowns 
were  appropriated  for  the  construction  of  two 
cruisers  and  a  number  of  destroyers  and  sub- 
marines. 

Economic  Readjustments.  Closely  related  to 
the  defense  program  were  the  measures  taken  to 
adjust  Sweden  to  its  new  economic  position.  On 
February  24  Parliament  imposed  rigid  restrictions 
on  the  export  of  capital  and  on  dealings  in  gold 
and  foreign  exchange  to  check  the  flight  of  capital. 
A  decree  of  January  31  revalued  the  gold  holdings 
of  the  Riksbank  at  the  daily  market  price  of  gold 
and  placed  all  the  bank's  gold  holdings  in  the  re- 
serve for  the  support  of  the  currency. 

Rationing  of  coal,  coke,  petroleum  products,  and 
certain  other  essentials  was  instituted  immediately 
after  the  German  invasion  of  Norway.  A  govern- 
ment price  control  board  was  established,  and  the 
scope  of  price  control,  like  rationing,  was  pro- 
gressively extended.  Stocks  of  many  staple  com- 
modities were  expropriated  by  the  government.  Ef- 
fective May  8,  the  government  was  authorized  to 
proclaim  a  financial  moratorium  at  its  discretion. 
In  June  legislation  was  passed  empowering  the 
King  in  Council,  the  Riksbank,  and  other  govern- 
ment organs  to  carry  on  at  home  or  abroad  in  the 
event  of  war.  Meanwhile  the  State  assumed  ever 
wider  emergency  powers,  including  control  of  for- 
eign trade,  shipping,  and  land  transport.  Income 
and  many  other  taxes  were  drastically  increased 
while  non-essential  State  and  municipal  expendi- 
tures were  curtailed. 

Economic  conditions  became  steadily  more  diffi- 
cult. Foreign  trade  was  halved.  The  belligerents 
sank  or  confiscated  85  Swedish  vessels  worth  $25,- 
000,000  up  to  Sept.  1,  1940,  and  activities  of  the 
remaining  merchant  vessels  were  greatly  curtailed. 
Prices  continued  to  rise  while  national  income  de- 
clined. Industrial  production  fell  (except  in  war 
industries)  and  unemployment  was  held  in  check 
only  through  expansion  of  the  armed  forces. 

National  Elections.  The  popularity  of  the  gov- 
ernment's course  in  the  face  of  these  difficulties 
was  demonstrated  in  the  quadrennial  elections  to 
the  Riksdag  held  on  September  15.  The  Social 
Democrats  under  the  leadership  of  Premier  Hans- 


son  won  19  additional  seats,  while  the  conservative 
Agrarians  lost  8  seats  and  Socialists  and  Commu- 
nists together  lost  almost  half  of  their  1936  popu- 
lar vote.  The  setback  to  the  Communists  was  at- 
tributed to  the  Soviet  attack  upon  Finland  while 
the  Socialists  had  shown  pro-German  tendencies. 
The  standing  of  the  parties  in  the  new  Riksdag, 
with  the  previous  standing  in  parentheses,  was: 
Social  Democrats,  134  (115) ;  Conservatives.  42 
(44)  ;  Agrarians,  28  (36)  ;  People's  party  (Lib- 
erals), 23  (27)  ;  Communists,  3  (5)  ;  Socialists,  0 
(3). 

The  unity  of  all  political  parties,  except  the 
Communists  and  the  pro-Nazi  National  Swedish 
Union,  in  defending  Sweden's  independence  and 
democratic  institutions  was  shown  at  a  joint  dem- 
onstration of  about  150,000  persons  in  Stockholm 
on  May  Day.  Leaders  of  all  the  pro-democratic 
parties  spoke  from  the  same  platform,  appealing 
for  national  unity  and  mutual  sacrifice.  A  bill  to 
outlaw  the  Communist  party,  introduced  by  the 
Conservatives  in  January,  failed  to  receive  govern- 
ment support.  At  the  convention  of  the  pro-Nazi 
National  Swedish  Union  early  in  October,  Leader 
Sandstrom  announced  that  because  of  the  German 
occupation  of  Norway,  the  party  was  ready  to 
make  "a  decisive  contribution  to  Swedish  national 
life."  He  indicated  that  the  shortage  of  funds  that 
previously  handicapped  the  movement  had  been 
overcome. 

See  DENMARK,  GERMANY,  and  GREAT  BRITAIN 
under  History;  CO-OPERATIVE  MOVEMENT;  EURO- 
PEAN WAR  under  Finnish  Campaign ;  INDUSTRIAL 
CHEMISTRY;  LABOR  CONDITIONS;  Music. 

SWEDISH  LITERATURE.  See  SCANDI- 
NAVIAN LITERATURE. 

SWIMMING.  The  shattering  of  four  world's 
and  many  national  records,  a  double  victory  by  the 
University  of  Michigan  in  the  national  A.A.U. 
indoor  and  National  Collegiate  A.A.  championships 
and  the  meteoric  rise  of  a  new  aquatic  marvel  in 
the  person  of  15-year-old  Miss  Mary  Mooreman 
Ryan  of  Louisville,  Ky.,  were  outstanding  devel- 
opments in  the  1940  world  of  water  sports. 

Adolf  Kiefer?  representing  the  Chicago  Towers 
Club,  reduced  his  back-stroke  marks  for  100  yards 
from  0 :58.8  to  0 :58.1  and  100  meters  from  1 :04.8 
to  1 :04.7.  The  Yale  varsity  team  of  Richard  Kelly, 
Edward  Pope,  Russell  Duncan,  and  Howard  John- 
son cut  the  time  for  the  400-yard  free  style  relay 
from  3:31.3  to  3:30.7,  and  then  the  three  last- 
named  and  William  Sanburn  shaded  the  figures 
from  3  :S92  to  3 :54.4  for  the  400-meter  relay.  The 
400-yard  record  was  also  shattered  by  Edward 
Hutchens,  John  Gillis,  Charles  Barker,  and  Gus 
Sharamet,  all  of  Michigan,  who  traversed  the 
course  in  3:31. 

The  Wolverines  captured  the  A.A.U.  laurels  by 
overpowering  the  Towers  Club,  28  to  24,  and  the 
N.C.A.A.  pennant  by  outpacing  Yale,  45  to  42. 

Miss  Ryan  reduced  the  American  long  course 
standards  for  400  yards  from  5 :32.5  to  5 :30.1,  880 
yards  from  11:33.2  to  11:26.4  and  the  one  mile 
from  23:47.4  to  23:15,  a  mark  not  far  removed 
from  the  world's  record  of  23:11.5. 

Outstanding  among  the  new  records  were  long 
course  marks  of  2  13.1  for  220  yards  free  style  by 
Otto  Jaretz  of  the  Towers  Club;  9:17.3  for  the 
880-yard  relay  by  members  of  the  Alexander 
House  C.A.  of  Hawaii  and  a  20-yard  course  stand- 
ard of  1 :01  for  the  100  yards  breast  stroke  by 
Richard  Hough  of  the  Princeton  A.A. 

Among  the  sensational  marks  set  by  women 
were  2 :30.3  for  220  yards  free  style  set  by  Miss 


SWITZERLAND 


725 


SWITZERLAND 


Brenda  Helser  of  the  Multnomah  A.A.A.  of  Port- 
land, Ore. ;  1 :24.2  for  100  meters  breast  stroke,  by 
Miss  Lorraine  Fischer  of  the  New  York  Women's 
S.A. ;  220  yards  in  3 :09  by  Miss  Fujiko  Katsutani 
of  Hawaii,  and  3 :28.6  for  the  300-yard  medley  re- 
lay by  a  New  York  W.S.A.  trio.  Besides  these, 
there  were  long-course  marks  of  1:18.4  for  110 
yards  back  stroke  by  Miss  Gloria  Callen  of  the 
latter  club,  and  4 :45.7  for  the  400-meter  relay  by 
Multnomah  girls. 

In  springboard  diving,  Al  Patnik  of  Ohio  State 
University,  was  tops ;  in  platform  work,  his  team- 
mate, Earl  Clark,  was  without  a  peer.  Miss  Mar- 
jorie  Gestring  of  Los  Angeles  captured  both  the 
outdoor  women's  crowns,  defeating  Miss  Helen 
Crlenkovich  of  San  Francisco,  the  indoor  cham- 
pion. 

For  the  second  successive  year  the  Alexander 
House  C.A.  won  the  men's  national  A.A.U.  team 
championship.  In  the  college  field,  Michigan  car- 
ried off  the  Big  Ten  honors,  Yale  was  all-power- 
ful in  the  East  and  Southern  California  was  su- 
preme on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

SWITZERLAND.  A  federated  republic  of 
central  Europe.  Capital,  Bern  (Berne). 

Area  and  Population.  Switzerland  has  an  area 
of  15,944  square  miles  and  a  population  estimated 
at  4,216,000  on  Jan.  1,  1940  (4,066,400  at  the  1930 
census).  The  urban  population  in  1937  was  esti- 
mated at  1,760,000.  Living  births  in  1938  numbered 
63,790  (15.2  per  1000)  ;  deaths,  48,576  (11.6  per 
1000)  ;  marriages,  31,031  (7.4  per  1000).  Estimated 
populations  of  the  chief  cities  on  Jan.  1,  1939, 
were:  Zurich,  329,780;  Basel,  162,559;  Geneva, 
123,286;  Bern,  121,976;  Lausanne,  89,632;  St. 
Gallen,  63,491 ;  Winterthur,  58,410 ;  Lucerne,  54,- 
123.  The  1930  census  showed  2,924,313  German- 
speaking  Swiss;  831,097  French -speaking ;  242,- 
034  Italian-speaking ;  and  44,158  Romansch-speak- 
ing. 

National  Defense.  All  males  from  18  years  of 
age  to  60  serve  compulsorily  in  a  national  militia. 
The  militia  numbers  about  480,000.  An  air  force  of 
some  5000  men  and  400  aircraft  is  maintained.  See 
also  under  History. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  system  of  pub- 
lic education  varies  by  cantons.  In  the  academic 
year  1938^-39,  pupils  in  primary  schools  numbered 
460,222;  in  secondary  and  special  schools,  about 
90,000;  the  universities  of  Basel,  Zurich,  Bern, 
Geneva,  Lausanne,  Fribourg,  and  Neuchatel  had 
among  them  8854  students.  Literacy  is  virtually 
universal  among  competent  natives  of  according 
age.  The  census  of  1930  reported  2,230,303  Prot- 
estants, 1,666,350  Roman  Catholics,  and  17,973 
Jews. 

Production.  The  census  of  1930  showed  404,- 
239  persons  engaged  in  agriculture,  819,018  in 
manufacture  and  trades,  and  164,989  in  commerce. 
About  12  per  cent  of  the  land  is  arable ;  meadows 
cover  some  4,161,000  acres ;  forests,  2,372,000.  The 
chief  agricultural  products  of  1939,  in  millions  of 
Swiss  francs,  were:  Milk,  451;  cattle,  244;  pigs, 
167;  fruit,  67;  poultry  products,  63;  the  value  of 
all  agricultural  production  of  the  year,  1,269.  The 
industries  included  the  making  of  cheese,  con- 
densed milk,  watches  and  clocks,  and  embroidery. 

Foreign  Trade.  Switzerland,  before  the  war 
broke  out  in  Europe  in  1939,  normally  imported 
much  of  its  requirement  of  cereals,  fruits,  vege- 
tables, and  mineral  substances ;  it  exported  chiefly 
machinery,  clocks  and  watches,  and  cotton  textiles. 
Trade  did  not  in  most  respects  fall  much  out  of 
normal  for  the  calendar  year  1939.  Imports 


amounted  to  1,889,358,000  Swiss  francs  (for  1938, 
1,606,902,000) ;  exports,  to  1,297,577,000  (for  1938, 
1,316,572,000).  Germany  sent  (1939)  440,240,000 
francs  of  the  imports  and  took  191,529,000  of  the 
exports;  France  sent  275,344,000  and  took  140,- 
106,000;  Italy  sent  135,178,000,  took  80,675,000; 
the  United  Kingdom  sent  109,304,000,  took  164,- 
506,000;  United  States  sent  132,685,000,  took  129,- 
678,000. 

Finance.  The  Federal  revenue  of  the  fiscal  year 
1940  was  estimated  at  513,200,000  Swiss  francs; 
expenditure,  at  584,300,000;  revenue  of  1939,  at 
511,800,000;  expenditure,  at  600,700,000.  The  Fed- 
eral public  debt  (not  to  count  the  debt  of  the  Fed- 
erally owned  railways)  included,  Jan.  1,  1940, 
2,237,575,000  Swiss  francs  bonded  and  487,517,179 
floating:  total,  2,725,092,179;  or,  with  railroad  debt 
included,  5,841,396,529.  The  Swiss  franc,  the  mon- 
etary unit,  as  quoted  in  U.S.  money,  averaged 
$02268  in  value  in  1940. 

Transportation.  There  were  in  1937  about  3660 
miles  of  railway  (2800  miles  electrified)  and  (in 
1939)  10,448  miles  of  highways  (see  ROADS  AND 
STREETS).  Civil  aviation  statistics  for  1938  were: 
Miles  flown,  3,354,530 ;  mail  carried,  1,386,489  Ib. ; 
freight  and  baggage,  1,338,201  Ib. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  1874  provides 
a  republican  confederation  of  22  cantons  or  States. 
The  Federal  Assembly  consists  of  two  chambers; 
one,  the  Council  of  States,  is  composed  of  44  mem- 
bers— two  from  each  canton;  the  other  chamber, 
the  National  Council,  has  187  members,  all  elected 
at  four-year  intervals  by  the  obligatory  vote  of 
males  who  have  attained  20  years  of  age.  The 
Federal  Council  consists  of  seven  members,  all 
elected  quadrennially  by  vote  of  the  united  cham- 
bers of  the  Federal  Assembly ;  by  similar  vote,  but 
annually,  are  chosen,  from  among  the  seven,  a 
President  of  the  Confederation  and  a  Vice-Presi- 
dent  of  the  Federal  Council.  Each  of  the  Federal 
Council's  seven  members  is  assigned  to  the  direc- 
tion of  one  of  the  seven  Federal  administrative  de- 
partments. Dr.  Marcel  Pilet-Golaz  was  President 
in  1940. 

HISTORY 

The  totalitarian  tide  swept  completely  around 
Switzerland  during  1940  and  threatened  momen- 
tarily to  engulf  the  sturdy  little  democracy.  But 
the  Swiss  held  firm  against  the  menace  of  invasion, 
the  plotting  of  "fifth  column"  elements  within,  and 
the  progressive  strangling  of  their  commerce  which 
raised  the  specter  of  economic  ruin  and  starvation. 
On  the  night  of  August  1  they  celebrated  the  649th 
anniversary  of  Swiss  union  and  freedom  by  light- 
ing bonfires  on  hundreds  of  mountain  peaks  and 
with  torchlight  and  lantern  parades  in  the  cities. 
The  nation's  military  and  civil  leaders  pledged 
anew  their  determination  to  defend  Swiss  neutral- 
ity and  independence  at  all  costs. 

The  May- June  Crisis.  During  the  first  four 
months  of  the  year  large  Swiss  forces  stood  on 
guard  along  the  German  frontier  to  repel  a  possi- 
ble German  invasion  of  France  through  Swiss  ter- 
ritory. After  the  German  attack  on  Norway  and 
Denmark,  60,000  more  men  were  called  to  the  col- 
ors (April  18).  With  the  beginning  of  Hitler's 
offensive  against  the  Low  Countries  on  May  10, 
full  mobilization  and  a  "precautionary  state  of 
war"  were  proclaimed. 

For  the  next  few  weeks  Switzerland  lived  in 
imminent  danger  of  attack.  Large  German  forces 
of  tanks  and  troops  were  massed  on  the  frontier 
and  German  airplanes  repeatedly  flew  over  Swiss 


SWITZERLAND 


726 


SWITZERLAND 


territory,  a  number  being  shot  down  by  Swiss 
fighter  planes.  On  May  14  the  British  and  French 
legations  in  Berne  burned  their  files  in  anticipation 
of  a  German  invasion.  On  May  16  the  Swiss-Ger- 
man frontier  was  closed.  In  mid-June,  after  Italy 
entered  the  war  and  German  troops  were  sweeping 
around  the  rear  of  France's  Maginot  Line,  the 
Swiss  officials  suddenly  tightened  all  military  pre- 
cautions and  warned  the  public  of  a  possible  para- 
chute invasion.  Nothing  happened  except  the  flight 
of  about  60,000  French  and  Polish  troops  across 
the  Franco-Swiss  frontier  in  the  last  days  of  the 
fighting  in  France.  On  June  28  the  crisis  seemed 
over  and  partial  demobilization  of  the  Swiss  armed 
forces  of  more  than  400,000  men  was  ordered. 
Nevertheless  large  forces  continued  to  man  the 
frontier  defenses  throughout  the  rest  of  the  year. 

Economic  Isolation.  The  entrance  of  Italy  in- 
to the  war  and  the  collapse  of  France  isolated 
Switzerland  politically  and  economically  from  the 
democratic  world  and  all  non-European  markets. 
The  trade  previously  carried  on  in  American  ships 
touching  Mediterranean  ports  was  cut  off.  Some  20 
Greek  ships  had  been  chartered  by  the  Swiss  Gov- 
ernment in  May  to  carry  on  Swiss  trade  through 
Genoa,  Italy.  But  obstructions  interposed  by  the 
British  blockade  and  by  Italian  authorities  ham- 
pered the  ships'  operations.  Then  the  outbreak  of 
the  Italo-Greek  war  in  October  tied  up  the  char- 
tered vessels. 

The  railway  through  unoccupied  France  re- 
mained Switzerland's  only  connecting  link  with 
non-belligerent  countries  until  the  Evires  railway 
bridge  over  the  Rhone  River  was  blown  up  early 
in  September.  It  was  over  two  months  before  the 
bridge  was  rebuilt  and  the  railway  reopened.  Mean- 
while the  Swiss  Government's  effort  to  establish 
a  motor-truck  route  across  France  and  Spain  to 
Portugal  had  to  be  abandoned  for  lack  of  gaso- 
line. 

Pressure  from  Axis  Powers.  Switzerland  was 
thus  left  at  the  mercy  of  Germany  and  Italy  eco- 
nomically. They  seized  the  opportunity  to  press 
for  acceptance  of  their  "new  order"  in  Europe.  In 
order  to  obtain  German  coal,  Switzerland  was  re- 
ported to  have  surrendered  part  of  her  gasoline 
stocks  to  the  Reich.  Late  in  August  the  Swiss 
Government  dropped  its  ban  on  the  admission  of 
Chancellor  Hitler's  official  newspaper,  the  Voel- 
kischer  Beobachter,  imposed  some  years  previously 
when  Swiss  papers  were  barred  from  Germany. 
Contrary  to  Swiss  expectations,  Germany  retained 
its  ban  on  Swiss  newspapers  and  Nazis  increased 
their  demands  that  Switzerland  end  its  "arrogant 
policy"  and  "find  a  new  relationship"  to  the  Reich. 

From  July  on,  the  Italian  press  and  radio  like- 
wise adopted  a  menacing  tone  toward  Switzerland. 
They  warned  of  "grave  complications"  unless  the 
Bern  authorities  took  a  "more  realistic  attitude" 
toward  the  European  political  situation  and  curbed 
the  alleged  pro-British  bias  of  the  Swiss  press.  The 
Italians  also  threatened  to  intervene  unless  the 
Swiss  Government  prevented  night  flights  of  Brit- 
ish bombers  across  Switzerland  en  route  to  and 
from  Italy.  The  Swiss  made  repeated  protests  to 
London  and  received  assurances  that  British  pilots 
would  be  instructed  to  avoid  Switzerland,  but  vio- 
lations  of  Swiss  air  limits  at  night  continued. 

Economic  Measures.  To  protect  the  republic's 
economic  and  financial  position,  the  government 
concluded  new  trade  and  payments  agreements 
with  Germany,  Italy,  and  some  of  the  German- 
occupied  countries  on  the  best  terms  available.  A 
special  office  was  established  April  27  for  the  more 


thorough  supervision  of  exports  and  imports.  To 
prevent  the  freezing  of  Swiss  capital  in  conquered 
territories,  the  government  on  July  8  assumed  su- 
pervision over  capital  deposited  in  Switzerland 
from  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  France,  Denmark, 
Norway,  and  Luxemburg.  It  required  all  outgoing 
payments  to  those  countries  to  clear  through  the 
National  Bank.  The  price-control  and  rationing 
systems  were  extended.  On  October  4  the  govern- 
ment took  over  the  entire  crop  and  all  stores  of 
bread  grains.  A  week  later  the  sale  of  butter  to 
retailers  was  temporarily  halted.  A  decree  ending 
all  sales  of  wool  articles  temporarily  was  issued 
October  31. 

Meanwhile  prices  continued  to  rise  and  emer- 
gency defense  costs  imposed  a  severe  strain  upon 
the  country's  finances.  In  July  the  Federal  Assem- 
bly adopted  special  emergency  capital  and  income 
taxes  for  national  defense.  Effective  Jan.  1,  1941,  a 
capital  tax  was  imposed  ranging  from  a  minimum 
of  5  francs  annually  on  bank  deposits  and  security 
holdings  of  10,000  francs  to  2500  francs  on  1,000,- 
000  francs.  The  supplementary  income  tax  raised 
this  form  of  taxation  to  a  higher  level  than  in  most 
belligerent  countries. 

Anti-Democratic  Agitation.  The  Swiss  also 
experienced  growing  difficulty  with  anti-democratic 
minority  groups,  particularly  pro-Nazi  elements 
receiving  financial  aid  and  encouragement  from 
Berlin.  On  February  29  Robert  Tobler,  head  of 
the  pro-Nazi  Swiss  National  Front,  was  arrested 
on  a  charge  of  transmitting  military  information 
to  Germany.  A  colonel  attached  to  the  War  Min- 
istry and  six  accomplices  were  arrested  for  Ger- 
man espionage  April  21.  On  May  11  foreigners  in 
possession  of  fire  arms  were  ordered  to  turn  them 
over  to  the  police.  A  week  later  several  hundred 
persons  were  arrested  in  a  nation  wide  round-up  of 
those  who  failed  to  comply. 

An  increase  in  Communist  propaganda  led  the 
Federal  Government  on  August  6  to  ban  all  Sta- 
linist, Trotskyist,  and  anarchist  activity  and  prop- 
aganda under  heavy  penalties.  The  Swiss  Com- 
munist party  and  all  its  branches  and  affiliated 
associations  were  ordered  dissolved  on  November 
27.  The  pro-Nazi  Swiss  Nationalist  movement,  led 
by  Ernst  Hofmann,  became  increasingly  aggres- 
sive in  its  attacks  upon  the  Swiss  Government  and 
democratic  institutions  after  the  collapse  of  France. 
On  September  12  Hofmann  and  an  associate  issued 
a  communique"  stating  that  they  had  been  received 
by  President  Pilet-Golaz  as  the  "first  step  toward 
political  appeasement  in  Switzerland."  This  stirred 
up  severe  criticism  of  the  President  and  he  was 
obliged  to  explain  his  action  before  the  chairmen 
of  the  Swiss  political  parties. 

After  arrests  of  Nazis  secretly  affiliated  with  the 
Nationalist  movement  and  the  banning  of  their  or- 
ganizations, Hofmann  and  four  associates  in  a  let- 
ter to  President  Pilet-Golaz  on  November  12  de- 
manded assurances  that  the  party  would  be  allowed 
freedom  of  press  and  assembly,  the  "public  re- 
habilitation" of  its  arrested  members,  and  dam- 
ages for  members  "hurt  morally  or  economically" 
through  police  measures.  The  government  respond- 
ed with  a  decree  of  November  19  dissolving  the 
Nationalist  party,  forbidding  it  to  reorganize  under 
another  name,  and  banning  its  newspaper  and  all 
its  propaganda  and  activities. 

Other  Political  Event!.  In  a  referendum  held 
December  1  the  voters  rejected,  429,952  to  342,838, 
a  government  bill  making  pre-military  training 
obligatory  for  all  youths  from  16  to  19  years  of 
age.  The  first  referendum  on  woman  suffrage,  held 


SYNTHETIC  PRODUCTS 


727 


SYRIA  AND  LEBANON 


in  one  of  the  cantons  the  same  date,  resulted  in  an 
adverse  vote  of  17,120  to  7819. 

The  resignations  of  two  members  of  the  Federal 
Council,  War  Minister  Rudolf  Minger  and  Minis- 
ter of  Justice  and  Police  Johannes  Baumann,  lent 
unusual  importance  to  the  parliamentary  session 
of  December  10,  at  which  two  new  Federal  Coun- 
cillors and  a  President  were  elected.  Ernest  Wetter 
of  the  conservative  Radical-Democratic  party  was 
elected  President  for  1941,  while  Edouard  von 
Steiger  of  the  Farmers,  Workers,  and  Middle 
Class  party  and  Karl  Kobelt,  an  Independent,  were 
chosen  for  the  vacancies  on  the  Federal  Council. 

See  GERMANY  under  History;  LABOR  CONDI- 
TIONS; Music. 

SYNTHETIC  PRODUCTS.  See  CHEMIS- 
TRY, INDUSTRIAL;  MINERALOGY;  NATIONAL  DE- 
FENSE ADVISORY  COMMISSION  ;  RUBBER. 

SYRIA  AND  LEBANON.  A  territory  on  the 
east  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  between  Turkey 
and  Palestine,  mandated  to  France  by  the  League 
of  Nations  on  July  24,  1922.  Administrative  center 
of  the  French  High  Commissioner,  Beyrouth 
(Beirut). 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  and  population 
of  the  Syrian  Republic,  its  sub-divisions,  and  the 
Republic  of  Lebanon,  are  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing table.  It  excludes  the  Sanjak  of  Alexandretta 
(Hatay  Republic),  with  an  area  of  1930  square 
miles  (pop.  about  228,000),  ceded  to  Turkey  by 
France  June  23,  1939. 

SYRIA  AND  LEBANON-  AREA  AND  POPULATION 


Area. 

Popula- 

Political Unit  (Capital) 

sq  mi  « 

tion* 

Republic  of  Syria  (Damascus) 

72,560 

2,487,000 

Syria  Proper  (Damascus)  .  .  . 
Laiakta  (Lotakta) 

.  .     07,550 
2,310 

2,044,000 
372,000 

Djebel  Druse  (El  Suweideh) 
Republic  of  Lebanon  (Beyrouth) 

2,700 
3,470 

71,000' 
862,600 

Total  

76,030 

3,349,600 

•  Approximate.  »  Estimates  of  December,  1938,  for  the  Repub- 
lic of  Syria  and  its  subdivisions,  census  of  1935  for  Republic  of 
Lebanon  *  Excluding  about  15,000  nomads  who  spend  part  of 
their  time  in  Djebel  Druse 

The  people  are  mainly  Arabs  and  Arabic  is  the 
chief  language,  but  there  are  considerable  numbers 
of  Turks,  Kurds,  Turkomans,  Circassians,  Arme- 
nians, Iranians,  and  Jews  as  well  as  about  28,000 
Europeans.  The  chief  cities,  with  1935  populations, 
are:  Damascus,  193,912;  Aleppo,  177,313;  Bey- 
routh, 134,655;  Horns,  52,792. 

Education  and  Religion.  Statistics  on  educa- 
tion (1937) :  Primary,  2611  schools  (253,763  pu- 
pils): technical,  146  (15,916);  secondary,  31 
(1485);  universities,  3  (1316).  Religions:  Mos- 
lems, 1,514,755;  Christians,  505,419;  Alawites, 
27,930;  Druses,  86,125;  Jews,  16,526;  Ismailians, 
14,882. 

Production.  Agriculture  and  livestock  raising 
are  the  main  occupations.  Production  (in  metric 
tons)  :  Wheat,  607,000  in  1939;  barley,  370,000  in 
1939;  oats,  5400  in  1939;  corn,  27,500  in  1938; 
rice,  3000  in  1938;  potatoes,  41,600  in  1938;  tobac- 
co, 3400  in  1938 ;  cotton-seed,  17,600  in  1938 ;  cot- 
ton, 8400  in  1938;  sesamum,  5300  in  1938;  olive 
oil,  15,300  in  1938 ;  hemp,  4760  in  1937 ;  wool,  4400 
in  1940.  Livestock  (Jan.  1,  1938)  :  2,273,520  sheep, 
89,900  camels,  345,228  cattle,  152,221  asses,  1,659,- 
514  goats.  Some  flour,  soap,  silk  thread,  etc.,  is 
manufactured. 

Foreign  Trade.  Including  transit  trade,  mer- 
chandise imports  in  1938  were  equivalent  to  $283,- 
200,000  (old  U.S.  gold  dollars)  and  exports  to 


$117,600,000.  Trade  is  mainly  with  France,  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  and  neighboring  coun- 
tries in  normal  times ;  in  1940  it  was  reduced  to  a 
fraction  of  its  normal  value  by  the  war. 

Finance.  Syria  and  Lebanon  have  separate 
budgets  and  also  a  "common  interests"  budget  cov- 
ering Customs,  posts  and  telegraphs,  etc.  Actual 
receipts  of  the  "common  interests"  budget  declined 
from  12,237,189  Syrian  pounds  in  1938  to  7,742,500 
in  1939.  Budget  estimates  of  the  Syrian  Republic 
for  1940  were  11,746,000  Syrian  pounds;  of  the 
Lebanese  Republic,  about  6,500,000  Syrian  pounds 
(6,369,000  in  1939).  The  Syrian  pound  (equal  to 
20  French  francs),  exchanged  at  $0.576  in  1938 
and  $0.0502  in  1939. 

Communications.  Syria  and  Lebanon  in  1939 
had  about  890  miles  of  railway  line,  7072  miles  of 
roads,  and  bus  connections  between  Beyrouth  and 
Baghdad  (Iraq).  Air  connections  with  France 
were  severed  in  1940  Beyrouth  is  the  chief  port. 

Government.  The  French  High  Commissioner 
in  July,  1939,  suspended  the  Constitutions  of  the 
Syrian  and  Lebanese  Republics  and  appointed 
councils  to  rule  under  his  direction  (see  1939 
YEAR  BOOK,  p.  748-749).  Latakia  and  Djebel 
Druse,  which  were  semi-autonomous  districts  of 
the  Syrian  Republic,  continued  to  be  administered 
by  French  governors,  assisted  by  partly  nominated 
and  partly  elected  councils.  See  History  for  1940 
developments. 

HISTORY 

Syria  Accepts  Armistice.  The  capitulation  of 
the  Petain  Government  in  France  to  Germany  on 
June  22,  1940,  and  to  Italy  on  June  24  threw  Syria 
and  Lebanon  into  great  political  confusion  and  se- 
vere economic  difficulties.  Throughout  the  first 
half  of  the  year,  Gen.  Maxime  Weygand,  com- 
mander of  the  French  forces  in  Syria  and  Leba- 
non, continued  to  strengthen  and  train  his  army  of 
several  hundred  thousand  men,  concentrated  in  the 
Near  East  to  reinforce  the  British  in  Egypt  and 
the  Turks.  The  presence  of  this  army,  combined 
with  native  preference  for  an  Anglo-French  victo- 
ry, curbed  the  nationalist  ferment  that  had  caused 
the  suspension  of  the  Syrian  and  Lebanese  con- 
stitutions in  1939. 

On  May  19  General  Weygand  returned  to 
France  to  take  command  of  the  hard-pressed 
French  armies,  and  it  was  at  his  recommendation 
that  Marshal  Petain  asked  the  Germans  for  an 
armistice.  The  Italo-French  armistice  of  June  24 
provided  for  the  demobilization  and  disarmament 
of  all  French  forces  in  Syria  except  those  needed 
to  maintain  order  within  the  territory.  Gen.  Eu- 
gene Mittelhauser,  who  had  succeeded  Weygand 
as  commander  of  the  Near  Eastern  forces  early 
in  June,  had  declared  in  a  radio  speech  of  June  23 
that  his  army  would  continue  the  war.  Most  of  his 
officers  were  reported  to  favor  this  course.  But  a 
personal  message  from  Weygand  caused  Mittel- 
hauser to  change  his  mind.  On  June  27,  with  the 
approval  of  High  Commissioner  Gabriel  Puaux, 
he  announced  the  cessation  of  hostilities.  The 
French  flag,  he  said,  would  continue  to  fly  over 
the  mandated  territory. 

Political  Tensions.  The  cessation  of  hostili- 
ties and  the  adherence  of  the  highest  French  of- 
ficials in  Syria  to  the  P£tain  regime  divided  the 
French  army  and  civilian  officials  in  Syria,  revived 
the  native  independence  movement,  subjected  the 
territory  to  the  British  blockade,  and  made  it  a 
center  of  the  Near  Eastern  struggle  between  Brit- 
ain and  her  allies  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Axis 


SYRIA  AND  LEBANON 


powers  on  the  other.  General  Mittelhauser,  who 
seemed  lukewarm  in  his  support  of  the  Pltain 
Government,  permitted  many  of  his  own  officers 
and  troops  as  well  as  the  Polish  and  Czech  con- 
tingents in  Syria  to  cross  into  Palestine  to  join 
the  British.  He  was  replaced  in  mid-July  by  Gen- 
eral Foug&re.  The  French  officers,  soldiers,  and 
civilians  who  remained  in  Syria  and  Lebanon  were 
divided  int9  three  groupsr-those  supporting  the 
Pttain  regime,  those  urging  that  the  territory 
throw  in  its  lot  with  the  British  empire  or  else 
support  the  Syrian  independence  movement,  and 
those  wishing  to  return  to  their  families  in  France 
and  abandon  Syria  to  its  fate. 

Great  Britain,  Turkey,  the  independent  Arab 
countries,  and  the  native  nationalists  of  Syria  and 
Lebanon  all  feared  that  the  Axis  powers,  acting 
through  the  Petain  regime,  would  seek  to  use  Syr- 
ia and  Lebanon  as  a  base  for  the  subjugation  of 
all  Asia  Minor.  On  July  1  the  British  Government 
announced  that  it  "could  not  allow  Syria  or  the 
Lebanon  to  be  occupied  by  any  hostile  power  or  to 
be  used  as  a  base  for  attacks  upon  those  countries 
in  the  Middle  East  which  (it  was)  pledged  to  de- 
fend, or  to  become  the  scene  of  such  disorder  as 
to  constitute  a  danger  to  those  countries."  Unof- 
ficially the  Turks  took  a  similar  position.  The 
Syrian  nationalists,  supported  by  the  Arab  States, 
renewed  their  agitation  for  independence.  After  a 
visit  to  Ankara,  the  Iraqi  Foreign  Minister  on 
July  5  declared  that  Iraq  and  Turkey  favored 
Syria's  complete  independence  from  France. 

In  carrying  out  the  demobilization  of  the  army, 
the  pro-Petain  administration  at  Beyrouth  dis- 
armed first  of  all  those  Syrian  and  French  units 
whose  political  reliability  was  suspected.  In  mid- 
July  the  leaders  of  the  Syrian  nationalist  move- 
ment were  removed  to  Beyrouth  from  Damascus 
and  placed  under  police  observation.  The  situation 
became  more  explosive  with  the  arrival  in  Bey- 
routh late  in  August  of  an  Italian  military  mission 
to  supervise  demobilization  under  the  terms  of  the 
Franco-Italian  armistice  pact.  British  resistance 
to  the  German  blitzkrieg  had  strengthened  anti- 
Petain  sentiment  in  French  circles  in  Syria  and  the 
sweeping  demands  made  by  the  Italian  military 
mission  intensified  the  opposition  of  both  French 
and  Syrians.  These  demands  were  said  to  have  in- 
cluded delivery  to  Italy  of  all  airdromes  and  mili- 
tary and  naval  bases,  repatriation  to  France  of  of- 
ficers hostile  toward  the  Axis,  and  Italian  control 
of  travel,  communications,  the  censorship,  produc- 
tion, foreign  trade,  and  of  the  munitions  and  sup- 
plies of  the  French  army  in  Syria  and  Lebanon. 

High  Commissioner  Puaux  and  General  Fou- 
gere  resisted  the  Italian  demands.  Mussolini  sub- 
sequently replaced  the  original  mission  with  a  mixed 
commission  of  army  officers  and  diplomatists, 
but  they  achieved  no  better  results.  To  allay  Turk- 
ish suspicions  of  the  Italian  activities  in  Syria,  the 
French  charg£  d'affaires  in  Ankara  on  September 
18  gave  formal  assurances  that  the  P6tain  Gov- 
ernment would  not  abandon  any  military  position 
that  would  endanger  Syria's  security. 

Finding  it  increasingly  difficult  to  maintain  or- 
der, the  French  administration  late  in  September 
began  large-scale  arrests  of  Syrian  nationalists 
and  supporters  of  the  "Free  French"  movement. 
The  censorship  was  tightened  and  residents  in  the 
mandated  territory  were  forbidden  to  listen  to  for- 
eign news  broadcasts.  On  orders  from  Vichy,  the 
High  Commissioner  on  October  22  issued  decrees 
barring  Jews  from  positions  in  the  government 
services,  State  enterprises,  and  the  newspaper,  ra- 
dio, and  motion  picture  professions.  At  the  demand 


728  TANGANYIKA  TERRITORY 

of  the  armistice  commission,  the  government  in 
November  also  barred  exit  visas  to  some  3000 
Greeks  desirous  of  returning  to  Greece  for  serv- 
ice against  Italy. 

During  November  and  December,  news  of  Ital- 
ian reverses  in  Greece,  the  Mediterranean,  and 
Egypt  (see  EUROPEAN  WAR)  further  strengthened 
the  agitation  in  Syria  and  Lebanon  against  the  Ital- 
ian armistice  commission  and  the  Vichy  Govern- 
ment. High  Commissioner  Puaux  attempted  to 
calm  the  fears  aroused  in  Vichy  by  this  develop- 
ment. In  a  radio  address  on  November  20  he  de- 
clared that  the  French  in  Syria  recognized  Marshal 
Petain  as  their  leader  and  that  the  French  army 
would  fight  only  in  self-defense.  Effective  Novem- 
ber 30,  heavy  penalties  were  imposed  on  cities  and 
villages  whose  inhabitants  volunteered  for  service 
in  foreign  (i.e.,  British  and  Greek)  armies. 

Nevertheless  M.  Puaux  had  ventured  to  criticize 
some  of  the  Vichy  Government's  policies  and  it 
was  decided  that  a  more  loyal  and  sterner  hand 
was  needed  to  curb  pro-British  sentiment.  On  No- 
vember 25  Marshal  Petain  appointed  Jean  Chiap- 
pe,  former  prefect  of  the  Pans  police,  to  replace 
M  Puaux  as  High  Commissioner.  Chiappe  was 
killed  on  November  27  when  the  plane  carrying 
him  to  Syria  crashed  in  the  Mediterranean.  A 
French  communique  affirmed,  and  British  sources 
denied,  that  the  plane  was  shot  down  by  a  British 
pursuit  plane  The  Vichy  Government  then  ap- 
pointed Gen.  Henri  Dentz  as  High  Commissioner 
to  Syria  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  French 
military  forces  there  (December  9).  He  was 
placed  under  the  direct  command  of  Gen.  Maxime 
Weygand,  French  pro-consul  m  North  Africa. 

Economic  Conditions.  The  growth  of  pro- 
British  and  Syrian  nationalist  sentiment  was 
linked  to  ethe  rapid  deterioration  of  the  economic 
situation  in  Syria  and  Lebanon  following  accept- 
ance of  the  armistice.  Through  British  influence 
Syrian  trade  with  Palestine  and  Egypt  was  cut  off 
and  on  July  6  the  flow  of  oil  through  the  pipeline 
from  Kirkuk,  Iraq,  to  the  port  of  Tripoli  was 
stopped.  All  sea  communications  with  France,  It- 
aly, and  the  Western  Mediterranean  were  ended. 
With  French  gold  reserves  in  foreign  hands  and 
Syrian  gold  and  foreign  exchange  reserves  de- 
pleted, the  government  was  obliged  to  resort  to  in- 
flation of  the  currency  to  pay  the  armed  forces 
and  meet  other  obligations. 

The  currency  depreciated  rapidly  and  in  spite 
of  government  efforts  to  fix  prices,  ration  supplies, 
and  curb  profiteering,  economic  and  financial  con- 
ditions became  rapidly  worse.  Prices  soared,  hoard- 
ing became  widespread,  truck  and  automobile  trans- 
portation was  severely  restricted,  and  internal  and 
external  trade  came  to  a  virtual  standstill. 

See  EUROPEAN  WAR  under  Effects  of  the  Fall 
of  France ;  FRANCE,  IRAQ,  PALESTINE,  and  TUR- 
KEY under  History. 

TACOMA  NARROWS  BRIDGE.  See 
BRIDGES;  INSURANCE. 

TAHITI.  See  FRANCE  under  Colonial  Empire. 

TAIWAN.  See  FORMOSA. 

TAJIK  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUB- 
LIC. See  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS 
under  Area  and  Population. 

TANGANYIKA  TERRITORY.  The  for- 
mer German  East  African  area  now  administered 
by  Great  Britain  under  a  League  of  Nations  man- 
date. Area,  363,600  square  miles;  population 
(1938),  5,260,484,  including  9167  Europeans  and 
33,974  Asiatics.  Capital,  Dar-es- Salaam,  33,147  in- 


TANGIER 


729 


TARIFF  COMMISSION 


habitants.  Tanga,  Lindi,  Mikindani,  and  Kilwa  are 
important  seaports. 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  agricultural 
crops:  coffee,  cotton,  groundnuts,  sesame,  cotton- 
seed, copra,  and  sisal.  Other  important  products 
included  simsim,  ghee,  hides  and  skins,  gold,  dia- 
monds, and  timber  (pencil  cedar,  camphor,  mahog- 
any, ebony,  etc.).  Livestock  (1938)  •  5,052,207  cat- 
tle, 1,648,384  sheep,  2,827,766  goats.  Trade  (1939)  : 
imports,  £5,039,6/3;  expenditure,  £4,585,658,  in- 
cluding gold  (187,254  oz.)  valued  at  £980,346.  In 
1939  there  were  1376  route  miles  of  railway  line. 

Government.  Budget  (1940)  :  estimated  reve- 
nue, £2,126,000;  estimated  expenditure,  £2,452,000. 
Tanganyika  is  under  the  administration  of  a  gov- 
ernor, assisted  by  an  executive  council  of  10  nomi- 
nated members.  There  is  a  legislative  council  con- 
sisting of  13  official  members  and  not  more  than 
10  non-official  members.  Governor  and  Command- 
er-in-Chief ,  Sir  M.  A.  Young. 

History.  Troops  from  Tanganyika  participated 
in  the  campaign  along  the  Kenya-Italian  East  Af- 
rica border  following  Italy's  entrance  into  the  war 
(see  EUROPEAN  WAR  under  Campaigns  in  Afri- 
ca). New  defense  forces  were  raised  following  the 
collapse  of  France  and  the  majority  of  male  Ger- 
mans in  the  mandated  territory,  who  had  been  pa- 
roled, were  again  interned  In  August  the  Legisla- 
tive Council  unanimously  approved  the  conscrip- 
tion of  all  male  British  and  British-protected  per- 
sons from  18  to  45  years  of  age  for  military  or 
civil  service.  The  war  brought  Tanganyika  into 
still  closer  economic  and  political  relations  with 
Kenya  and  Uganda,  reviving  the  campaign  for  uni- 
fication of  the  three  territories  Early  in  March  a 
delegation  from  Tanganyika  arrived  in  London  to 
seek  British  aid  in  the  marketing  of  the  territory's 
products  Also  see  KENYA  under  History. 

TANGIER.  A  former  internationaliVed  dis- 
trict in  northwestern  Africa,  including  the  port 
and  city  of  Tangier,  occupying  part  of  the  south- 
ern shore  of  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.  It  was  occu- 
pied by  Spanish  troops  on  June  14,  1940,  and  was 
formally  incorporated  in  Spanish  Morocco  on  No- 
vember 23  (see  History)  Area,  about  225  square 
miles ;  estimated  population  on  Jan  1,  1938,  80,000 
— mostly  Moslems  but  including  some  17,000  Eu- 
ropeans and  7000  Jews.  The  city  of  Tangier  had 
about  45,000  inhabitants. 

Commerce,  agriculture,  fishing,  and  cigarette- 
making  are  the  chief  occupations.  Leading  crops 
are  wheat,  barley,  and  chickpeas  Imports  in  1938 
were  valued  at  94,693,830  French  francs ;  exports, 
11,380,286  francs.  A  French-controlled  railway 
connects  the  city  of  Tangier  with  Fez:  French 
Morocco,  and  with  the  French  North  African  rail- 
way network.  Highways  and  roads  extend  about 
65  miles.  The  Tangier  port  works  were  in  process 
of  modernization  in  1940. 

Tangier  was  neutralized  and  demilitarized  by 
the  convention  signed  by  Spain,  France,  and  Great 
Britain  on  Dec.  18,  1923  This  statute  was  modified 
by  a  protocol  signed  at  Paris  July  25,  1928,  at 
which  time  Italy  also  adhered  to  the  convention. 
The  convention  was  concluded  for  a  period  of  12 
years  and  was  automatically  renewed  for  a  similar 
period  from  May  14,  1936  It  set  up  an  autono- 
mous regime  in  Tangier,  with  legislative  powers 
exercised  by  an  international  assembly  of  27  mem- 
bers. The  assembly  delegated  administrative  pow- 
ers to  an  administrator.  A  committee  of  control, 
composed  of  the  consuls  of  the  powers  adhering 
to  the  Tangier  Convention,  had  veto  and  certain 
other  powers.  The  Sultan  of  Morocco  was  repre- 


sented by  a  Mcndoub,  who  served  as  ex  officio 
president  of  the  assembly  and  controlled  the  ad- 
ministration of  native  affairs.  The  1939  budget 
provided  for  revenues  of  29,795,500  French  francs 
and  expenditures  of  29,653,312  francs.  Adminis- 
trator Le  Fur  (French)  was  succeeded  by  Dr. 
Emanuel  Amieva  (Spanish)  at  the  end  of  July. 

History.  The  entrance  of  Italy  into  the  Euro- 
pean War  on  June  10,  1940,  and  the  subsequent 
collapse  of  France  enabled  the  Nationalist  Gov- 
ernment of  Spain  to  seize  control  of  Tangier 
without  opposition  by  either  Britain  or  France. 
In  1939  a  Spanish  threat  to  occupy  Tangier  had 
been  met  by  Anglo-French  naval  concentrations 
at  Gibraltar  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  750).  On 
June  14,  1940,  some  3500  Spanish  troops  marched 
unhindered  into  Tangier.  On  the  same  day  Madrid 
announced  that  "with  the  object  of  guaranteeing 
the  neutrality  of  the  international  zone  and  the 
city  of  Tangier,  the  Spanish  Government  has  de- 
cided to  take  charge  provisionally  of  the  surveil- 
lance, police,  and  public  safety  services  of  the  in- 
ternational zone." 

While  the  Franco  Government  declared  this  ac- 
tion was  taken  in  agreement  with  Britain,  France, 
and  Italy,  German  sources  and  the  Spanish  press 
asserted  that  Britain  and  France  were  not  con- 
sulted until  after  they  were  presented  with  a  fait 
accompli  Madrid  officials  assured  both  Britain  and 
France  that  the  international  administration  of  the 
Tangier  Zone  would  be  continued  and  the  rights 
of  interested  powers  respected.  However  the  com- 
mander of  the  Spanish  forces  in  Tangier,  Col. 
Antonio  Yuste,  on  November  3  made  the  Spanish 
peseta  legal  tender.  The  following  day  he  abol- 
ished the  International  Assembly,  the  Internation- 
al Committee  of  Control  and  the  Mixed  Office  of 
Information.  At  the  same  time  he  assumed  the 
post  of  Military  Governor  of  Tangier,  represent- 
ing the  High  Commissioner  of  Spanish  Morocco. 
On  November  9  Colonel  Yuste  abolished  the  in- 
ternational gendarmerie,  replacing  them  with  na- 
tive troops  under  Spanish  officers  as  in  Spanish 
Morocco.  The  incorporation  of  Tangier  in  Span- 
ish Morocco  was  completed  November  23  when  the 
cabinet  in  Madrid  approved  legislation  to  that  ef- 
fect. 

Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  made  for- 
mal representations  to  the  Madrid  Government 
concerning  Spain's  violation  of  the  Tangier  Stat- 
ute, and  reserved  their  rights  The  British  Gov- 
ernment was  reported  in  December  to  have 
reached  an  agreement  with  Madrid  safeguarding 
the  important  British  interests  in  Tangier.  Span- 
ish forces  in  the  occupied  zone  were  strengthened 
during  the  last  months  of  the  year,  but  allegations 
that  the  zone  was  being  fortified  with  Axis  aid 
were  discounted  by  the  British  Under- Secretary 
for  Foreign  Affairs  in  the  House  of  Commons  on 
December  11.  The  British  Government  also  took 
an  active  interest  in  two  damaged  Italian  subma- 
rines which  took  refuge  in  Tangier  harbor  during 
November. 

The  Spanish  military  occupation  was  followed 
by  an  acute  food  shortage,  which  added  to  the  re- 
sentment of  both  natives  and  foreigners  against 
the  Spaniards  See  SPAIN  under  History 

TARIFF  COMMISSION,  U.S.  The  U.S. 
Tariff  Commission  is  an  independent  fact-finding 
body  created  by  Act  of  Congress  in  1916  The 
provisions  of  that  Act  as  it  related  to  the  Tariff 
Commission  were  re-enacted  and  extended  to  in- 
clude the  so-called  flexible  provisions  in  the  Tariff 
Act  of  1922.  With  minor  modifications  these  pro- 


TARIFF  COMMISSION 


730 


TAXATION 


visions  were  again  re-enacted  in  Sections  330  to 
338  of  the  Tariff  Act  of  1930,  which  is  the  present 
tariff  law.  The  law  provides  that  not  more  than 
three  of  the  six  commissioners  may  be  of  the  same 
political  party.  The  work  of  the  Commission  con- 
sists principally  of  general  investigations  and  re- 
ports under  Section  332  of  the  Tariff  Act  of  1930 ; 
co-operation  with  the  Government  departments  un- 
der Section  334 ;  cost  studies  under  Section  336— 
the  so-called  flexible  provisions — for  the  purpose 
of  adjusting  tariff  rates ;  investigations  under  Sec- 
tion 337  to  determine  if  unfair  competition  exists 
in  the  importation  of  goods  or  the  sale  of  imported 
merchandise  and  the  effect  of  such  competition  on 
domestic  industry;  and  investigations  under  Sec- 
tion 338  to  ascertain  if  other  nations  are  discrimi- 
nating against  the  commerce  of  the  United  States. 

During  1940  the  Tariff  Commission  issued  a  re- 
port on  war  and  its  effect  on  imports,  which  com- 
pared the  imports  during  the  first  year  of  the  war 
with  the  trade  in  earlier  periods.  In  this  and  other 
work  done  during  the  year  the  Commission  has  co- 
operated closely  with  the  National  Defense  Com- 
mission. 

In  view  of  the  current  interest  in  a  definite  policy 
of  Western  Hemisphere  defense,  the  Commission 
has  in  progress  a  study  of  the  foreign  trade  of 
Latin  America.  When  completed  the  series  will 
consist  of  23  volumes.  Many  of  these  have  already 
been  issued.  A  Spanish  translation  of  part  I  of  the 
report,  which  deals  with  the  trade  of  Latin  Ameri- 
ca as  a  whole,  was  made  for  the  use  at  the  Habana 
Conference.  As  a  further  means  of  adapting  its 
activities  to  current  needs,  the  Commission  has  also 
prepared  a  Graphic  Analysis  of  the  Foreign  Trade 
of  Latin  America  and  a  Reference  Manual  of  Latin 
American  Commercial  Treaties. 

An  investigation  of  the  needlework  industry  of 
Puerto  Rico  was  instituted  by  the  Commission  in 
November,  1940,  at  the  request  of  the  Administra- 
tor of  the  Wage  and  Hour  Division  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Labor.  The  purpose  is  to  determine  what 
if  any  changes  in  rates  of  duty  are  necessary  in 
order  to  maintain  minimum  wage  rates  in  Puerto 
Rico. 

In  addition  to  the  activities  set  forth  above  the 
Commission  has  made  a  study  of  Italian  commer- 
cial policy  and  foreign  trade,  and  has  under  way 
analyses  of  recent  trade  policies  of  Germany,  Ja- 
pan, and  other  foreign  countries. 

As  part  of  a  program  to  issue  commodity  sur- 
veys of  products  that  are  important  from  a  tariff 
view  point,  the  Commission  issued  three  reports 
during  1940.  The  survey  respecting  silverware 
shows  the  United  States  to  be  the  world's  leading 
producer  and  consumer  of  silverware  as  well  as  an 
important  market  for  certain  types  of  foreign-made 
goods.  Starches  and  dextrine*  were  the  subjects  of 
another  of  these  surveys  printed  during  the  past 
year.  The  report  deals  with  production,  distribu- 
tion, trade  and  uses  of  various  of  these  products, 
and  the  degree  of  competition  existing  among  them, 
including  the  competition  between  tapioca  and  do- 
mestic starch.  In  the  survey  concerning  glues,  gel- 
atins, and  related  products,  recently  issued,  it  is 
shown  that  the  United  States  has  become  self- 
sufficient  in  the  production  of  practically  all  of 
these  products. 

Cost  investigations  were  undertaken  during  1940 
with  respect  to  the  differences  in  costs  of  produc- 
tion of  domestic  and  foreign  crab  meat  and  of  cer- 
tain types  of  embroidered  and  unembroidered  wool- 
knit  gloves  and  mittens.  Upon  completion  of  these 
investigations,  reports  will  be  sent  to  the  President 


and  if  the  findings  of  the  Commission  warrant,  the 
President  will  issue  proclamations  changing  the 
rates  of  duty  on  imports  of  these  articles  as  pro- 
vided for  in  the  Tariff  Act  of  1930. 

As  provided  for  in  Sections  337  and  338  of  the 
present  tariff  law  consideration  was  given  to  al- 
leged unfair  methods  of  competition  in  the  impor- 
tation and  sale  of  certain  commodities,  and  every 
effort  has  been  made  to  keep  advised  regarding 
acts  of  foreign  countries  which  might  be  consid- 
ered discriminating  against  foreign  trade  of  the 
United  States. 

The  Commission,  under  the  provisions  of  Sec- 
tion 350,  works  in  close  co-operation  with  other 
Government  agencies  concerned  with  the  trade 
agreements  program.  Considerable  information 
was  supplied  to  the  committees  of  Congress  when 
the  extension  of  the  Trade  Agreements  Act  was 
under  consideration  Dearly  in  1940. 

Under  other  special  provisions  the  Commission 
has  done  work  during  the  past  year  on  investiga- 
tions concerning  wheat  and  wheat  products  and 
cotton  and  cotton  products  and  has  issued  a  large 
amount  of  material  concerning  trade  agreements 
and  other  phases  of  the  tariff  problem.  A  list  of 
these  and  earlier  reports  of  the  Tariff  Commission 
is  available  upon  request. 

RAYMOND  B.  STEVENS. 

TARIFFS.  See  CUSTOMS,  BUREAU  OF  ;  TARIFF 
COMMISSION,  U.S. 

TASMANIA.  An  Australian  State.  Area,  26,- 
215  square  miles ;  population  (Mar.  31,  1940),  239,- 
574,  exclusive  of  lull-blood  aboriginals.  Vital  sta- 
tistics (1939)  :  5004  births,  2426  deaths,  2264  mar- 
riages. Chief  cities:  Hobart  (capital)  and  suburbs, 
65,450  inhabitants  (Dec.  31, 1939)  ;  Launceston  and 
suburbs.  33,350. 

Production.  Chief  agricultural  products  • 
Wheat,  oats,  peas,  fruits,  potatoes,  hops,  hay.  In 
1939  the  State  had  2,500,000  sheep.  Wool  (as  in 
the  grease)  output  (1940)  :  18,000,000  Ib.  Dairy 
products  (1938-39) :  11,835,500  Ib  of  butter,  3,399,- 
626  Ib.  of  cheese,  2,273,601  Ib.  of  bacon  and  ham. 
Mineral  production  (1938)  was  valued  at  £1,889,- 
804  of  which  copper  accounted  for  £580,238,  zinc 
for  £356,452,  tin  for  £244,037,  and  gold  for  £195,- 
071.  Manufacturing  (1938^9)  :  944  factories,  13,- 
802  employees,  £5,398,659  net  value  of  production. 

Government.  Finance  (1939-40) :  Revenue, 
£3,055,000;  expenditure,  £3,053,000;  public  debt, 
£27,244,000.  The  executive  authority  is  vested  in  a 
governor,  aided  by  an  executive  council  of  respon- 
sible ministers  who  are  members  of  parliament. 
There  is  a  legislative  council  of  18  members  elected 
for  a  6-year  term,  and  a  house  of  assembly  of  30 
members  elected  by  proportional  representation  for 
a  3-year  term.  Governor,  Sir  Ernest  Clark  (term 
extended  to  Aug.  5,  1942) ;  Premier,  R.  Cosgrove 
(Labor).  See  AUSTRALIA. 

TAXATION.  The  increase  in  national  defense 
outlays  from  $1,579,000,000  in  the  fiscal  year  ended 
June  30,  1940,  to  an  estimated  $10,811,000,000  for 
the  fiscal  year  beginning  July  1,  1941,  brought 
about  drastic  changes  in  the  tax  structure.  The 
Federal  Government  adopted  the  policy  of  increas- 
ing current  taxation  sufficiently  to  cover  the  non- 
defense  costs  of  the  government  and  the  mainte- 
nance, as  distinct  from  the  expansion,  of  the  Army 
and  Navy.  This  end  was  sought  through  increases 
in  tax  rates  that  would  not  go  so  far  as  to  cause  a 
curtailment  of  consumption.  Larger  revenues  were 
to  be  raised  for  the  Treasury  from  an  increase  in 
national  income,  rather  than  the  diversion  of  any 


TAXATION 


731 


TAXATION 


major  part  of  the  existing  national  income  to 
finance  the  cost  of  armament  The  President 
warned,  however,  in  his  budget  message  to  Con- 
gress early  in  January,  1941,  that,  at  a  later  stage 
of  the  defense  program,  when  full  national  pro- 
ductive capacity  would  be  approached,  sharp  in- 
creases in  taxes  might  be  sought  to  curtail  con- 
sumption, so  as  to  avoid  inflationary  price  in- 
creases at  that  time.  The  new  tax  legislation  en- 
acted in  1940,  therefore,  did  not  constitute  a  full 
wartime  tax  program,  but  rather  an  initial  step  in 
that  direction,  with  equal  reliance  placed  upon 
larger  yields  from  existing  taxes. 

At  the  same  time,  the  Administration  sought 
through  taxation  to  prevent  the  evolution  of  "a 
new  crop  of  war  millionaires."  This  objective  was 
pursued  apart  from  the  desire  to  raise  additional 
revenues  or  to  limit  consumption. 

Federal  Taxation.  Two  major  revenue  acts 
were  passed  during  1940.  The  first  Revenue  Act 
of  1940,  which  became  law  on  June  25,  effected  a 
number  of  tax  increases  to  finance  national  de- 
fense. The  new  defense  taxes  were  designed  spe- 
cifically to  provide  funds  for  repayment  of  special 
defense  obligations  up  to  a  maximum  of  $4,000,- 
000,000  that  the  Treasury  was  authorized  to  issue, 
over  and  above  the  national  debt  limit  of  $45,000,- 
000,000  then  in  effect. 

The  law  raised  the  corporate  income  tax  rate 
from  18  to  19  per  cent,  and  effected  a  number  of 
increases  in  personal  income  surtax  rates.  The 
personal  income  tax  exemption  was  reduced  from 
$1000  to  $800  for  single  persons,  and  from  $2500 
to  $2000  for  married  persons  or  heads  of  families. 
Title  II  of  the  act  imposed  for  a  period  of  five 
years,  for  the  financing  of  defense,  an  increase  of 
10  per  cent  in  income  taxes,  the  corporate  excess 
profits-capital  stock  tax,  the  estate  and  gift  tax, 
and  a  wide  variety  of  excise  taxes.  The  impost 
on  distilled  spirits  was  raised  from  $225  to  $3  a 
gal.,  and  on  still  wines  from  5-2 5 tf  to  6-301  a  gal. 
See  ALCOHOLIC  LIQUORS. 

The  second  Revenue  Act  of  1940,  enacted  Oc- 
tober 8,  effected  even  more  sweeping  changes  in 
Federal  taxation.  The  normal  income  tax  rate  for 
all  but  small  corporations  was  increased  from  20.9 
per  cent,  including  the  defense  tax,  to  24  per  cent. 
With  the  approval  of  the  national  defense  authori- 
ties, taxpayers  were  authorized  to  amortize  within 
a  five-year  period  new  productive  facilities  certi- 
fied as  acquired  for  national  defense  purposes. 
This  assured  that  investments  made  to  facilitate 
the  filling  of  defense  contracts  could  be  written 
off  against  profits  earned  from  such  contracts 
within  the  period  when  such  contracts  were  ex- 
pected to  be  forthcoming.  The  limitation  of  10 
per  cent  on  profits  from  naval  contracts,  contained 
in  the  Vinson  Act,  was  suspended.  The  most  revo- 
lutionary feature  of  the  act,  however,  was  the  im- 
position of  a  new  excess  profits  tax,  similar  to  the 
war  profits  tax  of  twenty  years  earlier,  to  carry 
out  the  announced  objective  of  the  Administration 
to  prevent  abnormal  profits  from  armament  con- 
tracts. 

The  Excess  Profits  Tax  of  1940  is  applicable  to 
corporations,  with  such  minor  exceptions  as  mu- 
tual investment  companies,  foreign  personal  hold- 
ing companies,  registered  diversified  investment 
companies,  and  aviation  companies  whose  income 
is  zero  after  deducting  United  States  mail  con- 
tract income.  All  corporations  subject  to  the  tax 
are  required  to  pay,  in  addition  to  the  normal  tax, 
a  graduated  excess  profits  tax  on  earnings  over 
and  above  the  excess  profits  tax  credit  The  cor- 


poration has  the  option  of  using  as  an  excess  prof- 
its tax  credit  either  95  per  cent  of  its  average 
earnings  during  the  base  period  1936-39  or  8  per 
cent  of  its  invested  capital.  A  number  of  adjust- 
ments are  outlined  in  the  law  for  the  determina- 
tion of  the  amount  of  income  subject  to  the  excess 
profits  tax,  and  only  50  per  cent  of  the  borrowed 
invested  capital  may  be  included  in  determining  in- 
vested capital.  Upon  the  adjusted  excess  profits 
net  income,  however  computed,  the  rates  imposed 
are  as  follows: 


First  $20,000.  . 

Next   30,000  .  . 
Next   50,000 
Next  150,000  . 
Next  250,000    .  . 

30    "" 
.     35    "" 
40    "" 
45    "" 

Above  500.000    . 

.       .  50    "" 

General  provision  was  made  for  relief  by  admin- 
istrative authorities  for  "hardship  cases,"  and  it 
was  stated  at  the  time  that  the  law  was  passed  that 
amendments  to  remedy  inequities  would  be  passed, 
applicable  to  1940  returns.  These  amendments 
were  adopted  by  Congress  in  March,  1941.  It  was 
widely  recognized  that  the  excess  profits  tax  failed 
to  reach  the  added  income  of  many  corporations 
receiving  defense  contracts,  whereas  it  imposed 
substantial  added  burdens  upon  other  corporations 
which  did  not  benefit  from  defense  in  any  way, 
but  which  did  have  sharp  increases  in  earnings 
over  the  1936X39  level  and  had  a  relatively  low  in- 
vested capital  as  defined  by  the  law. 

The  yields  from  Federal  income  taxes  for  the 
fiscal  years  ended  June  30,  1939  and  1940  com- 
pared as  follows: 

FEDERAL  INCOME  TAX  RECEIPTS 

[Fiscal  Years  Ended  June  30] 

—  — 

Corporation  Taxes  $1,122,540,800  61      $1,120,581,550  75 

Individual  Taxes  .  ..  1,028,833,79649  982,017,37617 
Total  Income  Taxes. .  2,151,374,597  10  2,102,598,926.92 

State  Taxation.  Tax  collections  of  the  States 
were  little  changed  from  the  previous  year.  The 
enormous  increase  in  Federal  expenditures  under 
the  defense  program,  and  the  consequent  upturn 
in  business  activity,  tended  to  increase  State  and 
local  revenues,  whereas  there  was  no  correspond- 
ing expansion  in  outlays  of  these  governmental 
bodies.  Rather,  relief  burdens  tended  to  decline. 

Among  the  more  important  developments  in 
State  and  local  taxation  were  the  repeal  of  the 
Louisiana  sales  tax  and  of  the  New  York  City 
tax  on  cigarettes.  South  Carolina  repealed  her  tax 
on  intangibles.  New  taxes  adopted  during  the  year 
included  a  gift  and  a  timber  severance  tax  in  Lou- 
isiana, pari-mutuel  betting  taxes  in  New  York  and 
New  Jersey,  chain  store  taxes  on  the  number  of 
stores  wherever  located  in  Kentucky  and  Missis- 
sippi, Diesel  fuel  taxes  in  Alabama,  Louisiana, 
South  Carolina,  and  Virginia,  and  cigarette  taxes 
in  Denver  and  Kansas  City.  Virginia  adopted  a 
measure  requiring  motor  carriers  traversing  the 
State  to  purchase  in  Virginia  an  amount  of  gaso- 
line equal  to  that  consumed  during  the  transit,  in 
order  to  protect  the  revenue  from  that  impost. 

State  liquor  taxes  were  raised  in  two  instances, 
in  Kentucky  from  $1.04  to  $1.20  and  in  Louisiana 
from  $1.00  to  $1.50  As  a  result,  the  average  State 
tax  on  distilled  spirits  was  increased  from  96  to 
98  cents  a  gal.,  and  the  combined  Federal  and 
State  levies  from  an  average  of  $321  to  $3.98  a 
gal.  The  fear  was  expressed  by  the  industry  that 


TAXONOMY 


732 


TELEPHONY 


bootlegging  would  be  stimulated  by  sharp  in- 
creases in  liquor  taxation. 

See  the  States  and  ALASKA  under  History ;  also, 
AGRICULTURE;  AUTOMOBILES  under  Legislation; 
ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER;  FINANCIAL  RE- 
VIEW; PETROLEUM ;  PUBLIC  FINANCE;  TOBACCO. 

JULES  I.  BOGEN. 

TAXONOMY.  See  ZOOLOGY. 

TELEGRAPHY.  Out  of  four  years  of  court 
proceedings  under  bankruptcy  laws,  Postal  Tele- 
graph, Inc.,  was  set  up  as  an  independent  United 
States  land-line  system,  under  the  terms  of  re- 
organization of  the  Postal  Telegraph  &  Cable 
Corp.,  and  obtained  a  $500,000  RFC  loan  for  plant 
improvements  and  other  corporate  purposes.  Since 
1929,  Postal  has  been  a  part  of  International  Tel- 
egraph and  Telephone  Corporation's  * 'international 
system/'  the  remaining  portions  of  which  have 
been  consolidated  under  two  separate  companies — 
All-America  Corporation,  and  Commercial  Mac- 
kay  Corporation — all  the  equity  of  which  is  held 
by  a  third  new  organization,  American  Cable  & 
Radio  Corporation. 

The  new  5600-mile  telegraph  and  telephone  line 
between  Moscow  and  Kharbarovsk,  U.S.S.R.,  is 
said  to  be  the  longest  line  in  the  world  and  to  pro- 
vide for  19  duplex  telegraph  transmissions,  7  tele- 
phone conversations,  and  the  transmission  of  pho- 
tographs and  radio  programs 

International  facilities  placed  in  service  during 
the  year  include  a  radio  telegraph  and  short-wave 
station  at  Portland,  Ore.,  for  trans- Pacific  service, 
a  radio-photo  circuit  between  San  Francisco  and 
Tokyo,  and  new  circuits  between  New  York  City 
and  the  French  Island  of  St.  Pierre  off  New- 
foundland, Finland,  Barcelona,  and  the  Belgian 
Congo. 

Under  war  conditions  in  Europe  and  Asia  and 
consequent  world  unrest  and  suspicion,  communi- 
cations abroad  are  hampered  in  degrees  varying 
from  code  or  language  restrictions  to  direct  cen- 
sorship of  individual  messages. 

Electromagnetic  "storms"  of  unusual  severity 
disrupted  telegraph,  cable,  and  radio  communica- 
tions throughout  the  world  on  Easter  Sunday, 
March  24,  and,  to  a  lesser  degree,  subsequently.  So 
severe  were  the  storms  that  even  teletypewriter 
services  and  electric  power  systems  were  affected. 
In  the  United  States  the  disturbances  centered  in 
the  metallic-ore-bearing  regions  adjacent  to  Lake 
Superior  where  ground-potential  differences  of  as 
much  as  750  volts  were  noted  between  different 
points. 

An  electric  calculating  machine  capable  of  car- 
rying out  computations  in  "complex"  numbers 
was  built  at  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories  in  New 
York  City  The  machine  is  constructed  entirely  of 
standard  telephone  apparatus — relays,  crossbar 
switching  equipment,  etc. — and  may  be  operated 
from  remote  points  over  telegraph  circuits  tnrough 
the  medium  of  teletypewriter  equipment  Improved 
voice-frequency  carrier  telegraph  systems  an- 
nounced provide  for  up  to  18  telegraph  channels 
over  a  four-wire  line,  some  capable  of  extension 
up  to  22  channels. 

Teletypewriter  exchange  service  continued  to 
expand.  New  "automatic  concentrators"  at  stra- 
tegic points  enable  groups  of  as  many  as  100  out- 
lying subscribers  to  be  handled  over  a  small  num- 
ber of  trunk  lines  out  of  the  exchanges  to  "con- 
centrator points/'  as  compared  with  the  previous 
requirement  of  an  individual  exchange  line  for 
each  teletypewriter  subscriber. 


Statistics  show  that  as  of  Jan.  1,  1939,  the 
6,730,500  miles  of  telegraph  wire  in  operation 
throughout  the  world  was  distributed  as  follows : 
United  States,  34.17  per  cent ;  remainder  of  North 
America,  7.72;  Europe,  33.39;  Asia,  13.74;  Afri- 
ca, 3.08;  Oceania,  2.41;  South  America,  5.49  per 
cent.  See  CIVILIAN  CONSERVATION  CORPS  ;  FEDER- 
AL COMMUNICATIONS  COMMISSION. 

G.  Ross  HENNINGER. 

TELEPHONY.  National  Defense  activities 
resulted  in  abnormal  expansion  of  telephone  facil- 
ities in  the  United  States,  largely  by  causing  nor- 
mal developments  originally  programed  for  as  far 
as  1943  to  be  initiated  during  1940.  New  construc- 
tion expenditures  were  reported  as  some  $400,000,- 
000,  the  largest  amount  since  1931.  A  total  of  21,- 
870,000  telephones  was  estimated  to  be  in  service 
in  the  United  States,  an  increase  of  about  1,040,- 
000  over  1939,  as  compared  with  the  increase  of 
878,000  for  1939  over  1938,  and  an  all-time  record 
increase  for  a  single  year.  Telephone  conversa- 
tions during  1940  averaged  97,700,000  per  day. 
about  6,000,000  more  than  in  1939.  Completed  toll 
calls  totalled  some  1,030,000,000,  about  40,000,000 
more  than  in  1939.  The  number  of  dial  telephones 
on  the  Bell  System  increased  by  about  1,250,000. 

Jan.  25,  1940,  was  the  25th  anniversary  of  the 
opening  of  the  first  transcontinental  telephone  line 
to  commercial  operation.  Now,  there  are  four  such 
lines,  and  modern  carrier  equipment  added  to  them 
has  greatly  multiplied  the  number  of  communica- 
tion channels  provided  by  each.  During  1940  the 
capacity  of  many  important  routes  was  increased 
by  the  further  application  of  new  carrier  equip- 
ment on  existing  lines  and  by  many  new  intercity 
cables,  most  of  which  were  laid  along  new  or 
"alternate"  routes  so  that  a  storm  or  disaster  in 
any  one  place  would  affect  as  little  as  possible  the 
dependability  of  through  service 

By  the  end  of  1940  more  than  70  per  cent  of  the 
circuit-mileage  used  for  toll  service  was  in  cable. 
The  cable  network  extends  over  the  Northeast, 
with  branches  as  far  south  as  Atlanta  and  as  far 
west  as  Omaha  and  Dallas.  One  $1,000,000  1940 
project  is  the  new  underground  cable  between  Bal- 
timore and  Washington  which,  in  addition  to  ordi- 
nary wire  conductors,  carries  four  co-axial  circuits 
and  provides  facilities  for  telephone,  telegraph,  tel- 
ephoto,  and  radio-broadcast  program  services.  The 
first  co-axial  cable  for  regular  commercial  service 
was  placed  in  service  between  Stevens  Point,  Wis., 
and  Minneapolis,  Minn.  This  one  cable  is  designed 
to  provide  an  ultimate  of  480  circuits.  All  told, 
some  500,000  circuit  miles  were  added  to  United 
States  facilities  during  1940  for  long-distance  tele- 
phone service. 

Smaller  twin  cables  are  being  used  in  place  of  a 
single  cable  for  use  with  the  new  Type  K  carrier 
equipment,  and  a  new  plow  has  been  devised  to  lay 
them  underground  simultaneously.  They  are  being 
used  on  the  current  extension  of  transcontinental 
cable  from  Omaha  to  Denver.  Especially  in  Ohio 
and  Michigan,  facilities  have  been  extended  to  en- 
able exchange  operators  to  dial  directly  calls  up 
to  200  miles  or  so  instead  of  relaying  them  through 
local  operators.  The  trend  toward  dial  equipment 
continued,  as  represented  by  the  additions  of  some 
220,000  lines  of  the  new  crossbar  dial-switching 
equipment  at  exchanges  in  all  of  the  larger  metro- 
politan areas,  and  by  the  conversion  of  420  mag- 
neto exchanges  to  dial  operation,  and  the  extension 
of  dial  facilities  for  the  " 


and  suburban  areas. 


interconnection  of  city 


TELETYPEWRITER  SERVICE 


733 


TENNESSEE 


Continuing  its  experiments  with  special  services, 
the  New  York  Telephone  Company  offered  a  new 
"leave-word"  service  through  several  of  its  New 
York  City  exchanges.  Weather-announcing  serv- 
ice, introduced  in  1939  in  New  York  City  and 
Chicago,  was  made  available  during  1940  in  De- 
troit, Boston,  Baltimore,  and  Washington,  D.C. 
This  latter  service  makes  use  of  voice  messages 
recorded  magnetically  on  an  endless  tape  of  "Vical- 
loy,"  an  alloy  newly  developed  by  the  Bell  Tele- 
phone Laboratories  and  reputedly  capable  of  great- 
er magnetic  strength  and  permanence  than  any 
other  material. 

By  mid-year,  according  to  FCC  report,  the  extra 
charge  for  telephone  handsets  had  been  eliminated 
in  a  total  of  31  States.  In  April  in  Carnegie  Hall, 
New  York  City,  the  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories 
gave  a  striking  demonstration  of  the  remarkable 
quality,  volume,  and  spatial  characteristics  of  the 
stereophonic  reproduction  of  "enhanced"  music 
from  film  recordings.  Triple  sets  of  loudspeakers, 
one  at  each  side  and  one  in  the  center  of  the  stage, 
together  with  properly  synchronized  separate  sound 
records  from  the  corresponding  portions  of  the 
stage  as  occupied  by  the  original  orchestra,  repro- 
duced all  sounds  with  the  effect  of  true  space  rela- 
tionship. It  is  to  be  expected  that  much  more  will 
be  heard  of  this  development  in  the  future.  Tele- 
phone exhibits  at  the  New  York  and  San  Fran- 
cisco expositions  were  visited  by  an  estimated  total 
of  20,000,000  persons  during  the  two  seasons. 

Radiotelephone  facilities  to  Europe  at  the  close 
of  1940  included  direct  circuits  from  New  York 
to  London,  Madrid,  Rome,  Berne,  and  Berlin ;  also 
interconnections  to  all  of  Europe  except  Gibraltar, 
France,  Belgium,  Luxemburg,  the  Netherlands, 
Russia,  Greece,  and  Turkey.  Service  through  Eu- 
ropean connections  to  Africa  and  parts  of  Asia 
was  severed  by  the  war,  and  of  course  war  restric- 
tions, including  varying  degrees  of  censorship,  di- 
rectly affect  all  service  to  all  countries.  With  new 
direct  radiotelephone  links  between  the  United 
States  and  South  America,  supplemented  by  ever 
increasing  land-line  and  radio  international  inter- 
connections, it  is  estimated  that  some  90  per  cent 
of  the  900,000  South  American  telephones  now 
may  be  reached  directly.  In  general,  United  States 
radiotelephone  traffic  for  1940  was  nearly  as  great 
as  for  1939,  for  increased  calls  to  Hawaii  and 
South  America  largely  offset  the  war-loss  of  trans- 
Atlantic  traffic.  Ship-to-shore  facilities  in  coastal 
waters  now  include  more  than  2,500  equipped  ships 
and  20  shore  stations  connecting  with  land  lines. 

War  conditions  have  prevented  the  collection  of 
data  necessary  for  any  effective  extension  or  re- 
vision of  the  tabular  statistical  summary  given  in 
the  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  752.  In  general,  as  of  Jan. 
1,  1939,  the  reported  total  of  41,090,347  telephones 
in  service  throughout  the  world  were  distributed 
approximately  as  follows :  United  States  and  Can- 
ada, 52  per  cent ;  Europe,  39 ;  Asia,  5 ;  remainder 
of  world,  4  per  cent 

G.  Ross  HENNINGER. 

TELETYPEWRITER     SERVICE.     See 

TELEGRAPHY. 

TELEVISION.  The  failure  of  the  industry's 
various  technical  authorities  to  agree  on  technical 
standards  acceptable  to  the  FCC  (see  RADIO,  FED- 
ERAL COMMUNICATIONS  COMMISSION)  resulted  in 
the  FCC  withholding  commercial  licenses  and  in 
cancellation  of  the  industry's  merchandising  plans, 
although  numerous  receivers  were  placed  in  serv- 
ice in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  City  and  in  other 


limited  areas.  On  July  31  the  Radio  Manufacturers 
Association,  in  co-operation  with  the  FCC,  estab- 
lished a  "National  Television  Systems  Committee" 
to  work  on  various  controlling  aspects  of  the  prob- 
lem of  establishing  generally  acceptable  technical 
standards.  The  year  closed  with  a  progress  con- 
ference scheduled  with  FCC  for  late  in  January. 
By  Nov.  30,  1940,  a  total  of  34  experimental 
telecasting  stations  had  been  authorized  by  FCC 
for  construction.  Commercial  establishment  of  the 
frequency-modulation  system  of  radio  broadcast- 
ing (see  RADIO)  involved  a  shift  in  the  frequency 
channels  previously  assigned  to  television  by  FCC. 
In  August  a  private  laboratory  demonstration  of 
television  in  full  color  was  given  by  Columbia 
Broadcasting  System  to  FCC  Chairman  J.  L.  Fly. 
The  definition  of  telecast  images  was  sharpened 
materially  during  the  year  by  technical  improve- 
ments. A  new  record  for  length  of  relay  via  land 
line  was  established  when  the  Republican  conven- 
tion in  Philadelphia  was  telecast  from  New  York 
City  stations  through  the  medium  of  the  Bell  Sys- 
tem's co-axial  cable  between  those  cities,  a  108- 
mile  transmission.  New  York  City  telecasts  are  be- 
ing re-telecast  for  the  Albany,  N.Y.,  area  through 
the  medium  of  the  General  Electric  Co 's  direct 
television  relay  station  W2XB  which  was  placed 
in  operation  during  1940,  after  successful  field 
experiments.  Theater-size  television  reproduction 
screens  are  under  experimental  development  now 
in  the  United  States.  See  FEDERAL  COMMUNICA- 
TIONS COMMISSION;  Music;  RADIO  PROGRAMS. 
G.  Ross  HENNINGER. 

TEMPORARY  NATIONAL  ECONOM- 
IC COMMITTEE  (TNEC).  See  FEDERAL 
TRADE  COMMISSION;  UNITED  STATES  under  In- 
vestigations. 

TENANT  PURCHASE  PROGRAM.  See 
FARM  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION. 

TENNESSEE.  Area,  42,022  square  miles ;  in- 
cludes water,  335  square  miles.  Population  (U.S. 
Census),  April,  1940,  2,915,841;  1930,  2,616,556. 
Memphis  (1940),  292,942;  Nashville  (the  capital), 
167,402;  Chattanooga,  128,163;  Knoxville,  111,580. 
The  increase  in  the  population  of  the  State  (1930- 
40)  amounted  to  299,285,  a  rise  of  11.4  per  cent. 
The  urban  population  (dwellers  in  places  of  2500 
or  over)  increased  by  128,099,  to  1,024,637;  the 
rural,  by  171,186,  to  1,891,204. 

Agriculture.  Tennessee  harvested,  in  1940, 
6,112,500  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Of  this  area, 
4  acres  in  9  grew  corn ;  nearly  1  in  8,  cotton ;  over 
1  in  4,  tame  hay.  Corn,  on  2,767,000  acres,  bore 
69,175,000  bu.  ($53,265,000  in  estimated  value  to 
the  farmer).  Cotton,  735,000  acres,  made  515,000 
bales  ($24,205,000);  tame  hay,  1,644,000  acres, 
1,597,000  tons  ($17,843,000) ;  tobacco,  113,500  acres, 
103,390,000  Ib.  ($15,018,000) ;  wheat,  379,000  acres, 
5,116,000  bu.  ($4,349,000)  ;  sweet  potatoes,  51,000 
acres,  4,335,000  bu.  ($3,685,000)  ;  potatoes,  44,000 
acres,  3,888,000  bu.  ($2,372,000).  Farms  numbered 
247,617  in  1940  and  averaged  74.7  acres. 

Mineral  Production,  Tennessee's  yearly  pro- 
duction of  minerals  native  to  its  territory,  as  stated 
in  1940  by  the  U  S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  attained  $34,- 
428,512  for  1938.  Coal,  cement,  stone,  and  phos- 
phate rock,  in  the  order  named,  gave  the  highest 
items  to  this  total.  Mines'  output  of  coal  rose  to 
5,280,000  net  tons  for  1939,  from  4,472,403  tons 
(value,  $9,007,000)  for  1938.  Cement-makers'  ship- 
ments increased  to  3,677,116  bbl.  (1939)  from 
3,390,871  bbl.  (1938) ;  by  value,  to  $5,613,477,  from 
$5,063,628.  Quarries'  sales  of  stone  rose  to  5,626,- 


TAXONOMY 


732 


TBLBPHONY 


bootlegging  would  be  stimulated  by  sharp  in- 
creases in  liquor  taxation. 

See  the  States  and  ALASKA  under  History ;  also, 
AGRICULTURE;  AUTOMOBILES  under  Legislation; 
ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER;  FINANCIAL  RE- 
VIEW; PETROLEUM;  PUBLIC  FINANCE;  TOBACCO. 

JULES  I.  BOGEN. 

TAXONOMY.  See  ZOOLOGY. 

TELEGRAPHY.  Out  of  four  years  of  court 
proceedings  under  bankruptcy  laws,  Postal  Tele- 
graph, Inc.,  was  set  up  as  an  independent  United 
States  land-line  system,  under  the  terms  of  re- 
organization of  the  Postal  Telegraph  &  Cable 
Corp.,  and  obtained  a  $500,000  RFC  loan  for  plant 
improvements  and  other  corporate  purposes.  Since 
1929,  Postal  has  been  a  part  of  International  Tel- 
egraph and  Telephone  Corporation's  "international 
system,"  the  remaining  portions  of  which  have 
been  consolidated  under  two  separate  companies — 
All-America  Corporation,  and  Commercial  Mac- 
kay  Corporation — all  the  equity  of  which  is  held 
by  a  third  new  organization,  American  Cable  & 
Radio  Corporation 

The  new  5600-mile  telegraph  and  telephone  line 
between  Moscow  and  Kharbarovsk,  U.S.S.R.,  is 
said  to  be  the  longest  line  in  the  world  and  to  pro- 
vide for  19  duplex  telegraph  transmissions,  7  tele- 
phone conversations,  and  the  transmission  of  pho- 
tographs and  radio  programs 

International  facilities  placed  in  service  during 
the  year  include  a  radio  telegraph  and  short-wave 
station  at  Portland,  Ore.,  for  trans-Pacific  service, 
a  radio-photo  circuit  between  San  Francisco  and 
Tokyo,  and  new  circuits  between  New  York  City 
and  the  French  Island  of  St.  Pierre  off  New- 
foundland, Finland,  Barcelona,  and  the  Belgian 
Congo. 

Under  war  conditions  in  Europe  and  Asia  and 
consequent  world  unrest  and  suspicion,  communi- 
cations abroad  are  hampered  in  degrees  varying 
from  code  or  language  restrictions  to  direct  cen- 
sorship of  individual  messages. 

Electromagnetic  "storms"  of  unusual  severity 
disrupted  telegraph,  cable,  and  radio  communica- 
tions throughout  the  world  on  Easter  Sunday, 
March  24,  and,  to  a  lesser  degree,  subsequently.  So 
severe  were  the  storms  that  even  teletypewriter 
services  and  electric  power  systems  were  affected. 
In  the  United  States  the  disturbances  centered  in 
the  metallic-ore-bearing  regions  adjacent  to  Lake 
Superior  where  ground-potential  differences  of  as 
much  as  750  volts  were  noted  between  different 
points. 

An  electric  calculating  machine  capable  of  car- 
rying put  computations  in  "complex"  numbers 
was  built  at  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories  in  New 
York  City.  The  machine  is  constructed  entirely  of 
standard  telephone  apparatus — relays,  crossbar 
switching  equipment,  etc. — and  may  be  operated 
from  remote  points  over  telegraph  circuits  through 
the  medium  of  teletypewriter  equipment.  Improved 
voice-frequency  carrier  telegraph  systems  an- 
nounced provide  for  up  to  18  telegraph  channels 
over  a  four-wire  line,  some  capable  of  extension 
up  to  22  channels. 

Teletypewriter  exchange  service  continued  to 
expand.  New  "automatic  concentrators"  at  stra- 
tegic points  enable  groups  of  as  many  as  100  out- 
lying subscribers  to  be  handled  over  a  small  num- 
ber of  trunk  lines  out  of  the  exchanges  to  "con- 
centrator points,"  as  compared  with  the  previous 
requirement  of  an  individual  exchange  line  for 
each  teletypewriter  subscriber. 


Statistics  show  that  as  of  Jan.  1,  1939,  the 
6,730,500  miles  of  telegraph  wire  in  operation 
throughout  the  world  was  distributed  as  follows : 
United  States,  34.17  per  cent;  remainder  of  North 
America,  7.72;  Europe,  33.39;  Asia,  13.74;  Afri- 
ca, 3.08;  Oceania,  2.41;  South  America,  5.49  per 
cent.  See  CIVILIAN  CONSERVATION  CORPS;  FEDER- 
AL COMMUNICATIONS  COMMISSION. 

G.  Ross  HENNINGER. 

TELEPHONY.  National  Defense  activities 
resulted  in  abnormal  expansion  of  telephone  facil- 
ities in  the  United  States,  largely  by  causing  nor- 
mal developments  originally  programed  for  as  far 
as  1943  to  be  initiated  during  1940.  New  construc- 
tion expenditures  were  reported  as  some  $400,000,- 
000,  the  largest  amount  since  1931.  A  total  of  21,- 
870,000  telephones  was  estimated  to  be  in  service 
in  the  United  States,  an  increase  of  about  1,040,- 
000  over  1939,  as  compared  with  the  increase  of 
878,000  for  1939  over  1938,  and  an  all-time  record 
increase  for  a  single  year.  Telephone  conversa- 
tions during  1940  averaged  97  700,000  per  day, 
about  6,000,000  more  than  in  1939.  Completed  toll 
calls  totalled  some  1,030,000,000,  about  40,000,000 
more  than  in  1939  The  number  of  dial  telephones 
on  the  Bell  System  increased  by  about  1,250,000 

Jan.  25,  1940,  was  the  25th  anniversary  of  the 
opening  of  the  first  transcontinental  telephone  line 
to  commercial  operation.  Now,  there  are  four  such 
lines,  and  modern  carrier  equipment  added  to  them 
has  greatly  multiplied  the  number  of  communica- 
tion channels  provided  by  each.  During  1940  the 
capacity  of  many  important  routes  was  increased 
by  the  further  application  of  new  carrier  equip- 
ment on  existing  lines  and  by  many  new  intercity 
cables,  most  of  which  were  laid  along  new  or 
"alternate"  routes  so  that  a  storm  or  disaster  in 
any  one  place  would  afreet  as  little  as  possible  the 
dependability  of  through  service 

By  the  end  of  1940  more  than  70  per  cent  of  the 
circuit-mileage  used  for  toll  service  was  in  cable. 
The  cable  network  extends  over  the  Northeast, 
with  branches  as  far  south  as  Atlanta  and  as  far 
west  as  Omaha  and  Dallas  One  $1,000,000  1940 
project  is  the  new  underground  cable  between  Bal- 
timore and  Washington  which,  in  addition  to  ordi- 
nary wire  conductors,  carries  four  co-axial  circuits 
and  provides  facilities  for  telephone,  telegraph,  tel- 
ephoto,  and  radio-broadcast  program  services.  The 
first  co-axial  cable  for  regular  commercial  service 
was  placed  in  service  between  Stevens  Point,  Wis., 
and  Minneapolis,  Minn.  This  one  cable  is  designed 
to  provide  an  ultimate  of  480  circuits.  All  told, 
some  500,000  circuit  miles  were  added  to  United 
States  facilities  during  1940  for  long-distance  tele- 
phone service. 

Smaller  twin  cables  are  being  used  in  place  of  a 
single  cable  for  use  with  the  new  Type  K  carrier 
equipment,  and  a  new  plow  has  been  devised  to  lay 
them  underground  simultaneously.  They  are  being 
used  on  the  current  extension  of  transcontinental 
cable  from  Omaha  to  Denver.  Especially  in  Ohio 
and  Michigan,  facilities  have  been  extended  to  en- 
able exchange  operators  to  dial  directly  calls  up 
to  200  miles  or  so  instead  of  relaying  them  through 
local  operators.  The  trend  toward  dial  equipment 
continued,  as  represented  by  the  additions  of  some 
220,000  lines  of  the  new  crossbar  dial-switching 
equipment  at  exchanges  in  all  of  the  larger  metro- 
politan areas,  and  by  the  conversion  of  420  mag- 
neto exchanges  to  dial  operation,  and  the  extension 
of  dial  facilities  for  the  interconnection  of  city 
and  suburban  areas. 


TBLBTYPBWRITBR  8BRVICB 


733 


TBNNBS8BB 


Continuing  its  experiments  with  special  services, 
the  New  York  Telephone  Company  offered  a  new 
"leave-word"  service  through  several  of  its  New 
York  City  exchanges.  Weather-announcing  serv- 
ice, introduced  in  1939  in  New  York  City  and 
Chicago,  was  made  available  during  1940  in  De- 
troit, Boston,  Baltimore,  and  Washington,  D.C. 
This  latter  service  makes  use  of  voice  messages 
recorded  magnetically  on  an  endless  tape  of  "Vical- 
loy,"  an  alloy  newly  developed  by  the  Bell  Tele- 
phone Laboratories  and  reputedly  capable  of  great- 
er magnetic  strength  and  permanence  than  any 
other  material. 

By  mid-year,  according  to  FCC  report,  the  extra 
charge  for  telephone  handsets  had  been  eliminated 
in  a  total  of  31  States.  In  April  in  Carnegie  Hall, 
New  York  City,  the  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories 
gave  a  striking  demonstration  of  the  remarkable 
quality,  volume,  and  spatial  characteristics  of  the 
stereophonic  reproduction  of  "enhanced"  music 
from  film  recordings.  Triple  sets  of  loudspeakers, 
one  at  each  side  and  one  in  the  center  of  the  stage, 
together  with  properly  synchronized  separate  sound 
records  from  the  corresponding  portions  of  the 
stage  as  occupied  by  the  original  orchestra,  repro- 
duced all  sounds  with  the  effect  of  true  space  rela- 
tionship. It  is  to  be  expected  that  much  more  will 
be  heard  of  this  development  in  the  future.  Tele- 
phone exhibits  at  the  New  York  and  San  Fran- 
cisco expositions  were  visited  by  an  estimated  total 
of  20,000,000  persons  during  the  two  seasons. 

Radiotelephone  facilities  to  Europe  at  the  close 
of  1940  included  direct  circuits  from  New  York 
to  London,  Madrid,  Rome,  Berne,  and  Berlin ;  also 
interconnections  to  all  of  Europe  except  Gibraltar, 
France,  Belgium,  Luxemburg,  the  Netherlands, 
Russia,  Greece,  and  Turkey.  Service  through  Eu- 
ropean connections  to  Africa  and  parts  of  Asia 
was  severed  by  the  war,  and  of  course  war  restric- 
tions, including  varying  degrees  of  censorship,  di- 
rectly affect  all  service  to  all  countries  With  new 
direct  radiotelephone  links  between  the  United 
States  and  South  America,  supplemented  by  ever 
increasing  land-line  and  radio  international  inter- 
connections, it  is  estimated  that  some  90  per  cent 
of  the  900,000  South  American  telephones  now 
may  be  reached  directly.  In  general,  United  States 
radiotelephone  traffic  for  1940  was  nearly  as  great 
as  for  1939,  for  increased  calls  to  Hawaii  and 
South  America  largely  offset  the  war-loss  of  trans- 
Atlantic  traffic.  Ship-to-shore  facilities  in  coastal 
waters  now  include  more  than  2,500  equipped  ships 
and  20  shore  stations  connecting  with  land  lines. 

War  conditions  have  prevented  the  collection  of 
data  necessary  for  any  effective  extension  or  re- 
vision of  the  tabular  statistical  summary  given  in 
the  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  752.  In  general,  as  of  Jan. 
1,  1939,  the  reported  total  of  41,090,347  telephones 
in  service  throughout  the  world  were  distributed 
approximately  as  follows :  United  States  and  Can- 
ada, 52  per  cent ;  Europe,  39 ;  Asia,  5 ;  remainder 
of  world,  4  per  cent. 

G.  Ross  HENNINGER. 

TELETYPEWRITER     SERVICE.     See 

TELEGRAPHY. 

TELEVISION.  The  failure  of  the  industry's 
various  technical  authorities  to  agree  on  technical 
standards  acceptable  to  the  FCC  (see  RADIO,  FED- 
ERAL COMMUNICATIONS  COMMISSION)  resulted  in 
the  FCC  withholding  commercial  licenses  and  in 
cancellation  of  the  industry's  merchandising  plans, 
although  numerous  receivers  were  placed  in  serv- 
ice in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  City  and  in  other 


limited  areas.  On  July  31  the  Radio  Manufacturers 
Association,  in  co-operation  with  the  FCC,  estab- 
lished a  "National  Television  Systems  Committee" 
to  work  on  various  controlling  aspects  of  the  prob- 
lem of  establishing  generally  acceptable  technical 
standards.  The  year  closed  with  a  progress  con- 
ference scheduled  with  FCC  for  late  in  January. 
By  Nov.  30,  1940,  a  total  of  34  experimental 
telecasting  stations  had  been  authorized  by  FCC 
for  construction.  Commercial  establishment  of  the 
frequency-modulation  system  of  radio  broadcast- 
ing (see  RADIO)  involved  a  shift  in  the  frequency 
channels  previously  assigned  to  television  by  FCC. 
In  August  a  private  laboratory  demonstration  of 
television  in  full  color  was  given  by  Columbia 
Broadcasting  System  to  FCC  Chairman  J.  L.  Fly. 
The  definition  of  telecast  images  was  sharpened 
materially  during  the  year  by  technical  improve- 
ments. A  new  record  for  length  of  relay  via  land 
line  was  established  when  the  Republican  conven- 
tion in  Philadelphia  was  telecast  from  New  York 
City  stations  through  the  medium  of  the  Bell  Sys- 
tem's co-axial  cable  between  those  cities,  a  108- 
mile  transmission.  New  York  City  telecasts  are  be- 
ing re-telecast  for  the  Albany,  N.Y.,  area  through 
the  medium  of  the  General  Electric  Co  's  direct 
television  relay  station  W2XB  which  was  placed 
in  operation  during  1940,  after  successful  field 
experiments.  Theater-size  television  reproduction 
screens  are  under  experimental  development  now 
in  the  United  States.  See  FEDERAL  COMMUNICA- 
TIONS COMMISSION;  Music;  RADIO  PROGRAMS. 
G.  Ross  HENNINGER. 

TEMPORARY  NATIONAL  ECONOM- 
IC COMMITTEE  (TNEC).  See  FEDERAL 
TRADE  COMMISSION;  UNITED  STATES  under  In- 
vestigations. 

TENANT  PURCHASE  PROGRAM.  See 
FARM  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION. 

TENNESSEE.  Area,  42,022  square  miles ;  in- 
cludes water,  335  square  miles.  Population  (U.S. 
Census),  April,  1940,  2,915,841;  1930,  2,616,556. 
Memphis  (1940),  292,942;  Nashville  (the  capital), 
167,402;  Chattanooga,  128,163 ;  Knoxville,  111,580. 
The  increase  in  the  population  of  the  State  ( 1930- 
40)  amounted  to  299,285,  a  rise  of  11.4  per  cent. 
The  urban  population  (dwellers  in  places  of  2500 
or  over)  increased  by  128,099,  to  1,024,637;  the 
rural,  by  171,186,  to  1,891,204. 

Agriculture.  Tennessee  harvested,  in  1940, 
6,112,500  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Of  this  area, 
4  acres  in  9  grew  corn ;  nearly  1  in  8,  cotton  ;  over 
1  in  4,  tame  hay.  Corn,  on  2,767,000  acres,  bore 
69,175,000  bu.  ($53,265,000  in  estimated  value  to 
the  farmer).  Cotton,  735,000  acres,  made  515,000 
bales  ($24,205,000);  tame  hay,  1,644,000  acres, 
1,597,000  tons  ($17,843,000) ;  tobacco,  113,500  acres, 
103,390,000  Ib.  ($15,018,000)  ;  wheat,  379,000  acres, 
5,116,000  bu.  ($4,349,000) ;  sweet  potatoes,  51,000 
acres,  4,335,000  bu.  ($3,685,000)  ;  potatoes,  44,000 
acres,  3,888,000  bu  ($2,372,000).  Farms  numbered 
247,617  in  1940  and  averaged  74.7  acres 

Mineral  Production,  Tennessee's  yearly  pro- 
duction of  minerals  native  to  its  territory,  as  stated 
in  1940  by  the  U.S  Bureau  of  Mines,  attained  $34,- 
428,512  for  1938.  Coal,  cement,  stone,  and  phos- 
phate rock,  in  the  order  named,  gave  the  highest 
items  to  this  total.  Mines'  output  of  coal  rose  to 
5,280,000  net  tons  for  1939,  from  4,472,403  tons 
(value,  $9,007,000)  for  1938.  Cement-makers'  ship- 
ments increased  to  3,677,116  bbl  (1939)  from 
3,390,871  bbl.  (1938) ;  by  value,  to  $5,613,477,  from 
$5,063,628.  Quarries'  sales  of  stone  rose  to  5,626,- 


TENNESSEE 


734   TENNESSEE  VALLEY  AUTHORITY 


210  short  tons  (1939)  from  2,599,840  (1938) ;  by 
value,  to  $8,312,977,  from  $4,237,351.  The  product 
of  1939  included  440,070  cu.  ft.  of  blocks  of  mar- 
ble for  building  and  monuments;  in  value,  $2,536,- 
624.  Of  phosphate  rock,  the  producers'  sales,  plus 
their  own  utilization,  rose  to  936,448  long  tons 
(minor  quantities  from  Virginia  included),  for 
1939.  from  899,298  tons  for  1938;  by  value,  to 
$3,856,505,  from  $3,725,601.  The  Federal  electric 
furnaces  at  Muscle  Shoals,  Alabama,  used  a  great 
part  of  this  rock  to  make  phosphates  for  fertiliz- 
ers, and  two  privately  owned  enterprises  in  Ten- 
nessee also  operated ;  all  used  electric  current  from 
the  Tennessee  River.  An  estimate  made  by  G.  R, 
Mansfield  and  published  in  1940  put  the  reserves 
of  divers  kinds  of  phosphate  rock  in  Tennessee  at 
195,151,000  tons.  Mines'  production  of  ores  of  zinc 
(including  some  from  Austinville,  Va.)  carried 
about  51.601  short  tons  of  the  metal  (1940),  valued 
at  $6,708,130,  as  against  56,225  tons  for  1939  and 
56,766  for  1938.  Clay  products  attained  (1938) 
$1,499,108  (not  to  count  pottery  and  refractories). 

Of  the  total  of  primary  aluminum  (286,882,000 
lb.,  valued  at  $56,659,000)  produced  in  the  United 
States  in  1938,  41  per  cent  was  credited  to  the 
smelters  at  Alcoa,  Term. ;  production  mounted  to 
new  records  hi  1939  and  again  in  1940.  Tennessee 
furnished  electric  energy  to  extract  the  metal,  but 
its  ore— bauxite — came  mainly  from  Arkansas  and 
from  abroad. 

Education.  Tennessee's  inhabitants  of  school 
age  (from  6  years  to  18)  were  reckoned  at  538,- 
844  whites  (for  May,  1938) ;  Negroes,  106,960. 
Pupils  enrolled  in  public  elementary  schools  in  the 
academic  year  1939-40 :  white,  430,751 ;  Negro,  93,- 
708.  In  high  schools:  white,  108,008;  Negro,  15,- 
664.  The  year's  expenditures  for  public-school  edu- 
cation totaled,  for  whites  and  Negroes  combined : 
elementary,  $17,362,244;  high  schools,  $11,866,053. 
For  education  beyond  public  school,  $1,315,000  was 
provided  by  public  appropriation.  Teachers  num- 
bered 15,727  in  elementary  and  4935  in  high  schools. 

History.  The  heavy  demand  for  aluminum  in 
particular,  and  the  industrial  possibilities  of  the 
Tennessee  Valley  hydroelectric  development  in  gen- 
eral gave  importance  to  Tennessee's  manufactur- 
ing, under  the  impulsion  from  Federal  policy  of 
increasing  the  Nation's  means  of  defense.  Plans 
were  determined,  in  March,  for  building  a  factory 
to  make  newsprint  paper  out  of  Southern  slash 
pine  by  the  Herty  process,  already  in  use  at  Luf- 
kin,  Tex.  The  projected  factory  was  to  operate  on 
TVA  current ;  its  prospective  cost  exceeded  $4,000,- 
000. 

The  nominees  of  the  Communist  party  were  ex- 
cluded from  the  State  ballot:  the  State  Board  of 
Election  Supervisors,  which  ordered  the  exclusion, 
acted  on  a  law  of  1935  to  withhold  recognition 
from  any  party  advocating  the  overthrow  of  the 
Government  or  engaging  in  sedition  or  treason; 
the  State  Supreme  Court  (October  14)  upheld  the 
Communists'  exclusion. 

A  memorial  to  Adolph  S.  Ochs,  long  publisher 
of  the  Chattanooga  Times,  was  dedicated  (Novem- 
ber 12)  in  Point  Park,  on  Lookout  Mountain :  the 
memorial  was  a  building  for  a  museum  and  an 
observatory. 

Election.  At  the  general  election  (November  5) 
the  popular  vote  for  President  totaled  351,601  for 
Roosevelt  (Dem )  and  169,153  for  Willkie  (Rep.). 
Gov.  Prentice  Cooper  (Dem.)  and  U  S.  Senator 
Kenneth  D.  McKellar  (Dem.)  were  re-elected.  Six 
Democrats  and  2  Republicans,  all  incumbents,  were 
elected  U.S.  Representatives;  in  yet  another  dis- 


trict, the  fifth,  Joseph  W.  Byrns,  Jr.  (Dem.),  son 
of  the  late  Speaker  of  the  House,  was  defeated  by 
J.  Percy  Priest  (Independent),  in  retribution  for 
Byrns's  having  voted  for  the  Fish  amendment  to 
delay  the  military  draft. 

Officers.  Tennessee's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  Prentice  Cooper  (Dem.)  ; 
Secretary  of  State,  A.  B.  Broadbent ;  Treasurer, 
John  Harton ;  Comptroller,  Robert  W.  Lowe ;  At- 
torney General,  Roy  H.  Beeler ;  Commissioner  of 
Education.  B.  O.  Duggan. 

TENNfesSEE  VALLEY  AUTHORITY 
(TVA).  The  Tennessee  Valley  Authority  is  a 
corporation  wholly  owned  by  the  United  States 
Government.  It  was  established  by  the  Tennessee 
Valley  Authority  Act  of  May  18,  1933,  later 
amended  in  1935  and  1939.  The  TVA  Act  stipu- 
lates among  its  objectives  the  improvement  of  the 
navigability  and  the  provision  for  the  flood  control 
of  the  Tennessee  River ;  provision  for  the  agricul- 
tural and  industrial  development  of  the  Tennessee 
Valley ;  provision  for  the  national  defense ;  and  the 
development  and  distribution  of  incidental  hydro- 
electric power  to  the  public.  The  agency  is  further 
empowered  to  make  such  studies,  demonstrations, 
and  recommendations  as  will  advance  the  economic 
welfare  of  the  region  involved. 

In  carrying  out  its  program,  the  TVA  is  con- 
structing in  the  river  channels  a  series  of  high 
dams  that  will  provide  a  navigable  channel  for 
boats  of  nine-foot  draft  from  Paducah,  Ky.,  to 
Knoxville,  Term.  These  same  high  dams  also  pro- 
vide great  storage  capacity  for  the  control  of  de- 
structive flood  waters  and  at  the  same  time  create 
a  large  storage  available  for  the  development  of 
water  power. 

At  the  close  of  the  year,  the  Authority  had 
completed  and  placed  in  operation  six  multipurpose 
dams,  Norris,  Wheeler,  Pickwick  Landing,  Gun- 
tersville,  Chickamauga,  and  Hiwassee,  in  addition 
to  Wilson  Dam,  constructed  during  the  World 
War.  It  was  also  operating,  for  power  production, 
several  hydro  and  steam  generating  plants  pur- 
chased from  the  Tennessee  Electric  Power  Com- 
pany in  1939.  Construction  was  progressing  on 
Kentucky,  Watts  Bar,  Fort  Loudoun,  and  Chero- 
kee dams.  The  last-named  was  authorized  by  Con- 
gress on  July  31,  1940,  as  part  of  an  emergency 
construction  program  to  provide  increased  amounts 
of  electric  power  for  national  defense.  A  new 
steam  plant  and  new  generating  units  at  Wilson 
and  Pickwick  Landing  Dams  were  included  in  the 
emergency  program. 

Power  from  the  Authority's  system  is  being  sold 
at  wholesale  to  more  than  100  municipalities  and 
co-operative  associations,  which  distribute  it  to 
more  than  400.000  ultimate  consumers.  Power  rev- 
enues of  the  Authority  in  the  fiscal  year  1940  to- 
taled $15,300,000,  of  which  $4,300,000  remained  as 
net  income  after  provision  for  all  power  expenses. 
The  106  municipalities  and  co-operative  associa- 
tions distributing  power  as  of  June  3(X  1940,  re- 
ported combined  gross  revenues  of  $21,624,000  and 
a  combined  net  income  of  $4,023,000.  Rates  under 
which  TVA  power  is  being  sold  save  consumers 
more  than  $9,000,000  annually. 

Of  the  26,000,000  acres  comprising  the  Tennes- 
see Valley  drainage  area,  about  18,000,000  are  in 
farms,  of  which  one-third  of  the  area  is  in  farm 
woodlands,  pasture,  and  cultivated  crops.  Practi- 
cally all  the  remaining  8,000,000  acres  are  in  for- 
ests, publicly  and  privately  owned.  Much  of  this 
forested  area  is  not  fully  effective  for  purposes  of 
water  control,  and  some  7,000,000  acres  of  open 


TENNESSEE  VALUCY  AUTHORITY  735 


TBMNIS 


land  in  farms  are  so  situated  as  to  be  subject  to 
appreciable  erosion. 

Extensive  effort  is  being  made  to  reduce  these 
losses  in  soil  and  water  by  improved  farm  and  for- 
est practices.  Such  practices  must  rest  largely  up- 
on a  self-sustaining  basis  if  they  are  to  be  widely 
and  permanently  adopted.  In  line  with  these  princi- 
ples, therefore.  Congress  directed  the  Authority 
to  take  over  the  war-time  Wilson  Dam  and  the 
nitrate  plants  at  Muscle  Shoals,  maintain  them  for 
national  defense,  and  use  them  to  develop  and  in- 
troduce new  and  improved  forms  of  plant  food. 

Equipment  has  been  developed  for  making  a  new 
fertilizer,  calcium  metaphosphate,  containing  more 
than  60  per  cent  of  available  phosphatic  plant  food 
(PBO8)  and  the  electric  furnace  method  for  pro- 
ducing a  concentrated  superphosphate  analyzing 
47  per  cent  P«Oo  has  been  improved.  Other  mate- 
rials and  processes  are  being  investigated.  The 
Authority  has  assisted  industry  in  making  use  of 
developments. 

Experiment  stations  of  47  States  have  taken  up 
preliminary  testing  of  TVA  fertilizing  materials. 
And  in  half  the  States  more  than  30,000  farmers, 
with  the  guidance  of  agricultural  extension  serv- 
ices, are  testing  and  demonstrating  TVA  products 
in  a  practical  way  on  their  farms. 

These  farmers,  selected  by  the  neighbors,  con- 
tribute their  farms  as  community  test-demonstra- 
tion grounds.  Around  use  of  the  phosphate,  they 
adjust  their  farming  toward  a  more  stable  agri- 
culture, meet  the  cost  of  the  changes,  and  keep 
records  The  Authority  supplies  the  phosphate, 
f .o  b  Wilson  Dam,  Ala.  It  is  used  only  on  water 
and  soil  holding  sod  crops,  especially  on  legumes 
that  transfer  nitrogen  from  the  air  into  the  soil. 
These  test-demonstration  farms  cover  more  than 
5,000,000  acres  and,  through  their  influence  on 
neighboring  farms,  affect  the  use  of  a  much  great- 
er area. 

Terracing  and  tree  planting  supplement  water 
control  with  sod  crops.  Guidance  has  been  given 
to  farmers  in  terracing  approximately  600,000 
acres.  Some  110,000,000  trees  have  been  planted  on 
the  more  seriously  eroded  areas.  Most  of  them 
were  set  out  by  the  CCC,  but  planting  by  farmers 
themselves  is  increasing. 

During  the  six  years  that  the  Fertilizer  Works 
has  been  in  operation,  to  July  1,  1940,  approxi- 
mately 287,000  tons  of  concentrated  phosphatic 
fertilizer  have  been  produced.  In  round  numbers, 
111,000  tons  of  this  went  to  test-demonstration 
farmers  and  156,000  tons  were  transferred  to  the 
Agricultural  Adjustment  Administration,  of  the 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  for  use  in  lieu  of 
cash  payments  in  the  national  soil  conservation 
program. 

At  the  request  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  War, 
TVA  is  building  a  new  plant  and  modernizing  the 
nitrate  works  at  Muscle  Shoals  to  produce  ammo- 
nium nitrate  for  munitions  at  a  capacity  of  300 
tons  a  day. 

Under  Sections  22  and  23  of  the  TVA  Act,  the 
Authority  serves  as  a  strong  unifying  agency  with- 
in the  region,  placing  its  experience  in  the  conser- 
vation and  use  of  resources  at  the  disposal  of  the 
public,  co-operating  with  states,  localities,  and  or- 
ganizations in  the  solution  of  related  problems  and 
in  the  development  of  mutually  consistent  pro- 
grams. As  authorized  by  law,  it  conducts  demon- 
strations and  experiments  to  pave  the  way  for 
action  by  other  governmental  units. 

See  DAMS  ;  MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP  ;  NATION- 
AL DEFENSE  ADVISORY  COMMISSION  ;  WATERWAYS, 


INLAND;  also  ALABAMA  and  TENNESSEE  tinder 
History. 

H.  A.  MORGAN. 

TENNIS.  The  overthrow  of  Robert  L.  Riggs, 
Jr.,  of  Chicago  as  men's  national  tennis  king  and 
the  phenomenal  playing  of  Miss  Alice  Marble  of 
California,  winner  of  the  women's  crown  for  the 
fourth  time,  were  the  principal  highlights  in  the 
1940  world  of  net  and  racket.  With  international 
competitions  brought  to  a  standstill  as  a  result  of 
the  European  war,  and  with  no  further  amateur 
tennis  honors  to  tackle.  Miss  Marble  joined  the 
professional  ranks  in  November,  1940,  after  one 
of  the  most  amazing  records  in  the  history  of 
women's  lawn  tennis. 

The  one-year  reign  of  Riggs  was  brought  to  an 
inglorious  conclusion  by  Donald  McNeill  of  Okla- 
homa City  who  overcame  a  two-set  deficit  to  de- 
feat the  tottering  champion  at  Forest  Hills.  It  was 
evident  that  neither  contestant  was  at  his  best,  and 
the  defending  champion  was  suffering  from  the 
effects  of  a  devastating  cold.  It  was  spirit  and  de- 
termination that  carried  McNeill  to  victory. 

In  dominating  the  women's  field.  Miss  Marble 
scored  a  dramatic  victory  in  the  final  at  Forest 
Hills  over  Miss  Helen  Jacobs,  former  titleholder, 
whose  unconquerable  spirit  kept  her  in  the  running 
until  the  last  round.  Miss  Marble  won  every  set  in 
the  championship  and  was  invincible  throughout 
the  season  in  both  singles  and  in  doubles,  serving 
with  Sarah  Palfrey  (Mrs.  Elwood  Cooke)  in  the 
latter.  Miss  Marble  and  Riggs  garnered  the  mixed 
laurels. 

The  men's  national  doubles  were  won  by  John 
Kramer  of  Montebello,  Calif.,  and  Frederick 
(Ted)  Schroeder  of  Glendale,  Calif.,  both  19 
years  of  age  and  the  youngest  titleholders  in  the 
history  of  the  match.  They  dislodged  Henry  Pru- 
soff  of  Seattle  and  Gardnar  Mullpy  of  Miami  in 
the  final  at  Boston.  Kramer's  playing  was  consist- 
ently sensational  throughout  the  year.  Besides 
Prusoff,  he  scored  notable  victories  over  Frank 
Parker,  Sidney  Wood,  Gilbert  Hunt,  and  Edward 
Alloo  but  faded  out  in  four  sets  before  Donald 
McNeill. 

Some  of  the  most  exciting  and  humorous  inci- 
dents of  the  season  were  provided  by  Frank  Ko- 
vacs  of  Oakland,  Calif.,  who  scored  a  brilliant  vic- 
tory over  Riggs  at  Southampton  and  nearly  dupli- 
cated the  performance  in  a  final-round  at  Sea- 
bright.  Kovacs  mixed  his  dazzling  game  with  pan- 
tomime designed  to  make  the  galleries  laugh.  He 
reached  the  finals  both  at  Newport  and  South- 
ampton, but  succumbed  on  both  occasions  before 
the  terrific  speed  and  drive  of  McNeill. 

In  the  championships  at  Forest  Hills,  Kovacs' 
clownish  antics  kept  the  spectators  in  a  constant 
swirl  of  laughter.  At  one  point  his  opponent,  Joe 
Hunt,  appealed  to  the  galleries  to  halt  their  titter- 
ing and  assume  a  more  serious  state  of  so-called 
mind,  a  psychological  condition  which  the  galleries 
found  it  impossible  to  attain.  In  desperation,  Hunt 
sat  down  on  the  court,  a  move  which  Kovacs 
promptly  emulated,  to  the  further  alleged  amuse- 
ment of  the  crowd.  The  game  was  eventually  won 
by  Hunt 

McNeill  captured  the  national  clay-court  and  in- 
tercollegiate crowns,  and  was  runner-up  to  Riggs 
in  the  Pacific  Southwest,  national  indoor  and  East- 
ern turf  championships.  Miss  Louise  Brough  of 
California  annexed  the  girls'  national  title ;  Robert 
Carrothers,  who  won  the  junior  crown,  was  after- 
ward killed  in  an  automobile  accident. 


TEXAS 


736 


TEXAS 


Because  of  the  war,  there  was  no  Davis  Cup  or 
women's  Wightman  Cup  matches. 

Donald  Budge,  world's  professional  title-holder, 
captured  the  American  championship,  outplaying 
Fred  Perry  in  the  final. 

TEXAS.  Area,  265.941  square  miles;  includes 
water.  3498  square  miles.  Population  (U.S.  Cen- 
sus), April,  1940,  6,414,824;  1930,  5,824,715.  Hous- 
ton (1940),  384,514;  Dallas,  294,734;  San  Antonio, 
253,854;  Fort  Worth,  177,662;  Austin  (the  capi- 
tal), 87,930. 

Agriculture.  Texas  harvested,  in  1940,  25,826,- 
000  acres  of  the  principal  crops:  nearly  800,000 
above  the  harvest  of  1939.  Cotton,  occupying  8,523,- 
000  acres,  or  one-third  of  the  harvested  area,  bore 
3,285,000  bales  ($147,825,000  in  estimated  return 
to  the  cultivator).  Corn,  on  4,632,000  acres,  made 
90,324,000  bu.  ($46,968,000)  ;  rice,  291,000  acres, 
16,005,000  bu.  ($11,684,000):  Grain  sorghums, 
3,659,000  acres,  46,397,000  bu.  ($24,126.000) ;  wheat, 
2,850,000  acres,  29,355,000  bu.  ($18,787,000) ;  oats, 
1,375,000  acres,  37,125,000  bu.  ($10,395,000) ;  tame 
hay,  1,184,000  acres,  1,341,000  tons  ($10,192,000) ; 
peanuts,  295,000  acres,  166,675,000  Ib.  ($5,334,000)  ; 
grapefruit,  15,000,000  boxes  ($4,350,000)  ;  sweet 
potatoes,  51,000  acres,  4,335,000  bu.  ($3,468,000)  ; 
potatoes,  50,000  acres,  3,200,000  bu.  ($3,200,000). 
The  year's  truck  crops  had  an  estimated  value  of 
$17,256,000  for  the  growers. 

Mineral  Production.  Texas  produced  from  its 
territory,  as  estimated  in  1940  by  the  U  S.  Bureau 
of  Mines,  minerals  to  the  value  of  $740,147,465  in 

1938.  Petroleum  contributed  five-sevenths  of  the 
total ;  natural  gas  and  gasoline  derived  therefrom, 
over  one-fifth;  sulphur,  much  of  the  remainder. 
The  yearly  production  of  petroleum,  from  475,- 
850,000  bbl.,  value  $539,150,000   (1938),  rose  in 
quantity  to  484,527,000  bbl.  for  1939  and  attained 
453,115,000  for  11  months  of  1940.  The  West  Tex- 
as field  gained  in  production  through  1939  and 
1940 ;  the  East  Texas  field,  still  the  foremost  pro- 
ducing area,  decreased  as  a  producer  in  both  these 
years,  a  fall  in  the  initial  pressure  discouraging 
new  drilling  in  some  parts.  The  quantity  of  natural 
gas  delivered  to  consumers,  882,473  million  cu.  ft. 
(1938),  had  a  value  of  $133,486,000;  increases  in 
several  main  uses  of  natural  gas  were  reported  for 

1939.  The  production  of  gasoline  from  natural  gas 
rose  to  704,707,000  gal.  for  1939,  from  685,920,000 
(value,  $19,781,000)  for  1938.  The  production  of 
sulphur  increased  to  1,665,785  long  tons   (1939) 
from  the  unusually  low  total  of  1,331,014  tons  for 
1938.  The  apparent  value  of  the  total  for  1939  ap- 
proximated $25,000,000.  Portland  cement  shipped 
yearly  by  producers  rose  in  value  to  $12,152,780 
(1939),  from  $11,885,494  (1938). 

Manufacturing.  Value  of  the  yearly  output  of 
manufactured  products  of  Texas  totaled  $1,530,- 
220,676  for  1939;  $1,581.422,401  for  1937.  Other 
related  totals  for  1939  (each  with  that  for  1937 
subjoined) :  5376  (4422)  establishments  employed 
126,997  (129,501)  wage-earners,  paying  them  $128,- 
138,702  ($132,505,115)  ;  expended  $1,075,763,628 
($1,141,567,954)  for  material,  contract  work,  etc. ; 
and  added  by  manufacture  a  value  of  $454,457.048 
($439354,447). 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40  the 
inhabitants  of  school  age  were  reckoned  at  1,536,- 
910.  The  year's  enrollments  in  all  public  schools 
numbered  1,345,668;  this  comprised  788,104  in  ele- 
mentary study  and  557,564  in  high  school.  Expend- 
iture for  public-school  education  totaled  $92,865,- 
745.  The  45,600  public-school  teachers'  yearly  pay 
averaged  $1059. 


History.  Barriers  to  the  shipment  abroad  of 
Texan  cotton  and  products  of  petroleum  worked 
as  a  somewhat  adverse  influence  on  industry  in  the 
State.  The  AAA's  further  reduction  of  the  allowed 
acreage  of  cotton  in  Texas,  by  about  222,000  acres, 
gave  the  growers  widespread  dissatisfaction  early 
in  the  year.  The  producers  of  sulphur  benefited  by 
the  Federal  defense  program  ;  it  increased  the  ac- 
tivity of  producers  of  steel,  of  which  some  kinds 
required  much  sulphuric  acid  for  their  processing. 
The  efforts  of  the  Railroad  Commission  to  hold 
the  output  of  petroleum  down  to  the  estimated  de- 
mand encountered  opposition  from  time  to  time  in 
some  of  the  several  hundred  producing  areas,  not 
all  of  which  were  treated  alike.  A  charge  made  in 
March,  by  an  official  of  a  company  producing  pe- 
troleum, that  a  deputy  oil-supervisor  of  the  Com- 
mission's force  had  intimated  a  bribe  as  the  al- 
ternative to  lower  allowable  production  for  that 
company,  came  at  a  time  when  producers  were  al- 
ready sensitive  to  the  Commission's  course.  One 
of  the  aspirants  for  the  governorship  sought  the 
support  of  the  people  wishing  larger  old-age  pen- 
sions, by  promising  to  get  these  chiefly  out  of  ad- 
ditional taxes  on  the  petroleum  business.  Hope  of 
an  addition  to  the  consumption  of  Texan  petro- 
leum arose  in  September  from  reported  negotia- 
tions of  the  Federal  Government  with  the  HumMe 
Oil  and  Refining  Company  for  the  construction  of 
a  costly  establishment  to  produce  toluol  out  of  pe- 
troleum by  a  new  cracking  process. 

Successful  tests  were  reported,  early  in  Febru- 
ary, of  the  serviceability  of  newsprint  paper  made 
from  loblolly  pine  by  the  new  mill  using  the 
Herty  process,  at  Lufkin;  the  Shreveport  Times 
and  Little  Rock  Democrat  ran  off  editions  with 
good  result,  strengthening  prospects  of  a  sizeable 
new  industry  for  the  State. 

Administration  and  Courts.  Governor  O'Dan- 
iel  made  no  further  effort  to  call  a  special  legisla- 
tive session  to  put  through,  in  advance  of  election, 
the  means  of  paying  for  the  expensive  system  of 
old-age  pensions  that  he  had  championed.  He  was 
criticized  in  January  for  failure  to  condemn  the 
conduct  of  the  Board  of  Control,  including  two  of 
his  own  appointees,  which  was  editorially  accused 
of  sportsmanship.  He  retained  and,  by  radio  talks, 
built  up  his  popularity  among  the  people  of  the 
State.  Without  much  trouble  he  won  a  renomina- 
tion  at  the  primaries.  Confirming  his  nomination, 
the  State  Democratic  convention  (September  10) 
also  confirmed  the  Democratic  popular  choices  to 
other  offices,  despite  differences  among  their  views  ; 
one  of  these  choices,  J.  E.  McDonald,  renominated 
for  the  State's  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  was 
denounced  by  many  Democrats  as  in  sympathy  with 
the  Republican  Presidential  nominee.  It  remained 
uncertain  whether  O'Daniel,  in  his  next  term  would 
find  the  necessary  support  to  put  through  his  poli- 
cies. 

The  U.S.  Supreme  Court  (November  25)  freed 
a  Negro  who  had  been  sent  to  prison  for  life,  on 
conviction,  in  Harris  County,  for  rape;  the  deci- 
sion held  that  Negroes  had  been  excluded  from 
the  jury  that  tried  him  ;  his  conviction  was  there- 
fore reversed  ;  the  statute  of  limitations,  as  he  had 
served  two  years  in  prison,  prevented  his  retrial. 
A  Court  of  Civil  Appeals  decision,  early  in  Feb- 
ruary, denied  the  constitutionality  of  the  Legisla- 
ture's act  of  1939  granting  to  Dallas  County  a 
remission  from  the  State's  share  of  the  general 
tax  on  property  in  the  county.  The  State  Supreme 
Court,  on  the  other  hand,  held  valid,  in  June,  the 
Legislature's  similar  remission  of  taxes  to  Harris 


TEXTILES 


737 


TEXTILES 


County;  this  decision  Attorney  General  Mann,  in 
a  motion  for  a  rehearing,  called  a  "grievous  error" 
setting  at  naught  the  efforts  of  the  f ramers  of  the 
State's  constitution  of  1876  to  do  away  with  the 
Legislature's  practice  of  thus  presenting  some  coun- 
ties with  part  of  the  State's  revenue.  An  order  of 
the  Railroad  Commission,  putting  an  end  to  re- 
gional differentials  in  the  rates  of  railroads  within 
the  State,  was  kept  inoperative  by  a  court  injunc- 
tion, in  course  of  appeal.  See  DAMS  ;  OKLAHOMA. 

Elections.  At  the  general  election  (Novem- 
ber 5)  the  popular  vote  for  President  totaled  840,- 
151  for  Roosevelt  (Dem.)  and  199,152  for  Willkie 
(Rep.).  The  opposition  of  the  State's  "favorite 
son,"  Vice-President  John  Nance  Garner,  to  the 
re-election  of  Roosevelt  for  a  third  term,  had  lit- 
tle apparent  effect  on  the  vote,  for  Garner  had  re- 
frained from  expressed  opposition  after  Roose- 
velt's nomination  But  other  dissident  Democrats 
got  out  for  Willkie  nearly  twice  Landon's  1936 
vote. 

The  vote  on  November  5  confirmed,  as  usual, 
the  results  of  the  Democratic  primary:  Gov.  W. 
Lee  O'Daniel  was  re-elected.  U.S.  Senator  Tom 
Connally  obtained  another  term. 

Officers.  The  chief  officers  of  Texas,  serving  in 
1940,  were :  Governor,  W.  Lee  O'Daniel ;  Lieuten- 
ant Governor,  Coke  R.  Stevenson;  Secretary  of 
State,  Tom  L.  Beauchamp;  Treasurer,  Charley 
Lockhart ;  Comptroller,  George  H.  Sheppard ;  At- 
torney General,  Gerald  Mann;  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  L.  A.  Woods. 

TEXTILES.  The  two-year  cycle  in  textiles  has 
been  one  of  the  lesser,  and  one  of  the  least- 
mourned,  casualties  of  a  world  at  war.  Whereas, 
in  "normal"  times,  statisticians  could  anticipate 
that  a  "good"  year  would  be  followed  by  an  "off" 
year,  1940  superimposed  a  new  record  high  upon 
the  previous  record  of  1939.  Textile  World's  index 
of  textile  mill  activity  for  1940  was  142  (on  the 
basis  of  1923-25  as  100)— an  increase  of  8  per 
cent  over  1939 

The  effect  of  the  war  in  1940  was  more  direct 
than  it  had  been  in  the  previous  year.  In  1939,  tex- 
tiles shared  psychologically  in  the  war  boom  which 
followed  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  in  Europe.  In 
1940,  the  industry  participated  directly  in  the  Gov- 
ernment purchases  in  national  defense.  The  percent- 
age which  such  purchases  represented  in  total  pro- 
duction varied  widely  among  the  several  branches 
of  textile  manufacture,  ranging  from  a  relatively 
few  per  cent  in  the  case  of  cotton  products  to  ap- 
proximately a  third  in  the  case  of  wool  goods. 
However,  in  addition  to  this  direct  stimulus,  all 
divisions  of  the  industry  felt  the  effect  of  the 
sharply  increased  purchasing  power  of  the  nation 
as  a  whole—due  primarily  to  the  record  produc- 
tion levels  in  the  heavy-goods  industries. 

These  impulses  were  still  dominant  at  the  start 
of  1941,  and  textile  manufacturers  faced  the  New 
Year  confident  in  the  maintenance  of  high  produc- 
tion levels.  That,  however,  was  where  confidence 
stopped.  Never  has  a  textile  boom  been  tinged  with 
greater  sobriety.  The  knowledge  of  a  mounting 
defense  bill  which  would  have  to  be  paid  some  day, 
possibly  by  inflation  followed  by  deflation ;  of  in- 
evitable increases  in  corporate  taxes  which  would 
dissipate  temporary  profits,  and  of  possibly  even- 
tual American  participation  in  the  war  itself,  re- 
duced current  "prosperity"  to  merely  an  interlude. 
See  CHEMISTRY,  INDUSTRIAL  ;  ELECTRICAL  INDUS- 
TRIES; FASHION  EVENTS;  RAYON. 

Cotton.  Domestic  cotton  consumption  reached 
an  all-high  record  of  8,000,000  bales  in  the  calen- 


dar year  1940.  It  is  anticipated  that  consumption 
for  the  crop  year  ending  July  31,  1941,  may  reach 
8,500,000  bales,  or  even  higher.  Demands  of  the 
national  defense  program  created  temporary  bot- 
tlenecks in  ducks  for  tents  and  other  purposes,  and 
in  combed  yarn  and  combed-yarn  fabrics  necessary 
for  the  production  of  cotton  cloth  for  uniforms. 
The  duration  of  these  bottlenecks  depends  upon 
the  additional  Government  orders  which  may  be 
placed  during  the  balance  of  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1941,  and  this  in  turn  depends  upon  the 
rate  of  increase  in  the  urgency  of  the  national  de- 
fense situation.  Broadly  speaking,  there  is  no  pros- 
pect of  a  serious  emergency  in  the  production  of 
textile  materials  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  de- 
fense program.  At  the  worst,  it  would  mean  tem- 
porary reduction  of  the  production  of  goods  for 
civilian  requirements. 

The  wage-hour  law,  with  its  32.5-cent  minimum 
in  the  cotton  industry,  which  was  the  outstanding 
issue  during  most  of  1939,  became  of  only  academ- 
ic interest  in  1940,  under  the  pressure  of  high  pro- 
duction schedules.  The  only  echo  of  this  fight  dur- 
ing the  year  was  the  suit  against  the  constitution- 
ality of  the  wage-hour  law  brought  by  a  group  of 
southern  cotton  mills,  decision  on  which  was  pend- 
ing before  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  at 
the  start  of  1941. 

Wool.  The  effect  of  the  national  defense  pro- 
gram was  clearly  evident  in  wool  manufacture. 
Monthly  average  consumption  of  apparel-class 
wool  by  domestic  mills  during  the  first  part  of  the 
year  was  lower  than  that  of  the  corresponding  pe- 
riod of  the  previous  year,  but  starting  in  May, 
when  the  defense  program  got  under  way,  an  up- 
ward trend  set  in  and  established  the  highest  rate 
of  monthly  consumption  on  record  (1918  to  date) 
and  possibly  the  highest  record  ever  attained  in  the 
United  States,  according  to  the  National  Associa- 
tion of  Wool  Manufacturers.  For  the  calendar 
year  1940,  apparel  wool  consumption  was  slightly 
over  1939  It  is  estimated  that  the  effect  of  the 
defense  program  has  been  to  add  approximately 
one-third  to  the  normal  civilian  consumption  of 
wool. 

Rayon,  Domestic  rayon  filament  yarn  consump- 
tion set  an  all-time  high  record  in  1940  with  an 
estimated  total  of  390,000,000  Ib ,  an  increase  of  8 
per  cent  compared  with  the  previous  record  year 
of  1939,  according  to  Rayon  Organon.  On  the  oth- 
er hand,  rayon  staple  fiber  available  for  consump- 
tion, which  amounted  to  about  96,000,000  Ib.  in 
1940,  was  slightly  under  the  1939  level  of  98,700,- 
000  Ib.  Imports  of  staple  fiber  in  1940,  included 
in  this  consumption  total,  amounted  to  about  16,- 
000,000  Ib.,  a  drop  of  65  per  cent  from  the  1939 
level.  Production  of  domestic  staple  fiber,  how- 
ever, rose  from  51,300,000  Ib.  in  1939  to  approxi- 
mately 80,000,000  Ib.  in  1940,  an  increase  of  55  per 
cent  which  almost  completely  offset  the  drop  in 
consumption  of  imported  staple  fiber.  The  domes- 
tic rayon  filament  yarn  industry,  although  operat- 
ing at  capacity,  closed  the  year  1940  with  only  a 
four-days'  supply  of  yarn  at  producers'  plants, 
which  is  essentially  the  irreducible  minimum. 

Silk.  The  only  exception  to  this  textile  success 
story  is  silk.  Domestic  consumption  of  this  fiber 
in  1940  was  the  lowest  in  nearly  20  years.  The 
main  contributing  cause  was  the  loss  of  part  of 
its  market  in  women's  full-fashioned  hosiery,  which 
is  its  major  outlet  Nylon  hosiery  was  introduced 
during  1940  and  created  a  sensation,  the  demand 
exceeding  the  supply.  Silk's  competitive  position 
in  hosiery  threatens  to  become  worse  since,  al- 


THAILAND 


738 


THAILAND 


though  Nylon  accounted  for  onlr  10  per  cent  of 
the  production  of  women's  full-fashioned  hosiery 
at  the  end  of  1940,  this  percentage  was  increasing 
right  along,  at  the  expense  of  silk. 

DOUGLAS  G.  WOOLF. 

THAILAND  (Si am).  An  independent  mon- 
archy of  southeastern  Asia.  Capital,  Bangkok. 
King,  Ananda  Mahidol.  The  name  Thailand  re- 
placed the  former  name,  Siam,  by  official  designa- 
tion, effective  from  June  24,  1939. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  200,148  square 
miles.  By  estimate,  the  population  of  Jan.  1,  1939, 
numbered  14,900,000;  by  census  of  May  23,  1937, 
14,464,489.  Bangkok,  capital  and  chief  city,  had 
(1937)  886,150  inhabitants.  Ethnically,  some  nine- 
tenths  of  the  people  of  the  kingdom  are  Thai  (or 
Siamese)  and  Laos  The  chief  other  stocks  are 
Chinese  (about  500,000),  Malays  and  Indian  (about 
500,000  for  both  combined),  Cambodians  (60,000), 
and  Europeans  and  Americans  (some  2000  only, 
but  economically  important).  The  prevailing  and 
official  language  is  Siamese,  linguistically  related 
to  the  Chinese. 

Education  and  Religion.  School  instruction 
is  free  and  compulsory,  but  only  about  35  per  cent 
of  the  population  of  sufficient  age  was  classed  as 
literate  in  1938.  Schools  numbered  10,616  of  divers 
types  in  1938  and  had  1,309,919  pupils.  Chulalan- 
karana  University,  at  Bangkok,  provided  higher 
education  in  several  branches;  the  University  of 
Moral  and  Political  Sciences  taught  law,  econom- 
ics and  subjects  for  the  training  of  public  serv- 
ants. Nine-tenths  or  more  of  the  people  were  of 
the  Buddhist  faith,  according  to  common  estimate ; 
most  of  the  followers  of  other  faiths  were  Mos- 
lems, but  a  considerable  number  (49,462  in  1930) 
were  Christians. 

National  Defense.  Able-bodied  males  from  18 
to  43  years  of  age  are  liable  to  military  service, 
first  in  the  active  forces,  later  in  the  reserves. 
Active  service  is  not  generally  required.  The  army 
in  active  service  prior  to  1940  was  supposed  to 
number  about  30,000,  including  21  battalions  of 
infantry,  a  force  of  cavalry,  an  anti-aircraft  regi- 
ment and  additional  battalion,  a  separate  artillery 
organization,  2  battalions  of  engineers,  and  an  air 
force  of  5  wings.  The  navy  included  4  vessels  for 
coast-defense,  4  submarines,  a  number  of  torpedo 
boats,  and  transports,  not  to  count  vessels  in 
course  of  construction. 

Production,  The  great  majority  of  the  workers 
(in  1939,  83  per  cent)  support  themselves  by  agri- 
culture. Rice,  the  predominant  crop,  was  estimated 
as  yielding,  in  the  season  of  1939-40,  225,152,000 
bu. ;  by  estimate  from  another  source,  5,082,700 
metric  tons;  crop  of  1938-39,  4,523,700  metric 
tons.  In  the  season  1938-39  were  produced  also 
20,400  metric  tons  of  tobacco;  in  1936-37,  157,- 
944,880  coconuts  and  3280  piculs  of  pepper.  A 
somewhat  recently  developed  production  of  rubber 
attained  4800  tons  for  1938;  for  1939,  4200.  Live- 
stock, 1937: 10,723  elephants,  374,236  horses,  5tfl8,- 
006  bullocks,  5,333,464  buffaloes.  The  chief  min- 
eral product,  ore  of  tin,  was  produced,  in  1939,  to 
the  total  of  17,900  metric  tons  of  metallic  tin  con- 
tained. Teak,  the  leading  product  of  the  forests, 
was  produced  on  a  great  scale  for  export  (see 
Foreign  Trade,  below).  Manufacturing  was  largely 
restricted  to  saw  mills  and  rice  mills ;  but  the  gov- 
ernment operated  a  factory  for  making  airplanes 
and  a  cotton-weaving  factory. 

Foreign  Trade.  For  1939,  in  terms  of  U.S. 
money,  Thailand's  imports  were  reported  at  $51,* 


314,000;  exports,  at  $83,320,000.  The  main  exports 
of  the  year  were  1,936,400  tons  of  rice  ($43,687,- 
000) ;  ore  of  tin,  $16,570,500;  rubber,  41,000  tons 
($10,557,000).  Export  of  teak  amounted  to  nearly 
$3,000,000  for  1939.  Of  the  imports  of  merchan- 
dise in  1939,  cotton  textiles  and  yarns  made  20  per 
cent  by  value;  foreign  foods,  15  per  cent;  iron 
and  steel  manufactures,  machinery,  and  electrical 
goods,  about  one-fifth.  Most  of  the  exports  went 
out  through  the  Federated  Malay  Straits ;  partic- 
ularly, the  ore  of  tin,  there  treated.  The  Federated 
Malay  States  sent  (fiscal  year  1939)  over  one- 
fourth  of  Thailand's  imports:  the  United  King- 
dom, 11.7  per  cent;  Japan,  14.7  per  cent. 

Finance.  The  unit  of  money  is  the  baht,  which 
in  1939  averaged  $0.4032  as  valued  in  U.S.  money. 
The  national  debt,  on  Jan.  1,  1940:  external, 
£5,676,941  (or  62,446,531  bahts)  ;  internal  debt, 
10,000,000  bahts.  The  budget  for  1939-40  fiscal 
year  (ending  with  September  30)  set  revenue  at 
124,061,000  bahts;  ordinary  expenditure,  at  124,- 
059,000 ;  and  capital  expenditure,  at  22,889,000,  The 
fiscal  year  was  changed  in  1939 ;  it  had,  until  then 
ended  with  March  31. 

Transportation.  Railways  under  operation  in 
1938-39,  all  State  owned,  totaled  2058  miles ;  they 
carried  5,722,766  passengers  and  452,630,248  ton- 
kilometers  of  freight.  Operating  revenues  were 
equivalent  to  $6,735,992;  operating  expenses, 
$3,154,896.  An  agreement  for  immediate  construc- 
tion of  a  railway  from  Mongolborey  to  Aranya, 
connecting  Thailand  and  French  Indo-China  for 
the  first  time,  was  signed  by  the  two  governments 
in  1939.  Highways  totaled  3398  miles  (see  ROADS 
AND  STREETS).  Bangkok  is  served  by  the  Imperial 
Airways  and  Air  France  systems.  A  native  air 
line  connects  the  chief  cities  of  northern  Thailand. 
Improvement  of  the  port  of  Bangkok  at  a  cost  of 
10,000,000  bahts  to  permit  entrance  of  larger  ves- 
sels was  under  way  in  1939.  The  shipping  tonnage 
entered  there  with  cargo  in  1938  was  888,000; 
cleared,  1,176,000. 

Government.  The  constitution  of  1932  changed 
Thailand  from  an  absolute  into  a  limited  mon- 
archy. A  Premier  (in  1940  Luang  Pibul  Song- 
gram)  and  a  council  of  ministers,  over  which  he 
presides,  perform  the  cxecuttve  functions  but  are 
responsible  to  an  Assembly.  Of  the  Assembly's 
members,  half  are  elected,  half  appointed  by  the 
crown.  King  Ananda  Mahidol,  proclaimed  in  1935 
after  the  abdication  of  King  Prajadhipok,  is  a 
minor.  Save  for  the  period  from  Nov.  15,  1938,  to 
Jan.  13,  1939,  the  years  of  his  reign  have  been 
spent  at  school  in  Switzerland.  A  Council  of  Re- 
gency exercises  his  powers ;  Prince  Aditya  Dibabha 
heads  it 

History.  Thailand  sought,  late  in  1940,  to  win 
back  areas  lost  in  1893  to  FRENCH  INDO-CHINA 
(q.v.,  for  the  origin  of  the  resulting  hostilities) 
The  Siamese  forces  advanced  a  moderate  distance 
into  the  contested  territory  in  December  after  a 
period  of  aerial  raids  and  fruitless  negotiation, 
but  the  prospects  of  their  operations  remained  un- 
certain at  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  government  of  Thailand  sought  in  its  for- 
eign relations  to  hold  the  favor  of  the  British  and 
the  Japanese  alike.  A  non -aggression  agreement 
with  Great  Britain  was  signed  hi  June.  A  good- 
will mission  from  Thailand  visited  the  British 
commercial  center  of  Singapore  in  October  and 
was  to  proceed  later  to  Australia.  A  treaty  en- 
gaging Thailand  and  Japan  to  respect  each  other's 
territories  and  not  help  each  other's  enemies  for 
five  years  was  signed  at  Tokyo  on  June  11,  and  a 


THEATER 


739 


TOBACCO 


mission  headed  by  Thailand's  vice-minister  of  war 
went  to  Japan  in  September.  Producers  in  the 
United  States  having  refused  Thailand's  orders 
for  airplanes,  a  supply  was  reportedly  obtained 
from  Japan. 

See  also  JAPAN. 

THEATER.  See  DRAMA;  FRENCH  LITERA- 
TURE; GERMAN  LITERATURE,  etc. 

THIRD  INTERNATIONAL.  See  COMMU- 
NISM 

THIRD  TERM  ISSUE.  See  ELECTIONS, 
U.S.  NATIONAL. 

THURINGIA.  See  GERMANY  under  Area  and 
Population. 

TIBET.  A  nominal  dependency  of  China  in 
central  Asia.  Area,  463,000  square  miles ;  popula- 
tion estimated  at  from  700,000  to  6,000,000.  Capi- 
tal, Lhasa,  50,000  inhabitants.  Lamaism,  a  devel- 
opment of  Mahayana  Buddhism,  is  the  religion  of 
the  people.  Chief  occupations :  agriculture,  stock 
raising,  wool  spinning,  and  knitting.  The  principal 
minerals  are  gold,  borax,  and  salt.  There  is  a  fac- 
tory for  the  manufacture  of  army  equipment,  uni- 
forms, coins,  and  paper  money 

Since  the  death  of  the  13th  Dalai  Lama  in  1933, 
the  country  has  been  ruled  by  a  regent,  whose  po- 
litical authority  is  exercised  by  a  prime  minister 
aided  by  a  grand  council.  In  September,  1939,  a 
five-year-old  Chinese  peasant  boy  was  accepted  by 
a  secret  council  at  Lhasa  as  the  new  Dalai  Lama 
and  after  a  preliminary  ceremony  at  Rigya  near 
Lhasa  in  October,  1939,  he  was  formally  enthroned 
in  1940  (see  below).  When  the  boy  comes  of  age, 
he  will  share  his  religious  authority  with  the  Tashi 
(Panchen)  Lama.  The  last  Panchen  Lama  died 
in  1937  and  his  successor,  selected  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  Dalai  Lama,  remained  to  be  discovered. 

History.  Enthronement  of  the  14th  Dalai  Lama, 
the  Chinese  peasant  boy  selected  in  1939  (see  YEAR 
BOOK,  1939,  p.  761),  took  place  Feb.  22,  1940,  at 
the  Potala  monastery  palace  near  Lhasa.  The  boy 
was  referred  to  as  Lingergh  La-Mu-Tan-Chu  by 
the  Chinese  and  as  Llamo  Dhondup  by  the  British. 
Upon  his  enthronement,  he  assumed  the  name  Jam- 
pel  Ngawang  Lobsang  Yishey  Tensing  Gyatso,  de- 
riving from  the  titles  of  former  Dalai  Lamas. 

As  the  Dalai  Lama,  the  boy  became  the  chief 
civil  and  religious  ruler  of  Tibet  Pending  his  18th 
birthday,  however,  the  powers  of  his  office  were 
exercised  by  the  Regent,  Jechen  Hutukhto,  who 
adopted  a  pro-Chinese  policy  while  remaining  on 
friendly  terms  with  the  British.  The  Chinese  Na- 
tionalist Government  at  Chungking  on  February  5 
formally  recognized  the  boy  ruler  as  the  Dalai 
Lama  and  appropriated  400,000  yuan  for  expenses 
in  connection  with^his  enthronement.  To  insure  his 
succession,  the  Chinese  representative  at  Lhasa  in- 
duced the  Regent  to  forego  the  traditional  lot- 
drawing  from  the  golden  urn,  whereby  one  of  La- 
Mu-Tan-Chu's  two  Tibetan-born  rivals  might  have 
been  selected. 

The  Regent  formally  recognized  Chinese  sov- 
ereignty by  petitioning  Gen.  Chiang  Kai-shek  for 
permission  to  dispense  with  the  lot-drawing  and  by 
unveiling  a  portrait  of  Dr.  Sun  Yat-sen,  founder 
of  the  Kuomintang,  during  the  enthronement  cere- 
mony. The  Chinese  Government's  delegate  was  re- 
ported to  have  presided  jointly  at  the  ceremony, 
while  all  other  foreign  delegations  were  excluded. 
British  and  Indian  delegations  were  present,  head- 
ed by  B.  J.  Gould,  British  political  officer  in  Sik- 
kim,  Their  principal  concern  was  the  exclusion  of 
Soviet  and  Japanese  influence  from  Tibet. 

TIMOR.  See  PORTUGAL  under  Colonial  Empire. 


TIN.  Although  the  United  States  produced  prac- 
tically none  of  this  important  metal  it  was  unusu- 
ally active  in  1940  in  buying  tin  and  its  ores  for 
the  purpose  of  insuring  an  adequate  supply  for 
military  and  industrial  purposes.  In  December  the 
Metals  Reserve  Company,  a  Federal  corporation, 
entered  into  a  five-year  contract  with  Bolivia 'tin 
ore  producers  for  the  purchase  of  ores  and  con- 
centrates containing  90,000  tons  of  tin.  A  tin  smelt- 
er was  also  projected,  although  its  site,  process, 
and  operator  were  undisclosed  at  the  end  of  the 
year.  Eight  plans  were  submitted  and  referred  to 
a  special  technologic  committee  which  was  expected 
to  make  a  recommendation  to  the  Government.  An- 
other act  of  the  Metals  Reserve  Company  was  to 
arrange  for  the  purchase  of  75,000  tons  of  pig  tin 
within  a  period  of  12  months  from  July  1,  1940, 
at  a  price  of  50tf  per  Ib. 

The  domestic  price  for  Straits  tin  in  New  York 
ranged  from  about  46^  a  Ib.  in  January  up  to  58tf 
in  June  and  down  to  50tf  at  the  year  end.  The  av- 
erage price  for  the  year  was  49.827,  and  for  1939, 
50.323.  On  the  London  market  the  price  trend  was 
up  from  a  monthly  average  of  £240  per  long  ton 
in  January  to  £273  Ib.  in  June  Thereafter  the  price 
declined  to  £251  in  September,  and  closed  the  year 
at  £257.  Imports  into  the  United  States  for  the 
first  10  months  of  1940  were  223,952,110  Ib. 

World  production  of  tin  in  1940  was  236,600 
long  tons,  an  all -time  high.  Production  in  1939  was 
184,300  tons.  The  previous  high  record  was  209,100 
tons  in  1937.  Production  quotas  for  the  four  quar- 
ters of  1940  established  by  the  International  Tin 
Committee  in  percentage  of  standard  capacity  of 
producers,  were  respectively,  120,  80,  130,  130. 

Actual  consumption  of  primary  tin  in  the  United 
States  during  1940  was  estimated  at  74,000  tons. 

Exhaustive  survey  of  Alaskan  tin  resources 
seemed  imminent  near  the  end  of  1940  in  order  to 
augment  the  supply  of  Bolivian  tin  ore  and  to  in- 
sure the  permanent  establishment  of  a  tin  smelting 
industry  in  the  United  States.  Alaska  has  been  a 
producer  of  small  quantities  of  placer  tin  for  a 
number  of  years,  the  highest  recent  production 
being  166  tons  in  1937.  Lode  tin  also  occurs  in  the 
territory.  See  BOLIVIA  under  History,  NATIONAL 
DEFENSE  ADVISORY  COMMISSION. 

H.  C.  PARMELEE. 

TIRES.  See  RUBBER. 
TIROL.  See  AUSTRIA  under  History 
TOBACCO.  The  tobacco  crop  of  1940  in  the 
United  States  was  estimated  by  the  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  at  1,376,471,000  Ib.,  about  26 
per  cent  smaller  than  the  record  1939  crop  of  1,858,- 
364,000  Ib.,  and  comparing  with  the  10-year  (1929- 
38)  average  production  of  1,360,661,000  Ib.  The 
harvested  acreage  totaled  1,427,000  acres  compared 
with  2,020,000  in  1939,  while  the  1940  average  acre 
yield  was  965  Ib.,  a  record,  compared  with  the  pre- 
vious record  of  920  Ib.  in  1939.  The  value  of  the 
1940  crop  was  estimated  (preliminary)  at  $226,- 
874,000  versus  $285,997,000  for  1939.  The  price  per 
pound  received  by  farmers  averaged  19.6tf  on  Oc- 
tober 15  and  IS.Otf  on  Dec,  15,  1940,  versus  13.8* 
in  December,  1939.  The  production  by  types  was 
estimated  for  flue-cured,  733,903,000  Ib. ;  fire-cured, 
99,370,000;  air-cured,  light;  Burley,  327,708,000 
and  Southern  Maryland,  31,920,000 ;  air-cured,  dark, 
42,512,000;  and  cigar  types.  141,058,000,  including 
filler,  65,000,000;  binder,  66.964,000;  and  wrapper, 
9,094,000  Ib.  Acreages,  especially  of  flue-cured  typei 
were  sharply  curtailed  to  comply  with  AAA  allot- 
ments and  because  of  the  poor  export  outlook.  Yet 


TOBAQO 


740 


TRACK  AND  FIELD 


the  record-breaking  acre  yields  of  all  types,  except 
cigar  wrappers  resulted  in  a  crop  exceeding  the 
10-year  average.  North  Carolina  continued  to  lead 
producing  States  with  506,820,000  lb.,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  Kentucky  with  295,890,000;  Tennessee 
103,390,000;  Virginia  97.540,000;  South  Carolina 
81,590,000;  Georgia  76,420,000;  Pennsylvania  48,- 
324,000;  Wisconsin  36,532,000;  Maryland  31,920,- 
000;  Ohio  26,430,000;  Connecticut  22,996,000;  and 
Florida  16,123,000  lb. 

Tobacco  crops  in  1940  in  other  important  pro- 
ducing countries,  as  estimated  by  several  agencies, 
were  for  Turkey  135,600,000  lb.,  Greece  102,500,- 
000  lb.,  Bulgaria  88,200,000  lb.,  Germany  96,200,- 
000  lb.,  Hungary  35,500,000  lb.,  Canada  60,296,000 
lb.,  Mexico  44,100,000  lb.,  Chosen  64,483,000  lb., 
Manchuria  40,000,000  lb.,  China  (flue-cured)  122,- 
500,000  lb.,  Japan  197,000,000  lb.f  Southern  Rho- 
desia 35,000,000  lb.,  and  Sumatra  22,000,000  lb.  In 
1939-40  the  Philippine  Islands  produced  80,231,000 
lb.,  Argentina  41,000,000  lb.,  Australia  4,800,000 
lb.,  New  Zealand  2,255,000  lb.,  Nyassaland  16,983,- 
000  lb.,  and  Union  of  South  Africa  31,000,000  lb. 
Flue-cured  tobacco  grown  in  the  principal  foreign 
countries  in  1939-40  was  estimated  to  total  415,- 
000,000  lb.,  and  the  combined  production  of  flue- 
cured  in  China,  Manchuria,  Japanese  Empire,  In- 
dia, Netherlands  Indies,  and  Thailand  in  1940  was 
estimated  at  325,000,000  lb. 

Internal  revenue  taxes  collected  on  tobacco  in 
the  United  States  for  the  fiscal  year  1940  amounted 
to  $608,518,444,  an  increase  of  $28,359,238,  or  4.9 
per  cent  over  1939.  Taxes  on  small  cigarettes  pro- 
duced $533,042,544,  an  increase  of  $29,005,612  over 
1939,  representing  87.6  per  cent  of  the  total  tobac- 
co taxes  collected  in  1940.  Taxes  on  large  cigars 
amounted  to  $12,897,764,  an  increase  of  only  0.8 
per  cent;  and  on  smoking  and  chewing  tobacco 
$54,383,803,  and  snuff  $6,798,557,  respective  de- 
creases of  0.7  and  1.9  per  cent  Collections  in  North 
Carolina,  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Pennsylvania,  Cali- 
fornia, and  Ohio  in  order,  provided  the  greater  part 
of  the  tobacco  receipts.  In  the  calendar  year  1939, 
180,666,824,480  cigarettes  weighing  less  than  3  lb. 
per  1000  were  manufactured,  nearly  9  billion  over 
1938.  Per  capita  consumption  in  the  United  States 
in  1939  averaged  42  large  cigars,  1315  small  ciga- 
rettes, chewing  tobacco  0.81  lb.,  smoking  tobacco 
1.50  lb.,  and  snuff  0.29  lb.,  totaling  7.30  lb.  Exports 
of  unmanufactured  tobacco  totaled  358,489,238  lb., 
worth  $77,421,911  in  1939,  and  235,741,732  lb., 
worth  $44,044,749  in  1940.  See  Annual  Report  on 
Tobacco  Statistics,  1940.  (U.S.  Dept.  Agri.)  See 
AGRICULTURAL  ADJUSTMENT  ADMINISTRATION  ; 
MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY. 

TOBAGO.  See  TRINIDAD  AND  TOBAGO. 

TOGO,  French.  The  part  of  Togo  mandated 
to  France  by  the  League  of  Nations.  Area,  21,893 
square  miles;  population  (1938),  780,497.  Lom£, 
the  capital,  had  114,380  inhabitants.  Chief  prod- 
ucts: cacao,  palm  oil  and  kernels,  copra,  coffee, 
cotton.  Trade  (1939)  :  imports,  91,644,000  francs; 
exports,  74,227,000  francs  (franc  averaged  $0  0251 
for  1939).  Budget  (1939) :  balanced  at  50,534,000 
francs ;  in  addition  there  was  a  railway  budget  of 
12,889,000  francs.  Railways  extended  for  a  total 
of  242  miles.  Shipping  (1938)  :  386  ships  cleared 
the  ports  of  Lome  and  Anecho.  The  authorities  of 
French  Togo  remained  loyal  to  the  Vichy  Govern- 
ment in  France  in  the  controversy  with  Gen. 
Charles  de  Gaulle's  rival  "Free  French"  council 
in  London.  See  FRANCE  under  History. 

TOGOLAND.  The  area  of  Togo  which  was 
confirmed  as  a  British  mandate  by  the  League  of 


Nations  and  attached  to  the  British  Gold  Coast  for 
administrative  purposes.  Area,  13,041  square  miles ; 
population  (1938),  370,327,  including  43  non-Afri- 
cans. Chief  products :  Palm  oil  and  kernels,  cacao, 
kola  nuts,  cotton,  coffee.  Statistics  of  trade  are 
included  in  the  general  total  for  the  Gold  Coast. 

TOKBLAU  (UNION  ISLANDS).  See 
NEW  ZEALAND. 

TONGA  (FRIENDLY  ISLANDS).  See 
BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

TONKIN  (TONGKING).  See  FRENCH  IN- 
DO-CHINA. 

TOOTH  DECAY  AND  TREATMENT. 
See  DENTISTRY. 

TORPEDOES  AND  TORPEDO  BOATS. 
See  NAVAL  PROGRESS. 

TRACHOMA.  See  INDIAN  AFFAIRS,  OFFICE  OF. 

TRACK  AND  FIELD.  With  the  cancellation 
of  the  1940  Olympics  because  of  the  European 
war,  international  competition  in  track  and  field 
events  came  practically  to  a  standstill  during  the 
past  year.  Domination  of  the  sport  by  Americans 
continued  unabated,  however,  and  many  records 
were  annihilated.  Perhaps  the  most  sensational  fig- 
ure of  the  season  was  Greg  Rice,  a  five-foot  five- 
inch  bantam  out  of  Missoula,  Mont ,  and  Notre 
Dame  University,  who  played  first  fiddle  to  the 
legendary  Taisto  Maki  of  Finland  in  a  dramatic 
tournament  at  Madison  Square  Garden  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Finnish  Relief  Fund. 

In  outstepping  his  Finnish  adversary,  Rice  shat- 
tered the  world  indoor  two-mile  record  with  a 
clocking  of  8  minutes  56.2  seconds,  a  fifth  second 
from  the  recognized  world  outdoor  mark,  and 
twice  superseded  the  indoor  three-mile  record 
with  marks  of  13  55 :9  and  13  -52.3.  The  last- 
named  record  was  made  in  competition  with  both 
Don  Lash  and  Maki.  In  the  great  outdoors,  Rice 
added  to  his  laurels  by  outdistancing  Lash  at  Fres- 
no, Calif.,  in  a  race  in  which  he  annexed  the  Na- 
tional A.A.U.  5000-meter  outdoor  championship 
with  a  world's  record  clocking  of  14 .33  4. 

The  year  was  noted  for  the  arrival  of  new 
champions,  particularly  Walter  Mehl,  a  mid-year 
graduate  of  Wisconsin.  Unimpressive  indoors,  he 
was  like  a  flash  of  lightning  in  the  open  air  and 
once  defeated  Rice  in  the  fastest  two-mile  Mehl 
had  ever  traveled,  9:01.8.  In  the  mile  field,  Mehl 
captured  the  National  A.A.U.  1500-meter  title 
with  a  new  American  record  of  3  -47.9,  which 
came  within  a  tenth  second  of  equaling  the  world's 
mark  of  Jack  Lovelock.  In  this  race,  the  aging 
Glenn  Cunningham,  a  dominant  figure  on  the  track 
for  many  years,  ran  the  fastest  1500-meter  dis- 
tance in  his  career,  but  lost  to  the  youthful  Mehl 
by  two  yards.  The  veteran  Cunningham  was  con- 
sistently beaten  throughout  the  year. 

Charles  Fenske,  a  former  Wisconsin  teammate 
of  Mehl,  won  eight  straight  miles  indoors,  twice 
duplicating  Cunningham's  competitive  record  of 
4 :07.4,  and  captured  the  Memphis  outdoor  invita- 
tion mile  in  4:08.3,  but  the  onslaught  of  a  cold 
kept  him  out  of  competition  in  outdoor  nationals. 

In  pole-vaulting,  Cornelius  Warmerdam,  of 
Olympic  Club  renown,  was  easily  supreme.  He 
was  the  first  man  ever  to  scale  a  height  of  15  ft. 
The  best  of  his  two  record  leaps  was  15  ft.  IJi  in. 
The  overlord  of  shotputters  was  Alfred  Blozis, 
the  Georgetown  giant,  who  shattered  the  world's 
indoor  record  so  frequently  that  almost  every- 
body lost  the  count.  His  best  mark  was  55  ft 
BM  in. 

The  year  saw  many  champions,  old  and  new. 
Among  the  eminent  were  Harold  Davis,  Califor- 
nia junior  college  flyer,  who  carried  off  the  na- 


TRACTORS 


741  TRADE,  FOREIGN 


tional  A.A.U.  100  and  200  meters ;  Grover  Kletn- 
mer,  California  freshman,  the  400-meter  title  hold- 
er who  garnered  a  succession  of  47-sccond  quar- 
ters ;  Bill  Watson  in  the  decathlon ;  Joe  McClus- 
key,  steeplechase  winner  for  the  eighth  time; 
Lash,  Rice,  and  Charley  Beetham  in  the  800  me- 
ters; Fred  Wolcott,  doubles  hurdles  champion; 
Phil  Fox,  discus  champion ;  and  Les  Steers,  mas- 
ter of  the  high  jump.  Besides  regaining  his  hop- 
step-jump  title,  Billy  Brown  was  the  first  white 
man  to  capture  the  national  broad  jump  champion- 
ship in  nine  years. 

Fred  Wolcott  established  new  American  rec- 
ords of  13.9  in  the  110-meter  and  120-yd.  high  hur- 
dles and  a  world's  mark  of  22.5  in  the  low  hurdles, 
in  the  last-named  instance  erasing  one  of  Jesse 
Owens's  former  four  records.  In  the  half-mile, 
John  Woodruff  set  a  new  world's  record  of  1 .47.7 
and  a  new  American  mark  of  1 .48  6  for  800  me- 
ters, both  outdoors.  Jimmy  Herbert  of  N.Y.U. 
established  a  new  indoor  record  of  1  10  8  for  600 
yards  and  helped  his  college  relay  team  set  an  in- 
door mile  record  of  3.15. 

In  college  competition,  Southern  California's 
Trojans  were  supreme  The  New  York  A  C.  cap- 
tured the  indoor  A.A.U.  team  championship  again, 
but  lost  the  outdoor  crown  to  the  Olympic  Club 
of  San  Francisco  The  I  C.  4-A  outdoor  team  title 
went  to  Pitt  and  the  I.C.  4-A  indoor  title  to 
N.Y.U.  One  of  the  most  spectacular  competitions 
in  the  outdoor  collegiates  was  the  hair's-breadth 
victory  of  Ed  Burrow  of  Princeton  over  Jimmy 
Lightbody  of  Harvard  in  the  880,  which  was  con- 
summated in  1:522 

TRACTORS.  See  FARM  MACHINERY  AND 
EQUIPMENT. 

TRADE.  See  BUSINESS  REVIEW;  FEDERAL 
TRADE  COMMISSION;  INTERSTATE  COMMERCE 
COMMISSION;  MARKETING;  TRADE,  FOREIGN;  and 
the  sections  on  Foreign  Trade  under  the  various 
countries. 

TRADE,  FOREIGN.  Foreign  commerce  of 
the  United  States  and,  commonly,  of  other  lands 
varied  much  from  normal  in  1940.  Blockades, 
scarcity  of  shipping,  decline  of  production  of  the 
usual  goods  in  countries  at  war,  and  intense  de- 
mand for  war's  necessary  goods  all  changed  the 
volume,  course,  and  content  of  the  commercial 
stream. 

U.S.  commerce  increased  in  yearly  value:  ex- 
ports, by  26  per  cent,  to  $4,021,564,000  for  the 
calendar  year  1940,  from  $3,177,176,000  for  1939; 
imports,  by  13  per  cent,  to  $2,625,445,000  for  1940, 
from  $2,318,081,000  for  1939.  Exports  were  the 
highest  for  any  year  after  1929;  imports,  the 
highest  after  1937,  and  with  that  exception,  after 
1930.  As  will  be  seen  from  Table  I,  entitled  US. 
Foreign  Trade,  by  Months,  neither  the  exports 
nor  imports  showed  in  1940  the  persistent  rising 
trend  that  had  marked  their  course  in  1939;  in- 
stead, they  continued  within  fairly  close  range  of 
the  level  of  the  latter  part  of  1939. 

From  Table  II,  entitled  Shift  in  Character  of 
US.  Trade,  appears  the  extensive  transfer  of 
U.S.  commerce  to  exports  and  imports  connected 
with  warfare  and  away  from  other  sorts  of  mer- 
chandise. In  particular,  exports  of  the  main  manu- 
factured materials  essential  to  war  in  the  latter 
half  of  1940  formed  twice  as  great  a  part  of  all 
exports  as  it  had  formed  in  the  earlier  half  of 
1939  and  was  nearly  2%  times  as  great  in  dollars. 
Table  III,  shown  on  page  742,  Leading  US.  Ex- 
ports and  Imports,  shows  yearly  totals,  whether 
exported  or  imported,  of  each  of  the  items  in  the 


I— U.S.  FOREIGN  TRADE,  BY  MONTHS 

[In  thousands  of  dollars] 


Merchandise 

Exports  and  Re-exports 

General  Imports 

1939           1940 

1939           1940 

January 
February     . 
March 

a?  . 

June    .  . 
July 
August    . 
September 
October 

212,911       370,082 
218,716       347,106 
267,781       350,795 
230,974       322,941 
249,466       323,768 
236,164       350,301 
229,631       316,669 
250,102       350,859 
288,956       295,252 
331,978       343,848 

178,246       241,992 
158,072       200,068 
190,481       216,755 
186,300       212,352 
202,493       211,470 
178,866      211,425 
168,910       232,393 
175,623       220,523 
181,536       194,835 
215,289       206,939 

November 
December 

292,453       327,685 
368,046       322,257 

235,458       223,594 
246,807       253,099 

Twelvemonths 

3,177,176    4,021,564 

2,318,081    2,625,445 

Gold  Exports 

Gold  Imports 

1939           1940 

1939           1940 

January  . 

81               22 

156,427       236,413 

February 

15               53 

223,296       201,475 

March 

53               18 

365,436      459,845 

April 
May 

231               33 
36          3,563 

606,027       249,885 
429,440       438,695 

}une 
uly 

19           1,249 
9                 8 

240,450    1,164,224 
278,645       519,983 

August 

13               10 

259,934       351,563 

September 

15               13 

326,089       334,113 

October 

15               17 

69,740       325,981 

November 

10                6 

167,991       330,113 

December 

11                 3 

451,183       137,178 

Twelve  months 

1,631,523     1,979,458 

3,574,659    4,749,467 

H— SHIFT  IN  CHARACTER  OF  U  S  TRADE 
[Totals  tn  millions  of  dollars] 

EXPOXTS 

Manufactures  Agricultural  Other    Total 

Essen-   Other  Unman-  Other  Crude     U  S 

tial      com-  ufac-     com-  mate-     mer- 

Period            war      mod-  tured     mod-  rtals      chan- 

mate-    ities*  cotton     ities                    ditt 

rials* 

1939 

1st  half     . 

2nd  half 
1940 

1st  half 

2nd  half     . 

1939 

1st  half 

2nd  half 
1940 

1st  half.   . 

2nd  half. . 

•Heavy  iron  and  steel,  non-ferrous  metals,  metal-working 
machinery,  aircraft,  firearms,  and  chemical  products  ^Includes 
non-agricultural  semi-manufactures  and  non-agricultural  finished 
manufactures,  other  than  those  mentioned  in  note  •. 


2936    7489 
4126    8138 

685     1997 
1745    2124 

870    13977 
1124    17257 

6729    8947      1724    1786 
8190    8338        413    1246 
Percentage  Distribution 

1002    20188 
97  1     1915  8 

210      536 
23.9      47  2 

49      143 
10  1      12  3 

62      1000 
65      1000 

333      443 
42  7      43  5 

85        88 
22        65 

50      1000 
5.1      100.0 

Other 
Principal  crude  and    F    j 
Period          strategic     semi-        \^y 
materials  'manufac-     smjjs 
turedi 

manufac-  *m^af** 
lures'    l^nfSon 

1939 

1st  half  ...   . 

1716 

4555 

290.7 

1539 

10717 

2nd  half.    . 

2498 

4985 

313.4 

1427 

1204.4 

1940 
1st  half 

2765 

5418 

301.3 

1236 

12432 

2nd  half 

3795 

5415 

261.2 

1149 

1297.1 

Percentage  Distribution 

1939 
1st  half.. 

160 

425 

271 

144 

1000 

2nd  half,..     . 

20.7 

41.4 

260 

11.8 

100.0 

1940 

222 

436 

242 

99 

1000 

2ndhalf  .'  ' 

29.3 

41.7 

201 

8.9 

100.0 

•Crude  rubber,  raw  silk,  tin,  nickel,  antimony,  and  ferro- 
alloying  ores  &  metals.  *  Includes  burlaps  and  newsprint.  'Ex- 
cludes burlap*  and  newsprint. 


TRADE,  FQREIQH 

IB-LEADING  U.S.  EXPORTS  AND  IMPORTS 


742  TRADE,  FOREIGN 

IV— U.S.  FOREIGN  TRADE,  BY  COUNTRIES 


Clou  o*d  commodity                  %    Millions  of  dollar* 
zoom                      oflotal     1959      1940 
1940 

Exports  (U.S.  mdse.),  total  3,123  3   3,934  7 
Agricultural  total                                131         6551      5169 

I  JfodboMttM;  in  tkatututdt  *J  dollar,  } 

""catotdorTwHW*      1940           1939*      7W0 

Argentina     70,945      106,877         61,914       83,301 
Australia  61,554       75,455         14882       25560 

Cotton,  unmanufactured  54         243.0      213.7 
Grain*  and  preparations  19           99  5       76  4 
Tobacco,  unmanufactured  1.1           77.4       44.0 
Packing-bouse  products  9          54.8       359 
Fruits  and  nuts                                     9           83  2       35  5 

Belgium  64.588       24.977         63290       29239 

BraSi  .::...:::  :  sojS  nSjfss    187350  lostS 

British  India         .   .      42,811       68,428         66,401      102,187 
British  Malaya  9971       15,630       148|967     268331 

Burma     4,065         8.050             426         1  857 

Non-agricultural  total                  .  .      86  9      2  468  3  3  417  8 

Canada  489,103      714,518       339,956     421539 

Machinery  170         5021      6708 

Ceylon  .                           1,602         1,978         20,108       30,401 
Chile       ..     .                26,791       43,428         40,562       64,941 
China  55,614       77,956         61,831       93,001 
Colombia  51,277       51,691         48,983       47,564 
Cuba      ...            .        81,646       84,694       104,930      105,434 
Denmark  ...       .        25,236         5,970           3,794           921 
Dominican  Republic         6,780         6,999           5,824         5,365 
Ecuador....                      5,900         6,412           3,513         4,814 
Egypt  .                           13,853       20,567           7,023         7,284 
Finland     ..            .        13,443       24,367         20,696         5,408 
France     182,089      252,455         62,358       36,566 

Iron  and  steel-mill  products.      ...  131         2357     5160 
Aircraft,  incl  partsand  accessories  .    79         117.8      3118 
Petroleum  and  products         7.9         3851      3102 
Automobiles,  parts,  and  accessories      6.5          253  7      254  3 
Chemicals  and  related  products*    ..56         1628      2219 
Nonferrous  metals  54          1519      2121 

Coal  and  coke          22           667       872 

Cotton  mfrs  .  incl  yarn,  etc.         ..19           68  3        75  9 
Iron  and  steel  advanced  mfrs.     .        1.7           49  8       68  4 
Paper  and  manufactures         ..     ..     1.7           317       664 
Firearms  and  ammunition      .       ..16            50       64  2 
Rubber  and  manufactures  .           .       11           39  4       44  4 
Sawmill  products      ....                        .9           412       36.8 

IMPOSTS 

Imports  for  consumption,  total         .   .  .               2,276  1  2.540  3 
Agricultural,  total    .  .                 .  .     50.6       1,1178  1,285.3 
Crude  materials* 
Crude  rubber  125         1781      3177 
Raw  silk.              .                 .          49         1209      1250 
Wool  and  mohair,  unmanufactured    33           496       84.6 
Hides  and  skins  ».                 .          20           471        502 
Unmanufactured  tobacco                 14           36  9       36  7 
Subtropical  foodstuffs: 
Coffee  .          .   .        .                     50         139  5      126  8 
Cane  sugar  45         1246      1133 

Germany         ...         66,335            156         67,976         5.550 
Gold  Coast       .                2,507         2,437           8,986       15,994 
Greece  6,390         9,767         22,358        12,930 
Haiti  5,128         4,618           3,031         3,618 
Honduras                          5,812         7,291           7,031         9,521 
Hong  Kong             .        18,121        17,387           3,570         3,193 
Iran  (Persia)               .      4,420         6,465           4,380         8,648 
Ireland  .          ...          9,811         8,035           1,672         2,692 
Italy                  .       .      58,864       51,473         39,922       23,607 
Jamaica                             5,930         3,545           1.540          1,501 
Japan               ..           232,184      227,204       161,212      158,376 
Kwantung  .       .       ..     15,751         9,859           1,546         2,096 
Mexico  T          .       .      83,177       96,941         56,266       75,780 
Netherlands  Indies           35,420        53,781         92,971      169,060 
Netherlands 
West  Indies.   .       ..     38,378       21,683         19,723        19,517 
Netherlands           .   ..    97,417       34,023         28,933         8,545 
Newfoundland 
and  Labrador     ....      8,914       10,481           8,641       12,182 
New  Zealand    .       ...     16,544        18,074         11,214         7,968 
Norway          .            .     32,348        14,536         21,687         7,939 
Panama,  Republic  of  .     12,752        19,070           3,582         4,280 
Panama  Canal  Zone        19,862       44,107             479            656 
Peru            19,246       23,123          13,959        17,943 
Philippine  Islands  ..        99,939       93,335         91,927       89,671 
Portugal  10,003        18,146           6,454        11,085 
Spain  26|743       27,042         10,207        14,550 

Fruits  and  nuts                               24           582       609 
Cocoa  or  cacao  beans            .         1.3           27  6       32  1 
Other  agricultural  products 
Vegetable  oils,  expressed     .             22           510       570 
Oilseeds                                    .13           33  2       32  2 
Packing-house  products  7           279        182 
Non-agricultural,  total        .            ..494      1,1583   1,2549 
Paper  and  manufactures    ..          .      52         1268      1326 
Tin  (bars,  blocks,  pigs)                ..      51           706      1283 
Fun  and  manufactures    ...          .      31           55.5       79  8 
Paper  base  stocks             .                  30           884       754 
Copper,  incl  ore  and  manufactures       29           442        735 
Petroleum  and  products                       28           43  5        70  1 
Chemicals  and  related  products0          23           79.5       583 
Burlaps  18           280       455 
Whisky  and  other  spirits                     18           483       447 
Diamonds.                 .                       18           451       446 
Ferro-alloys,  ores  and  metals  .  .      .16           21.4       40  3 
Nickel  and  alloys     14           249       35.2 
Cotton  mfrs  ,  incl  yam,  etc       ..12           39  6       30  8 
Fish,  including  shellfish                        11           32.4        291 
Wool  manufactures,  incl  yarns,  etc       10           256       252 
Flax,  hemp,  and  ramie  manufactures       8           22  4        19  8 

Sweden  98,314       38,558         42,314        17,317 

Switzerland                 .     18,611       22,570         30,615        27,200 
Turkey          .   .          .      8,313         8.274         19,836        13,888 
Union  of  South  Africa     69,145      103,916         28,721       47,338 
Union  of  Soviet  Social- 
ist Republics    ....     56,638       86,943         25,023        20,773 
United  Kingdom  ....  505,404  1,009,623       149,411      155,060 
Uruguay    ..  5,183        11,275           9,375        17,629 

Venezuela    ....             61,966       69,212         23,613       41,645 

•  Trade  with  Austria.  Czecho-Slovakia,  and  Poland  and  Danzig 
has  been  combined  with  Germany  for  both  years. 

V—  TRADE  OF  LEADING  COUNTRIES    1939  • 
(In  old  V  S.  gold  dollars] 

•Includes  a  few  agricultural  items     *  Includes  a  few  non- 
agricultural  items 

customary  classification  of  the  articles  of  com- 
merce. It  displays  some  striking  disparities:  e.g. 
exports  of  firearms  and  ammunition  about  13  times 
as  great  in  value  for  1940  as  for  1939  and  of  to- 
bacco only  four-sevenths  as  great. 
U.S.  trade  with  other  principal  countries  in  1940 
varied  widely  in  value  from  1939's,  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases,  as  appears  in  Table  IV,  US. 
Foreign  Trade,  by  Countries.  The  variation  did 
not  generally  imply  any  like  variation  in  such 
countries'  own  totals  of  foreign  trade.  Rather, 
some  countries  traded  more  with  the  United  States 
because  deprived  of  other  usual  countries'  custom 
and  markets  ;  others,  because  their  needs  as  bellig- 
erents compelled  them  to  depend  more  on  the  U.S. 
market,  even  though  absorption  in  war  caused 
their  general  trade  to  shrink;  and  in  Sweden's 
case,  a  blockade  greatly  reducing  trade  overseas 
had  an  offset  in  heavy  commerce  with  a  great  part 
of  the  European  Continent. 
Table  V,  Trade  of  Leading  Countries:  1940, 
assembles  the  total  imports  and  exports  of  10 

Country                         Imports                   Exports 

United  States                            1,344,400,000           1,845,000,000 
United  Kingdom     ...          .    2,203,600,000           1,158,100,000 
Canada...             ...               419,300,000             590,000,000 
Japan  fc                                  .       444700000              539200000 
Belgium  388,900,000             432,000,000 
Netherlands.     .       ..                   477,600,000              306,200,000 
British  India*      .                        306,300,000             358,700,000 
Australia     .         ..                       252500000              249,300,000 
Sweden                                 .       352,900,000             266,700,000 
Union  of  South  Africa         ..       249,500,000              245,000,000 
Argentina     ....                         208,200,000             274,900,000 

•  Excluding  figures  for  France,  Germany  and  Italy,  which  were 
not  published.    *  Excludes  trade  with  possessions.    'Includes 
Burma. 

(out  of  13)  other  leading  countries  and  that  of 
the  United  States.  The  figures  have  all  been  re- 
duced to  U.S.  dollars,  not  of  the  current  standard, 
but  of  the  pre-1934  gold  standard. 
See  AGRICULTURE;  CUSTOMS,  BUREAU  OF;  Ex- 

TRADE  AGREEMENTS 


743 


TREASURY 


PORT-IMPORT  BANK;  TARIFF  COMMISSION,  U.S. 
See  also  topics  on  various  products. 

TRADE  AGREEMENTS.  See  ARGENTINA, 
URUGUAY,  and  VENEZUELA  under  History;  CUS- 
TOMS, BUREAU  OF;  INTERNATIONAL  LAW  under 
Treaties. 

TRAFFIC  SAFETY.  See  AUTOMOBILES; 
BENEFACTIONS  under  Automotive  Safety  Founda- 
tion 

TRANS-JORDAN.  An  Arab  territory  in  Asia 
Minor,  under  mandate  to  Great  Britain.  Area,  34,- 
740  square  miles ;  population,  312,000  (305,000  Ar- 
abs and  7000  Circassians  and  Chechens).  Chief 
towns:  Amman  (capital),  Es-Salt.  Arabic  is  the 
official  language  and  Mohammedanism  the  domi- 
nant religion.  Education  (1938-39)  :  191  schools 
and  13,854  pupils. 

Production  and  Trade.  To  the  east  of  the 
Hedjaz  railway  the  country  is  largely  desert  but 
to  the  west  the  land  is  fertile  and  suitable  for  agri- 
cultural production  and  for  livestock  raising.  To- 
bacco has  been  successfully  grown  and  the  output 
more  than  meets  the  requirements  of  the  local  fac- 
tories. Phosphate  deposits  have  been  developed  and 
potash  is  found  in  the  Dead  Sea.  The  Trans-Jordan 
section  (213  miles)  of  the  Haifa  to  Bagdad  high- 
way, to  cost  £1,500,000,  was  under  construction 
during  1940. 

Government.  Finance  (1938^39)  :  revenue, 
£P529,615;  expenditure,  £P547,546.  The  territory 
is  part  of  the  British  Palestine  Mandate  but  cer- 
tain clauses  relating  to  the  establishment  of  a  na- 
tional home  for  the  Jews  are  excluded  from  opera- 
tion within  Trans-Jordan.  The  country  is  governed 
by  an  administration  under  the  Emir,  Sir  Abdullah 
ibn  Hussein,  who  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  minis- 
ters. There  is  a  legislative  council  of  16  elected 
and  6  official  members.  A  British  Resident  repre- 
sents the  High  Commissioner  for  Palestine  and 
Trans-Jordan. 

TRANSPORTATION.  See  AERONAUTICS 
under  World  Air  Transport ;  AUTOMOBILES  ;  CAL- 
IFORNIA under  San  Francisco;  INTERSTATE  COM- 
MERCE COMMISSION;  NATIONAL  DEFENSE  ADVI- 
SORY COMMMISSION;  RAILWAYS;  RAPID  TRANS- 
IT; ROADS  AND  STREETS;  SHIPPING;  also  sections 
on  Transportation  under  countries. 

TRANSPORTATION  ACT.  See  RAIL- 
WAYS. 

TRANSVAAL.  See  SOUTH  AFRICA,  UNION  OF. 

TRAVEL.  See  IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRATION, 
AND  NATURALIZATION  ;  NATIONAL  PARK  SERVICE  ; 
PASSPORTS.  For  number  of  persons  entering  the 
United  States  see  CUSTOMS,  BUREAU  OF.  For 
books  on  travel,  see  LITERATURE,  ENGLISH  AND 
AMERICAN. 

TRAVEL  BUREAU,  U.S.  The  growing  im- 
portance of  recreational  travel  is  manifested  by  the 
efforts  of  the  Federal  Government  to  foster  its 
further  development  through  the  U.S.  Travel  Bu- 
reau. The  Bureau  was  established  in  February, 

1937,  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  to  bring 
tinder  one  head  the  existing  travel  promotion  work 
of  the  Interior  Department.  A  branch  office  was 
established  in  New  York  immediately;  a  western 
office  was  set  up  in  San  Francisco  in  the  fall  of 

1938.  The  central  office  is  in  the  Interior  Depart- 
ment in  Washington. 

At  first,  the  Bureau  functioned  mainly  as  a  na- 
tional clearinghouse  for  the  promotional  litera- 
ture of  the  various  States  and  transportation  and 
accommodation  services.  Its  work  quickly  reached 
much  greater  proportions,  and  it  has  now  become 
the  central  co-ordinating  agency  for  the  promo- 


tional work  of  organizations  interested  in  travel. 

Recognition  of  die  need  for  the  kind  of  service 
the  Bureau  carries  on  resulted  in  passage  of  legis- 
lation by  the  76th  Congress  "to  encourage  travel 
in  the  United  States."  This  Act  was  signed  by 
President  Roosevelt  in  July,  1940,  and  the  Bureau 
became  a  permanent  part  of  the  National  Park 
Service. 

The  Bureau  provides  information  to  prospective 
travelers  on  seasonal  recreation,  hunting,  fishing, 
trailer  camps,  and  the  dates  and  locations  of  such 
diversified  attractions  as  Indian  tribal  ceremonies, 
sporting  events  of  all  kinds,  fairs,  historical  cele- 
brations and  pageants,  and  other  events  of  interest 
throughout  the  United  States,  its  Territories,  and 
island  possessions. 

It  distributes,  without  charge,  descriptive  book- 
lets and  maps  to  aid  in  the  planning  of  trips  to  the 
National  Parks  and  other  recreational  areas.  Both 
the  New  York  and  San  Francisco  branches  main- 
tain libraries  of  kodochrome  slides  and  motion 
picture  films  for  the  use  of  schools,  travel  clubs, 
and  other  educational  groups. 

In  co-operation  with  the  private  travel  industry 
and  public  and  governmental  organizations  inter- 
ested in  developing  travel,  the  Bureau  produces: 
Descriptive  literature  depicting,  in  both  black  and 
white  and  full  color  photography,  the  tourist  at- 
tractions of  the  United  States  (some  of  this  will 
be  translated  into  several  languages  for  distribu- 
tion throughout  the  Western  Hemisphere)  ;  radio 
broadcasts  to  dramatize  the  distinctive  features  and 
charm  of  tourist  attractions  throughout  the  Na- 
tion; news  stories  to  bring  constantly  to  the  peo- 
ple's attention  the  recreational  opportunities  avail- 
able to  them;  assistance  in  formulating  State  or 
regional  promotional  programs  for  those  agencies 
requesting  such  service. 

Pioneering  in  travel  research,  the  Bureau  has 
released  valuable  and  hitherto  unobtainable  data 
on  the  size,  value,  and  direction  of  the  recreational 
travel  movement,  and  its  significance  to  the  various 
aspects  of  the  Nation's  life. 

Regular  publications  of  the  Bureau  include :  The 
Official  Bulletin  published  monthly  from  Washing- 
ton and  devoted  to  publicizing  the  work  of  agen- 
cies engaged  in  the  development  of  travel,  provid- 
ing a  forum  for  the  exchange  of  information,  and 
furnishing  accurate  statistics  of  the  travel  move- 
ment ;  Travel  News  from  San  Francisco  describing 
the  outstanding  travel  attractions  and  services  in 
the  western  half  of  the  Nation;  the  Calendar  of 
Event*  listing  the  dates  and  nature  of  the  chief 
travel  attractions  throughout  the  Nation,  published 
semiannually  and  with  a  monthly  supplement ;  oc- 
casional publications  containing  news  or  reports  of 
interest  to  travel  organizations. 

The  Bureau  is  pioneering  in  the  field  of  travel 
statistics.  It  is  compiling  a  body  of  statistical  data 
which  will  show  the  volume  and  flow  of  travel 
and  its  significance  to  the  social,  economic,  and 
physical  welfare  of  the  Nation. 

W.  Bruce  Macnamee  is  Chief  of  the  Bureau; 
Jay  Wingate,  Supervisor,  the  New  York  office; 
J.  Lee  Bossemeyer,  Supervisor,  San  Francisco  of- 
fice, 

W.  BRUCE  MACNAMEE. 

TREASURER,  U.S.  See  FISCAL  SERVICE. 

TREASURY,  U.S.  Department  of  the.  See 
PUBLIC  FINANCE  and  articles  on  the  following  de- 
partments: COAST  GUARD,  U.S.;  CUSTOMS,  BU- 
REAU OF;  FISCAL  SERVICE;  NARCOTICS,  BUREAU 
OF  ;  SECRET  SERVICE  DIVISION. 


TREATIES 


744 


TUNISIA 


TREATIES.  See  INTERNATIONAL  LAW;  also 
countries  under  History. 

TRENOQANU.  See  BRITISH  MALAYA. 

TRINIDAD  AND  TOBAGO.  A  united  Brit- 
ish crown  colony  near  Venezuela,  consisting  of  the 
islands  of  Trinidad  (1862  sq.  mi.)  and  Tobago 
(116  sq.  mi.),  and  adjacent  islands.  Total  area, 
1980  square  miles;  population  (Jan.  1, 1939),  464,- 
889.  Chief  towns:  Port  of  Spain  (Trinidad),  the 
capital,  77,711  inhabitants;  San  Fernando,  15,858; 
Princestown,  5580 ;  Arima,  5613 ;  Scarborough  (To- 
bago), 1515. 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  products  (1939)  : 
petroleum  (2,724,000  metric  tons),  asphalt  (88,421 
tons),  cacao  (8376  tons  exported),  sugar  (92,200 
tons  for  1939-40),  citrus  fruits,  coconuts,  coffee, 
timber,  and  bananas.  Minerals  found  in  small  quan- 
tities include  coal,  iron,  graphite,  gold,  and  gypsum. 
Trade  (1939)  :  imports,  $34,762,954;  exports.  $35,- 
731,557,  including  sugar  ($5,087,030),  cacao  ($1,212,- 
682),  asphalt  ($1.170,585).  The  chief  imports  con- 
sisted of  manufactured  goods,  foodstuffs,  and 
beverages. 

Government.  Budget  (1939)  :  estimated  reve- 
nue, $12,882,274;  estimated  expenditure,  $12,492,- 
1 18.  The  united  colony  was  administered  by  a  gov- 
ernor, assisted  by  an  executive  council.  There  is  a 
legislative  council  of  26  members  including  the 
governor  as  president,  12  official  and  13  unofficial 
members  (of  the  latter,  6  are  nominated  by  the 
governor  and  7  are  elected  by  the  voters).  There 
are  6  electoral  districts  in  Trinidad  and  1  in  To- 
bago. Governor,  Major  Sir  H.  W.  Young  (ap- 
pointed June  20,  1938). 

History.  The  west  coast  of  Trinidad  in  the 
Gulf  of  Paria  was  one  of  the  sites  granted  to  the 
United  States  for  a  naval  and  air  base  under  the 
Anglo-American  agreement  of  Sept  2, 1940.  How- 
ever the  governing  authorities  and  Legislative 
Council  of  Trinidad  objected  to  the  specific  sites 
selected  shortly  afterward  by  United  States  naval 
and  air  experts.  The  Governor  flew  to  Washington 
in  December  to  seek  an  adjustment  and  negotiations 
on  the  issue  were  still  proceeding  at  the  year's  end. 

Meanwhile  Trinidad  gave  its  full  support  to  the 
British  war  effort.  The  Legislative  Council  on 
November  18  contributed  $1,000,000  to  the  Em- 
pire's war  chest  in  addition  to  the  colony's  numer- 
ous volunteers  for  military  service.  Heavy  emer- 
gency taxes  were  levied  to  meet  the  increased 
financial  burden.  See  BRITISH  WEST  INDIES  and 
GREAT  BRITAIN  under  History. 

TRIPOLI.  See  LIBYA. 

TROJAN  HORSE.  See  FIFTH  COLUMN. 

TROTSKY,  Leon.  See  COMMUNISM;  MEXI- 
CO; NECROLOGY. 

TRUCIAL  OMAN.  See  Oman,  Trucial  under 
ARABIA. 

TRUCKS  AND  TRUCKING.  See  AUTO- 
MOBILES; RAILWAYS. 

TUAMOTU  ISLANDS.  See  OCEANIA. 

TUBERCULOSIS.  See  VETERINARY  MEDI- 
CINE. 

TUNGSTEN.  No  shortage  of  this  vital  war 
metal  was  experienced  during  1940,  and  ample  sup- 
ply enabled  the  United  States  to  accumulate  con- 
centrates in  a  stockpile.  Domestic  production  came 
principally  from  California,  Colorado,  Nevada, 
and  this  was  supplemented  by  imports  from  South 
America  and  China.  Purchase  of  Chinese  ore  was 
made  against  substantial  loans  by  the  U  S.  Govern- 
ment. Consumption  was  at  the  rate  of  about  1000 
tons  of  concentrates  per  month,  which  was  much 
higher  than  originally  estimated.  Imports  of  ore 


for  the  first  10  months  of  1940  grossed  7,972,609 
Ib.  The  price  of  tungsten  ore  rose  slightly  during 
the  year,  reaching  the  following  levels  in  Decem- 
ber, 1940,  per  short  ton  unit  of  WO,:  Chinese, 
duty  paid,  f.o.b.  New  York,  $26;  Bolivian  and 
Portuguese  $25  to  $26;  domestic  scheehte,  de- 
livered, carload  lots,  $23.50  to  $24. 

H.  C.  PARMELEE. 

TUNISIA.  A  French  protectorate  in  North 
Africa.  Capital,  Tunis.  With  an  area  of  48,332 
square  miles,  Tunisia  had  a  population  of  2,608,- 
313  at  the  1936  census,  including  2,335,623  Arabs 
and  Bedouins,  59,485  native  Jews,  108,068  French 
citizens,  94,289  Italians,  and  7279  Maltese.  The 
estimated  civilian  population  on  Jan.  1,  1939,  was 
2,700,000.  Italian  census  figures  published  July  22, 
1940,  placed  the  number  of  Italians  in  Tunisia  at 
125,000.  The  1936  census  populations  of  the  chief 
towns  were :  Tunis,  219,578 ;  Sf  ax,  43,333 ;  Sousse, 
28,465;  Bizerte,  25,872;  Kairouan,  22,991.  Mos- 
lems comprise  89.5  per  cent  of  the  total  popula- 
tion. The  school  attendance  on  Dec.  31,  1937,  was 
96.520. 

Production.  The  chief  occupations  are  agri- 
culture, stock  raising,  fishing,  and  mining.  Yields 
of  the  chief  crops  in  1939  were  (in  metric  tons)  : 
Wheat,  505,000;  barley,  350,000;  oats,  30,000; 
olive  oil,  60,000 ;  wine,  988,000  hectoliters  (hecto- 
liter equals  26.42  U.S.  gal.).  The  1937  livestock 
estimates  were  3,372,894  sheep,  507,302  cattle,  144,- 
762  camels,  1,672,352  goats,  109,787  horses,  156,- 
554  asses,  and  56,615  mules.  Output  of  the  chief 
minerals  in  1939  was  (in  metric  tons)  :  Phosphate 
rock,  1,608,045;  iron  ore,  764,731;  lead  ore,  28,- 
280 ;  pig  lead,  23,403 ;  mercury  ore,  1943 ;  zinc  ore, 
903;  fluorspar,  2473.  The  principal  native  manu- 
factures are  woolen  goods,  carpets,  leather  goods, 
and  pottery. 

Foreign  Trade.  For  the  first  six  months  of 
1939  (publication  of  later  statistics  was  suspend- 
ed), imports  amounted  to  849,121,000  francs  (699,- 
477.000  for  the  same  period  of  1938)  and  exports 
to  752,408,000  francs  (720,266,000).  For  the  six 
months'  period  of  1939,  imports  came  chiefly  from 
France,  569,300,000  francs;  Algeria,  44,826,000; 
the  United  States  and  the  United  Kingdom.  Ex- 
ports to  France  were  511,764,000  francs;  United 
Kingdom,  79,871,000;  Italy,  34,722,000;  Algeria, 
20,676,000.  Wheat,  olive  oil,  phosphates,  and  wine 
normally  account  for  half  the  total  exports. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  for  1940  placed  re- 
ceipts at  811,198,000  francs  and  expenditures  at 
810,954,334.  The  receipts  included  new  and  in- 
creased taxes  expected  to  bring  in  76,300,000 
francs.  Public  debt  on  Jan.  1,  1938,  1,009,593,000 
francs  (franc  averaged  $0.0251  in  1939,  $0.0288 
in  1938). 

Transportation.  With  1123  miles  of  line,  the 
Tunisian  State  railways  in  1938  carried  2,153,587 
metric  tons  of  freight.  Highways  extended  7887 
miles  in  1939.  Civil  airlines  connect  Tunis  with 
Poona,  Algiers,  Oran,  and  Casablanca  in  French 
North  Africa,  with  France  and  normally  with 
Italy. 

Government.  Tunisia  is  a  regency  under  the 
control  of  the  French  Foreign  Office,  which  acts 
through  a  Resident-General  who  is  also  Minister 
of  Foreign  Affairs  for  Tunisia.  There  is  a  min- 
istry of  11  departments  (8  French  and  3  Tunis- 
ian). The  nominal  ruler  in  1940  was  Sidi  Ahmed 
Bey.  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  July  10,  1929. 

History.  The  entrance  of  Italy  into  the  Euro- 
pean War  on  June  10,  1940,  and  the  capitulation 


TUNNELS 


745 


TUNNELS 


of  France  to  Germany  soon  afterward  threatened 
to  end  France's  60-year  rule  over  Tunisia.  The 
acquisition  of  the  colony  had  been  a  primary  ob- 
jective of  Italian  foreign  policy  since  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Fascist  regime,  and  its  transfer 
was  demanded  by  Mussolini  in  his  negotiations  of 
1940  with  Hitler  concerning  the  peace  terms  to  be 
imposed  upon  France.  As  a  preliminary  to  annexa- 
tion, the  Franco-Italian  armistice  terms  provided 
for  the  demilitarization  of  the  strong  French  for- 
tifications on  the  Tunisian  side  of  the  Libyan  bor- 
der, carried  out  under  the  supervision  of  an  Ital- 
ian armistice  commission.  See  FRANCE,  GERMANY, 
and  ITALY  under  History. 

Late  in  the  year  Italian  reverses  in  Libya  and 
the  Mediterranean  at  the  hands  of  British  forces 
aroused  French  hopes  of  retaining  Tunisia  and 
reinforced  the  Vichy  Government's  efforts  to  con- 
solidate French  power  in  North  Africa  (see  AL- 
GERIA under  History).  Marcel  B.  Peyrouton  re- 
placed Eink  Labonne  as  Resident-General  on  June 
7,  1940.  Upon  Peyrouton' s  subsequent  inclusion  in 
the  Vichy  Government,  Admiral  Jean  Esteva  be- 
came Resident-General.  On  December  9  Marshal 
Petain  arrived  in  Tunis  for  a  tour  of  inspection, 
which  apparently  was  intended  to  calm  the  mount- 
ing political  unrest  caused  by  economic  difficul- 
ties, the  policies  of  the  Vichy  regime,  and  the 
general  European  situation.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR 
under  Effects  of  the  Fall  of  France 

TUNNELS.  Recent  and  present  tunnel  works 
include  projects  for  water  supply  (domestic  and 
irrigation ) ,  highways,  and  rapid  transit.  The  long- 
est, now  under  way,  is  the  85-mile  tunnel  for 
pumping  a  new  water  supply  to  New  York  City 
from  the  Delaware  River.  It  is  18-ft.  in  diameter 
and  has  been  driven  from  31  shafts.  Its  excavation 
was  93  per  cent  completed  at  the  end  of  1940,  but 
with  the  concrete  lining  and  other  accessory  work 
unfinished  it  is  probable  that  it  will  not  be  put 
into  service  until  1945  With  two  future  extensions 
of  6  and  26  miles  to  other  watersheds  its  ultimate 
length  will  be  117  miles.  Including  the  20-mile 
tunnel  already  in  use  (since  1936)  from  the  new 
terminal  reservoir  to  the  city  reservoir,  there  will 
be  a  continuous  pressure  tunnel  of  137  miles. 

Next  to  the  Delaware  Tunnel  ranks  the  11.3- 
mile  Mono  Craters  Tunnel,  in  California,  form- 
ing a  part  of  the  extensive  water  supply  system  for 
Los  Angeles,  320  miles  distant  This  tunnel,  8  ft. 

8  in.  by  7  ft,  was  completed  in  December,  1940. 
For  an  additional  supply  to  Baltimore,  Md.,  the 
7-mile  Montebello  Tunnel,  completed  in  December, 
is  12  ft.  in  diameter,  with  concrete  lining  on  66  per 
cent  of  its  length,  while  the  remainder  has  a  con- 
tinuous welded  steel  lining. 

Outstanding  among  several  tunnels  for  the  vari- 
ous irrigation  projects  of  the  U.S.  Bureau  of 
Reclamation  (q.y.)  is  the  13-mile  Continental  Di- 
vide Tunnel,  which  was  started  at  its  east  end  in 
April  and  at  its  west  end  in  July.  It  is  a  main 
item  in  the  comprehensive  Colorado-Big  Thomp- 
son project,  and  is  to  pierce  the  Divide  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  range  in  order  to  bring  water 
from  a  reservoir  on  the  western  slope  to  the  valley 
of  the  South  Platte  River  on  the  eastern  slope,  in 
Colorado.  Water  pumped  up  to  the  west  portal 
will  flow  by  gravity  through  the  tunnel,  which  is 

9  ft.  9  in.  in  diameter  inside  the  concrete  lining. 
Work  was  also  begun  in  September  on  the  5%- 
mile  Duchesne  Tunnel  of  the  Provo  River  project 
in  Utah.  Tunnels  completed  by  the  Bureau  in  1940 
numbered  23,  with  an  aggregate  length  of  nearly 
six  miles.  These  included  a  3%-mile  tunnel  for  the 


Yakima  Ridge  main  canal,  and  the  3-mile  Sho- 
shone  Canyon  conduit  on  the  Heart  Mountain 
canal  in  Wyoming.  For  the  30-mile  relocation  of 
the  Southern  Pacific  Railway,  to  put  it  above  the 
water  level  of  the  reservoir  behind  the  Shasta 
Dam,  in  California,  the  Bureau  built  twelve  tun- 
nels aggregating  16,000  ft 

As  to  highway  tunnels,  excavation  of  the  two- 
mile  submarine  tunnel  between  New  York  City 
(at  the  Battery)  and  South  Brooklyn,  was  begun 
October  28,  with  a  blast  set  off  by  President 
Roosevelt  pressing  a  button  at  the  White  House 
in  Washington.  It  is  estimated  to  cost  $57.000,000, 
with  $24,000,000  more  for  the  two  approaches.  The 
tunnel  will  consist  of  two  steel-lined  tubes  31  ft. 
in  diameter,  each  providing  a  21-ft.  roadway.  At 
its  mid-length  there  will  be  a  ventilating  shaft  on 
Governor's  Island.  Of  similar  design  is  the  one- 
mile  Queens-Midtown  Tunnel  under  the  East 
River  at  36th  St.,  New  York.  This  first  highway 
tunnel  under  the  East  River  was  opened  to  traffic 
on  November  15. 

The  work  of  completing  and  enlarging  the  tun- 
nels of  the  South  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  to  serve 
for  a  toll  super-highway  between  Pittsburgh  and 
Harrisburg,  was  finished  in  1940.  The  railway 
project  was  begun  m  1885  but  abandoned  in  1887, 
and  the  State  authorities  acquired  possession  of 
the  unfinished  grade  and  earthworks.  The  seven 
tunnels,  aggregating  nearly  seven  miles,  were  en- 
larged to  about  30  ft  in  width  and  15  ft  in  height 

A  special  type  of  subaqueous  tunnel  is  that  in 
which  a  concrete-lined  steel  tube  or  hull  is  sunk 
in  a  dredged  trench,  connections  with  the  land 
tunnel  approaches  being  made  in  cofferdams  by  the 
aid  of  divers.  The  2000- ft.  Bankhead  Tunnel  at 
Mobile,  Ala.,  was  placed  across  the  river  in  this 
way  in  1940.  It  is  27  ft.  in  diameter,  and  provides 
a  21-ft.  roadway  as  part  of  a  new  toll-road  route. 
Its  land  connections  or  approach  tunnels  are  500 
to  600  ft.  long.  The  welded  steel  tube,  octagonal 
in  shape,  was  built  in  seven  sections,  256  to  298  ft. 
long,  on  launching  ways  in  a  shipyard,  then  taken 
to  a  dry  dock  for  concreting,  and  then  consecu- 
tively floated  and  towed  into  position  and  sunk  into 
a  trench,  where  they  were  connected  end  to  end 
by  divers. 

A  tunnel  of  the  same  length  type  and  length, 
across  the  Maas  River,  at  Rotterdam,  Holland, 
was  under  construction  when  the  war  broke  out, 
but  the  last  section  was  placed  in  December,  1940, 
and  war  conditions  had  not  greatly  delayed  the 
construction.  In  this  case,  the  nine  sections,  each 
about  202  ft.  long,  were  built  mainly  of  reinf orced- 
concrete  and  were  of  rectangular  shape,  81  ft. 
wide  and  27  ft.  high.  There  were  two  passages 
with  20-ft.  roadways  for  vehicles,  and  a  third 
double-decked  passage  for  foot  passengers  on  the 
lower  level  and  bicyclists  on  the  upper  level. 

At  Chicago,  a  tunnel  of  this  kind  was  placed 
across  the  Chicago  River  at  State  St,  as  part  of 
the  new  rapid-transit  subway  system.  Being  only 
200  ft.  long,  it  was  built  and  placed  in  one  com- 
plete section.  The  "tube"  was  sunk  in  place  on 
Dec.  13,  1939,  but  with  the  work  of  connecting  the 
ends  and  putting  in  the  lining  it  was  not  completed 
until  some  months  later.  This  is  Chicago's  second 
tunnel  of  the  same  type.  The  first  was  placed  sev- 
eral years  ago,  when  the  old  LaSalle  St.  masonry 
tunnel  for  a  street-car  line  had  to  be  rebuilt  as  it 
had  become  leaky  and  unsafe.  The  purpose  and  ad- 
vantage of  this  type  of  construction  is  to  provide  a 
tunnel  at  shallow  depth  and  having  short  approach- 
es with  easy  grades.  A  driven  tunnel,  especially  in 


TURBINES 


746 


TURKEY 


soft  material,  would  hare  to  be  at  considerable 
depth,  requiring  longer  and  steeper  approach  in- 
clines. 

The  8%  miles  of  twin  tunnels  for  the  new  rapid- 
transit  subway  system  of  Chicago,  to  be  completed 
in  1941,  are  mainly  in  clav  and  are  at  a  depth  of 
about  45  ft  from  street  level  to  floor  of  tunnel. 
They  are  excavated  mainly  by  hand,  and  under 
pneumatic  pressure,  the  steel  lining  following 
closely  behind  the  excavation  to  hold  the  clay  from 
sliding  and  to  form  the  shape  of  the  tunnel  before 
the  concrete  lining  is  placed.  In  the  Loop  or  busi- 
ness district,  however,  circular  steel  shields  25  ft. 
in  diameter  are  used  in  order  to  hold  the  ground 
against  any  sliding,  as  some  parts  of  the  subways 
are  near — and  below — the  shallow  foundations  of 
large  buildings.  Much  of  the  excavated  material  is 
loaded  into  small  cars  and  sent  out  through  air-locks 
connecting  with  the  small  narrow-gage  freight 
tunnels  of  the  Chicago  Tunnel  Co.,  thus  keeping 
it  clear  of  the  streets. 

The  Transandine  Tunnel,  built  in  Chile  in  1910 
to  connect  the  railways  of  Chile  and  Argentina, 
was  reopened  hi  February,  1940,  after  having  been 
altered  to  provide  for  carrying  motor-coach  traffic. 
The  tunnel  had  been  closed  for  some  years,  as 
earthquakes  had  practically  destroyed  the  approach 
on  the  Chilean  side  and  the  cost  of  reconstruction 
was  prohibitive.  There  is  now  motor-coach  service 
to  connect  the  railways,  and  occasional  trains  are 
run  through  from  the  Argentine  side.  The  summit 
or  high  point  in  the  tunnel  is  10,521  ft.  above  sea 
level. 

Of  a  different  class  from  any  of  the  tunnels  so 
far  mentioned  is  the  Carlton  Drainage  Tunnel  at 
Cripple  Creek,  Colo.,  for  the  drainage  of  the  deep 
levels  of  a  group  of  mines,  thus  permitting  the 
deepening  of  the  mines  It  will  be  six  miles  long, 
exclusive  of  branches,  and  has  been  completed  for 
about  five  miles  It  is  8  x  9  ft.  in  section,  in  a  hard 
granite  formation. 

Rapid  progress  in  tunneling  in  hard  rock  during 
1940  has  broken  all  former  records.  In  the  Dela- 
ware River  water  tunnel  for  New  York  City,  a 
record  of  1862  ft  of  18-ft.  bore  in  31  days  was 
made,  with  an  average  advance  of  60  ft.  per  day. 
In  the  Carlton  drainage  tunnel,  an  advance  of  1879 
ft  has  been  made  in  the  same  time,  with  a  maxi- 
mum of  74  ft  in  one  24-hour  day,  and  an  average 
of  60.6  ft.  per  day.  See  AQUEDUCTS;  RAPID- 
TRANSIT. 

E.  E.  RUSSELL  TRATMAN. 

TURBINES.  See  POWER  PLANTS. 

TURF,  The  final  emergence  of  Seabiscuit  as 
the  greatest  money-maker  of  all  time,  the  selec- 
tion of  Challedon  as  the  outstanding  horse  of  the 
year,  and  the  successful  establishment  of  mutuel 
betting  in  New  York  State  were  the  three  most 
important  headlines  in  the  history  of  horse-racing 
during  1940. 

By  winning  the  Santa  Anita  Handicap  in  March, 
Seabiscuit  boosted  his  earnings  to  a  total  of  $437,- 
740,  thereby  surpassing  the  figure  of  $376,744  by 
which  Sun  Beau  held  the  record  as  the  champion 
money-horse.  The  old  saving  that  money  makes 
money  was  reflected  in  the  stud  fees  of  the  re- 
spective horses — Seabiscuit  was  quoted  at  $2500, 
Sun  Beau's  price  was  only  $500. 

On  the  whole,  it  was  not  an  exciting  year  for 
turf  fans.  While  Challedon  was  selected  by  the 
sportswriters  as  the  greatest  horse  of  the  year, 
there  were  many  who  felt  the  choice  to  be  un- 
justified. A  number  of  beasts  made  claim  to  the 


distinction— among  them  Level  Best,  Nasca,  Whirl- 
away,  Our  Boots,  Miolond,  Bimelech,  Fenelon, 
Fairy  Chant,  Your  Chance,  Gallahadion,  Eight 
Thirty.  Can't  Wait,  Cottesmore,  and  Seabiscuit. 

Challedon  got  a  comparatively  late  start,  but 
managed  to  win  five  of  seven  races  for  combined 
yearly  earnings  of  $70,600.  Most  of  his  winnings 
came  from  the  Hollywood  Gold  Cup  and  Pimlico 
Special,  simple  races  both;  and  he  experienced 
great  difficulty  in  beating  J  so  later,  an  unimpressive 
horse,  in  the  Whitney  Stakes  at  weight  for  age. 

Bimelech  was  generally  conceded  the  champion 
among  three-year-olds  on  the  basis  of  perform- 
ance ;  but  there  were  some  who  felt  that  Fenelon, 
inactive  early  in  the  year  because  of  a  cough,  was 
the  better  of  the  two.  Fenelon  captured  the  Travers 
at  Saratoga  and  the  Lawrence  Realization  and  the 
Jockey  Club  Gold  Cup  at  Belmont  Park.  Mioland 
triumphed  in  the  Westchester  Handicap  at  Empire 
City.  However,  the  retirement  of  Bimelech  with 
a  bruised  heel  certainly  made  it  easier  for  his  rivals 
to  ride  to  fame. 

Among  two-year-olds,  the  choosing  of  a  cham- 
pion was  a  hopelessly  confusing  task.  At  Saratoga, 
after  starring  in  the  Hopeful,  it  appeared  that 
Whtrlaway  was  in  a  class  all  by  himself.  But  at 
Aqueduct  King  Cole  was  easily  supreme;  and  at 
Belmont  Park  Our  Boots  beat  all  of  them  in  the 
Futurity,  richest  race  in  the  world  for  two-year- 
olds.  Subsequently,  in  the  Pimlico  Futurity,  Bold 
Irishman  was  the  victor,  beating  Our  Boots  by  a 
nose,  with  Whirlaway  ending  third. 

The  field  of  three-year-old  fillies  produced  no 
undisputed  champion  either.  Damaged  Goods  took 
the  Acorn  and  the  Coaching  Club  American  Oaks, 
severest  test  for  this  division.  Thereafter  she  failed 
to  distinguish  herself,  and  Fairy  Chant  was  the 
leading  money-maker,  with  $46,750  for  the  season. 

Level  Best  and  Cottesmore  were  outstanding 
thoroughbreds  of  the  year.  Besides  being  the  best 
young  filly  of  the  season,  Level  Best  was  able  to 
beat  colts  when  occasion  was  presented.  In  the 
steeplechasing  division,  Cottesmore  was  supreme. 

Following  establishment  of  mutuel  betting,  at- 
tendance at  horse  races  in  New  York  State  reached 
a  peak  of  more  than  2,000,000  for  the  year.  Wagers 
totaled  $103,000,000,  and  the  State's  profit  was 
$6,000,000. 

TURKEY.  A  republic  comprising  parts  of  Asia 
Minor  and  the  Balkan  peninsula  as  well  as  Imbros, 
Teredos,  and  die  Rabbit  Islands  in  the  Aegean 
Sea.  Capital,  Ankara  (Angora). 

Area  and  Population.  The  area,  including  the 
Sanjak  of  Alexandretta  (Hatay  Republic)  but 
excluding  452  square  miles  of  marshes  and  3256 
square  miles  of  lakes,  is  296,346  square  miles  (13,- 
012  in  Europe  and  283,334  in  Asia).  The  Sanjak 
of  Alexandretta  (area,  1930  square  miles;  pop., 
about  228,000)  was  ceded  to  Turkey  by  France  on 
June  23,  1939.  The  population  of  Turkey  at  the 
census  of  October,  1940,  was  17,869,901  (16,158,- 
018  at  the  1935  census).  Populations  of  the  chief 
cities  in  1940  were:  Istanbul,  789,346  (741,148  in 
1935) ;  Ankara,  155,544  (122,720  in  1935).  The  1935 
populations  of  other  cities  were:  Izmir  (Smyrna), 
170,959;  Seyhan  (Adana),  76,473;  Bursa  (Brusa), 
72,148;  Konya,  52,093;  Gazi  Antep,  50,965. 

National  Defence.  Military  service  is  com- 
pulsory. The  peace-time  strength  of  the  Turkish 
army  is  about  180,000  men,  but  the  number  under 
arms  was  increased  during  1939  and  1940  to  near 
the  limit  of  750,000.  It  is  equipped  with  Czecho- 
slovak, German,  Polish,  British,  and  Turkish  ar- 
maments—not  the  most  modern.  At  the  beginning 


TURKEY 


747 


TURKEY 


of  1940,  the  air  force  had  about  700  well-trained 
pilots,  about  7500  in  other  ranks,  and  575  first- 
line  and  400  second-line  planes.  The  navy  in  1940 
consisted  of  the  rebuilt  German  battle  cruiser 
Goeben  (Turkish  name,  Yavus)  of  22,500  tons, 
2  small  obsolete  cruisers.  4  destroyers,  6  sub- 
marines, and  various  smaller  craft. 

Education  and  Religion.  Illiteracy  was  esti- 
mated at  55  per  cent  of  the  adult  population  in 
1935,  but  only  2,517,878  were  literate  in  the  Latin 
alphabet,  introduced  in  1928.  Students  enrolled  in 
1937-38:  Primary,  764,691;  secondary,  74,107;  ly- 
c6es,  21,000;  normal  schools,  2807;  professional 
schools,  7574;  universities  and  other  institutions 
of  higher  learning,  9558.  At  the  census  of  1935 
there  were  15,838,673  Moslems,  125,046  Orthodox 
Christians,  78,730  Jews,  32,155  Roman  Catholics, 
44,526  Gregorians,  11,229  Armenians,  8586  Prot- 
estants, and  12,967  adherents  of  other  religions. 
There  is  no  State  religion. 

Production.  Four-fifths  of  the  population  is 
supported  by  agriculture  Yields  of  the  chief  crops 
in  1939  were  (in  metric  tons) :  Wheat,  4,607,900; 
barley,  2,295,200 ;  rye,  426,300 ;  oats,  295,400 ;  corn, 
714,100;  rice,  84,200;  potatoes,  168,600  in  1938; 
beet  sugar,  94,500  in  1939-40;  tobacco,  56,500; 
cotton-seed,  134,500  in  1938;  sesamum,  25,700  in 
1938;  olive  oil,  33,800  in  1938;  cotton,  66,300  in 
1938;  raw  silk,  27,000  in  1938.  The  1938  wool  clip 
was  31,300  metric  tons.  Livestock  as  of  Jan.  1, 
1939:  23,138,450  sheep,  9,310,966  cattle,  885,117 
buffaloes,  11,329,241  goats  (exclusive  of  4,945,351 
mohair  goats),  1,489,699  asses,  964,245  horses, 
113,895  camels. 

Output  of  the  chief  minerals  in  1939  was  (in 
metric  tons)  :  Cement,  274,742;  iron  ore,  143,277; 
borocite,  14,699;  chrome  ore  (mineral  content), 
about  97,000;  zinc,  14,424;  lead,  10,392;  emery, 
9528 ;  lead  and  zinc  mixed,  8007 ;  manganese,  3339 ; 
sulphur,  2601;  magnesite  (raw),  435;  antimony, 
1280.  There  were  also  produced  359  flasks  of  mer- 
cury and  335  cases  of  meerschaum.  There  were 
65,245  industrial  establishments  with  256,855  em- 
ployees in  1936.  Since  then  there  has  been  carried 
out  an  industrialization  program  under  which  tex- 
tile mills,  coking  and  steel  and  blast-furnace  works, 
paper  mills,  a  glass  factory,  sulphur  plant,  and 
various  other  factories  were  placed  in  operation. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1940  were  valued 
at  68,922,700  Turkish  pounds  (£T  118,248,934  in 
1939) ;  exports,  £T111,446,500  (£T127,388,997  in 
1939).  Due  to  the  higher  level  of  prices  in  1940, 
the  shrinkage  in  the  volume  of  trade  was  greater 
than  indicated  in  trade  values.  Turkish  imports  in 
1940  came  principally  from  Italy,  £T11,224,300; 
Rumania,£T10l806,000;UnitedKmgdom,£T9,665,- 
300;  Germany,  £T8,083,000 ;  United  States, 
£T7,446,900.  Of  the  1940  exports,  Italy  took  £T17,- 
951,300;  United  States,  m5,738,740 ;  Rumania, 
£T11,987,200;  United  Kingdom,  £T11,550,900; 
Germany,  £T9,686,500. 

Finance.  Ordinary  budget  estimates  for  1940- 
41  (June  1-May  31)  placed  receipts  at  £T268,481,- 
000  (£T261,110,000  in  1930-40)  and  expenditures 
at  £T268,476,321  (£T261, 064,192).  In  1938-39,  to- 
tal actual  receipts  were  £T326,783,891  (ordinary, 
£T257,392,772).  Public  debt  on  Mar.  31,  1939, 
£T619,400,000  (funded,  331,700,000;  floating,  287,- 
600,000),  compared  with  £T553,600,000  on  May 
31,  1938.  Average  exchange  value  of  the  Turkish 
pound,  $0.8011  in  1938,  $0.8024  in  1939. 

Transportation.  Turkish  railway  mileage  in- 
creased from  2533  miles  in  1924  to  4578  in  1939; 
of  the  1939  total,  4309  miles  were  government- 


owned.  An  additional  461  miles  of  government  line 
were  under  construction  in  1940.  Revenue  of  the 
State  lines  in  1938-39  was  £136,486,396 ;  passen- 
gers numbered  23,227,908.  Direct  railway  connec- 
tions with  Basra  on  the  Persian  Gulf  were  provid- 
ed in  1940  with  the  opening  of  the  last  section  of 
the  Baghdad-Mosul  line  in  Iraq  (q.v.).  Highways 
extended  25,656  miles  in  1939.  In  August,  1939, 
there  were  four  air  services  covering  1114  miles  of 
route.  During  June,  1940,  only  343  ships  of  849,- 
233  net  tons  entered  the  port  of  Istanbul  as  com- 
pared with  756  of  1,549,246  net  tons  entered  during 
June,  1939.  Istanbul  handles  about  three-fourths 
of  the  total  shipping  trade  of  the  country. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  Jan.  20, 1921, 
as  amended  in  1924  and  1934,  vests  executive  and 
legislative  power  in  the  Grand  National  Assembly, 
consisting  of  424  deputies  elected  for  four  years  by 
universal  male  and  female  suffrage.  The  Assembly 
exercises  executive  power  through  the  President, 
elected  for  four  years  by  the  Assembly,  and  through 
the  Council  of  Ministers,  chosen  by  the  President 
In  practise  the  President  wields  dictatorial  pow- 
ers. President  in  1940,  Gen.  Ismet  Inonu,  who  was 
elected  to  succeed  President  Kemal  Ataturk  on 
Nov.  11,  1938,  and  re-elected  Apr.  3,  1939.  The 
People's  party,  the  only  legal  political  organiza- 
tion, in  December,  1938,  elected  President  Inonu 
as  President  General  of  the  party  for  life.  The 
cabinet  appointed  Jan.  25,  1939,  and  reorganized 
Apr.  4,  1939,  was  headed  by  Dr.  Refik  Saydam  as 
Premier. 

HISTORY 

Throughput  1940  the  threat  of  Turkey's  in- 
volvement in  the  rapidly  spreading  European  War 
(q.v.)  grew  steadily  greater.  The  diplomatic  and 
political  bulwarks  that  Turkey  counted  upon  to 
strengthen  its  security  and  safeguard  its  independ- 
ence were  shattered  one  after  another.  Most  im- 
portant of  these  bulwarks  from  the  Turkish  point 
of  view  was  the  long  Soviet-Turkish  friendship. 
This  had  been  weakened  during  1939  by  the  So- 
viet-German non-aggression  pact  and  subsequent 
conclusion  of  Turkish  alliances  with  Britain  and 
France  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939,  p.  769).  Early  in 
1940  Soviet-Turkish  relations  came  near  the  break- 
ing point  and  throughout  the  remainder  of  the  year 
Turkish  action  in  dealing  with  Germany,  Italy, 
and  the  other  European  powers  was  guided  pri- 
marily by  the  fear  of  a  Russian  attack. 

The  Turks  believed  Moscow  would  seize  upon 
Turkish  involvement  in  the  European  struggle  to 
regain  the  districts  of  Kars  and  Ardahan  on  the 
Caucasus  frontier,  annexed  by  Turkey  under  the 
Treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk.  Before  Hitler  took  the 
initiative  in  the  Balkans  and  blocked  Russia's  path, 
the  Turks  also  anticipated  a  Soviet  diplomatic- 
military  drive  through  Rumania  and  Bulgaria  to 
gain  control  of  the  Straits.  This  double  threat 
from  Moscow  held  the  Turks  inactive  in  the  face 
of  developments  calculated  to  bring  them  into  the 
war  on  the  side  of  the  Allies. 

When  Italy  declared  war  on  Britain  and  France 
on  June  10,  Turkey  invoked  the  escape  clause  in 
its  Anglo-French  alliances  and  remained  "non- 
belligerent." The  Turks  refused  to  budge  from 
their  position  when  Rumania  was  partitioned  and 
converted  into  a  German  vassal  and  the  Balkan 
Entente  (q  v )  nullified.  They  refused  to  inter- 
vene when  German  troops  poured  into  Rumania 
and  prepared  for  the  military  occupation  of  Bul- 
garia; when  Mussolini  launched  his  attack  upon 
Turkey's  closest  ally,  Greece;  and  when  Axis  in* 


TURKEY 


748 


UGANDA 


ftaence  infiltrated  into  Syria,  threatening  to  cut 
Turkish  land  communications  with  the  British  ar- 
mies in  Palestine  and  Egypt.  However  as  the  Axis 
menace  to  the  Balkans  and  Turkey  grew,  estrange- 
ment developed  between  Germany  and  Russia  that 
promised  to  abolish  the  Soviet  threat  to  Turkey. 
At  the  end  of  1940,  the  Turks  appeared  confident 
of  obtaining  Moscow's  pledge  of  non-intervention 
in  a  Turkish-Axis  conflict  Some  Turkish  quarters 
even  hoped  for  Soviet  aid  against  the  Axis.  This 
made  it  probable  that  the  Turks  would  take  a  firm- 
er stand  against  the  German  advance  in  the  Bal- 
kans and  the  eastern  Mediterranean  in  1941. 

War  Preparations.  Throughout  1940  the 
Turks  repeatedly  affirmed  their  determination  to 
resist  any  power  that  attacked  their  borders,  and 
extensive  preparations  were  made  to  make  good 
this  pledge.  Parliament  on  January  18  conferred 
far-reaching  emergency  powers  upon  the  govern- 
ment under  a  National  Defense  Law,  and  these 
powers  were  placed  in  effect  February  19.  Ex- 
penditures for  armaments  were  repeatedly  in- 
creased. Hours  of  labor  in  factories  engaged  on 
defense  contracts  were  raised  from  nine  to  12 
in  the  spring.  The  armed  forces  were  steadily 
expanded.  Plans  for  Turkish  military  collabora- 
tion with  Britain  and  Greece  were  worked  out. 
Air  raid  precautions  were  taken  in  Istanbul  and 
other  exposed  cities.  Numerous  measures  were 
taken,  such  as  government  control  of  all  cereals 
and  cereal  prices,  to  place  the  economic  system  on 
a  war  basis. 

The  Turkish  war  preparations  were  materially 
aided  by  Allied  credits  and  other  assistance.  An 
agreement  signed  with  Britain  and  France  Jan.  8, 
1940,  provided  new  loans  of  £25,000,000  and  264,- 
750,000  francs,  respectively,  of  which  £25,000,000 
was  to  be  spent  for  armaments  in  Britain  and 
France.  An  additional  £2,000,000  was  set  aside  to 
cover  overdue  payments  to  British  exporters.  An- 
other £15,000,000,  in  gold,  was  received  from  the 
Allies  late  in  January  to  stabilize  the  Turkish  cur- 
rency. These  subsidies  raised  to  about  $352,000,000 
the  aid  advanced  by  the  Allies  in  consideration  of 
the  Turkish  alliance  of  Oct.  19,  1939.  On  Feb.  3, 
1940,  Turkey  also  concluded  an  advantageous  trade 
agreement  with  Britain.  Another  Anglo-Turkish 
financial  and  economic  accord  was  announced  De- 
cember 4. 

The  Spring  Crisii.  With  the  support  of  the 
Allies,  Turkey  sought  early  in  1940  to  convert  the 
Balkan  Entente  into  an  alliance  designed  to  pre- 
vent either  Soviet,  German,  or  Italian  penetration 
of  the  Balkans.  It  also  attempted  to  bring  Bulgaria 
into  an  agreement  on  this  basis.  On  February  1  the 
Turkish  Foreign  Minister  declared  that  Turkey 
"is  not  neutral  but  merely  out  of  the  war"  and 
that  it  was  "necessary  to  take  all  measures  to  pre- 
vent the  flames  from  spreading."  Rumania  and 
Yugoslavia,  however,  were  under  strong  pressure 
from  the  Axis  and  rejected  the  Turkish  sugges- 
tion. The  Turks  took  independent  action  on  Febru- 
ary 8  to  curb  German  activities  in  Turkey.  The 
German-owned  Krupp  shipyards  on  the  Bosporus 
were  seized  without  warning  and  on  February  9 
100  German  technicians  employed  in  Turkish  ar- 
mament industries  were  dismissed. 

Immediately  afterward  heavy  reinforcements 
reached  the  Anglo-French  armies  in  the  Middle 
East  and  an  acute  crisis  developed  between  Turkey 
and  the  Soviet  Union.  Moscow  apparently  feared 
that  the  Allies  were  preparing  to  cut  off  German 
oil  supplies  by  *  drive  into  the  Russian  Caucasus 
Turkey,  while  the  Turks  feared  a  Soviet 


attack.  On  February  21  hundreds  of  Russian  tech- 
nical experts  employed  in  Turkish  industries  un- 
der a  Soviet-Turkish  agreement  were  suddenly 
called  back  to  Moscow.  Soviet  trade  and  econom- 
ic agencies  in  Turkey  were  closed.  There  were 
troops  concentrations  and  some  incidents  along  the 
Caucasus  frontier,  and  on  February  24  the  Turk- 
ish Supreme  Defense  Council  declared  a  state  of 
emergency  throughout  the  country.  This  crisis  was 
tided  over,  apparently  as  a  result  of  Turkish  as- 
surances to  Moscow  that  Turkey  would  not  enter 
the  war  on  the  side  of  the  Allies  without  Russian 
consent. 

Another  Soviet-Turkish  crisis  developed  in  June 
when  Moscow  served  its  ultimatum  on  Rumania 
(q.v.).  The  Turks  sent  a  naval  squadron  into  the 
Black  Sea  on  June  27  and  made  intensive  prepara- 
tions to  meet  an  anticipated  Soviet  demand  for 
control  of  the  Straits.  This  situation  was  reversed 
when  Rumania  aligned  itself  with  Germany  and 
German  troops  entered  Rumania,  blocking  a  Sovi- 
et advance  into  Bulgaria  and  Turkey.  Negotiations 
were  opened  for  healing  the  breach  between  Mos- 
cow and  Ankara,  and  these  discussions  were  facili- 
tated by  Japan's  adherence  to  the  Axis  on  Septem- 
ber 27.  In  view  of  the  lessening  of  the  Soviet 
threat,  and  the  resurgence  of  British  military  and 
naval  power  in  the  Mediterranean  area  toward  the 
end  of  the  year,  the  Turks  firmly  resisted  German 
diplomatic  efforts,  aided  by  economic  inducements, 
to  detach  them  from  their  British  alliance  and 
obtain  their  peaceful  acceptance  of  the  Axis-domi- 
nated "new  order"  in  Europe. 

See  AFGHANISTAN,  BULGARIA,  GERMANY,  GREAT 
BRITAIN,  GREECE,  IRAN,  IRAQ,  RUMANIA,  SYRIA 
AND  LEBANON,  and  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST 
REPUBLICS,  under  History ;  COMMUNISM  ;  EARTH- 
QUAKES 

TURKMENIAN  SOVIET  SOCIALIST 
REPUBLIC.  See  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST 
REPUBLICS  under  Area  and  Population. 

TURKS  AND  CAICOS  ISLANDS.  See 
JAMAICA. 

TUTUILA.  See  SAMOA. 

TV  A.  See  TENNESSEE  VALLEY  AUTHORITY. 

TYPOGRAPHICAL  UNION,  Interna- 
tional. See  AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR. 

TYPOGRAPHY.  See  NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAG- 
AZINES. 

UBANGI-SHARI.  See  FRENCH  EQUATORIAL 
AFRICA. 

UGANDA.  A  British  protectorate  in  East  Af- 
rica. Area,  93,981  square  miles;  population  (1939), 
3,745,165,  including  3,725,798  natives,  17,256  Asi- 
atics, and  2111  Europeans.  Education  (1938)  :  269,- 
343  students  attending  schools  of  all  kinds. 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  products :  cot- 
ton (1,318,522  metric  tons  of  cotton  and  85,042 
long  tons  of  cottonseed  exported  during  1939) , 
coffee,  sugar,  hides  and  skins,  salt,  tin,  gold  (15,- 
281  02.  valued  at  £118,139  in  1939).  Livestock 
(1937)  :  2,609,146  cattle,  2,541,077  goats,  1,405,549 
sheep.  Uganda  and  Kenya  form  a  single  unit  for 
customs  purposes.  Trade  (1939)  :  imports  (Kenya 
and  Uganda),  £8,942,436;  exports  (Uganda  only), 
£3,956,047.  In  addition  to  the  above  there  is  an  in- 
terchange of  imported  and  locally  produced  goods 
among  Kenya,  Tanganyika,  and  Uganda. 

Government.  Finance  (1938)  :  revenue,  £1,863,- 
863;  expenditure,  £2,060,199;  public  debt,  £2,235,- 
600.  The  protectorate  is  administered  by  a  gover- 
nor who  is  aided  by  an  executive  council  of  7 
members,  and  a  legislative  council  of  10  members 
(6  official  and  4  nominated  unofficial).  Cover- 


UKRAINIAN  NATIONALIST 


749 


U.S.S.R. 


nor.  Sir  Charles  Dundas  (appointed  July,  1940). 

History.  European  and  native  troops  from 
Uganda  participated  in  the  fighting  alonf  the  Ken- 
ya-Italian East  Africa  frontier  following  Italy's 
entrance  into  the  European  War  in  1940  (see 
EUROPEAN  WAR  under  Campaigns  in  Africa).  The 
war  also  brought  about  increased  political  and 
economic  co-operation  among  Kenya,  Tanganyika, 
and  Uganda  and  the  other  British  East  African 
colonies.  See  KENYA  under  History. 

UKRAINIAN  NATIONALIST  MOVE- 
MENT. See  POLAND  under  Situation  in  Russian 
Poland. 

UKRAINIAN  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  RE- 
PUBLIC. See  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  RE- 
PUBLICS under  Area  and  Population. 

ULSTER.  See  IRELAND,  NORTHERN. 

UN-AMERICAN  ACTIVITIES.  See  DIES 
COMMITTEE. 

UNEMPLOYMENT.  See  LABOR  CONDI- 
TIONS ;  LABOR  LEGISLATION  ;  WORK  PROJECTS  AD- 
MINISTRATION. 

UNEMPLOYMENT  INSURANCE  AND 
COMPENSATION.  See  LABOR  LEGISLATION; 
SOCIAL  SECURITY  BOARD;  ALASKA  and  CANADA 
under  History. 

UNFAIR  TRADE  PRACTICES.  See  FED- 
ERAL TRADE  COMMISSION. 

UNFEDERATED  MALAY  STATES.  See 
BRITISH  MALAYA. 

UNICAMERAL  LEGISLATURE.  See 
NEBRASKA. 

UNION  ISLANDS  (TOKELAU).  See 
NEW  ZEALAND  under  Area  and  Population. 

UNION  NOW.  Federal  Union,  Inc.  (formerly 
Inter-democracy  Federal  Unionists),  Union  House, 
10  East  40th  Street,  New  York  City,  sprang  up 
early  in  1939  to  work  for  a  union  of  free  peoples, 
the  nucleus  of  a  democratic  world  government,  as 
outlined  by  Clarence  K.  Streit  in  his  book,  Union 
Nozv,  which  suggested  that  a  beginning  be  made 
by  a  federal  union  of  the  United  States.  United 
Kingdom,  France,  Eire,  Canada,  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  Union  of  South  Africa,  Norway,  Swe- 
den, Denmark,,  Netherlands,  Belgium,  Switzerland, 
and  Finland. 

Delegates  of  several  local  "committees  of  cor- 
respondence" met  at  Union  House  (then  a  two- 
room  apartment),  July  15,  1939,  and  set  up  na- 
tional organizing  and  executive  committees.  A 
monthly  magazine  (now  Federal  Union  World) 
already  had  appeared.  A  speakers'  bureau  was  es- 
tablished. 

The  three  major  radio  networks  had  invited  Mr. 
Streit  to  speak.  The  Carnegie  Endowment  had  dis- 
tributed 1000  copies  of  Union  Now  to  editors 
and  international  relations  groups  in  universities. 
Speaking  engagements  carried  Mr  Streit  from 
coast  to  coast  on  the  first  of  several  long  tours. 
Leading  magazines  brought  home  to  millions  the 
responsibility  of  unrestricted  national  sovereignty 
for  an  ungoverned  world. 

Early  in  1940,  the  American  Institute  of  Public 
Opinion  estimated  that  2,000,000  United  States 
voters  favored  "Union  Now"  and  4,000,000  more 
a  European  federation. 

The  actual  paid  membership  numbered  approxi- 
mately 5000  in  December,  1940.  There  were  also 
60  chartered  local  chapters.  Obviously,  the  prin- 
ciple of  international  federation — not  new,  but 
given  an  unprecedented  impetus  by  "Union  Now" 
—continues  to  run  far  ahead  of  organizational  ef- 
fort; and  nothing  comparable  to  federation,  in 
prestige  and  proved  efficiency,  is  being  discussed 


anywhere  as  a  means  of  re-implementing  interna- 
tional order. 

By  the  close  of  June,  1940,  Hitler  had  reduced 
the  "original  fifteen"  democracies  mentioned  by 
Streit  in  his  Union  Now,  to  seven.  Accordingly, 
Mr.  Streit  in  July,  1940,  launched  a  daring  adver- 
tising campaign  with  a  full  page  in  The  New  York 
Times.  These  advertisements  urged  immediate  pro- 
visional union  with  Britain  and  included  a  "Dec- 
laration of  Inter-dependence."  Thousands  of  "sign- 
ers of  the  Declaration"  came  forward,  and  thou- 
sands of  contributions  were  received.  No  money  is 
accepted  from  any  foreign  source.  Since  Oct.  29, 
1940,  the  proposal  of  immediate  provisional  union 
with  the  democracies  of  the  British  Common- 
wealth of  Nations  has  been  the  official  short-term 
policy  of  Federal  Union,  Inc. 

Radio  time  was  secured  for  a  series  of  broad- 
casts by  Robert  Sherwood,  Edmond  Taylor,  John 
BalderstorL  Clare  Boothe,  William  Jay  Schieffelin, 
Madame  Genevieve  Tabouis  and  other  notables. 
Subsequently,  addresses  by  Andre  Maurois  and 
Lewis  Mumford,  among  others,  were  transcribed. 
By  December,  1940,  over  60  stations  in  31  different 
States  were  devoting  free  sustaining  time  to  this 
series. 

A  second  book  by  Clarence  Streit,  Union  Now 
with  Britain,  was  announced  by  Harper's  for 
early  1941  publication.  Federal  Union's  first  or- 
ganized financial  campaign,  with  a  $250,000  goal, 
was  also  announced,  just  before  the  close  of  1940. 

Officers  of  Federal  Union,  Inc.,  include  Clarence 
K.  Streit,  chairman ;  E.  W.  Balduf ,  director ;  P. 
F.  Brundage,  secretary ;  John  Howard  Ford,  treas- 
urer; A.  J.  G.  Priest  of  Reid  and  Priest,  coun- 
sel. National  Committee:  Frank  Aydelotte,  P.  F. 
Brundage,  Russell  Davenport,  Henry  S.  Dennison, 
James  E.  Downes,  Mrs.  Richard  T.  Fisher,  John 
Howard  Ford,  Mrs.  Thomas  W.  Lament,  Gordon 
Mannerstedt,  Arnaud  C.  Marts,  Mrs.  Grenville  D. 
Montgomery,  David  S.  Muzzey,  Walter  W.  Pettit, 
A.  J.  G.  Priest,  Melvin  Ryder,  William  Jay  Schief- 
felin, and  Clarence  K.  Streit  Nearly  200  distin- 
guished men  and  women  comprise  the  Council  of 
Advisers. 

Similar,  wholly  independent  organizations  exist 
in  Great  Britain,  Eire,  Canada,  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  Argentina,  and  Switzerland. 

UNION  OF  SOUTH  AFRICA.  See  SOUTH 
AFRICA,  UNION  OF. 

UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  RE- 
PUBLICS  (U.S.S.R.).  A  state  comprising  the 
greater  part  of  the  former  Russian  Empire.  Capi- 
tal, Moscow. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  as  of  Aug. 
31,  1939,  was  about  8,200,000  square  miles  (73  per 
cent  in  Asia  and  27  per  cent  in  Europe).  The  cen- 
sus of  Jan.  17,  1939,  showed  a  population  of  170,- 
467,186  (88,802,205  females  and  81,664,981  males), 
compared  with  147,027,915  at  the  1926  census.  The 
urban  population  at  the  1939  census  was  55,909,- 
908;  rural,  124,557,278.  In  addition,  there  were 
added  to  the  U.S.S.R.  through  the  annexation  of 
eastern  Poland  in  September,  1939,  about  75,650 
square  miles  of  territory  and  some  12,800,000  in- 
habitants, according  to  Soviet  estimates,  divided  as 
follows:  Western  Ukraine,  41,650  square  miles 
and  8,000,000  inhabitants ;  Western  White  (Byelo) 
Russia,  34,000  square  miles  and  4,800,000  inhabit- 
ants. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  European  War,  the  So- 
viet Union  was  composed  of  11  Union  Republics 
which  in  turn  included  22  autonomous  republics 
and  9  autonomous  provinces  as  well  as  lesser  sub- 


U.S.S.R. 


750 


V.8.8.R. 


divisions.  The  various  autonomous  units  repre- 
sented the  principal  national  groups  in  the  Union, 
of  which  were  were  nearly  200.  The  subsequent 
addition  of  five  members  brought  the  number  of 
the  union  republics  up  to  16.  The  five  new  mem- 
bers were  formed  mainly  out  of  freshly  acquired 
territories.  For  capitals,  areas  and  populations  of 
the  16  union  republics,  see  accompanying  table 
USS.R.:  Constituent  Republics  and  Populations. 

U.S.S.R.:  CONSTITUENT  REPUBLICS  AND 
POPULATIONS 


Capitol*     Sq  Kilometers  Populations 


l.—Cr«iiid  before  1939 


Russian  S.F.S.R.  .. 
White  (Byelo)  Russian 

S  S  R. 

Ukrainian  S.S.R 

Azerbaijan  S.SR... 
U«bekS~SR.  .  . 
Armenian  S.S.R.  . 
Georgian  SS.R.... 
Turkmenian  S  S  R. 
Tadjik  SSR... 

Kazakh  SS.R 

Kirghiz  S.SR      .  . 

?  — Cratod  1939-40 
Karelo-Ffnnish  S  R. 
Moldavian  S  S.R   . 
Latvian  S  S  R.       ... 
Lithuanian  S  S  R 
Estonian  S  S  R 


Moscow 

Minsk 

Kiev 

Baku 

Tashkent 

Erevan 

Tbilisi 

Ashkhabad 

Staiinabad 

AlmaAta 

Frunze 

Petrozavodsk 
Tiraspol 


16,510,500    109,278,614 


Vifna 
Tallinn 


234,800 

533,300 

86,000 

378,300 

30,000 

69,600 

443,600 

143,900 

2,744,500 

196,700 

196,000 
52,900 
65,791 
52,822 
47,549 


10,300,000 
38900,000 
3,209,727 
6,282,446 
1,281,599 
3,542,289 
1,253,985 
1,485.091 
6145,937 
1,459,301 

463,100* 
3,200.000 
1,950,000 
2,880,000 
1,120.000 


*  Without  estimate  of  inhabitants  remaining  in  ceded  Finnish 
area 

The  populations  of  the  29  leading  cities  at  the 
1926  and  1939  censuses,  with  the  percentage  in- 
creases for  that  period,  were  as  follows : 

POPULATIONS  OF  CITIES.   1926  AND  1939 

__ 


City 


Dee.  17, 1926     Jan.  17.1939 


Moscow  

2,029,425 

4.137.018 

203.9 

Leningrad  ....     .... 

1  690,065 

3  191.304 

188.8 

*£?*     :  .: 

Kharkov  .    

513,637 
417,342 

'846293 
833,432 

1648 
199.7 

Baku  

453,333 

809,347 

178.5 

Gorky  

222,356 

644,116 

2897 

Odessa     
Tashkent  .. 
Tbilisi  

420,862 
323,613 
294,044 

604,223 

585,005 
519,175 

1436 
1808 
176.6 

Rostov-on-Don    .   . 
Dnepropetrovsk  .... 
Stahno          

308,103 
236,717 
174.230 

510,253 
500,662 
462,395 

1656 
211.5 
265.4 

Stalingrad   .  *  *     r.  ,  . 

151,490 

445,476 

294  1 

Sverdlovsk  .. 
Novosibirsk  

140,300 
120,128 

425,544 
405,589 

3033 
3376 

Kazan     

179,023 

401,665 

2244 

175,636 

390,267 

222.2 

Saratov        
Voronezh    
Yaroslavl  . 
Ivanovo  , 
Archangel  . 
Omsk^         ..       .. 
Chelyabinsk 
Tula.. 
Mfnsk  . 
Vladivostok  
SUlinak  
Kirov  

219,547 
121,612 
114,277 
111,460 
76,774 
161.684 
59,307 
155,005 
131,803 
107.980 
•   3  894 
62,097 

375,860 
326,836 
298,065 
285,069 
281,091 
280,716 
273,127 
272,403 
238,772 
206,432 
169,538 
143,181 

1712 
2687 
2608 
255.8 
3661 
1736 
460.5 
175.7 
181.2 
191.2 

'230i6 

Education.  During  the  two  decades  ending  in 
1937,  illiteracy  was  reported  to  have  declined  from 
677  per  cent  to  less  than  8  per  cent.  In  the  aca- 
demic year  1940-41,  pupils  attending  elementary 
and  secondary  schools  numbered  about  36,765,000. 
There  were  about  1,200,000  students  in  technical 
schools  and  workers'  faculties;  about  1,800,000 
children  in  nurseries  and  kindergartens,  exclusive 
of  5,700,000  children  placed  in  collective  farm 
nurseries  and  kindergartens  during  harvest  sea- 
son ;  and  550,000  or  more  students  in  781  universi- 
ties and  colleges.  In  the  spring  of  1938,  106,700 


students  were  graduated  from  schools  of  higher 
education  and  160,000  new  students  enrolled  in 
universities.  There  were  563,000  teachers  appoint- 
ed to  elementary  and  secondary  school  positions  in 
the  R.S.F.S.R.  alone  in  1938.  Education  is  a 
charge  against  each  of  the  16  Union  Republics 
and  against  the  localities  concerned.  Expenditures 
on  education,  23,326  million  rubles  for  1940,  ex- 
ceeded by  one-eighth  those  for  1939. 

Production,  etc.  In  the  Soviet  Union  trans- 
port and  communications  are  conducted  a*  Federal 
departments.  Banking  is  centralized  in  a  State 
Bank  under  government  control.  Distribution  is 
socialized,  with  retail  trade  in  the  cities  conducted 
mainly  by  local  administrative  bodies  and  in  the 
villages  by  consumer  co-operatives.  Industrial  pro- 
duction is  carried  on  largely  by  State  enterprises, 
operating  under  the  general  direction  of  appropri- 
ate Commissariats  (government  departments).  A 
State  Planning  Commission  (Gosplan)  plots  the 
objectives  for  each  year  and  for  five-year  periods. 
An  Economic  Council  acts  as  a  co-ordinative 
body.  An  organization  in  the  Commissariat  of 
State  Control  checks  and  supervises  results. 

State  planning  is  an  essential  of  Soviet  econo- 
my. The  planning  system  is  designed  to  direct  and 
co-ordinate  the  employment  of  the  energies  and  re- 
sources of  the  country  for  orderly  development 
The  planning  system,  however,  goes  beyond  the 
economic  field  It  includes  science,  education,  pub- 
lic health,  and  the  extensive  social  services  de- 
signed to  safeguard  the  welfare  and  security  of 
the  citizenship. 

Under  this  system  the  work  of  Gosplan  has  as- 
sumed a  position  of  primary  importance.  Its  per- 
sonnel in  Moscow  includes  a  considerable  number 
of  permanent  specialists  re-enforced  by  consult- 
ants who  are  authorities  in  every  field  Under  the 
central  body  each  Constituent  Republic  has  its 
Gosplan,  and  there  are  subordinate  planning 
boards  in  the  various  cities. 

The  third  Five- Year  Plan  (see  1938  YEAR  BOOK 
for  programs  of  first  and  second  Five- Year  Plans) 
was  begun  Jan.  1,  1938.  Schedules  for  the  first 
year  envisaged  an  increase  in  the  industrial  output 
of  155  per  cent  and  commensurate  increases  in 
other  lines. 

Industry.  Year-to-year  increase  in  industrial 
production  was  thus  reported  •  1939,  14.7  per  cent ; 
1938,  11.3 ;  yearly  total  industrial  production,  137% 
billion  rubles  for  1940,  as  against  95%  for  1937. 
Output  of  162  billions  was  intended  for  1941.  The 
output  of  the  chief  industries  in  1938  was:  Elec- 
tric power,  132,600,000,000  kilowatt-hours;  coal, 
132,900,000  metric  tons;  peat,  26.450,700  metric 
tons ;  oil,  32,230,000  metric  tons ;  pig  iron,  14,600,- 
000  metric  tons;  steel,  17,700,000  metric  tons;  ce- 
ment, 5,696,000  metric  tons ;  trucks,  184,000  units ; 
tractors,  32,200  units;  cotton  cloth,  3,491,000,000 
meters;  woolen  goods,  114,000,000  meters;  foot- 
wear, 213,000,000  pairs;  sugar,  2,500,000  metric 
tons.  Average  daily  carloadings  were  88,000  cars. 
For  comparative  figures  for  1935,  1936,  and  1937, 
see  1938  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  737. 

Agriculture.  Since  1928  the  structure  of  agri- 
culture has  been  completely  reorganized.  The 
small,  individual  peasant  holdings,  averaging  12 
to  14  acres,  have  in  large  measure  given  way  to 
large-scale  collective  farms  in  which  the  peasants 
pool  their  acreage.  (Each  collective  farm  family, 
however,  has  its  own  garden  plot  and  domestic 
farm  animals.)  This  new  set-up  has  made  possible 
better  organized  methods  of  production  with  a 
high  degree  of  mechanization.  The  transition  was 


UAS.R. 


751 


effected  largely  during  the  years  1929-33.  In  1929 
less  than  4  per  cent  of  the  peasant  households 
were  represented  in  the  collective  farms;  by 
Jan.  I,  1938,  the  percentage  had  risen  to  93.5. 
There  were  244,000  collective  farms  averaging 
about  1200  acres  in  1938.  Some  800,000  peasant 
households  still  worked  individual  holdings.  In  ad- 
dition, large  State  farms  operated  about  12  per 
cent  of  the  sown  area. 

For  1940  the  total  area  sown  to  crops  was  re- 
ported as  152,662,000  hectares;  the  harvest  of 
grain,  as  121,600,000  metric  tons.  For  comparison 
with  earlier  years,  see  accompanying  table  Sown 
Area  and  Grain  Harvest. 

SOWN  AREA  AND  GRAIN  HARVEST 


countries :  Great  Britain,  375,124  and  240,309  thou- 
sand rubles,  respectively:  United  States,  96,749, 
and  405,858;  Germany,  88,327  and  67.193;  China 
(except  Mongolia),  44,148  and  68,461;  Nether- 
lands, 92,848  and  102,535. 


ATM  of 

Area  of 

Grain 

all  crops 
(hectares  «) 

grain  crops 
(hectares  •) 

production 
(metric  tons) 

1913 
1931     . 
1936  . 
1937 

.   .         105,000,000 
..     136,300,000 
....     133,800,000 
135,300,000 

94,400,000 
104,400.000 
102,400,000 
104400000 

80,100,000 
69,480,000 
82,700.000 
120  290  000 

1938.  . 

139,900,000 

102,400,000 

94,900,000 

•  Hectare  equals  2  47  acres, 

Gram  exports,  in  metric  tons,  averaged  10,553,- 
000  annually  for  the  years  1909-13  and  were 
5,057,000  in  1931,  332,000  in  1936,  1,278,000  in  1937, 
and  2,080,000  in  1938. 

PRINCIPAL  INDUSTRIAL  CROPS 

1936  1937  1938 

Cotton           met  tons        778,100  854.600  840,000 

Sugar  beets          do          16,830,000  21,860,000  16,680,000 

Flax                    do              580,000  570,000  546,000 

The  backbone  of  mechanization  in  Soviet  agri- 
culture is  furnished  by  the  machine  and  tractor 
stations,  each  of  which  serves  collective  farms 
within  its  area.  These  stations  grew  from  158  in 
1930  to  6350  in  1938.  The  number  of  tractors  on 
farms  increased  from  66,332  in  1929  to  483,500  in 
1938 ;  the  number  of  combines,  from  45  in  1929  to 
153,500  in  1938. 

Transportation.  Length  of  railway  lines  in 
1937  was  53,700  miles,  nearly  50  per  cent  greater 
than  in  1913.  Railway  freight  carried  in  1940  was 
reported  to  have  attained  409  billion  ton-kilome- 
ters; passengers,  1,178,000,000  persons.  The  length 
of  Soviet  air  lines  in  1937  was  79,250  miles;  in 
that  year  they  carried  235,000  passengers  and  46,- 
900  metric  tons  of  mail  and  freight.  See  ROADS 
AND  STREETS  for  highways.  The  length  of  inland 
waterways  is  about  248,000  miles,  of  which  65,826 
miles  are  navigable.  In  1938  they  carried  66,600,- 
000  metric  tons  of  freight  (66,900,000  in  1937). 

Shipping.  The  Soviet  merchant  marine  had  a 
gross  tonnage  of  1,280,900  on  June  30,  1938  (1,258- 
200  on  June  30,  1937).  The  total  freight  carried 
(including  coastwise  freight)  amounted  to  35,500,- 
000  metric  tons  in  1937.  See  SHIPPING. 

Foreign  Trade.  The  Soviet  Union  exported  to 
the  United  States,  in  the  calendar  year  1940,  mer- 
chandise to  the  value  (U.S.)  of  $22,274,000  and 
imported  from  the  United  States  $82,092,000.  The 
Soviet  Union's  total  yearly  exports  and  imports 
of  1938  and  earlier  appear  in  an  accompanying 
table.  Foreign  commerce  in  the  Soviet  Union  is  a 
governmental  monopoly  exercised  by  the  Commis- 
sariat of  Foreign  Trade  which  maintains  trading 
agencies  abroad.  Imports  and  exports  are  regulat- 
ed in  accordance  with  the  country's  system  of 
planned  economy. 

Exports  and  imports  of  1938*  to  and  from  chief 


SOVIET  FOREIGN  TRADE 


Imports 

Exports 

(1,000 

(1,000 

Imports 

Exports 

Year 

rubles') 

rubles') 

VJ,000*) 

W.OOO*) 

1935     .  . 
1936     . 
1937     .  . 
1938     .  . 

.     1,057,200 
1,352,535 
1,341,255 
1,422,882 

1,609.300 
1,359,104 
1,728,634 
1,331,927 

209,264 
270,507 
268,251 
261,757  • 

318,534 
271,821 
345,727 
250,751 

•  In  rubles  nominally  equal  to  20  U  S  cents.  *  U.S  currency 
dollars.  « Provisional 

Finance.  In  a  country  as  highly  socialized  as 
the  Soviet  Union  the  growth  of  the  budget  reflects 
to  a  large  extent  the  degree  of  economic  progress. 
The  first  "firm"  budget,  that  of  1924-25,  balanced 
at  32,700,000  rubles.  For  the  calendar  year  1941, 
in  millions  of  rubles,  revenue  was  estimated  at 
216,200  and  expenditure  at  215,400,  including  70,- 
900  for  defense ;  for  1940,  revenue  at  183,954,  ex- 
penditure 179,913,  defense  57,066;  for  1939,  reve- 
nue 155,607,  expenditure  153,100,  defense  40,885. 
The  State  Bank,  only  bank  of  issue  and  center  of 
the  financial  system,  had  16,000,000  depositors 
with  deposits  of  4,500,000,000  rubles  on  Dec.  1, 
1937. 

Government.  Under  the  Constitution  of  1936 
supreme  political  power  is  vested  in  the  Supreme 
Soviet  of  the  U.S.S.R.,  meeting  twice  a  year,  and 
elected  for  a  period  of  four  years  by  universal 
direct  suffrage  and  with  secret  ballot.  The  Su- 
preme Soviet  consists  of  two  legislative  chambers 
with  equal  rights.  The  two  chambers  in  joint  ses- 
sion elect  a  Presidium  of  the  Supreme  Soviet  con- 
sisting of  37  members,  including  a  president,  16 
vice-presidents,  and  a  secretary,  with  wide  admin- 
istrative powers  between  sessions  of  the  Supreme 
Soviet,  including  ratification  of  treaties  and  dec- 
laration of  a  state  of  war.  The  Presidium  super- 
vises the  work  of  the  Council  of  the  People's 
Commissars,  selected  by  the  Supreme  Soviet, 
which  acts  as  the  executive  and  administrative  or- 
gan of  the  State. 

Generally  considered  the  most  powerful  person- 
ality in  Russia,  Joseph  Stalm,  general  secretary  of 
the  Communist  party  of  the  U.S  S.R.,  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Presidium  of  the  Supreme  Soviet  and 
of  the  Supreme  Military  Council.  The  Communist 
party  is  the  only  legal  political  party,  and  all  can- 
didates for  elective  office  must  have  its  approval. 
The  Council  of  People's  Commissars  (Ail-Union) 
was  composed  as  follows  at  the  end  of  1940: 
Chairman  and  Commissar  for  Foreign  Affairs, 
Viacheslav  M.  Molotov ;  vice-chairman,  also  chair- 
man of  the  Defense  Committee,  Klementi  E  Vo- 
roshilov;  Commissar  of  Defense,  Semyon  Timo- 
shenko;  Foreign  Trade,  Anastase  I.  Mikoyan; 
Railways,  Lazar  M.  Kaganovich;  Communica- 
tions, Ivan  T.  Peresipkin;  Sea  Transport,  Semen 
S.  Dukelsky;  River  Transport,  Zosim  A.  Shash- 
kov;  Electric  Power  Stations,  Andrei  Letkov; 
Electrical  Industry,  Vassili  Bogatyrov;  Ferrous 
Metallurgy,  Ivan  Tevosyan;  Non-Ferrous  Metal- 
lurgy, Petr  Lomako;  Chemical  Industry,  Mikhail 
F.  Denisov;  Aeronautical  Industry,  Shakhurin; 
Shipbuilding,  Ivan  Nosenkp;  Munitions,  Ivan  P. 
Sergeyev ;  Armaments,  Boris  L.  Vannikov ;  Heavy 
Machine  Building,  Alexander  Efremov;  Medium 
Machine  Building,  Ivan  A.  Likhachev;  General 
Machine  Building,  Peter  I.  Parshin;  Navy,  Niko* 


U.S.SJt 


752 


U.&S.R. 


lai  G.  Kuznetsov;  Procurement,  Sergei  E.  Skrin- 
nikov;  Construction,  Semen  Z.  Ginzburg;  Oil  In- 
dustry, Ivan  Sedin;  Coal  Industry,  Vasily  V. 
Vakhrushev. 

Other  People's  Commissars  and  officials  were: 
Food,  Vassili  P.  Zotov;  Fisheries,  Alexander  Ish- 
kov ;  Meat  and  Dairy  Products,  Pavel  V.  Smir- 
nov;  Light  Industry,  Sergei  G.  Lukin;  Textiles, 
Ilya  Akimov;  Timber,  Fedor  Sergey ev;  Agricul- 
ture, Ivan  A.  Benediktov;  State  Grain  and  Live- 
stock Farms,  Pavel  P.  Lovanov;  Finance,  Ar- 
seni  G.  Zverev;  Trade,  Alexander  Lubimov;  In- 
ternal Affairs,  Lavrenti  P.  Beria;  State  Security, 
Fedor  Merkulov;  Justice,  Nikolai  Richkov;  Pub- 
lic Health,  Georgi  A.  Miterev;  Building  Materi- 
als, Leonid  A.  Sosnin;  Paper  and  Cellulose,  Nik- 
olai Cheboratev;  Chairman  of  the  Presidium  of 
the  Supreme  Soviet,  Mikhail  Kalinin;  Chairman 
of  the  State  Planning  Commission,  Saburov; 
Chairman  of  the  State  Bank  Administration,  Nik- 
olai Sokolov;  Commissar  of  State  Control,  Lev 
Mekhlis;  Chairman  of  the  Supreme  Court,  Ivan 
T.  Golyakov;  Procurer,  Victor  Bochkov. 

HISTORY 

Russia  and  the  European  War.  The  year 
1940  witnessed  a  gradual  transformation  in  Soviet 
foreign  policy  from  active  diplomatic  and  eco- 
nomic collaboration  with  Germany  to  indirect  op- 
position and  veiled  hostility.  This  change  was  dic- 
tated by  the  world-shaking  military  and  political 
developments  in  Europe  that  left  Hitler  the  vir- 
tually undisputed  master  of  the  Continent ;  also  by 
the  extension  of  the  Rome-Berlin  military  alli- 
ance on  September  27  to  include  Tokyo.  Moscow 
was  thus  faced  with  the  danger  of  a  concerted  at- 
tack by  Germany  and  Japan,  supported  by  Italy 
and  other  Fascist  powers,  once  Britain  was  de- 
feated. Moreover  the  Axis  advance  in  the  Bal- 
kans, which  made  rapid  headway  after  the  Ger- 
man victories  on  the  Western  Front,  excluded  the 
Soviet  Union  from  an  area  traditionally  under 
strong  Russian  influence,  and  threatened  to  block 
Russia's  outlet  to  the  Mediterranean  through  the 
Straits. 

These  developments  led  Moscow  during  the  lat- 
ter half  of  1940  covertly  to  encourage  Balkan  re- 
sistance to  Nazi  Germany's  "new  order"  in  Eu- 
rope, while  continuing  limited  economic  co-opera- 
tion with  ^  the  Reich.  The  Soviet  Government 
sought,  without  openly  antagonizing  Hitler,  to 
prolong  the  European  conflict  and  thus  weaken 
Germany  and  Britain  so  that  neither  could  threat- 
en Russia  nor  effectively  oppose  the  expansion  of 
communism. 

The  Allied  Threat.  As  a  result  of  the  Ger- 
man-Soviet non-aggression  pact  of  Aug.  24,  1939, 
the  Soviet  Government  early  in  1940  found  itself 
in  imminent  danger  of  embroilment  with  the  Al- 
lies. By  the  Soviet-German  pact,  Moscow  had 
succeeded  in  diverting  German  military  power 
westward  against  Britain  and  France.  It  had 
seized  half  of  Poland  without  participating  in  the 
European  conflict,  and  had  obtained  from  Hitler 
the  free  hand  for  expansion  in  the  Baltic  States 
that  the  Allies  had  been  unwilling  to  grant.  With 
German  assent,  the  Russians  had  extorted  Baltic 
naval  and  air  bases  from  Estonia,  Latvia,  and 
Lithuania  and  made  similar  demands  upon  Fin- 
land. Finland's  rejection  of  these  demands  pro- 
voked the  Russian  invasion  beginning  Nov.  30, 
1939  (see  YEAH  BOOK,  1939,  p.  773  f.).  The  Rus- 
so-Finnish  War,  which  revealed  unexpected  weak- 
nesses in  Soviet  military  organization  and  leader- 


ship, was  still  in  progress  at  the  beginning  of  1940. 

Hoping  to  obtain  a  foothold  in  Scandinavia  for 
a  flank  attack  upon  the  Reich,  as  well  as  to  check 
Soviet  expansion  to  the  North  Atlantic,  the  Al- 
lied Governments  early  in  1940  attempted  to  se- 
cure Norwegian  and  Swedish  consent  to  the  dis- 
patch of  an  expeditionary  force  to  aid  Finland. 
They  also  sent  substantial  quantities  of  war  sup- 
plies to  the  Finns.  At  the  same  time,  the  Allies 
brought  pressure  upon  Russia,  which  constituted 
the  greatest  leak  in  the  Allied  blockade  of  Ger- 
many, to  curtail  shipments  of  food,  oil,  and  other 
vital  supplies  to  the  Reich.  Moreover  strong  An- 
glo-French forces  were  concentrated  in  Syria, 
Palestine,  and  Egypt.  Moscow  feared  that  these 
forces  might,  with  Turkish  support,  launch  a 
drive  into  the  Caucasus  oil  fields  in  order  to  cut 
off  Soviet  oil  shipments  to  Germany. 

Peace  with  Finland.  The  danger  of  being 
forced  into  a  reluctant  war  partnership  with  the 
Reich  explained  Moscow's  readiness  to  end  the 
struggle  with  Finland,  even  after  the  shattering 
of  the  Mannerhcim  Line  had  exposed  the  exhaust- 
ed Finnish  armies  to  complete  destruction  (see 
EUROPEAN  WAR  under  The  Finnish  Campaign ; 
FINLAND  under  History). 

The  peace  treaty  of  March  12  gave  the  Russians 
the  strategic  positions  and  bases  they  had  previ- 
ously demanded  from  Finland,  as  well  as  several 
slices  of  Finnish  territory.  With  the  exception  of 
a  small  area  added  to  Leningrad,  this  newly  ac- 
quired territory  on  Mar.  31,  1940,  was  added  to 
the  Karelian  Soviet  Socialist  Republic.  The  latter 
republic  was  then  renamed  the  United  Karelo- 
Finnish  Socialist  Republic  and  raised  to  the  status 
of  a  constituent  member  of  the  Union  The  so- 
called  Terijoki  Government,  the  puppet  regime 
recognized  by  Moscow  on  Dec.  1, 1939,  as  the  gov- 
ernment of  all  Finland,  was  repudiated  for  the 
time  being.  However  the  Soviet  Government  dem- 
onstrated by  its  subsequent  pressure  upon  Finland 
(q.v.)  that  it  had  not  abandoned  hope  of  bringing 
the  entire  country  under  Soviet  domination. 

Effect  of  German  Victories.  The  Soviet 
press  justified  the  German  invasion  of  Denmark 
and  Norway  in  April,  since  this  ended  the  threat 
of  Allied  intervention  in  Scandinavia  and  tempo- 
rarily exposed  Finland  to  the  full  weight  of  So- 
viet pressure.  Moscow  likewise  tacitly  approved 
of  the  German  attack  upon  the  Low  Countries  in 
May.  But  the  sensational  German  victories  in  Bel- 
gium and  France,  the  collapse  of  France,  and  the 
prospect  of  an  early  British  capitulation  shattered 
the  Kremlin's  belief  in  a  long  and  exhausting  Al- 
lied-German struggle.  The  quick  German  triumph 
eliminated  all  danger  to  the  Soviet  Union  from 
the  Allies  for  the  time  being.  But  it  confronted 
Moscow  with  an  all-powerful  Reich,  free  to  em- 
ploy formidable  armies  for  the  "drive  to  the  east" 
that  Hitler  had  forecast  in  Mein  Kampf.  All  the 
small  anti -Soviet  States  of  eastern  and  northern 
Europe^— Finland,  Slovakia,  Hungary,  Rumania, 
Bulgaria,  and  even  Sweden—openly  or  tacitly 
threw  in  their  lots  with  Germany  to  avoid  the  fate 
of  Norway,  the  Netherlands  and  Belgium  and  as 
an  alternative  to  acceptance  of  Soviet  "protection" 
and  domination. 

Rumanian  Territories  Annexed.  The  Soviet 
Government  hastened  to  seize  the  seemingly  short 
interval  before  British  resistance  would  be  crushed 
to  improve  its  strategical  and  military  defenses 
against  the  Reich.  Initiation  of  the  Franco- 
German  armistice  on  June  25  was  followed  im- 
mediately by  a  Soviet  ultimatum  to  Rumania,  de- 


U.8.8.R. 


753 


U.S.8.R. 


manding  the  return  of  Bessarabia  and  the  cession 
of  Northern  Bukovina.  The  Rumanian  Govern- 
ment, fearing  a  simultaneous  attack  by  Hungary 
and  Bulgaria,  yielded  on  June  28.  On  July  1  Rus- 
sian troops  occupied  the  ceded  territories. 

In  some  places  the  Red  Army  pressed  beyond 
the  boundaries  of  the  newly  occupied  provinces. 
Clashes  with  Rumanian  forces  took  place  and  So- 
viet occupation  of  the  entire  kingdom  appeared 
imminent.  This  was  averted  by  the  establishment 
of  a  Nazi  regime  in  Rumania  and  by  German,  Ital- 
ian, and  Hungarian  opposition  to  a  further  Rus- 
sian advance,  confirmed  later  by  an  Axis  guaran- 
tee of  the  new  Soviet-Rumanian  frontier.  Thus  in 
Rumania  German  and  Soviet  ambitions  came  into 
open  collision  for  the  first  time  since  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  Soviet-German  pact  See  RUMANIA 
under  History. 

The  major  part  of  Bessarabia  was  merged  with 
the  Moldavian  Autonomous  Soviet  Socialist  Re- 
public on  August  2  to  form  the  Moldavian  Soviet 
Socialist  Republic.  The  remainder  of  Bessarabia, 
together  with  Northern  Bukovina,  was  incorpo- 
rated in  the  Ukrainian  Soviet  Socialist  Republic. 

Absorption  of  Baltic  States.  Meanwhile  the 
Soviet  Government  proceeded  with  the  subjuga- 
tion of  the  Baltic  States — Estonia,  Latvia,  and 
Lithuania — for  which  the  groundwork  had  been 
prepared  in  the  autumn  of  1939.  Demands  for  the 
free  passage  of  Russian  troops  and  the  formation 
of  pro- Soviet  governments  were  made  on  June  16- 
17.  Without  waiting  for  acceptance  of  these  de- 
mands, the  Red  Army  overran  the  three  unresist- 
ing countries.  Communist-dominated  governments 
were  set  up  which  repressed  all  anti-Soviet  ele- 
ments and  on  July  14-15  held  controlled  elections. 
These  produced  pro- Soviet  parliaments,  pledged 
to  the  incorporation  of  the  three  republics  into  the 
Soviet  Union.  Lithuania,  Latvia,  and  Estonia  were 
admitted  into  the  U.S.S.R.  as  constituent  repub- 
lics by  decrees  of  August  3,  5,  and  6  respectively. 
In  September,  all  three  republics  were  merged  in- 
to one  military  district.  See  ESTONIA,  LATVIA,  and 
LITHUANIA,  under  History,  for  full  details. 

Negotiations  with  Britain  and  United 
States.  These  territorial  annexations  by  the  Sovi- 
et Union  inflamed  anti-Soviet  sentiment  in  Britain 
and  the  United  States,  and  produced  new  tensions 
in  their  relations  with  Moscow.  Both  countries 
"froze"  the  securities  owned  by  the  subjugated 
Baltic  countries  and  their  citizens,  and  detained 
some  40  ships  under  Estonian,  Latvian,  and  Lith- 
uanian registry,  which  were  in  British  and  Ameri- 
can ports  at  the  time  of  the  Russian  military  oc- 
cupations. 

Acting  Secretary  of  State  Sumner  Welles  on 
July  22  publicly  denounced  the  Soviet  Govern- 
ment's action,  declaring  that  the  independence  and 
territorial  integrity  of  the  Baltic  countries  had 
been  "deliberately  annihilated"  by  "devious  proc- 
esses." Premier  Molotoy  responded  on  August  1 
by  attacking  the  "freezing"  of  Baltic  properties 
in  the  United  States  as  illegal.  Reaffirming  Rus- 
sia's claim  to  all  Baltic  properties,  he  accused  the 
United  States  of  "imperialist  designs"  on  British 
and  other  European  possessions  in  the  Americas. 

Despite  their  suspicion  and  hostility  toward  So- 
viet policy,  both  the  British  and  American  gov- 
ernments sought  to  win  Soviet  co-operation  in  re- 
straining further  German  expansion  in  the  Bal- 
kans and  Japanese  expansion  into  Southeastern 
Asia.  These  discussions  were  carried  on  through- 
out the  latter  part  of  the  year  in  Moscow,  Wash- 
ington, and  London  without  producing  decisive  re- 


sults beyond  Russia's  refusal  to  accept  Hitler's 
offer  of  full  participation  in  the  Axis  program  for 
a  new  world  order.  See  GREAT  BRITAIN  under  His- 
tory. 

Meanwhile  on  August  6  the  Soviet-American 
commercial  agreement  of  Aug.  4,  1937,  was  ex- 
tended for  still  another  year.  The  Soviet  Govern- 
ment undertook  to  purchase  American  goods  to 
the  value  of  at  least  $40,000,000  during  the  ensuing 
12  months.  The  United  States  reserved  the  ri$ht 
to  restrict  export  of  items  needed  in  connection 
with  its  rearmament  program.  However  Wash- 
ington subsequently  permitted  the  export  to  Rus- 
sia of  some  machine  tools  and  also  authorized  the 
chartering  of  some  American  tankers  to  the  So- 
viet Government. 

Axis  Inducements.  Germany  and  Japan  en- 
tered into  competitive  bidding  with  Britain  and 
the  United  States  for  Soviet  diplomatic  and  eco- 
nomic support.  The  Germans  offered  territorial 
concessions  to  Russia,  reportedly  at  the  expense 
of  Turkey,  Iran,  Afghanistan,  and  the  British  Em- 
pire, for  Soviet  co-operation  or  neutrality  during 
an  Axis  drive  into  the  Balkans  and  during  a  Jap- 
anese attack  upon  British,  French,  and  Dutch  pos- 
sessions in  Southeastern  Asia.  The  German  offer 
was  reinforced  by  the  shifting  of  a  large  part  of 
the  German  army  from  Western  Europe  to  Ru- 
mania during  October.  The  Russo-German  nego- 
tiations were  climaxed  by  the  visit  of  Premier 
Molotov  to  Berlin  at  Hitler's  invitation  on  No- 
vember 12-14.  For  the  Russo-Japanese  negotia- 
tions, see  CHINA  and  JAPAN  under  History. 

Subsequent  developments  indicated  that  the  So- 
viet leaders  had  refused  to  commit  themselves  to 
participation  in  the  Axis  program,  beyond  some 
intensification  of  economic  interchange  agreed  up- 
on in  a  new  trade  pact  signed  late  in  the  year.  At 
the  same  time  agreement  was  reached  for  the 
transfer  to  Germany  of  the  remaining  German- 
speaking  inhabitants  of  the  Baltic  States  and  for 
the  exact  definition  of  the  Russo-German  border 
from  the  Baltic  to  the  Hungarian  frontier.  In  De- 
cember Berlin  officials  declared  Soviet-German 
trade  had  regained  the  1930  peak. 

The  true  state  of  Axis-Soviet  relations  was  re- 
flected more  accurately  in  the  Soviet  diplomatic  in- 
tervention in  Sofia  in  November  to  prevent  Bul- 
garian adherence  to  the  Axis,  the  encouragement 
given  the  Turks  by  Moscow  to  resist  German 
pressure,  and  the  announcement  in  December  that 
there  would  be  no  change  in  Soviet  support  of  the 
Chinese  Nationalist  cause  (see  BULGARIA  and 
TURKEY  under  History). 

War  Preparations.  While  seeking  to  avoid  in- 
volvement in  the  European  War  by  playing  off  the 
rival  capitalist  and  Fascist  powers  against  one  an- 
other, the  Soviet  Government  made  feverish  prep- 
arations both  for  further  territorial  expansion  and 
for  defense  against  a  possible  "capitalist"  attack. 
On  the  23rd  anniversary  of  the  Bolshevik  revolu- 
tion on  November  7,  the  Soviet  War  Commissar, 
Marshal  Timoshenko,  declared  that  while  the  So- 
viet Union  had  extended  its  borders  "we  cannot 
be  contented  with  what  has  been  achieved."  An- 
other call  for  "eternal  vigilance,"  greater  arma- 
ments and  improved  discipline  as  the  direct  path 
to  world  communism  came  from  President  Kalin- 
in of  the  Supreme  Council  of  the  Soviet  Union. 
He  described  the  Soviet  Union  as  a  ''besieged 
fortress"  covering  one-sixth  of  the  world,  with 
the  remaining  five-sixths  controlled  by  "our  prin- 
cipal and  irreconcilable  enemies." 

Extraordinary  measures  were  taken  to  remedy 


UNIONS 


754 


UNITED  STATES 


the  defects  in  the  Red  Army  revealed  by  the  Fin- 
nish war,  to  increase  production  of  military  and 
other  supplies,  and  to  tighten  the  discipline  of  the 
Communist  party  and  of  both  the  military  and 
civilian  populations.  The  election  of  some  600,000 
local  and  minor  officials  of  the  Communist  party 
in  February  and  March  gave  Joseph  Stalin  and  his 
adherents  a  further  opportunity  to  weed  out  luke- 
warm supporters  and  anti-Stalinites  (see  COMMU- 
NISM under  Changes  in  Soviet  Union).  A  decree 
of  April  7  provided  for  obligatory  deliveries  of 
agricultural  crops  to  the  government  on  the  basis 
of  acreage  rather  than  of  the  area  sowed — a  step 
intended  to  increase  production.  A  reorganization 
of  the  Economic  Council  was  undertaken  April  17 
to  spur  lagging  industries. 

On  May  8  Marshal  Voroshilov  was  replaced  as 
Defense  Commissar  by  Marshal  Semyon  Timo- 
shenko  and  demoted  to  the  post  of  assistant  chair- 
man of  the  Council  of  People's  Commissars.  At 
the  same  time  the  officers  of  the  Red  Army  and 
Navy  were  given  enlarged  powers,  the  political 
commissar  system  in  the  armed  forces  was  again 
abandoned,  and  "familiarity  and  false  democrati- 
zation'1 between  officers  and  men  was  discouraged. 
Early  in  August  decrees  for  the  enforcement  of 
stricter  labor  discipline  were  issued.  The  head  of 
the  Soviet  judicial  system  ordered  the  ousting  of 
all  judges  who  did  not  mete  put  strict  justice  to 
idle,  unco-operative  and  transient  workers  in  So- 
viet factories.  A  decree  of  October  3  inaugurated 
the  annual  mobilization  for  industrial  training  of 
more  than  800,000  youths  "for  the  purpose  of  es- 
tablishing State  labor  reserves  for  industry."  De- 
spite these  measures  and  many  others  of  a  similar 
character,  correspondents  and  travelers  in  Russia 
reported  continuance  of  the  disorganization  and 
serious  shortages  of  food  and  consumers  goods 
that  had  prevailed  in  previous  years. 

See  also  AFGHANISTAN,  GERMANY,  HUNGARY, 
IRAN,  ITALY,  POLAND,  and  SWEDEN  under  History ; 
COMMUNISM;  INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY;  JEWS; 
MOTION  PICTURES. 

UNIONS.  See  AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LA- 
BOR; CONGRESS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ORGANIZATIONS; 
LABOR  CONDITIONS. 

UNITARIANS.  A  religious  denomination, 
founded  in  England  in  the  late  18th  century,  which 
holds  belief  in  one  God  in  one  person  as  opposed 
to  the  Trinity.  Headquarters,  25  Beacon  Street, 
Boston,  Mass.  For  statistics,  see  RELIGIOUS  OR- 
GANIZATIONS. 

UNITED  BRETHREN.  A  term  used  for 
three  religious  denominations  in  the  United  States, 
all  originating  in  the  evangelistic  movement  of 
William  Otterbein  and  Martin  Boehm  about  1800. 
The  largest  body  is  the  Church  of  the  United 
Brethren  in  Christ  with  headquarters  in  Dayton, 
Ohio.  See  RELIGIOUS  ORGANISATIONS. 

UNITED  KINGDOM  OF  GREAT 
BRITAIN  AND  NORTHERN  IRELAND. 
See  GREAT  BRITAIN;  IRELAND,  NORTHERN. 

UNITED  STATES.  The  area  of  the  United 
States  proper,  or  the  48  States  and  the  District  of 
Columbia,  is  3,026,789  square  miles;  this  excludes 
open  sea  and  parts  of  the  Great  Lakes  lying  never- 
theless within  the  territorial  limits;  it  does  in- 
clude 53,013  square  miles  of  other  waters  The  non- 
contiguous lands  subject  to  the  authority  of  the 
United  States  (Alaska,  Hawaii,  the  Philippine  Is- 
lands— autonomous  but  not  yet  independent,  the 
Panama  Canal  Zone,  Puerto  Rico,  Guam,  the  Vir- 
gin Islands,  and  American  Samoa)  comprise  711,- 


606  square  miles.  The  combined  area  oi  the  Union 
and  these  lands  was  3,738,395  square  miles. 

AREA   AND   POPULATION  OF  UNITED   STATES,   ITS 
TERRITORIES  AND  INSULAR  POSSESSIONS 


Political  Division 
United  States  

Am 

sq.  milts 

3.026.789 

Population 
(19*0  census)       Capital 

131,669,275    Washington 

Alaska*  

586400 

72'.524*  Juneau" 

Hawaii*      

6,407 

423,330    Honolulu 

3435 

1,869,255    San  Juan 

Philippine  Isls>  
Guam          .          ... 
Samoa,  American 
Panama  Canal  Zone  •  .  .  . 

Virgin  Islands  

114,400 
206 
76 
549 

133 

16,356,000-  Manila 
22,290    Agana 
12,908    Pago  Pago 
51,827    Balboa 
Heights/ 
24,889    St.  THorna. 

Totals    ... 

3,738,395 

150,502,298* 

•  Territory  b  Self-governing  commonwealth  •  Leased  from 
the  Republic  of  Panama  in  perpetuity  '  Census  taken  Oct.  1, 
1939.  •Estimate  derived  by  extrapolation  from  the  census 
figures  for  1918  and  1939  /  Office  of  the  Governor.  '  Exclusive 
of  military  and  naval  services,  etc ,  abroad  (118,  923) 

Note:  The  United  States  also  possesses,  or  claims  possession  of, 
the  following  Pacific  islands-  Baker.  Rowland,  and  Tarvii  Islands, 
fringing  the  equator  in  mid-Pacific  about  1000  miles  S  S.W.  of 
Honolulu  (U  S  aerologic  stations  were  established  on  all  three 
islands  in  1936  and  an  emergency  airfield  on  Rowland  Island  in 
1937).  Johnston  Island  (q  vT),  Midway  Islands  (q  v  ),  Palmyra 
Islands  (q  v  ).  and  Wake  Island  (q  v  )  Canton  Island  (9  v  )  and 
Enderbury  Island  are  under  joint  Anglo-American  administration. 

The  population  of  the  United  States  (Sixteenth 
Census)  April,  1940:  131,669,275.  April,  1930  (Fif. 
teenth  Census) :  122,775,046.  For  populations  of 
individual  States,  see  articles  on  the  several  States, 
Territories,  and  Possessions.  For  populations  of 
other  cities  and  of  urban  places  of  over  5000,  see 
POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  slackening  rate  of  increase  in  the  numbers 
of  the  Nation  deserved  particular  note.  From  1930 
to  1940  the  population  rose  by  only  7.1  per  cent,  as 
against  16.1  per  cent  from  1920  to  1930.  The  rate 
(1930-40)  fell  below  half  that  of  any  previous 
recorded  gain  in  the  decennial  census.  Only  12 
States,  five  of  them  in  the  South,  gained  at  a 
higher  rate  than  in  the  previous  decade.  The  shrink- 
age in  the  rate  of  increase  particularly  affected 
many  States  that  had  made  great  efforts  to  aid  the 
less  independent  of  their  people  by  free  education 
and  other  favoring  policies.  The  approach  oi  an 
era  of  stationary  or  possibly  of  diminishing  popu- 
lation formed  a  subject  of  serious  though,  of 
course,  uncertain  prediction. 

The  Bureau  of  the  Census  enumerated  the  peo- 
ple as  to  their  condition  with  regard  to  employment 
in  the  last  week  of  March,  1940.  Its  results,  still 
subject  to  some  alteration,  showed  a  population 
aged  14  years  or  over,  of  100,972,196.  Of  these, 
52,840,762  were  the  "labor  force"  (those  at  work 
or  seeking  it),  and  of  these,  45,350,430  were  per- 
forming work  other  than  "public  emergency  work." 
In  "public  emergency  work"  (i.e.  occupation  pro- 
vided by  the  WPA,  NYA,  and  CCC  in  order  to 
support  individuals)  were  numbered  2,380,062 ;  and 
those  having  no  work  and  seeking  employment 
totaled  5,110,270.  The  remainder  of  the  population 
14  years  old  and  over,  not  apparently  at  work  or 
seeking  it,  numbered  48,141,434.  Of  the  "labor 
force,'7  39,994, 197  were  males  and  12,846,565  were 
females ;  respective  numbers  in  ordinary  work,  34,- 
201,490  and  11,148,940;  on  "public  emergency 
work,"  1,947,975  and  432,087 ;  seeking  work,  3,844,- 
732  and  1,265,538. 

This  was  the  first  comprehensive  and  official 
census  to  show  the  number  of  the  unemployed, 
over  which  dispute  and  conjecture  had  gone  on 
since  the  early  years  of  the  economic  collapse. 

Agriculture,  See  AGRICULTURE  and  the  articles 


UNITED  STATES 


755 


UNITBD  STATES 


referred  to  on  crops,  government  agencieb, 
etc. 

Commerce.  See  BUSINESS  REVIEW  ;  INTERSTATE 
COMMERCE  COMMISSION;  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Communications.  See  POST  OFFICE;  RADIO; 
TELEGRAPHY-  TELEPHONY. 

Defense.  See  DEFENSIVE  PREPARATIONS  ;  DRAFT, 
MILITARY;  MILITARY  PROGRESS;  NATIONAL  DE- 
FENSE ADVISORY  COMMISSION;  NAVAL  PROGRESS. 

Education.  See  EDUCATION;  SCHOOLS;  UNI- 
VERSITIES AND  COLLEGES  ;  and  the  section  on  Edu- 
cation in  the  articles  on  the  States. 

Finance.  See  PUBLIC  FINANCE;  TAXATION; 
and  below  under  Legislation. 

Judiciary.  See  COURTS  ;  LAW  ;  SUPREME  COURT. 

Manufacturing.  See  BUSINESS  REVIEW;  the 
section  on  Manufacturing  in  the  articles  on  the 
States. 

Mineral  Production.  See  the  articles  on  lead- 
ing minerals ;  MINES,  BUREAU  OF  ;  BUSINESS  RE- 
VIEW; and  the  section  on  Mineral  Production  in 
the  articles  on  the  States.  The  value  of  the  pro- 
duction of  all  minerals  in  the  United  States  was 
estimated  for  1940,  by  the  U  S  Bureau  of  Mines, 
as  approximating  $5,600,000,000 ;  this  exceeded  by 
some  IS  per  cent  the  value  of  1939's  production  of 
$4,874,000,000.  The  main  subtotals  follow  pro- 
duction of  metals,  $1,650,000,000  for  1940  (28  per 
cent  above  1939's  production  of  $1,291,000,000)  ; 
production  of  fuels,  $3,100,000,000  for  1940  (10 
per  cent  above  1939's  production  of  $2,818,600,000)  ; 
production  of  other  minerals,  $850,000,000  (11  per 
cent  above  1939's  production  of  $764,400,000). 

States  and  Territories.  See  the  separate  arti- 
cle on  each 

Transportation.  See  AERONAUTICS;  RAIL- 
WAYS; ROADS  AND  STREETS;  SHIPPING. 

ADMINISTRATION 

General  Conditions.  Two  occurrences  in  1940 
greatly  affected  the  conditions  of  the  people's 
thought,  of  the  social  relations,  and  of  economics 
and  thus  bore  upon  the  direction  of  the  Nation's 
course.  The  first  of  these  occurrences  was  the  Ger- 
man conquest  of  the  greater  part  of  western  Eu- 
rope; the  second  was  the  National  election.  Ger- 
many overcame  France  in  June.  It  was  the  season 
at  which  National  campaigns  start  The  conjunc- 
tion of  these  two  facts  made  possible  a  redirection 
of  public  opinion  away  from  the  mere  familiar 
record  of  the  New  Deal  into  a  fresh  and  emo- 
tionally stirring  realm  in  which  many  things  were 
to  be  changed  in  order  to  put  the  country  in  a 
posture  to  meet  the  conceived  peril  of  a  foreign 
attack. 

Features  of  common  thought,  while  the  year 
shaped  itself,  were  a  rising  antagonism  to  Ger- 
many, evident,  among  other  ways,  in  the  renewal 
of  a  certain  good  will  for  Russia,  which  in  early 
1940  had  been  condemned  for  overpowering  and 
despoiling  Finland  but  which  later  shone  forth  as 
the  possible  preventer  of  a  German  march  to  the 
Dardanelles ;  a  ready  acceptance,  in  events  at  home, 
of  ways  strange  to  a  time  of  literal  peace,  so  far 
as  the  Nation  was  concerned ;  acquiescence  in  the 
much-repeated  adjuration  that  the  "American  way" 
must  be  preserved  at  all  cost ;  an  evaporation  of  the 
view,  from  many  minds,  that  European  wars  must 
"never  again"  involve  the  United  States ;  a  shrink- 
age of  interest  in  partisan  politics ;  and  a  less  criti- 
cal attitude  among  many  previously  opposing  the 
Governmental  policies. 

In  the  social  relations  the  popular  antagonism  to 
Communists  developed  formidably,  a  number  of 


States  excluding  the  Communist  candidates  from 
the  ballot,  for  the  movement  came  to  be  viewed  as 
the  mainspring  of  sabotage  against  the  Nation. 
(See  COMMUNISM.)  Aliens,  too,  came  under  sus- 
picion, being  obvious  objects  for  the  exercise  of 
rising  Nationalist  sentiment  The  youth  of  the  na- 
tion, which  had  seemingly  in  previous  years  lent 
much  attention  to  the  organized  and  habitually  un- 
satisfied youth  movement,  fell  into  step  with  the 
rest  of  the  people,  accepting  with  little  demur  the 
heavy  claim  upon  it  made  by  the  draft  The  inci- 
dents of  class  warfare  became  fewer  and,  in  par- 
ticular, the  labor  unions,  having  an  opportunity  in 
the  intense  efforts  of  many  industries  to  provide 
the  tools  of  war,  hesitated  up  to  the  end  of  the  year 
to  adopt  the  inviting  if  dangerous  plan  of  repeat- 
ing in  the  armament  industries  what  had  been  ac- 
complished in  manufactories  of  automobiles  and  of 
steel.  (See  LABOR  CONDITIONS.) 

In  the  field  of  economics  times  improved  con- 
sistently, so  far  as  concerned  employment.  The 
financing  of  additions  to  establishments  having 
contracts  for  armament,  accomplished  largely  with 
credit  from  the  Government  or  its  agencies,  drew 
remarkably  little  upon  the  resources  of  the  ordi- 
nary banks,  so  that  the  rates  for  loans  remained,  as 
they  had  stood  for  some  years,  abnormally  low  by 
old  standards.  Whether  from  the  public's  loss  of 
ambitions  and  hopes  of  enrichment  or  from  uncer- 
tainty as  to  the  prospects  of  it,  the  markets  for 
securities  as  a  whole  responded  but  mildly  to  what 
in  certain  other  respects  somewhat  resembled  a 
war  boom,  and  the  exchanges  sold  fewer  securities 
than  in  any  of  the  three  previous  years.  (See 
BUSINESS  REVIEW;  FINANCIAL  REVIEW.) 

The  President.  President  Roosevelt  achieved 
in  1940  two  surpassing  successes.  The  more  obvious 
one  was  his  unprecedented  election  to  serve  for  a 
third  term,  shattering  the  two-term  tradition  that 
had  withstood  two  earlier  Presidents  and  had  re- 
mained inviolate  since  1797.  Less  obvious  but  per- 
haps more  evidential  of  his  abilities  was  his  safe 
passage  from  the  role  of  tribune  of  the  poor 
against  the  rich  in  an  often  bitter  civil  strife  for 
the  redistribution  of  the  means  of  living  to  that 
of  leader  of  a  united  people  toward  utmost  pre- 
paredness for  a  possible  war  with  a  foreign  enemy. 

The  year's  first  weighty  Piesidential  utterance, 
the  annual  message  to  the  convening  session  of 
Congress,  was  delivered  by  Mr.  Roosevelt  on  Janu- 
ary 3:  it  contained  an  exhortation  to  National 
unity — a  theme  that  reappeared  in  his  words  to  the 
popular  ear  throughout  the  year — and  also  a  dis- 
avowal, before  the  fact,  of  the  policy  of  using  the 
unemployed  to  produce  huge  armaments.  In  the 
passage  on  National  unity  occurred  the  words: 
'Doctrines  which  set  group  against  group,  faith 
against  faith,  race  against  race,  class  against  class, 
fanning  the  fires  of  hatred  in  men  too  despondent, 
too  desperate  to  think  for  themselves,  were  used 
as  rabble-rousing  slogans  on  which  dictators  could 
rise  to  power.  And  once  in  power,  they  could  sad- 
dle their  tyrannies  on  whole  nations  ;  such  ex- 
pressions gave  newspapers  the  chance  to  cite  pre- 
vious words  from  the  same  mouth,  branding  the 
rich  as  tories,  copperheads,  and  economic  royalists 
and  comparing  their  estate  with  that  of  an  ill-fed, 
ill-clad,  and  ill-housed  third  of  the  population. 
Nevertheless  it  was  the  new  utterance  and  not  the 
older  ones,  that  won  attention.  The  utterance  as  to 
armaments  was  "We  refuse  the  European  solution 
[for  unemployment]  of  using  the  unemployed  to 
build  up  excessive  armaments  which  eventually  re- 
sult in  dictatorships  "  It  occurred  in  the  course  of 


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a  discussion  of  the  persistence  of  unemployment, 
a  trouble  destined  to  dwindle  later  in  the  year  by 
very  reason  of  the  administration's  resort  to  the 
greatest  and  quickest  practicable  increase  of  arma- 
ments. The  message  as  a  whole  dealt  mainly  with 
the  conceived  effects  of  the  threatened  anti-liberal 
outcome  of  the  war  in  Europe  as  likely  to  disturb 
the  future  of  the  United  States,  and  it  preached  the 
need  of  a  united  mind  for  facing  the  situation.  But 
also,  it  wove  into  the  newer  appeal  features  of  the 
older  Rooseveltian  doctrine:  the  need,  by  Federal 
authority,  to  increase  the  income  of  the  population 
was  again  mentioned;  the  intent  to  deal  more  of 
this  income  to  the  class  least  provided  with  it  re- 
appeared in  the  guise  of  a  way  to  strengthen  the 
Nation  against  peril  from  without  In  the  budget 
message  appeared  anew,  and  on  the  verge  of  a 
season  of  unparalleled  peacetime  appropriation  and 
huge  increase  in  taxation,  a  solicitude  for  econ- 
omy: the  original  budget  for  the  ensuing  fiscal 
year  set  expenditure  $675,000,000  below  the  then- 
estimated  total  for  the  fiscal  year  current  and 
recommended  additional  taxation  to  bring  in  $460,- 
000,000  for  the  gradual  extinction  of  the  cost,  al- 
ready much  beyond  normal,  of  the  military  and 
naval  establishments ;  these  changes,  with  the  aid 
of  some  $700,000,000  of  credit-granting  agencies' 
"excess"  of  capital  funds,  to  be  cross-entered  to  the 
Treasury's  resources,  were  to  bring  the  deficit  for 
the  fiscal  year  1941  down  to  $1,716,000,000. 

The  President  and  German  Conquests.  In 
the  spring  the  German  army,  after  many  months  of 
a  deceptively  eventless  war  of  position  on  the 
Western  Front,  started  war  of  movement ;  by  the 
middle  of  June  it  held  in  unresisted  control  the 
western  coast  of  Europe  from  the  Arctic  circle  to 
the  Spanish  border.  This  overturn  of  the  structure 
of  the  European  continent,  affecting  in  some  de- 
gree nearly  all  of  the  world's  concerns,  affected  the 
President's  situation  and  policy  as  no  foreign  event 
had  affected  any  of  his  predecessors. 

It  opened  to  him  the  possibility  or,  as  many  held, 
the  need  of  his  sinking  all  other  roles  in  the  role  of 
defender  of  the  Western  Hemisphere ;  as  the  alter- 
native, it  exposed  him  to  the  risk  of  discredit, 
should  the  people  conceive  him  to  have  done  too 
little  in  that  role  or  acted  not  early  enough.  Such 
discredit  could,  in  the  approaching  election,  sweep 
away  the  whole  result  of  his  years  in  the  White 
House ;  but  to  play  the  newly  offered  role  success- 
fully could  well  rank  him  high  among  the  few 
Presidents  to  whom  fate  had  dealt  a  savior's  part. 
The  move  that  would  preserve  him  from  the 
charge  of  failure  to  cope  with  the  conceived  peril 
from  Europe  happened  to  be  the  very  move  to  win 
him  general  recognition  as  the  central  figure  in  the 
protection  of  the  United  States  and  the  other  re- 
publics of  the  New  World :  he  must  take  the  lead 
m  declaring  peril  and  acting  against  it  Such  was 
the  course  that  he  adopted.  It  involved  letting  those 
who  had  charged  him,  for  over  a  year,  with  ma- 
neuvering the  Nation  toward  a  war  play  their 
trump  for  what  it  might  be  worth ;  it  also  invited 
the  query,  which  Republicans  duly  put  in  the 
autumn,  why  he  had  not  forecast  the  tempest  nor 
prepared  against  it  before  it  came  near.  It  also 
dictated  his  making  an  innovation  in  American 
government  by  running  and  serving  for  a  third 
term  of  office,  braving  not  only  the  explicit  con- 
demnation that  his  own  party  had  once  declared 
for  such  a  course,  but  also  the  latent  mistrust  of 
a  republic  for  any  move  toward  permanent  tenure 
of  supreme  office. 

Details  of  the  course  that  Mr.  Roosevelt  took 


in  his  third-term  candidacy  will  be  found  in  the 
article  ELECTIONS,  U.S.  NATIONAL.  His  part  in  the 
creation  of  the  policy  of  increasing  armament  is 
set  forth  in  DEFENSIVE  PREPARATIONS  OF  U.  S., 
and  in  DRAFT,  MILITARY.  The  manner  in  which 
the  supplying  of  material  of  war  to  Great  Britain 
was  effected  appears  in  the  present  article,  under 
Foreign  Affairs.  Let  us  note  here,  however,  the 
relations  of  the  President's  steps  in  these  several 
fields,  as  to  time.  On  May  16  he  spoke  to  Congress 
a  special  message  beginning,  "These  are  ominous 
days,"  and  proposing  that  the  country  prepare  im- 
mediately for  producing  warplanes  at  the  rate  of 
50,000  a  year — the  message  opening  his  promotion 
of  greatly  augmented  armaments  and  calling  on  the 
people  to  "recast  their  thinking"  about  defenses 
and  on  Congress  to  appropriate  $996,000,000  there- 
for. On  May  29  he  reconstituted  the  Defense  Com- 
mission as  authorized  in  1916.  On  May  31  he  asked 
Congress  for  $1,277,000,000  for  defense.  On  June  3 
he  made  his  first  request  to  Congress  for  author- 
ity to  summon  the  National  Guard  to  active  service 
in  emergency  short  of  war.  On  June  7,  endorsing 
the  New  York  Timers  editorial  in  favor  of  com- 
pulsory military  training,  he  revealed  himself  to 
the  press  as  an  advocate  of  what  later  took  shape 
in  the  Selective  Service  Act.  On  June  10,  address- 
ing the  University  of  Virginia,  he  recited  his  recent 
fruitless  efforts  to  dissuade  Italy  from  joining 
the  attack  on  France ;  cried,  "The  hand  that  held 
the  dagger  has  struck  it  into  the  back  of  its  neigh- 
bor" ;  and  declared  for  material  aid  to  the  "oppo- 
nents of  force."  On  June  17  he  asked  Congress  for 
another  great  appropriation  with  which  to  build 
warships.  On  July  10,  in  a  special  message  to  Con- 
gress he  asked  further  appropriations  of  $2,161,- 
441,957  and  yet  more  in  authorizations  toward 
armament  and  kindred  purposes,  approved  a  bill 
to  draft  men  into  service,  and  gave  the  reassurance, 
"We  will  not  send  our  men  to  take  part  in  Euro- 
pean wars."  Each  of  these  utterances  fitted  with 
the  rest  like  a  link  in  a  chain  or  a  word  in  a  sen- 
tence ;  so  that  their  compact  entirety  had  a  massive 
effect,  beyond  the  power  of  one  in  any  other  sta- 
tion to  rival,  since  no  one  else  had  the  habitual 
regular  attention  of  so  many  of  the  people.  Thus, 
when  the  Democratic  National  Convention  opened 
in  the  middle  week  of  July,  the  idea  uppermost  in 
the  Nation's  thoughts  was  defense;  and  defense 
had  come  to  spell  Roosevelt.  Up  to  that  moment 
the  President  had  not  by  a  single  word  hinted  his 
attitude  toward  an  offer  of  renomination.  But  on 
July  16,  to  a  convention  waiting  to  start  nomina- 
tions, the  word  was  brought  that  the  President,  if 
selected,  would  accept  After  that,  any  other  nomi- 
nation, even  if  the  convention  had  wished  another, 
would  have  been  impossible  to  explain  to  a  popular 
majority  convinced  of  peril  to  the  Nation  and  con- 
fident in  but  one  man  to  face  it. 

The  President's  attitude  to  the  Government's 
providing  opponents  of  Germany  and  Italy  with 
weapons  of  war  developed  by  gradual  steps.  While 
he  spoke  out  (June  10,  as  above)  for  extending  the 
Nation's  material  resources  "to  the  opponents  of 
force,"  he  could  fairly  be  taken  to  signify  letting 
Great  Britain,  in  particular  and  chiefly,  procure 
from  American  manufacturers  such  material  as  it 
could  buy  from  them  for  cash  under  the  existing 
law.  The  British  Ambassador  had  shortly  before 
declared  in  New  York  that  his  government  intend- 
ed to  fight  on  alone  if  need  be,  and  pointed  out 
that  American  interest  might  justify  Federal  aid 
to  the  British.  But  American  opinion  was  not  ripe 
for  the  outright  adoption  of  such  a  course.  The 


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EL\\  OOI)  C  IT\  ,  1ND  ,  1  URNS  OUT  TO  HEAR  \\  ENDELL  L  WILLKIE'S  ACCEPTANCE  SPEEC  H  OF  AUGUST  17, 
OPENING  THE  1940  PRESIDENTIAL  CAMPAIGN 


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HYDE  PARK  CELEBRATES  ROOSEVELT'S  RE-ELECTION  FOR  A  THIRD  TERM 


Wide  World 

THE  CANADIAN  NAN  V  TAKES  OVER  DESTROYERS  ACQUIRED  PROM    THE  UNITED  SI  A  IIS 


UNITED  STATES-CANADA  JOINT  DEFENSE  BOARD  MEETING  AT  CITY  HALL,  NEW  YORK  CITY 

Front  row,  left  to  right    Capt  R  E  Reid,  Canada,  Capt  L  W  Murray,  Canada,  Air  Commodore  A  A   L  Cuffe,  Canada, 

Brigadier  Kenneth  Stuart,  Deputy  Chief  of  the  Canadian  Army  General  Staff,  Lieut   Col   George  P   Vamer,  Canada,  Col 

Oliver  Mowat  Biggar,  chairman,  Canadian  Section,  and  Mayor  Fiorello  H   La  Guardia  of  New  York,  chairman,  American 

Section  Back  row.  Hugh  K  Keenleyside,  secretary,  Canadian  Section,  Major  Gen  S  D  Embick,  commanding  the  Fourth  Corps 

Area,  USA;  John  D   Hickerson,  secretary,  United  States  Section,  Major  Clayton  Bissel,  United  States,  Capt   Harry  W 

Hill,  United  States,  and  Commander  Forrest  P  Sherman,  U  b  N 


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thing  came  about  by  successive  moves.  To  begin 
with,  the  President  accepted,  without  action  of 
Congress,  a  British  offer  (made  in  August)  to 
grant  the  United  States  a  right  to  set  up  naval  sta- 
tions or  bases  in  the  British  colonies — Antigua, 
Bahamas,  Bermuda,  British  Guiana,  Jamaica,  New- 
foundland, St.  Lucia,  Trinidad— and  gave  Great 
Britain  in  return  some  50  old  destroyers,  still  serv- 
iceable but  removed  from  the  active  list.  He  also 
let  producers  sell  to  Britain  warplanes  designed 
for  the  U.S.  Government. 

Later  on,  President  Roosevelt  allowed  priority 
to  British  orders,  in  growing  number,  over  the 
U.S.  Government's  own  orders,  in  deliveries  from 
manufacturers  of  airplanes.  As  the  year  drew  to  a 
close  it  became  apparent  that  the  British  had  used 
up  most  of  their  investors'  known  supply  of  Amer- 
ican securities  and  could  not  go  on  paying  in  the 
United  States  from  their  own  pocket.  The  Presi- 
dent now  found  himself  compelled,  as  a  condition 
of  further  supplying  Great  Britain,  to  convert 
opinion  into  favoring  virtual  subventions  to  that 
nation,  from  the  Federal  Government,  in  war  ma- 
terial, to  the  loss  of  progress  in  the  armament  of 
the  United  States  itself.  His  "fireside  chat"  of  De- 
cember 29  dealt  mainly  with  this  problem.  It  por- 
trayed the  country's  risk  in  such  term  as  to  give 
keen  alarm:  "Never  before  since  Jamestown  and 
Plymouth  Rock  has  our  American  civilization  been 
in  such  danger  as  now."  For  proof  it  cited  the 
Berlin  agreement  of  September  27  for  common 
action  by  Germany,  Italy,  and  Japan,  as  a  threat 
against  the  United  States.  "Democracy's  fight 
against  world-conquest"  was  declared  to  need  the 
aid  of  "every  ounce  and  every  ton  of  munitions  and 
supplies  that  we  can  possibly  spare."  Nothing  was 
said  as  to  how  democracy  would  or  could  pay  for 
these,  except  by  using  them  "against  world-con- 

Siest."  The  press  and  radio  carried  reports  that 
reat  Britain  could  not  go  on  paying  for  munitions 
from  America.  The  public  was  won  for  legisla- 
tion to  enable  further  shipment  of  munitions  with- 
out full  British  payment.  The  same  address  con- 
veyed a  mild  message  to  unions,  that  "the  Nation 
expects"  work  for  defense  not  to  be  hindered  by 
strikes. 

President  and  Congress.  The  President's  main 
concern  of  the  year,  in  carrying  on  his  policies,  was 
with  the  Nation.  While  he  had  the  Nation  with 
him,  Congress,  regardless  of  party  and  other  pre- 
occupations, would  follow  his  lead  in  the  main  mat- 
ter of  the  foreign  situation.  There  were  other 
matters,  however,  in  which  Congress  did  not  fol- 
low him.  One  was  the  members'  purpose  to  stop 
the  conceived  vindictiveness  of  the  NLRB  toward 
employers.  Another  was  the  persistence  of  a  mod- 
erate majority  in  passing  the  Logan-Walter  bill  to 
allow  the  courts  to  review  the  decisions  of  regu- 
latory agencies.  In  the  first  case  the  adversaries 
of  the  NLRB  failed  to  pass  a  bill  to  deprive  that 
body  of  some  of  its  functions,  but  the  President 
gave  way  at  length,  without  controversy,  to  objec- 
tions to  the  reappointment  of  Chairman  Madden. 
In  the  second  case,  he  vetoed  the  bill  for  review  of 
agencies'  decisions,  secure  in  the  lack  of  a  sufficient 
majority  to  override  his  veto. 

The  President  was  said  by  writers  in  the  press 
to  have  expressed,  not  long  before  the  start  of  the 
drive  for  full-speed  armament,  his  willingness  that 
Congress  should  adjourn.  The  Republican  group 
made  use  of  this,  taking  credit  for  superior  fore- 
sight in  keeping  Congress  sitting  and  thus  having 
it  in  full  working  order  when  extraordinary  grants 
were  sought  in  a  hurry. 


Efforts  /or  a  Partisan  Moratorium.  The  idea 
of  prevailing  on  the  two  major  parties  to  put  aside 
strife  lacked  likelihood  in  a  year  of  National  elec- 
tions. The  President  gave  encouragement  to  the 
possibility,  none  the  less,  on  a  number  of  occasions. 
Before  the  Democrats'  Jackson  Day  dinner,  sev- 
eral leading  Republicans  in  the  Senate  or  the 
House  received  invitations  (somewhat  warmly  de- 
clined) to  come  to  this  dinner.  While  the  President 
did  not  issue  the  invitations,  there  seemed  no  proba- 
bility that  they  could  have  gone  out  without  his 
approval.  In  the  middle  of  May  the  President 
sought  an  intimate  talk  at  the  White  House  with 
Alfred  M.  Landon,  Republican  Presidential  candi- 
date of  1936 ;  but  Landon  countered  with  a  state- 
ment opposing  an  adjournment  of  partisanship.  In 
June  the  President  himself  suspended  partisan  con- 
siderations to  the  extent  of  nominating  two  Repub- 
licans for  what  had  become  the  most  exacting  and 
ticklish  jobs  in  the  cabinet :  for  Secretary  of  War, 
Henry  L.  Stimson;  for  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
Frank  Knox.  Both  gave  fine  examples  of  faithful 
service.  On  November  11,  Wendell  L.  Willkie,  in 
an  address  by  radio  shortly  after  his  defeat  as  Re- 
publican candidate  for  President,  declared  for  a 
Republican  policy  of  "loyal  opposition" ;  4<We  who 
stand  ready  to  serve  our  country  behind  our  Com- 
mander in  Chief,"  he  said,  "nevertheless  retain  the 
right  and,  I  will  say,  the  duty  to  debate  the  course 
of  our  government." 

Personnel  and  Organization.  President, 
Franklin  D.  Roosevelt ;  Vice-President,  John  Nance 
Garner.  The  Cabinet :  Secretary  of  State,  Cordell 
Hull ;  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Henry  Morgen- 
thau,  Jr. ;  Secretary  of  War,  Harry  H.  Woodring 
(resigned  June  20)  and  Henry  L.  Stimson;  At- 
torney General,  Robert  H.  Jackson;  Postmaster 
General,  James  A.  Farley  (resigned  as  of  August 
31)  and  Frank  C.  Walker;  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
Charles  Edison  (resigned  June  4)  and  Frank 
Knox ;  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Harold  L.  Ickes ; 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Henry  Agard  Wallace 
(resigned  in  August)  and  Claude  R.  Wickard; 
Secretary  of  Commerce,  Harry  L.  Hopkins  (re- 
signed August  22)  and  Jesse  H.  Jones ;  Secretary 
of  Labor,  Frances  Perkins. 

The  number  of  the  civil  employees  of  the  Fed- 
eral Government,  as  reported  by  the  Civil  Service 
Commission,  rose  from  987,538  at  the  close  of 
1939  to  more  than  1,058,596  at  the  close  of  Sep- 
tember, 1940. 

Appointments  and  Resignations.  Five  of  the 
ten  heads  of  Departments  resigned  and  were  re- 
placed in  the  course  of  1940  (see  list  of  the  cabinet, 
just  above).  A  sixth  shift,  at  the  outset  of  the 
year,  made  Robert  H.  Jackson  Attorney  General 
in  place  of  Frank  Murphy  who  went  to  the  Su- 
preme Court.  So  extensive  a  change  among  the 
President's  highest  subordinates  was  unusual,  but 
it  did  not  appear  to  have  any  single  controlling 
reason.  Woodring  quit  the  Department  of  War, 
reportedly  because  he  opposed  supplying  European 
belligerents  at  the  cost  of  greater  progress  in  arm- 
ing the  United  States  itself.  Farley  left  the  Post 
Office  because  he  did  not  like  the  President's  third- 
term  renomination  Edison  left  the  Department  of 
the  Navy  with  well -based  hope  of  becoming  Gov- 
ernor of  New  Jersey.  Wallace  quit  as  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  to  campaign  as  Vice-Presidential  can- 
didate. Hopkins's  exit  as  Secretary  of  Commerce, 
whether  for  reasons  of  health  or  for  some  other 
intended  task,  left  him  seemingly  as  high  as  before 
in  the  President's  confidence. 

Among  other  changes  in  1940  were  the  appoint- 


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ment,  as  Under-Secretary  of  the  Interior,  of  Alvin 
J.  Wirtz;  the  resignation  of  Fred  H.  Brown  as 
Comptroller  General  and  the  appointment  of  L. 
Warren ;  the  expiration  of  the  term  of  Chairman 
J.  Warren  Madden  of  the  NLRB,  followed  by  a 
three  months'  vacancy,  and  eventually,  the  Senate 
remaining  set  against  confirming  Madden  if  he 
were  renominated,  by  the  appointment  of  a  less- 
pronounced  liberal,  Harry  A  Millis. 

Administrative  Reorganizations.  Three  more 
reorganizations  affecting  parts  of  the  administra- 
tive government  were  carried  out  in  1940,  under 
authority  of  the  Reorganization  Act  of  1939  (see 
1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  777).  They  were  styled  Reor- 
ganization Plans  III,  IV,  and  V.  Their  combined 
result,  outside  of  revoking  two  minor  changes  pre- 
viously made  by  executive  order,  was  3  consolida- 
tions, 4  abolitions,  and  14  transfers.  The  only  trans- 
fer of  a  considerable  independent  office  to  a  sub- 
ordinate place  in  a  Department  was  that  of  the 
Civil  Aeronautics  Authority,  made  a  part  of  the 
Department  of  Commerce,  by  provisions  in  plans 
III  and  IV.  This  change  roused  opposition  in  Con- 
gress, for  commercial  flying  had  suffered  serious 
accidents  when  previously  under  departmental  reg- 
ulation early  in  the  New  Deal  and  had  done  well 
later  under  the  CAA's  care.  The  House  passed 
(May  8)  a  resolution  rejecting  the  change :  but  the 
act  of  1939  gave  the  President's  reorganizations  the 
right  of  way  unless  rejected  by  both  houses;  the 
Senate  now  failing  to  reject,  Plan  IV  became  valid. 
Plan  V  moved  the  Bureau  of  Immigration  to  the 
Department  of  Justice,  from  the  Department  of 
Labor.  Among  several  offices  abolished  under  Plan 
III  were  those  of  Commissioner  of  Immigration 
and  of  Recorder  of  the  General  Land  Office.  A 
Commissioner  of  Immigration  and  Naturalization 
was  created,  subordinate  to  the  Attorney  General. 
The  plans'  dates  of  going  into  effect  were  June  30, 
for  III  and  IV,  and  June  14,  for  V. 

The  President's  creations  and  changes  in  mat- 
ters of  organization  for  regulating  the  pace  and 
harmonizing  the  parts  of  work  being  done  through- 
out the  country  for  the  production  of  armament 
ranked  first  in  1940,  as  to  possible  consequences, 
among  his  efforts  as  an  organizer.  This  task  did  not 
come  under  the  act  of  1939,  but  it  requires  men- 
tion as  an  effort  of  administrative  reorganization. 
The  re-establishment  of  the  Defense  Commission 
and  the  development,  out  of  it,  of  the  more  com- 
pact and  powerful  Office  for  Production  Manage- 
ment for  Defense  are  related  in  the  articles  DE- 
FENSIVE PREPARATIONS  and  NATIONAL  DEFENSE 
ADVISORY  COMMISSION.  Another  regulative  body 
for  a  field  essential  to  security  against  foreign  peril 
was  the  Defense  Communications  Board,  created 
by  executive  order  of  September  24  and  headed 
by  the  Chairman  of  the  Federal  Communications 
Commission  (q.v.),  to  regulate  the  use  of  telegraph, 
telephone,  cable,  and  radio  in  case  of  need.  Dr. 
Clarence  A.  Dykstra  was  made  National  Director 
of  Selective  Military  Service,  a  new  statutory  tem- 
porary office  (see  DRAFT,  MILITARY). 

See  the  separate  articles  on  leading  governmental 
bureaus  and  agencies.  For  a  list  of  the  independent 
offices  and  establishments,  see  YEAR  BOOK,  1939, 
p.  782. 

Foreign  Affairs.  The  German  war  in  Europe 
and  to  some  extent  the  Japanese  war  in  China  af- 
fected the  foreign  relations  in  virtually  every  di- 
rection. A  great  part  of  foreign  relations  had  to  do 
with  belligerents,  another  great  part  with  govern- 
ments of  which  the  United  States  wanted  the  sup- 
port for  its  own  course. 


The  Belligerents.  Official  relations  with  Ger- 
many, so  far  as  reported,  were  meager  and  feature- 
less. In  the  case  of  Italy,  the  President  directed  a 
hurried  and  fruitless  appeal  through  the  Embassy 
at  Rome,  for  a  pause  in  the  impending  Italian  at- 
tack on  invaded  France,  in  June. 

In  the  case  of  Japan,  the  third  of  the  powers  bent 
on  wholesale  conquest,  more  occurred.  The  differ- 
ence with  Japan  over  the  change  of  authority  in 
the  International  Settlement  at  Shanghai  remained 
unsettled,  but  the  policing  of  the  streets  by  a  force 
in  the  Japanese  interest  was  suffered  as  a  tempo- 
rary arrangement.  The  commercial  treaty  with  Ja- 
pan, abrogated  by  the  United  States  on  July  26, 
1939,  lapsed  after  6  months'  notice  on  Jan.  26,  1940. 
Trade  continued,  subject  to  change  at  any  time. 
Successive  restrictions  cut  off  the  airplane  fuel, 
scrap  metal,  and  machinery  and  tools  that  Japan 
particularly  wanted  Japan  responded  by  going  to 
Berlin  and  signing,  September  27,  an  agreement  in 
which  Japan  and  the  Italo-German  alliance  under- 
took to  assist  each  other  with  military  and  other 
means  in  case  of  attack  by  "a  power  at  present  not 
involved  in  the  European  War  or  in  the  Chinese- 
Japanese  conflict :"  essentially,  by  either  the  United 
States  or  Russia;  but  a  further  article  of  the 
published  text  gave  reassurance  that  nothing  was 
meant  against  "the  status  which  exists  at  present" 
as  to  Russia.  The  publication  of  this  agreement  was 
closely  followed  by  expressions  in  Tokyo,  from 
Premier  Konoye  and  others,  admonitory  to  the 
United  States.  The  latter  (October  9)  discontinued 
subsidy  on  exports  of  wheat  to  the  Far  East  and 
advised  American  citizens  to  leave  that  region. 
Japan  withdrew  (October  23)  from  the  convention 
of  1911  against  pelagic  sealing. 

Relations  with  Great  Britain  and  France  before 
their  disasters  of  May  and  June,  while  good,  were 
restrained  by  the  risk  of  stirring  antagonism  in  the 
United  States,  where  sentiment  against  all  alike  of 
the  participants  in  any  European  war  had  by  no 
means  died  out ;  the  British  and,  to  some  extent  the 
French,  increasingly  obtained  airplanes  and  other 
material  from  American  firms,  paying  on  delivery. 
The  President  declared  it  lawful  (January  26)  and 
without  prejudice  to  status  as  citizens  that  Ameri- 
cans should  fight  in  a  foreign  army,  provided  that 
they  did  not  swear  allegiance  to  a  foreign  govern- 
ment. In  February  an  outcry  against  British  search 
of  American  vessels  and  examination  of  mail  from 
the  United  States — features  of  the  blockade  of 
Germany — moved  the  Department  of  State  to  a  fu- 
tile effort  to  have  the  practices  modified.  The  Gov- 
ernment protested,  with  20  other  American  repub- 
lics (March  16),  against  the  British  pursuit  of  the 
German  freighter  Wakamct  within  the  zone  of  sea 
from  which  the  Declaration  of  Panama  (1939) 
had  sought  to  ban  belligerent  powers  from  naval 
operations. 

The  Sunken  Nations.  The  German  conquests 
that  culminated  in  June  overcame  France,  Belgium, 
Holland,  Norway,  Denmark,  and  Luxemburg.  The 
last  two  made  no  serious  resistance.  Belgium,  Hol- 
land, and  Norway  maintained  their  governments, 
in  form,  outside  their  territory;  there  was  estab- 
lished a  French  government  in  the  part  of  French 
territory  that  the  invaders  left  unoccupied.  The 
United  States  formed  diplomatic  relations  with  this 
new  French  government  and  withheld  recognition 
of  regimes  that  Germany  set  up  in  other  lands. 
It  halted  free  transactions  in  the  values  of  these 
countries  lodged  in  its  jurisdiction,  as  a  means  to 
keep  them  from  coming  into  the  conquerors'  pos- 
session. Iceland,  treated  as  separate  from  Den- 


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760 


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mark,  was  exempted  from  the  suspension  of  Dan- 
ish transactions* 
Remaining  Democratic  Belligerents.  The 

members  of  the  British  Empire  remained  at  war 
with  Germany.  Greece,  too,  soon  became  a  party 
in  the  European  war,  when  attacked  by  Italy,  and 
the  Chinese  government  still  held  out  in  the  west- 
ern uplands  of  China.  The  United  States'  new  pol- 
icy, gradually  shaped  after  May,  supplied  the 
British  increasingly  with  material  for  war,  as  the 
alternative  to  having  to  deal  with  a  Europe  under  a 
single  domination.  It  allowed  British  military  entry 
into  the  Dutch  West  Indies,  lest  these  come  under 
German  power.  When  an  organization  headed  by 
ex-President  Hoover  sought  to  send  food  to  the 
fallen  nations  of  Europe,  and  Great  Britain  re- 
fused lest  this  should  weaken  the  effect  of  the  mari- 
time blockade  of  Germany,  the  objection  was  al- 
lowed to  stand,  the  Department  of  State  avoiding 
a  direct  appeal  to  the  British  government.  With 
regard  to  Greece,  the  President  (December  7)  in 
a  message  to  King  George,  said,  in  part  "It  is  the 
settled  policy  of  the  United  States  Government  to 
extend  aid  to  those  governments  and  peoples  who 
defend  themselves  against  aggression.  .  .  .  Steps 
are  being  taken  to  extend  such  aid  to  Greece/'  A 
small  belligerent  was  thus  encouraged  to  continue, 
in  expectation  of  military  supplies.  To  China  a  se- 
ries of  credits  were  granted  through  the  Export- 
Import  Bank:  on  March  7,  $20,000,000;  on  Sep- 
tember 25,  $25,000,000,  to  be  repaid  with  tungsten ; 
on  November  30,  $50,000,000,  to  be  repaid  in  met- 
als; and  on  the  last  date  the  Treasury  was  an- 
nounced to  be  making  ready  a  sum  of  $50,000,000 
from  the  Stabilization  Fund,  with  which  to  support 
Chinese  currency 

In  the  New  World.  Despite  the  strain  under 
which  Canada  labored  as  a  participant  in  the  Eu- 
ropean war,  efforts  were  renewed  to  induce  the 
Dominion  to  agree  to  put  in  motion  the  common 
project  of  the  two  countries  for  the  development  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  Waterway  (with  water-power 
adjuncts) — a  scheme  long  cherished  by  the  Presi- 
dent. A  plan  was  devised  in  October  to  satisfy  the 
objections  on  the  part  of  Ontario:  this  province 
was  to  divert  into  the  St  Lawrence  watershed  wa- 
ters from  the  Albany  River  and  to  receive  in  re- 
turn the  right  to  hydroelectric  power  from  an 
equivalent  in  water  at  Niagara  Falls. 

In  dealings  with  Latin-American  governments 
the  United  States  had  to  do  with  a  number  of  coun- 
tries suffering  from  plethora  of  products  and — by 
reason  of  the  European  war — lack  of  buyers.  Un- 
able to  augment  its  purchases  of  their  goods  with, 
out  hurting  its  own  nation's  economy,  the  U.S. 
Government  felt  the  need  of  keeping  such  countries 
on  the  side  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  and  firm  against 
the  possibilities  of  German  and  Italian  commercial 
penetration.  Loans  were  made  by  the  Export-Im- 
port Bank  to  some  governments:  $60,000,000  to 
Argentina,  $7,500,000  to  Uruguay,  $4,600,000  to 
Costa  Rica.  Ninety  6-inch  cannon  out  of  surplus 
from  the  previous  European  war  were  sold  to  Bra- 
zil. Uruguay  was  reported  (November  9)  to  have 
agreed  to  let  the  United  States  establish  naval  and 
aeronautical  bases  on  its  coast  In  the  Antilles,  San- 
to Domingo  obtained  a  loan  of  $5,000,000  from  the 
Export-Import  Bank.  Late  in  the  year,  agreements 
for  U.S.  naval  stations  or  bases  in  Brazil,  Argen- 
tina, and  Chile  were  reported  to  be  assured 

Dealing  with  the  New- World  republics  as  a 
group,  Secretary  of  State  Hull  held,  with  their 
representatives,  at  Havana  in  July,  the  second  con- 
sultative meeting  of  American  foreign  ministers. 


The  meeting  drew  up  a  convention  providing  for 
the  American  republics'  joint  control,  through  a 
commission,  of  any  New- World  areas  (by  infer- 
ence, European  colonies)  that  might  become  de- 
prived temporarily  of  their  governing  authority; 
the  convention  required  ratification  by  the  several 
republics  to  put  it  in  force.  The  meeting  adopted  a 
resolution  providing  temporary  steps  to  like  effect 
if  needful  before  the  convention  should  become  val- 
id and  recognizing  the  right  of  "any  of  the  Ameri- 
can republics1'  to  act  as  might  be  needful  in  order 
to  defend  itself  or  the  continent.  An  agreement 
with  the  fourteen  American  countries  producing 
coffee  set  their  quotas,  for  three  years,  of  allow- 
able sales  to  the  United  States :  Brazil's  share  was 
about  one-half  of  the  total  for  the  fourteen. 

No  definite  outcome  was  reported  of  efforts  to 
obtain  from  Mexico  adequate  compensation  for  ex- 
propriated petroleum  wells.  It  was  stated  in  the 
press  in  October  that  a  Japanese  company  had  ob- 
tained from  Mexico  a  concession  to  drill  for  pe- 
troleum in  an  area  near  Vera  Cruz. 

For  a  fuller  discussion  of  United  States  relations 
with  other  nations,  see  the  article  on  each  foreign 
country.  See  also  PAN  AMERICANISM. 

Aliens  and  Disturbers.  Precautions  were  tak- 
en against  aliens  and  others  whose  social  or  politi- 
cal sympathies  might  make  them  agents  of  sedition. 
In  addition  to  the  registration  of  aliens  by  the  mil. 
lions,  under  a  new  act  of  Congress  (see  Legisla- 
tion, below),  a  process  that  went  on  for  months  in 
the  post  offices,  there  was  a  raising  of  barriers  to 
entry  over  the  borders  and  a  resort  to  strict  pro- 
ceedings against  persons  of  dubious  loyalty,  when 
they  were  found  chargeable  with  fraudulently  ob- 
taining passports.  Earl  Browder,  later  the  Commu- 
nist candidate  for  President,  was  convicted  (Jan- 
uary 22)  of  using  a  passport  obtained  by  making  a 
false  statement  and  was  sentenced  to  four  years  of 
Federal  prison  and  a  $2000  fine;  he  stayed  free 
during  appeal  of  his  case.  An  order  was  issued  for 
the  deportation  of  his  wife,  an  alien,  for  illegal  en- 
try into  the  United  States.  The  Immigration  and 
Naturalization  Service  (q.v.)  started  on  July  1  to 
require  documents  with  visas  for  all  persons  en- 
tering from  Canada.  An  active  and  much  rein- 
forced patrol  covered  the  Mexican  border  to  inter- 
cept entries  there.  In  August  Attorney  General 
Jackson  renewed  the  investigation  of  the  alien  la- 
bor leader  Harry  R.  Bndges,  who,  if  found  to  be 
a  subversive  alien,  might  be  deported  for  that  rea- 
son alone,  under  a  new  law. 

Government  and  Labor.  The  NLRB  (q.v.), 
though  winning  a  conspicuously  high  proportion  of 
its  chief  cases  in  the  Supreme  Court,  figured  much 
less  as  the  promoter  of  the  interests  of  the  indus- 
trial labor  unions  after  the  expiration  of  Chair- 
man Madden's  term  of  appointment:  the  two  re- 
maining members  of  the  Board,  differing  in  views 
of  the  NLRB's  fundamental  policy,  stood  dead- 
locked on  matters  that  came  before  them  and  is- 
sued no  more  innovative  orders.  The  eventual  ap- 
pointment of  another  comparatively  conservative 
member,  Harry  A.  Millis,  caused  several  members 
of  the  staff,  noted  for  their  anti-employer  leanings, 
to  resign.  Henry  Ford  remained  obdurate  against 
unions'  demands  that  his  great  automobile-making 
establishment  consent  to  an  election  among  its  em- 
ployees to  choose  affiliation  with  a  labor  organiza- 
tion. After  the  National  election,  John  L.  Lewis 
resigned  from  the  presidency  of  the  C.I.O. ;  he  had 
vowed,  in  an  exhortation  to  the  members  to  vote 
against  President  Roosevelt,  that  he  would  quit  if 
Roosevelt  were  re-elected.  Reportedly  through  his 


Wide  World 


TUP  HRST   FO  BE  CALLED  UNDER  THE  SELECTIVE  SERVICE  ACT 

\  contingent  being  escorted  to  a  camp  in  Illinois 


Wtde  World 


TRANSFER  OF  THE  NATIONAL  GUARD  INTO  FEDERAL  SERVICE 
The  244th  Coast  Artillery  of  New  York  City  mobilized  for  transfer 


Wide  World 


1\DUS1R\    BEGINS   1  HE  MASS  PRODUCTION  OF   COMBAT  PL\NFS 
All-metal  fuselages  in  the  Buffalo  Factory  of  the  C  urtiss  \\right  (  orjK>ration 


Wide  World 

PRESIDENT  ROOSEVELT  AND  MEMBERS  OF  THE  NATIONAL  DEFENSE  COMMISSION 
Grouped  before  ttu  President's  desk  are,  left  to  right   William  C    Knudsen,  Ralph  Budd,  Edw  R  Stettmius,  Jr  ,  Secretary  of 
War  Harry  WoodnnK,  Attorney  General  Robert  Jackson,  Leon  Henderson,  Secretary  of  Navy  Charles  Edison,  Harriet  Elliot,  arid 
(with  face  turned)  (.eneral  George  C  Marshall 


UNITED  STATES 


761 


UNITED  STATES 


influence  another  liberal,  Philip  Murray,  was  cho- 
sen to  succeed  him ;  and  Murray  displayed  at  the 
outset  a  tendency  to  ask  new  concessions  to  his  or- 
ganization at  the  moment  when  conservatives  in 
Congress  were  crying  for  the  suspension  of  labor 
disputes  on  account  of  the  proclaimed  need  for 
utmost  production  to  meet  demands  of  National 
safety.  But  in  the  face  of  evident  strong  hostility, 
in  many  directions,  toward  any  "labor  war"  hurtful 
to  the  defensive  program,  no  union  started  any  ma- 
jor strike  comparable  to  those  of  1937. 

Under  the  terms  of  the  Wage  and  Hour  Act, 
Philip  B.  Fleming,  Administrator  of  the  Wage  and 
Hour  Division  (q.v.),  put  into  effect  the  40-hour 
week  (usually  of  5  working  days  of  8  hours), 
which  became  obligatory  on  October  24  as  to  em- 
ployment affected  by  the  act.  By  the  Supreme 
Court's  ruling  (April  29)  such  regulation  applied 
even  to  work  on  Federal  contracts.  Though  em- 
ployers might  still,  under  the  40-hour  week,  get 
more  hours  of  employment  to  the  week,  they  must 
pay  1%  times  the  regular  pay  for  extra  hours.  The 
new  arrangement  delayed  the  generality  of  that 
part  of  industry  which  was  trying  to  swell  the  out- 
put of  goods  demanded  to  raise  the  power  of  the 
army  and  navy;  for  at  a  moment  when,  as  de- 
clared emphatically  by  the  Administration,  an  un- 
exampled peril  urged  the  Nation  to  utmost  effort, 
and  when  the  manufacturers  could  not  get  enough 
machine  tools  for  starting  the  desired  production, 
the  use  of  even  the  existing  machine  tools  was  cut 
down  far  below  what  the  existing  force  of  employ- 
ees could  get  out  of  them  unless  the  manufacturers 
paid  heavily  for  additional  working  time  The  De- 
partment of  War  met  the  demand  on  its  own  six 
arsenals  by  ordering  their  operation,  from  August 
10,  by  three  shifts  every  24  hours  for  six  days  a 
week ;  privately  owned  establishments,  still  largely 
working  on  contracts  for  fixed  amount,  and  also 
unable  quickly  to  add  competent  people  to  their 
forces,  did  not  readily  follow  this  example.  A 
group  of  Southern  Governors  failed  in  litigation  to 
prevent  new,  higher  minimum  wages,  regarded  as 
a  blow  to  Southern  factories,  from  going  into  ef- 
fect, under  the  Wage-and-Hour  Act  A  decision  of 
the  Supreme  Court  (May  27)  gave  the  Wage  and 
Hour  Division,  instead  of  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission,  the  regulation  of  about  200,000  em- 
ployed in  running  trucks  and  busses  The  rates  of 
minimum  pay  of  about  a  like  number  employed  in 
making  garments  were  raised  (July  14)  by  the 
Administrator's  order.  The  Division  successfully 
maintained  in  the  courts  its  asserted  right  to  force 
employers  to  show  it  the  accounts  of  their  payrolls. 
An  embargo  was  put  in  June  on  the  exportation  of 
machine  tools;  it  was  later  (December  4)  much 
expanded. 

Prosecutions.  The  Department  of  Justice  start- 
ed, early  in  the  year,  to  prosecute  under  the  Anti- 
Trust  law  many  trade  unions,  largely  in  the  A.F.L., 
for  alleged  practices  in  restraint  of  trade;  fre- 
quently groups  of  employers  accused  of  a  part  in 
these  practices  were  also  defendants  Prominent 
prosecutions  in  this  number  are  mentioned  in  arti- 
cles on  the  several  States.  Counsel  for  the  A  F  L. 
failed  to  forestall  these  prosecutions  by  pleading 
in  the  courts,  as  they  did,  that  the  Clayton  Act  fully 
exempted  unions  from  the  anti-trust  law.  These 
prosecutions  figured  less  in  the  news  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  year.  Anti-trust  prosecutions  of  big 
corporations  progressed.  The  Supreme  Court  held 
against  the  Ethyl  Gasoline  Corporation,  which  was 
ordered  to  cease  making^  the  maintenance  of  prices 
a  feature  of  its  permission  to  other  parties  to  use 


its  patents.  A  Court  of  Appeals'  decision  against 
the  American  Medical  Association's  demurrer  to 
its  indictment  for  conspiracy  brought  nearer  to 
trial  the  Government's  charges  that  the  Association 
had  conspired  in  restraint  of  trade.  The  trial  of  a 
case,  started  in  1937,  against  the  Aluminum  Com- 
pany of  America,  for  conducting  a  monopoly,  was 
finished  in  August,  but  the  bulkiness  of  the  case 
delayed  decision.  Anti-trust  proceedings  were  start- 
ed in  July  against  eight  chief  manufacturers  of 
tobacco.  A  suit  to  undo  the  elaborate  corporate 
structures  of  22  chief  companies  producing  petro- 
leum and  its  products  ran  into  the  objection  from 
the  National  Defense  Commission,  in  September, 
that  such  a  course  would  so  disturb  the  industry  as 
to  hurt  the  Nation's  defensive  efficiency;  the  suit 
was  then  reportedly  shorn  of  a  demand  that  the 
companies  rid  themselves  of  pipe  lines  and  certain 
other  means  of  transport.  Conviction  of  12  oil  com- 
panies in  the  Madison  case  was  sustained  by  the 
Supreme  Court.  Suits  designed  to  aid  the  means 
of  defense  were  brought  against  makers  charged 
with  fixing  the  price  of  cotton  fabric  used  in  air- 
planes and  against  American  firms  enjoying  Ger- 
man patents  (to  free  these  patents  from  restric- 
tions in  the  United  States). 

The  Attorney  General  announced  (March  17) 
that  the  Department  of  Justice  had  given  up  wire- 
tapping as  means  to  get  evidence. 

Regulation  in  Other  Fields.  The  Bituminous 
Coal  Division,  established  in  the  Department  of  the 
Interior  in  1939  to  succeed  the  National  Bituminous 
Coal  Commission,  fixed  minimum  prices  at  the  out- 
set of  May  for  sales  of  soft  coal  by  mines,  accord- 
ing to  districts.  The  Bituminous  Coal  Act,  basis  of 
the  power  of  the  Commission  and  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior  as  its  successor,  passed  muster 
with  the  Supreme  Court  (May  20)  as  constitution- 
ally valid.  The  Court  had  killed  the  predecessor 
Guffey  Act  about  4  years  before  but  had  been 
largely  made  over  with  Presidential  nominees. 

The  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  (q.v.)  re- 
ported (August  31)  that  it  had  in  recent  years  set 
or  proposed  reductions  of  nearly  60  per  cent  in  the 
debt,  previously  $3,708,484,169,  of  25  bankrupt  rail- 
roads. The  ICC  reduced  the  freight  rates  on  cotton 
in  May.  It  reported  (January  26)  adversely  to  the 
President  on  a  projected  canal  between  Lake  Erie 
and  the  Ohio  River,  as  likely  to  weaken  the  rail- 
roads in  the  region.  It  made  effective  on  March  25 
a  reduction  of  the  basic  fare  for  passengers  on  the 
Eastern  railroads,  to  2  cents  a  mile.  The  President 
assumed,  by  proclamation  of  June  27,  power  of 
control  over  the  movement  of  ships,  both  American 
and  foreign,  in  adjacent  waters.  The  Priorities 
Board  of  the  Defense  Commission  restricted  com- 
mercial aviation,  at  the  end  of  November,  to  the 
receipt  of  airplanes  already  toward  completion  and 
to  parts  urgently  needed 

Alteration  of  the  corporate  structure  of  holding 
companies  in  the  field  of  supplying  electrical  cur- 
rent was  advanced  early  in  the  year,  by  the  SEC. 
The  Associated  Gas  and  Electric  Company,  in  this 
group,  sought  (January  10)  reorganization  under 
the  bankruptcy  law ;  its  head,  Howard  C.  Hopson, 
prosecuted  thereafter  for  using  the  mail  in  fraudu- 
lent operations,  was  convicted  (December  31)  on 
evidence  to  the  purport  that  he  had  wrongfully  got 
nearly  $20,000,000  from  companies  in  the  Associ- 
ated system.  The  RFC  offered  its  credit  (August 
15)  to  the  service  of  utility  districts  in  the  area  of 
Seattle,  to  help  them  buy  out  the  distributing  prop- 
erties of  the  Puget  Sound  Power  and  Light  Com- 
pany. The  Federal  Power  Commission  won  (De- 


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cember  16)  in  the  Supreme  Court,  the  long-con- 
tested New  River  case,  against  the  Appalachian 
Electric  Power  Company  and  41  of  the  States; 
the  Court  affirmed  the  Commission's  authority  to 
give  licenses,  as  it  might  decide,  for  enterprises  to 
obtain  hydroelectric  power  from  rivers  classed  as 
waterways.  (See  ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER.) 

A  special  Federal  court  of  three  judges  decided 
against  Secretary  of  Agriculture  Wallace  in  the 
Kansas  City  Stockyard  case:  it  restored  earlier 
marketing  rates  that  the  Secretary  had  ordered 
changed  in  1937  and  awarded  to  the  marketing  peo- 
ple the  impounded  money  resulting  from  the  differ- 
ence between  the  two  sets  of  rates.  A  new  head  of 
the  Farm  Credit  Administration  (q.v.),  A.  G. 
Black,  after  taking  office,  pronounced  (February 
24)  for  a  policy  of  leniency  toward  worthy  delin- 
quent agricultural  debtors,  designed  to  keep  them 
on  their  farms.  There  followed,  none  the  less,  con- 
siderable display  of  dissatisfaction  with  the  gov- 
ernmental reorganization  of  1939  that  had  reduced 
the  FCA  from  an  independent  office  to  a  part  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture ;  and  the  master  of 
the  National  Grange  asked  Congress  to  restore  the 
FCA  to  independence.  The  Department  of  Com- 
merce gave  much  attention  to  obtaining  and  dis- 
seminating data  on  the  barriers  set  up  by  the  laws 
of  individual  States  to  the  disadvantage  of  goods 
from  other  States.  The  Federal  Communications 
Commission  (q.v.)  revoked  (May  27)  a  previously- 
given  order  to  permit  broadcasts  of  television  to 
start  in  September. 

LEGISLATION 

76th  Congress,  Third  Session.  (For  names 
of  members  see  SENATE,  and  REPRESENTATIVES, 
HOUSE  OF,)  The  third  (or  regular  second)  session 
of  the  76th  Congress  convened  on  January  3.  It 
adjourned  formally  only  on  Jan.  3,  1941,  the  date 
of  the  convening  of  the  77th  Congress.  The  session 
thus  lasted  for  367  calendar  days,  exceeding  the 
duration  of  any  previous  session  Some  members' 
aversion  to  disbanding  the  Legislative  branch  of 
the  Government  at  a  moment  of  grave  uncertain- 
ties, rather  than  pressure  of  business,  kept  the  ses- 
sion going;  brief,  successive  recesses  spaced  out 
much  of  its  last  months.  Prior  to  the  end  of  Oc- 
tober, however,  it  passed  many  measures  of  mo- 
ment. 

Main  Features  of  the  Session.  From  June  on- 
ward, a  prevailing  sense  of  need  to  put  the  United 
States  in  such  a  state  of  warlike  preparedness  as 
to  assure  it  against  risk  of  numerous  European  na- 
tions' fate,  which  they  were  then  suffering,  gov- 
erned the  great  majority  of  the  members,  which- 
ever their  party.  Few  openly  tried  to  cast  doubt  on 
the  peril  or  to  bound  measures  against  it  within  the 
order  of  any  precedent  short  of  an  actual  and  dubi- 
ous war.  There  resulted  appropriations  that  dwarfed 
the  deficit  years  of  the  New  Deal ;  grants  of  Exec- 
utive power  comparable  to  these  grants  of  money ; 
a  great  increase  in  the  Federal  levies  on  the  net  re- 
turn of  profitable  industry;  a  far  more  unprece- 
dented demand  upon  the  yet  unestablished  lives  of 
the  young  men,  in  the  form  of  peacetime  conscrip- 
tion ;  and  a  flock  of  measures  for  the  restraint  of 
anti-Governmental  activities  that  had  in  days  of 
self-confidence  been  ignored  or  tolerated.  Measures 
within  the  ordinary  scope  of  Congress,  though  less 
noted  at  the  time,  covered  much  ground  (see,  be- 
low, Transportation  Act,  Investment  Company  Act, 
Political  Activity  Act  of  1940,  Bridge  Act,  etc.) 
and  some  were  hailed  as  beneficent. 

Enactments.  There  follows  a  brief  summary 


of  conspicuous  points  in  important  measures  enact- 
ed by  Congress. 

Taxation  and  National  P«bt: 

Revenue  Act  of  1940.  signed  June  25,  created  an  in- 
tended additional  $1,000,000,000  of  internal  revenue  year- 
ly, for  five  years,  chiefly  by.  lower  exemption!  and  higher 
rates  of  tax  and  surtax  on  incomes  and  by  defenses  taxes 
adding  generally  10  per  cent  to  income  taxes  and  most 
other  internal  revenue;  also,  authorized  the  Treasury  to 
issue  $4,000,000,000  of  short-term  obligations  above  the 
previous  debt-limit  of  45  billions. 

Second  Revenue  Act  of  1940  (Excess-Profits  Tax  Act), 
signed  October  8,  further  taxed  a  part  of  corporate  income 
by  levying  up  to  50  per  cent  on  profits  exceeding  either  8 
per  cent  of  invested  capital  or  95  per  cent  of  average  yearly 
earnings  of  1936-39,  as  the  payer  chose;  also  raised  the 
normal  corporate  income  tax  for  all  but  small  companies 
to  24  per  cent;  and  exempted  from  taxation,  in  the  case 
of  companies  expanding  to  work  for  National  defense, 
enough  earnings  to  amortize  cost  of  expansion  in  five 
years. 

Chief  Appropriation!: 

Military  Establishment  Supply  Act,  signed  June  13,  ap- 
propriated $1,449,323,322  for  the  Army  •  expenditure  in 
the  fiscal  year  1941,  including  $79,505,988  for  airplanes 
and  their  equipment,  and  authorized  up  to  $103,300,000 
of  further  airplane  contracts. 

Naval  Appropriation  Act,  signed  June  11,  appropriated 
$1,308.171,138  for  the  Navy's  expenses  of  the  next  fiscal 
year,  including  $340,371,979  for  building  naval  vessels 
and  commencing,  among  others,  two  battleships. 

First  Supplemental  National  Defense  Appropriation  Act, 
signed  October  9,  appropriated  $1,497,777,147  for  addi- 
tional expenditure  in  many  directions  by  army  and  navy, 
for  defensive  preparations.  See  also  DEFENSIVE  PREPARA- 
TIONS. 

Second  Supplemental  National  Defense  Appropriation 
Act,  signed  September  9,  appropriated  $1,793,372,532  for 
army  requirements,  including  over  $500,000,000  each  for 
Air  Corps  and  Chemical  Warfare  Service,  $703,643,860 
for  the  navy,  largely  for  more  airplanes  and  ships,  and 
$100,000,000  for  the  President  to  allocate  for  housing 
needed  near  army  posts,  navy  yards,  and  factories;  also 
authorized  army  and  navy  contracts  for  $2.754,470,000 

Third  Supplemental  Defense  Appropriation  Act,  signed 
October  8,  appropriated  $1,248,792,636  for  the  army  and 
$75,401,000  tor  the  navy,  much  of  the  army's  total  cover- 
ing costs  connected  with  the  active  service  of  the  National 
Guard  and  the  maintenance  of  the  Selective-Service  con- 
scripts. 

Army  Housing  Act,  signed  September  24,  appropriated 
$329,519,902  for  constructing  buildings  and  flying  fields  at 
army  posts. 

Independent  Offices  Supply  Act,  signed  April  18,  ap- 
propriated $1,120,243,528  for  the  expenses,  in  the  fiscal 
year  1941,  of  the  Civil  Aeronautics  Authority  ($27.721.- 
954).  Civil  Service  Commission  ($97,241,000),  Public 
Roads  Administration  ($140,990,000,  mainly  road-aid  to 
States),  Veterans'  Administration  ($580,005,544),  TVA 
($40,000,000),  and  other  offices. 

State,  Commerce,  and  Justice  Supply  Act,  signed  May 
14,  appropriated  $107,149,000  for  the  departments  named. 

Interior  Department  Supply  Act,  signed  June  18,  ap- 
propriated $135,382,330  for  that  Department. 


(recoverable  from  its  receipts,  mostly,  or  all) 

Agricultural  Appropriation  Act,  signed  June  25,  $212,- 
000,000  for  parity  payments  on  wheat,  cotton,  corn,  rice, 
and  tobacco;  $438.560,000  for  soil-conservation  payments, 
plus  $60,000,000  of  unobligated  balances  from  1940:  $3,075,- 
000  for  Rural  Electrification  Administration,  with  author- 
ity for  it  to  borrow  $100,000,000  from  the  RFC;  $6,100,- 
000  to  aid  tenant  farmers  and  authority  to  borrow  150,- 
000,000  from  the  RFC  therefor;  total  appropriation,  $918,- 
603  918 

ifrar  'Department  Civil  Functions  Act,  signed  June  24, 
granted  $222,718,717,  chiefly  for  work  on  rivers  and  har- 
bors, control  of  floods,  and  the  Panama  Canal. 

First  Supplemental  Civil  Functions  Appropriation  Act, 
signed  October  9,  added  $228,132,013  to  divers  appropria- 
tions for  the  fiscal  year  1941 

Four  deficiency  appropriation  acts:  $487,809,261  for 
fiscal  year  1940 

Fighting-Power: 

Naval  Expansion  Act,  signed  June  14.  added  167,000 
tons,  mainly  in  aircraft-carriers  and  cruisers,  to  the  au- 
thorized tonnage  of  naval  vessels,  empowered  the  President 
to  construct  the  additional  ships,  and  set  the  intended 
minimum  of  useful  naval  airplanes  at  4500.  See  NAVAL 
PROGRESS 

Naval  Aircraft  and  Public  Works  Act,  signed  June  15, 
authorized  increase  of  naval  airplanes  to  a  maximum  of 
10,000  and  the  construction  of  $144,132,000  of  additional 
facilities  for  naval  aviation. 

Naval  Building  Acceleration  Act,  signed  June  28,  gave 


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UNITED  STATES 


the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  and  the  President  powen  to 
promote  quicker  results  in  naval  construction,  by  cash  ad- 
vances on  contracts,  by  prior  receipt  of  needed  material, 
and  by  suspension  of  requirements  of  the  Walsh-Healer 
Act,  but  limited  the  allowable  profit,  on  contracts  that  al- 
lowed a  percentage  of  cost,  to  8  per  cent. 

Defense  Expediting  Act,  signed  July  2,  similar  to  the 
Naval  Building  Acceleration  Act,  gave  special  powers  to 
the  Secretary  of  War  to  hasten  production  necessary  to 
the  land  forces,  and  removed  the  limit  to  the  number  of 
the  Army  Air  Corps's  flying  cadets. 

Two-Ocean  Navy  Act,  signed  July  19,  designed  to  pro- 
vide secure  naval  defense  in  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans 
simultaneously,  authorized  an  additional  1,325,000  tons  of 
naval  vessels,  the  total  tonnage  including  385,000  in  capital 
ships,  200,000  in  aircraft  carriers,  420,000  in  cruisers,  and 
70.000  in  destroyers,  and  appropriated  $150,000,000  to 
help  equip  establishments  to  build  the  ships  and  $65,000,- 
000  and  $35,000,000  respectively  for  like  aid  to  makers  of 
ordnance  and  of  armor.  See  NAVAL  PROGRESS. 

National  Guard  Act,  signed  August  27,  empowered  the 
President  to  put  the  National  Guard  into  active  service 
for  12  consecutive  months  prior  to  June  30,  1942. 

Selective  Training  and  Service  Act  of  1940,  signed  Sep- 
tember 16,  set  up  a  system  of  compulsory  service  in  the 
armed  forces — in  effect,  the  army  only — tor  selected  men 
of  the  group  from  21  to  35  years  old,  and  gave  the  Presi- 
dent power  to  seize  establishments  that  aid  not  comply 
with  Federal  orders  to  produce  war-goods.  See  DRAFT, 
MILITARY. 

Federal  Lending  Agencies: 

RFC  Act  of  1940,  signed  June  25,  authorized  the  Re- 
construction Finance  Corporation  to  lend  to,  or  buy  stock 
in,  any  corporation  producing,  acquiring,  or  carrying  stra- 
tegic materials  or  needing  to  obtain  facilities  for  producing 
war  goods,  subject  to  the  President's  approval. 

Commodity  Credit  Act  of  1940.  signed  August  9,  raised 
the  lending  limit  of  the  Commodity  Credit  Corporation  to 
$1,400,000.000  from  $900,000,000 

Export-import  Bank  Act,  signed  September  26,  author- 
ized this  Federal  agency,  on  request  of  the  Federal  Loan 
Administrator,  approved  by  the  President,  to  lend  to  any 
government  or  its  central  bank,  or  with  the  guarantee  of 
these  two,  to  any  agency  or  national  of  such  a  government, 
in  the  Western  Hemisphere,  and  enabled  the  Bank  to  get 
up  to  $500,000,000,  for  such  loans,  from  the  RFC. 

Aid  to  European  Lands: 

Finland  Loan  Act,  signed  March  2,  added  to  the  Export- 
Import  Bank's  authority  to  lend  to  foreign  governments 
and  limited  such  loans  to  Governments  not  in  default  as 
to  war  debts  (the  object  being  a  loan  to  Finland) 

Finland  War-Debt  Act,  signed  June  15,  granted  Finland 
a  postponement  of  payment  on  war  debt  till  the  end  of 
1940  and  authorized  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to 
agree  that  Finland  make  the  postponed  payment  by  install- 
ments over  10  vears,  with  interest  at  3  per  cent 

Red  Cross  Snip  Act,  signed  June  26,  amended  the  Neu- 
trality Act  of  1939  so  as  to  let  American  vessels  convey 
Red  Cross  workers,  medical  supplies,  food,  and  clothing  to 
ports  of  belligerents 

Mercy  Ship  Act,  signed  August  27,  amended  the  Neu- 
trality Act  of  1939  so  as  to  let  American  ships  bring  refu- 
gee children  away  from  areas  of  war. 

Control  of  Aliens,  Foreign  Agents,  Spies,  etc.: 

Espionage  Act,  signed  March  28,  raised  the  penalties 
for  violation  of  the  act  of  1917  as  to  espionage  and  related 
acts  in  peacetime  to  10  years  and  $10,000  maximum  for 
espionage,  put  the  utmost  penalty  for  sabotage  at  20  years 
and  $10,000,  and  provided  punishment  up  to  10  years  and 
$5000  for  injurious  propaganda 

Foreign  Credits  Act,  signed  May  7,  extended  the  Presi- 
dent's powers  over  transactions  in  foreign  values,  to  in- 
elude  rule  over  the  handling  of  or  dealing  in  evidences  of 
debt  or  ownership  involving  any  foreign  State,  subdivision, 
or  national 

Alien  Registration  Act,n\gned  June  28,  obliged  aliens  to 
be  registered  and  fingerprinted  by  the  Bureau  of  Immigra- 
tion and  prohibited  all  persons'  advocacy  of  insubordina- 
tion, disloyalty,  mutiny,  or  refusal  of  armed  service. 

Anti-Propaganda  Act{  signed  October  17,  required  the 
registration  of  organizations  engaged  in  political  or  civilian- 
military  activity  or  advocating  the  overthrow  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. 

Repatriation  Act,  signed  July  2,  restored  citizenship  to 
native-born  women  who,  though  married  to  aliens,  had  re- 
sided continuously  in  the  United  States  since  marriage. 

Regulating  Commerce: 

Transportation  Act,  signed  September  18,  declaring  a 
policy  of  impartial  regulation  of  all  modes  of  transportation 
subject  to  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act,  detailed  and  modi- 
fied the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission's  powers  at  many 
points,  required  carriers  by  water  to  make  through  routes 
and  rates  with  other  carriers,  subjected  coastal,  intercoastal, 
and  internal  carriers  by  water  to  the  Commission's  regula- 
tion in  many  respects,  created  a  board  to  investigate  the 
relative  economy,  fitness,  tax  burdens,  and  benefit  from 
public  expenditure  on  their  nght-of -way,  of  carriers  by  rail, 
water,  and  highway,  raised  the  limit  of  the  RFC's  loans  to 


railroads),  and  abolished  discriminative  rates  on  freight* 
See  also  INTERSTATE  COM  H  IK  ex  COMMISSION. 

Investment  Company  Act  of  1940,  signed  August  22, 
required  the  registration  and  regulation  of  investment  com- 
panies and  of  investment  advisers,  mainly  by  the  hand  of 
SEC.  See  also  FINANCIAL  REVIEW,  under  Financial 
aulation 

Bridge  Act,  enacted  over  the  President's  veto  June  21, 
required  the  alteration  of  any  bridge  obstructing  navigation 
and  adopted  the  policy  in  the  case  of  railroad  bridges  that 
the  Government  should  bear  such  part  of  the  cost  as  did 
not  profit  a  bridge's  owner. 

Convict-Mad*  Goods  Act,  signed  October  14,  made  it  a 
penal  offence  to  transport  in  interstate  commerce  any  goods 
produced  by  convict  labor 

Affecting  Politics  and  Government: 

Political  Activity  Act  of  1940.  signed  July  19,  brought 
under  the  restrictions  of  the  Political  Activity  Act  (Hatch 
Act)  of  1939  such  employees  of  States  as  were  connected 
with  functions  supported  wholly  or  partly  by  Federal  money 
and  put  a  limit  of  $3,000,000  on  the  yearly  expenditure 
and  receipt  of  contributions  by  any  political  committee. 

Civil  Service  Act  of  1940,  signed  November  26,  per- 
mitted the  President  to  admit  into  the  classified  civil  serv- 
ice Federal  employees  not  already  included,  with  some 
exceptions,  mainly  the  forces  of  the  WPA  and  the  TVA. 

Reapportionment  Act  of  1940,  signed  April  25,  post- 
poned until  the  week  of  the  meeting  of  the  /7th  Congress 
(in  January,  1941)  the  President's  submission  of  the  re- 
quired apportionment  of  the  Representatives  on  the  basis 
of  the  16th  Census,  advancement  in  the  dates  for  convening 
sessions  having  made  the  time  for  this  duty  of  the  Presi- 
dent, as  set  in  the  old  Reapportionment  Act,  come  in  ad- 
vance of  the  census. 

Governmental  Reorganisation  Act  of  1940,  signed  June 
4,  gave  approval  to  the  Executive  reorganizations  III,  IV, 
and  V,  and  set  dates  for  their  going  into  effect. 

Public  Support  for  the  Poor: 

Emergency  Relief  Act  of  1940,  signed  June  27,  appro- 
priated $1,157,711,357  for  expenditure  in  the  fiscal  year 
1941  on  divers  sorts  of  public  support  for  individuals,  of 
which  $975,000,000  was  for  the  WPA  and  $50,000,000  for 
the  President  to  use  in  aiding  refugees;  also,  excluded 
Communists  and  persons  connected  with  the  Nazis  from 
the  WPA's  payrolls. 

Total  of  Appropriations.  In  common  phrase 
the  session  "spent"  or  "voted"  over  27  billions. 
That  total  included  possible  expenditure  of  several 
sorts :  appropriations  for  the  fiscal  year  1941 ;  some 
deficiency  appropriations  for  the  fiscal  year  1940 ; 
"permanent"  appropriations  payable  from  receipts 
of  trust  funds ;  authorization  of  contracts  commit- 
ting the  Government  to  pay  money  that  would  have 
to  be  appropriated  later;  and  authorization  of  a 
plan  to  build  the  navy  up,  over  a  course  of  years,  to 
effectual  strength  on  two  oceans  at  once  (contracts 
therefor  not  generally  being  yet  authorized  as  to 
amounts).  Appropriations  proper  came  to  $16,920,- 
627,477  (of  this,  $16,257,787,781  for  fiscal  year 
1941)  ;  permanent  appropriations,  to  $2,148,921,- 
298;  authorizations  for  obligation  by  contract,  to 
$4,066,191,860;  and  the  expected  cost  of  building 
to  attain  a  two-ocean  navy,  to  $4,586,000,000.  For 
the  Army,  the  share  of  appropriations  ($5,612,665,- 
170  for  1941)  and  authorizations  of  contracts  to- 
taled $8,792,145,145  (as  reported  in  the  New  York 
Times)  ;  for  the  Navy,  appropriations  ($2,512,448,- 
407  for  1941)  and  authorizations  totaled  $3,537,- 
138,137;  for  civil  costs  connected  with  defense  or 
with  enforcement  of  law  as  to  neutrality,  $766,- 
944,648.  The  total  likely  to  be  spent  in  the  fiscal 
year  1941  remained  unpredictable :  there  lacked  any 
way  of  telling  how  fast  the  work  of  armament 
would  progress.  The  amount  of  all  expenditure 
contemplated  by  acts  of  the  session  reportedly  ex- 
ceeded every  previous  total  of  the  sort  except  that 
for  the  second  session  of  the  65th  Congress  in  1918. 

Bills  that  Failed.  Bills  killed  by  veto  included 
mandatory  deportation  of  aliens  guilty  of  sabotage 
or  espionage,  having  a  criminal  record,  or  violating 
the  law  on  narcotics ;  permission  to  States  to  inter- 
vene in  a  suit  raising  an  issue  between  Federal  and 
State  powers ;  extension  of  crop  insurance  to  cot- 
ton; reimbursement  of  Ohio  for  social-security 


UNITED  8TATBS 


764      UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES 


money  withheld  in  October,  1938 ;  and  appropria- 
tion of  about  $110,000.000  for  improvement  of  riv- 
ers and  harbors.  The  Logan-Walter  bill,  to  submit 
administrative  agencies'  rulings  to  courts'  review, 
was  passed  after  a  long  struggle;  it  was  vetoed, 
December  18. 

The  House  killed,  by  adverse  amendments  a  bill 
strongly  supported  in  the  South,  to  extend  exemp- 
tions from  the  minimum  wages.  A  measure  to 
terminate  the  President's  authority  to  buy  silver 
abroad  passed  the  Senate  but  did  not  come  through 
the  House.  Amendments  to  the  National  Labor  Re- 
lations Act,  tending  to  mend  its  conceived  antago- 
nism to  employers,  passed  the  House,  with  the  aid 
of  the  A.F.L.,  but  did  not  reach  the  statute  books. 
The  House  sent  to  the  Senate,  as  it  had  before,  an 
anti-lynching  bill,  which  the  Southern  strength  in 
the  Senate  and  a  virtual  cessation  of  lynchings  of 
Negroes  kept  from  going  farther.  A  bill  for  the 
summary  deportation  of  Harry  B.  Bridges,  poten- 
tate over  unionized  maritime  workers  on  the  Pacif- 
ic Coast,  died  after  leaving  the  House  The  House 
voted  a  resolution  to  invalidate  Executive  Reorgan- 
ization IV,  condemned  because  it  put  civil  aero- 
nautics back  under  departmental  control ;  the  Sen- 
ate's rejection  of  a  similar  rebolution  let  the  change 
go  into  force. 

Organization  of  the  Houses.  William  B. 
Bankhead,  speaker  of  the  House,  died  on  Septem- 
ber 15.  The  members  chose  Sam  Rayburn  of  Texas 
to  succeed  to  the  speakership  and  named  John  W. 
McCormack  of  Massachusetts  to  be  floor  leader  in 
Rayburn's  place. 

The  absence  of  Vice-President  Garner  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  year  left  to  substitutes  the  duties  of 
the  President  of  the  Senate.  The  death  of  Senator 
Key  Pittman  of  Nevada  (November  10)  deprived 
the  committee  on  foreign  affairs  of  an  experienced 
chairman.  William  £.  Borah  of  Idaho,  who  died 
on  January  19,  was  not  only  the  Senator  of  longest 
service  but  the  foremost  of  the  Senators  in  Nation- 
al renown. 

Investigations.  For  the  work  of  the  House  of 
Representatives'  special  committee  investigating  un- 
American  activities,  which  by  the  nature  of  its  task 
touched  closely  on  some  of  the  Nation's  gravest 
current  concerns  and  did  much  to  shape  opinion 
on  disruptive  groups;  see  DIES  COMMITTEE.  The 
House's  committee  investigating  the  NLRB,  which 
had  begun  its  work  the  year  before,  disclosed  many 
purported  singularities  in  the  proceedings  of  that 
body:  for  instance,  removal  of  its  trial  examiner 
from  conduct  of  a  case  on  the  C.I.O.  complaint  that 
he  had  made  rulings  in  the  employer's  favor,  in- 
structions from  Board  Chairman  Madden  to  regional 
directors  on  how  best  to  influence  members  of  Con- 
gress, and  consultation  with  Harry  B.  Bridges, 
C.I  O.  leader,  on  what  lawyer  should  be  sent  out 
to  deal  with  a  labor  case.  It  appeared  from  testi- 
mony that  the  Board  had  in  one  case  obtained  in- 
formation, outside  of  the  proceedings  of  record, 
that  helped  it  to  decide  in  favor  of  employees,  but 
that  in  another  case  it  had  refused  to  reopen  pro- 
ceedings for  further  information  that  an  employer 
sought  to  put  on  the  record.  Chairman  Madden 
testified  on  a  so-called  blacklist  of  employers,  given 
to  the  RFC  by  the  NLRB,  which  was  likely  to 
decide  in  some  instances  whether  firms  on  the 
list  should  obtain  loans.  The  committee,  acting  by 
a  majority  of  3  to  2,  submitted  to  the  House 
(March  7)  a  bill  designed  to  abolish  the  NLRB 
and  put  in  its  place  a  board  without  prosecuting 
powers.  The  House's  committee  on  appropriations, 
authorized  in  March,  1939,  to  investigate  the  WPA, 


made  an  extensive  report  on  the  subject  (May  15, 
1940)  :  dealing  with  operations  in  only  a  minority 
of  the  States,  this  report  contained  charges  of  un- 
due favoring  of  individuals  of  liberal  affiliations 
(as  in  New  York  City),  want  of  thorough  plan- 
ning of  expensive  projects  (notably  New  York 
City's  North  Beach  airport),  heedless  extravagance 
(a  rat-extermination  project  in  New  Orleans  al- 
legedly cost  $2.87  for  each  exterminated  rat),  and 
more  or  less  illicit  profiting ;  many  of  the  accusa- 
tions lacked  novelty,  so  the  report  made  no  great 
sensation,  but  it  gave  strength  to  scattered  criticism 
by  uniting  it,  and  it  helped  put  through  the  anti- 
Communist  provision  included  with  the  year's  ap- 
propriation for  the  WPA.  A  special  committee  of 
the  House,  to  investigate  the  migrant  population, 
was  authorized  (April  22) ;  its  proponents  had  for- 
mer farmers  set  adrift  by  drought — the  "human 
erosion  of  the  dust  bowl" — particularly  in  view. 

The  Senate's  committee  investigating  campaign 
expenditures  performed  much  work  during  the  Na- 
tional campaign  of  1940,  but  its  inquiries  did  not 
lead  to  the  disqualification  of  any  important  candi- 
date up  to  the  end  of  the  year.  The  committee's 
chairman,  Gillette  of  Iowa,  charged  "debauchery  of 
the  ballot"  in  a  public  speech  (December  2).  The 
postponement  in  1932  of  an  anti -trust  case  against 
the  Radio  Corporation  of  America  was  investigat- 
ed by  the  Senate's  committee  on  interstate  com- 
merce, and  allegations  adverse  to  a  number  of  per- 
sons were  brought  out  The  Senate's  subcommittee 
investigating  civil  liberties  (La  Follette  committee) 
obtained  at  San  Francisco  in  January  testimony  on 
the  close  co-operation,  in  some  of  California's  agri- 
cultural counties,  of  county  officers  with  local  or- 
ganizations of  the  Associated  Farmers  to  prevent 
strikes  among  the  agricultural  hired  workers ;  in 
May  the  committee  gave  out  data  to  show  that  the 
migratory  agricultural  hired  workers  in  Texas  got 
too  little  and  too  precarious  pay  for  proper  living 
A  Senate  subcommittee  brought  out  in  November 
evidence  of  a  covert  business  in  wire-tapping  for 
hire. 

The  Temporary  National  Economic  Committee 
(a  select  committee  of  Senators,  Representatives, 
and  individuals  from  the  administrative  branch  of 
the  Government)  made  some  further  progress  in 
1940,  along  its  immense  potential  orbit  through  the 
Nation's  economic  field.  Among  subjects  investi- 
gated were  the  practices  of  life-insurance  com- 
panies with  regard  to  making  profitable  types  of 
underwriting  pay  the  losses  of  the  unprofitable; 
States'  laws  indirectly  excluding  or  hampering  the 
introduction  of  goods  from  other  States ;  and  the 
disputed  connection  between  increased  use  of  labor, 
saving  machinery  and  increased  unemployment 

See  ARGENTINA,  AUSTRALIA,  BOLIVIA,  BRAZIL, 
CANADA,  CHILE,  CHINA,  COLOMBIA,  COSTA  RICA, 
CUBA,  DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC,  ECUADOR,  FINLAND, 
FRANCE,  GERMANY,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  GREENLAND, 
GUATEMALA,  HAITI,  ICELAND,  IRAN,  IRAQ,  ITALY, 
JAPAN,  LITHUANIA,  MEXICO,  NETHERLANDS  IN- 
DIES, NEW  ZEALAND,  NICARAGUA,  PANAMA,  PERU, 
PHILIPPINES,  SPAIN,  TANGIER,  URUGUAY,  under 
History ;  FASCISM  ;  INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  ;  LA- 
BOR CONDITIONS. 

UNIVERSALISTS.  A  religious  denomina- 
tion which  holds  as  part  of  its  doctrine  the  univer- 
sal fatherhood  of  God  and  brotherhood  of  man. 
Headquarters,  16  Beacon  St.,  Boston,  Mass.  See 
RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS. 

UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Educational  Directory  published  by 
the  U.S.  Office  of  Education,  there  were  1699  in- 


UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES      765 


URUGUAY 


stitutions  devoted  to  higher  education  in  the  United 
States  in  1940.  The  distribution  of  these  institu- 
tions by  type,  student  body,  and  control  is  shown 
in  the  accompanying  table : 


See  ARCHITECTURE;  EDUCATION  and  the  section 
on  Education  under  the  various  countries;  EDU- 
CATION, U.S.  OFFICE  OF.  For  donations  and  grants, 
see  BENEFACTIONS;  CARNEGIE  ENDOWMENTS; 


INSTITUTIONS  OF  HIGHER  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
[Statistics  from  U  S.  Educational  Directory,  1940] 


Distribution  according  to 
Student  Body 

Distribution  according  to  Type  of  Control 

Type  of  institution 

Total 

Institu- 
tions for 
men 

Institu- 
tions for 
women 

Coeduca- 
tional tn- 
stitutions 

State 
control 

District 
or  city 
control 

Private 
control 

Denominational 

Protes- 
tant 

Roman 
Catholic 

College  or  university 
Professional  school 

673 
256 

99 
83 

148 

426 
166 

96 

18- 

13 
1 

170 
153 

255 
65 

139 
19 

Teachers  college  . 

169 

15 

154 

147 

5 

12 

1 

4 

Normal  school 

58 

2 

20 

36 

30 

5 

16 

4 

Junior  college 

435 

31 

86 

318 

32 

172 

88 

104 

39 

Negro  institutions 

College  or  university 

61 

2 

2 

57 

15 

2 

6 

37 

1 

Professional  school 

7 

1 

6 

1 

4 

2 

Teachers  college 

12 

1 

11 

9 

3 

Normal  school 

4 

4 

1 

3 

Junior  college 

24 

24 

6 

1 

3 

14 

Total: 

White  institutions 

1,591 

215 

276 

1,100 

323 

196 

439 

428 

205 

Negro  institutions 

108 

3 

3 

102 

31 

6 

14 

56 

1 

Grand  total 

1,699 

218 

279 

1,202 

354 

202 

453 

484 

206 

•  Includes  3  under  Public  control. 


The  Office  of  Education  estimated  the  enroll- 
ment in  all  institutions  of  higher  education  at 
1,425,000  (including  100,000  graduate  students)  for 
the  school  year  1940-41 ;  of  this  number,  approxi- 
mately 400,000  were  entering  as  college  freshmen. 
The  instructional  staff,  not  including  officers,  etc., 
totaled  110,000.  According  to  a  survey  by  Dr. 
Raymond  Walters  of  652  approved  universities 
and  colleges,  full-time  enrollment  for  1940  in- 
creased 2.7  per  cent  over  1939  to  a  total  of  883,594. 
Part-time  and  summer  school  students  brought 
the  grand  total  to  1,347,146.  The  number  of  fresh- 
men entering  the  engineering  field  (32,321)  in- 
creased 5  per  cent,  while  the  Liberal  Arts  courses 
lost  1.5  per  cent,  teachers'  colleges  7.4  per  cent, 
and  agriculture  8.4  per  cent  New  York  University 
had  the  largest  total,  35,623  although  the  Uni- 
versity of  California  had  the  largest  full-time 
student  body,  25,989. 

On  pages  766-787,  there  appear  in  tabular 
form  a  list  of  and  statistics  for  the  accredited  uni- 
versities and  colleges  of  the  United  States.  This 
information  has  been  compiled  from  the  1940  edi- 
tion of  American  Universities  and  Colleges,  edited 
by  Clarence  Stephen  Marsh  and  published  by  the 
American  Council  on  Education,  Washington,  B.C. 
Except  as  amended  in  footnotes,  the  information 
pertains  to  the  academic  year  1938-39.  The  follow- 
ing statement  explains  the  compilation  of  the  list : 

"The  American  Council  on  Education  does  not  accredit 
or  approve  educational  institutions.  It  accepts  the  lists  of 
institutions  approved  by  the  regional  accrediting  associa- 
tions 

Each  institution  whose  exhibit  U  contained  in  this 
book  has  been  approved  by  one  of  these  associations  or 
in  the  case  of  one  state  by  the  state  department  of  educa- 
tion. Associations  whose  accredited  lists  have  been  used 
are  the  Middle  States  Association  of  Colleges  and  Sec- 
ondary Schools,  the  North  Central  Association  of  Col- 
leges and  Secondary  Schools,  the  Northwest  Association 
of  Secondary  and  Higher  Schools,  the  Southern  Associa- 
tion of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools,  the  Association 
of  American  Universities,  and  the  American  Association 
of  Teachers  Colleges:  college  members  of  the  New  Eng- 
land Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  have 
also  been  included." 


GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD;  ROCKEFELLER  FOUN- 
DATION. 

UNTERMEYER  COLLECTION.  See  ART 
under  Art  Sales. 

URANIUM.  See  PHYSICS. 

URUGUAY.  A  South  American  republic.  Cap- 
ital, Montevideo. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  72,153  square 
miles ;  estimated  population  on  Dec.  31, 1938, 2,122,- 
628.  During  1939,  1240  immigrants  entered  the 
country  and  1441  left.  The  people  are  almost  en- 
tirely of  European  descent,  with  Spanish,  Italian, 
and  Portuguese  strains  predominating.  The  lan- 
guage is  Spanish.  Estimated  population  of  Mon- 
tevideo, 703,518  (December,  1938) ;  of  other  cities 
in  1936:  Paysandu,  50,000,  Salto,  48,000;  Mer- 
cedes, 34,000;  Minas,  30,000.  United  States  citizens 
resident  in  Uruguay  Jan.  1,  1940,  numbered  210. 

Defense.  As  of  Nov.  1,  1939,  there  was  a  stand- 
ing army  of  7916  men,  an  air  force  of  318  with 
about  50  planes,  and  24,000  trained  reserves.  The 
National  Guard,  or  militia,  in  which  service  is 
compulsory  in  wartime,  had  a  nominal  strength  of 
100,000.  The  Navy  consisted  of  1  torpedo  gunboat, 
a  survey  ship,  3  patrol  vessels,  and  a  few  minor 
craft.  Defense  appropriations  for  1940  were  11,- 
721,000  pesos  (11.9  per  cent  of  the  budget). 

Education  and  Religion.  Nearly  35  per  cent 
of  all  adults  are  illiterate.  Education  appropria- 
tions for  1940  were  4  1  per  cent  of  the  total  budget. 
A  considerable  number  of  new  school  buildings 
were  completed  during  1939.  Educational  statistics 
(1937) :  Elementary,  1624  schools,  203,616  pupils; 
secondary,  13,458  pupils ;  evening,  9918  pupils ;  nor- 
mal, 1266  students;  university,  1/,122  students.  The 
majority  of  the  people  profess  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith  but  there  is  complete  religious  freedom  and 
no  State  church. 

Production.  Processing  and  manufacturing  in- 
dustries account  for  about  59  per  cent  of  the  total 
national  production,  pastoral  industries  for  24  per 
cent,  and  agriculture  for  about  12  per  cent.  The 
1937  livestock  census  showed  8,296,890  cattle,  17,- 


UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES       766       UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLBQEi 


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URUGUAY 


788 


URUGUAY 


931,327  sheep.  600,000  horses  and  308,000  swine. 
In  1939,  961,096  cattle,  1,501,752  sheep,  and  106,- 
419  swine  were  slaughtered  at  the  f rigorificos 
(packing  plants).  The  1939-40  wool  clip  was  near- 
ly 132,000  bales;  exports,  104,933  bales.  Produc- 
tion of  the  chief  crops  in  1939-40  was  (in  metric 
tons)  :  Wheat,  260,400;  barley,  16,800;  oats,  44,- 
600;  corn,  158,700  (193&-39) ;  rice,  22,164;  pota- 
toes, 38,500  (1938-39).  The  1936  industrial  census 
showed  11,470  factories  employing  90,128  workers. 

Foreign  Trade.  Merchandise  imports  in  1939 
were  valued  at  84,090,240  pesos  (95,600,000  in 
1938)  and  exports  at  101,366,300  pesos  (96,355,000 
in  1938).  In  order  of  value,  the  chief  1939  exports 
were  unwashed  wool,  washed  wool,  linseed,  frozen 
beef,  preserved  meats,  salted  cowhides,  and  wheat. 
Great  Britain  took  18.5  per  cent  of  the  1939  ex- 
ports (26.2  in  1938)  ;  United  States,  139  (40)  ; 
Germany,  12.1  (23.5).  Of  the  1939  imports,  Great 
Britain  supplied  18.3  per  cent  (19.8  in  1938)  ;  Ger- 
many, 16.4  (16.8) ;  United  States,  5.3  (12.1) 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  for  the  calendar  year 
1940  were  the  same  as  for  1939  (receipts,  92,600,- 
000  pesos;  expenditures,  91,200,000).  The  national 
debt  increased  13  7  per  cent  from  350,170,089  pesos 
on  Dec.  31,  1938,  to  398,084,266  pesos  on  Dec  31, 
1939.  On  the  latter  date  the  internal  debt  was  245,- 
909,699  pesos;  external,  147,309,067;  international, 
4,865,500.  Average  free  exchange  rate  of  the  peso 
was  $03626  in  1939  ($04173  in  1938)  ;  controlled 
free  rate,  $04995  in  1939  ($05697  in  1938). 

Transportation.  In  1940  there  were  about  1520 
miles  of  railway  lines,  including  a  33-mile  section 
of  the  state  railways  completed  Dec  4,  1939 ,  some 
22,750  miles  of  highways  (about  260  miles  com- 
pleted in  1939)  ;  and  air  connections  at  Montevideo 
with  all  parts  of  the  Americas  The  European  air 
mail  services  were  in  most  cases  interrupted  by  the 
European  War.  During  1939,  806  commercial  air- 
craft landed  at  Uruguayan  airports  and  1026  ocean- 
going ships  and  943  river  steamers  entered  the 
ports. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  May  18, 
1934,  vested  executive  power  in  a  President  aided 
by  a  Council  of  Ministers,  and  legislative  power 
in  a  Senate  of  30  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies  of 
99  members,  elected  by  popular  male  and  female 
suffrage  for  four  years.  The  Senate  seats  are  di- 
vided equally  between  the  two  political  parties 
receiving  the  highest  number  of  votes  in  a  presi- 
dential election.  The  legislators  proclaim  as  Pres- 
ident for  four  years  the  candidate  chosen  by  the 
voters  from  the  political  party  polling  the  highest 
vote.  His  cabinet  of  nine  members  is  selected  from 
the  two  strongest  parties.  President  in  1940,  Gen. 
Alfredo  Baldomir  (Colorado  party),  who  assumed 
office  June  19,  1938.  His  cabinet  contained  six  Col- 
orados  and  three  Blancos.  The  composition  of  the 
Chamber  elected  Mar.  27,  1938,  was .  Colorados, 
64 ;  Blancos,  29 ;  Socialists.  3 ;  Catholics,  2 ;  Com- 
munists, 1.  In  the  Senate  there  were  15  Colorados 
and  15  Blancos. 

HISTORY 

The  German  Plot.  An  unsuccessful  conspiracy 
by  the  Uruguayan  branch  of  the  German  National 
Socialist  party  to  convert  Urugtiay  into  an  agri- 
cultural colony  of  the  Third  Reich  produced  pro- 
found repercussions  within  that  republic  and 
throughout  the  Western  Hemisphere  in  1940.  The 
Nazi  organizations  in  every  American  republic  had 
been  frequently  accused  of  subversive  activities 
and  in  some  countries  documentary  and  other  sup- 
porting evidence  had  been  obtained  by  public  au- 


thorities (see  articles  on  ARGENTINA,  BRAZIL, 
CHILE,  COLOMBIA,  etc.,  in  YEAR  BOOKS  for  1937 
to  1940  inclusive).  But  the  Uruguayan  conspiracy 
was  the  first  instance  in  which  a  branch  of  the 
German  Nazi  movement  in  the  New  World  was 
shown,  by  evidence  submitted  in  a  court  of  law,  to 
have  prepared  to  seize  power  directly,  without  op- 
erating behind  the  customary  screen  provided  by 
native  revolutionary  elements. 

The  preliminary  evidence  leading  to  the  unveil- 
ing of  the  conspiracy  was  presented  to  the  Minis- 
try of  Defense  early  in  May  by  Prof.  Hugo  Fer- 
nandez Artucio,  who  had  conducted  a  private  in- 
vestigation of  German  activities  in  Uruguay.  This 
evidence  was  produced  before  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  with  the  result  that  on  May  15  it  ap- 
pointed a  committee  to  conduct  a  formal  inquiry. 
The  inquiry  proceeded  while  German  armies 
crushed  the  Netherlands,  Belgium,  Luxemburg, 
and  France  Alarmed  by  the  evidence  turned  up  by 
the  investigating  committee,  the  Uruguayan  Gov- 
ernment on  May  28  urgently  requested  Congres- 
sional approval  of  universal  conscription  and  gen- 
eral rearmament.  It  asked  for  funds  to  purchase 
two  1500-ton  destroyers,  naval  and  military  air- 
planes, heavy-caliber  coast  defense  artillery,  and 
complete  new  equipment  for  the  army  and  navy. 

At  the  same  time  President  Baldomir  asked  Con- 
gress to  amend  the  Constitution  so  as  to  outlaw 
associations  spreading  propaganda  against  the  dem- 
ocratic republican  form  of  government  and  all  po- 
litical organizations  with  foreign  connections 
Other  amendments  banned  use  in  Uruguay  of  uni- 
forms, salutes,  and  insignia  of  foreign  political 
parties,  placed  all  foreign  language  schools  under 
government  control,  curbed  the  importation  of 
printed  political  propaganda,  and  in  other  ways 
empowered  Uruguayan  authorities  to  control  Nazi 
agents  and  their  activities  Meanwhile  the  govern- 
ment sought  to  discourage  anti-Nazi  demonstra- 
tions in  various  parts  of  the  country  and  to  avoid 
an  open  break  with  the  Reich  at  a  time  when  a 
complete  German  victory  in  Europe  seemed  im- 
minent 

The  rearmament  bill  and  constitutional  amend- 
ments were  both  adopted  by  Congress  with  little 
discussion  due  to  the  increasing  gravity  of  the 
crisis.  Acting  on  information  furnished  by  the 
Brazilian  Government,  the  police  on  May  29  dis- 
covered in  the  home  of  Arnulf  Fuhrmann,  a  Nazi 
leader,  at  Salto  on  the  Uruguay  River  a  document 
describing  a  plan  for  the  overthrow  of  the  republic 
with  the  aid  of  German  war  veterans  from  Argen- 
tina. It  called  for  the  "immediate  elimination  of 
all  Jews,  Masons,  and  political  leaders."  Other 
documents  indicated  a  plan  to  use  Uruguay  as  a 
base  for  extending  German  domination  over  all 
South  America. 

Foreign  Aid  Asked.  The  Uruguayan  Govern- 
ment immediately  sent  secret  calls  for  aid  to  Ar- 
gentina, Brazil,  and  the  United  States.  Argentina 
rushed  a  flotilla  of  gunboats  up  the  Uruguay  and 
Parana  rivers  to  patrol  the  river  frontiers  of  Uru- 
guay and  Paraguay.  Brazil  shipped  Uruguay  5000 
rifles  and  5,000,000  rifle  cartridges  to  arm  the  nu- 
merous Uruguayan  volunteers  enlisting  in  the  mili- 
tia as  a  result  of  an  urgent  government  appeal. 
President  Vargas  also  concentrated  Brazilian 
troops  along  the  Uruguayan  frontier  and  offered 
military  aid  in  crushing  the  threatened  uprising. 
The  United  States  hurriedly  dispatched  two  cruis- 
ers to  Montevideo  and  sent  a  military  and  a  naval 
officer  by  air  to  consult  with  Uruguayan  officials. 

Meanwhile  on  June  6  the  Uruguayan  Minister 


URUGUAY 


789 


URUGUAY 


of  Defense  mobilized  all  military  and  police  forces 
and  placed  guards  at  key  communication  and  trans- 
portation centers,  especially  along  the  frontiers. 
Licenses  of  all  amateur  radio  stations  were  can- 
celled. German  Nazi  and  Italian  Fascist  leaders 
were  placed  under  surveillance  along  with  some 
Uruguayan  anti-government  politicians  suspected 
of  conspiring  with  the  Nazis.  Legal  steps  were  also 
planned  to  dissolve  the  German  Nazi  organizations 
and  prosecute  their  leaders. 

At  this  point  the  German  Minister  in  Monte- 
video informed  Uruguayan  authorities  (June  12) 
that  the  Nazi  party  and  German  Labor  Front  or- 
ganizations had  been  dissolved  and  their  properties 
turned  over  to  the  German  Legation.  He  declared 
German  organizations  in  Uruguay  had  been  under 
lus  personal  supervision  since  the  outbreak  of  the 
European  War  and  had  complied  strictly  with  all 
Uruguayan  laws.  Nevertheless  the  Uruguayan  Gov- 
ernment on  June  17  announced  the  arrest  of  12 
leading  Nazi  agents. 

Report  on  Inquiry.  The  same  day  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  in  secret  session  heard  the  report 
of  its  special  committee  investigating  Nazi  activi- 
ties. This  report  sustained  Professor  Artucio's 
original  charges.  It  stated  that  Nazi  plans  for  the 
domination  of  all  South  America  were  being  de- 
veloped through  a  secret  lodge  within  the  Nazi 
party  operating  from  Montevideo.  The  12  Ger- 
mans under  arrest  were  said  to  constitute  the  se- 
cret 01  der's  supreme  council  for  Uruguay.  The  re- 
poit  set  forth  in  detail  the  organization,  methods, 
and  objectives  of  the  Nazi  movement  in  Uruguay 
and  other  Ameiican  republics. 

Publication  of  this  sensational  report  was  sup- 
pi  essed  by  the  Uruguayan  Government  following 
representations  from  the  German  Minister,  who 
was  said  to  have  threatened  a  diplomatic  break  if 
any  of  the  Nazi  leaders  were  convicted  or  deported. 
The  morale  of  the  Uruguayan  people  was  bolstered 
by  the  arrival  of  the  American  cruiser  Quincy  in 
Montevideo  June  20.  But  in  Congress  the  section 
of  the  Blanco  party  led  by  Sen.  Luis  Alberto  de 
Herrera  strongly  opposed  any  action  that  would 
offend  the  Reich.  The  Baldomir  Government  feared 
that  a  victorious  Germany  would  retaliate  and  ap- 
parently was  not  satisfied  that  it  could  depend  up- 
on Argentina,  Brazil,  and  the  United  States  for 
the  necessary  economic  and  military  support.  Con- 
sequently the  Nazi  prisoners  were  released  on 
June  27. 

Germans  Rearrested.  Subsequently  Britain's 
resistance  to  the  German  blitzkrieg  and  the  pledge 
of  assistance  in  dealing  with  subversive  activities 
given  by  the  other  American  republics  at  the  Ha- 
vana Conference  lessened  Uruguay's  fear  of  Ger- 
man reprisals.  At  the  same  time  wide  public  in- 
dignation was  aroused  by  boasts  of  the  freed  Nazi 
leaders  that  they  would  "get"  Professor  Artucio 
and  by  the  filing  of  criminal  libel  charges  against 
him  by  a  pro-Nazi  editor.  This  suit,  which  was  dis- 
missed by  a  Montevideo  court  on  November  22, 
provoked  sharp  denunciation  of  the  government 
and  the  courts  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  for 
failing  to  bring  the  accused  Germans  to  trial.  With 
only  two  Deputies  dissenting,  the  Chamber  voted 
to  send  the  record  of  this  debate  to  the  Supreme 
Court  and  Minister  of  Interior.  Immediately  after- 
ward (September  20)  the  government  filed  a  29- 
point  indictment  against  the  Nazi  leaders  and  the 
eight  remaining  in  the  country  were  re-arrested 
and  brought  to  trial. 

Those  arrested  included  Arnulf  Fuhrmann,  con- 
fessed author  of  the  plot ;  Julio  Holzer,  leader  of 


the  Storm  Troop  units  in  Uruguay;  Rudolf  Meiss- 
ner,  agent  in  Uruguay  and  adjacent  territories  of 
the  German  secret  police ;  Otto  Klein,  chief  of  the 
Nazi  commercial  propaganda  organization;  Ru- 
dolf Paetz.  organizer  of  Nazi  cells  in  Uruguay; 
Adolf  Dutme,  leader  of  the  Nazi  stutzpunkt  (sup- 
port point)  at  Paysandu ;  Reginald  Becker,  organ- 
izer of  propaganda  in  Uruguayan  schools;  and 
Fred  Sconfeld  Gordon,  alleged  international  spy 
and  Gestapo  liaison  agent.  The  Fuehrer  of  the 
Nazi  party  in  Uruguay  was  Julius  Dalldorf ,  who 
as  press  attache  of  the  German  Legation  in  Mon- 
tevideo was  immune  from  arrest. 

The  Trial.  The  indictment  charged  the  defend- 
ants with  being  leaders  of  an  unassimilable,  ultra- 
nationalist  racial  and  political  party  controlled 
from  Germany  and  engaged  in  spreading  its  ideas 
among  German  residents  of  Uruguay,  forcing 
them  to  choose  between  Uruguayan  citizenship  and 
membership  in  the  German  National  Socialist  par- 
ty. It  alleged  that  teachers  of  German  schools  in 
Uruguay  were  appointed  by  the  party's  foreign 
organization  in  Germany;  that  the  party  carried 
on  an  intense  propaganda  campaign  in  Uruguay; 
that  "there  exists  a  plan  to  attack  this  country, 
drawn  up  by  an  ardent  propagandist  of  the  Na- 
tional Socialist  movement";  that  the  plan  "con- 
tains measures  tending  to  insure  the  functioning 
of  our  country  as  a  German  agricultural  colony 
without  delay  or  quibbling,  the  plan  being  similar 
in  this  respect  to  those  put  into  effect  by  the  Ger- 
mans in  their  recent  conquests."  Private  hearings 
before  the  examining  magistrate  began  on  Septem- 
ber 23  and  were  still  under  way  at  the  end  of  the 
year  The  eight  defendants  remained  in  jail. 

Relations  with  Axis.  As  a  result  of  the  trial 
and  of  accompanying  anti-German  and  anti-Italian 
demonstrations,  relations  between  Uruguay  and  the 
Rome-Berlin  Axis  became  greatly  strained.  There 
had  been  controversy  since  the  Graf  Spec  entered 
Montevideo  harbor  to  escape  British  warships  the 
preceding  December  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  789). 
On  Jan.  1,  1940,  the  Uruguayan  Government  in- 
terned the  German  freighter  Tacoma  for  the  dura- 
tion of  the  war  as  an  auxiliary  of  the  German 
Navy.  When  British  sailors  from  the  cruiser  Ajax 
visited  Montevideo  on  shore  leave  immediately  aft- 
erward to  celebrate  their  victory  over  the  Graf 
Spee,  they  received  a  warm  popular  welcome.  A 
week  after  the  German  invasion  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, a  great  pro-Ally  demonstration  was  held  in 
the  principal  square  of  Montevideo  and  German 
shops  were  stoned.  Anti-Italian  demonstrations 
broke  out  when  Italy  entered  the  war.  On  August 
24  the  celebration  of  Uruguay's  independence  day 
was  the  occasion  for  another  great  demonstration 
against  both  Germany  and  Italy. 

On  July  22  the  Uruguayan  Foreign  Office  in  a 
sharp  note  to  the  German  Minister  warned  him 
that  German  diplomatic  agents  would  not  be  per- 
mitted to  serve  as  officials  of  Uruguayan  Nazi  or- 
ganizations. Following  the  Havana  Conference, 
Pedro  Manini  Rios,  chairman  of  the  Uruguayan 
delegation,  was  appointed  Minister  of  Interior.  He 
launched  a  drive  against  Nazi  organizations  and 
the  anti-democratic  propaganda  of  pro-Axis  Uru- 
guayans. On  September  25  he  and  the  Minister  of 
Defense  issued  a  decree  asking  all  Uruguayans  to 
co-operate  in  aiding  the  authorities  to  uncover  all 
persons  and  organizations  affiliated  with  the  Nazi 
movement.  The  decree  declared  that  the  Uruguay- 
an Government  had  assumed  the  obligation  under 
Pan  American  agreements  to  prevent  political  ac- 
tivities by  foreigners  antagonistic  to  American 


URUGUAY 


790 


URUGUAY 


democratic  institutions.  Five  days  later  the  Minis- 
ter of  Interior  demanded  the  resignation  of  the 
heads  of  the  Montevideo  police  and  detective  de- 
partments, apparently  because  of  their  complacent 
attitude  toward  the  Nazi  menace. 

These  developments  brought  threats  of  reprisals 
from  the  German  and  Italian  press,  but  Uruguay- 
an opinion  grew  steadily  more  pro-British.  The 
British  auxiliary  cruiser  Carnarvon  Castle  was  al- 
lowed to  stay  72  hours  in  Montevideo  harbor  on 
December  8-10  to  repair  damage  sustained  in  a 
clash  with  a  German  raider.  A  British  trade  mis- 
sion received  a  hearty  welcome  on  December  22. 
Leading  newspapers  urged  the  government  to  aban- 
don neutrality  in  favor  of  "non-belligerency"  in 
order  to  permit  unrestricted  use  of  Montevideo 
harbor  by  British  warships  patrolling  the  South 
Atlantic. 

United  States  Negotiations.  The  German  con- 
spiracy brought  Uruguay  into  unprecedently  close 
political  and  military  relations  with  the  United 
States.  Economically  the  two  countries  had  ap- 
peared to  be  drifting  apart  as  a  result  of  the  col- 
lapse of  negotiations  for  a  reciprocal  trade  pact 
on  January  8  and  the  continuance  of  Uruguayan 
restrictions  on  imports  from  the  United  States. 
Uruguay's  appeal  for  aid  from  Washington  in 
June  met  a  prompt  response  insofar  as  naval  and 
military  aid  was  concerned.  But  the  United  States 
rejected  Uruguay's  request  for  a  $7,000,000  loan 
with  which  to  rearm.  This  was  said  to  have  influ- 
enced the  Uruguayan  Government  to  exercise  cau- 
tion in  dealing  with  the  Nazi  issue,  despite  the 
declaration  of  the  United  States  Minister  to  Uru- 
guay on  June  23. 

"I  am  authorized  to  state/'  the  Minister  said, 
"that  it  is  the  intention  and  avowed  policy  of  my 
government  to  co-operate  fully,  whenever  such  co- 
operation is  desired,  with  all  of  the  other  Ameri- 
can governments  in  crushing  all  activities  which 
arise  from  non-American  sources  and  which  im- 
peril our  political  and  economic  freedom  " 

At  the  same  time  two  United  States  officers,  au- 
thorized by  Washington  to  work  out  details  of  pos- 
sible American  military,  naval,  and  air  aid  to  Uru- 
guay, offered  to  furnish  land  as  well  as  naval  forces 
if  needed.  The  question  of  creating  naval  and  air 
bases  in  Uruguay  to  facilitate  such  aid  was  also 
raised  informally.  Uruguayan  officials  were  said 
to  have  replied  that  they  would  consider  this  only 
if  the  bases  were  made  available  to  all  of  the  Pan 
American  republics.  Consultations  on  this  and  oth- 
er aspects  of  joint  military-naval -air  co-operation 
were  continued  during  the  visit  to  the  United  States 
in  October  of  Gen.  Marcelino  Bergalli,  Inspector 
General  of  the  Uruguayan  army,  and  Col.  Oscar 
Gestido,  commander  of  the  air  force. 

On  November  11  the  government  at  Montevideo 
announced  plans  for  the  construction  of  naval  or 
air  bases  in  co-operation  with  other  American  re- 
publics, i.e.  with  the  financial  and  technical  aid  of 
the  United  States.  They  were  to  be  "directed, 
maintained,  and  controlled'1  by  the  Uruguayan 
Government  and  "placed  at  the  disposition  of  an- 
other American  republic  only  in  a  pressing  con- 
tinental military  defense  necessity  upon  conditions 
established  by  the  government."  Despite  the  politi- 
cal opposition  encountered  in  Congress  (see  below 
under  Internal  Politics) ,  the  government  proceeded 
with  its  plans.  On  December  29  a  decree  created  a 
commission  of  army  officers  to  plan  and  supervise 
construction  of  a  military  air  base  near  the  capital. 
A  credit  of  $7,500,000,  to  be  used  partly  for  the 
construction  of  bases  and  purchase  of  military 


equipment,  was  obtained  from  the  Export-Import 
Bank  in  Washington  in  December. 

Accord  with  Argentina.  Uruguay's  negotia- 
tions with  the  United  States  aroused  some  appre- 
hension in  Argentina  over  the  possible  consequences 
of  Uruguayan  bases  controlling  the  entrance  to  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata.  The  issue  was  discussed  by  the 
Uruguayan  and  Argentine  Foreign  Ministers  meet- 
ing at  Colonia,  Uruguay,  on  December  11-14.  On 
December  14  the  Ministers  reached  an  agreement 
for  the  co-operation  of  their  governments  in  prep- 
arations to  defend  that  part  of  South  America 
against  aggression  from  overseas.  Closer  trade  re- 
lations also  were  envisaged.  It  was  agreed  to  invite 
neighboring  republics,  especially  Brazil  and  Para- 
guay, to  join  in  this  enterprise.  The  accord  stipu- 
lated that  the  defense  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  zone 
was  to  be  studied  in  co-operation  with  "continental 
forces"  without  endangering  the  territorial  integ- 
rity of  either  party. 

Internal  Politics.  The  Nazi  conspiracy  also 
had  important  internal  consequences.  A  serious  po- 
litical crisis  developed  early  in  the  year  as  a  result 
of  Congressional  apathy  and  refusal  to  consider  a 
number  of  important  bills  submitted  by  the  Baldo- 
mir  Government.  One  of  these  measures,  inspired 
by  Uruguay's  def  enselessness  during  the  Graf  Spec 
incident,  called  for  establishment  of  compulsory 
military  training  and  the  purchase  of  additional 
naval  vessels.  Congress's  failure  to  act  on  this  bill 
caused  Defense  Minister  Alfredo  Campos  to  re- 
sign in  protest  on  February  23.  Accusing  Congress 
of  hamstringing  legislation,  President  Baldomir 
demanded  revision  of  the  1934  Constitution  to  in- 
crease the  Presidential  powers.  When  Congress  re- 
fused even  to  debate  this  proposal,  talk  arose  of  a 
military  coup  by  the  President  to  remove  the  re- 
calcitrant legislature. 

A  compromise  was  finally  reached  whereby  the 
President  named  a  new  Defense  Minister  accept- 
able to  Congress  and  that  body  undertook  to  act 
on  administration  measures.  The  debate  over  Nazi 
and  "fifth  column"  activities  that  developed  soon 
afterwards  raised  new  difficulties  for  President 
Baldomir,  as  his  administration  was  partly  depend- 
ent upon  the  support  of  the  seemingly  pro-Nazi 
Herrerista  faction  of  the  Blanco  party.  Neverthe- 
less the  pressure  of  public  opinion  caused  the  res- 
ignation on  June  27  of  Minister  of  Interior  Man- 
uel Tiscornia  because  of  his  weak  handling  of  the 
Nazi  menace,  and  even  Sen.  Alberto  de  Herrera 
was  forced  to  abandon  his  opposition  to  conscrip- 
tion. The  compulsory  service  bill  was  finally  adopted 
July  11,  after  more  than  70,000  men  had  already 
volunteered  for  military  training.  In  September 
the  Batllista  faction  of  the  Colorado  party  voted 
to  end  its  policy  of  non-co-operation  with  the  gov- 
ernment, adopted  in  1933.  This  was  considered  fur- 
ther evidence  of  the  reviving  vigor  of  Uruguay's 
democratic  institutions. 

The  government's  acceptance  of  United  States 
offers  of  assistance  in  constructing  naval  and  air 
bases  was  approved  by  three  Herrerista  members 
of  the  cabinet  but  was  denounced  by  their  party 
as  an  infringement  upon  Uruguay's  sovereignty. 
Pro-Fascist  groups  in  Uruguay  and  Argentina  and 
the  government-controlled  press  in  Spain  also 
joined  in  the  outcry,  charging  that  "Yankee  im- 
perialism" was  scheming  to  establish  domination 
over  South  America  under  the  guise  of  promoting 
continental  solidarity.  Although  the  Uruguayan 
Government  gave  repeated  assurances  that  the 
agreement  with  the  United  States  in  no  way  in- 
fringed upon  Uruguay's  sovereignty,  the  Senate 


USHA 


791 


VATICAN  CITY 


on  November  21  adopted  a  resolution,  25  to  1, 
stating  that  it  would  in  no  case  lend  its  support 
to  any  treaty  or  convention  that  applies  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  air  and  naval  bases  in  a  manner 
lessening  the  country's  sovereignty." 

The  government  proceeded  with  its  plans,  which 
were  approved  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  on  No- 
vember 27  by  a  vote  of  53  to  21.  The  three  Her- 
rerista  members  of  the  Cabinet  resigned  on  De- 
cember 12  over  the  issue,  but  on  Jan.  1,  1941,  the 
government  announced  that  the  Herrerista  party 
had  withdrawn  its  opposition  and  concluded  a  po- 
litical truce  with  President  Baldomir  that  would 
permit  the  three  cabinet  officials  to  retain  their 
posts.  See  ARGENTINA  under  History;  FASCISM; 
PAN  AMERICANISM. 

USHA.  See  HOUSING  AUTHORITY,  U.S. 

U.S.S.R.  See  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  RE- 
PUBLICS. 

UTAH.  Area,  84,990  square  miles;  includes 
water,  2806  square  miles.  Population  (U.S.  census), 
April,  1940,  550,310;  1930,  507,847.  Salt  Lake 
City,  the  capital:  (1940)  149,934.  The  State's  pre- 
dominant urban  population  (dwellers  in  places  of 
2500  or  over)  increased  further  (1930-40),  by  39,- 
229,  or  14.7  per  cent,  to  305,493,  or  55.5  per  cent 
of  the  whole  population ;  while  the  rural  group  in- 
creased by  only  3234,  to  244,817. 

Agriculture.  Utah  harvested,  in  1940,  1,042,- 
000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Tame  hay,  on 
513,000  acres,  bore  1,062,000  tons  ($8,708,000  in 
estimated  value  to  the  farmer;  wheat,  251,000 
acres,  made  4,861,000  bu.  ($3,014,000)  ;  sugar  beets, 
48,000  acres,  506,000  tons  ($2,828,000  for  1939's 
considerably  greater  crop)  ;  potatoes,  12,000  acres, 
2,040,000  bu.  ($1,040,000)  ;  barley,  76,000  acres, 
2,812,000  bu  ($1,265,000).  Farms  numbered  25,- 
411  in  1940  and  averaged  287.4  acres. 

Mineral  Production.  Yearly  production  of  na- 
tive minerals  in  Utah,  as  estimated  in  1940  by  the 
U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  totaled  $59,236,355  for 
1938,  which  was  less  than  three-fifths  of  the  total 
for  1937.  The  quantity  of  copper  in  the  ores  mined 
yearly  diminished  to  216,252,000  Ib.  for  1938,  then 
increased  to  343,780,000  Ib.  for  1939  and  to  459,- 
846,000  approximately,  for  1940 ;  totals  by  value, 
$21,192,696  (1938),  $35,753,120  (1939),  and  $51,- 
962,598  (1940).  Corresponding  figures  for  gold, 
200,630  oz.  (1938),  277,751  (1939),  and  352,770 
(1940)  ;  by  value,  $7,022,050  (1938),  $9,721,285 
(1939),  and  $12,346,950  (1940).  Both  copper  and 
gold  (1940)  exceeded  all  prior  yearly  quantities  in 
Utah's  record.  Totals  for  gold  mounted  with  those 
for  copper  because  much  of  the  gold  occurred  in 
ores  mined  principally  for  copper.  Other  metals 
extensively  mined  were  silver,  12,266,138  oz.,  value 
approximately  $8,722,587  (1$40) ;  154,094,000  Ib. 
of  lead,  value  about  $7,704,700  (1940),  and  zinc, 
87,746,000  Ib.,  value  $5,703,490  (1940).  Of  coal,  the 
mines  produced  3,524,000  tons  in  1940,  as  against 
1938's  2,946,951  tons  (valued  at  $6,875,000). 

Education,  For  the  academic  year  1939-40 
Utah's  inhabitants  of  school  age  were  reckoned  at 
143,537,  from  6  to  17  years  old.  The  year's  regis- 
trations of  public-school  pupils  numbered  137,434 : 
hi  elementary  study,  78,394;  in  high  school,  59,040. 
The  year's  expenditure  for  public-school  educa- 
tion totaled  $9,754,606,  current;  $13,271,541,  all. 
The  4608  teachers'  salaries  for  the  year  averaged 
$1376.19. 

History.  The  rise  of  about  8.4  per  cent  in 
Utah's  population  during  the  ten  years  1930-40 
indicated  that  the  prolonged  depression  of  the 
mining  industries,  through  much  of  that  period, 


and  the  consequent  widespread  lack  of  employment 
had  passed  without  permanently  upsetting  the  econ- 
omy of  the  State.  The  condition  of  the  inhabitants 
in  1940  improved  by  reason  of  further  increase  in 
mining  and  allied  activity. 

A  noteworthy  event  in  partisan  politics  was  the 
Democrats'  repudiation  of  the  veteran  U.S.  Sena- 
tor William  H.  King.  Seeking  the  Democratic 
nomination  for  a  fifth  term,  King  was  defeated  at 
the  primary  election  (September  3)  by  Represen- 
tative Abe  Murdock  in  nearly  a  3-to-l  vote.  King 
had  lost  his  popularity  by  opposing  many  of  the 
New  Deal's  policies ;  his  victor  offered  a  record  of 
legislative  compliance  with  the  recommendations 
of  the  Federal  Administration. 

At  the  general  election  (November  5)  the  popu- 
lar vote  for  President  went  to  Roosevelt  (Dem.) 
by  a  total  of  154,277,  to  93,151  for  Willkie  (Rep.). 
Democrats  won  the  other  chief  contests  on  the 
ticket:  for  U.S.  Senator,  Abe  Murdock  (Dem.) 
defeated  Philo  T.  Farns worth  (Rep.)  ;  Democrats 
were  elected  to  both  seats  in  the  U.S.  House  of 
Representatives;  and  for  Governor,  Herbert  B. 
Maw  (Dem.)  defeated  Don  B.  Colton  (Rep.). 

Officers.  Utah's  chief  officers,  serving  in  1940, 
were:  Governor,  Henry  H.  Blood  (Dem  )  ;  Secre- 
tary of  State,  E.  E.  Monson ;  Auditor,  John  W. 
Guy;  Treasurer,  Reese  M.  Reese;  Attorney-Gen- 
eral, Joseph  Chez;  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction, Charles  H.  Skidmore. 

UTILITIES.  See  FINANCIAL  REVIEW  under 
Financial  Regulation ;  UNITED  STATES  under  Ad- 
ministration; also  ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER, 
GAS  INDUSTRY,  etc. 

UZBEK  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUB- 
LIC. See  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUB- 
LICS under  Area  and  Population. 

VATICAN  CITY.  A  sovereign  State,  offi- 
cially known  as  the  State  of  Vatican  City,  estab- 
lished within  the  city  of  Rome  as  the  seat  of  die 
Papacy  on  June  10,  1929,  in  accordance  with  the 
Italo- Vatican  (Lateran)  Treaty  of  Feb.  11,  1929 
(see  1929  YEAR  BOOK,  p.  417).  Sovereign  in  1940, 
Pope  Pius  XII  (Eugenio  Pacelli),  who  succeeded 
Pius  XI  Mar.  2,  1939. 

The  area  of  Vatican  City  is  108.7  acres,  in- 
cluding St.  Peter's  Square,  and  in  addition  13 
ecclesiastical  buildings  outside  of  its  limits  enjoy 
extraterritorial  rights.  It  has  its  own  coinage,  im- 
port duties,  railway  station,  and  its  postal,  tele- 
graph, and  radio  facilities  The  census  of  1939 
showed  953  inhabitants  Under  the  Constitution  of 
June  7, 1929,  the  Pope  exercises  full  legal,  judicial, 
and  executive  powers.  Pius  XII  placed  the  admin- 
istration of  Vatican  City  and  its  civil  offices  in  the 
hands  of  a  commission  of  Cardinals  headed  by 
Cardinal  Canali.  The  legal  system  is  based  on  can- 
on law  and  ecclesiastical  rules. 

Foreign  relations  arc  conducted  by  the  Secretary 
of  State.  (Cardinal  Luigi  Maglione  was  appointed 
to  this  office  Mar.  11,  1939.)  The  Holy  See  main- 
tains diplomatic  relations  with  35  governments  and 
has  unofficial  relations  by  means  of  Apostolic  Del- 
egates with  a  number  of  other  countries,  including 
the  United  States. 

History.  Italy's  entrance  into  the  European 
War  on  June  10,  1940,  confronted  the  Vatican 
with  the  necessity  of  adjusting  its  relations  with 
the  Italian  Government  under  the  Lateran  Treaty 
of  1929  to  the  fact  of  Italian  belligerency.  Some 
friction  had  developed  earlier  in  the  year  as  a  re*- 
suit  of  Fascist  resentment  at  the  publication  by 
the  Vatican  of  denunciatory  reports  on  German 
rule  in  Poland  and  of  war  news  from  all  of  the 


VEGETABLES 


792 


VENEZUELA 


belligerents.  As  the  only  news  organ  circulating 
in  Italy  exempt  from  government  censorship,  the 
semi-official  Vatican  newspaper  Osservatore  Ro- 
mano increased  rapidly  in  circulation.  Its  issue  of 
May  11,  containing  the  Pope's  message  to  the 
rulers  of  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  and  Luxem- 
burg condemning  the  German  invasion,  sold  180,- 
000  copies. 

Government  protests  forced  the  newspaper  at  the 
beginning  of  June  to  cease  printing  political  news 
and  editorials,  and  when  Italy  declared  war  it  was 
announced  that  war  communiques  and  other  offi- 
cial bulletins  of  all  the  warring  powers  would  be 
omitted  for  the  duration  of  the  conflict.  As  a 
result,  the  circulation  of  Osservatore  Romano 
dropped  from  about  120,000  to  28,000  in  less  than 
two  months.  Following  its  policy  of  strict  neutral- 
ity, Vatican  authorities  on  June  20  forbade  politi- 
cal discussions  on  international  affairs  in  public 
premises  within  Vatican  City.  They  established 
censorship  over  the  Vatican  telephone  exchanges 
on  Italy's  war  declaration,  and  on  October  25  ex- 
tended the  censorship  to  include  mail  passing 
through  Vatican  City  postoffices. 

The  Papal  Secretary  of  State  asked  the  Italian 
Government  "to  continue  to  extend  all  the  cus- 
tomary prerogatives  and  immunity  to  the  diplomats 
of  belligerent  countries  accredited  to  the  Holy  See 
and  that  their  seats  remain  on  Italian  territory." 
When  this  request  was  rejected,  the  British,  French, 
Polish,  and  Belgian  Ambassadors  to  the  Holy  See 
moved  on  June  13  to  residences  within  Vatican 
City  where  they  remained  incommunicado  from 
their  governments  On  August  1  the  Pope  granted 
Vatican  citizenship  to  all  papal  diplomatic  repre- 
sentatives abroad.  Most  of  them  being  Italians, 
^Vatican  citizenship  gave  them  greater  freedom  of 
action. 

Referring  to  the  international  situation  on  July 
10  for  the  first  time  since  Italy's  declaration  of 
war,  the  Pope  urged  Germany  and  Italy  to  grant 
France  lenient  peace  terms  that  would  not  foster 
hatred.  The  Osservatore  Romano  announced  July 
18  that  the  Pope  had  appealed  to  the  British  and 
French  Governments  to  spare  Rome  from  bomb- 
ing raids  in  view  of  its  sacred  character.  He  re- 
ceived assurances  that  the  churches  and  buildings 
within  Vatican  City  would  not  be  bombed,  but  the 
British  reserved  the  right  to  bomb  other  parts  of 
Rome.  The  Vatican's  sympathy  and  approval  of 
the  Petain  regime  in  France  was  expressed  several 
times  in  Osservatore  Romano  during  July. 

See  BELGIUM,  FRANCE,  GERMANY,  ITALY,  LITH- 
UANIA, MEXICO,  and  SPAIN,  under  History;  RO- 
MAN CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

VEGETABLES.  See  HORTICULTURE. 

VENEREAL  DISEASE.  See  PUBLIC 
HEALTH  SERVICE. 

VENEZUELA.  A  republic  of  South  America, 
consisting  of  a  Federal  District,  20  States,  and 
two  Territories.  Capital,  Caracas. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  352,143  square 
miles;  population,  3,491,159  at  December,  1936, 
census  (3,552,000,  estimate  for  June,  1938).  There 
are  whites,  Indians,  Negroes,  and  mixtures  of  all 
three  races.  Registered  births  in  1939  numbered 
129,482  (91,836  in  1935)  ;  marriages,  16,005  (8881 
in  1935).  Populations  of  the  capital  and  five  larg- 
est State  capitals  in  1937  were:  Caracas  (Federal 
District),  203,342;  Maracaibo  (State  of  Zulia), 
110,010;  Barquisimeto  (Lara),  50,774,  Valencia 
(Carabobo),  49,963;  Maracay  (Aragua),  29,255; 
and  San  Crist6bal  (Tachira),  22,058.  United  States 
citizens  resident  in  Venezuela  on  Jan.  1, 1940,  num- 


bered 3357.  During  1939,  1583  immigrants  entered 
the  country  exclusive  of  more  than  600  Venezue- 
lans repatriated  at  government  expense. 

Defence.  As  of  Nov.  1,  1940,  the  active  army 
numbered  1 1,000  men ;  trained  army  reserves,  7500 ; 
active  air  force,  373.  The  navy  comprised  6  gun- 
boats and  patrol  vessels  and  several  auxiliary  craft 
The  defense  appropriation  for  1939-40  was  42,- 
111,000  bolivares. 

Education  and  Religion.  At  the  1926  census, 
about  57  per  cent  of  the  adult  population  were  il- 
literate. Out  of  an  estimated  school-age  population 
of  720,000  m  1939,  295,462,  or  41  per  cent,  were 
registered  in  classes,  as  against  19.9  per  cent  of 
the  school -age  population  in  1936.  There  were  4142 
public  primary  schools  (1938)  with  234,024  pupils; 
65  secondary  and  special  schools,  with  3705  pupils ; 
and  three  universities,  with  2125  students.  Roman 
Catholicism  is  the  predominant  religion. 

Production.  The  principal  industries  are  agri- 
culture, stock  raising,  petroleum  mining,  manufac- 
turing, pearl  fishing,  and  forestry.  Production  of 
the  chief  crops  was:  Coffee,  835.562  bags  (of 
101.43  Ib.)  in  1939-40;  cacao,  15,378  metric  tons 
(exports  in  1939) ;  cane  sugar,  24,500  metric  tons 
in  1938-39.  Tobacco,  cotton,  corn,  beans,  fruits, 
potatoes,  coconuts,  rice,  and  wheat  are  other  lead- 
ing crops  Petroleum  production  in  1939  was  207,- 
055,000  bbl.,  giving  Venezuela  second  rank  among 
world  producers ;  gold,  4440  kilograms  (kilo  equals 
2.2  Ib.).  Some  salt,  copper,  coal,  iron,  tin,  and 
asbestos  are  mined.  The  forests  yield  balata,  tonka 
beans,  divi-divi,  vanilla,  etc.  At  the  end  of  1936 
there  were  3285  industrial  establishments  with  27,- 
500  workers.  Oil  refining  is  the  only  large-scale 
industry. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1939  totaled  324,- 
751,802  bolivares  (310,949,240  in  1938) ;  exports, 
953,337,086  (887,275,955)  Petroleum  and  its  prod- 
ucts accounted  for  over  90  per  cent  of  all  exports 
and  coffee  and  cacao  for  most  of  the  remainder. 
Of  the  1939  imports,  59  per  cent  by  value  came 
from  the  United  States,  7.8  per  cent  from  Ger- 
many, and  6.7  per  cent  from  the  United  Kingdom. 
The  bulk  of  the  petroleum  exports  went  to  Aruba 
and  Curacao  for  refining.  The  United  States  took 
15.8  per  cent  of  the  direct  exports ;  United  King- 
dom, 5.2  per  cent ;  Germany,  2.5  per  cent. 

Finance.  The  budget  for  the  fiscal  year  ended 
June  30,  1941,  reduced  estimated  revenues  and  ex- 
penditures to  344,515,000  bolivares  from  the  1939- 
40  estimates  of  361,325,000  bolivares.  Further  re- 
ductions in  expenditures,  estimated  at  33,000,000 
bolivares,  were  instituted  Oct.  1,  1940,  covering 
the  balance  of  the  1940-41  fiscal  year  There  was 
a  surplus  of  17,725,000  bolivares  in  1937-38  and  a 
deficit  of  20,166,000  bolivares  in  1938-39.  Treasury 
reserves  on  Apr.  15,  1940,  amounted  to  42,657,500 
bolivares.  The  public  debt  was  about  3,000,000  bol- 
ivares on  Dec.  31,  1938.  Average  exchange  rate  of 
the  bolivar  in  1939:  Bank  rate,  $03135  ($0.3135  in 
1938);  open  market  rate,  $0.3115  ($0.3067). 

Transportation.  The  railways,  with  589  miles 
of  line  (exclusive  of  62  miles  of  oil  company 
line),  carried  981,850  passengers  and  453,843  met- 
ric tons  of  freight  in  1939.  Highways  extended 
5882  miles  (315  miles  completed  in  1939).  The 
Mene  Grande-Motatan  highway,  connecting  link 
between  Maracaibo  and  the  Trans-Andean  High- 
way at  Motatan,  was  opened  in  July,  1940  The 
government-owned  airways  system,  with  over  2560 
miles  of  route,  carried  10,740  passengers  and  52,- 
656  Ib.  of  mail  during  1939;  total  mileage  flown 
was  462,968.  Pan  American  Airways  planes  touch 


VENEZUELA 


793 


VERMONT 


at  Caripito,  Guanta,  La  Guaira,  Cora  and  Mara- 
caibo.  La  Guaira,  Puerto  Cabello  and  Maracaibo 
are  the  chief  ports.  A  contract  for  the  construction 
of  a  new  oil  terminal  and  dock  at  Puerto  de  la  Cruz 
for  the  use  of  the  newly  opened  oil  fields  and  pipe 
line  in  Eastern  Venezuela  was  awarded  in  1940. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  July  11, 
193&  vests  executive  powers  in  a  President  elected 
by  Congress  for  five  years  and  ineligible  for  re- 
election. There  is  a  Senate  of  40  members  chosen 
by  the  State  legislatures  and  a  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties of  85  members  elected  by  municipal  councils. 
The  State  legislatures  and  municipal  councils  are 
elected  by  direct  ballot  of  literate  males  21  or 
more  years  of  age.  The  Constitution  prohibits 
communism  and  anarchism.  President  in  1940,  Gen. 
Eleazar  Lopez  Contreras  (elected  by  Congress 
Apr.  25,  1936,  after  having  been  named  Provi- 
sional President  by  the  cabinet  on  Dec  18,  1935, 
upon  the  death  of  the  Dictator-President,  Gen. 
Juan  Vicente  Gomez). 

History.  President  Lopez  Contreras  continued 
during  1940  to  guide  Venezuela  successfully  and 
peaceably  in  the  direction  of  what  he  called  "Boh- 
varian  democracy"  and  away  from  the  harsh  dic- 
tatorship of  his  predecessor.  That  this  transition 
was  not  complete  was  indicated  in  March  by  the 
action  of  the  governor  of  the  Federal  District  in 
imprisoning  a  well-known  columnist,  Enrique  Ber- 
nardo Nunez  of  the  newspaper  El  Universal  in 
Caracas,  for  alleged  disrespect  to  the  President, 
and  in  fining  the  publisher.  The  governor  objected 
to  the  fact  that  the  columnist  had  compared  two 
speeches  praising  democracy — one  by  President 
Lopez  Contreras  and  the  other  by  the  exiled  Vene- 
zuelan leftist,  Romulo  Betancourt.  Two  other 
Venezuelan  newspapers  joined  El  Universal  in 
protesting  the  governor's  arbitrary  action.  The 
Federal  Government,  however,  took  no  notice  of 
the  incident 

The  general  satisfaction  with  the  President's 
leadership  was  reflected  in  demands  that  he  be- 
come a  candidate  for  a  second  term,  despite  the 
constitutional  bar  against  re-election.  However 
General  Lopez  Contreras  reiterated  his  intention 
to  retire  upon  the  expiration  of  his  term  on  Apr. 
25,  1941.  Local  elections  held  in  13  of  the  20  States 
in  November  gave  some  65  per  cent  of  the  votes  to 
a  group  of  parties  supporting  the  national  govern- 
ment This  suggested  that  a  successor  endorsing 
President  Lopez  Contreras's  policies  would  be 
selected  in  1941. 

The  prosperity  of  1939  showed  some  decline  in 
1940  as  a  result  of  the  curtailment  of  petroleum, 
coffee,  and  other  exports  by  the  spreading  Europe- 
an War.  Due  to  the  republic's  excessive  dependence 
upon  the  oil  industry,  the  press  and  government 
showed  alarm  when  the  Standard  Oil  Company 
began  to  reduce  production  because  of  declining 
markets.  Unemployment  of  oil  workers  caused  a 
revival  of  radical  agitation  in  the  Maracaibo  dis- 
trict. However  the  government  continued  its  ex- 
tensive public  works  program,  aided  by  funds 
advanced  by  the  oil  companies  in  consideration  of 
the  abolition  in  1938  of  certain  vexatious  special 
fees.  The  decline  in  oil  production  was  offset  in 
part  by  an  increased  demand  for  metals  needed  by 
the  U.S.  armament  industries,  Early  m  the  year  a 
large  American  steel  company  commenced  the  de- 
velopment of  iron  ore  deposits  south  of  the  Ori- 
noco River. 

The  increasing  shortage  of  foreign  exchange 
led  the  government  on  June  26  to  abolish  the  free 
exchange  market  and  expand  the  exchange  control 


system  to  cover  all  transactions.  Nevertheless  the 
exchange  rate  of  the  bolivar  continued  to  decline 
(from  $0.3162  cents  in  July  to  $0.25)  and  on  Oc- 
tober 25  a  system  of  import  licenses  was  intro- 
duced to  curtail  imports  further.  Toward  the  close 
of  the  year  the  government  negotiated  a  loan,  re- 
ported at  $10,000,000,  from  the  National  City 
Bank  of  New  York  to  pay  for  essential  imports 
and  liquidate  commercial  arrears.  Petroleum  pro- 
duction in  November  reached  the  lowest  level  in 
three  years,  but  this  adverse  influence  was  partly 
offset  by  the  new  inter- American  coffee  cartel 
program,  under  which  Venezuela  was  authorized 
to  ship  420,000  bags  annually  to  the  United  States 
as  against  220,800  bags  in  1939-40. 

In  furtherance  of  the  President's  Three- Year 
Plan  of  social  and  economic  reform,  the  govern- 
ment completed  preparations  for  the  establishment 
of  a  compulsory  social  security  law.  In  October 
the  new  Central  Bank,  authorized  in  1939,  began 
operations.  See  LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS  ;  PAN  AMER- 
ICANISM. 

Foreign  Relations.  Venezuela's  resignation 
from  the  League  of  Nations  became  effective  July 
18,  1940.  The  withdrawal  from  the  Geneva  organi- 
zation coincided  with  increasing  political,  econom- 
ic, and  military  collaboration  with  the  other  Amer- 
ican republics  and  particularly  the  United  States. 
The  European  War  came  close  to  Venezuela  when 
British  and  French  forces  in  May  occupied  the 
Netherlands'  colonies  of  Curasao  (q  v  )  and  Aruba 
where  most  of  Venezuela's  oil  is  refined.  Subse- 
quently War  Minister  Isaias  Medina  made  a  tour 
of  U-S.  defense  establishments  and  conferred  with 
North  American  civil  and  military  officials  on 
hemisphere  defense  plans.  The  reciprocal  trade 
treaty  signed  by  the  United  States  and  Venezuela 
on  Nov.  6,  1939,  went  into  effect  Dec.  14,  1940, 
following  its  ratification.  A  quarrel  with  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Dominican  Republic  over  alleged 
indignities  inflicted  on  Venezuelan  citizens  in  that 
country  led  Caracas  authorities  to  boycott  the  Sec- 
ond Caribbean  Conference  held  in  Ciudad  Trujillo 
in  June.  Annulment  of  the  Japanese- Venezuelan 
trade  pact  on  June  30  caused  a  setback  to  Japanese 
trade  with  the  republic. 

VENTILATING.  See  HEATING  AND  VENTI- 
LATING; also,  ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES  under  Air 
Cleaning. 

VERMONT.  Area,  9564  square  miles,  in- 
cludes water,  440  square  miles.  Population  (U.S. 
Census),  April,  1940,  359,231;  1930,  359,611.  Bur- 
lington (1940),  27,686;  Montpelier  (the  capital), 
8006.  The  urban  population  (dwellers  in  places  of 
2500  or  more)  increased  (193CMO)  by  4473,  to 
123,239;  the  rural  group  diminished  by  4853,  to 
235,992. 

Agriculture.  Vermont  harvested,  in  1940, 1,093,- 
300  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Nearly  6  out  of 
7  acres  in  tins  area  grew  tame  hay;  corn,  the 
next  crop  for  extent,  covered  only  one  in  15* 
Tame  hay,  on  932,000  acres,  bore  1,113,000  tons 
($11,241,000  approximately  in  estimated  value  to 
the  farmer).  Corn,  71,000  acres,  made  2,627,000  bu. 
($1,918,000) ,  potatoes,  15,300  acres,  2,142,000  bu. 
($1,585,000) ,  oats,  55,000  acres,  1,760,000  bu.  ($898,- 
000)  ;  apples  for  market,  413,000  bu.  ($454,000). 
Farms  numbered  23,582  in  1940  and  averaged  155.5 
acres. 

.Mineral  Production.  Production  of  the  miner- 
als native  to  Vermont  totaled  $6,439,552  for  1938. 
Stone  and  slate  (which  were  totaled  separately) 
contributed  three-fourths  of  this  amount.  Produc- 
ers of  stone  sold  or  used  232,770  short  tons  in  1939, 


VETERANS 


VETERINARY  MEDICINE 


somewhat  less  than  the  total  of  264,480  tons  for 
1938 :  but  by  yearly  value  the  total  rose  to  $3,412,- 
005  (1939),  from  $3,148,950  (1938).  Almost  all 
of  these  amounts  was  for  relatively  small  quanti- 
ties of  costly  stone :  granite  for  monuments,  689,- 
600  cu.  ft,  worth  $2,051,251,  was  sold  or  used  in 
1939 ;  the  corresponding  totals  for  blocks  of  monu- 
mental and  building  marble  were  228,550  cu.  ft., 
$1,038,351.  The  production  of  slate  attained  about 
$1,948,000  for  1939;  of  the  total,  some  106,500 
squares  of  roofing  slates  contributed  nearly  $764,- 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40, 
Vermont's  inhabitants  of  school  age  (from  6  years 
to  18)  were  reckoned  at  77,235.  The  year's  enroll- 
ments of  pupils  in  the  public  schools  numbered 
62,908;  this  lacked  3062  of  the  enrollments  re- 
ported for  the  year  before.  Enrollments  of  elemen- 
tary pupils  in  the  year  1939-40  numbered  45,981 ; 
those  in  high  school,  16,927.  Outside  the  ordinary 
public-school  system,  over  900  pupils  were  study- 
ing vocational  courses,  while  11,000  or  more  other 
pupils  were  in  private  schools.  The  year's  expendi- 
ture for  public  school  education  totaled  $5,800,000 , 
the  teachers,  2745  in  number,  averaged  $982.46  in 
yearly  pay. 

History.  Vermont's  experiment  in  helping  a 
railroad  to  keep  going  entered  a  stage  of  litigation 
and  uncertainty.  The  Rutland  Railroad  Company 
seemed  to  be  operating  without  further  current 
loss  under  the  plan  of  1938  (see  1939  YEAR  BOOK, 
p.  793),  by  which  taxing  authorities,  bondholders, 
and  employees  of  the  line  all  made  concessions, 
with  a  Federal  District  Court's  approval.  Suit  was 
brought,  however,  in  the  Federal  Circuit  Court  at 
New  York,  to  compel  the  line's  payment  of  full 
wages,  both  current  and  in  arrears.  The  Court  or- 
dered (February  13)  that  the  line  pay  the  whole 
accumulation  of  the  deficiency  in  wages  since  July 
30,  1938 ;  this  deficiency  averaged  17  per  cent  and 
added  up  to  $455,722,  a  sum  in  excess  of  the  re- 
ceiver's entire  cash  on  hand  The  Court,  on  decla- 
ration that  enforcement  of  the  order  would  compel 
operation  to  cease^  granted  (March  18)  a  stay,  ex- 
pected to  last  until  completion  of  the  line's  appeal 
to  the  U.S.  Supreme  Court.  The  future  of  the  un- 
usual venture  in  operation  by  composition  with 
employees  remained  uncertain. 

The  death  of  U.S.  Senator  Ernest  W.  Gibson 
left  a  seat  to  be  filled  by  election ;  Gov.  George  D. 
Aiken  won  the  Republican  nomination  for  this 
seat  in  the  primary  elections  (September  10) ;  U.S. 
Senator  Warren  R.  Austin  was  renommated  for 
another  term. 

Elections.  At  the  general  election  (Novem- 
ber 5)  the  vote  was  consistently  Republican.  The 
popular  vote  for  President  totaled  78,371  for  Will- 
kie  (Rep.);  64,269  for  Roosevelt  (Dem.).  For 
Governor,  William  H.  Wills  (Rep.)  defeated  John 
McGrath  (Dem).  For  U.S.  Senator,  full  term, 
Warren  R.  Austin  (Rep.)  was  re-elected,  over 
Ona  S,  Searles  (Dem  )  ;  for  Senator,  unexpired 
term,  Governor  George  D.  Aiken  (Rep.)  defeated 
Herbert  B.  Comings  (Dem.). 

Officers.  Vermont's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  George  D,  Aiken  (Rep.)  ; 
Lieutenant  Governor,  William  H.  Wills;  Treas- 
urer, Thomas  H.  Cave ;  Secretary  of  State,  Raw- 
son  C.  Myrick;  Auditor,  Benjamin  Gates;  Attor- 
ney General,  Lawrence  C  Jones;  Commissioner 
of  Education,  Francis  Bailey. 

VETERANS.  See  VETERANS  ADMINISTRA- 
TION; also,  CIVIL  SERVICE  COMMISSION;  RED 
CROSS. 


VETERANS'  ADMINISTRATION.  As  of 
June  30,  1940,  there  were  in  force  608,923  United 
States  Government  life  insurance  policies  repre- 
senting $2,564,984,223  of  insurance.  During  the  fis- 
cal year  1940.  there  were  issued  52,713  new  policies 
aggregating  $144,315,328.  The  actual  disbursements 
made  during  the  fiscal  year  1940,  to  policy-holders 
of  this  form  of  insurance  was  $69,812,755.  Military 
and  Naval  insurance  covers  contracts  held  by  vet- 
erans of  the  World  War  for  a  form  of  insurance 
formerly  designated  as  "War  Risk"  insurance.  The 
disbursements  for  this  type  of  insurance  totaled 
$19,601,577  during  the  fiscal  year  1940. 

During  the  fiscal  year  1940,  235,264  United 
States  veterans  received  hospitalization,  179,497 
being  admitted  during  the  fiscal  period.  As  of  June 
30,  1940,  56,596  United  States  veterans  were  re- 
ceiving hospitalization.  These  veterans  were  classi- 
fied by  wars  as  follows:  World  War,  50,912; 
Spanish  American  War,  2900 ;  Civil  War,  37 ;  Reg- 
ular Establishment,  2679;  and  all  other  wars,  ex- 
peditions and  occupations,  68. 

At  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  1940,  the  veteran 
population  reported  as  present  in  domiciliary  status 
in  facilities  under  the  control  and  jurisdiction  of 
the  Veterans'  Administration  totaled  16,518.  Of 
this  number  approximately  92.27  per  cent  were  vet- 
erans of  the  World  War ;  4  55  per  cent,  Spanish 
American  War ;  3.06  per  cent,  Regular  Establish- 
ment; and  0.12  per  cent,  other  wars,  expeditions, 
and  occupations. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  pen- 
sion and  compensation  cases  of  living  and  deceased 
veterans  by  wars  including  Regular  Establishment 
and  Honor  Roll — Yellow  Fever  Experiments  as  of 
June  30,  1940,  and  the  disbursements  during  the 
fiscal  year  1940 


War 


On  Roll  Disbursement 

June  30, 1940    Fiscal  Year  1940 


Honor    Roll—  Yellow    Fever    Ex- 

periments 

Living  veterans 
War  of  1812 

10 

$         15.00000 

Deceased  veterans 

1 

24000 

Mexican  War 

Deceased  veterans 

130 

84,613  33 

Indian  Wars—  Total 

6,271 

3,177,95484 

Living  veterans 

2,216 

1,694,482  65 

Deceased  veterans 

4,055 

1,483,472  19 

Civd  War—  Total 

52,522 

27,790,252  93 

Living  veterans 

2,381 

3,158,998  10 

Deceased  veterans 

50,141 

24,631,25483 

Spanish  American  War—  Total 
Living  veterans 

216,950 
159,230 

127,427,375  83 
106,203,201  30 

Deceased  veterans 
Regular  Establishment—  Total 

57,720 
46,177 

21,224,174.53 
15,811,76625 

Living  veterans 

36,051 

12,728,87247 

Deceased  veterans  . 

10,126 

3,082,893  78 

World  War—  Total 

527,247 

254,846,261.38 

Living  veterans 
Service  connected 
Nonsemce  connected 

410,244 
348,164 
60,296 

190,648,859  39 
168,387,884.83 
19,324,71545 

Emergency  Officers 
Deceased  veterans 

117P'003 

2,936,259.11 
64,197,401  99 

Service  connected 

99479 

56,799,06401 

Nonsewce  connected 

17,524 

7,398.337  98 

Grand  Total  —  Pensions  and  Com- 

pensations 
Living  veterans 
Deceased  veterans 

849,108 
610,132 
239,176 

$429,153,464  56 
314,449,413  91 
114,704,05065 

During  the  fiscal  year  1940,  the  total  disburse- 
ments made  by  the  Veterans'  Administration  from 
all  appropriations  and  trust  funds  (including  ad- 
justments on  lapsed  appropriations)  was  $639,126,- 
697. 

FRANK  T.  HINES. 

VETERINARY  MEDICINE.  Success  re- 
warded the  efforts  of  disease  control  workers  in 


VETERINARY  MEDICINE 


795 


VETERINARY  MEDICINE 


the  field  of  comparative  medicine.  None  of  the  live- 
stock diseases  that  have  from  time  to  time  wrought 
havoc  among  the  herds  of  other  continents  gained 
entrance  to  the  United  States,  and  the  progress  of 
eradication  of  insidious  diseases  within  was  most 
gratifying  to  the  authorities  in  charge.  The  com- 
pletion of  the  campaign  of  eradication  of  tubercu- 
losis from  the  dairy  and  beef  herds  of  the  United 
States,  a  co-operative  project  of  the  Federal  and 
State  governments,  which  was  announced  on  De- 
cember 2  after  twenty-three  years  of  constant  ef- 
fort, represents  one  of  the  outstanding  events  of 
history  in  the  advancement  of  the  welfare  of  a  peo- 
ple, both  from  its  economic  and  its  public  health 
benefits — physicians  having  credited  it  with  much 
of  the  recent  decrease  in  human  tuberculosis.  Par- 
ticularly noteworthy  was  the  action  taken  at  the 
seventy-seventh  annual  meeting  of  the  American 
Veterinary  Medical  Association  held  at  Washing- 
ton in  August  adopting  a  plan  for  the  control  of 
rabies  in  the  United  States,  authorizing  the  publi- 
cation of  a  quarterly  American  Journal  of  Veteri- 
nary Research  that  commenced  issue  October  15, 
and  the  selection  of  Dr.  I.  Forest  Huddleson  of 
Michigan  as  the  1940  recipient  of  the  Twelfth  In- 
ternational Veterinary  Congress  Prize  for  his  in- 
vestigations of  brucellosis. 

Brucellosii  or  Bang's  Disease,  Eradication. 
Announcement  was  made  on  February  2  of  the 
practical  eradication  of  Bang's  disease  from  the 
dany  and  breeding  cattle  in  209  counties  of  17 
States  containing  some  1,560,000  animals  six  months 
of  age  and  over.  In  the  co-operative  Federal-State 
project  the  area  plan  used  in  the  eradication  of  tu- 
berculosis was  followed.  The  method  of  accrediting 
areas  has  the  particular  merit  of  protecting  breed- 
ers who  desire  to  eradicate  the  disease,  against  pos- 
sible infection  from  adjacent  farms  Applied  usu- 
ally to  a  county  the  plan  consists  in  testing  all 
cattle  six  months  of  age  or  more,  except  steers. 
When  the  degree  of  infection  in  such  an  area  is 
found  at  not  more  than,  1  per  cent  of  such  cattle  and 
to  occur  in  not  more  than  5  per  cent  of  the  herds, 
the  area  may  be  officially  declared  a  modified  ac- 
credited Bang's  disease-free  area.  This  procedure 
was  adopted  and  approved  in  December,  1939,  and 
by  July  1,  1940,  there  were  298  counties  in  twenty 
States  so  classified.  The  owners  of  cattle  that  react 
to  the  official  test  for  Bang's  disease  and  that  are 
disposed  of  by  slaughter,  receive  all  the  salvage, 
and  in  35  States  they  also  receive  some  payment, 
as  partial  compensation,  from  the  State  and  Feder- 
al Governments.  The  average  salvage  for  the  year 
was  about  $35,  the  average  Federal  payment  $15, 
and  the  average  State  payment  $17.15.  The  amount 
paid  by  the  Federal  Government  cannot  exceed  that 
paid  by  the  State  or  other  co-operating  agency. 
While  the  test-and-slaughter  plan  of  suppression 
adopted  in  July,  1934,  has  resulted  in  much  prog- 
ress and  the  provisions  will  undoubtedly  be  con- 
tinued in  the  future,  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  through  which  the  work  is  conducted,  has 
announced  that  it  is  prepared  to  approve  a  suitable 
plan  that  will  incorporate  the  vaccination  of  calves 
at  the  proper  age  as  an  adjunct.  This  is  the  out- 
come of  investigational  work  which  has  shown  that 
calves  vaccinated  when  from  five  to  seven  months 
of  age  with  the  BAI  strain  19  of  Brucella  abortus 
that  has  been  developed  possess  a  rather  high  im- 
munity to  infection  and  do  not  become  carriers.  In 
Canada  the  interest  of  stock  owners  in  the  control 
of  Bang's  disease  was  on  the  increase,  with  2134 
herds  in  nine  Provinces  under  supervision  and  1027 
listed  as  disease  free. 


Equine  Encephalomyelitis,  Infectious.  From 
the  184,000  outbreaks  of  sleeping  sickness  of  the 
horse  in  the  United  States  in  1938  and  8000  in 
1939  there  was  a  reduction  to  4500  in  1940,  about 
half  of  which  occurred  during  late  September  and 
early  October.  The  low  incidence  was  attributable 
to  the  dry  weather  during  the  summer  in  many 
sections  being  unfavorable  to  transmission  by  mos- 
quitoes and  to  the  protective  vaccination  that  was 
used. 

Necrotic  Enteritis  of  Swine.  Experimental 
work  with  the  affection  of  swine  now  known  as 
infectious  necrotic  enteritis  has  suggested  that  it 
is  a  secondary  complication  due  to  the  intestinal 
invasion  of  Salmonella  choleraesuis  and  probably 
other  organisms  after  the  symptoms  of  a  deficiency 
of  nicotinic  acid  have  developed. 

Parasitology.  Investigations  reported  indicate 
that  the  dog  flea  is  a  potential  vector  of  the  heart- 
worm  of  the  dog  ( Diro filar ia  tmmitis),  suggest- 
ing that  it  may  play  a  role  in  the  transmission  of 
this  parasite  of  the  bloodstream  especially  through- 
out portions  of  the  South.  The  larvae  of  the  red 
flour  beetle  and  the  confused  flour  beetle  were  suc- 
cessfully infected  with  the  common  poultry  tape- 
worm Raillietia  cesticillus  They  became  infected 
when  offered  the  gravid  segments  in  the  presence 
of  either  a  large  or  small  amount  of  food,  such  as 
bran.  It  was  shown  that  the  process  of  metamor- 
phosis of  the  beetles  from  larvae  to  pupae  or  pupae 
to  adults  does  not  destroy  all  of  the  cysticercoids 
present.  The  common  liver  fluke  of  cattle  in  Hawaii 
Fasciola  gigantica  was  reported  to  be  best  com- 
bated through  control  of  the  snail  Fossana  allula, 
a  common  inhabitant  of  fresh-water  streams  and 
swamps.  The  affection  of  turkeys  due  to  a  parasite 
of  the  white  blood  corpuscles,  Leucocytosoon 
smithi  transmitted  by  black  flies,  first  recorded 
from  Virginia,  was  reported  to  have  been  the  cause 
of  outbreaks  in  nearly  all  sections  of  Alabama  in 
the  past  two  years.  In  experimental  medication  of 
cattle  for  control  of  the  horn  fly,  rotenonc  was  ef- 
fective in  much  smaller  doses  than  any  other  sub- 
stance and  had  no  apparent  harmful  effect  on  the 
animal.  A  few  flies  emerged  from  droppings  of 
cattle  fed  0.3  gram  per  hundred  body  weight  ad- 
ministered daily,  all  having  been  killed  by  a  0.4 
gram  dose.  Phenothiazine  was  effective  in  doses  as 
small  as  1  gram  per  hundred  body  weight  but  had 
the  undesirable  quality  of  imparting  a  reddish  tinge 
to  the  milk  of  cows.  Investigations  in  Florida  re- 
vealed the  fact  that  both  the  common  housefly, 
Musca  domestica,  and  eye  gnats  (Hippelates  spp.) 
are  natural  vectors  of  the  mastitis  of  dairy  cattle. 
Progress  was  made  in  the  eradication  of  sheep 
scabies,  in  the  course  of  which  13,825,734  inspec- 
tions were  made  in  the  field  and  1,406,380  dippings 
supervised ;  and  with  cattle  scabies  in  five  western 
range  States  where  31,069  herds  were  found  in- 
fected, and  114,267  dippings  supervised. 

Phenothiazine  as  an  Anthelmintic.  In  the 
search  for  a  substance  that  is  toxic  to  insects  but 
of  low  toxicity  to  warm-blooded  animals  the  value 
of  the  sulphur  compound,  phenothiazine,  was  dis- 
covered by  investigators  of  the  U.S.  Department 
of  Agriculture  in  1935  to  be  particularly  promis- 
ing. This  parent  substance  of  many  dyes,  prepared 
from  diphenylamide,  a  coal  tar  derivative,  is  chem- 
ically related  to  sulfanilamide.  Experimental  work 
in  1938  revealed  it  to  be  of  exceptional  value  as 
an  anthelmmtic  for  the  removal  of  worms  from 
sheep  and  swine.  The  work  that  has  followed  has 
shown  it  to  be  one  of  the  most  versatile  chemical 
substances  brought  to  light  in  recent  years.  Follow- 


VETERINARY  MEDICINE 


796 


VICTORIA 


ing  litigation  that  arose,  a  patent  was  issued  and 
dedicated  to  the  public  for  use  in  the  treatment  of 
certain  worm  infestations  of  sheep,  goats,  swine, 
cattle,  and  horses,  which  heretofore  have  resisted 
medication.  The  drug  possesses  several  practical 
advantages  over  other  known  anthelrmntics,  includ- 
ing low  toxicity,  greater  efficiency  in  heavily  in- 
fested than  in  lightly  infested  animals,  ease  of  ad- 
ministration, and  anthelmmtic  activity  against  more 
than  one  species  of  worm  parasite.  A  method  of 
administering  the  substance  in  the  form  of  com- 
pressed tablets  that  disintegrate  rapidly  in  the  stom- 
ach has  been  developed.  Used  in  this  way  the  an- 
thelmintic  efficiency  of  the  chemical  is  increased 
and  it  can  be  employed  without  prior  fasting.  Work 
in  Washington  State  has  led  to  the  recommenda- 
tion of  its  use  in  the  removal  of  heterakids  of 
chickens. 

Sulf  anilamide  Therapy.  While  reports  regard- 
ing the  value  of  sulfanilamide  in  the  treatment  of 
bovine  mastitis  have  been  somewhat  conflicting,  it 
was  reported  from  Ohio  to  have  been  found  of 
value,  especially  in  large  herds  for  cows  that  sud- 
denly develop  an  inflammation  in  one  or  more  quar- 
ters, and  in  small  herds  in  which  mastitis  appears 
quite  frequently.  In  preliminary  work  reported,  it 
appeared  to  be  of  value  in  the  treatment  of  calf 
diphtheria  and  perhaps  other  affections  due  to  or 
associated  with  Actmomyces  necrophorus.  It  proved 
to  be  highly  effective  in  septicemic  diseases  of  the 
dog  when  given  in  initial  daily  doses  of  one  grain 
per  pound  body  weight  divided  into  four  doses.  Re- 
port came  from  Australia  of  its  high  value  when 
administered  to  horses  suffering  from  severe  he- 
molytic  streptococcal  infections,  although  no  bene- 
fit resulted  in  a  case  of  strangles.  Experimental 
tuberculosis  work  with  the  rabbit  at  the  Johns 
Hopkins  Hospital  confirmed  the  results  of  earlier 
work  with  the  guinea  pig,  demonstrating  that  ade- 
quate doses  of  sulfanilamide  properly  administered 
has  a  definite  inhibitory  effect  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  the  infection.  An  outstanding  cure  of  a 
case  of  horse  sickness  resulting  from  the  adminis- 
tration of  prontpsil  was  reported  from  South  Af- 
rica Sulfapyridine,  like  sulfanilamide,  proved  ef- 
fective when  used  against  several  species  of  coc- 
cidia  affecting  the  chicken  although  neither  drug 
is  effective  against  the  two  most  destructive  species, 
Eimeria  tenella  and  Eimeria  necatrix. 

Tick  Fever  and  Cattle  Tick  Eradication. 
The  eradication  campaign  against  the  cattle-fever 
tick  which  has  been  under  way  since  1906  was  con- 
tinued in  the  remaining  infested  areas  of  Florida, 
Texas,  Puerto  Rico,  and  the  Virgin  Islands.  Dur- 
ing the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  the  whole  or 
remaining  parts  of  two  counties  in  Florida  and 
seven  counties  in  Texas  with  an  aggregate  area  of 
1135  square  miles  and  the  middle  one-third  of 
Puerto  Rico  covering  an  area  of  373  square  miles 
were  released  from  quarantine.  Parts  of  three 
counties  in  Texas  aggregating  373  square  miles 
were  requarantined.  During  the  fiscal  year  a  total 
of  16,214,872  inspections  or  dippings  of  cattle  and 
1,592,317  inspections  or  dippings  of  horses  and 
mules  were  conducted  It  was  necessary  in  Puerto 
Rico  and  the  Virgin  Islands,  where  the  tropical 
variety  of  the  cattle-fever  tick  is  prevalent,  to 
treat  the  sheep  and  goats  and  a  few  deer  on  in- 
fested premises  and  1,278,921  inspections  or  dip- 
pings of  these  animals  were  conducted.  On  July  1 
only  1  per  cent  of  the  area  in  the  985  counties 
placed  under  Federal  quarantine  in  1906,  and  this 
all  in  twelve  counties,  remained  to  be  freed  of  the 
cattle-fever  tick.  Cattle-tick  infested  deer  continued 


to  be  the  most  troublesome  phase  in  the  four  re- 
maining infested  counties  in  Florida. 

Toxicology.  In  feeding  experiments  to  deter- 
mine the  minimum  lethal  dose  of  selenium,  as  so- 
dium selenite,  for  livestock,  the  findings  were  as 
follows :  for  the  horse  and  mule  1.5  milligram  per 
pound  of  body  weight,  for  the  cow  between  4.5 
and  5.0  milligrams,  for  4  to  6  months  old  pigs  be- 
tween 6.0  and  80  milligrams.  Peganum  hannala, 
a  plant  known  as  Syrian  or  African  rue  that  has 
lately  appeared  and  become  abundant  on  a  section 
of  land  in  New  Mexico,  was  proved  to  be  poison- 
ous to  stock.  Wheat  screenings  containing  nutlets 
of  Amsinckia  intermedia,  a  plant  that  grows  abun- 
dantly in  grain  fields  in  certain  semiarid  regions 
of  Washington,  Oregon,  and  Idaho,  was  proved  to 
be  toxic  to  horses,  cattle,  and  swine.  The  condi- 
tion produced,  hepatic  cirrhosis,  as  it  occurs  in  cat- 
tle and  swine  is  known  locally  as  hard  liver  and  in 
horses  as  walking  disease. 

Tuberculosis  Eradication,  Bovine.  With  the 
release  of  the  three  remaining  counties  of  Cali- 
fornia, Puerto  Rico,  and  the  Virgin  Islands  the 
campaign  for  eradication  of  tuberculosis  from  the 
cattle  herds  of  the  United  States  was  brought  to 
a  successful  close.  This  milestone  of  progress  in 
the  advance  of  public  health  and  the  prevention  of 
economic  loss  took  its  place  on  December  2d,  at 
which  time  each  and  every  county  in  the  United 
States  and  the  Territories  of  Puerto  Rico  and  the 
Virgin  Islands  were  declared  to  be  modified  ac- 
credited areas.  This  means  that  the  degree  of  in- 
fection in  every  county  of  every  State  of  the  Un- 
ion has  been  reduced  to  less  than  one-half  of  1 
per  cent,  signifying  practical  eradication  In  the 
course  of  this  work  more  than  232  million  tests 
and  retests  were  made  and  about  4  million  diseased 
cattle  were  detected  and  removed  for  slaughter. 
Future  work  will  consist  in  precautionary  retest- 
ing  to  safeguard  the  health  of  herds  against  pos- 
sible reinfection  and  a  new  spread  of  the  disease. 
Work  with  the  avian  type  of  the  disease  which 
menaces  the  poultry  and  swine  industries  in  the 
Central  and  North  Central  States  was  continued 
It  was  found  in  an  investigation  in  England  fol- 
lowing an  outbreak  of  avial  tuberculosis  among 
the  stock  in  a  well  managed  poultry  establishment 
that  from  1  3  to  4.8  per  cent  of  the  starlings  were 
infected  with  the  organism.  Substantial  progress 
was  made  in  the  bovine  tuberculosis  eradication 
work  in  all  the  Provinces  of  Canada. 

Bibliography.  Among  the  publications  of  the  year  were: 
D.  J.  Anthony,  Diseases  of  the  pig  and  its  husbandry 
(Baltimore.  1940):  B.  W.  Bierer,  American  Veterinary 
History  ( Vols.  I-IV,  Baltimore,  1940) ,  W.  D.  Frost  and 
M.  A  Engelbrecht,  The  streptococci-  Their  description, 
classification,  and  distribution,  with  special  reference  to 
those  in  milk  (Madison,  Wise  ,  1940);  W.  A.  Hagan,  An 
outline  of  lectures  on  pathogenic  bacteriology,  and  immu- 
nity with  relation  to  the  domestic  animals  (Ann  Arbor, 
1939,  rev.  ed.);  I.  A.  Merchant,  Veterinary  bacteriology 
(Ames,  Iowa,  1940);  H.  J.  Milks,  Practical  veterinary 


»t»t/m  w»t/i»4    viT****Jlv-clrwl"»>    *^^v/,   \s»    Aiciva,   ju 1/tv.i  »>u.)    c*c/j 

suinos  (Sfto  Paulo,  1940);  C.  Olson,  Jr.  Transmissible 
fowl  leucosis:  A  review  of  the  literature  (Mass.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bull  370,  Amherst,  Mass.,  1940):  and  W.  L.  Williams, 
Veterinary  obstetrics  (Ithaca,  N  Y.,  1940,  3  ed  ). 

WILLIAM  A.  HOOKER. 

VICALLOY.  See  TELEPHONY. 

VICTORIA.  A  State  of  Australia.  Area,  87,- 
884  square  miles;  population  (Man  31,  1940), 
1,896,934,  exclusive  of  full-blood  aboriginals.  Vital 
statistics  (1939) :  30,493  births,  20,169  deaths,  17,- 
368  marriages.  Capital,  Melbourne,  1,046,750  in- 
habitants (1939).  Other  important  cities  are  Gee- 


VILNA  TERRITORY  797 

long,  40,050;  Ballarat,  38,430;  Bcndigo,  30,030. 
Education  (Dec.  31,  1937)  :  3391  schools  and  367,- 
848  students.  In  1938  there  were  3931  students  at- 
tending lectures  at  the  University  of  Melbourne. 

Production.  Chief  agricultural  crops:  wheat 
(45,054,592  bu.  in  1939-40),  oats,  barley,  potatoes, 
hay,  grapes.  Dairy  products  (1938-39)  :  130,573,- 
918  Ib.  of  butter,  19,544,061  Ib.  of  cheese,  16,510,- 
137  Ib.  of  bacon  and  ham.  Livestock  (1940)  :  18,- 
251,870  sheep,  1,787,597  cattle,  326,217  horses,  297,- 
655  swine.  Wool  (as  in  the  grease)  output  (1940)  : 
187,000,000  Ib.  Chief  mineral  output  (1939): 
gold  (£1,533,899).  coal  (£645,766).  Manufacturing 
(1938-39)  :  9250  factories,  201,831  employees,  £65,- 
996,069  net  value  of  production.  The  State  rail- 
ways, in  1938-39,  had  4767  route  miles  of  track 
open  to  traffic  and  carried  148,543,000  passengers 
and  5,990,000  tons  of  freight. 

Government.  Finance  (1939-40)  :  revenue,  £27,- 
464,000;  expenditure,  £27,999,000;  public  debt, 
£180,550,000,  The  executive  authority  is  vested  in 
a  governor,  aided  by  a  responsible  ministry.  Par- 
liament consists  of  a  legislative  council  of  34  mem- 
bers elected  for  a  6-year  term  ( 17  elected  every  3 
years),  and  a  legislative  assembly  of  65  members 
who  are  elected  for  a  3 -year  term  by  universal 
adult  suffrage.  Governor,  Maj.  Gen.  Sir  Winston 
Dugan  (assumed  office  July  17,  1939)  ;  Premier, 
A  A.  Dun stan.  See  AUSTRALIA  under  History  for 
the  standing  of  the  political  parties  in  the  legisla- 
tive assembly  as  a  result  of  the  State  general  elec- 
tion of  Mar.  16,  1940. 

VILNA  TEkRITORY.  See  LITHUANIA  un- 
der Area  and  Population  and  Communications. 

VIRGINIA.  Area,  42,627  square  miles;  in- 
cludes water,  2365  square  miles.  Population  (U.S. 
Census),  April,  1940,  2,677,773;  1930,  2,421,851. 
Richmond  (the  capital),  193,042  (1940) ;  Norfolk, 
144,332.  The  urban  population— dwellers  in  places 
of  2500  or  more — grew  the  most,  increasing  ( 1930- 
40)  by  159,138,  or  20.3  per  cent,  to  944,675;  the 
rural  population  gaining  96,784,  attained  1,733,098. 

Agriculture.  Virginia  harvested,  in  1940, 3,791,- 
000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  The  tendency  was 
to  raise  less  corn  and  tobacco  and  more  tame  hay. 
Corn,  on  1,377,000  acres,  bore  36,940,000  bu.  ($28,- 
097,000  in  estimated  return  to  the  farmer)  ;  to- 
bacco, 114,000  acres,  made  97,540,000  Ib  ($15,048,- 
000)  ;  tame  hay,  1,091,000  acres,  1,252,000  tons 
($15,149,000)  ;  wheat,  546,000  acres,  8,463,000  bu. 
($7,278,000) ;  peanuts,  164,000  acres,  196,800,000 
Ib.  ($6,691,000)  ;  potatoes,  76,000  acres,  10,412,000 
bu.  ($6,351,000)  ;  apples,  10,325,000  bu.  ($6,711,- 
000)  ;  sweet  potatoes,  31,000  acres,  3,875,000  bu. 
($2,906,000)  ;  barley,  88,000  acres,  2,376,000  bu. 
($1,331,000) ;  cotton,  31,000  acres,  25,000  bales 
($1,188,000). 

Mineral  Production.  Virginia's  production  of 
its  native  minerals,  as  stated  by  the  U.S.  Bureau 
of  Mines  in  1940,  totaled  $42,370,169  for  1938;  to 
this,  coal  contributed  the  greater  part.  The  produc- 
tion of  bituminous  coal  rose  to  some  13,230,000 
net  tons  for  1939,  from  12,283,036  tons  (value, 
$24,054,000)  for  1938;  and  heavier  production  in 
1940  yielded  14,950,000  tons  in  12  months.  Stone, 
of  which  the  output  attained  $5,606,470  (1938) 
and  $5,879,447  (1939),  averaged  the  producers  not 
far  from  $1  a  ton ;  it  contributed  the  second  great- 
est part,  in  value,  of  the  State's  mineral  total  Ce- 
ment and  zinc  came  next ;  their  annual  totals  were 
not  published  separately  as  to  Virginia.  Clay  prod- 
ucts (exclusive  of  pottery  and  refractories)  at- 
tained $1,885,876  for  1938.  Lime  was  produced 
(1938-39)  to  the  value  of  about  $1,000,000  a  year. 


VIRGIN  ISLANDS 


A  small  production  of  anthracite  (109,642  tons  for 
1938)  continued  to  form  a  minor  feature  of  the 
State's  mineral  industry. 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40, 
Virginia's  inhabitants  of  school  age  (from  7  years 
to  19)  were  reckoned  at  712,081.  Enrollments  of 
pupils  in  all  public  schools  numbered  556,552 :  this 
comprised  434,479  in  elementary  study  and  122,073 
in  high  school.  Teachers  in  public  schools  num- 
bered (October,  1939)  17,734;  the  yearly  pay  of 
the  teachers,  principals,  and  supervisors  averaged 
$952.  The  enrollments  of  elementary  pupils  fell 
short,  by  nearly  23,000,  of  those  for  the  academic 
year  1938-39,  in  accordance  with  a  prevailing  tend- 
ency among  the  States. 

History.  Shipyards  at  tidewater  were  busy  on 
huge  Federal  orders.  They  got  most  of  the  ad- 
vantage that  the  rearmament  boom  brought  to  the 
State.  See  PORTS  AND  HARBORS. 

Virginia's  ambition  to  increase  its  population's 
employment  in  manufacturing  took  more  definite 
form.  The  University  of  Virginia,  to  serve  this 
aim,  created  a  bureau  of  industrial  research.  Under 
Robert  H.  West,  former  head  of  the  Riverside  and 
Dan  River  cotton  mills,  director  of  the  new  bureau, 
a  scheme  of  policy  was  considered;  its  reported 
features  were  the  planning  of  new  industries,  the 
effort  to  decentralize  the  development  of  manufac- 
turing, and  the  encouragement  of  new  locations  of 
enterprises  in  areas  having  an  available  surplus  of 
population  above  the  number  needed  in  existing 
employment.  A  study  of  the  population  of  the  State 
was  under  way,  in  connection  with  the  industri- 
al research;  the  Rockefeller  General  Education 
Board  made  grants  for  both  purposes.  A  related 
study  of  the  use  made  of  the  land  proceeded  under 
the  Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute,  aided  by  a  simi- 
lar grant.  The  State  Planning  Board  co-ordinated 
the  three  studies.  See  INSURANCE. 

U.S.  Senator  Harry  F.  Byrd,  though  noted  as 
opposed  to  the  course  of  the  New  Deal  on  frequent 
occasions,  gained  the  Democratic  renomination  un- 
opposed. 

At  the  general  election  (November  5)  the  usual 
Democratic  majority  prevailed.  The  popular  vote 
for  President  totaled  235,961  for  Roosevelt  (Dem.) 
and  109,363  for  Willkie  (Rep).  Harry  F.  Byrd 
was  re-elected  U.S.  Senator,  with  only  Socialist 
and  Communist  opposition.  The  nine  incumbents 
were  re-elected  U.S.  Representatives. 

Officers.  Virginia's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940  were:  Governor,  James  H.  Price  (Dem.); 
Lieutenant  Governor,  office  left  vacant  by  the 
death  of  Saxon  W.  Holt ;  Secretary  of  the  Com- 
monwealth, R.  L.  Jackson;  Treasurer.  Edwin  B. 
Jones;  Auditor,  S.  McCarthy  Downs;  Attorney 
General,  Abram  P.  Staples;  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  Dr.  Sidney  B.  Hall. 

VIRGIN  ISLANDS.  An  insular  possession 
of  the  United  States,  situated  about  60  miles  to  the 
east  of  Puerto  Rico.  This  possession  forms  the 
southwestern  part  of  a  group  which,  as  a  whole, 
also  bears  the  name,  Virgin  Islands,  and  of  which 
the  rest  is  a  British  possession.  When  needful  for 
distinction,  and  commonly  abroad,  the  U.S.  pos- 
session is  known  as  the  Virgin  Islands  of  the 
United  States  This  possession  comprises  three 
inhabited  islands — St.  Thomas,  St.  Croix,  and  St. 
John — and  some  50  uninhabited  islets.  Total  area, 
132  square  miles ;  population.  24,889  in  1940 ;  22,- 
012  in  1930  Areas  and  populations  (1930)  of  the 
individual  islands:  St.  Thomas,  22  square  miles, 
9834  inhabitants;  St  Croix.  84  square  miles,  11,- 
413  inhabitants ;  S.  John,  20  square  miles,  765  in- 


VIRGIN  ISLANDS 


798 


VIRGIN  ISLANDS 


habitants.  Of  the  whole  population,  78  per  cent  in 
1930  were  Negroes,  12  per  cent  of  mixed  race,  and 
9  per  cent  whites;  1939*8  birth  rate  35.8,  death 
rate  20.9,  per  1000.  Capital,  Charlotte  Amalie,  on 
the  island  of  St.  Thomas. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  main  productive 
activity  is  the  growing  of  sugar  cane,  chiefly  on 
the  island  of  St.  Croix  and  the  production  of 
sugar  and  rum  from  the  cane.  Cattle  are  raised 
for  domestic  needs  and  for  exportation  to  Puerto 
Rico.  St.  Thomas,  an  island  too  rugged  for  ex- 
tensive agriculture,  derives  some  of  the  support  of 
its  population  from  catering  to  tourists  and  from 
services  to  vessels  that  resort  to  the  harbor  of 
Charlotte  Amalie  for  fuel,  supplies,  or  repairs. 
After  decades  of  economic  decline  the  Virgin  Is- 
lands became  destitute  in  1933.  Federal  grants  of 
divers  sorts,  totaling  $8,347,000  approximately  for 
the  ten  fiscal  years  1931-40  or  about  $340  to  the 
inhabitant,  have  kept  industry  going  and  have 
otherwise  assured  part  of  the  people's  subsistence. 
Thus  the  Virgin  Islands  Co.,  a  Federally  owned 
corporation,  in  the  years  1935-39,  against  an  origi- 
nal Federal  outlay,  in  capital,  of  $3,409,404  and 
five  years'  gross  receipts  of  $824,914,  had  ex- 
penses, before  tax-payments,  of  $873,321  and  a 
consequent  deficit  before  taxes  of  $48,407 ;  deficit 
after  taxes,  $139,926;  but  the  company  furnished 


employment  for  a  considerable  part  of  the  popu- 
lation. 

In  the  fiscal  year  1940,  985  ships,  having  a  total 
tonnage  of  3,844,289,  entered  port  at  the  island  of 
St.  Thomas ;  21  of  these  were  carriers  of  tourists. 
Exports  of  cattle  (fiscal  year  1939)  totaled  1944, 
in  value  $49,306.  For  the  calendar  year  1940  the 
Virgin  Islands'  imports  of  merchandise  from  the 
United  States  amounted  to  $3,023,979;  exports 
thereto,  of  native  products  of  the  Islands,  to 
$1,448,020.  Of  the  year's  exports,  rum  furnished 
$501,924;  bitters,  $366,559.  For  1939  exports  of 
sugar  to  the  United  States  totaled  $376,151.  The 
imports,  widespread  in  variety,  covered  most  of 
the  Islands1  needs,  including  a  considerable  part 
of  their  animal  and  vegetable  foods;  main  com- 
ponents were  non -metallic  minerals  (nearly  three- 
fourths  being  fuels),  $428,326;  metal  products, 
$619,229;  and  (separate  from  the  foregoing)  ma- 
chinery and  vehicles,  $335,454. 

Government.  Under  previous  dispositions  and 
an  act  of  the  U.S.  Congress,  the  Organic  Act  of 
1936,  the  Virgin  Islands  have  as  their  chief  exec- 
utive a  Governor,  holding  office  by  appointment  of 
the  President  and,  since  1939,  acting  under  the 
supervision  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  the  Inte- 
rior. Justice  is  dealt  by  the  U.S  District  Court  of 
the  Virgin  Islands  and  such  subordinate  courts  as 


TABLE  1— DEATHS  (1939)  AND  DEATH  RATES  (1935-39)  FROM  SELECTED  CAUSES  UNITED  STATES 


Total  Deaths 

Death  rate  (m 
estttnatet 

imber  per  100,000 

poput         ) 

1939                  1938 

1937 

1936 

1935 

All  causes 

1,387,897 

1,062  7              1,065  3 

1,1266               1 

,1572 

1,0975 

Typhoid  and  paratyphoid  fever 
Cerebrospinal  (menmgococcus)  meningitis 

2,001 
863 

15                     19 
07                    08 

21 
17 

25 
24 

28 
21 

Scarlet  fever 

853 

07                    09 

14 

20 

2  1 

Whooping  cough 

3,026 

23                     37 

39 

2  1 

37 

Diphtheria 

1,997 

15                     2.0 

20 

24 

31 

Tuberculosis  of  respiratory  system 
Tuberculosis  (other  forms) 

56,398 
5,211 

432                   447 
40                    44 

492 
47 

509 
51 

500 
5.2 

Dysentery 
Malaria 

2,537 
1,761 

19                     23 
13                      18 

23 
21 

24 
31 

19 

35 

Syphilis  (all  forms) 
Influenza 

19,604 
21,464 

150                   159 
164                   127 

162 
295 

162 
265 

154 
222 

Measles 

1,174 

09                    25 

12 

10 

3  I 

Poliomyelitis  and  pohoencephahtis  (acute) 

773 

06                    04 

11 

06 

08 

Cancer  of  the  digestive  organs  and 
peritoneum 

71,690 

549                   546 

539 

534 

524 

Cancer  of  female  genital  organs 
Cancer  of  the  breast 

20,737 
14,868 

159                   156 
114                   112 

155 
108 

155 
107 

151 
104 

Cancer  (other  forms) 

46,551 

35  6                   33.7 

322 

319 

305 

Acute  rheumatic  fever 

1,733 

13                     16 

15 

17 

1.8 

Diabetes  melhtus 

33,395 

25  6                   23  9 

238 

238 

224 

Exophthalmic  goiter 

3,676 

28                     29 

29 

30 

29 

Pellagra  (exc  alcoholic) 

2,419 

19                    25 

25 

29 

28 

Alcoholism  (ethylism) 
Intracramal  lesions  of  vascular  origin 

2,558 
114,967 

20                    20 
880                   860 

26 
868 

29 
912 

26 
859 

Other  diseases  of  the  nervous  system,  etc 

14,207 

109                   114 

124 

135 

129 

Diseases  of  ear,  nose,  throat 
Chronic  rheumatic  diseases  of  the  heart 

7,521 
26,211 

58                    65 
201 

74 

84 

8.7 

Diseases  of  the  coronary  arteries  and 
angina  pectoris 

89,423 

685                 270° 

2691 

2670 

2461 

Diseases  of  the  heart  (other  forms) 
Pneumonia  (all  forms') 

245,000 
77,633 

•1876 
59  4                   67  8 

854 

934 

82.3 

Ulcer  of  stomach  or  duodenum 

8,875 

68                    6.5 

68 

67 

6.6 

Diarrhea,  enteritis,  etc 

15,128 

116                   143 

147 

164 

14.2 

Appendicitis 

14,113 

108                   110 

119 

129 

12.7 

Hernia,  intestinal  obstruction 
Cirrhosis  of  the  liver 

12,267 
10,904 

94                     97 
83                     8.3 

102 
85 

105 
83 

10.4 
7.9 

Biliary  calculi,  etc 

8,087 

62                    65 

67 

69 

6.8 

Nephritis 

108,512 

•  83  1                   77  5 

799 

836 

81.6 

Diseases  of  the  prostate 

8,635 

66                    64 

.    67 

69 

6.7 

Puerperal  septicemia 
Puerperal  toxemias 
Other  puerperal  causes 

3,834 
2,232 
3,085 

29                    26 
17                     19 
24                     32 

29 
21 

34 

36 
22 
37 

4.1 
21 
37 

Congenital  malformations 
Premature  birth  .  .                         . 

12,413 
32251 

95                    9.3 
24  7                   25  2 

92 
261 

95 
263 

9.3 
261 

Suicide 

18,511 

14  2                   15  3 

150 

143 

144 

Homicide 

8,394 

64                    68 

76 

80 

83 

Motor-vehicle  accidents 

32,386 

24  8                   25  1 

308 

298 

287 

Other  accidents 

60,237 

461                   472 

509 

563 

50.0 

All  other  causes 

137,782 

105  5                 104  5 

1088 

1148 

111.2 

•  Not  strictly  comparable  with  prior  years  because  of  shift  to  nephritis  of  certain  inclusions  under  diseases  of  the  heart 


VIRGIN  ISLANDS 


799 


VITAL  STATISTICS 


hold  power  under  the  Islands'  local  laws.  A  Legis- 
lative Assembly  has  power  to  enact,  subject  to 
Federal  approval,  measures  relating  to  the  Islands 
as  a  whole.  This  Assembly  consists  of  the  com- 
bined membership  of  two  Municipal  Councils.  The 
councils  also  each  have  considerable  authority  to 
make  local  laws  for  their  respective  municipali- 
ties. The  two  municipalities,  that  of  St  Croix  and 
that  of  St.  Thomas  and  St.  John,  exercise  home 
rule  to  a  degree  that  greatly  limits  the  Assembly's 
field.  In  each  municipality  the  people  elect  the 
Council.  The  natives  of  the  Islands  are  U.S.  citi- 
zens, in  general,  though  the  phrasing  of  the  grant 
of  citizenship  and  of  its  later  amendment  failed 
to  take  in  some  natives  no  longer  in  the  Islands. 
Governor  in  1940,  Lawrence  W.  Cramer. 

As  to  finance,  the  chief  Insular  officers  are  paid 
by  the  United  States.  All  taxes  collected  from  in- 
habitants of  the  Islands,  whether  under  Federal 
laws  or  under  local  laws,  go  into  the  treasuries  of 
the  respective  municipalities.  The  revenue  of  the 
two  municipalities  and  their  expenditures,  for  the 
fiscal  year  1940  were:  St.  Croix,  $176,013  in 
revenues  and  $256,943  (or  somewhat  more)  in 
expenditures;  St.  Thomas  and  St.  John,  simi- 
larly, $232,849  and  $276,750.  The  yearly  deficit  of 
either  municipality  has  recurred  without  exception 
throughout  the  period  of  U  S.  possession.  Yearly 
Federal  appropriations  cover  each  year's  approxi- 
mate deficits,  as  anticipated. 


History.  Efforts  under  way,  to  do  away  with 
the  tax  of  $6  a  ton  on  exports  of  sugar  from  the 
Virgin  Islands,  made  slight  progress  in  1940.  The 
U.S.  Congress  had  under  consideration,  as  in  two 
previous  sessions,  a  bill  to  transfer  to  the  Islands 
the  Federal  receipts  in  excise  taxes  collected  on 
their  products  in  the  United  States ;  supporters  of 
this  bill  had  in  mind  that  such  receipts  would 
enable  the  Insular  treasuries  to  give  up  the  reve- 
nue from  the  sugar-export  duty  and  would  thus 
render  the  latter's  repeal  practicable.  Governor 
Cramer  in  his  annual  report  stressed  the  critical 
ills  of  the  sugar-producing  industry  in  the  Islands 
and  indicated  the  export  tax  as  a  difficulty  that 
other  exporters  of  sugar  to  the  United  States  did 
not  have  to  face. 

A  plan,  reportedly  urged  by  the  Insular  govern- 
ment, to  harbor  European  refugees  in  the  Islands 
came  before  the  Department  of  the  Interior  late 
in  the  year.  Governor  Cramer  resigned  on  No- 
vember 26.  Up  to  the  end  of  1940  the  President 
named  no  successor. 

VITAL  STATISTICS.  According  to  a  re- 
port of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  (Feb.  21,  1941), 
there  were  2,265,588  births  and  1,387,897  deaths 
reported  for  the  United  States  for  1939,  a  decrease 
in  the  number  of  births  and  a  slight  increase  in  the 
number  of  deaths,  as  compared  with  the  corre- 
sponding figures  for  the  preceding  year.  The  birth 
rate  declined  from  17.6  per  1000  estimated  popula- 


TABLE  2— BIRTHS,  DEATHS.  INFANT  DEATHS,  AND  MOTOR  VEHICLE  FATALITIES  BY  STATES,  1939 


United  States 

Total  Births 
2,265,588 

Birth  Rate  • 
173 

Total  Deaths 
1,387,897 

Death  Rate* 
106 

Total  Infant 
Deaths* 

108,846 

Infant 
Death 
Rate* 

480 

Motor 
V  chick 
Deaths 
32,386 

Motor  Vehicle 
Death 
Rates  * 

248 

Alabama 

61,385 

218 

28,301 

100 

3,675 

599 

632 

224 

Arizona 

10,928 

222 

5,851 

119 

1,031 

943 

224 

454 

Arkansas   . 

35,565 

183 

16,514 

8.5 

1,637 

460 

311 

160 

California     

103,453 

152 

77,130 

114 

4,385 

424 

2,860 

422 

Colorado   ... 

20,692 

186 

12,558 

113 

1,134 

548 

335 

301 

Connecticut 

23,463 

138 

17,696 

104 

842 

359 

374 

220 

Delaware 

4,384 

166 

3,169 

120 

193 

440 

79 

299 

District  of  Columbia 

14,037 

21.6 

8,292 

128 

669 

477 

155 

238 

Florida 

32,328 

175 

21,295 

115 

1,822 

564 

708 

384 

Georgia 

64,781 

209 

31,843 

103 

3,780 

584 

686 

221 

Idaho 

11,068 

214 

4,753 

92 

508 

459 

175 

338 

Illinois  .. 

117,841 

150 

86,994 

11.1 

4,474 

380 

2,211 

284 

Indiana 

58,349 

171 

39,510 

116 

2,302 

395 

1,095 

322 

Iowa 

43,765 

173 

26,465 

105 

1,697 

388 

545 

215 

Kansas 

29,115 

161 

18,469 

102 

1,146 

394 

414 

229 

Kentucky 

60,587 

215 

29,507 

105 

3,187 

526 

690 

244 

Louisiana                .   . 

48,844 

209 

24,521 

105 

3,077 

630 

493 

211 

Maine 

14,987 

178 

10,815 

129 

785 

524 

193 

229 

Maryland 

28,291 

158 

20,831 

116 

1,422 

503 

401 

224 

Massachusetts         .   . 

63,657 

14.7 

50,917 

118 

2,358 

370 

656 

152 

Michigan 

94,418 

183 

52,019 

101 

3,955 

419 

1,534 

297 

Minnesota 

50,237 

181 

26,784 

97 

1,798 

358 

607 

219 

Mississippi 
Missouri               .... 

51,721 
58,876 

238 
156 

22,646 
42,585 

104 
11.3 

2,907 
2,655 

562 
451 

419 
817 

193 
21.7 

Montana 

10,897 

197 

5,901 

107 

534 

490 

147 

266 

Nebraska 

22,338 

169 

12,194 

92 

816 

365 

275 

209 

Nevada  ... 

1,940 

178 

1,263 

116 

87 

448 

78 

717 

New  Hampshire  .  . 
New  Jersey  .          •     . 

7,934 
56,379 

16.3 
136 

43^59 

12.9 
10.6 

363 
2,184 

45.8 
387 

109 
852 

223 
206 

New  Mexico 

14,215 

273 

5,917 

114 

1,549 

1090 

194 

373 

New  York 

187,575 

141 

149,501 

112 

7,370 

393 

2,485 

187 

North  Carolina 

79,149 

224 

31,793 

9.0 

4,683 

592 

908 

257 

North  Dakota 

13,158 

205 

5,424 

84 

645 

490 

100 

156 

Ohio     . 

109,272 

159 

76,927 

112 

4,691 

429 

1,965 

286 

Oklahoma.  . 

43,471 

186 

20,391 

87 

2,162 

497 

515 

221 

Oregon 

16,715 

155 

11,797 

109 

593 

355 

337 

313 

Pennsylvania 

161,049 

163 

108,007 

109 

7,143 

456 

2,103 

21  3 

Rhode  Island 

10,444 

148 

7,775 

110 

412 

394 

78 

110 

South  Carolina  .   .     . 

42,811 

22.6 

19,296 

10.2 

2,834 

662 

543 

287 

South  Dakota 

11,616 

180 

5,517 

8.5 

481 

414 

121 

187 

Tennessee 

53,353 

18.5 

28,722 

99 

2,874 

539 

599 

207 

Texas 

121,049 

190 

60,218 

94 

8,110 

670 

1,610 

253 

Utah  , 

13.007 

239 

4,712 

86 

514 

395 

169 

310 

Vermont 

6,375 

17.8 

4,544 

12.7 

291 

45.6 

82 

22.9 

Virginia 

52,921 

200 

28,636 

108 

3,221 

609 

809 

306 

Washington 
West  Virginia     .... 
Wisconsin 

26,538 
41,545 
54,168 

155 
22.0 
174 

18,516 
17,490 
31,424 

108 
93 
10.1 

976 
2,272 
2,179 

368 
547 
40.2 

466 
360 
728 

273 
191 
234 

Wyoming 

4,897 

200 

2,207 

90 

223 

455 

119 

485 

•  Per  1000  estimated  population     »  Under  one  year  of  age.    •  Per  1000  live  births.    *  Per  100,000  estimated  population. 


VITAMINS 


800        WAGE  AND  HOUR  DIVISION 


tion  in  1938  to  17.3  in  1939,  and  the  death  rate  de- 
creased from  10.7  to  10.6  per  1000  estimated  popu- 
lation. The  death  rate  in  1939  was  the  lowest  ever 
recorded  for  the  United  States  death  registration 
area. 

The  birth  rate  in  1939  was  lowest  in  the  Middle 
Atlantic  States  and  highest  in  the  Mountain  States, 
the  range  being  14.8  to  21.4  birth  per  1000  esti- 
mated population.  The  variation  in  the  regional 
distribution  of  the  death  rates  was  not  so  great  as 
that  for  the  birth  rates.  The  death  rates  ranged 
from  9.4  per  1000  estimated  population  for  the 
West  South  Central  States  to  11.7  per  1000  esti- 
mated population  for  the  New  England  States. 

Although  the  death  rates  for  such  causes  as 
heart  diseases,  cancers,  and  diabetes,  reached  new 
record  highs,  the  favorable  mortality  experience 
relative  to  other  causes  of  death  was  impressive. 
The  death  rates  for  influenza  and  pneumonia,  for 
tuberculosis,  and  the  infant  and  maternal  mortal- 
ity rates  were,  in  1939,  the  lowest  ever  reported 
for  the  United  States  death  registration  area. 

See  the  accompanying  tables,  pages  798  and  799, 
for  (1)  deaths  from  selected  causes  in  the  United 
States  in  1939,  together  with  death  rates  for  a  five- 
year  period,  and  (2)  a  report  by  States  on  total 
figures  and  rates  for  births,  deaths,  infant  deaths, 
and  motor-vehicle  fatalities.  Rates  are  based  on 
estimated  population  figures.  For  actual  population 
according  to  the  1940  census,  see  POPULATION.  For 
trends  in  accidents,  infant  mortality,  and  maternal 
deaths,  see  ACCIDENTS;  BIRTH  CONTROL;  CHIL- 
DREN'S BUREAU. 

VITAMINS.  See  BIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY; 
CHEMISTRY;  PSYCHIATRY. 

VOCATIONAL  TRAINING.  See  CIVILIAN 
CONSERVATION  CORPS;  EDUCATION;  EDUCATION, 
U.S.  OFFICE  OF;  NATIONAL  DEFENSE  ADVISORY 
COMMISSION;  PRISONS,  PAROLE,  AND  CRIME; 
WAGE  AND  HOUR  ADMINISTRATION  ;  WORK  PROJ- 
ECTS ADMINISTRATION. 

VOORHIS  ACT.  See  COMMUNISM  under 
Communism  in  the  United  States. 

VULTEE  AIRCRAFT  COMPANY 
STRIKE.  See  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES,  U.S.  under 
Attitude  of  Organised  Labor-,  LABOR  CONDITIONS 
under  Strikes. 

WAGE  AND  HOUR  DIVISION.  The  Fair 
Labor  Standards  Act  of  1938— better  known  as  the 
Federal  Wage-Hour  Law — places  a  "floor"  under 
wages  and  a  "ceiling"  over  hours  and  prohibits 
"oppressive"  child  labor  for  employees  engaged  in 
interstate  commerce  or  in  the  production  of  goods 
for  interstate  commerce.  The  administration  and 
enforcement  of  the  Act  is  vested  in  the  Wage  and 
Hour  Division  and  the  Children's  Bureau  of  the 
U.S.  Department  of  Labor  (q.v.). 

The  wage  "floor"  was  25  cents  an  hour  and  the 
hours  "ceiling,"  without  payment  of  time  and  a 
half  for  overtime,  was  44  a  week  from  Oct.  24, 

1938,  the  effective  date  of  the  Act,  until  Oct.  24, 

1939.  On  that  date  the  statutory  minimum  ad- 
vanced to  30  cents  and  the  statutory  work  week 
was  lowered  to  42  hours.  On  Oct.  24,  1940,  the 
"ceiling"  was  reduced  to  40  hours  per  week.  There 
will  be  no  further  reduction  in  the  maximum  work 
week  and  no  further  change  in  the  general  mini- 
mum wage  rate  until  Oct.  24,  1945,  when  40  cents 
an  hour  will  become  the  minimum.  The  Federal 
Wage-Hour  Law  does  not  prohibit  overtime  work 
beyond  40  hours  a  week — but  it  does  require  the 
payment  of  time  and  a  half  the  regular  wage  rate 
for  such  overtime  work. 

Important    developments    under    the    Federal 


Wage-Hour  Law  in  1940,  in  addition  to  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  hours  maximum  from  42  to  40  on  Oc- 
tober 24,  included  a  redefinition  of  "area  of  pro- 
duction" and  a  re-definition  of  "executive,  admin- 
istrative, professional  .  .  .  outside  salesman"  by 
the  Administrator  of  the  Wage  and  Hour  Division. 

The  re-definition  of  "area  of  production"  under 
the  new  regulations  exempts  from  the  benefits  of 
the  Act  only  persons  employed  in  establishments 
canning  or  packing  fresh  fruits  and  vegetables 
having  not  more  than  10  employees,  and  whose 
commodities  come  from  farms  in  the  general  vi- 
cinity. An  additional  seasonal  exemption  is  also 
granted  fresh  fruit  and  vegetable  packing  and  can- 
ning plants  up  to  not  exceeding  12  hours  per  day 
and  56  hours  per  week  for  14  weeks. 

The  re-definition  of  "executive,  administrative, 
professional  .  .  .  outside  salesman,"  affecting  al- 
most all  interstate  commercial  establishments,  ex- 
empts certain  "white-collar"  employees  who  need 
not  be  paid  overtime  after  40  hours  a  week  The 
principal  change  was  a  separate  definition  for  "ad- 
ministrative employee."  An  executive,  as  defined, 
remains  one  whose  primary  duty  consists  in  man- 
agement and  who,  among  other  qualifications,  re- 
ceives $30  a  week  or  more.  Administrative  em- 
ployees are  more  broadly  defined  in  the  new  regu- 
lations to  include  those  whose  duties,  while  impor- 
tant and  associated  with  management,  are  func- 
tional rather  than  supervisory,  and  who  are  paid 
"a  salary  commensurate  with  the  importance  sup- 
posedly accorded  the  duties  in  question."  The  regu- 
lations require  that  such  salary  be  not  less  than 
$200  a  month.  A  similar  salary  requirement  was 
included  in  the  definition  of  "professional." 

It  has  been  estimated  that  more  than  $100,000,000 
a  year  will  be  added  to  wage-earner's  pay  envelopes 
in  1941  by  the  30-cent-an-hpur  minimum  wage  and 
by  wage  orders  fixing  minimum  wage  rates  at 
more  than  30  cents  in  certain  industries.  These 
wage  orders  provide  for  the  establishment  of  mini- 
mum wages,  industry  by  industry,  at  a  rate  higher 
than  the  statutory  minimum,  but  not  in  excess  of 
40  cents  an  hour.  The  Administrator  is  empowered 
to  issue  wage  orders  upon  the  recommendation  of 
industry  committees  to  be  appointed  by  him. 

As  of  Jan.  1,  1941,  13  industrial  wage  orders  had 
been  issued,  providing  for  an  estimated  increase  in 
wages  of  $35,000,000  to  some  600,000  wage  earners 
throughout  the  country.  These  wage  orders  applied 
to  the  following  industries-  Hosiery,  cotton  tex- 
tiles, millinery,  shoes,  knitted  underwear  and  com- 
mercial knitting,  woolen  textiles,  hats,  knitted  out- 
erwear, apparel,  pulp  and  primary  paper,  leather, 
luggage  and  leather  goods,  and  embroideries.  In 
addition,  a  special  industrial  wage  order  was  issued 
for  the  needlework  industries  in  Puerto  Rico  in 
accordance  with  an  amendment  to  the  Act  adopted 
by  the  Congress  in  June,  1940. 

During  1940  provision  was  made  for  the  em- 
ployment of  student-learners  in  vocational  training 
programs  at  less  than  the  statutory  minimum  rate. 
Under  these  regulations  special  certificates  are  is- 
sued authorizing  the  employment  of  student-learn- 
ers at  wage  rates  lower  than  those  applicable  under 
the  Act,  if  such  employment  is  in  connection  with 
a  bona  fide  vocational  training  program.  A  "bona 
fide  vocational  training  program"  under  these  regu- 
lations means  "a  program  providing  for  part-time 
employment  of  student-learners  for  a  part  of  the 
working  day,  or  for  alternating  weeks,  or  for  lim- 
ited periods  during  the  year,  such  employment  pro- 
viding training  which  is  supplemented  by  related 
instruction  given  the  student-learner  as  a  regular 


WAGES 


801 


WAR  RELIEF  ACTIVITIES 


part  of  his  school  course  by  the  school,  college,  or 
university."  The  law  provides  for  the  employment 
of  learners,  messengers,  apprentices,  and  mentally 
or  physically  handicapped  workers  at  subminimum 
wages  upon  certification  by  the  Administrator. 

Improvements  in  procedure  in  1940,  together 
with  an  increase  in  the  Division's  personnel,  re- 
sulted in  more  and  swifter  inspections,  and  "drives" 
for  compliance  in  whole  industries  were  initiated. 
The  work  was  carried  on  in  14  regions  throughout 
the  country.  Co-operative  agreements  were  entered 
into  by  the  Division  and  the  Children's  Bureau 
with  the  States  of  Connecticut  and  Minnesota  and 
the  District  of  Columbia.  A  co-operative  agree- 
ment with  North  Carolina  was  renewed.  These 
agreements,  authorized  by  the  Act,  permit,  on  a 
basis  of  reimbursement,  the  use  of  State  Labor  de- 
partment inspectional  staffs  in  the  work  of  enforce- 
ment. During  the  calendar  year  1940,  1189  civil 
court  cases  were  instituted,  and  1098  injunctions 
were  granted.  A  total  of  72  criminal  court  cases 
were  instituted  during  the  year.  The  fines  imposed 
totaled  $152,703 

Some  important  court  decisions  involving  the 
constitutionality  of  the  Act  were  rendered  in  1940 
The  Darby  Lumber  Company,  a  Georgia  lumber 
mill,  attacked  the  constitutionality  of  the  Act  as 
an  invasion  of  States'  rights  A  Federal  District 
Court  in  Georgia  upheld  the  contention.  The  Unit- 
ed States,  acting  under  the  Criminal  Appeals  Act, 
took  an  appeal  directly  to  the  U.S.  Supreme 
Court,  which  granted  a  review  of  the  case  The 
Opp  Cotton  Mills  of  Alabama  challenged  the  va- 
lidity of  the  Administrator's  Wage  Order  for  the 
Textile  Industry.  The  Administrator's  Wage  Or- 
der was  upheld  in  the  Fifth  Circuit  Court  of  Ap- 
peals and  the  U  S.  Supreme  Court  granted  a  review 
of  this  case  also  The  appeals  in  both  the  Darby 
case  and  Opp  case  were  argued  Dec  20,  1940 

The  right  of  the  Administrator  to  make  routine 
inspections  of  employment  records,  regardless  of 
whether  or  not  a  complaint  has  been  filed,  and  de- 
spite the  employer's  contention  that  his  workers 
were  not  covered  by  the  Act,  was  attacked  by 
Montgomery  Ward  and  Company  of  Chicago  The 
company  appealed  from  a  decision  of  the  Federal 
District  Court  upholding  the  Act  and  the  Admin- 
istrator's subpoena  power.  The  Circuit  Court  of 
Appeals  affirmed  the  decision,  denying  contentions 
of  the  company  that  the  Act  was  riot  a  valid  exer- 
cise of  the  power  of  Congress  to  regulate  com- 
merce, and  that  the  subpoena  violated  rights  under 
the  Constitution.  The  U  S  Supreme  Court  refused 
to  grant  a  writ  of  ccrtioran  in  this  case,  thus  up- 
holding the  right  of  the  Administrator  to  inspect 
employment  records. 

During  1940,  the  Administrator  issued  2650  cer- 
tificates to  handicapped  workers,  2334  learner  cer- 
tificates, and  found  27  industries  or  branches  of 
industry  to  be  of  a  seasonal  nature  and  therefore 
entitled  to  the  overtime  exemption  up  to  12  hours 
a  day  or  56  a  week  for  a  period  or  periods  totalling 
in  the  aggregate  14  weeks  a  year. 

See  LABOR  CONDITIONS  ;  NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAG- 
AZINES; UNITED  STATES  under  Administration, 
PHILIP  B.  FLEMING. 

WAGES,  See  LABOR  CONDITIONS;  LABOR  LEG- 
ISLATION; WAGE  AND  HOUR  ADMINISTRATION; 
also,  AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR. 

WAKE  ISLAND.  A  possession  of  the  United 
States  in  the  central  Pacific,  2130  miles  west  of 
Hawaii,  consisting  of  the  three  small  islets  of 
Wake,  Peale,  and  Wilkes  enclosing  a  lagoon.  Area, 


4  square  miles.  In  1935  a  base  was  established  for 
the  transpacific  service  of  Pan  American  Airways. 
During  1939  the  U.S.  Congress  appropriated  spe- 
cial funds  for  the  construction  of  a  naval  air  base 
and  submarine  base.  The  administration  is  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  U.S.  Navy  Department. 

WALES.  See  GREAT  BRITAIN  under  Area  and 
Population. 

WALLIS  ARCHIPELAGO.  See  NEW  CAL- 
EDONIA. 

WAR,  European.  See  EUROPEAN  WAR. 

WAR  DEBTS.  See  REPARATIONS  AND  WAR 
DEBTS. 

WAR  DEPARTMENT,  U.S.  See  MILITARY 
PROGRESS  ;  UNITED  STATES  under  Administration ; 
also,  articles  on  ENGINEERS,  CORPS  OF  and  PANA- 
MA CANAL. 

WAR  MATERIALS.  See  topics  listed  under 
DEFENSE,  NATIONAL. 

WARM  SPRINGS  FOUNDATION, 
Georgia.  See  BENEFACTIONS. 

WAR  RELIEF  ACTIVITIES  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES.  An  article  concerning  war 
relief  activities  in  1940  in  its  broad  outlines  may 
be  described  by  countries  aided,  by  the  general 
purposes  of  the  organization,  or  divided  by  peri- 
ods during  which  war  conditions  were  controlling 

With  the  outbreak  of  World  War  II  in  Septem- 
ber, 1939,  a  number  of  organizations  sprang  up  in 
this  country  to  give  relief  to  Poland,  to  Great 
Britain,  and  to  France.  The  attack  on  Finland  the 
end  of  November,  1939,  caused  a  general  outpour- 
ing of  sympathy  and  help,  and  in  the  spring  of 
1940  the  invasion  of  Norway,  Holland,  Belgium, 
(the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg),  and  Greece 
started  a  new  series  of  relief  groups  together  with 
the  intensification  of  aid  by  the  organizations  in- 
terested in  Great  Britain  and  France.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Finnish  relief  groups,  all  relief  or- 
ganizations were  controlled  by  the  provisions  of 
the  Neutrality  Act  and  had  to  comply  with  the 
regulations  of  the  Department  of  State 

These  regulations  were  issued  under  the  general 
authority  of  a  joint  resolution  of  Congress  ap- 
proved on  Nov.  4,  1939.  Funds  may  not  be  solicited 
for  the  governments  of  States  at  war,  as  pro- 
claimed by  the  President,  but  only  for  "medical 
aid  and  assistance,  or  for  food  and  clothing  to  re- 
lieve human  suffering"  in  accordance  with  rules 
laid  down  by  the  Department  of  State.  Registra- 
tion of  all  relief  organizations  is  required,  each  or- 
ganization must  have  an  active  governing  body 
serving  without  compensation  and  a  trustworthy 
treasurer,  proper  accounts  must  be  kept  and  month- 
ly reports  submitted  The  rules  also  forbid  the  use 
of  solicitors  on  commission,  the  "remit  or  return" 
method  for  the  sale  of  merchandise  or  tickets,  the 
giving  of  entertainments  where  the  estimated  costs 
exceed  30  per  cent  of  the  gross  proceeds,  or  "any 
other  wasteful  or  unethical  method  of  soliciting 
contributions." 

The  list  of  organizations  on  Dec.  31,  1940,  in- 
cluded more  than  300  different  groups  appealing 
to  the  American  public  and  to  persons  especially 
interested  in  one  country  or  another  because  of 
local  ties.  Those  groups  which  had  collected  more 
than  $100,000  by  that  time  are  listed  in  the  accom- 
panying table,  page  802. 

Certain  attempts  were  made  during  the  year,  par- 
ticularly in  May  and  June,  to  form  some  general 
council  or  agency  to  act  as  a  clearinghouse  for 
overseas  relief  appeals  and  to  issue  some  joint  ap- 
peal for  relief.  It  was  felt  that  any  relief  appeals 
for  abroad  should  not  prejudice  domestic  relief 


WAR  RELIEF  ACTIVITIES 


802 


WAR  RELIEF  ACTIVITIES 


(Department  of  State  Bulletin,  Feb.  1,  1941) 

Nam*  of  registrant,  location,  date  of  registration,  and 
destination  of  contributions 

Funds 

Funds  spent 
Funds  spent  for  adminis- 
f  or  relief  tn  tration,fub- 
eountnes    lidty,  affairs, 
named       campaigns, 
etc. 

Unexpended  Estimated  Rstimalgii 
balance  as  of  value   of  TjLTw 
Dec  31,1940,  contribu-    *%£*£ 
including  cost  ti'ons  in    2*Tt 
1  of  goods  pur-  kind  sent  to  52?  J2, 
chased  and    countries    **£% 
still  on  hand     named      °*  Mana 

American  Field  Hospital  Corps,  New  York,  N  Y.,  Dec.  12, 

1939     France,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  England 

$228,545 

9185,621 

$  24,608 

$  18,315 

$  2,694 

None 

American  Field  Service,  New  York,  N.Y.,  Sept.  27,  1939. 

France,  Great  Britain,  British  East  Africa,  Greece,  and 

French  African  Colonies 

334,947 

292,208 

16,975 

25,762 

None 

None 

American  Friends  of  France,  Inc.,  New  York,  N.Y.,  Sept.  21, 

1939.  France,  Germany,  and  England  .            .... 
American  Friends  Service  Committee,  Philadelphia,  Pa, 

338,401 

182,360 

34,272 

121,769 

19,904 

None 

Nov.  9,  1939  United  Kingdom,  Poland,  Germany,  France, 
Norway,  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  Italy,  and  Portugal 
The  American  Jewish  Joint  Distribution  Committee,  Inc  , 

117,235 

107,861 

9,073 

301 

14,512 

None 

New   York,   N.Y.,   Sept    29.    1939    United   Kingdom, 
Poland,  Germany,  France,  Norway,  Belgium,  Luxemburg, 

and  the  Netherlands 

2,955,505 

2.673,193 

282,312 

None 

51 

None 

Bishops'  Committee  for  Polish  Relief,  Washington,  D  C  , 

Poland,   England,   France,   Switzerland,   Hungary,   Ru- 
mania. Italy,  and  Portugal 

394.340 

266,324 

62 

127,953 

None 

None 

British-American  Ambulance  Corps,  Inc  ,  New  York,  N.Y  , 

June  11,  1940  Greece,  England,  and  France 
British  War  Relief  Association  of  Northern  California,  San 

837,816 

293,011 

89,374 

455,429 

None 

None 

Francisco,  Calif  .Oct  20,  1939  Great  Britain  and  France 

125,876 

88,445 

4,131 

33,299 

61,250 

None 

The  British  War  Relief  Association  of  Southern  California, 

Los  Angeles,  Calif  ,  Dec  8,  1939  Great  Britain  and  Greece 
The  British  War  Relief  Society.  Inc  .New  York.  N  Y  ,  Dec  4, 
1939  (Combined  with  the  Allied  Relief  Fund,  Inc  ,  Dec  1, 

323,171 

274,220 

25,223 

23,727 

96,326 

None 

1940)   United  Kingdom,  Canada.  France,  Belgium,  the 
Netherlands,  Norway,  Kenya,  and  Newfoundland 

4,075,925 

2,385,732 

290,063 

1,400,129 

463,408 

None 

Bundles  for  Britain,  New  York,  N  Y.,  Dec  28,  1939  Great 

Britain  and  Dominions 

631,947 

200,499 

148,526 

282,921 

628,230 

$24,562 

Commission  for  Polish  Relief,  Inc  ,  New  York,  N  Y  ,  Sept.  12, 

1939  Poland  and  England 

541,111 

471,563 

56,094 

13,453 

1,500 

None 

English-Speaking  Union  of  the  United  States,  New  York, 

N  Y  ,  Dec  26,  1939  Great  Britain,  Canada,  and  France 

112,864 

98,301 

4,980 

9,582 

95,188 

256 

Fortra,  Inc  ,  New  York,  N  Y.,  Mar.  7,  1940.  Germany  and 

Poland     . 

796,934 

643,166 

82,571 

71,195 

None 

None 

Foster  Parents'  Plan  for  War  Children.  Inc.,  New  York,  N  Y., 

Sept  21,  1939.  France  and  England 

128,669 

68,075 

27,990 

32,604 

None 

None 

Greek  War  Relief  Association,  Inc.,  New  York,  N.Y.,  Nov. 

18,  1940.  Greece. 

1,081,694 

1,000,345 

24,787 

56,562 

5,789 

None 

Hadassah,  Inc  ,  New  York,  N  Y  ,  Nov  15,  1939  Palestine  . 
Hamburg-Bremen  Steamship  Agency,  Inc  ,  New  York,  N.Y., 

1,055,238 

824,508 

42,895 

187,833 

62,649 

3,484 

Mar.  21.  1940.  Germany  and  Poland 
Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass  ,  Aug  30,  1940.  Great 

266,042 

231,126 

58,807 

None 

None 

None 

Britain   . 

111,174 

None 

14,409 

96,764 

None 

None 

International  Committee  of  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 

tions, New  York,  N.Y.,  Sept   22,  1939   All  belligerent 

countries           ...                                              ... 

123,667 

45,658 

7,230 

70,778 

None 

None 

The  Mother  Church,  The  First  Church  of  Christ,  Scientist,  in 

Boston,  USA,  Boston,  Mass.  Apr    25,  1940.  Canada, 
France,  and  the  United  Kingdom                              .  .     . 

204,202 

20.620 

4,305 

179,276 

15,927 

$32,937 

Norwegian  Relief.  Inc.,  Chicago,  HI  ,  May  1,  1940  Norway 

411,484 

rfone 

12,158 

399,326 

None 

None 

Paderewski  Fund  for  Polish  Relief,  Inc  ,  New  York,  N.Y  , 
Feb  23,  1940  Poland  and  Great  Britain 

188,000 

64,500 

33,746 

19,753 

None 

None 

Polish-  American  Council,  Chicago,  111  .  Sept  15.  1939.  Poland 
Polish  National  Alliance  of  the  United  States  of  North  Ameri- 

509,041 

339,582 

13,167 

156,291 

118,500 

None 

ica.  Chicago,  HI.,  Sept  27,1939  Poland. 
Polish  National  Council  of  New  York,  New  York,  N.Y  , 

308,953 

232,165 

2,058 

74,729 

None 

None 

Sept  14,  1939.  France  and  Poland     
Polish  Relief  Committee,  Detroit,  Mich,  Sept.   11,  1939. 

104,504 

89,914 

13,021 

1,569 

365,617 

$174,486 

Poland 

161,027 

108,646 

6,306 

46,073 

62,974 

None 

Queen  Wilhelmina  Fund,  Inc  ,  New  York,  N  Y.,  May  17, 

1940    Netherlands,   France,   Poland,   United   Kingdom, 

India,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Canada,  Union  of  South 
Africa,  Norway,  Belgium,  and  Luxemburg 
Registrants  whose  registrations  were  revoked  prior  to  Dec.  1, 
1940,  and  who  had  no  balance  on  hand  as  of  that  date 

380,330 
518,361 

182,233 
432,594 

30,751 
88,935 

167,345 
None 

None 
1,341,611 

None 
None 

The  Salvation  Army,  New  York,  N  Y  ,  May  23.  1940  Eng- 
land. France.  Norway,  Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands 
Save  the  Children  Federation.  Inc.,  New  York,  N  Y.,  Sept. 

208,347 

184,723 

1,782 

21,841 

52,402 

None 

8,1939.  England,  Poland,  Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands 

195,085 

141,176 

47,336 

6,572 

None 

None 

United  Committee  for  French  Relief.  Inc  ,  New  York,  N  Y., 

Oct  26,  1939  France,  England,  and  Germanv  .  . 

124,057 

80,520 

13,106 

30,430 

8,504 

$801 

campaigns  and  that  local  needs  came  first.  Infor- 
mal conversations  were  conducted  by  certain  of 
these  relief  groups  and  this  movement  received  the 
support  of  the  Community  Chest  and  Councils  at 
their  annual  convention  in  May  held  in  Detroit. 
Unified  appeals  had  been  made  in  the  last  war,  and 
it  was  felt  highly  desirable  that  such  joint  appeals 
would  not  only  lessen  overhead  expense  but  would 
simplify  both  collection  and  distribution  problems. 


At  a  time  when  local  relief  was  needed  in  the 
United  States  the  multiplicity  of  appeals  for  Eu- 
rope tended  to  discourage  and  confuse  the  possible 
givers.  Such  attempts  failed,  however,  due  to  in- 
herent difficulties  of  organization  and  the  inability 
of  the  American  Red  Cross,  which  was  then  con- 
ducting its  own  drive  for  twenty  million  dollars  to 
aid  civilians  in  war-torn  Europe,  to  define  the 
scope  of  its  activities  or  to  assume  the  leadership, 


WAR  RELIEF  ACTIVITIES  803 

which  all  felt  was  rightfully  its  province.  See  CATH- 
OLIC WELFARE  CONFERENCE;  ENGLAND,  CHURCH 
OF  ;  RED  CROSS,  AMERICAN  NATIONAL  ;  ETC. 

Brief  outlines  of  the  accomplishments  of  certain 
of  these  organizations  which  carried  on  their  prin- 
cipal work  in  1940  follow: 

Poland.  Since  the  end  of  1939  efforts  have  been 
made  by  various  groups,  including  the  Red  Cross, 
the  Commission  for  Polish  Relief,  the  Quakers, 
and  the  Jewish  Joint  Distribution  Committee  to 
provide  aid.  It  soon  became  apparent  that  relief 
was  not  possible  in  those  parts  of  Poland  annexed 
to  Germany  or  occupied  by  Russia,  so  that  the  re- 
lief by  necessity  went  to  Central  Poland — the  so- 
called  General  Government  of  Poland — in  addi- 
tion to  aid  to  Polish  refugees  in  Rumania,  Hun- 
gary, Greece,  Lithuania,  France,  Portugal,  and 
England.  The  actual  distribution  of  foodstuffs  in 
Poland  was  under  the  direct  supervision  of  Amer- 
ican Representatives  of  the  Commission  for  Pol- 
ish Relief  through  local  Polish  organizations.  The 
German  authorities  granted  free  rail  transport  and 
warehousing.  The  Commission's  total  distribution 
to  the  end  of  December  was  nearly  $1,000,000 

Great  Britain.  Some  seventy  separate  agencies 
are  providing  civilian  aid  to  Great  Britain.  The 
British  War  Relief  Society,  now  merged  with  the 
Allied  Relief  Fund  under  the  former's  name,  was 
successful  in  raising  more  than  $4,000,000.  Its 
funds,  sent  partly  in  cash  and  principally  in  sup- 
plies, have  been  used  to  provide  ambulances,  mo- 
bile Kitchens,  hospital  equipment,  and  civilian  sup- 
plies of  all  kinds  as  well  as  direct  transfers  of 
cash.  Originally  set  up  to  meet  needs  in  France 
and  England,  the  Allied  Relief  Fund  has  concen- 
trated on  help  to  Britain  since  the  fall  of  France 

"Bundles  for  Britain"  at  first  concentrated  its 
effort  on  obtaining  knitted  articles,  woolen  goods, 
used  clothing,  medical  supplies,  for  soldiers  and 
civilians,  recently  concentrating  on  blankets  and 
children's  cots  for  use  in  air-raid  shelters.  In  the 
year  ending  in  February,  1941,  more  than  $1,600,- 
000  had  been  received  in  cash  donations  from  bene- 
fits and  from  contributions  of  clothing,  surgical 
supplies,  and  other  articles. 

France.  The  numerous  societies  and  groups  or- 
ganized to  provide  help  to  France  were  unable  to 
carry  on  effective  work  after  May.  Most  of  these 
groups,  such  as  the  American  Friends  of  France, 
found  it  difficult  to  obtain  funds,  or  to  send  neces- 
sary supplies  even  to  unoccupied  France,  after  the 
Armistice  in  June.  The  Quakers  (American  Friends 
Service  Committee)  has  been  carrying  on  relief, 
particularly  for  children  and  women  in  refugee 
camps,  in  unoccupied  France. 

Finland.  The  Finnish  Relief  Fund,  organized 
in  early  December  of  1939,  under  the  national 
chairmanship  of  Herbert  Hoover,  was  most  active 
in  appealing  for  general  civilian  relief  in  Finland 
until  the  close  of  the  Russo-Finnish  war  in  March, 
and  a  grand  total  $3,440,119  was  received  to  July 
31.  The  success  of  the  Fund  was  initially  due  to 
the  immediate  response  of  American  newspapers 
which  threw  open  their  facilities  to  receive  and 
acknowledge  contributions,  to  careful  organization 
of  divisions  for  special  groups,  notably  the  indus- 
trial division,  the  corporation  employee  groups, 
sports  events,  theater  benefits,  and  entertainments, 
and  to  the  American  Scandinavian  organizations. 
Funds  collected  in  this  country  were  cabled  to  the 
General  Relief  Committee,  set  up  by  the  Finnish 
Government  to  administer  civilian  relief  from 
abroad,  and  used  locally.  The  Red  Cross  shipped 
considerable  quantities  of  medical  supplies  which 


WAR  RELIEF  ACTIVITIES 


were  used  for  the  Army  and  some  efforts  were 
made  to  provide  military  supplies  by  other  groups. 
The  General  Relief  Committee  in  Finland  used  its 
funds  for  financial  first  aid  to  the  evacuees,  who 
totalled  about  600,000,  for  families  of  soldiers,  and 
for  medical  care.  Of  a  total  of  295,000,000  Finnish 
marks  received  from  world  charity  more  than 
167,000,000  marks  came  from  the  Hoover  Com- 
mittee. 

China.  Despite  the  closing  of  the  Burma  Road, 
and  in  the  face  of  other  obstacles  interposed  by  the 
Japanese  government,  American  aid  continued  to 
trickle  into  China  throughout  1940.  On  several  oc- 
casions, medicines,  including  rare  vaccines,  were 
flown  direct  to  bombed  and  beleaguered  areas. 
"Bowl  of  Rice"  parties,  auction  sales,  dances,  din- 
ners, art  exhibitions,  etc.,  were  staged  in  money- 
raising  campaigns.  Toward  the  close  of  the  year 
a  China  Emergency  Relief  Committee  was  formed 
under  the  leadership  of  Pearl  S  Buck.  This  or- 
ganization functioned  as  a  part  of  the  American 
Bureau  for  Medical  Aid  to  China  The  American 
Red  Cross  reported  on  November  18  that  the  val- 
ue of  supplies  sent  by  that  organization  into  China 
since  the  beginning  of  hostilities  until  Nov.  1, 
1940,  totaled  $303,068. 

Greece.  Soon  after  the  invasion  of  Greece  at 
the  end  of  October,  the  Greek  War  Relief  Associ- 
ation was  organized,  and  under  able  leadership  it 
has  merged  practically  all  pro-Greek  efforts  into 
a  single  agency.  Within  a  month  after  organiza- 
tion, more  than  650  local  committees  were  formed 
throughout  the  United  States  and  its  possessions. 
A  goal  of  $10,000,000  was  set  by  the  Association 
for  relief  of  the  civilian  population  of  Greece.  In 
fewer  than  two  and  one-half  months,  the  commit- 
tee had  cabled  directly  to  Athens  $2,500,000  and 
raised  a  similar  amount  in  gifts  of  food,  clothing, 
medical,  and  surgical  supplies.  During  this  short 
period  of  time  three  ships  were  dispatched  to 
Greece  loaded  with  food,  clothing,  and  badly  need- 
ed medical  supplies.  Due  to  war  conditions  these 
ships  required  three  months  or  more  to  reach 
Greece  with  their  precious  cargoes.  Because  of 
this  fact  the  major  portion  of  the  money  raised  by 
the  Association  was  cabled  directly  to  Athens, 
where  an  administrative  committee  was  able  to 
buy  needed  supplies  from  surrounding  countries. 
Funds  were  raised  through  the  usual  mediums 
employed  by  organizations  of  this  type;  dinners, 
balls,  dances,  benefit  shows,  collection  boxes,  and 
the  sale  of  pins  and  ornaments 

A  break-down  of  the  funds  raised  during  the 
first  three  months  of  the  drive  showed  that  ap- 
proximately 90  per  cent  of  the  money  came  from 
800,000  Greeks  and  persons  of  Greek  descent  liv- 
ing in  the  United  States.  This,  it  was  explained, 
was  because  the  drive  was  in  its  infancy  and  the 
general  public  had  not  been  contacted  for  contri- 
butions. But  the  Association  is  now  receiving  gen- 
erous help  also  from  the  Americans.  The  Asso- 
ciation's national  committee  includes:  Harold  S. 
Vanderbilt,  honorary  national  chairman;  Mrs. 
Huntingdon  Astor,  honorary  chairman  women's 
committee;  the  Most  Rev.  Athenagoras,  national 
chairman;  Spyros  P.  Skouras,  national  president 

Child  Relief.  The  United  States  Committee 
for  the  Care  of  European  Children  was  organized 
as  a  central  agency  and  a  clearinghouse  to  pro- 
vide refuge  in  America  for  children  evacuated 
from  European  war  zones.  Functioning  in  June 
with  branches  in  many  cities,  the  Committee  made 
plans  to  bring  many  thousands  of  children  under 
sixteen  years  of  age,  largely  from  England.  Chil- 


WAR  WOUNDS 


804 


WATERWAYS 


dren  who  were  known  to  their  foster  parents  and 
children  who  were  unknown  were  provided  for  by 
the  plan  which  was  set  up  in  co-operation  with 
the  Children's  Overseas  Reception  Board  in  Eng- 
land and  with  officials  in  this  country.  More  than 
200,000  children  were  registered  by  their  parents 
in  England  to  come  to  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada. Difficulties  of  providing  safe  passage  for  the 
children  across  the  Atlantic,  as  well  as  the  inherent 
troubles  of  selection  of  children  for  refuge,  caused 
the  British  Government  to  announce  the  suspen- 
sion of  the  plan  on  October  3  About  5000  children 
had  been  evacuated ,  some  1000  came  to  the  United 
States  under  the  Committee's  auspices,  and  some 
3000  children  came  independently,  sponsored  by 
university  groups,  manufacturing  companies,  and 
individuals.  The  Committee  curtailed  its  activities 
but  maintained  a  small  staff  at  the  end  of  the  year 
capable  of  undertaking  the  work  in  1941  should 
conditions  change. 

The  Children's  Crusade  for  Children  carried  its 
carefully  organized  appeal  in  April  to  the  school 
children  of  America  to  aid  their  fellow  children 
overseas.  Through  tin-can  collections  in  the  school- 
rooms nearly  $140,000  was  raised  and  has  been 
distributed  to  organizations  aiding  children  in  nine 
countries  abroad  or  to  refugees  from  war-torn 
countries.  See  CHILDREN'S  BUREAU 

PERRIN  C.  GALPIN. 

WAR  WOUNDS.  See  MEDICINE  AND  SUR- 
GERY. 

WASHINGTON.  Area,  69,127  square  miles, 
includes  water,  2291  square  miles  (but  not  the 
State's  waters  in  Gulf  of  Georgia  and  Strait  of 
Juan  de  Fuca).  Population  (U  S.  Census),  April, 
1940,  1,736,191;  1930,  1,563,396  Seattle  (1940), 
368,302;  Spokane,  122,001;  Tacoma,  109,408; 
Olympia,  the  capital,  13,254  The  urban  population 
(dwellers  in  places  of  2500  or  more)  gained  (1930- 
40)  37,430  and  attained  921,969,  the  rural  popula- 
tion, mounting  by  135,365,  to  814,222,  cut  in  half 
the  lead  of  the  urban  group 

Agriculture.  Washington  harvested,  in  1940, 
3,548,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops ;  wheat  and 
tame  hay  took  up  five-sixths  of  this  area.  Wheat, 
on  1,978,000  acres,  bore  41,808,000  bu.  ($25,921,000 
in  estimated  value  to  the  cultivator)  Tame  hay, 
1,001,000  acres,  made  1,864,000  tons  ($14,912,000)  ; 
apples  for  market  totaled  28,804,000  bu  ($24,483,- 
000)  ,  pears,  6,585,000  bu  ($4,840,000) ;  potatoes, 
45,000  acres,  grew  8,325,000  bu.  ($4,662,000)  ;  dry 
peas,  136,000  acres,  1,768,000  bu  ($3,713,000); 
hops,  6000  acres,  11,700,000  Ib.  ($3,276,000)  ;  oats, 
222,000  acres,  8,658,000  bu.  ($3,030,000)  ,  barley, 
135,000  acres,  3,915,000  bu  ($1,683,000). 

Mineral  Production.  Washington's  yearly  pro- 
duction of  its  native  minerals,  as  estimated  by  the 
U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  totaled  $21,167,004  for 
1938.  Coal,  the  leading  item,  yielded  1,566,973  net 
tons,  (value  $4,939,000)  in  1938;  the  yearly  quanti- 
ty mined  rose  to  some  1,690,000  tons  for  1939;  the 
approximate  output  for  1940  was  1,688,000  tons. 

Metal  mines'  production  of  ores  of  gold,  silver, 
copper,  lead,  and  zinc  rose,  in  value  of  recoverable 
metal,  to  $7,193,391  for  1940,  from  $6,739,467  for 
1939  and  $5,510,440  for  1938.  The  yearly  total  of 
gold  diminished  to  some  84,665  oz.  (1940),  from 
90,420  (1939),  and  by  value  to  $2,963,275,  from 
$3,164,700  But  the  total  of  zinc  increased  to  23,- 
942,000  Ib.  (1940),  from  20,262,000  Ib  (1939)  ;  by 
value,  to  $1,556,230,  from  $1,053,624.  That  of  cop- 
per rose  also,  to  18,858,000  Ib.,  from  17,996,000  lb.f 
and  to  $2,130,954,  from  $1,871,584. 


Education.  Enrollments  of  pupils  in  all  the  or- 
dinary public  schools  of  Washington  numbered 
331,409  for  the  academic  year  1939-40.  The  total 
comprised  225,429  in  elementary  study  and  105,980 
in  high  school.  Apart  from  these  figures,  the  sys- 
tem of  evening  schools  reported  10,434  elementary 
and  31,665  secondary  enrollments.  The  year's  ex- 
penditure for  public-school  education  totaled  $29,- 
442,858.  The  teachers  numbered  11,216  and  aver- 
aged, in  yearly  pay,  $1641  20. 

History.  A  strike  of  groups  in  the  International 
Longshoremen's  Union  in  September  halted  consid- 
erable shipping  in  Tacoma  and  some  other  Sound 
ports,  one  of  the  vessels  loading  lumber  for  an 
aeronautical  base  of  the  U.S.  Army  in  Alaska  was 
delayed 

Against  the  State  law  requiring  a  license  for 
catching  salmon  in  the  Columbia  River,  certain 
tribes  of  Indians  brought  Federal  suit  on  behalf 
of  the  specific  right  of  salmon-fishing  accorded 
them  by  the  United  States  in  a  treaty  of  1855.  In 
a  similar  situation  the  neighboring  State  of  Ore- 
gon had  been  brought  by  public  opinion  only  short- 
ly before  to  enact  exemption,  from  its  fishing- 
license  requirements,  of  Indians  with  treaty  rights 
See  also  BRIDGES,  for  collapse  of  the  Tacoma  Nar- 
rows Bridge ;  DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA  ;  LABOR  LEG- 
ISLATION; PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  ADMINISTRATION, 
RECLAMATION,  BUREAU  or 

Elections.  At  the  general  election  (Novem- 
ber 5)  the  popular  vote  for  President  went  to 
Roosevelt  (Dem  ),  by  a  total  of  462,145,  against 
322,123  for  Willkie  (Rep)  Mon  C  Wallgren 
(Dem  )  was  elected  U  S.  Senator,  and  an  all- 
Democratic  delegation  of  six  were  elected  U  S 
Representatives  The  Governorship  went  to  Arthur 
B  Langlie  ( Rep  ) ,  opposed  by  former  U  S  Sena- 
tor C.  C.  Dill  (Dem  ),  in  a  close  vote 

Officers.  Washington's  chief  officers,  serving 
in  1940,  were  Governor,  Clarence  D  Martin 
(Dem  )  ,  Lieutenant  Governor,  Victor  A  Meyers; 
Secretary  of  State,  Belle  Reeves ,  Auditor,  Cliff 
Yelle;  Treasurer,  Phil  H.  Gallagher;  Attorney 
General,  G  W.  Hamilton  ;  Superintendent  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction,  Stanley  F  Atwood 

WATER  POWER.  See  ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND 
POWER  ,  POWER  PLANTS 

WATER  SUPPLY.  See  AQUEDUCTS;  GEO- 
LOGICAL SURVEY;  SOIL  CONSERVATION  SERVICE, 
TUNNELS 

WATERWAYS,  Inland.  The  largest  enter- 
prise of  this  kind  in  the  United  States  is  the  con- 
trol of  the  Mississippi  River,  south  from  the  Mis- 
souri River  to  the  Gulf,  for  both  safe  navigation 
and  protection  from  floods  Its  purpose  is  to  main- 
tain a  minimum  depth  and  clear  channel  during 
low-water  periods,  and  to  prevent  flood  damage 
along  the  river  This,  however,  is  a  continuous  job, 
under  the  direction  of  the  U.S.  Engineer  Corps 
(qv.),  going  on  year  by  year  in  the  building  and 
reinforcement  of  levees  and  the  dredging,  clearing, 
and  straightening  of  the  navigable  channel 

Canalization  of  the  Upper  Mississippi,  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Missouri  to  Minneapolis,  was  com- 
pleted March  13,  with  the  putting  into  service  of 
lock  and  dam  No  24,  at  Clarksville,  Mo.  This  was 
the  last  of  the  series  of  26  dams,  with  locks  for 
barge  traffic.  The  lift  of  the  locks  averages  12% 
ft.,  with  a  maximum  of  38.2  ft.  at  the  Keokuk 
dam,  and  a  minimum  of  5.5  ft.  at  the  Winona  dam. 
The  locks  are  600  ft.  long  and  110  ft  wide,  the 
standard  dimensions  for  government  inland  water- 
ways. Flow  over  the  Clarksville  dam  is  regulated 
by  a  row  of  15  radial  Taintor  gates  80  ft.  long. 


WATERWAYS 


805 


WATER  WORKS 


along  the  crest  Navigation  is  the  main  purpose  of 
this  project,  with  flood  protection  and  power  de- 
velopment as  secondary  considerations.  The  Cape 
Cod  Canal  is  being  deepened  to  have  32  ft  of  wa- 
ter, and  is  being  widened  from  500  ft.  to  700  ft 
Improvement  of  the  New  York  State  Barge  Ca- 
nal, started  in  1935,  is  approaching  completion. 
This  work  provides  for  deepening  the  canal  from 
the  former  12-ft  depth  to  14  ft,  from  the  Hudson 
River  to  Oswego,  on  Lake  Ontario.  It  provides 
also  for  widening  at  bends  and  other  points,  and 
for  raising  all  bridges  to  give  a  minimum  clearance 
or  headroom  of  20  ft.  above  maximum  water  level 
for  navigation.  About  25  bridges  have  been  raised 
so  far.  The  deepening  will  be  completed  probably 
by  July,  1941,  and  the  raising  of  bridges  by  1943. 
For  the  Illinois  State  Water  Waterway  connect- 
ing Lake  Michigan  (at  Chicago)  with  the  Missis- 
sippi, application  was  made  to  the  courts  in  1940 
for  permission  to  increase  the  present  flow  from 
Lake  Michigan  for  both  navigation  and  sanitary 
purposes  This  flow  was  reduced  to  1500  cu.  ft  per 
second  on  Jan.  1,  1939,  by  court  order,  and  owing 
to  the  present  discharge  of  some  sewage  effluent 
from  Chicago  it  is  claimed  to  have  resulted  in  un- 
sanitary conditions  along  the  Illinois  River.  In- 
creased flow  will  not  affect  navigation,  as  the  wa- 
terway has  a  navigable  depth  of  9  ft ,  with  14  ft. 
of  water  on  the  sills  of  the  locks 

The  project  of  the  Tennessee  Valley  Authority 
(q.v.)  includes  the  formation  of  a  navigable  chan- 
nel 9  ft  deep  in  the  Tennessee  River,  from  the 
Ohio,  at  Paducah,  Ky ,  to  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  650 
miles,  with  a  rise  of  about  500  ft.  from  the  normal 
level  of  the  Ohio.  The  ten  dams  on  this  river  will 
have  locks  110  x  600  ft,  with  an  average  lift  of 
57  ft  The  Kentucky  Dam  is  the  largest,  situated 
23  miles  from  the  Ohio,  and  having  a  lift  of  73  ft. 
in  the  lock. 

A  barge  waterway  with  minimum  depth  of  10 
ft  of  water  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  at  Charles- 
ton, S.C.,  to  Columbia,  S  C,  will  be  a  part  of  the 
Santee-Cooper  hydroelectric  development  project, 
now  under  construction  Two  dams  on  the  Santee 
and  Cooper  rivers  will  form  storage  reservoirs 
which  will  be  connected  by  a  channel  or  canal  7% 
miles  long,  thus  diverting  the  water  of  the  Santee 
into  the  Cooper  River.  The  Cooper  River  dam  at 
Pmopohs,  with  the  power  house,  will  have  a  lock 
60  x  184  ft.,  giving  a  lift  of  75  ft  A  second  canal, 
5  miles  long,  300  ft  wide,  and  with  11  ft  of  water, 
will  connect  the  lower  end  of  the  lock  with  the 
Cooper  River.  Above  the  lock,  barges  will  pass 
through  the  two  reservoirs  and  up  the  Congaree 
River  to  Columbia,  a  distance  of  over  100  miles. 
Another  small  coastal  inland  waterway  is  that 
across  Florida,  by  canal  from  the  Atlantic  near 
Miami  to  Lake  Okeechobee,  and  from  that  lake 
along  the  Caloosahatchie  River  to  the  Gulf,  near 
Fort  Myers.  The  minimum  depth  is  10  ft.  of  wa- 
ter. New  locks,  50  x  250  ft.,  to  accommodate  mod- 
ern barge  traffic,  replace  old  locks  30  x  150  ft. 
This  waterway  is  distinct,  of  course,  from  the 
project  for  a  ship  canal  across  Florida. 

The  old  but  often  revived  Lake  Erie  and  Ohio 
River  Canal  project  has  been  reported  adversely 
by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  as  being 
an  unnecessary  competitor  of  railways  covering  the 
route.  Its  traffic  would  be  what  it  could  take  from 
the  railways,  which  could  not  stand  such  a  loss. 
Furthermore,  these  railways  havt  ample  line  and 
terminal  capacity  to  carry  any  traffic  likely  to  de- 
velop. 
The  St.  Lawrence  seaway  project,  to  enable 


large  steamers  to  pass  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
and  the  Great  Lakes,  was  still  under  consideration. 
In  December,  1940,  the  President  Roosevelt  or- 
dered another  study  of  the  power  aspect,  although 
several  such  engineering  studies  have  been  made. 
Opposition  was  based  on  the  limited  use  in  relation 
to  the  enormous  cost  ($550,000,000)  ;  on  the  fact 
that  part  of  the  length  and  some  of  the  locks  would 
be  in  Canada,  and  on  the  possible  detrimental  ef- 
fect on  the  flow  and  levels  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

Canalization  of  the  San  Juan  River,  in  Nicara- 
gua, to  provide  a  shallow-draft  waterway  between 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  Lake  Nicaragua,  was  ad- 
vanced in  1940  by  an  agreement  between  the  gov- 
ernments of  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica  as  to  cer- 
tain rights  and  responsibilities  for  both  countries. 
These  conditions  will  apply  also  to  the  possible 
future  extension  of  the  waterway  from  the  lake 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  would  require  heavier 
construction  work.  Surveys  and  river  studies  for  a 
waterway  with  navigable  depth  of  either  8  ft.  or 
12  ft  have  been  made  under  the  direction  of  the 
Chief  of  Engineers,  U  S.  Army,  at  the  request  of 
the  government  of  Nicaragua. 

The  Albert  Canal,  in  Belgium,  opened  in  1939 
as  a  navigable  waterway  and  a  line  of  defense 
against  invasion,  failed  of  its  latter  purpose  against 
the  German  advance  in  1940  This  failure  seems  to 
have  been  due  largely  to  the  number  of  bridges 
crossing  the  canal  and  the  neglect  to  destroy  these 
bridges  in  time,  although  such  destruction  had  been 
carefully  planned.  Important  canal  and  river  navi- 
gation developments  have  been  reported  from  Rus- 
sia and  Germany.  The  Corinth  Canal,  in  Greece, 
has  been  attacked  by  bombs,  but  apparently  with- 
out suffering  serious  damage. 

E.  E.  RUSSELL  TRATMAN. 

WATER  WORKS  AND  WATER  PURI- 
FICATION. The  Quabbin  reservoir  on  Swift 
River,  heading  the  additional  water  supply  system 
for  the  Boston  Metropolitan  District,  had  filled 
to  a  depth  of  85  ft.  by  December  1,  storing  70  bil- 
lion of  its  ultimate  capacity  of  415  billion  gallons. 
When  filled  the  maximum  water  depth  will  be  150 
ft  and  the  area  flooded  38.6  square  miles.  Aque- 
ducts connecting  with  the  trunk  mains  leading  to 
the  various  municipalities  of  the  district  and  a 
large  part  of  the  18-mile  pressure  tunnel-aqueduct 
at  the  eastern  end  of  the  aqueduct  system  are  in 
use.  New  York  City  had  holed  through  80  miles 
of  the  85-mile  Delaware  River  Aqueduct  by  the 
close  of  the  year  and  lined  25  miles  of  it  with  con- 
crete. Construction  of  the  Merriman  and  Never- 
sink  dams  had  been  started.  The  242-mile  Colorado 
River  aqueduct  of  the  Metropolitan  Water  Dis- 
trict of  Southern  California  and  the  half  dozen 
pumping  and  repumping  stations  which  lift  water 
1616  ft  had  delivered  enough  water  to  the  Cajalico 
terminal  reservoir  (renamed  Lake  Mathews)  to 
store  80  per  cent  of  the  initial  capacity  of  35  billion 
gallons.  Delivery  of  water  to  Los  Angeles  and  the 
other  12  cities  of  the  district  by  March  1  was 
expected.  The  initial  100  million-gallon  unit  of  a 
lime-zeolite  water-softening  plant  was  under  con- 
struction. The  ultimate  capacity  of  the  project  is 
one  billion  gallons.  (For  details  of  these  three 
great  projects  see  earlier  issues  of  the  YEAR  BOOK.) 

For  Baltimore  the  pressure  aqueduct  connecting 
Loch  Raven  reservoir  with  the  filtration  plant  was 
nearly  completed.  Its  inside  diameter  is  12  ft,  its 
length  nearly  7  miles,  and  its  capacity  275  million 
gallons  a  day.  It  is  lined  with  concrete,  smoothly 
finished  on  the  inside  for  two-thirds  of  its  length 


WEATHER,  WEATHER  BUREAU     806 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


and  inner  lined  the  rest  of  the  wiy  with  continu- 
ously-welded steel  plates.  It  supplements  an  un- 
lined  tunnel  completed  in  1874.  At  Toledo  work 
continued  on  the  $9,000,000  project  to  bring  water 
from  Lake  Erie  through  nearly  10  miles  of  72-in. 
steel  pipe  to  an  80-million-gallon  filtration  plant 
This  will  replace  the  supply  from  the  Maumee 
River.  Grand  Rapids  has  introduced  a  supply  from 
Lake  Michigan,  30  miles  distant,  and  built  a  filtra- 
tion plant  replacing  its  old  supply  from  Grand 
River.  Wichita,  Kan.,  has  sunk  wells,  built  a  30- 
mile  conduit  and  a  new  iron-removal  and  filtration 
plant.  Included  in  the  conduit  is  a  16-mile  stretch 
of  48-in.  cement-lined  centrifugally-cast  iron  pipe, 
the  largest  of  its  kind.  Water  is  delivered  by  the 
city  to  the  Wichita  Water  Co.  for  distribution,  dis- 
placing a  somewhat  similar  supply  of  poorer  qual- 
ity. See  PENNSYLVANIA. 

Of  Chicago's  three  immense  water  purification 
projects  to  treat  a  total  of  a  billion  gallons  a  day, 
one  was  well  under  way  and  layout  plans  for  the 
other  two  were  being  made  at  the  close  of  the  year. 
At  St.  Paul,  water  softening  was  begun  in  Janu- 
ary at  the  enlarged  filtration  plant.  Atlantic  City, 
N.J.,  is  building  a  20-million-gallon  aeration  and 
filtration  plant  to  remove  taste  and  odor  from  the 
portion  of  its  supply  drawn  from  surface  sources. 
In  Canada,  Toronto  completed  a  100 -million-gallon 
filtration  plant  to  supplement  two  already  in  use 
but  postponed  putting  it  in  operation.  Moose  Jaw, 
Sask.,  has  a  unique  new  system  of  supply.  Water 
is  collected  in  a  gallery  alongside  the  South  Sas- 
katchewan River,  pumped  to  an  open  ditch  68  miles 
long  which  delivers  water  to  a  50-acre  tract  of 
land  from  which  the  top  soil  was  removed  to  un- 
cover a  deep  stratum  of  sand.  Into  the  sand  thus 
saturated  192  well  points  have  been  sunk  and  con- 
nected with  pipes  leading  to  pumps.  (See  Ameri- 
can City,  July,  1940.) 

Guarding  public  water  supplies  from  damage  by 
covert  enemies  and  preparation  for  possible  dam- 
age in  case  of  war  is  receiving  increased  attention. 
Some  pumping  stations  and  filtration  plants  have 
been  closed  to  visitors.  Watchmen  at  dams  and 
along  aqueducts  have  been  increased.  Plans  to  meet 
various  emergencies  have  been  made.  In  Great 
Britain  civil  defense  authorities  have  issued  orders 
for  disinfection  of  water  supplies  by  chlorination, 
where  not  already  practiced,  m  order  to  eliminate 
possible  contamination  by  enemy  or  other  sources. 

Bibliography.  American  Water  Works  Association,  In- 
dex, 1881-1939,  to  Proceedings,  also  Water  Quality  and 
Treatment  (New  York);  Turneaure,  Russell,  and  Nich- 
olls,  Public  Water  Supplies,  4th  ed.  (New  York);  New 
England  Water  Works  Association,  First  Report  by  Com- 
mittee on  Water  Works  Emergencies  (Boston):  Report 
on  Sabotage  and  Water  Service,  Engineering  Newt-Rec- 
ord, July  18,  1940. 

M.  N.  BAKER. 

WEATHER,  WEATHER  BUREAU.  See 

METEOROLOGY;  also,  AGRICULTURE;  FLORIDA  under 
History;  HORTICULTURE.  For  heat  wave,  see  AC- 
CIDENTS. For  Atlantic  Weather  Patrol,  see  COAST 
GUARD,  U.S. 

WEEVILS.  See  ENTOMOLOGY  ECONOMIC. 

WELDING.  See  ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES. 

WELFARE  WORK.  See  COMMUNITY 
CHESTS  AND  COUNCILS;  COMMUNITY  TRUSTS; 
articles  on  churches  and  foundations,  as  the 
ROCKEFELLER  FOUNDATION;  WAR  RELIEF  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES.  For  government  activities  in  this 
field,  see  RELIEF. 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA.  A  State  of  Aus- 
tralia. Area,  975,920  square  miles;  population 


(Mar.  31.  1940),  466,686,  exclusive  of  full-blood 
aboriginals.  Vital  statistic!  (1939)  :  9036  births, 
4336  deaths,  4203  marriages.  Capital,  Perth,  224,- 
800  inhabitants  (1939)  including  the  port  of  Free* 
mantle  and  other  suburbs.  Other  important  cities 
(1938  populations):  Subiaco,  18,340;  Kalgoorlie, 
10,650.  Education  (1938)  :  1011  schools  and  71,646 
students  enrolled. 

Production.  Chief  crops :  wheat  (40,860,000  bu. 
in  1939-40),  oats,  barley,  hay.  grapes,  apples,  and 
potatoes.  Livestock  (1938) :  9,177,531  sheep,  767,- 
680  cattle,  143,674  horses,  81,383  swine,  14,144 
goats.  Wool  (as  in  the  grease)  output  (1940)  : 
78,000,000  Ib.  Chief  dairy  products  (1938-39) :  16,- 
244,449  Ib.  of  butter,  980,254  Ib.  of  cheese,  4,242,- 
083  Ib.  of  bacon  and  ham.  The  gold  output  for  1939 
was  valued  at  £11,796,085.  Manufacturing  (1938- 
39)  :  2129  factories,  23,211  employees,  £8,775,586 
net  value  of  production.  There  were  4378  route 
miles  of  State  railway  in  1938-39;  11,415,615  pas- 
sengers and  3,605.912  tons  of  freight  were  carried. 

Government.  Finance  (1939-40)  :  revenue,  £11,- 
120,000 ;  expenditure,  £1 1,267,000 ;  public  debt,  £96,- 
230,000.  The  executive  authority  was  vested  in  a 
governor,  aided  by  an  executive  council  of  respon- 
sible ministers.  Parliament  consists  of  a  legislative 
council  of  30  members  elected  for  a  6-year  term, 
and  a  legislative  assembly  of  50  members  elected 
for  a  3-year  term  by  universal  adult  suffrage.  The 
standing  of  the  various  political  parties  at  the  elec- 
tion of  Mar.  18,  1939,  was :  Labor  27,  Country  12, 
Nationalist  9,  and  Independent  2.  Governor  (posi- 
tion vacant) ;  Lieutenant  Governor,  Sir  James 
Mitchell  (appointed  July,  1933)  ;  Premier,  John 
Ceilings  Willcock.  See  AUSTRALIA. 

WESTERN  SAHARA.  See  SPAIN  under  Co- 
lonial Empire. 

WESTERN  SAMOA.  See  under  SAMOA. 

WEST  INDIES  NATIONAL  COUNCIL. 
See  BRITISH  WEST  INDIES  under  History. 

WESTRICK  CASE.  See  FASCISM. 

WEST  VIRGINIA.  Area,  24,170  square 
miles ;  includes  water,  148  square  miles.  Population 
(U.S.  Census),  April,  1940,  1,901,974;  1930, 1,729,- 
205.  Charleston,  the  capital  (1940),  67,914.  The 
State's  rural  population  increased  (1930-40)  by 
129,981,  to  1,367,682 ;  the  urban  population  (dwell- 
ers in  places  of  2500  or  more)  rose  by  42,788,  to 
534,292. 

Agriculture.  West  Virginia  harvested,  in  1940, 
1,491,600  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Corn,  on 
4^6,000  acres,  bore  12,852,000  bu.  ($10,282,000  in 
estimated  value  to  the  cultivator;  tame  hay,  726,- 
000  acres,  made  833,000  tons  ($8,746,000) ;  pota- 
toes, 33,000  acres,  3.630,000  bu.  ($3,013,000) ;  ap- 
ples for  market  totaled  4,868,000  bu.  ($3,408,000) ; 
wheat,  139,000  acres,  2,016,000  bu.  ($1,774,000). 
Farms  numbered  99,282  in  1940  and  averaged  89.7 
acres. 

Mineral  Production.  The  value  of  native  min- 
erals produced  by  West  Virginia  in  1938,  as  esti- 
mated by  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  came  to  $254,- 
995,309 ;  of  this  sum  coal  contributed  over  seven- 
tenths  and  natural  gas,  over  one-fifth.  From  93,- 
288,172  net  tons  (value,  $179,356,000)  for  1938,  the 
mines'  output  of  coal  advanced  to  107,938,000  tons 
for  1939  and  to  some  126,302,000  tons  for  12 
months  of  1940.  Natural  gas  delivered  to  con- 
sumers totaled  134,342  million  cu.  ft.  (value,  $55,- 
910,000)  for  1938.  Though  drilling  for  natural  gas 
diminished  in  1939,  it  brought  a  number  of  addi- 
tions to  the  reserve  of  gas  in  the  ground  and  some 
finds  in  fresh  fields  or  formations.  Gasoline  was 
obtained  from  natural  gas,  to  the  quantity  of  50,- 


WHEAT 


807 


WISCONSIN 


612,000  nil.  in  1939,  as  against  50,398,000  gal.  (val- 
ue, $2,063,000)  in  1938.  The  production  of  Penn- 
sylvania-grade petroleum  diminished  somewhat,  to 
3,444,000  bbl.  (1940)  from  3,580,000  bbl.  (1939), 
and  3,684,000  bbl.,  value  $5,600,000  (1938). 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40, 
West  Virginia's  inhabitants  of  school  age  (from 
6  years  to  20)  were  reckoned  at  541,873.  Enroll- 
ments of  pupils  in  the  public  schools  numbered 
452,821 :  those  in  elementary  study,  312,640 ;  those 
in  high  schools.  140,181.  The  year's  expenditure 
for  public-school  education  totaled  $26,808,014.  The 
teachers  numbered  16.133;  their  salaries  for  the 
year  averaged  $1169.40. 

History.  The  manufacturing  industries  in  the 
State  gained  heavily  in  business  on  account  of  or- 
ders created  by  the  new  Federal  program  of  in- 
creased armament.  The  Government's  great  es- 
tablishment for  producing  armor  plate  underwent 
reconditioning  and  enlargement  with  a  view  to  its 
soon  resuming  production  on  a  higher  scale,  after 
years  of  idleness.  A  contract  between  the  Govern- 
ment and  the  Du  Fonts  called  for  the  latter's  build- 
ing near  Morgantown,  at  Federal  expense,  a  $15,- 
000,000  establishment  for  producing  ammonia,  and 
for  their  operation  of  the  undertaking. 

A  State  Court  order  was  granted  in  August, 
restraining  the  Secretary  of  State  from  including 
Communist  candidates  on  the  ballot.  U.S.  Senator 
Rush  D.  Holt  was  removed  from  the  number  of 
the  Senate's  Democratic  opponents  of  the  New 
Deal;  at  the  primary  elections  (May  14)  he  failed 
of  renomination,  and  Judge  Harley  M.  Kilgore,  a 
whole-hearted  approver  of  the  Federal  Adminis- 
tration, was  chosen  in  his  place.  See  COMMUNISM. 

At  the  general  election  (November  5)  the  voting 
ran  consistently  Democratic.  The  popular  vote  for 
President  totaled  496,146  for  Roosevelt  (Dem.) 
and  372,662  for  Willkie  (Rep.).  U.S.  Senator  M. 
M.  Neely  (Dem  )  was  elected  Governor,  defeating 
D.  Boone  Dawson  (Rep.).  For  U.S  Senator,  Har- 
ley M.  Kilgore  (Dem.)  beat  T.  B.  Sweeney 
(Rep.).  Six  Democrats  were  elected  U.S.  Repre- 
sentatives. 

Officers.  West  Virginia's  chief  officers,  serving 
in  1940,  were:  Governor,  Homer  A.  Holt  (Dem.)  ; 
Secretary  of  State,  William  S.  O'Brien ;  Treasur- 
er, Richard  E.  Talbott;  Auditor,  Edgar  B.  Sims; 
Attorney  General,  Clarence  W.  Meadows;  Com- 
missioner of  Agriculture,  J.  B  McLaughlin;  Su- 
perintendent of  Free  Schools,  W.  W.  Trent. 

WHEAT.  The  wheat  crop  in  the  United  States 
in  1940  was  estimated  by  the  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  at  816,698,000  bu.,  about  9  per  cent 
larger  than  the  1939  crop  of  751,435,000  bu.  and 
substantially  above  the  1929-38  average  of  754,- 
685,000  bu.  The  total  area  harvested  in  1940,  53,- 
503,000,  compared  with  53,482,000  acres  in  1939 
and  the  10-year  average  of  56,869,000  acres.  Total 
acreages  differed  little  but  yield  per  acre  averaged 
15.3  bu.  in  1940  and  14.1  in  1939.  The  acreages  har- 
vested, average  acre  yields,  and  total  production, 
respectively,  were  for  winter  wheat  36,147,000 
acres,  16.3  bu.,  589,151,000  bu.;  durum  3,121,000 
acres,  11.1  bu.,  34,776,000  bu.;  and  other  spring 
wheat  14,235,000  acres,  13.5  bu.,  192,771,000  bu. 
The  States  leading  in  winter  wheat  production  in- 
cluded Kansas  123,648,000  bu.,  Oklahoma  56,332,- 
000,  Ohio  42,097,000,  Illinois  39,555,000,  Nebraska 
33,696,000,  Missouri  31,690,000,  Indiana  30,030,000, 
and  Texas  29,355,000  bu.  Spring  wheat  production 
in  leading  States  was  in  North  Dakota  97,054,000 
bu.,  Montana  36,950,000,  Minnesota  28,061,000, 
South  Dakota  25,121,000,  and  Washington  15,824,- 


000  bu.  The  durum  crop  included  27,082,000  bu. 
harvested  in  North  Dakota,  6,270,000  in  South  Da- 
kota, and  1,424,000  bu.  in  Minnesota.  The  season 
average  price  per  bu.  (preliminary)  received  by 
farmers  was  67  cents  and  the  value  of  production 
was  estimated  at  $547,084,000  in  1940  compared  to 
69.1  cents  and  $519,575,000  in  1939. 

World  wheat  production  in  1940  was  estimated 
at  4,116,000,000  bu.,  substantially  below  the  4,268.- 
796,000  grown  in  1939 ;  and  world  wheat  supplies, 
excluding  U.S.S.R.  and  China,  for  the  year  begin- 
ning July  1, 1940,  were  estimated  in  late  December 
at  about  5,536,000,000  bu.  compared  with  5,474,- 
000,000  bu.  in  1939-40. 

See  AGRICULTURAL  ADJUSTMENT  ADMINISTRA- 
TION ;  AGRICULTURE  under  Crop  Production;  COM- 
MODITY CREDIT  CORPORATION;  ENTOMOLOGY,  ECO- 
NOMIC; FEDERAL  CROP  INSURANCE  CORPORATION; 
SURPLUS  MARKETING  ADMINISTRATION.  Also,  CAN- 
ADA under  History ;  countries  under  Production. 

WHITE  RUSSIAN  SOVIET  SOCIAL- 
IST REPUBLIC.  See  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SO- 
CIALIST REPUBLICS  under  Area  and  Population. 

WHITE  SLAVE  TRAFFIC.  See  FEDERAL 
BUREAU  OF  INVESTIGATION. 

WHOLESALE  PRICES  AND  TRADE. 
See  BUSINESS  REVIEW;  MARKETING. 

WIDENER  COLLECTION.  See  ART  un- 
der Museums. 

WILDLIFE.  See  FISH  AND  WILDLIFE  SERV- 
ICE. 

WILLKIE,  Wendell  L.  See  ELECTIONS,  U.S. 
NATIONAL;  UNITED  STATES. 

WINDSTORMS.  Sec  INSURANCE. 

WINDWARD  ISLANDS.  An  insular  group 
in  the  British  West  Indies  comprising  the  colonies 
shown  in  the  accompanying  table. 


Colony  (Capital) 

Dominica  (Roseau)      

Grenada  (St.  George's) 

St.  Lucia  (Castries)  .        .     . 
St.  Vincent  (Kingstown)   


Windward  Islands 


Sq.mi.  Pop  (1938) 
304  50,617* 

133  *  89,415  » 

233  69,084 

ISO*  58,381  • 


820 


267,497 


•  Hie  estimated  population  on  Dec  31, 1939,  was  51,951.  *  In- 
cludes the  islands  or  the  southern  Grenadines — Carriacou,  etc 
(13  sq  mi ).  •  Includes  the  islands — Bequia,  Canouan,  Mayreau 
Mustique,  and  Union— of  the  northern  Grenadines  (17  sq  mi ). 

St.  George's,  the  capital,  had  4629  inhabitants 
(1921  census);  Roseau,  9000;  Castries,  21,124; 
Kingstown,  4269. 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  products:  ar- 
rowroot, cotton,  sugar,  molasses,  rum,  copra,  ca- 
cao, peanuts,  cassava,  spices,  limes,  citrus  fruits, 
and  vegetables.  St.  Vincent  is  noted  for  its  arrow- 
root and  its  sea-island  cotton.  Trade  (1938)  :  im- 
ports. £785,215 ;  exports  (excluding  re-exports) , 
£666,713. 

Government.  Finance  (1938)  :  revenue,  £42 
181 ;  expenditure,  £447,363 ;  debt,  £537,335.  Then 
one  governor  for  all  the  four  colonies  but  there  is 
no  common  legislature  and  each  colony  has  its  own 
executive  and  legislative  councils.  In  view  of  the 
transfer  of  Dominica  to  the  Windward  Islands  on 
Jan.  1,  1940,  a  conference  was  held  in  St.  Lucia  to 
determine  the  arrangements  between  the  four  gov- 
ernments. Governor  and  Commander-in-Chief,  Sir 
Henry  Popham  (appointed  Jan.  19, 1937).  See  ST. 
LUCIA  ;  BRITISH  WEST  INDIES  under  History. 

WINE.  See  ALCOHOLIC  BEVERAGES. 

WIRE  TAPPING.  See  COURTS  under  Ad- 
missibility. 

WISCONSIN.  Area,  56,066  square  miles;  in- 
dudes  water,  810  square  miles  (but  not  the  State's 


£429,- 
•eis 


WISCONSIN 


WOMEN'S  BUREAU 


part  of  the  Great  Lakes).  Population  (U.S.  Cen- 
sus), April,  1940,  3,137,587;  1930,  2,939,006.  Mil- 
waukee (1940),  587,472;  Madison,  the  capital,  67,- 
447.  The  urban  population— dwellers  in  places  of 
2500  or  more— increased  (1930-40),  by  125,301, 
to  1,679,144;  the  rural  population,  by  73,280,  to 
1,458,443. 

Agriculture.  Wisconsin  harvested,  in  1940, 
about  10,166,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops.  Corn, 
on  2,255,000  acres,  bore  93,582,000  bu.  ($56,149,000 
in  estimated  value  to  cultivator).  Tame  hay,  4,086,- 
000  acres,  made  7,416,000  tons  ($49,687,000)  ;  ton- 
nage (and  its  estimated  farm  value)  were  the 
year's  highest,  for  this  crop,  in  the  Union.  Oats, 
2,251,000  acres,  produced  96,793,000  bu.  ($30,006,- 
000)  ;  barley,  654,000  acres,  24,525,000  bu.  ($11,- 
527,000) ;  potatoes,  193,000  acres,  15,054,000  bu. 
($7,527,000)  ;  tobacco,  24,500  acres,  36,532,000  Ib. 
($3,678,000)  ;  wheat,  86,000  acres,  1,743,000  bu. 
($1,307,000);  rye,  193,000  acres,  2,509,000  bu. 
($1,079,000). 

Manufacturing.  The  yearly  value  of  Wiscon- 
sin's manufactured  products  totaled  $1,604,506,797 
for  1939  (for  1937,  $1,772,310,417).  Other  related 
totals  for  1939  (each  with  that  for  1937  subjoined) 
follow.  Establishments  numbering  6718  (6318) 
paid  to  200,897  (234,067)  persons  wages  totaling 
$251,947,973  ($296,365,346)  ;  spent  for  materials, 
contract  work,  etc.,  $917,868,435  ($1,062,486,184)  ; 
and  added  to  materials,  etc.,  by  manufacture,  $686,- 
638,362  ($709,824,233). 

Mineral  Production.  The  value  of  native  min- 
erals produced  in  Wisconsin,  as  stated  in  1940  by 
the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  totaled  $10,636,741  for 
1938.  The  shipments  of  iron  ore  from  the  two 
mines  in  Iron  county  rallied  to  1,173,828  gross  tons 
for  1939,  from  625,378  for  1938;  by  value,  to 
$3,526,980,  from  $1,886,477.  The  mines'  actual  pro- 
duction varied  less,  being  972,685  tons  for  1939 
and  854,795  for  1938.  The  mining  of  zinc,  increas- 
ing in  importance,  produced  in  1940  an  estimated 
5950  tons  of  recoverable  zinc,  having  a  value  of 
some  $773,500.  Production  (1939)  of  stone,  3,182,- 
780  tons,  was  valued  at  $3,564,045,  including  about 
$1,000,000  in  granite  and  limestone  sold  in  specified 
dimensions  for  building,  etc. 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1938-39  (lat- 
est covered  by  the  data  that  follow),  Wisconsin's 
inhabitants  of  school  age  (from  4  years  to  20,  in- 
clusive) were  reckoned  at  834,095.  The  enrollments 
in  all  public  schools  numbered  537,653 :  this  com- 
prised 382,245  in  elementary  study  and  155,408  in 
high  school.  The  year's  expenditure  for  public- 
school  education  totaled  $53,688,670.  The  teachers 
numbered  21,600;  their  yearly  salaries  averaged 
$1307. 

History.  The  State  administration,  still  trou- 
bled by  high  expenditure  and  a  depleted  general 
fund,  both  inherited  from  its  predecessor,  was  aid- 
ed by  the  better  yield  of  the  State's  taxes  on  in- 
comes, raised  in  some  respects  by  the  Legislature 
in  1939.  A  curtailment  of  work  on  improving  high- 
ways and  a  considerable  curtailment  of  personnel 
in  departments  that  had  been  consolidated  were 
effected  for  economy. 

The  moderation  of  liberalism  among  the  voters 
appeared  anew  in  Milwaukee's  municipal  election, 
which  interrupted  after  24  years  the  tenure  of  the 
city's  Socialist  Mayor,  Daniel  W.  Hoan ;  Carl  F. 
Zeidler  was  elected  Mayor  (April  2),  defeating 
Hoan  by  a  moderate  margin.  Zeidler  had  no  Demo- 
cratic or  Republican  affiliation ;  although  he  had  a 
brother  in  the  local  Socialist  organization,  he  made 
his  campaign  largely  against  Socialism.  The  voters 


had  no  particular  quarrel  with  Hoan,  who  had  kept 
up  the  widely  praised  type  of  government  estab- 
lished when  he  freed  the  city  of  corruption  at  the 
outset  of  his  tenure;  Hoan  indeed  made  his  dis- 
astrous campaign  on  a  generally  acknowledged  rec- 
ord of  honest  and  successful  administration.  Zeid- 
ler's  victory  was  attributed  to  a  winning  personality 
and  a  well-organized  following,  plus  a  well-timed 
appeal  to  the  revulsion  against  liberal  theories. 

A  Research  Bureau  created  by  the  Legislature 
in  1939  to  seek  out  possible  malfunctioning  in  the 
organs  of  the  State  government  was  active  in  1940. 
One  of  its  inquiries  went  into  indications  of  ir- 
regularity in  deals  of  the  Department  of  Conserva- 
tion, under  the  previous  administration,  to  ex- 
change public  for  private  lands. 

Elections.  At  the  State's  general  election  (No- 
vember 5),  victory  was  divided  among  the  tickets 
of  the  Republican,  Democratic,  and  Progressive 
parties.  The  popular  vote  for  President  went  to 
Roosevelt  (Dem.)  by  a  total  of  704,821,  as  against 
679,206  for  Willkie  (Rep.).  Julius  P.  Heil  (Rep.) 
was  re-elected  Governor,  defeating  Orland  S. 
Loomis  (Progressive)  and  Francis  E.  McGovern 
(Rep.).  Robert  M.  LaFollette  (Progressive)  won 
re-election  to  the  U.S.  Senate,  against  Fred  H 
Clausen  (Rep.)  and  James  E.  Finnegan  (Dem.). 
Republicans  and  Progressives  shared  up  seats  in 
the  U.S.  House  of  Representatives.  The  main  suc- 
cesses of  Democratic  and  Progressive  candidates 
were  ascribed  to  a  friendly  understanding  between 
the  two  groups:  the  Progressives  refrained  from 
nominating  a  Presidential  candidate  and  thus  left 
the  party's  members  free  to  vote  for  Roosevelt; 
LaFollette  himself,  who  had  attacked  the  Admin- 
istration's course  in  foreign  policy,  declared  con- 
tinued support,  as  Senator,  for  Roosevelt's  domes- 
tic policies;  and  Henry  A.  Wallace,  Democratic 
nominee  for  Vice-President,  expressed,  in  an  ad- 
dress at  Madison  (October  22),  such  praise  of 
LaFollette's  Senatorial  record  as  virtually  to  invite 
votes  for  the  Senator  in  preference  to  Finnegan. 
the  Democrats'  own  nominee.  These  moves,  in 
combination,  encouraged  a  Progressive  vote  for 
Roosevelt. 

Officers.  Wisconsin's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were:  Governor,  Julius  P.  Heil  (Rep.); 
Lieutenant  Governor,  Walter  S  Goodland ;  Secre- 
tary of  State,  Fred  R.  Zimmerman;  Treasurer, 
John  M.  Smith;  Attorney  General,  John  E.  Mar- 
tin; State  Superintendent  of  Schools,  John  Cal- 
lahan. 

WOMEN  IN  INDUSTRY.  See  LABOR  CON- 
DITIONS; WOMEN'S  BUREAU. 

WOMEN'S  BUREAU,  The.  A  bureau  in  the 
U.S.  Department  of  Labor  authorized  by  law  to 
"formulate  standards  and  policies  which  shall  pro- 
mote the  welfare  of  wage-earning  women,  improve 
their  working  conditions,  increase  their  efficiency, 
and  advance  their  opportunities  for  profitable  em- 
ployment." 

The  Women's  Bureau  in  1940  found  its  efforts 
once  more  concentrated  on  the  needs  of  women  in 
defense  work.  A  labor  advisory  committee  com- 
posed of  representatives  of  international  unions 
that  have  active  women  members  in  industries  di- 
rectly connected  with  the  defense  industries  was 
established  to  assist  the  Bureau  in  determining  the 
types  of  employment  in  the  defense  program  for 
which  women  are  best  suited  and  the  measures 
necessary  for  their  welfare.  Based  on  experiences 
in  the  war  of  1914-18  and  more  recent  develop- 
ments, standards  for  the  employment  of  women 
who  must  play  so  important  a  part  in  the  manu- 


WOMEN'S  BUREAU 


809 


WOOL 


facture  of  war  materials  were  drafted  and  made 
public  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  Effective  Industrial 
Use  of  Women  in  the  Defense  Program.  In  addi- 
tion, the  Bureau  made  a  preliminary  survey  of 
about  40  plants  filling  defense  contracts,  and  on 
the  basis  of  this  investigation  made  recommenda- 
tions as  to  the  types  of  work  for  which  women 
are  best  fitted  and  the  technical  and  vocational 
training  they  require.  Next  a  joint  conference  of 
the  Bureau's  advisory  committees  was  held  to  con- 
sider possibilities  and  plans  for  training  women 
workers  in  connection  with  the  defense  program. 
Since  discussion  disclosed  that  almost  no  women 
were  involved  in  either  the  vocational  training 
courses  or  within-industry  training  system,  devel- 
oped to  meet  defense  needs,  the  conference  urged 
that  suitable  numbers  of  women  be  included  in  such 
programs,  since  skills  in  which  women  can  excel 
will  be  in  demand. 

Though  of  first  importance,  defense  activities 
have  not  entirely  overshadowed  the  other  services 
the  Bureau  performs  for  wage-earning  women. 
This  year  additions  have  been  made  to  its  already 
extensive  files  on  the  gainful  employment  of  wom- 
en :  Their  occupations ;  their  health  and  welfare ; 
their  wages,  hours,  and  working  conditions;  the 
trends  of  their  employment  and  earnings ;  their  in- 
come, cost  of  living,  and  responsibilities ;  their  eco- 
nomic and  legal  status ;  the  census  and  other  data 
concerning  them ;  legislation  in  their  behalf ;  and 
the  efforts  of  Federal,  State,  and  private  groups 
to  improve  their  conditions.  Assistance  has  been 
given  to  State  and  local  authorities  in  improving 
procedures,  enforcement  methods,  and  statutory 
provisions  of  various  labor  legislative  programs. 

In  response  to  requests,  thousands  of  copies  of 
charts,  maps,  written  materials  of  all  sorts,  and 
various  exhibits  and  films,  illustrating  and  explain- 
ing the  problems  of  women  in  industry  have  been 
sent  to  schools,  trade  unions  and  other  organiza- 
tions, and  to  inquiring  individuals,  in  the  United 
States  and  abroad. 

Of  special  interest  are  the  various  bulletins  (in- 
cluding the  one  mentioned  above)  issued  in  1940. 
The  following  deal  with  employment  in  special 
fields  and  particular  communities :  Application  of 
Labor  Legislation  to  the  Fruit  and  Vegetable  Can- 
ning and  Preserving  Industries — comprising  a 
thorough  study  of  earnings,  hours,  trends  of  em- 
ployment, and  labor  costs ;  Earnings  in  the  Wom- 
en's and  Children's  Apparel  Industry  in  the  Spring 
of  1939 — a  comprehensive  analysis  of  pay-roll  data 
of  more  than  135,000  workers  in  this  industry; 
Hours  and  Earnings  in  Certain  Men's-Wear  In- 
dustries, Part  5 — Raincoats  and  Sport  Jackets,  and 
Part  6— Caps  and  Cloth  Hats,  Neckwear,  Work 
and  Knit  Gloves,  Handkerchiefs',  Wages  and 
Hours  in  Drugs  and  Medicines  and  in  Certain 
Toilet  Preparations ;  Earnings  and  Hours  in  Ha- 
waii Woman-Employing  Industries',  Employment 
in  Service  and  Trade  Industries  in  Maine ;  Wom- 
en's Wages  and  Hours  in  Nebraska.  Two  addition- 
al reports  deal  with  legal  questions :  Major  Legal 
Distinctions  Between  Sexes — condensed  from  bul- 
letins for  every  State  on  the  legal  status  of  wom- 
en ;  State  Minimum-Wage  Laws  and  Orders:  1939 
— this  supplements  material  already  available  in 
this  field  and  presents  a  ready  reference  manual  as 
of  December,  1939. 

Certain  important  facts  concerning  women's  em- 
ployment in  die  United  States  were  published  this 
year  in  Spanish  and  in  Portuguese  as  a  pamphlet 
entitled  The  Woman  Worker  tn  the  United  States, 
for  distribution  in  the  Latin-American  countries. 


The  Woman  Worker ,  the  Bureau's  bi-monthly  pub- 
lication, which  keeps  its  readers  informed  as  to 
current  developments  in  the  employment  of  wom- 
en, was  widely  circulated. 

MARY  ANDERSON. 

WOOL.  The  strong  mill  demand  for  wool  and 
the  upward  trend  in  prices  at  the  close  of  1940  was 
in  sharp  contrast  to  the  relatively  weak  demand 
and  declining  prices  during  the  first  quarter  of  the 
year.  Consumption  of  apparel  wool  for  the  first 
half  of  1940  was  16  per  cent  below  the  1939  level. 
Stimulated  by  large  Army  orders  plus  increased 
demand  of  woolen  goods  for  civilian  use,  monthly 
mill  consumption  increased  sharply  after  July  and 
reached  record  proportions  during  November  and 
December.  Total  consumption  for  the  year  was 
about  2  per  cent  above  the  1939  level  of  630  million 
Ib.  The  price,  on  the  Boston  market,  for  territory 
fine  staple  wool,  scoured  basis,  averaged  108.5 
cents  per  Ib.  during  November  and  December  and 
96.3  cents  for  1940,  as  compared  with  82.7  cents 
for  1939  and  70.4  cents  for  1938.  Other  grades 
followed  similar  price  trends.  Army  contracts  for 
cloth  and  blankets  let  during  the  last  half  of  the 
year,  covering  requirements  to  June  30,  1941,  called 
for  approximately  200,000,000  Ib.  of  unsecured 
wool,  chiefly  of  the  fine  domestic  grades.  Heavy 
unfilled  orders  were  carried  into  the  new  year. 

The  1940  wool  clip  in  the  United  States  was  esti- 
mated to  total  387,763,000  Ib.,  the  largest  on  rec- 
ord. This  is  3  per  cent  above  the  shorn  wool  pro- 
duction of  1939  and  7  per  cent  above  the  preceding 
10  year  average.  The  total  domestic  production  was 
augmented  by  about  62  million  Ib.  of  pulled  wool. 
The  average  price  received  by  farmers  for  grease 
wool  in  December  was  31.2  cents  per  Ib.  as  com- 
pared with  27.5  cents  in  December,  1939,  and  av- 
erages of  192,  223,  and  28.4  cents  during  1938, 
1939,  1940,  respectively. 

Imports  of  apparel  wool  into  the  United  States 
during  1940  totaled  222,983,000  Ib.  as  compared 
with  98,193,000  Ib.  in  1939.  Imports  of  carpet  wool 
were  134,691,000  Ib.  in  1940  and  144,875,000  Ib.  in 
1939. 

World  production  of  wool  during  1939-40,  ex- 
clusive of  the  Soviet  Union  and  China,  totaled 
3670  million  Ib.,  of  which  2202  million  Ib.  were 
produced  in  the  five  major  exporting  countries  of 
the  Southern  Hemisphere,  Australia,  New  Zea- 
land, South  Africa,  Argentina,  and  Uruguay.  Pre- 
liminary estimates  place  the  1940-41  wool  clip  of 
these  countries  at  2104  million  Ib.,  or  about  4  per 
cent  below  that  of  the  preceding  season,  with 
Australia  accounting  for  most  of  the  decrease. 

The  British  Government,  following  the  action 
of  1939  in  contracting  for  the  entire  wool  produc- 
tion of  Australia  and  New  Zealand  for  the  dura- 
tion of  the  war,  took  over  the  South  African  clip 
in  1940  so  that  about  85  per  cent  of  all  Southern 
Hemisphere  wool  is  now  subject  to  the  British 
Wool  Control.  Reasonable  quantities  from  these 
sources  were  released  to  fill  United  States  orders 
during  the  year.  In  addition,  an  agreement  between 
the  British  and  United  States  Governments,  con- 
summated Dec.  9,  1940,  provided  for  the  storage- 
in-bond  of  250  million  Ib.  of  British-owned,  Aus- 
tralian wool  in  the  United  States,  to  be  used  by 
this  country  whenever  the  U.S.  Government  de- 
cides that  an  emergency  wool  shortage  exists. 
Heavier-than-nprmal  exports  of  new  wool  moved 
out  of  Argentina  and  Uruguay  during  the  last 
quarter  of  1940,  87  per  cent  went  to  the  United 
States.  In  contrast,  only  49  per  cent  of  the  1939- 


WORKMEN'S  COMPENSATION        810 


WORK  PROJECTS  (WPA) 


40  wool  exports  and  18  per  cent  of  the  1938-39 
exports  from  Argentina,  and  even  smaller  per- 
centages from  Uruguay,  came  to  this  country.  See 
CUSTOMS,  BUREAU  OF;  FEDERAL  TRADE  COMMIS- 
SION ;  GARMENT  INDUSTRY  ;  TEXTILES. 

E.  C.  ELTING. 

WORKMEN'S  COMPENSATION.  See 
LABOR  LEGISLATION;  ARKANSAS  under  History; 
INSURANCE  under  Casualty  Insurance. 

WORK  PROJECTS  ADMINISTRA- 
TION (WPA).  That  part  of  the  Federal  Works 
Agency  which  conducts  a  program  of  useful  pub- 
lic work,  in  co-operation  with  State  and  local  gov- 
ernments, in  order  to  provide  work  and  wages  for 
the  needy  able-bodied  unemployed. 

The  outstanding  development  in  the  WPA  pro- 
gram during  1940  was  the  provision  made  for  more 
extensive  use  of  its  organization  and  personnel  in 
strengthening  the  defenses  of  the  nation.  Legisla- 
tion passed  by  Congress  facilitated  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  WPA  m  the  defense  program  and  at 
the  same  time  provided  for  continuance  of  its  op- 
eration of  the  principal  program  supplying  jobs 
for  the  unemployed. 

The  number  of  unemployed  people  in  the  United 
States,  after  jumping  from  9,200,000  in  Decem- 
ber, 1939,  to  a  peak  of  10,700,000  in  January,  1940 
(estimate  of  American  Federation  of  Labor), 
dropped  gradually  during  the  rest  of  the  year  un- 
der the  influence  of  improving  business  conditions. 
Following  the  same  trend,  WPA  employment  rose 
from  an  average  of  2,100,000  in  December,  1939, 
to  2,300,000  in  February  and  March,  1940,  and  then 
followed  unemployment  downward.  By  the  end  of 
the  year,  unemployment  had  dropped  to  7,900,000 
and  WPA  employment  totaled  1,900,000.  WPA 
employment  includes  a  relatively  small  number  of 
workers,  averaging  65,000  throughout  the  year,  em- 
ployed on  WPA  projects  operated  by  other  Fed- 
eral agencies  with  funds  allocated  to  them  by  the 
WPA 

During  the  year,  the  WPA  spent  $1,388,293,000 
of  Federal  funds — of  which  3.7  per  cent  was  de- 
voted to  administrative  costs  and  96.3  per  cent  to 
project  work.  Of  the  $1,337,471,000  devoted  to 
project  work,  92  per  cent  was  paid  out  in  wages 
to  workers.  These  project  funds  were  supplement- 
ed by  project  sponsors'  funds  aggregating  $532,- 
207,000,  most  of  which  was  used  for  other  than 
labor  costs — for  materials,  equipment,  etc.  The 
sponsors'  share  of  the  total  cost  of  WPA  project 
work  was  28.5  per  cent.  During  the  four  and  one- 
half  preceding  years  of  its  existence,  the  WPA 
had  spent  in  all  some  $7,385,073,000  of  Federal 
funds-— 4  per  cent  of  it  on  administration  and  96 
per  cent  on  project  work.  To  supplement  the  ap- 
proximately $7,073,893,000  of  WPA  project  funds, 
local  sponsors  had  contributed  some  $1,547,614,000, 
or  18  per  cent  of  the  total  amount  spent  on  project 
work.  In  addition,  other  Federal  agencies  spent  the 
following  amounts  of  WPA  funds  allocated  to 
them  for  the  operation  of  WPA  projects  under 
their  direct  supervision:  some  $51,795,000  in  1940, 
and  a  total  of  $154,060,000  since  July,  1938,  when 
the  policy  of  allocating  WPA  funds  to  other  agen- 
cies for  operation  of  projects  was  initiated. 

The  primary  function  of  the  WPA  during  1940, 
as  during  preceding  years,  was  to  provide  work 
and  wages  for  the  unemployed.  Experience  had 
shown  that  work  was  better  for  the  unemployed 
than  direct  relief,  because  it  preserved  their  skills 
and  morale ;  better  also  for  the  country  as  a  whole, 
because  it  built  up  public  facilities  and  provided 


many  needed  services  at  the  same  time  that  it  con- 
tributed to  recovery  by  increasing  purchasing 
power. 

Certain  characteristics  which  the  WPA  had  ac- 
quired in  the  course  of  its  development  remained 
essentially  unchanged  during  1940.  Its  projects 
were  adjusted  to  the  skills  of  the  people  whom  it 
employed,  and  were  carried  on  in  the  communities 
where  they  lived.  Its  projects  conformed  also  with 
the  needs  and  desires  of  the  communities  them- 
selves— this  being  assured  through  local  sponsor- 
ship of  the  projects.  (Some  projects,  however, 
were  sponsored  by  Federal  agencies,  such  as  the 
War  and  Navy  Departments.)  Local  relief  agen- 
cies certified  the  need  of  workers  for  WPA  em- 
ployment, while  actual  assignment  of  workers  to 
projects  was  left  to  the  WPA.  About  96  per  cent 
of  those  employed  were  taken  from  local  relief 
rolls.  Wages  varied  with  the  section  of  the  coun- 
try and  with  the  size  of  the  community  in  which 
the  worker  lived  as  well  as  with  his  skill ;  the  av- 
erage monthly  wage  being  about  $56. 

The  kinds  of  work  undertaken  during  1940  were 
much  the  same  as  in  previous  years,  except  for  the 
greater  emphasis  on  activities  that  fit  into  the  na- 
tional defense  plans.  About  three-fourths  of  the 
WPA  program  (on  the  basis  of  employment  as 
well  as  of  expenditures)  was  devoted  during  1940, 
as  during  preceding  years,  to  construction  work. 
More  than  two-fifths  of  all  WPA  workers  were 
on  road  projects — a  slightly  larger  proportion  than 
in  earlier  years.  (While  most  of  this  work  was  on 
farm-to-market  roads,  an  increasing  share  was 
done  on  strategic  highways  and  on  roads  giving 
access  to  airports,  military  reservations,  and  train- 
ing centers.)  About  a  tenth  each  were  employed 
on  public  buildings  and  public  utilities ;  parks,  white- 
collar  work,  and  sewing  projects  also  provided 
jobs  for  large  numbers  of  workers. 

No  statistics  showing  physical  accomplishments 
during  1940  are  yet  available,  but  the  amount  of 
work  done  was  proportional  to  that  accomplished 
during  the  first  five  years  of  WPA  operation.  Some 
idea  of  the  extent  and  diversity  of  the  program 
may  also  be  derived  from  the  following  statistics 
for  projects  completed  during  the  five-year  period 
that  ended  on  June  30,  1940. 

More  than  517,000  miles  of  roads,  mostly  in  rural 
areas,  and  more  than  104,000  bridges  were  built 
or  improved.  More  than  96,000  public  buildings 
were  newly  built,  remodeled,  renovated,  or  erected 
as  additions  to  existing  structures.  Over  14,000 
miles  of  water  lines  and  over  21,000  miles  of  sewer 
lines  were  newly  laid  or  reconditioned.  Over  7200 
parks,  over  4800  athletic  fields,  over  11,000  play- 
grounds, and  about  600  landing  fields  for  aircraft 
were  built  or  improved. 

The  amount  of  non-construction  work  done  was 
also  considerable.  By  Sept  30, 1940,  some  369,000,- 
000  garments  and  household  articles  had  been  made 
in  WPA  sewing  rooms  for  distribution  among 
needy  families,  and  504,600,000  lunches  had  been 
served  to  undernourished  school  children.  Millions 
of  needy  adults  and  children  had  received  aid  from 
WPA  medical  clinics  and  nursing  service.  Some 
1,000,000  people  were  enrolled  in  100,000  WPA 
educational  classes  About  116,000  drawings,  paint- 
ings, murals,  and  sculptured  works  had  been  pro- 
duced by  art  workers ;  music  performances  (num- 
bering about  4700  in  June,  1940)  had  attracted 
monthly  attendance  of  around  4,000,000 ;  and  writ- 
ers, chiefly  occupied  in  producing  a  series  of  guide- 
books, had  completed  nearly  700  books  and  pam- 
phlets* 


tWORK  PROJECTS  (WPA) 

Much  of  the  work  done  was  related  to  national 
defense.  Besides  the  airports,  about  11,500  of  the 
buildings  built  or  improved  by  the  end  of  June 
serve  a  defense  purpose,  as  do  also  1500  other 
buildings  on  which  work  was  completed  some  time 
during  the  three  months  from  July  through  Sep- 
tember, 1940.  Among  the  total  of  13,000  buildings 
were  nearly  5000  new  or  remodeled  barracks  and 
officers'  quarters,  some  900  mess  halls  and  kitchens, 
about  600  armories  (chiefly  for  the  National  Guard) , 
about  2000  storage  buildings,  and  many  hospitals, 
infirmaries,  garages,  and  buildings  of  other  types. 
WPA  defense  wdrk  has  also  included  many  other 
improvements  at  military  and  naval  reservations, 
such  as  the  installation  of  sewers,  water  mains,  and 
telephone,  telegraph  and  electric  power  lines,  road 
building,  construction  of  gun  ranges  and  maneuver 
grounds,  and  other  activities,  some  of  which  were 
conducted  on  a  camp-wide  basis. 

Concentration  on  defense  work  during  the  latter 
half  of  1940  was  encouraged  by  legislative  provi- 
sions which  made  it  possible  to  exempt  certified 
defense  projects  (i.e.  projects  certified  by  the  Sec- 
retary of  War  or  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  as 
important  for  military  or  naval  purposes)  from 
many  of  the  restrictions  that  usually  apply  to  WPA 
projects.  For  example,  certified  defense  projects 
may  be  exempted  from  the  limitation  on  WPA 
expenditures  for  non-labor  purposes  to  a  State  av- 
erage of  $6  per  man  per  month,  and  the  WPA 
may  spend  as  much  as  $25,000,000  to  supplement 
its  usual  non-labor  expenditures  Certified  defense 
projects  may  also  be  exempted  from  the  require- 
ment that  Federal  expenditures  for  any  public 
building  in  the  construction  of  which  the  WPA 
participates  must  not  exceed  $100,000,  as  well  as 
from  the  requirement  that  sponsors  must  pay  25 
per  cent  of  the  total  cost  of  projects  approved  aft- 
er Jan.  1,  1940,  in  any  State.  Finally,  they  may  be 
exempted  from  the  usual  regulations  concerning 
hours  of  work  and  wages  of  workers. 

In  addition,  the  WPA  was  authorized  to  under- 
take projects  for  the  training  of  workers  for  nurs- 
ing and  for  manual  occupations  in  industries  en- 
gaged in  production  for  national  defense  purposes. 
A  nation-wide  vocational  training  project,  spon- 
sored by  the  Advisory  Commission  to  the  Council 
of  National  Defense  and  co-sponsored  by  the  United 
States  Office  of  Education,  was  initiated  in  July, 
and  by  the  end  of  the  year  had  enrolled  a  cumula- 
tive total  of  58,000  WPA  workers. 

Recent  legislation  differs  slightly  in  some  other 
respects  from  the  previous  act  governing  the  op- 
eration of  the  WPA  program.  The  Emergency 
Relief  Appropriation  Act  for  fiscal  1940-41  raised 
to  $100,000  the  limitation  on  the  amount  of  Fed- 
eral funds  that  may  be  used  for  any  public  build- 
ing in  the  construction  of  which  the  WPA  par- 
ticipates. (The  previous  act  restricted  expenditures 
to  $50,000  and  $52,000,  respectively,  for  Federal 
and  non -Federal  buildings.)  The  recent  act  ex- 
tended to  wives  of  unemployable  veterans  and  to 
veterans'  widows  who  had  not  subsequently  re- 
married, two  provisions  that  previously  applied 
only  to  veterans — preference  in  project  employment 
and  exemption  from  the  requirement  that  all  re- 
lief workers  who  have  been  continuously  employed 
on  WPA  projects  for  18  months  must  be  dismissed. 
It  also  extended  the  previous  act's  prohibition  of 
the  employment  of  aliens  to  apply  to  members  of 
any  Nazi  bund  organization,  to  Communists,  and 
to  any  persons  who  advocate,  or  belong  to  an  or- 
ganization which  advocates,  the  overthrow  of  the 
United  States  Government.  See  COMMUNISM; 


811  WYOMING 

Music;  RELIEF;  UNITED  STATES  under  Investiga- 
tions. 

HOWARD  O.  HUNTER. 

WORLD  COURT.  The  functioning  of  the 
Permanent  Court  of  International  Justice  was  in- 
terrupted by  the  German  occupation  of  The  Hague, 
seat  of  the  Court.  A  session  was  held  from  Feb- 
ruary 19  to  26,  but  a  further  session  scheduled  for 
May  was  adjourned  because  of  the  intervening  oc- 
cupation. The  officials  of  the  Court  remained  at 
The  Hague  till  July  16,  when  the  occupying  au- 
thorities cancelled  their  diplomatic  status  and  they 
sought  hospitality  in  Switzerland,  ready  to  func- 
tion when  called. 

The  Court's  membership  remained  unchanged, 
except  for  the  death  of  Count  Rostworoski  in  Po- 
land on  March  24.  No  step  was  taken  in  regard  to 
the  general  election  of  judges  postponed  in  1939, 
the  present  judges  continuing  as  provided  in  the 
Statute,  with  Mr.  Guerrero  of  Salvador  as  Presi- 
dent, Sir  Cecil  J.  B  Hurst  of  Great  Britain  as 
Vice-President,  Mr.  Lopez  Olivan  of  Spain  as 
Registrar,  and  Mr.  Manley  O.  Hudson  as  the  judge 
of  American  nationality. 

The  Court's  jurisdiction  was  somewhat  modified 
in  1940.  Greece  ratified  and  Thailand  renewed  for 
ten  years  its  acceptance  of  the  Court's  compulsory 
jurisdiction,  while  Great  Britain  on  February  28, 
paralleled  shortly  by  India,  New  Zealand,  South 
Africa,  and  Australia,  made  a  new  declaration  ac- 
cepting that  jurisdiction  for  five  years,  except  for 
disputes  arising  during  hostilities. 

ARTHUR  SWEETSER. 

WORLD  SERIES.  See  BASEBALL. 

WPA.  See  WORKS  PROJECTS  ADMINISTRATION. 

WtJRTTEMBERG.  See  GERMANY  under 
Area  and  Population. 

WYOMING.  Area,  97,914  square  miles;  in- 
cludes water,  366  square  miles.  Population  (U.S. 
Census),  April,  1940,  250,742;  1930,  225,565.  Chey- 
enne, the  capitah  (1940)  22,474.  All  the  State's 
gain  (1930-40)  in  population,  except  an  increase 
of  1697  in  the  rural  group,  occurred  in  the  urban 
population — dwellers  in  places  of  2500  or  more; 
the  urban  population,  by  a  rise  of  23,480,  attained 
93,577,  or  37.3  per  cent  of  all  the  inhabitants. 

Agriculture.  Wyoming  harvested,  in  1940,  about 
1,868,000  acres  of  the  principal  crops  Tame  hay, 
on  746,000  acres,  bore  927,000  tons  ($7,416,000  in 
estimated  value  to  the  farmer)  ;  sugar  beets,  47,000 
acres,  made  634,000  tons  (the  smaller  crop  of  the 
previous  year,  1939,  was  estimated  at  $2,533,000) ; 
wheat,  300,000  acres,  3,410,000  bu.  (estimated  at 
$2,012,000)  ;  dry  beans,  55,000  acres,  605,000  100- 
Ib.  bags  ($1,237,000) ;  potatoes,  20,000  acres, 
2,400,000  bu.  ($1,416,000)  ;  corn,  193,000  acres, 
1,930,000  bu.  ($1,235,000)  ;  oats,  110,000  acres, 
2,915,000  bu.  ($1,049,000)  ;  barley,  75,000  acres, 
1,838,000  bu.  ($882,000). 

Mineral  Production.  Wyoming  produced  $37,- 
364,363,  in  value,  of  its  native  minerals  in  1938; 
the  chief  components,  petroleum,  coal,  and  natural 
gas,  furnished  within  $5,000,000  of  the  whole. 
From  19,022,000  bbl ,  value  $18,000,000  (1938), 
the  yearly  yield  of  petroleum  increased  to  21,417,- 
000  for  1939  and  to  25,683,000  for  12  months  of 
1940.  The  addition  to  yield  in  1939  resulted  mainly 
from  success  in  deeper  drilling  and  lateral  exten- 
sion in  the  Lance  Creek  field,  which  displaced  the 
20-year-old  Salt  Creek  field  as  the  chief  producer. 
Natural  gas  delivered  to  consumers  attained,  for 
1938,  26,678  million  ctt  ft.,  in  value  at  points  of 


X-RAYS 


812 


YOUTH  MOVEMENT 


consumption,  $4,853,000.  The  gasoline  extracted 
from  natural  gas  in  1938  totaled  30,024,000  gal. 
(value,  $1,634,000).  The  coal  mines1  output,  5,203,- 
877  net  tons,  $9,851,000  in  value,  for  1938,  totaled 
5,383,000  tons  (1939)  and  5,748,000  tons  (1940). 

Education.  For  the  academic  year  1939-40, 
Wyoming's  inhabitants  of  school  age  (from  6 
years  to  21)  were  reckoned  at  72,283.  The  year's 
enrollments  of  pupils  in  public  schools  numbered 
56,220.  This  comprised  39,761  in  elementary  study, 
15,931  in  high  school,  and  528  otherwise  classified. 
The  year's  expenditure  for  public-school  education 
totaled  $6,025,333.  The  teachers  numbered  2720; 
the  average  yearly  pay,  according  to  teachers' 
groups,  ran  from  $1350  in  high  schools  to  $650  in 
the  rural  schools. 

History.  Strife  over  the  tendencies  and  merits 
of  some  of  the  teaching  staff  at  the  University  of 
Wyoming  brought  on  a  situation  somewhat  simi- 
lar to  that  in  Montana  (q.v.).  Governor  Smith  of 
Wyoming  called  upon  the  trustees  of  the  Univer- 
sity not  to  renew  the  contracts  of  eleven  of  its 
teaching  body.  One  of  the  number,  Dean  Arnold 
of  the  law  school,  was  a  brother  of  the  Federal 
Attorney  General ;  another,  Prof.  Arthur  Himbert 
of  the  Law  School,  had  served  as  special  assistant 
to  the  Federal  committee  investigating  monopolies. 
The  impression  went  out  that  some  at  least  of  the 
eleven  incurred  disapproval  by  reason  of  their  so- 
cial-political ideas  The  Episcopal  diocesan  Bishop, 
W.  H.  Zeigler,  took  the  part  of  the  eleven  in  a 
published  protest  (April  6)  accusing  the  Gover- 
nor, in  turn,  of  seeking  to  fill  the  University's  fac- 
ulty with  "political  tools."  The  trustees  renewed 
(April  8)  the  contracts  of  all  the  eleven. 

At  the  general  election  (November  5)  the  pop- 
ular vote  for  President  totaled  59,287  for  Roose- 
velt (Dem.)  and  52,633  for  Willkie  (Rep.).  U.S. 
Senator  Joseph  C.  O'Mahoney  (Dem.)  was  re- 
elected  by  65,022  votes,  defeating  Milward  Simp- 
son (Rep  ),  who  received  45,682.  No  election  of 
major  State  officers  fell  due.  See  COLORADO. 

Officers.  Wyoming's  chief  officers,  serving  in 
1940,  were-  Governor,  Nels  H.  Smith  (Rep.)  ; 
Secretary  of  State,  Lester  C  Hunt;  Treasurer, 
Mart  T.  Christensen;  Auditor,  William  Jack; 
Attorney  General,  Ewing  T  Kerr ;  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  Esther  L.  Anderson. 

X-RAYS.  See  CHEMISTRY;  CHEMISTRY,  IN- 
DUSTRIAL; ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES;  PHOTOGRA- 
PHY. 

YACHTING.  With  international  competition 
among  the  larger  craft  cancelled  because  of  war 
conditions,  American  yachting  during  1940  experi- 
enced a  comparatively  quiet  season.  Even  the 
much-advertised  Cruising  Club's  Bermuda  race  was 
called  off  because  of  a  more  important  contest  in- 
volving British  and  German  boats  in  those  envi- 
rons. A  455-mile  substitute  for  the  Bermuda  classic 
was  staged  off  Block  Island  and  in  adjacent  Mas- 
sachusetts and  Maine  waters.  The  winner  of  the 
event  was  Henry  C.  Taylor's  well-known  yawl 
Baruna,  champion  of  the  1938  Bermuda  pageant 
and  one  of  the  finest  ocean  yachts  afloat.  Through 
choppy  seas  and  heavy  fog  it  proved  itself  the 
leader  of  the  pack,  outdistancing  another  famous 
racing  craft,  James  Grove's  Blitsen. 

Another  distinguished  competition  of  the  year, 
the  King's  Cup  Race,  was  won  by  Harold  S.  Van- 
derbilt's  Vim,,  which  snatched  the  late  King  George 
V's  coveted  prize  away  from  F.  T.  Bedford's 
Nyala.  The  Vanderbilt  yacht  also  wrested  the 
cherished  Astor  Cup  from  Nyala  in  one  of  the 
most  spectacular  regattas  of  the  season. 


The  second  longest  race  in  1940  was  the  Stam- 
ford Yacht  Club's  232-mile  sail  around  Vineyard 
Lightship  and  return.  It  was  led  by  Rudolph  C. 
Lowenstein's  little  ketch  Soerabaja.  Frank  C. 
Paine's  sloop  Gypsy  took  first  honors  in  the  East- 
ern Club's  annual  frolic  from  New  London  to 
Marblehead.  Viking,  Kenneth  Millett's  miniature 
sloop,  appropriated  the  Myrick  Trophy  in  the 
New  Rocnelle  Club's  130-mile  waltz  around  Corn- 
field Lightship.  The  annual  dash  of  yachts  across 
the  Gulf  Stream  from  Miami  to  Nassau  was  won 
by  William  H.  Labrot's  yawl  Stormy  Weather, 
for  the  fourth  consecutive  year!  The  llth  annual 
St.  Petersburg-Havana  race  was  captured  by  Rob- 
ert W.  Johnson's  yawl  Good  News,  a  newcomer 
to  the  pastime.  In  Star  Class  racing,  the  world 
championship  was  taken  from  Germany  by  James 
and  Gordon  Cowie  of  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  with 
their  vessel  Rambunctious  II  in  maneuvers  off 
San  Diego,  Calif. 

YANAON.  See  FRENCH  INDIA. 

YAP  ISLAND.  See  JAPANESE  PACIFIC  IS- 
LANDS. 

YEMEN.  See  under  ARABIA. 

YOUTH  MOVEMENT.  While  there  is  no 
militant  and  regimented  nationwide  youth  move- 
ment in  the  United  States,  there  is  a  growing 
nexus  of  thought  compounded  of  eagerness  on  the 
part  of  young  people  to  foster  and  defend  democ- 
racy, good  will  toward  youth  on  the  part  of  the 
adult  population,  and  a  pervasive  recognition  that 
the  nation's  human  resources  can  be  conserved  and 
strengthened  by  continued  improvement  in  the  fa- 
cilities for  the  education,  employment,  health,  rec- 
reation, and  general  welfare  of  children  and  youth. 

Progress  during  the  year  1940  may  be  noted  by 
observing  advances  in  the  programs  of  govern- 
mental agencies  concerned  with  youth,  and  devel- 
opments among  the  principal  non-governmental 
youth-serving  organizations.  The  principal  agen- 
cies of  the  national  government  dealing  directly 
with  youth  are  the  Civilian  Conservation  Corps 
(qv.),  and  the  National  Youth  Administration 
(q.v.).  Among  other  national  governmental  agen- 
cies concerned  in  part  with  various  aspects  of  the 
care  and  education  of  youth  are  :  Education,  U.S. 
Office  of  (q.v.),  Public  Health  Service  (q.v.), 
Children's  Bureau,  U.S.  (q.v.),  and  the  Employ- 
ment Service  Division  of  the  Bureau  of  Employ- 
ment Security  in  the  Social  Security  Board.  The 
Extension  Service  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture works  in  co-operation  with  State  and  local 
agencies,  and  conducts  varied  activities  affecting 
many  rural  young  people 

After  the  course  of  international  events  led  to 
the  inauguration  of  the  comprehensive  national  de- 
fense program  in  the  summer  of  1940,  the  Congress 
appropriated  an  aggregate  of  about  $75,000,000  for 
the  speedy  training  of  technicians  and  other  work- 
ers for  defense  industries  With  the  stimulation  and 
guidance  of  the  U.S.  Office  of  Education,  summer 
courses  of  technical  training  were  immediately  in- 
stituted in  many  local  public  school  systems,  and 
with  the  coming  of  the  academic  year  1940-41  this 
program  was  continued  and  expanded.  The  prob- 
lem of  co-ordinating  all  current  efforts  to  train  the 
skilled  workers  whom  it  is  anticipated  will  be 
needed  in  the  national  defense  program  is  the  re- 
sponsibility of  the  Division  of  Labor  Supply,  un- 
der the  Labor  Commissioner  in  the  7-member  Na- 
tional Advisory  Commission  to  the  Council  of 
National  Defense. 

The  national  policy  of  compulsory  military  train- 
ing under  a  system  of  selective  service  was  adopted 


YOUTH  MOVEMENT 


813 


YUGOSLAVIA 


in  the  late  summer  of  1940,  and  subsequently  Oc- 
tober 16  was  designated  as  the  day  on  which  16,- 
500,000  men  aged  21  to  35  were  registered  for  pos- 
sible military  service.  It  is  expected  that  by  July 
1(  1941,  800,000  young  men  will  have  been  selected 
by  local  draft  boards  and  placed  in  military  train- 
ing camps  for  a  period  of  one  year.  The  program 
of  peace-time  military  training  will  not  only  con- 
tribute to  immediate  military  preparedness,  but 
will  also  add  much  to  the  physical  stamina  and 
general  efficiency  of  many  of  the  nation's  young 
men.  It  may  well  be,  in  the  words  of  Dr.  Clarence 
A.  Dykstra,  Director  of  Selective  Service,  that  the 
experience  will  "not  take  a  year  out  of  a  young 
man's  life,  but  put  a  year  into  his  life."  The  young 
men  of  the  nation  have,  with  the  rarest  exceptions, 
responded  with  good  will  and  enthusiasm  to  the 
unprecedented  policy  of  peace-time  compulsory 
military  service. 

Among  the  larger  non-governmental  associa- 
tions touching  the  lives  of  many  young  people  are 
the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations,  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Associations,  the  4-H  Clubs 
for  rural  boys  and  girls,  the  Boy  Scouts  of  Amer- 
ica, the  Girl  Scouts,  and  the  Camp  Fire  Girls. 
There  are  many  other  active  youth-membership 
organizations.  A  recent  survey,  published  in  book 
form  by  the  American  Youth  Commission  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1941,  identified  a  total  of  80  such  national 
associations,  as  well  as  250  national  voluntary  so- 
cieties of  adults,  a  substantial  part  of  whose  activi- 
ties are  devoted  to  the  welfare  of  youth.  Among 
these  a  place  of  importance  is  held  by  the  religious 
societies  for  young  people.  See  SOCIETIES  AND  AS- 
SOCIATIONS 

A  conspicuous  effort  to  mpbili/e  the  opinion  of 
American  youth  is  the  American  Youth  Congress, 
in  existence  since  1934.  It  is  composed  of  delegates 
from  a  large  variety  of  loosely  affiliated  national 
and  local  societies  of  young  people,  and  in  1940 
claimed  an  aggregate  underlying  membership  of 
4,697,915.  It  held  a  "National  Youth  Citizenship 
Institute"  in  Washington,  DC,  February  9-12, 
which  received  widespread  notice  in  the  press  Its 
sixth  annual  meeting  at  Williams  Bay,  Wisconsin, 
July  3-7  was  marked  by  a  factional  dispute  which 
took  the  form  of  refusal  to  seat  a  small  group  of 
dissenters  who  allegedly  lacked  proper  credentials 
as  delegates,  whereupon  this  group  withdrew  and 
formed  a  rival  agency  known  as  the  National 
Foundation  for  American  Youth,  under  the  spon- 
sorship of  Gene  Tunney,  former  heavyweight  box- 
ing champion.  An  earlier  schism  had  occurred  in 
1939,  when  a  group  representing  a  small  number 
of  Socialist,  labor,  and  Jewish  organizations,  prin- 
cipally in  New  York  City,  instituted  the  agency 
known  as  the  Campaign  for  Youth  Needs 

A  non-governmental  agency  engaged  in  large- 
scale  research  regarding  the  welfare  of  youth  is 
the  American  Youth  Commission,  a  body  of  fifteen 
nationally  prominent  persons  set  up  in  1935  by  the 
American  Council  on  Education,  and  originally 
financed  for  a  five-year  period  by  the  General  Ed- 
ucation Board.  This  period  was  subsequently  ex- 
tended to  July  1,  1941.  Newton  D  Baker  was 
chairman  of  the  Commission  until  his  death  in 
1937;  and  it  is  now  headed  by  Owen  D.  Young. 
During  1940  the  Commission  continued  its  pro- 
gram of  research  and  publication,  issuing  a  notable 
series  of  five  books  reporting  a  comprehensive 
study  of  Negro  youth  in  several  selected  localities. 
It  also  published  during  the  year  the  report  of  a 
co-operative  project  with  the  U.S.  Employment 
Service  in  which  the  co-ordination  of  local  agen- 


cies for  the  guidance  and  placement  of  youth  was 
promoted  in  several  localities,  entitled  Matching 
Youth  and  Jobs;  and  the  fruits  of  several  years' 
study  of  the  situation  and  prospects  of  young  peo- 
ple in  rural  America,  entitled  Guideposts  for  Rural 
Youth.  A  pamphlet  entitled  The  Community  and 
Its  Young  People  was  also  issued. 

The  comprehensive  investigation  of  the  Civilian 
Conservation  Corps  for  the  American  Youth  Com- 
mission was  continued  and  broadened  to  embrace 
a  study  of  the  National  Youth  Administration  res- 
ident centers.  New  projects  of  the  Commission  in- 
clude one  in  which  stimulation  and  in  some  cases 
limited  financial  aid  will  be  given  to  meritorious 
local  efforts  in  behalf  of  rural  youth  in  several 
selected  communities  in  four  States.  During  the 
year  the  Commission  held  three  deliberative  meet- 
ings and  adopted  concise  recommendations  which 
were  issued  and  widely  distributed  in  the  form  of 
leaflets  entitled  respectively  Occupational  Adjust- 
ment for  Youth,  Community  Responsibility  for 
Youth,  Shall  Youth  Organise?,  Youth,  Defense, 
and  the  National  Welfare,  and  The  Civilian  Con- 
servation Corps.  These  recommendations  have  been 
the  subject  of  very  widespread  discussion  in  the 
press  and  forum  throughout  the  nation,  and  have 
already  considerably  influenced  national  and  local 
action  in  behalf  of  youth.  The  Commission  con- 
ceives of  the  national  defense  as  requiring  not  only 
industrial  and  military  expansion,  but  also  the 
strengthening  of  the  nation's  human  resources  by 
continued  advances,  nationally  and  locally,  in  pro- 
vision for  suitable  education,  health  service,  em- 
ployment, and  recreation  for  youth.  Its  principal 
office  is  at  744  Jackson  Place,  Washington,  D.C. 

See  COMMUNISM;  JUVENILE  DELINQUENCY; 
PRISONS,  PAROLE,  AND  CRIME. 

M.  M.  CHAMBERS. 

YUGOSLAVIA.  A  kingdom  in  the  Balkan 
region  of  Europe.  Capital,  Belgrade  (Beograd). 
King,  Peter  II,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the 
assassination  of  Alexander  I,  Oct.  9,  1934. 

Area  and  Population.  Yugoslavia  occupies  an 
area  of  95,576  square  miles.  Its  population,  by  es- 
timate of  December,  1939,  numbered  15,703,000; 
by  the  census  of  1931,  13,934,038  About  80  per 
cent  of  the  people  are  rural.  Births  in  1938,  411,- 
362;  deaths,  240,302.  Marriages  in  1937,  117,646. 
Chief  cities'  population  (1931)  :  Belgrade  (Beo- 
grad), 241,542;  Zagreb  (Agram),  185,581;  Subo- 
tica,  100,058;  Sarajevo,  78,182;  Skoplje,  64,807; 
Novi  Sad,  63,966;  Ljubljana,  59,768.  Included  in 
data  above,  the  autonomous  Banovina  of  Croatia 
occupies  25,634  square  miles  and  has  4,403,199  in- 
habitants (Croatians,  3,325,830). 

National  Defense.  Military  service  is  compul- 
sory. The  army  were  said  to  number,  on  Nov.  1, 
1939,  500,000  in  active  service  and  1,340,000  trained 
reserves.  The  strength  of  the  air  force  was  stated 
as  6500  men  and  800  aircraft  The  navy  included 
1  flotilla-leader,  3  destroyers,  4  submarines.  6  tor- 
pedo boats,  8  motor  torpedo  boats,  and  35  auxil- 
iary vessels ;  naval  personnel,  583  officers  and  8041 
men.  Occurrences  in  1940  caused  precautionary  ad- 
dition to  the  active  army. 

Education  and  Religion.  Attendance  at  school 
is  compulsory  for  those  of  appropriate  age ;  free, 
in  schools  under  the  Ministry  of  Education.  Pupils 
attending  in  the  academic  year  1938-^39  numbered 
1,474,224  in  elementary;  177,034  in  secondary 
schools;  students  in  universities,  16,969.  By  the 
census  of  1931,  48.7  of  the  population  belonged  to 
the  Serbian  Orthodox  Church ;  37.45  to  the  Roman 


YUGOSLAVIA 


814 


YUGOSLAVIA 


Catholic  Church;  Moslems,  112  per  cent;  Prot- 
estants, 1.66;  Jews,  0.49  per  cent;  Greek  Catholics, 
0.32. 

Production.  Agriculture  supports  about  85  per 
cent  of  the  inhabitants.  The  crops  of  1940  fell 
generally  short  of  those  of  1939,  but  among  the 
cereals  corn  (maize)  considerably  exceeded  1939's 
production  of  4.045,600  metric  tons.  The  crop  of 
wheat  totaled  1,980,000  tons  (1940),  as  against 
2,875,600  (1939) ;  rye,  made  an  estimated  200,000 
tons  (1940),  much  below  the  243,514  of  1939;  for 
barley  the  estimate  was  200,000  tons,  as  against 
424,223  (1939) ;  the  crops  of  fruit  were  similarly 
deficient,  the  important  yield  of  plums  apparently 
scarcely  over  one-fifth  of  that  for  1939.  Other  im- 
portant crops,  not  definitely  reported  for  1940: 
potatoes  in  1938,  17,016,000  metric  tons;  beet  sug- 
ar, 1939,  108,000  metric  tons ;  tobacco,  1939,  15,400 
metric  tons ;  hemp,  1939,  53,500  tons.  The  farms 
had  the  following  livestock  in  1938 :  cattle,  4,267,- 
000;  swine.  3,451,000;  sheep,  10,137,000;  goats, 
1,890,000;  tuffaloes,  38,000;  poultry,  22,763,000; 
horses,  mules,  and  asses,  1,407,000. 

Mines  produced  in  1939  ore  containing  41,700 
metric  tons  of  copper;  the  output  of  bauxite 
(source  of  aluminum)  totaled  314,400  tons;  that 
of  coal,  446,000  tons,  was  supplemented  by  a  heavy 
output  of  lignite,  5,622,000  tons,  and  of  brown 
coal,  1,262,533  tons,  for  1938.  In  1939  was  mined 
ore  containing  26,000  tons  of  chromite.  The  min- 
erals produced  in  1938  had  an  aggregate  value  of 
2,230,688,000  dinars,  or  approximately  $50,000,000 
in  U.S.  money.  Manufacturing  industries,  which 
employed  about  400,000  persons  in  1938,  had  to  do 
mostly  with  the  products  of  agriculture;  but 
textile  production  was  on  the  increase  and  iron 
was  made  from  native  ore 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  in  1940  went  increas- 
ingly to  Germany  and  Italy  and  to  some  of  the 
central  European  countries  not  engaged  in  the  Eu- 
ropean War  but  cut  off  by  it  from  distant  sources 
of  supply.  For  1939  (calendar  year),  imports  to- 
taled 4,757,383,000  dinars  (for  1938,  4,975,342,- 
000) ;  exports,  5,521,187,000  (1938.  5,047,433,000), 
Germany  took  1,762,003  thousand  dinars  of  the 
exports  of  1939  and  sent  2,268,198  of  the  imports; 
Italy  took  583,516  of  exports  and  sent  556,953  of 
the  imports;  Bohemia-Moravia  took  769,203  and 
sent  308,809;  the  United  States  took  280,736  and 
sent  248,012  (all  figures  in  thousands).  The  princi- 
pal exports  of  1939  were  timber  (853,102,000  di- 
nars), swine  (484,161,000),  copper  ore  (441,428,- 
000},  and  wheat  (375,101,000). 

Finance.  The  dinar,  Yugoslavian  unit  of  mon- 
ey, was  commonly  valued  in  the  United  States, 
during  1940,  around  $0.0227.  The  Yugoslavian  fis- 
cal year  ends  with  March  31.  The  expenditures  of 
the  fiscal  year  1940-41  were  limited  by  decree  to 
the  monthly  rate  of  the  year  before ;  but  the  need 
of  meeting  defensive  emergency  nevertheless  caused 
the  issue  of  a  constitutional  decree  raising  the 
year's  total  permitted  expenditure  to  14,708.2  mil- 
lion dinars,  as  against  the  12,327.9  millions  spent 
in  1939-40  (adjusted  for  credits  transferred  to  the 
Croatian  Banovina  upon  the  latter's  receiving  fi- 
nancial autonomy).  The  actual  budget  of  1939-40 
set  the  government's  receipts  at  12./86  million  di- 
nars and  its  expenditures  at  11,920  millions.  The 
national  debt  on  Mar.  31,  1939,  totaled  12,620  mil- 
lion dinars  interior  and  12,000  millions  exterior; 
these  sums  did  not  include  any  liability  of  Yugo- 
slavia for  parts  of  the  old  Ottoman  and  Austro- 
Hungarian  debts. 
Transportation.  There  were  6436  miles  of  rail- 


road line  in  1938;  of  this,  5862  miles  operated  by 
the  State.  Passengers  on  the  State  lines  numbered 
54,327,793  for  1938;  the  freight  hauled  totaled  20,- 
759,000  metric  tons  for  1938  and  20,938,000  for 
1939.  These  lines'  operating  revenue  for  1937  was 
2,211,782,163  dinars;  operating  expense,  1,659,484,- 
104.  The  Yugoslav  Air  Transportation  Co.  flew, 
in  1939.  386.856  miles,  carrying  12,687  passengers, 
23,372  Ib.  of  mail,  and  60,639  Ib.  of  other  matter; 
flights  numbered  2776. 

Government.  Under  the  constitution  of  1931, 
Yugoslavia  is  a  constitutional  monarchy.  It  is  sub- 
divided into  banovinas  (banovine)  having  in  gen- 
eral the  character  of  administrative  provinces.  But 
by  decree  of  Aug.  26,  1939,  an  enlarged  Banovina 
of  Croatia  (Banovina  Hrvatska)  acquired  a  great 
measure  of  home  rule,  notably  over  finances,  pub- 
lic education,  and  social  and  economic  functions. 
The  Yugoslavian  legislative  power  rests  in  the 
Crown  and  the  Parliament;  the  executive  power 
in  the  Crown.  The  Crown  acts  through  a  ministry, 
which  is  not  responsible  to  the  Parliament.  There 
are  two  legislative  houses :  the  Senate,  of  94  mem- 
bers, half  of  them  elected  and  half  appointed  by 
the  Crown ;  and  the  Lower  Chamber  (Skupshtina), 
elective,  of  371  members,  but  temporarily  in  abey- 
ance, haying  been  dissolved  on  Aug.  26, 1939.  King 
Peter  being  still  a  minor  in  1940,  his  powers  were 
exercised  by  a  Regency  headed  by  Prince  Paul, 
cousin  of  the  late  King  Alexander. 

HISTORY 

Drift  toward  War.  Yugoslavia  during  1940 
was  drawn  steadily  nearer  to  the  vortex  of  the 
European  War.  The  Chief  Regent,  Prince  Paul, 
who  was  actual  ruler  of  the  kingdom ;  the  govern- 
ment, and  the  mass  of  the  population  were  strong- 
ly pro-Ally  or  pro-Soviet  and  just  as  strongly 
anti-German  and  anti-Italian.  But  the  country  was 
boxed  between  the  powerful  armies  of  Germany 
and  Italy,  while  Hungary  and  Bulgaria  both 
sought  the  return  of  territories  lost  to  Yugoslavia 
in  the  Balkan  and  World  wars.  Yugoslav  cities 
were  exposed  to  easy  Italo-German  air  attack. 
Moreover  dissensions  between  the  Serbs,  Croats, 
and  Slovenes  still  divided  the  kingdom,  despite 
the  distinctly  better  atmosphere  created  by  the 
partial  autonomy  extended  to  Croatia  and  Slo- 
venia under  the  accord  of  Aug.  24,  1939  (see  YEAR 
BOOK,  1939,  p.  815).  There  was  religious  dissen- 
sion between  the  Serbian  Orthodox  and  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  faiths.  Minority  groups  of  Germans, 
Hungarians,  and  Bulgarians,  aided  and  directed 
from  Berlin,  Budapest,  and  Sofia,  provided  fur- 
ther elements  of  internal  disunity  and  dissension. 

These  circumstances  forced  the  Belgrade  Gov- 
ernment to  follow  a  policv  of  strict  neutrality  as 
long  as  that  proved  feasible.  But  with  the  collapse 
of  France,  the  entrance  of  Italy  into  the  war,  the 
adhesion  of  Hungary  and  Rumania  to  the  Axis's 
"new  order"  in  Europe,  and  Bulgaria's  tacit  ca- 
pitulation to  German  pressure,  Yugoslavia  became 
even  more  isolated  and  its  external  and  internal 
problems  more  menacing. 

The  government  repeatedly  reaffirmed  its  deter- 
mination to  fight  any  infringement  upon  Yugo- 
slavia's independence  and  territorial  integrity.  It 
reaffirmed  its  neutrality  when  Italy  entered  the 
European  War,  and  again  when  Mussolini  launched 
his  attack  upon  Greece.  But  the  growing  diplomat- 
ic, economic,  and  military  pressure  from  Germany, 
Italy,  and  their  satellite  States  drew  the  kingdom 
gradually  into  closer  collaboration  with  the  Axis. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  year  Prince  Paul  ap- 


YUGOSLAVIA 


815 


YUGOSLAVIA 


peared  resigned  to  the  necessity  of  some  form  of 
more  active  co-operation  with  Berlin.  In  this  he 
was  supported  by  the  principal  figures  in  the  cabi- 
net— Prime  Minister  Dragisha  Cvetkovtch,  Vice 
Premier  Vladimir  Matchek  (leader  of  the  Croat 
Peasant  party),  and  Foreign  Minister  Alexander 
Cincar-Markovich.  The  Serb  military  leaders  and 
the  bulk  of  the  Serb  population  vigorously  opposed 
this  policy.  They  preferred  war  against  any  odds 
to  acceptance  of  a  subordinate  role  in  the  Axis'* 
"new  order/1  which  they  believed  meant  eventual 
servitude  and  disruption  of  their  State.  Thus  at 
the  end  of  1940  the  stage  was  set  for  a  break  be- 
tween the  Chief  Regent  and  the  government  on 
the  one  hand  and  the  army  and  people  on  the  other 
over  the  crucial  issue  of  acceptance  of  Adolf  Hit- 
ler's "new  order"  in  Europe. 

Internal  Developments.  Axis  efforts  to  use 
Yugoslavia's  internal  dissensions  as  a  lever  for 
forcing  the  kingdom  into  the  "new  order"  were 
persistent.  During  the  German  campaign  in  Nor- 
way in  April,  a  simultaneous  Axis  propaganda 
drive  and  "war  of  nerves"  was  launched  in  the 
Balkans,  with  the  aid  of  carefully  organized  "fifth 
columns"  within  the  Balkan  countries.  The  Bel- 
grade authorities  took  the  lead  in  repulsing  this 
non-military  offensive  by  breaking  up  the  "fifth 
column"  throughout  Yugoslavia.  Former  Premier 
Milan  Stoyadmovich,  the  most  influential  pro-Axis 
leader  in  the  country,  was  arrested  on  April  18  on 
a  charge  of  plotting  the  overthrow  of  the  govern- 
ment and  the  establishment  of  a  pro-Nazi  regime 
with  the  aid  of  German  Nazis,  who  had  organized 
Yugoslavia's  German  minority  of  some  500,000. 
He  was  interned  under  heavy  guard  to  prevent 
further  contact  with  German  agents  and  his  own 
Yugoslav  followers.  The  same  measures  were  tak- 
en with  Milan  Achimovich,  former  Minister  of 
Interior  and  Police  Chief  of  Belgrade,  and  several 
other  prominent  Stoyadinovich  adherents. 

Defying  pressure  from  both  Berlin  and  Rome, 
the  government  during  April  and  May  took  ex- 
tensive measures  to  eradicate  the  pro-Axis  sub- 
versive organization.  To  curb  the  activities  of  Ger- 
man "tourists"  many  foreigners  were  forced  to 
leave  the  country  and  the  freedom  of  others  was 
curtailed.  Homes  of  suspected  fifth  columnists 
were  searched,  caches  of  arms,  ammunition,  and 
uniforms  were  seized,  and  numerous  arrests  were 
made,  particularly  among  the  German  minority. 
On  May  18  the  army  requisitioned  10,000  motor- 
cycles from  the  districts  along  the  frontier  inhab- 
ited mainly  by  Germans  and  Hungarians.  Early  in 
June  army  officers  suspected  of  connections  with 
the  German  minority  were  demoted. 

Further  measures  against  subversive  elements 
were  taken  early  in  November,  when  the  govern- 
ment struck  at  the  rapidly  growing  semi-Fascist 
Zbor  movement  About  100  of  the  chief  assistants 
of  the  Zbor  leader,  former  Minister  of  Justice 
Dmitri  Ljotich,  were  reported  to  have  been  ar- 
rested and  the  headquarters  were  closed  and  sealed. 
On  November  16  the  movement  was  declared  il- 
legal. Ljotich  himself  was  discovered  in  hiding 
and  arrested  on  December  20. 

The  breach  between  the  government  and  the 
army  over  foreign  policy  came  to  the  surface  as  a 
result  of  repeated  bombing  raids  on  the  Yugoslav 
town  of  Bitolj  (Monastir),  near  the  Greek-Alba- 
nian frontier  early  in  November.  The  raids,  which 
killed  a  score  or  more  of  people,  were  attributed 
to  Italian  planes.  The  army,  led  by  the  pro-Ally 
War  Minister,  Gen.  Milan  Nedich,  favored  re- 
taliatory action  against  Italy.  But  the  government, 


swayed  by  the  Slovenian  Catholic  leader  Father 
Anton  Koroshetz  (Minister  of  Education  and 
President  of  the  Senate),  who  was  pro-Italian  in 
his  sympathies,  decided  to  ignore  the  raids.  Conse- 
quently War  Minister  Nedich  resigned  on  Novem- 
ber 6.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  retired  Gen.  Petar 
Pesich.  The  death  of  Father  Koroshetz  on  De- 
cember 14  (see  NECROLOGY)  removed  one  of  the 
principal  advocates  of  compromise  with  the  Axis. 
War  Minister  Pesich  on  November  16  effected 
a  shake-up  in  the  army's  high  command,  the  most 
important  change  being  the  promotion  of  Gen. 
Dusan  Simovich  from  command  of  the  Second  Ar- 
my to  supreme  command  of  the  Air  Force.  Mean- 
while there  had  been  a  steady  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  men  under  arms  and  in  war  preparations 
of  all  kinds.  The  compulsory  military  service  term 
was  increased  from  18  to  24  months  on  August  31. 
Food  Riots.  The  mustering  of  large  numbers 
of  peasants  in  the  armed  forces  reduced  the  har- 
vest and  added  to  the  economic  strain  under  which 
the  kingdom  had  labored  since  the  economic  crisis 
of  the  1930's.  Large  shipments  of  foodstuffs  to 
Germany  and  Italy  further  restricted  food  sup- 
plies and,  together  with  drastic  inflation  of  the 
currency,  caused  rapidly  rising  prices.  Commenc- 
ing in  September,  this  situation  provoked  a  series 
of  food  riots  and  demonstrations  during  which 
numerous  persons  were  injured  in  clashes  with  the 
police  and  many  arrested.  Communist  agitators 
were  said  to  have  stirred  up  many  of  these  out- 
breaks They  charged  the  government  with  being 
a  "fifth  column"  for  the  Axis  and  demanded  a 
Yugoslav-Soviet  military  alliance.  On  December 
30  the  government  was  moved  to  action  by  spo- 
radic bread  shortages  in  the  capital.  Corn  prices 
were  stabilized  and  a  number  of  bakers  and  bro- 
kers were  arrested  on  charges  of  hoarding  and 
profiteering  on  corn,  wheat,  and  flour.  The  gov- 
ernment on  March  29  had  assumed  complete  con- 
trol over  foreign  trade. 

Other  repressive  measures  were  taken  to  curb 
anti-government  agitation.  All  trade  unions  were 
dissolved  on  December  31,  and  further  union  ac- 
tivity was  forbidden.  Press  restrictions,  a  prohi- 
bition against  all  Masonic  activities,  and  discrimi- 
natory measures  against  Jews  were  carried  into 
effect  earlier  in  the  year.  Some  of  these  measures 
seemed  primarily  intended  to  placate  the  Axis. 

Situation  in  Croatia.  Under  Prince  Paul's 
guidance,  the  policy  of  conciliating  the  Croats 
through  the  extension  of  autonomy  was  carried 
forward  during  1940  with  the  co-operation  of  the 
outstanding  Croat  leader,  Vice  Premier  Matchek. 
On  January  14  Prince  Paul  paid  a  State  visit  to 
Zagreb,  the  Croat  capital,  and  signed  an  electoral 
law  for  the  election  of  a  Croatian  Diet.  His  cor- 
dial reception  testified  to  the  great  change  in  Cro- 
atian sentiment  produced  by  the  1939  Croat-Serb 
accord.  Early  in  February  agreement  was  reached 
for  the  extension  of  similar  autonomous  rights  to 
the  Serb  and  Slovene  districts  of  the  kingdom. 

An  extremist  faction  of  Croats,  demanding  the 
complete  separation  of  Croatia  from  Serbia  and 
the  acceptance  of  an  Axis  protectorate,  began  a 
terroristic  campaign  against  Dr.  Matchek's  domi- 
nant Croat  Peasant  party.  There  were  clashes  be- 
tween Matchek  supporters  and  opponents  among 
the  students  at  Zagreb  University  and  a  number  of 
the  anti-Matchek  minority  leaders  were  arrested. 
Some  of  them  were  accused  of  serving  the  Ger- 
man and  Italian  governments. 

Defense  of  Neutrality.  In  its  feverish  efforts 
to  remain  outside  the  widening  circle  of  the  war, 


YUGOSLAVIA 


816 


YUGOSLAVIA 


the  Belgrade  Government  followed  two  major 
courses.  It  sought  to  play  Italy  and  the  Soviet 
Union  off  against  Germany,  and  thus  prevent  the 
Reich  from  gaining  a  free  hand  in  Yugoslavia. 
Secondly,  it  attempted  to  strengthen  friendly  re- 
lations with  the  other  Balkan  States  and  to  win 
their  collaboration  in  preventing  the  spread  of  the 
war  into  the  Balkan  peninsula.  At  the  same  time, 
it  firmly  rejected  Allied  and  Turkish  efforts  to 
draw  the  kingdom  into  an  anti-Axis  coalition. 

These  policies  determined  Yugoslavia's  attitude 
during  the  annual  conference  of  the  Balkan  En- 
tente held  in  Belgrade  during  February  2-4.  The 
Yugoslav  Foreign  Minister  opposed  Turkey's  sug- 
gestion that  the  Balkan  Entente  be  extended  to 
provide  mutual  military  support  against  an  attack 
upon  any  one  of  its  members  from  any  source. 
Thus  the  conference  disbanded  with  some  innocu- 
ous resolutions  that  offered  no  obstacle  to  Axis 
methods  of  undermining  the  independence  of  small 
States. 

In  April  the  British  Government  protested  ship- 
ments of  Yugoslav  bauxite  from  Ragusa  to  Tri- 
este, threatening  to  sink  ships  engaged  in  this  traf- 
fic. Italy  in  turn  indicated  that  she  would  not  allow 
the  British  navy  to  interfere  with  neutral  com- 
merce in  the  Adriatic.  Later  the  same  month  Italy 
adopted  a  threatening  tone  toward  Belgrade  after 
the  Yugoslav  Government  had  rejected  a  Hungar- 
ian-Italian request  that  Italian  troops  be  permitted 
to  cross  Yugoslav  territory  to  aid  Hungary  in  the 
event  of  a  Hungarian- Soviet  clash.  Italian  troops 
were  concentrated  on  the  Yugoslav  frontier,  and 
Italian  sources  launched  a  propaganda  drive  for 
the  expansion  of  Albania  to  include  the  Albanian 
minority  residing  in  Yugoslavia.  Simultaneously, 
there  was  an  intensification  of  German  diplomatic 
and  economic  pressure 

Rapprochement  with  Russia.  Belgrade  coun- 
tered by  sending  a  trade  mission  to  Moscow  on 
April  20  as  a  gesture  in  the  direction  of  closer 
Soviet- Yugoslav  co-operation.  A  trade  and  ship- 
ping accord  was  signed  in  Moscow  on  May  11, 
but  the  Soviet  Government  declined  to  undertake 
any  political  obligations  toward  Yugoslavia  that 
would  bring  Russia  into  collision  with  the  Axis. 
However  the  negotiations  along  this  line  were 
continued  and  resulted  on  June  24  in  the  extension 
of  mutual  recognition  by  the  two  governments. 
Diplomatic  representatives  were  exchanged  for  the 
first  time  since  the  Bolshevist  revolution  in  the 
U.S.S.R.  Milan  Gavrilovich,  vigorous  leader  of 
the  Serb  Peasant  party,  was  sent  to  Moscow  as  the 
Yugoslav  Minister. 

Attempts  to  Placate  Axis.  The  rapproche- 
ment with  Russia  aroused  more  complaints  of  Yu- 
goslav unfriendliness  in  Berlin  and  Rome.  There 
were  further  menacing  troop  movements  and  on 
May  21  the  Italo- Yugoslav  frontier  was  suddenly 
closed.  Throughout  the  summer  the  Yugoslavs 
watched  the  Italian  war  preparations  in  Alba- 
nia without  knowing  whether  they  were  directed 
against  Yugoslavia  or  Greece.  To  placate  the  Ax- 
is, Belgrade  early  in  October  disbanded  the  anti- 
Italian  Slovene  Association  of  Yugoslav  Immi- 
grants, active  for  years  among  the  Slovenian  mi- 
nority in  Italy.  The  war  crisis  with  Italy  arising 
from  the  air  raid  on  Bitolj  early  in  November 
was  ended  November  18  with  an  Italian  admission 
that  Italian  planes  had  bombed  the  town  "by  mis- 
take." Italy  expressed  profound  regret  and  under- 
took to  pay  for  all  material  damages. 

Concessions  to  Berlin.  Belgrade  meanwhile 
made  placatory  gestures  toward  Berlin  in  the  hope 


of  lessening  German  pressures.  With  Yugoslav 
consent  and  the  cooperation  of  the  Vichy  Govern- 
ment, the  Reich  in  June  succeeded  in  obtaining 
control  of  the  French-owned  Bor  copper  mines  in 
Yugoslavia,  the  largest  source  of  copper  in  Eu- 
rope. In  October  Belgrade  curtailed  passenger 
service  on  the  railways  in  order  to  give  Germany 
increased  transit  facilities  for  the  shipment  of  Ru- 
manian oil  to  the  Reich.  At  German  demand,  steps 
were  taken  to  curb  sabotage  of  German  oil  trains 
passing  through  Yugoslavia. 

After  four  weeks  of  negotiation  by  a  German 
economic  mission,  Yugoslavia  on  October  19  signed 
a  new  economic  accord  with  the  Reich  giving  Ger- 
many approximately  60  per  cent  of  all  Yugoslav 
exports,  as  against  some  50  per  cent  under  the 
previous  agreement.  The  accord  increased  the  pur- 
chasing power  of  the  rcichsmark  in  terms  of  the 
dinar  by  about  20  per  cent.  In  announcing  this 
agreement,  Foreign  Minister  Cincar-Markovich 
declared  that  Yugoslavia's  co-operation  with  Ger- 
many was  "not  only  economic  but  political."  On 
December  3  it  was  announced  that  the  Germans 
had  obtained  control  of  the  largest  bank  in  Yugo- 
slavia, formerly  in  Belgian  hands.  The  German 
Consul  General  and  leader  of  the  German  Nazis 
in  Yugoslavia  was  appointed  president  of  the  in- 
stitution 

These  concessions  brought  no  relaxation  of  Ger- 
man pressure.  On  the  contrary  the  Berlin  Govern- 
ment in  December  began  to  insist  that  Yugoslavia 
align  itself  definitely  with  the  Axis  or  suffer  the 
consequences.  This  demand,  which  was  accom- 
panied by  heavy  German  troop  movements  to  the 
Yugoslav  frontiers,  was  in  line  with  Hitler's  de- 
cision to  bring  the  Italo-Greek  war  to  a  close  and 
drive  the  British  from  their  foothold  in  Greece. 
To  attack  Greece,  or  force  it  to  yield  without 
fighting,  the  Germans  had  to  cross  Bulgaria  and 
Yugoslavia.  The  best  and  safest  route  for  a  Ger- 
man drive  on  the  Greek  port  of  Salonika  was 
down  the  Vardar  River  through  Yugoslavia.  Con- 
sequently the  conquest  of  Yugoslavia  by  peaceful 
or  warlike  means  was  essential  to  the  consolida- 
tion of  Axis  control  over  the  Balkans. 

Hoping  to  induce  Belgrade  to  accept  its  assigned 
role  in  the  Axis  without  fighting,  the  German 
Government  undertook  to  guarantee  Yugoslavia's 
independence  and  territorial  integrity  and  to  as- 
sure it  of  an  outlet  to  the  Aegean  Sea  through  the 
cession  of  Greek  territory.  It  was  reported  that 
Yugoslavia  was  also  promised  part  of  Albania. 
On  December  6  Premier  Cvetkovich  declared  that 
Yugoslavia  was  willing  to  participate  in  the  crea- 
tion of  a  new  European  order,  but  only  on  the 
basis  of  the  retention  of  its  security  and  freedom. 
These  crucial  negotiations  were  still  in  progress  at 
the  end  of  the  year. 

Meanwhile  the  Belgrade  authorities  sought  to 
obtain  the  support  of  the  Hungarian,  Bulgarian, 
and  Turkish  governments  in  refusing  to  permit 
the  movement  of  foreign  troops  across  their  ter- 
ritories. This  was  the  primary  motive  for  Bel- 
grade's signature  of  the  Yugoslav-Hungarian  trea- 
ty of  "constant  and  perpetual  friendship"  on  De- 
cember 12.  Hope  of  Bulgaria's  co-operation  in 
resisting  Germany  waned  toward  the  year's  end, 
however,  when  demands  for  the  cession  of  the 
Yugoslav  portion  of  Macedonia  were  made  in  the 
National  Assembly  at  Sofia. 

See  ALBANIA,  BULGARIA,  GERMANY,  GREECE, 
HUNGARY,  ITALY,  RUMANIA,  and  TURKEY,  under 
History;  BALKAN  ENTENTE;  COMMUNISM;  REP- 
ARATIONS AND  WAR  DEBTS. 


YUKON 


817 


ZOOLOGY 


YUKON.  A  territory  of  northwestern  Canada. 
Area,  207,076  square  miles;  population  (1939), 
4000.  Capital,  Dawson.  Mining  is  the  main  occupa- 
tion. Mineral  output  (1939)  was  valued  at  $4,961,- 
321,  including  gold  (87,745  fine  oz.)  $3,171,102, 
silver  (3,830,864  fine  oz.)  $1,551,040,  lead  (7,544,- 
632  Ib.)  $239,089.  Fur  production  (193&-39)  was 
valued  at  $267,700.  There  were  58  miles  of  rail- 
way. The  territory  is  governed  by  a  controller  and 
a  territorial  council  of  3  elected  members.  One 
commoner  represents  Yukon  in  the  Canadian  par- 
liament at  Ottawa.  Controller,  George  A.  Jeckell 
(appointed  June  30,  1932). 

ZANZIBAR.  A  British  protectorate  in  East 
Africa,  comprising  the  islands  of  Zanzibar  (640 
sq.  mi.)  and  Pemba  (380  sq.  mi.).  Population 
(1931  census), 235,428  (Zanzibar,  137,741 ;  Pemba, 
97,687).  Capital,  Zanzibar,  45,276  inhabitants.  Chief 
products :  cloves,  copra,  sesame  oil,  tobacco.  Trade 
(1939)  :  imports,  £833,000;  exports,  £1,167,000,  in- 
cluding cloves  (13,187  tons)  valued  at  £857,596 
and  copra  (10,715  tons),  £81,133.  Finance  (1939)  : 
revenue,  £484,900;  expenditure,  £454,700.  Budget 
(1940) :  revenue,  £445,800;  expenditure,  £435,800. 
The  nominal  ruler  is  the  Sultan.  A  British  Resi- 
dent administers  the  government.  There  is  an  ex- 
ecutive council  over  which  the  Sultan  presides,  and 
a  legislative  council  of  15  members  including  the 
British  Resident  as  president.  Sultan,  Seyyid  Sir 
Khalifa  bin  Harub  (succeeded  Dec.  9, 1911)  :  Brit- 
ish Resident,  John  H.  Hall  (assumed  office,  Oct.  5, 
1939). 

ZINC.  The  war  seriously  disrupted  the  activi- 
ties of  the  world  zinc  industry  in  1940.  When 
Germany  overran  the  Low  Countries  she  obtained 
control  of  three-quarters  of  the  European  capacity 
for  zinc  reduction,  but  lacked  a  corresponding 
source  of  supply.  It  was  therefore  inevitable  that 
the  producers  whose  European  smelting  facilities 
were  cut  off  should  seek  an  outlet  for  their  ores 
and  concentrates  in  the  United  States.  Adequate 
statistics  are  not  available,  but  it  is  known  that 
imports  into  the  United  States,  mostly  from  Mex- 
ico, were  very  heavy,  also  that  exports  of  zinc 
products  were  unusually  large,  particularly  to 
Great  Britain.  The  effect  of  this  pressure  on  the 
domestic  smelting  facilities  was  to  rehabilitate 
several  obsolete  and  idle  smelters  and  to  construct 
some  wholly  new  capacity  in  an  effort  to  satisfy 
the  unexpectedly  large  demand  from  Great  Brit- 
ain. At  the  end  of  1940  smelter  production  of  zinc 
in  the  United  States  was  at  the  rate  of  nearly 
790,000  tons  per  annum,  including  secondary  metal. 

The  St.  Louis  price  for  prime  Western  zinc 
clearly  reflected  the  effect  of  the  war.  Opening 
the  year  at  5.75^  per  Ib.  the  price  rose  steadily  to 
7.25jt  in  September,  at  which  figure  it  remained  to 
the  end  of  the  year.  The  average  price  for  1940 
was  6.335*  compared  with  5.11*  in  1939.  The 
metal  was  not  quoted  abroad  because  the  London 
Metal  Exchange  was  closed  and  the  Ministry  of 
Supplies  fixed  the  price  at  which  consumers  might 
buy. 

The  Census  of  Manufactures,  1939,  showed  a 
general  decline  from  1937  in  all  major  essentials 
of  zinc  smelting  and  refining.  The  number  of  es- 
tablishments decreased  25  to  21.  Salaried  personnel 
and  salaries;  wage  earners  and  wages;  cost  of 
materials  and  energy  purchased,  value  of  products 
and  value  added  by  manufacture  were  all  substan- 
tially decreased.  This  reflected  the  distressed  state 
of  the  industry  in  1939  for  which  it  sought  relief 
by  revocation  of  the  tariff  reduction  made  in  the 
Canadian  treaty.  Protest  against  this  revocation 


was  made  without  success,  and  subsequently  the 
problems  of  the  war  became  paramount.  Postwar 
adjustments  will  probably  call  for  further  tariff 
consideration. 

Production  of  primary  metallic  zinc  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  from  domestic  ores  was  estimated  by 
the  Bureau  of  Mines  to  be  588,600  short  tons  in 
1940,  compared  with  491,058  tons  in  1939,  and  the 
largest  reported  since  1929.  Production  from  both 
domestic  and  foreign  ores  in  1940  totaled  674,100 
tons,  33  per  cent  more  than  in  1939.  Electrolytic 
zinc  accounted  for  186,100  tons  of  the  1940  total 
output  of  primary  metal.  Total  supply  of  distilled 
and  electrolytic  primary  and  secondary  zinc  in 
1940  was  about  721,900  tons,  composed  of  190,700 
tons  of  special  high  grade,  101,300  tons  of  ordi- 
nary high  grade,  62,900  tons  of  intermediate,  83,- 
000  tons  of  selected  brass  special,  and  284,000  tons 
of  prime  western. 

Imports  of  slab  zinc  for  consumption  for  the 
calendar  year  of  1940  amounted  to  10,095  tons,  ac- 
cording to  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  &  Domestic 
Commerce.  Total  imports  of  zinc  in  ore  for  the 
same  period  were  180,655  tons.  For  the  entire  year 
1939  the  respective  figures  were  30,960  and  36,100 
tons.  Apparent  consumption  of  primary  slab  zinc 
by  domestic  consumers  established  a  new  high  rec- 
ord in  1940,  amounting  to  about  662,900  tons,  an 
increase  of  9  per  cent  over  1939. 

H.  C.  PARMELEE. 

ZIONISM.  See  JEWS;  PALESTINE;  Organiza- 
tions listed  under  SOCIETIES. 

ZOOLOGY.  Ecology  and  Taxonomy.  Ecol- 
ogy is  a  study  of  the  relationship  of  the  organism 
to  its  environment,  taxonomy  attempts  a  classifi- 
cation of  animals  and  plants  in  accordance  with 
their  structural  characteristics.  The  British  Eco- 
logical Society  held  a  symposium  on  the  Recipro- 
cal Relationship  of  Ecology  and  Taxonomy,  the 
general  conclusion  being  that  the  two  should  co- 
operate and  be  of  mutual  assistance.  The  New 
Systematic*,  edited  by  Julian  Huxley,  contains  a 
series  of  essays  by  workers  in  ecology,  genetics, 
and  cytology,  all  leading  to  the  co-operation  of 
workers  in  these  distinct  subjects  toward  further- 
ing the  advance  of  taxonomy  along  more  liberal 
and  inclusive  lines  than  frequently  has  been  the 
case  in  the  past. 

As  a  result  of  recent  developments,  the  Tennes- 
see river  has  largely  been  converted  into  a  series 
of  reservoirs  and  this  condition  raises  practical 
questions  such  as  mosquito  control  and  the  con- 
servation of  wild  life,  including  fisheries.  A  Tech- 
nical Committee  appointed  to  consider  these  prob- 
lems made  (Science  92,  p.  201),  a  preliminary 
report  on  the  work  of  1939.  The  most  important 
feature  of  this  report  dealt  with  the  effect  of  in- 
secticides (such  as  arsenic  which  may  have  been 
used  for  mosquito  control),  especially  in  relation 
to  fish.  So  far  no  deleterious  effect  upon  either  fish 
or  vegetation  has  been  observed.  Andrews,  (Ecol- 
ogy 21,  p.  335),  found  that  the  snail  Neritina  vir- 
ginea  in  a  salt  pond  in  Jamaica,  B.W.I.,  showed 
over  a  period  of  years  that  optimum  living  condi- 
tions resulted  in  a  deterioration  in  size. 

General.  The  U.S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries  and  the 
Bureau  of  Biological  Survey  have  been  consoli- 
dated into  a  new  bureau  to  be  known  as  Fish  and 
Wild  Life  Service  (qv.).  By  presidential  procla- 
mation, Barro  Colorado  Island  in  the  Canal  zone 
has  been  set  aside  for  permanent  preservation  in 
its  present  condition.  The  Board  of  Directors  are 
to  be  the  Secretaries  of  War,  Agriculture,  and 


ZOOLOGY 


818 


ZOOLOGY 


Interior ;  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tute ;  the  President  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences  and  three  biologists  to  be  appointed.  Ten 
thousand  dollars  a  year  has  been  appropriated  for 
expenses.  The  Marine  Biological  Laboratory  at 
Woods  Hole,  Mass.,  announced  the  beginning  of 
the  construction  of  an  addition  to  its  library  to  be 
paid  for  by  a  donation  from  the  Rockefeller  Foun* 
datioru  At  San  Diego,  Cal.,  the  Biological  Re- 
search Institution  is  conducting  investigations  into 
diseases  and  nutritional  requirements  of  animals 
(Science  92,  p.  212).  The  Mt.  Desert  Biological 
Laboratory  in  Maine  reported  that  three  new 
buildings  will  be  erected  for  next  year's  use.  Roy 
Forster  was  elected  Director.  Nature  reported  that 
a  large  number  of  the  potentially  dangerous  ani- 
mals, such  as  poisonous  snakes  and  young  lions, 
have  been  killed  in  the  London  Zoological  Garden 
as  an  air  raid  precaution,  and  others  removed  to  a 
shelter  at  Whipsnade.  At  the  time  of  a  raid  visitors 
are  taken  into  shelters  and  are  not  allowed  outside 
until  rifle  patrols  determine  if  any  dangerous  ani- 
mals are  at  liberty. 

Sex  Determination.  For  sentimental  reasons 
in  man  and  of  economic  importance  to  breeders  of 
lower  animals  would  be  the  possibility  of  regu- 
lating the  sex  of  unborn  offspring,  and  for  more 
than  a  century  the  subject  has  been  discussed  and 
manv  theories  of  sex  determination  proposed.  Coe 
(Science  91,  p.  175),  discussed  the  problem  partly 
from  the  standpoint  of  his  own  researches  on  re- 
versal of  sex  where  the  animal  is  at  one  time  of 
one  sex  and  later  becomes  the  opposite,  his  work 
having  been  mainly  on  oysters  (See  1938  YEAR 
BOOK).  In  the  majority  of  observed  cases  the  ani- 
mal is  first  male  and  later  female.  Coe  thought 
that  all  of  these  phenomena  support  the  belief  that 
sex  is  determined  by  a  qualitative  balance  between 
male  determinant  as  opposed  to  female.  In  verte- 
brates it  seems  to  be  certain  that  internal  secre- 
tions govern  the  determination,  but  this  has  not 
been  demonstrated  in  the  invertebrates.  In  some 
insects  and  amphibia  a  sex  reversal  may  be  artifi- 
cially induced,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  think  that 
this  is  possible  in  mammals. 

Genetics.  As  stated  in  the  1939  YEAR  BOOK, 
Russian  geneticists  refused  to  attend  the  1939  Ge- 
netics Congress  held  in  Edinburgh.  Pincus  (Jour. 
Heredity  31,  p.  165)  stated  that  the  Russians  have 
formed  a  genetics  school  of  their  own  and  are  dis- 
carding both  the  Mendelian  theory  as  well  as  the 
pure-line  hypothesis,  and  are  basing  their  science 
on  selection  methods.  Gardner  and  Newman  (Jour. 
Heredity  31,  p.  419),  discussed  the  question  of  the 
relative  influence  of  heredity  and  environment  in 
forming  the  character  of  the  individual,  using  a 
case  of  quadruplets  in  which  two  are  obviously 
one-egg  twins  (e.g.  arise  from  the  division  of  a 
single  egg)  while  the  others  are  from  two  sepa- 
rate eggs.  The  first  have  identical  hereditary  equip- 
ment, while  the  second  pair  are  hereditarily  no 
more  alike  than  any  two  brothers  or  sisters  not 
twins.  Although  brought  up  under  identical  condi- 
tions, the  one-egg  twins  retain  their  original  dif- 
ferences from  the  others  and  do  not  tend  to  grow 
like  them  as  they  grow  older. 

Embryology.  The  "primitive  streak"  is  a  group- 
ing of  cells  in  a  linear  area  which  is  the  first  vis- 
ible indication  of  the  developing  embryo  in  birds 
and  mammals  and  has  been  supposed  to  be  an  eva- 
nescent structure,  disappearing  early  in  the  course 
of  development.  Streeter  (Nat.  Acad.  Sciences, 
Oct.),  announced  his  discovery  of  the  fact  that  so 
for  from  being  temporary  this  streak  is  really  a 


reservoir  of  material,  a  continuing  residuum  of 
the  primitive  germplasm  from  which  specialized 
cells  and  cell  masses  emerge  to  become  the  various 
body  tissues,"  or,  in  other  words,  a  supply  of  raw 
material  out  of  which  the  developing  embryo  is 
built  up  to  the  final  stages  of  its  formation. 

Twinning.  As  the  first  of  a  proposed  series  of 
popular  scientific  books  published  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science,  Newman,  in  Multiple  Hu- 
man Births,  discussed  the  physiological,  social,  and 
psychological  problems  of  human  twinning,  an- 
swering in  part  numerous  inquiries  that  interested 
persons  have  proposed  to  him  in  the  course  of  an 
extended  study  of  multiple  births  in  vertebrate  ani- 
mals in  general.  A  question  often  asked  is  whether 
twins  are  or  are  not  "desirable."  His  general  con- 
clusion seemed  to  be  that  because  of  "interference" 
of  one  twin  with  the  other  during  fetal  life  there 
is  in  the  case  of  twins  a  greater  risk  of  injury  with 
resulting  abnormality  during  this  period  than  in 
single  births. 

Protozoa.  Jennings  (Science  92,  p.  539) ,  showed 
that  in  a  population  of  Paramecium  bursaria  there 
are  series  of  families  or  clones  and  that  in  the 
interrelations  between  the  individuals  of  one  clone 
as  well  as  between  those  of  different  clones  there 
are  "complicated  codes  of  taboos,  inhibitions,  and 
permissible  practices  connected  with  the  mating  be- 
havior, a  complex  social  system."  In  animals  in 
general  the  most  primitive  behavior  is  that  involved 
in  seeking  mates  and  this  appears  even  in  the  pro- 
tozoa. Jennings  concluded  that  this  seeking  of 
mates  is  the  "fountainhead  of  both  social  behavior 
and  self  consciousness." 

Mollusca.  In  the  limpet  (a  snail)  the  conical 
shell  accurately  fits  along  its  margin  into  irregu- 
larities in  the  rock  on  which  it  lies,  this  being  the 
"home"  of  the  snail  from  which  it  migrates  in 
search  of  food  but  to  which  it  returns.  Hewatt 
(Midland  Naturalist  24,  p.  205),  studied  this  hom- 
ing process  in  the  limpet  Acmaea  scabra.  He  found 
no  evidence  for  geotropism  or  response  to  the  pull 
of  gravity,  nor  for  the  existence  of  any  "homing 
sense."  In  homing  the  limpet  retraced  its  outward 
path  apparently  following  this  through  response  to 
some  sensory  stimulus  from  something  left  on  this 
path  on  its  outward  journey.  If  the  margin  of  the 
shell  is  filed  so  that  it  no  longer  fits  its  home  local- 
ity it  will  return  there  but  is  "uneasy"  and  will  not 
remain  for  any  length  of  time. 

Galtspff  (Biol.  Bull.  78,  p.  117),  found  that  the 
only  stimulus  leading  to  the  spawning  of  female 
oysters  is  the  presence  of  the  sperm,  while  thermal 
changes  may  stimulate  the  males  to  discharge.  In 
a  large  population,  spawning  by  one  individual 
chemically  stimulates  all  of  the  others  and  advan- 
tage is  taken  of  this  fact  in  securing  artificial  im- 
pregnation of  large  numbers  of  individuals.  Orton 
(Nature  145,  p.  (08),  reported  a  very  great  de- 
struction of  English  oysters  in  the  cold  winter  of 
1939-40.  A  possible  cause  was  that  the  low  temper- 
ature partially  paralysed  the  adductor  muscles, 
thus  allowing  injurious  quantities  of  mud  to  enter 
the  shells.  A  low  degree  of  salinity  in  the  sea 
water  due  to  the  melting  of  large  quantities  of 
snow  may  have  contributed  to  this  mortality. 
Luntz  (Science  92,  p.  310),  reported  that  along  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  an  annelid  Polydora  ciliata  has 
seriously  injured  the  oyster  crop  by  living  in  the 
inside  of  the  oyster  shell  where  it  forms  small 
blisters.  Injury  to  the  oyster  is  due  to  a  restriction 
of  its  living  space.  The  oysters  are  not  inedible, 
but  are  unsightly  and  not  readily  salable.  About 


ZOOLOGY 

30  per  cent  of  South  Carolina  oysters  are  reported 
to  be  infested.  Prytherch  (Jour.  Morphology  66, 
p.  39),  described  the  life  history  of  a  new  proto- 
zoon  parasite  Nematopsis  ostrearum  which  infests 
oysters  from  Virginia  to  Louisiana.  It  has  an  alter- 
nation of  hosts,  one  host  being  two  species  of  mud 
crab.  Apparently  it  causes  little  injury  if  any,  to 
the  crab  host,  but  may  occur  in  epidemics  causing 
a  loss  of  from  50  to  90  per  cent  of  oysters  in  both 
natural  and  cultivated  beds. 

Crustacea.  The  common  fresh  water  crustacean 
Daphnia  carries  parthenogenetic  eggs  in  a  brood 
chamber  and  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  liquid 
in  this  chamber  has  a  definite  nutritive  value. 
Obreskove  and  Frazer  (Biol  Bull.  78,  p.  428) 
showed  that  normal  development  will  go  on  if  the 
young  are  reared  in  sterile  pond  water.  Lloyd  and 
Yonge  (Nature  146,  p.  334),  found  in  the  crayfish 
C  rang  on  a  confirmation  of  an  observation  made 
earlier  on  Homarus  (a  lobster).  In  each  a  second- 
ary sex  character  is  the  possession  of  special  setae 
on  the  abdomen  which  carry  glands  and  to  which 
the  eggs  are  attached.  These  setae  appear  only  at 
the  breeding  season  and  possibly  are  produced  by 
hormones  secreted  from  the  ovary. 

Fishes.  Huntsman  and  Dymond  (Science  91,  p. 
447)  discussed  the  numerous  attempts  that  have 
been  made  to  transplant  Pacific  salmon  to  streams 
of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America  and,  al- 
though the  evidence  is  conflicting,  decided  that 
there  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  any  of  these 
experiments  had  been  successful  Powers  (Science 
92,  p.  353)  gave  reasons  for  thinking  that  a  car- 
bon-dioxide gradient  in  the  water  of  rivers  run- 
ning into  the  ocean  is  a  guiding  factor  in  leading 
salmon  to  ascend  streams.  Sexually  mature  salmon 
are  more  sensitive  to  this  gradient  than  are  the 
immature  and,  hence,  the  former  go  up  the  streams 
while  the  others  remain  outside.  Gudger  (Mem. 
Royal  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal)  reviewed  the 
literature  of  recorded  cases  where  swordfish  had 
attacked  vessels.  He  considered  the  fish  as  natu- 
rally timid  and  not  at  all  pugnacious,  and  that  the 
attacks  occur  either  when  the  fish  are  fighting 
against  attacks  by  fishermen  or,  in  some  cases, 
when  they  are  pursuing  schools  of  smaller  fishes 
and  accidentally  run  into  the  vessel  in  the  dark. 
Since  a  swordfish  may  weigh  as  much  as  1250  Ib. 
its  momentum  when  swimming  rapidly  is  very 
great.  Cases  are  on  record  where  the  sword  has 
pierced  through  18.5  inches  of  hard  wood  in  a 
ship's  bottom. 

Huggins  (Nature  146,  p.  206)  warned  conserva- 
tionists that  fish  are  the  most  delicately  adjusted 
to  their  environments  of  all  animals  and  hence 
most  easily  injured  by  unfavorable  conditions;  it 
is  therefore  desirable  that  before  any  conservation 
program  is  started  a  thorough  study  be  made  of  all 
environmental  conditions.  The  breeding  habits  and 
development  of  Cladoselachus,  an  archaic  fish,  as 
recorded  in  notes  made  by  the  late  Bashford  Dean, 
have  been  edited  by  Gudger  and  published  in  the 
series  of  Dean  Memorial  Volumes.  This  fish  ap- 
pears to  be  unusual  in  that  the  breeding  season  ex- 
tends throughout  the  year  instead  of  being  limited 


819 


ZOOLOGY 


to  certain  months.  Bridges  (Bull.  N.Y.  Zool  Soc. 
43,  p.  74),  reported  the  discovery  in  a  Mexican 
cave  of  a  blinonsh,  Anoptichthys  jordani,  in  which 
all  stages  of  eye  development  occur  from  complete 
blindness  to  well  developed  eyes.  While  most  blind- 
fish  are  found  in  cold  water,  the  water  in  these 
caves  is  warm. 

Amphibia.  Smith  (Science  92,  p.  379)  recorded 
observations  on  the  mating  habits  of  the  Pacific 
tree  frog,  Hyla  regilla.  The  males  go  into  the 
water  first  and  are  usually  more  abundant  than  the 
females,  so  that  mating  takes  place  very  soon  after 
the  females  enter.  Unless  the  females  are  allowed 
to  mate,  the  eggs  are  retained  in  the  body,  and  this 
causes  the  death  of  the  animal.  The  maximum 
number  of  eggs  laid  by  one  female  was  1250, 
though  the  average  was  from  500  to  700.  Bragg 
(Am.  Nat.  74,  pp.  322  and  424),  found  decided  and 
unexpected  differences  between  the  breeding  habits 
of  toads  of  the  central  and  western  plains  and  those 
found  in  the  east.  The  eastern  toad,  Bufo  ameri- 
canus  americanus,  breeds  early  in  the  spring  in 
pools,  those  of  the  central  plains,  Bufo  cognatus 
and  B.  woodhousii  woodhousit,  usually  breed  only 
after  a  rain  even  though  there  may  be  abundant 
water  in  pools,  and  the  breeding  period  extends 
well  into  the  summer.  Similar  habits  were  observed 
in  the  frogs  of  this  locality.  The  paper  gives  a  de- 
tailed account  of  the  development  of  the  young 
toads  of  the  plains  living  species. 

Birds.  The  claim  has  been  made,  but  doubted, 
that  the  hummingbird  can  fly  backward.  Tyler 
(Rev.  in  Nature  146,  p.  466)  verified  this  obser- 
vation and  describes  the  mechanisms  involved. 
When  backing  away  from  a  flower  the  bird  stands 
almost  vertical  with  its  tail  pointing  forward  and 
a  little  downward;  in  this  position  the  beating  of 
the  wing  forces  the  air  forward  away  from  the 
breast  and  pushes  the  bird  backward. 

The  Trumpeter  Swan  has  been  so  much  hunted 
for  its  down  and  breast  skin  that  for  some  time  it 
was  feared  to  be  extinct.  The  press  stated  in  Sep- 
tember that  as  a  result  of  protection  in  the  Red 
Rocks  Lakes  refuge  in  Montana  and  in  the  Yellow- 
stone Park  the  lowest  estimate  then  made  of  the 
birds  now  living  there  is  212. 

Mammals.  Valuable  hints  to  breeders  of  fur- 
bearing  animals  are  contained  in  Kellogg's  Nutri- 
tion of  Fur  Animals,  published  by  the  U.S.  Print- 
ing Office  as  separate  No.  177.  Carr  (Bird  Lore, 
April -May,  p.  141)  reported  that  the  introduction 
of  beavers  into  the  Bear  Mountain  Park  has  had 
important  ecological  consequences.  As  soon  as 
ponds  formed  behind  the  beaver  dams  various  spe- 
cies of  birds  began  to  nest  in  their  vicinity,  notably 
the  Wood  Duck.  Woodpeckers  found  food  in  the 
trees  killed  by  the  flooding,  and_  various  mammals 
resorted  to  the  ponds  for  drinking.  Gradually  silt 
washes  down  behind  the  dam  and  accumulates  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  beavers  abandon  that  site 
and  move  elsewhere.  This  silted  region  is  the  basis 
for  meadows  which  eventually  form  at  that  place. 
See  also  ENTOMOLOGY. 

AARON  L.  TREADWELL.